TIMEEVENT DESCRIPTIONLOCATIONIMAGES

UNIVERSE
1,000,000,000,000 YBN
1)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
990,000,000,000 YBN
2)
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
980,000,000,000 YBN
3)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
970,000,000,000 YBN
11)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
960,000,000,001 YBN
5)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
950,000,000,000 YBN
6) Light particles become trapped with
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.9

This forming of light particles into
atoms may be the result of particle
collision, gravitation (an attraction
of matter with itself) or a combination
of both.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
940,000,000,000 YBN
7) All of the billions of galaxies we
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.9

Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.10

One estimate has 70e21 (sextillion)
stars in only the universe we can see.
That is 10 times more stars than grains
of sand on all the earth.11

As telescopes grow larger, the number
of galaxies we see will increase.12
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/0
7/22/stars.survey/
12. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980). (estimate of how many galaxies)
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
935,000,000,000 YBN
4) There is a pattern in the universe.
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters, and
these globular clusters together, form
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter emitting from stars, in
addition to the accumulation of light
particles from external sources.

So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy,
and finally a globular galaxy.7

Stars at our scale may be light
particles at a much larger scale, just
as light particles at our scale may be
stars at a much smaller scale. This
system may go on infinitely in both
larger and smaller scale.

For any given volume of space, there is
a ratio of light particles going in
versus light particles going out. If
more light particles are entering than
exiting the volume has a deficit of
light particles, and so acts as a
vacuum and grows in size, if more
particles are exiting than entering,
the volume is already very dense, has a
surplus of light particles, and is
losing density.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg

[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
930,000,000,000 YBN
8) An expanding universe seems unlikely
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because of
the different sizes of spectra as
clearly seen in the 1936 Humason image7
, and because distance of light source
changes the position, but not the
frequency of spectra8 .

Beyond this, the claim of a "background
radiation" is probably simply low
frequencies of light particles from
light sources that are close enough to
be detected. Most light sources are too
far away for even one particle emitted
from them to reach us.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
2. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
3. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
4. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
5. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
6. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
7. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
8. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
9. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
 
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
920,000,000,000 YBN
9) Quasars may be very distant regular
galaxies.

  
910,000,000,000 YBN
10) Globular clusters and elliptical
galaxies may be made by intelligent
life, and spiral galaxies formed
without the direct help of living
objects. The star types are almost all
long lived yellow stars, and there is
little or no Hydrogen or Helium "dust"
as there are in spiral galaxies. The
stars in elliptical galaxies are light
weeks apart, much closer together than
our star which is 4 light years to the
closest star system. Life orbiting any
star of a spiral galaxy probably would
leave the plane of the galaxy by going
up or down.

  
890,000,000,000 YBN
12) How photons form atoms may still be
unknown. Perhaps simply from
gravitational attraction, or maybe
there need to be large groups of
photons to limit available spaces for
photons to move in (for example in
stars, or galactic centers, and or
supernovas.

  
870,000,000,000 YBN
14) Photons take on a variety of shapes
at different scales from the smallest
forms in light, up to atoms, molecules,
molecule groups (like living objects),
planets, stars, galaxies, galactic
clusters and the visible universe is
the largest formation of photons we can
see.

  

LIFE
165,000,000,000 YBN
13)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
33,000,000,000 YBN
6180)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
22,000,000,000 YBN
6181)
 
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
10,000,000,000 YBN
6182)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg

[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
5,500,000,000 YBN
11 		16)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^
http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/208/mar
1/nucleo.html (with image of onion
skin layers)
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ another person
declares star inside to be similar to
planets: iron, oxygen, nickel, etc. do
not support standard solar
model. star_inside_iron.pdf
11. ^ Ted Huntington, guess
 
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
5,000,000,000 YBN
22) In a star system, because of
gravitation, heavier masses move closer
to the center and lighter masses move
farther out.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Distribution of mass from Newtonian
gravitation after 4
minutes: Blue=high mass Green=medium
mass Red=low mass GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,600,000,000 YBN
17)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg

4,600,000,000 YBN
30)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg

[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg

4,600,000,000 YBN
7 		50)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
3. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

4. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
5. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

6. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
7. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
4,571,000,000 YBN
5 6 		31)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
3. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
5. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2 (4.7 +- .2 billion
years)
6. ^ sci has 4.7 +- .2 by where did
4.571 come from?
 
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
4,566,000,000 YBN
32) Allende Meteorite 4,566 million
years old.

  
4,530,000,000 YBN
33)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
2. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
 
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
4,450,000,000 YBN
21)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
2. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
3. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
4. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
 
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg

[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
4,404,000,000 YBN
34) Oldest "terrestrial" zircon;
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite. This zircon if from Gneiss
in West Australia that is 4.4 billion
years old.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
3. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
4. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
 
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
4,400,000,000 YBN
18) Larger molecules like amino acids,
phosphates and sugars, the components
of living objects, form on Earth.8

These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of earth
(and other planets) by lightning, light
particles with ultraviolet frequency
from the Sun, and from ocean floor
volcanoes.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
4,395,000,000 YBN
19) Nucleic acids form on Earth. One of
these RNA molecules may be the ancestor
of all of life on Earth, being part of
the series of copies that leads to all
later living objects on Earth.12

Even if bacteria survived the journey
from a different star to this star and
seeded the earth, the chemical
evolution of the first cell is
necessary somewhere in the universe.13


The initial building blocks of living
objects are very easy to produce, but
the next step is more difficult:
assembling the simple building blocks
into longer-chain molecules, or
polymers. Amino acids link up to form
longer polymers called proteins, simple
fatty acids plus alcohols link up to
form lipids (oils and fats), simple
sugars like glucose and sucrose link
together to form complex carbohydrates
and starches, and finally, the
nucleotide bases (plus phosphates and
sugars) link up to form nucleic acids,
the genetic code of organisms, known as
RNA and DNA.14

How nucleic acids (polymers made of
nucleotides), proteins (polymers made
of amino acids), carbohydrates
(polymers made of sugars) and lipids
(glycerol attached to fatty acids)
evolved is not clearly known. Possibly
all proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
are strictly the products of living
objects.15

Some proteins and nucleic acids have
been formed in labs by using clay which
can dehydrate and which provides long
linear crystal structures to build
proteins and nucleic acids on. Amino
acids join together to form
polypeptides when an H2O molecule is
formed from a Hydrogen (H) on 1 amino
acid and a hydroxyl (OH) on the
second.16

Perhaps proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and DNA are the products of living
objects, with RNA being made without
the help of living objects.17

The most popular theory now has RNA
(and potentially lipids) evolving first
before any living objects.18 But
perhaps proteins evolved first, and a
protein linked together the first
nucleic acid.19

A bacteria can survive the trip between
two stars, and possibly a eukaryote
cell could survive frozen and be waken
up again many years later, but it seems
unlikely that a multicellular
eukaryotic organism could survive and
be revived from one star to another.20


Probably bacteria from a variety of
stars lands on all planets and
asteroids, and is revived on many where
the temperature allows them to copy.21


There is still a large amount of
experiment, exploration and education
that needs to be done to understand the
origins of living objects on planet
earth.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p150.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters", 2007, p150.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p150.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p150.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
4,390,000,000 YBN
25) An RNA molecule may evolve that can
copy other RNA molecules.7

Perhaps RNA molecules, called
"ribozymes" evolve which can make
copies of RNA, by connecting free
floating nucleotides that match a
nucleotide on the same or a different
RNA, much like tRNA do in assembling
amino acids into proteins. But until
such ribozyme RNA molecules are found,
the only molecule known to copy nucleic
acids are proteins called polymerases.8


These early RNA molecules may have been
protected by liposomes (spheres of
lipids).9

This process of RNA (and then later
DNA) duplication is the most basic
aspect of life on Earth, and for all
the diversity, the one common element
of all life is this constant process of
DNA duplication, which will later
evolve to include cell division. This
starts the unbroken thread of copying
and division that connects the earliest
ancestor, perhaps some RNA molecule, to
all life on earth that has ever
lived.10

This may be the start of the constant
conversion of other matter into nucleic
acids. This constant copying will
ultimately result in billions of living
objects on earth.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description Full-Length
Hammerhead Ribozyme color-coded so that
the 5'-end of each RNA strand is blue
and the 3'-end is red. The individual
nucleotides are represented as
toothpicks, and the phosphodiester
backbone as a narrow tube. From
Protein Data Bank ID 2GOZ. Date
17 June 2007 Source Own
work Author William G.
Scott GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/28/Full_length_hammerhea
d_ribozyme.png
4,385,000,000 YBN
167) The first proteins on Earth.
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amimo acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules (mRNA) as a
template.

For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building other nucleic acid molecules,
and also as a template for building
proteins (with the help of tRNA
molecules).13

This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.14

Whether the first tRNA and protein
assembly evolved before or after the
evolution of the ribosome is currently
unknown.15

Random mutations in the copying (and
perhaps even in the natural formation)
of RNA molecules probably creates a
number of the necessary tRNAs (tRNA,
are RNA molecules responsible for
matching free floating amino acid
molecules to three-nucleotide sequences
on other RNA molecules).16

This is a precellular, pre-ribosome
protein assembly system, where tRNA
(transfer RNA) molecules build
polypeptide chains of amino acids by
linking directly to other RNA
strands.17

Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, and a 3 nucleotide
sequence from a different part of the
tRNA molecule bonds with the opposite
matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an
mRNA molecule.18

Since there are tRNA molecules for each
amino acid (although some tRNAs can
attach to more than one amino acid),
there must have been a slow
accumulation of various tRNA molecules
for each of the 20 amino acids used in
constructing polypeptides in cells
living now. Perhaps after the evolution
of the first tRNA, the first
polypeptides were chains of all the
same one amino acid. With the evolution
of a second tRNA polypeptides would
have more variety because now two amino
acids would be available to build
polypeptides.19

This polypeptide assembly system may
exist freely in water, or within a
liposome20 . This system builds many
more proteins than would be built
without such a system. The mRNA with
the code to make copier RNA, now also
contains the code to produce various
tRNA molecules. These molecules
function as a unit, and proto-cell,
with the rest of the mRNA initially
containing random codes for random
proteins.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). supports liposome
theory
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,380,000,000 YBN
168) The ribosome evolves. First
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
ribosomes.

Ribosomes are the cellular organelles
that carry out protein synthesis,
through a process called translation.
They are found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. These molecular machines
are responsible for accurately
translating the linear genetic code on
the messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear
sequence of amino acids to produce a
protein. All cells contain ribosomes
because growth requires the continued
synthesis of new proteins. Ribosomes
can exist in great numbers, ranging
from thousands in a bacterial cell to
hundreds of thousands in some human
cells and hundreds of millions in a
frog ovum. Ribosomes are also found in
mitochondria and chloroplasts.5

This early ribosome may function as a
protocell, holding an mRNA molecule
which is used as a template by tRNA
molecules to assemble amino acids into
proteins. A single mRNA molecule may
contain the instructions for an RNA
polymerase and for all the necessary
rRNA, and tRNA molecules needed to make
more ribosomes.

This ribosomal RNA may serve as an
early ribosome. As time continues the
ribosome will grow to include two more
RNA molecules, some protein molecules,
and a second half that will make
polypeptide construction more
efficient.6

The modern ribosome is a large
ribonucleoprotein (RNA-protein)
complex, roughly 20 to 30 nanometers in
diameter. It is formed from two
unequally sized subunits, referred to
as the small subunit and the large
subunit. The two subunits of the
ribosome must join together to become
active in protein synthesis. However,
they have distinguishable functions.
The small subunit is involved in
decoding the genetic information, while
the large subunit has the catalytic
activity responsible for peptide bond
formation (that is, the joining of new
amino acids to the growing protein
chain).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
2. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
3. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
 
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,370,000,000 YBN
40) A protein can copy RNA. This
protein is called an RNA polymerase,
and may be more efficient than RNA
itself, at copying other RNA molecules,
or may be the first molecule that can
copy RNA.

An RNA polymerase must have been one of
the first useful proteins to be
assembled by the early (presumably)
precellular protein production system.
Eventually an mRNA that codes for the
necessary tRNA, and RNA polymerase may
be copied many times.
 
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
4,365,000,000 YBN
166) The first Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
can assemble DNA from RNA.9

This protein, built by a ribosome,
changes ribonucleotides into
deoxyribonucleotides, which allows the
first DNA molecule on Earth to be
assembled.10

Ribonucleotide reductase may be the
molecule that allows DNA to be the
template for the line of cells that
survives to now.11

If RNA and DNA evolved at the same or
different times is not clear yet.
Possibly RNA and DNA were created by
the same process.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png

[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
4,360,000,000 YBN
212) A protein can copy DNA molecules,
a DNA polymerase.
 
[1] These simple DNA polymerases are
shaped roughly like a hand. Both are
from bacteria: on the left is the
enzyme from Escherichia coli, PDB entry
1kln, and on the right is the enzyme
from Thermus aquaticus, PDB entry 1tau.
A cleaved version of the E. coli enzyme
was studied: the missing part, which
you will not find in the PDB file, is
shown with a green outline. The space
between the ''fingers'' and the
''thumb'' is just the right size for a
DNA helix. But surprisingly, DNA
actually fits into the palm when the
enzyme is at work. In these pictures,
the template strand is colored purple
and the new strand is colored green.
The enzyme contains three separate
active sites. The polymerase site, near
the top in these pictures, synthesizes
the new strand by adding nucleotides.
The 3'-5' exonuclease site, near the
center in the E. coli polymerase,
proofreads the new additions. The
polymerase from Thermus aquaticus does
not have this proofreading
ability--perhaps the heat in which it
lives performs the same function. At
the bottom is the 5' exonuclease site
that later removes the small RNA
fragments that are used to prime DNA
replication. These illustrations were
created with RasMol. You can create
similar pictures by clicking on the
accession codes, and then hitting
''View Structure.'' PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/pol_active.gif
4,355,000,000 YBN
20) The first cell on earth (a
bacterium). DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes.
The first cytoplasm.22

This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.23

Binary fission evolves. A protein
duplicates DNA within the cell and then
the cell divides into two parts.24

Procaryotes reproduce by binary
fission. The chromosome begins to
replicate at a specific place on the
chromosome called the "origin of
replication" producing two origins. As
the chromosome continues to replicate,
one origin moves rapidly toward to
opposite end of the cell. While the
chromosome is replicating, the cell
grows longer. When replication is
complete and the bacterium has reached
about twice its initial size, its
plasma membrane grows inward, dividing
the parent cell into two child cells,
each with a complete genome.25

The DNA of this cell contains the
template for itself: a copying molecule
(DNA polymerase), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied. Copies of this cell also have
cytoplasm.26

This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on earth. These first cells are
probably anaerobic (do not require free
oxygen) and heterotrophic, meaning that
they do not make their own food: amino
acids, nucleotides, phosphates, and
sugars. These early bacteria depend on
obtaining external sources of these
molecules and light particles in the
form of heat to reproduce and grow.27

Amino acids, nucleotides, water, and
other molecules enter and exit the
cytoplasm only because of a difference
in concentration from inside and
outside the cell (passive transport)
and represent the beginnings of the
first digestive system.

This membrane forms the first
protective barrier between for DNA and
the external universe, and serves as a
container to hold water.28

Two important evolutionary steps
evolve: DNA duplication in cytoplasm,
and cell (DNA with cytoplasm) division.
Not only must the DNA copy and divide,
but the cell membrane must divide
too.29

A system of division may evolve which
attaches the original and newly
synthesized copy of DNA to the
cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows,
the two copies of DNA can be separated
and the first membraned cells can
divide into two cells.30

The process of DNA duplication is
probably similar if not the same
process using the same proteins that
were used to duplicate DNA without
cytoplasm.31

It is possible that bacteria could
arrive on Earth from some other star,
or even from a different galaxy and be
the ancestor of all life on Earth.32
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p145-154.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p145-154.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p145-154.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Prothero, "Evolution:
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p145-154.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p145-154.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p236.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
4,350,000,001 YBN
26)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,350,000,000 YBN
12 		183) The first lipids on Earth; (fats,
oils, waxes10 ). Cells evolve that make
proteins that can assemble lipids.11
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ find biomarker evidence
2. ^ "lipid." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg

[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
4,345,000,000 YBN
6340)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
2. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P132,136.
4. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al., "Biology", 8th
Edition, 2008, P134-135.
5. ^ Daniel V. Lim,
"Microbiology", 2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
 
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.

[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
4,340,000,000 YBN
23)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

2. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

3. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

4. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

5. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

6. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

7. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

8. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

 
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
4,335,000,000 YBN
28)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
4. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
6. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
7. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p167.
8. ^
Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p179.
10. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p179.
11. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p167.
12. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p163.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png

[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
4,330,000,000 YBN
44)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
2. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
3. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
4. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
5. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
6. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
 
[1] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skelet
al.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.p
ng
4,325,000,000 YBN
213)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
2. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
3. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Ethanol Full structural formula,
Ball and Stick Model, and Space-Filling
Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/0/00/Ethanol-3D-vdW.png

[2] Description Fermenting
must. Date 20 March 2007 Source
English Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mthom
ebrew_must.JPG Author
Agne27 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Mthomebrew_must.JPG
4,315,000,000 YBN
196) Active transport evolves. Cells
evolve in which both proteins and ATP
are used to transport molecules into
and out of the cytoplasm.11 12 13

Active transport enabled a cell to
maintain internal concentrations of
small molecules that differ from the
cell's surroundings.14

A transport protein that generates
voltage across a membrane is called an
"electrogenic pump". Proton pumps, the
main electrogenic pumps of plants,
fungi, and bacteria are proteins that
create an voltage across membranes.
Using ATP, a proton pump moves a
positive charge in the form of hydrogen
ions out of the cell.15

Another example of active transport is
how Escherichia coli imports lactose
using an ion gradient-mediated active
transport. Lactose is transported
across the plasma membrane by a
membrane associated permease which is
coded for by a gene of the lac
operon.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
2. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
3. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
4. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
5. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
6. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
7. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
8. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
9. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
11. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
12. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
13. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
14. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
15. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al., "Biology", 8th
Edition, 2008, P137.
16. ^ Daniel V. Lim,
"Microbiology", 2002,
p104. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
 
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.

[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
4,305,000,000 YBN
64) Operons evolve which allow for
turning off the assembly of any
protein.13 14

Operons, sequences of DNA that allow
certain proteins coded by DNA to not be
built, evolve. Proteins bind with these
DNA sequences to stop RNA polymerase
from building mRNA molecules which
would be translated into proteins.
Operons allow a bacterium to produce
certain proteins only when necessary.
Bacteria before now can only build a
constant stream of all proteins encoded
in their DNA.15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

2. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
3. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

4. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
5. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

6. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
7. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

8. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
9. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

10. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
11. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

12. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
13. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

14. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
15. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

16. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
 
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
4,260,000,000 YBN
27) Peptidoglycan occurs only in the
Bacteria (except for those without a
cell wall, such as Mycoplasma).
Peptidoglycan is a long-chain polymer
of two repeating sugars
(N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetyl
muramic acid), in which adjacent sugar
chains are linked to one another by
peptide bridges that give the link
rigid stability. The nature of the
peptide bridges differs considerably
between species of bacteria.
Peptidoglycan synthesis is the target
of many useful antimicrobial agents,
including the β-lactam antibiotics
(e.g., penicillin) that block the
cross-linking of the peptide bridges.
Some of the proteins that animals
synthesize as natural antibacterial
defense factors attack the cell walls
of bacteria.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bacteria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 03 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/48203/bacteria>.
2. ^ "Cell wall", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
3. ^
"bacteria." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 03 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/48203/bacteria>.
4. ^ "Cell wall", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
5. ^
"bacteria." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 03 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/48203/bacteria>.
6. ^ "Cell wall", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
7. ^
"Cell wall", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
8. ^
"bacteria." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 03 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/48203/bacteria>.
9. ^ "bacteria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 03 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/48203/bacteria>.
 
[1] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html

[2] Gram positive cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
4,193,000,000 YBN
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 		77) Archaea (also called
archaebacteria) evolve.24 Phylum
Nanoarcheota.25 26

Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes
are the most primitive living objects
ever found. Prokaryotes differ from the
later evolved eukaryotes in have a
circle of DNA located in their
cytoplasm (not chromosomes) and have no
nucleus. There are many widely varying
estimates of when the last common
ancestor between Eubacteria and Archaea
evolved. At least one genetic
comparison shows the common ancestor of
Eubacteria and Archaea evolving now.27
28 29 30 31 32 33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p102. http://timetree.org/pdf/Battistuz
zi2009Chap06.pdf
5. ^ Huber, H., Hohn, M.J., Rachel, R.,
Fuchs, T., Wimmer, V.C., and Stetter,
K.O. "A new phylum of Archaea
represented by a nanosized
hyperthermophilic symbiont." Nature
(2002)
417:63-67. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v417/n6884/full/417063a.html
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
7. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my
9. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu)
10. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria
vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of
organisms indicated by comparison of 5S
ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo:
Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution
of Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
11. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {4000my}
12. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
14. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p102. http://timetree.org/pdf/Battistuz
zi2009Chap06.pdf
15. ^ Huber, H., Hohn, M.J., Rachel,
R., Fuchs, T., Wimmer, V.C., and
Stetter, K.O. "A new phylum of Archaea
represented by a nanosized
hyperthermophilic symbiont." Nature
(2002)
417:63-67. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v417/n6884/full/417063a.html
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
17. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
18. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my
19. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu)
20. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria
vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of
organisms indicated by comparison of 5S
ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo:
Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution
of Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
21. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {4000my}
22. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my
23. ^ "archaebacterium." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 21 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaebacte
ria
24. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
25. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p102. http://timetree.org/pdf/Battistuz
zi2009Chap06.pdf
26. ^ Huber, H., Hohn, M.J., Rachel,
R., Fuchs, T., Wimmer, V.C., and
Stetter, K.O. "A new phylum of Archaea
represented by a nanosized
hyperthermophilic symbiont." Nature
(2002)
417:63-67. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v417/n6884/full/417063a.html
27. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
28. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
29. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my
30. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu)
31. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria
vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of
organisms indicated by comparison of 5S
ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo:
Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution
of Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
32. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {4000my}
33. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my
34. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
35. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life",
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/pdf/H
edges2009Chap05.pdf
36. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
37. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
(2142-1873my)
38. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 2300my (2300my)
39. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu) (4100my)
40. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo,
"Archaebacteria vs Metabacteria :
Phylogenetic tree of organisms
indicated by comparison of 5S ribosomal
RNA sequences.", (Tokyo: Springer,
Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution of Life",
pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my (1800my)
41. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). 4000my
(4000my)
42. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). 3970my (3970my)
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
4,189,000,000 YBN
9 10 		193)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological
diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
3. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
4. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A reconstruction
of Archean biological diversity based
on", Geochimica et cosmochimica acta,
(2003).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological
diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
7. ^ "Aquifex".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifex
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of Life",
2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
10. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
4,189,000,000 YBN
7 8 		292) (It seems logical that the
prokaryote flagellum would evolve in
proteobacteria because most prokaryotes
with a flagellum are in the
Proteobacteria domain. There is a unity
between pili, flagellum, and exchange
of DNA (sex), in particular, in the
proteobacterium E. Coli.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^
conjugation in protists, flagella in
eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa
and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ conjugation in
protists, flagella in eukaryotes:
Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).
4. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of
Life", 2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Pallen MJ, Matzke NJ (October
2006). "From The Origin of Species to
the origin of bacterial flagella".
Nature Reviews. Microbiology 4 (10):
784–90. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1493. PMID
16953248. http://www.nature.com/nrmicro
/journal/v4/n10/full/nrmicro1493.html
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[4] David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
[5] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L.
TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[6] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
 
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
4,187,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 		78) Archaea Phylum: Korarchaeota
evolves according to genetic
comparison.7 8
This group, originally
identified by two environmental sample
sequences from the Obsidian Pool hot
spring in Yellowstone National Park9 ,
currently includes only environmental
DNA sequences and no Korarchaeota have
been cultured yet.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44/abstract
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44/abstract
5. ^ Barns, S.M., Delwiche, C.F.,
Palmer, J.D., and Pace, N.R.
"Perspectives on archaeal diversity,
thermophily and monophyly from
environmental rRNA sequences." Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1996)
93:9188-9193.
6. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=51967
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44/abstract
9. ^ Barns, S.M., Delwiche, C.F.,
Palmer, J.D., and Pace, N.R.
"Perspectives on archaeal diversity,
thermophily and monophyly from
environmental rRNA sequences." Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1996)
93:9188-9193.
10. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=51967
11. ^ Elkins JG, Podar M, Graham DE,
Makarova KS, Wolf Y, Randau L, Hedlund
BP, Brochier-Armanet C, Kunin V,
Anderson I, Lapidus A, Goltsman E,
Barry K, Koonin EV, Hugenholtz P,
Kyrpides N, Wanner G, Richardson P,
Keller M, Stetter KO. (July 2008). "A
korarchaeal genome reveals insights
into the evolution of the Archaea".
Proc Natl Acad Sci 105 (1): 8805–6.
Bibcode 2008PNAS..105.8102E.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0801980105. PMC
2430366. PMID
18535141. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2430366/?tool=pmcentrez
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44/abstract
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] also see nature v417 n6886
[2]
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). and image 1
 
[1] Description English: Each of
these six hot springs (clockwise from
top left: Uzon4, Uzon7, Uzon8, Uzon9,
Mut11, Mut13) in Kamchatka were found
to contain Korarchaeota. Date 22
August 2005 Source Own
work Author Tommy Auchtung GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/KamchatkaKorHot
Springs.jpg/1280px-KamchatkaKorHotSpring
s.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Elkins JG, Podar
M, Graham DE, Makarova KS, Wolf Y,
Randau L, Hedlund BP, Brochier-Armanet
C, Kunin V, Anderson I, Lapidus A,
Goltsman E, Barry K, Koonin EV,
Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides N, Wanner G,
Richardson P, Keller M, Stetter KO.
(July 2008). ''A korarchaeal genome
reveals insights into the evolution of
the Archaea''. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105
(1): 8805–6. Bibcode
2008PNAS..105.8102E.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0801980105. PMC
2430366. PMID
18535141. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2430366/?tool=pmcentrez
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2430366/pdf/zpq8102.pdf
4,187,000,000 YBN
28 29 		180) Archaea Phylum: Euryarchaeota
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu20 } (methanogens,
halobacteria) evolve according to
genetic comparison.21 22

Earliest cell response to light.23

The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu24 }
are a major group of Archaea (or
Archaebacteria). They include the
methanogens, which produce methane and
are often found in intestines, the
halobacteria, which survive extreme
concentrations of salt, and some
extremely thermophilic aerobes and
anaerobes. They are separated from the
other archaeans based mainly on rRNA
sequences.25

The Euryarchaeotes may be the living
object with the most primitive DNA
still found on earth (depending on the
accurate determination of the origin of
Eubacteria and Archaea).26

Halophilic archaebacteria, such as
Halobacterium salinarum, use sensory
rhodopsins for phototaxis (positive or
negative movement along a light
gradient or vector).27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
5. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
9. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
13. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
17. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
19. ^ "Euryarchaeota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euryarchaeo
ta
20. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
23. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

24. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
25. ^ "Euryarchaeota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euryarchaeo
ta
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Jékely, Gáspár.
"Evolution of phototaxis."
Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
364 (October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

28. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
29. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44

MORE INFO
[1] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin
and evolution of model organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849
(November 2002),
doi:10.1038/nrg929 http://www.nature.co
m/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html#to
p
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
[1] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] A phylogenetic tree of living
things, based on RNA data, showing the
separation of bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryotes. Trees constructed with
other genes are generally similar,
although they may place some
early-branching groups very
differently, thanks to long branch
attraction. The exact relationships of
the three domains are still being
debated, as is the position of the root
of the tree. It has also been suggested
that due to lateral gene transfer, a
tree may not be the best representation
of the genetic relationships of all
organisms. NASA
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,187,000,000 YBN
13 14 		181) Genetic comparison shows the
Archaea Phylum, Crenarchaeotes evolving
now.10 11

The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly
referred to as the Crenarchaea,
contains many extremely thermophilic
(hot-loving) and psychrophilic
(cold-loving) organisms. They were
originally separated from the other
archaeons based on rRNA sequences,
since then physiological features, such
as lack of histones have supported this
division. Until recently all cultured
crenarchaea have been thermophilic or
hyperthermophilic organisms, some of
which have the ability to grow up to
113 degrees C. These organisms stain
gram negative and are morphologically
diverse having rod, cocci, filamentous
and unusually shaped cells.12
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
9. ^ "Crenarchaeota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crenarchaeo
ta
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
12. ^ "Crenarchaeota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crenarchaeo
ta
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
14. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,112,000,000 YBN
9 		58)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ "autotroph." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
5. ^ "autotroph." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
6. ^ "autotroph." Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights reserved. 2012.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44
 
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
4,100,000,000 YBN
1 		49) replace wiki source
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059.

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198.
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,030,000,000 YBN
35)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.htm
l
2. ^
http://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G102/102
arch1.htm
3. ^
http://chigaku.ed.gifu-u.ac.jp/chigakuhp
/dem/tec/history/isua.html
4. ^
http://www.mediaworkshop.org/techcamp/gr
oupc/geology/geohome.htm
5. ^ "Metamorphic rock." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 04 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metamorphic
-rock
6. ^ "gneiss." A Dictionary of
Geography. Oxford University Press,
1992, 1997, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gneiss
 
[1]
http://www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/geo
logia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra/09_paes
aggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg
source: http://www.regione.emilia-romagn
a.it/geologia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra
/09_paesaggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg

[2] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
4,000,000,000 YBN
1 		43) The simple equation of
photosynthesis is: 6 H2O + 6 CO2 +
photons = C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2. The
detailed steps of photosynthesis are
called the "Calvin Cycle". Prokaryote
cells can now produce their own glucose
to store and be converted to ATP by
glycolysis and fermentation later.

Of the 5 phyla of eubacteria that can
photosynthesize, only 1, cyanobacteria,
produces oxygen.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,000,000,000 YBN
4 		51)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
3,900,000,000 YBN
57)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p162-184.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
5. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition,
2008, p162-184.
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
7. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
8. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p170,176.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p170.
 
[1] Rickettsia prowazekii COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rickettsia_prowazekii.jpg

[2] Rickettsia rickettsii in
endothelial cells of a blood vessel
from a patient with fatal RMSF (Rocky
Mounted Spotted Fever) CDC PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/r
msf/Laboratory.htm
3,850,000,000 YBN
26 		36)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
2. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

3. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
4. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

5. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
6. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

7. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
8. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
9. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

10. ^ "apatite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
11. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
12. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

13. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
14. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
15. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

16. ^ "apatite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
17. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
18. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

19. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
20. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
21. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

22. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
23. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

24. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
25. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

26. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Banded iron formation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/banded-iron
-formation
[2] Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for
Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
AND http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
Akilia Island, Western Greenland24 25
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
3,850,000,000 YBN
28 		45) Oldest sediment, the Banded Iron
Formation begins.22
Banded Iron
Formation is sedimentary rock that
spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years
ago, made of iron-rich silicates (like
silicon dioxide SiO2) with alternating
layers of black colored ferrous
(reduced) iron and red colored ferric
(oxidized) iron23 24 and represents a
seasonal cycle where the quantity of
free oxygen in the ocean rises and
falls, possibly linked to
photosynthetic organisms.25 26
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
2. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
3. ^ Cesare Emiliani, Plant
Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel,
New Views on an Old Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Konhauser,
Kurt O. et al. “Could Bacteria Have
Formed the Precambrian Banded Iron
Formations?” Geology 30.12 (2002):
1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
6. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
11. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
16. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
21. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
22. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
23. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
24. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
25. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
26. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
27. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
28. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102, {3850 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Roger Lewin, "Thread of
Life", (New York: Smithsonian Books,
1982). p102
[2]
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

[3] "Banded iron formation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_iron
_formation
Akilia Island, Western Greenland27
 
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96

[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
3,850,000,000 YBN
8 9 		189) Possible earliest fossils.
Microstructures from Isua Banded iron
formation, Southerwest Greenland.3 4
Because of the simple shape, the biotic
nature of these fossils is not
certain.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans D. Pflug, "Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy", Precambrian
Research, Volume 106, Issues 1-2, 1
February 2001, Pages
79-91. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
2. ^ Schopf, J.W., 1993. Microfossils
from the early Archean Apex chert: New
evidence of the antiquity of life.
Science 260, pp. 640-646.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
3. ^ Hans D. Pflug, "Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy", Precambrian
Research, Volume 106, Issues 1-2, 1
February 2001, Pages
79-91. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
4. ^ Schopf, J.W., 1993. Microfossils
from the early Archean Apex chert: New
evidence of the antiquity of life.
Science 260, pp. 640-646.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
5. ^ Schopf, J.W., 1993. Microfossils
from the early Archean Apex chert: New
evidence of the antiquity of life.
Science 260, pp. 640-646.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
6. ^ Hans D. Pflug, "Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy", Precambrian
Research, Volume 106, Issues 1-2, 1
February 2001, Pages
79-91. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
7. ^ H.D. Pflug, "Early diversification
of life in the Archean", Zbl. Bakt.
Hyg. I.Abt. Orig., C3 (1982), pp.
53–64
8. ^ Hans D. Pflug, "Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy", Precambrian
Research, Volume 106, Issues 1-2, 1
February 2001, Pages
79-91. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
9. ^ H.D. Pflug, "Early diversification
of life in the Archean", Zbl. Bakt.
Hyg. I.Abt. Orig., C3 (1982), pp.
53–64

MORE INFO
[1] B. Nagy, J.E. Zumberge, L.A.
Nagy, "Abiotic, graphitic
microstructures in micaceous
metaquarzite about 3760 million years
old from southwestern Greenland:
Implications for early Precambrian
microfossils", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
Wash., 72 (1975), pp.
1206–1209 http://www.pnas.org/content
/72/3/1206.full.pdf
(Isua BIF) SW Greenland6 7  
[1] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 μm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0301926800001261-gr5.
jpg

[2] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig7&_ba=7
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=fe1052cbc18dba545ec95c2
e7ff3090b
3,800,000,000 YBN
10 		185)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/arc
haeafr.html
2. ^ Jürgen Hahn & Pat Haug. 1986.
Traces of Archaebacteria in ancient
sediments. Systematic and Applied
Microbiology 7: 178-183.
(Archaebacteria '85 Proceedings).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0723202086800029
3. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/arc
haeafr.html
4. ^ Jürgen Hahn & Pat Haug. 1986.
Traces of Archaebacteria in ancient
sediments. Systematic and Applied
Microbiology 7: 178-183.
(Archaebacteria '85 Proceedings).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0723202086800029
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/arc
haeafr.html
6. ^ Jürgen Hahn & Pat Haug. 1986.
Traces of Archaebacteria in ancient
sediments. Systematic and Applied
Microbiology 7: 178-183.
(Archaebacteria '85 Proceedings).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0723202086800029
7. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/arc
haeafr.html
8. ^ Jürgen Hahn & Pat Haug. 1986.
Traces of Archaebacteria in ancient
sediments. Systematic and Applied
Microbiology 7: 178-183.
(Archaebacteria '85 Proceedings).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0723202086800029
9. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/arc
haeafr.html
10. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/arc
haeafr.html
Isua, Greenland9  
[1] English: Isopentenyl pyrophosphate;
IPP; isopentenyl diphosphate;
isopentenyl-ppi Deutsch:
Isopentenylpyrophosphat;
Isopentenyldiphosphat Date 24.
November Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Isopentenyl_pyr
ophosphate.svg/1000px-Isopentenyl_pyroph
osphate.svg.png
3,700,000,000 YBN
5 		184)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Minik T. Rosing and Robert Frei,
"U-rich Archaean sea-floor sediments
from Greenland - indications of >3700
Ma oxygenic photosynthesis", Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, Volume 217,
Issues 3-4 , 15 January 2004, Pages
237-244
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0012821X03006095
2. ^ Minik T. Rosing and Robert Frei,
"U-rich Archaean sea-floor sediments
from Greenland - indications of >3700
Ma oxygenic photosynthesis", Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, Volume 217,
Issues 3-4 , 15 January 2004, Pages
237-244
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0012821X03006095
3. ^ Minik T. Rosing and Robert Frei,
"U-rich Archaean sea-floor sediments
from Greenland - indications of >3700
Ma oxygenic photosynthesis", Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, Volume 217,
Issues 3-4 , 15 January 2004, Pages
237-244
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0012821X03006095
4. ^ Minik T. Rosing and Robert Frei,
"U-rich Archaean sea-floor sediments
from Greenland - indications of >3700
Ma oxygenic photosynthesis", Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, Volume 217,
Issues 3-4 , 15 January 2004, Pages
237-244
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0012821X03006095
5. ^ Minik T. Rosing and Robert Frei,
"U-rich Archaean sea-floor sediments
from Greenland - indications of >3700
Ma oxygenic photosynthesis", Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, Volume 217,
Issues 3-4 , 15 January 2004, Pages
237-244
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0012821X03006095
Isua, Greenland4  
[1] Fig. 1. (c) Close-up of the region
near the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve showing the intersection of the
errorchron defined by the metasediment
samples and an isochron defined by all
possible Pb compositions at 2800 Ma of
systems derived from the Stacey and
Kramers growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif

[2] Fig. 1. (a) 207Pb/204Pb versus
206Pb/204Pb for eight samples of >3700
Ma pelagic sediment from Isua, West
Greenland, shown with open diamonds.
Analytical uncertainty is less than the
size of the symbols. The Stacey and
Kramers growth curve for average
crustal Pb [24] is shown for
comparison. The age of the errorchron
which has a MSWD=52 is calculated using
Isoplot [23]. The high MSWD value
indicates that the Pb isotopic
composition of the sample suite was not
perfectly homogeneous at 2800 Ma. (b)
Pb isotopic data for the whole rock
samples shown in panel a and their HCl
leachates and leach residues in the
range 206Pb/204Pb=0–75 and
207Pb/204Pb=10–25 (filled circles).
The full dataset is shown in the inset.
In open circles are data for banded
iron formation and metabasalt samples
from the same supracrustal segment as
the carbon-rich metasediments. These
samples plot along a parallel reference
isochron, but originate at the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve, which
indicates that they evolved with
‘normal’ μ (238U/204Pb) values
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (c) Close-up of the region near the
Stacey and Kramers growth curve showing
the intersection of the errorchron
defined by the metasediment samples and
an isochron defined by all possible Pb
compositions at 2800 Ma of systems
derived from the Stacey and Kramers
growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (d) 206Pb/204Pb versus 208Pb/204Pb
for the sample suite. The samples show
some scatter about a regression line,
which passes to the right of the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve. This
indicates that the metasediments
evolved with low Th/U ratios. At the
initial 206Pb/204Pb composition derived
from panel b, the 208Pb/204Pb value at
the regression line is 31, which is
less radiogenic than the Stacey and
Kramers model value at 3700 Ma. This
indicates that the samples evolved with
virtually no Th during the early
Archaean. (e) 206Pb/204Pb versus
208Pb/204Pb for whole rock samples, HCl
leachates and residues. The residues
are highlighted in filled diamonds, and
are characterized by low thorogenic Pb
and a shallow array indicative of a low
Th/U ratio, while the leachates shown
in open circles are extremely
radiogenic, with high Th/U evolutions.
Whole rock samples are shown with
crosses. The model initial Pb
composition at 2769 Ma is shown as the
open square at the apex of the
fan-shaped data array to the right of
the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif
3,700,000,000 YBN
5 		215) The Carbon-13 to Carbon-12 ratio
in 3700+ million year old carbon grains
is consistent with biotic remains,
possibly the remains of planktonic
photosynthesizing organisms.2 These
carbon-13 "depleted" grains support
the earlier finding by Mojzsis et al of
carbon-13 to carbon-12 ratios that
imply living objects on Greenland
earlier than 3850 million years before
now.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Minik T. Rosing, "13C-Depleted
Carbon Microparticles in >3700-Ma
Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks from West
Greenland", Science 29 January 1999:
Vol. 283. no. 5402, pp. 674 -
676 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/conte
nt/full/283/5402/674
2. ^ Minik T. Rosing, "13C-Depleted
Carbon Microparticles in >3700-Ma
Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks from West
Greenland", Science 29 January 1999:
Vol. 283. no. 5402, pp. 674 -
676 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/conte
nt/full/283/5402/674
3. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
4. ^ Minik T. Rosing, "13C-Depleted
Carbon Microparticles in >3700-Ma
Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks from West
Greenland", Science 29 January 1999:
Vol. 283. no. 5402, pp. 674 -
676 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/conte
nt/full/283/5402/674
5. ^ Minik T. Rosing, "13C-Depleted
Carbon Microparticles in >3700-Ma
Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks from West
Greenland", Science 29 January 1999:
Vol. 283. no. 5402, pp. 674 -
676 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/conte
nt/full/283/5402/674
Isua, Greenland4  
[1] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite sedimentary
rocks from the Isua supracrustal belt,
west Greenland. The notebook is 17 cm
wide. (B) A close-up of finely
laminated slate representing pelagic
mud. The hammer is 70 cm long. (C)
Photomicrograph of sample 810213,
showing finely laminated pelagic mud.
The variation in color is mainly due to
variations in C abundance. (D)
Photomicrograph of C grains arranged
along a buckled stringer. (E)
Backscattered electron image of a
polished surface (sample 810213),
showing the distribution of C grains as
black areas. (F) Backscattered electron
image of a polished surface (sample
810213), showing the rounded shape of C
grains (black). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/283/5402/674.full.pdf

[2] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite
sedimentary rocks from the Isua
supracrustal belt, west Greenland. The
notebook is 17 cm wide. (B) A close-up
of finely laminated slate representing
pelagic mud. The hammer is 70 cm long.
(C) Photomicrograph of sample 810213,
showing finely laminated pelagic mud.
The variation in color is mainly due to
variations in C abundance. (D)
Photomicrograph of C grains arranged
along a buckled stringer. (E)
Backscattered electron image of a
polished surface (sample 810213),
showing the distribution of C grains as
black areas. (F) Backscattered electron
image of a polished surface (sample
810213), showing the rounded shape of C
grains (black).
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/283/5402/674
3,500,000,000 YBN
7 8 		37)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
2. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
3. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
4. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
5. ^ Inaki Ruiz-Trillo, Gertraud
Burger, Peter W.H. Holland, Nicole
King, B. Franz Lang, Andrew J. Roger,
Michael W. Gray, The origins of
multicellularity: a multi-taxon genome
initiative, Trends in Genetics, Volume
23, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 113-118,
ISSN 0168-9525, DOI:
10.1016/j.tig.2007.01.005. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952507000236)
6. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. “The Multiple
Origins of Complex Multicellularity.”
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39.1
(2011):
217-239. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.1002
09
7. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
8. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Grosberg R. K., Strathmann R.
R. 2007 The evolution of
multicellularity: a minor major
transition? Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.
38, 621–654.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.1
14735)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/1
0.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735
[2] Rokas A. 2008 The origins of
multicellularity and the early history
of the genetic toolkit for animal
development. Ann. Rev. Genet. 42,
235–251.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091
513) http://apps.webofknowledge.com/Inb
oundService.do?UT=000261767000011&IsProd
uctCode=Yes&mode=FullRecord&product=WOS&
SID=1EHDdbNiNf4NO8nC299&smartRedirect=ye
s&SrcApp=CR&DestFail=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.we
bofknowledge.com%3FDestApp%3DCEL%26DestP
arams%3D%253Faction%253Dretrieve%2526mod
e%253DFullRecord%2526product%253DCEL%252
6UT%253D000261767000011%2526customersID%
253DHighwire%26e%3DQZIAIzGgKoYbxc_i_WNam
laqQ0.s968BNEwQvqhM9p.770dFYju0AbJCFAAcj
orA%26SrcApp%3DHighwire%26SrcAuth%3DHigh
wire&action=retrieve&Init=Yes&SrcAuth=Hi
ghwire&customersID=Highwire&Func=Frame
 
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG

[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
3,500,000,000 YBN
11 12 		39)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
2. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
3. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
4. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
5. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
6. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
7. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
8. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
9. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
10. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J.
S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites
3,400-3,500 Myr Old from the North Pole
Area, Western Australia." Nature
284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
11. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J.
S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites
3,400-3,500 Myr Old from the North Pole
Area, Western Australia." Nature
284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
12. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig
Tree Group, South Africa9 10  
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6

[2]
source: 1986
3,500,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 		287)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

2. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
3. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

4. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
5. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Schopf, J. W.
Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex
chert: new evidence of the antiquity of
life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

7. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
8. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Schopf, J. W.
Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex
chert: new evidence of the antiquity of
life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

10. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
11. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
12. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Schopf, J.
W. Microfossils of the Early Archean
Apex chert: new evidence of the
antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

14. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
15. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
16. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
17. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
18. ^ argues that these are not
fossils: http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v420/n6915/full/420476b.html
"we contend that the Raman spectra of
Schopf et al.1 indicate that these are
disordered carbonaceous materials of
indeterminate origin. We maintain that
Raman spectroscopy cannot be used to
identify microfossils unambiguously,
although it is a useful technique for
pinpointing promising microscopic
entities for further investigation."
19. ^
http://www.nature.com/news/2002/020304/f
ull/020304-6.html "Gloves are coming
off in ancient bacteria bust-up." 2002
20. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/full/416076a.html braiser et
al. "Questioning the evidence for
Earth's oldest fossils"
21. ^ Record ID81.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
23. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
24. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
25. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

26. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

27. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html

MORE INFO
[1] BIO415 (Author? University?)
Multicelluarity.pdf (t3:
multicellularity of cyanobacteria)
[2] t3:
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
"Some cyanobacteria species exist in a
truly, though primitive, multicellular
form in which cellular differentiation
occurs."
Warrawoona, northwestern Western
Australia22 and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa23
 
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416

[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
3,500,000,000 YBN
4 5 		289)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^ Carl R. Woese,
"Bacterial Evolution", Microbiological
Reviews, June 1877, p. 221-271.
woese1987b.pdf
3. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
5. ^ Carl R. Woese,
"Bacterial Evolution", Microbiological
Reviews, June 1877, p. 221-271.
woese1987b.pdf
  
3,470,000,000 YBN
5 		182)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v410/n6824/full/
410077a0_fs.html
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v410/n6824/full/
410077a0_fs.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v410/n6824/full/
410077a0_fs.html
5. ^
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v410/n6824/full/
410077a0_fs.html
North Pole, Australia4  
[1] get larger image
source: file:///root/web/fossils_biomark
er_science_v67_i22_nov_15_2003.html#bib9
9
3,430,000,000 YBN
1 		833)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v44
1/n7094/full/nature04764.html
 
[1] a-c, 'Encrusting/domical
laminites'; d-f, 'small crested/conical
laminites'; g-i, 'cuspate swales'; j-l,
'large complex cones' (dashed lines in
k trace lamina shape and show outlines
of intraclast conglomerate piled
against the cone at two levels). m-o,
'Egg-carton laminites'; p, q, 'wavy
laminites'; r-t, 'iron-rich laminites'
(t is a cut slab). The scale card in b,
h and i is 18 cm. The scale card
increments in c, e, k, l, n and s are 1
cm. The scale bar in o is about 1 cm.
The scale bars in the remaining
pictures are about 5 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v441/n7094/fig_tab/nature04764_F1.h
tml
3,416,000,000 YBN
2 		218)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v43
1/n7008/full/nature02888.html
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v43
1/n7008/full/nature02888.html
 
[1] a, Dark carbonaceous laminations
draping an underlying coarse detrital
carbonaceous grain (a), showing
internal anastomosing and draping
character (b) and, at the top (c)
draping irregularities in underlying
carbonaceous laminations. b, Dark
carbonaceous laminations that have been
eroded and rolled up by currents. c,
Bundled filaments in the rolled
laminations in b [tp: they should
have clearly indicated that they are
saying that these filaments are
bacteria].
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7008/fig_tab/nature02888_F4.h
tml
3,400,000,000 YBN
10 		190) Earliest fossils of coccoid
{KoKOED7 } (spherical) bacteria from
the Kromberg Formation, Swaziland
System, South Africa.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "coccoid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
6. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
7. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
8. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
9. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
10. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)

MORE INFO
[1] maybe evidence: Nagy, B. and
Nagy, L.A., 1969. Early Precambrian
microstructures: possibly the oldest
fossils on Earth?. Nature 223, pp.
1226-1229.?
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa9  
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261

[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
3,260,000,000 YBN
13 		71) Earliest fossil evidence of
prokaryote reproduction by budding.8

Fossils from Swartkoppie chert, South
Africa are oldest evidence of
procaryotes that reproduce by budding
and not binary fission.9

Budding evolves in prokaryotes.10 Like
binary division, budding is a form of
asexual reproduction. However, with
budding a new individual develops from
a certain point of the parent organism.
The new individual may separate to
exist independently, or the buds may
remain attached, forming colonies.
Budding is characteristic of a few
unicellular organisms (certain
bacteria, yeasts, protozoans) but some
metazoan animals (certain cnidarian
species) regularly reproduce by
budding.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
6. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
7. ^ "budding." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/83411/budding>.
8. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
9. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
10. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
11. ^ "budding." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/83411/budding>.
12. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
13. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
Swartkoppie, South Africa12  
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3

[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
3,235,000,000 YBN
6 		68)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
2. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
3. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
4. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
5. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
6. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
(Sulphur Springs Deposit) Pilbara
Craton of Australia5  
[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html

[2] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
3,200,000,000 YBN
34 35 36 37 38 		66) Earliest acritarch fossils
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity23 24 ). These
acritarchs are also the earliest
possible eukaryote fossils.25 26

Organic-walled microfossils of large
size (50 micrometres or more) and of
uncertain biological affinities are
known as acritarchs. The oldest known
acritarchs are from rocks of the
Moodies Group of South Africa that date
to about 3.2 billion years ago, and are
almost twice as old as the next known
acritarchs which come from
mid-Proterozoic rocks that are about
1.8 billion years old.27

Acritarchs, the name coined by Evitt in
1963 which means "of uncertain origin",
are an artificial group. The group
includes any small (most are between
20-150 microns across), organic-walled
microfossil which cannot be assigned to
a natural group. They are characterised
by varied sculpture, some being spiny
and others smooth. They are believed to
have algal affinities, probably the
cysts of planktonic eukaryotic algae.
They are valuable Proterozoic and
Palaeozoic biostratigraphic and
palaeoenvironmental tools.28

Living spherical prokaryotic cells
rarely exceed 20 microns in diameter,
but eukaryotic cells are nearly always
larger than 60 microns. Although their
precise nature is uncertain, acritarchs
appear to be phytoplankton that grew
thick coverings during a resting stage
in their life cycle. Some resemble the
resting stage of modern marine algae
known as dinoflagellates (known from
the "red tides" that periodically
poison fish and other marine
animals).29

Chitinozoa are large (50-2000 microns)
flask-shaped palynomorphs which appear
dark, almost opaque when viewed using a
light microscope. They are important
Palaeozoic microfossils as
stratigraphic markers. 30

The oldest known Acritarchs are
recorded from shales of
Palaeoproterozoic (1900-1600 Ma) age in
the former Soviet Union. They are
stratigraphically useful in the Upper
Proterozoic through to the Permian.
From Devonian times onwards the
abundance of acritarchs appears to have
declined, whether this is a reflection
of their true abundance or the volume
of scientific research is difficult to
tell.31

Although these acritarch fossils may be
from eukaryotes, they may also be from
ancestors of eukaryotes before a
nucleus existed which there may be some
genetic support for.32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
2. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
3. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
4. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
5. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
6. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
7. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
8. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
9. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
10. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
11. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
12. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
13. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
14. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
15. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
16. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
17. ^ Buick, R. . (2010). "Early life:
Ancient acritarchs". Nature 463 (7283):
885–886. Bibcode 2010Natur.463..885B.
doi:10.1038/463885a. PMID
20164911 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/463885a.html
18. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
19. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th ed., 2006, p257.
20. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
21. ^ Lezhava A, Kameoka D, Sugino H,
Goshi K, Shinkawa H, et al. 1997.
Chromosomal deletions in Streptomyces
griseus that remove the afsA locus.
Mol. Gen. Genet. 253:478-83
22. ^ Hedges, S Blair
et al. “A genomic timescale for the
origin of eukaryotes.” BMC
Evolutionary Biology 1.1 (2001): 4.
Print. http://www.biomedcentral.com/147
1-2148/1/4
23. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
24. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
25. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
26. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
27. ^ Buick, R. . (2010). "Early life:
Ancient acritarchs". Nature 463 (7283):
885–886. Bibcode 2010Natur.463..885B.
doi:10.1038/463885a. PMID
20164911 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/463885a.html
28. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
29. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th ed., 2006, p257.
30. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
31. ^ Lezhava A, Kameoka D, Sugino H,
Goshi K, Shinkawa H, et al. 1997.
Chromosomal deletions in Streptomyces
griseus that remove the afsA locus.
Mol. Gen. Genet. 253:478-83
32. ^ Hedges, S Blair
et al. “A genomic timescale for the
origin of eukaryotes.” BMC
Evolutionary Biology 1.1 (2001): 4.
Print. http://www.biomedcentral.com/147
1-2148/1/4
33. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
34. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
{3.2 bybn}
35. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J. Javaux,
D. Hewitt and P. Cohen, "Eukaryotic
Organisms in Proterozoic Oceans",
Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences , Vol. 361, No. 1470, Major
Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn}
36. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/di
noflagfr.html {1.8 bybn}
37. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html {1900-1600 mybn}
38. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th
ed., 2006, p257. {1.6 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Knoll,
Andrew H., Walter, Malcolm,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
2003-02-01, Springer Netherlands,
Vol33, Iss1,
p75-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:102
3992712071
[2] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

[3] Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A Molecular Time-Scale for Eukaryote
Evolution Recalibrated with the
Continuous Microfossil Record",
Proceedings: Biological Sciences , Vol.
273, No. 1596 (Aug. 7, 2006), pp.
1867-1872 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
5223537
[4] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
(Moodies Group) South Africa33  
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html

[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
2,923,000,000 YBN
20 		178) Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes
evolves (low G+C {Guanine and Cytosine
count} Gram positive bacteria:
botulism, tetanus, anthrax).17 18 19
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
Bacteria. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds.
Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland,
National Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington
DC http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacte
ria?topic=49480
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^ Nature v417
n6886 (not TOL)
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
19. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
20. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptidoglyc
an
[2] firmicutes only bacteria to make
endospores
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmicutes
[4]
http://www.earthlife.net/prokaryotes/fir
micutes.html
 
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg

[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
2,920,000,000 YBN
7 		288) First endospores. The ability to
form endospores evolve in some
firmicutes. An endospore is a tough
reduced dry form of a bacterium
triggered by a lack of nutrients that
protects the bacterium, and allows it
to be revived after long periods of
time.5 Some 25 million year old spores
have been revived.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
2. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
3. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
4. ^ Cano RJ, Borucki MK (1995) Revival
and identification of bacterial spores
in 25- to 40-million-year-old Dominican
amber. Science 268: 1060-1064.
doi:10.1126/science.7538699 http://dx.d
oi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7538699
5. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
6. ^ Cano RJ, Borucki MK (1995) Revival
and identification of bacterial spores
in 25- to 40-million-year-old Dominican
amber. Science 268: 1060-1064.
doi:10.1126/science.7538699 http://dx.d
oi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7538699
7. ^ Ted Huntington, a total guess my
friends

MORE INFO
[1] "Endospore". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
 
[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp

[2] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
2,800,000,000 YBN
1 		76)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] multicellularity.
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
Multicellularity.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia
_coli
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteobacte
ria
[2] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[3] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
[4] conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989)
[5] prokaryote
pili and archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
[6] Stackebrandt et al. Proteobacteria
classis nov., a name for the
phylogenetic taxon that includes the
"purple bacteria and their relatives".
Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 1988, 38,
321–325. http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/c
ontent/38/3/321.full.pdf
 
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm

[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
2,800,000,000 YBN
55 		177) Gender and sex (conjugation)
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlE43 44 } bacteria. Conjugation is
the exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a
donor {male} bacterium through a pilus
to a recipient {female} bacterium.45 46
47 48 49 50 This may be the process
that evolves into eukaryote sexual
reproduction.51

In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA together evolve.52

Some protists (cilliates and some
algae) reproduce sexually by
conjugation.53
So perhaps conjugation
is related to the transition from a
single circle of DNA to multiple linear
chromosomes in eukaryotes. If
conjugation in eukaryotes descends
directly from a proteobacteria then
perhaps the ancestor of all eukaryotes,
or certainly those that can conjugate
was a proteobacteria.54
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
2. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
6. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
7. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
8. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
12. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=escher
ichia+coli&submit=Submit
14. ^ "Escherichia." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia

15. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
16. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
17. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
19. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
20. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
21. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=escher
ichia+coli&submit=Submit
23. ^ "Escherichia." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia

24. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
25. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
26. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
28. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
29. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
30. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
31. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=escher
ichia+coli&submit=Submit
32. ^ "Escherichia." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia

33. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
34. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
35. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
36. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
37. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
38. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ prokaryote
pili and archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
41. ^ conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
42. ^ Ted
Huntington.
43. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=escher
ichia+coli&submit=Submit
44. ^ "Escherichia." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia

45. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
46. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
47. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
48. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
49. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
50. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
51. ^ Ted Huntington.
52. ^ prokaryote
pili and archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
53. ^ conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
54. ^ Ted
Huntington.
55. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}
 
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif

[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
2,784,000,000 YBN
9 		176)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] s10
http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/5
0/6/1965
[2]
http://genomebiology.com/2002/3/6/resear
ch/0031
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planctomyce
tes
 
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655

[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
2,784,000,000 YBN
1 		179) The Phylum Actinobacteria have 5
Orders:
ORDER Acidimicrobiales
ORDER Actinobacteriales
ORDER Coriobacteriales
ORDER
Rubrobacteriales
ORDER Sphaerobacteriales
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit

MORE INFO
[1] "streptomyces." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 04 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/streptomyce
s
 
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml

[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
2,775,000,000 YBN
9 		174) Genetic comparison shows the
Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes
(Syphilis, Lyme disease) evolving now.8


The spirochaetes (or spirochetes) are a
phylum of distinctive bacteria, which
have long, helically coiled cells. They
are distinguished by the presence of
flagella running lengthwise between the
cell membrane and cell wall, called
axial filaments. These cause a twisting
motion which allows the spirochaete to
move around. Most spirochaetes are
free-living and anaerobic, but there
are numerous exceptions.

Spirochaetes only have one order:
ORDER
Spirochaetales
and 3 families.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
9. ^ estimated from
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
 
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm

[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
2,775,000,000 YBN
13 14 		175)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
4. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
13. ^ estimate from Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
14. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
 
[1] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm

[2] Cross section of a Bacteroides
showing an outer membrane, a
peptidoglycan layer, and a cytoplasmic
membrane. From New-asthma
source: http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details
.asp
2,775,000,000 YBN
1 		217) Chlamydiae have a life-cycle
involving two distinct forms. Infection
takes place by means of elementary
bodies (EB), which are metabolically
inactive. These are taken up within a
cellular vacuole, where they grow into
larger reticulate bodies (RB), which
reproduce. Ultimately new elementary
bodies are produced and expelled from
the cell.

Verrucomicrobia is a recently described
phylum of bacteria. This phylum
contains only a few described species
(Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is an
example, the phylum is named after
this). The species identified have been
isolated from fresh water and soil
environments and human feces. A number
of as-yet uncultivated species have
been identified in association with
eukaryotic hosts including extrusive
explosive ectosymbionts of protists and
endosymbionts of nematodes residing in
their gametes.

Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia
are abundant within the environment,
and important (especially to soil
cultures). This phylum is considered to
have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and
Lentisphaera.

There are three main species of
chlamydiae that infect humans:

* Chlamydia trachomatis, which
causes the eye-disease trachoma and the
sexually transmitted infection
chlamydia;
* Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which
causes a form of pneumonia;
* Chlamydophila
psittaci, which causes psittacosis.


CLASS Chlamydiae
ORDER Chlamydiales

PHYLA Verrucomicrobia
ORDER Verrucomicrobiales
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
 
[1] Chlamydia trachomatis wiki, is
copyrighted
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis

[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlamydophila_pneumoniae.jpg
2,775,000,000 YBN
9 10 		6309)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
9. ^ estimate from Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
 
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg
2,775,000,000 YBN
1 		6310) Verrucomicrobia is a recently
described phylum of bacteria. This
phylum contains only a few described
species (Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is
an example, the phylum is named after
this). The species identified have been
isolated from fresh water and soil
environments and human feces. A number
of as-yet uncultivated species have
been identified in association with
eukaryotic hosts including extrusive
explosive ectosymbionts of protists and
endosymbionts of nematodes residing in
their gametes.

Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia
are abundant within the environment,
and important (especially to soil
cultures). This phylum is considered to
have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and
Lentisphaera.

There are three main species of
chlamydiae that infect humans:

* Chlamydia trachomatis, which
causes the eye-disease trachoma and the
sexually transmitted infection
chlamydia;
* Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which
causes a form of pneumonia;
* Chlamydophila
psittaci, which causes psittacosis.


CLASS Chlamydiae
ORDER Chlamydiales

PHYLA Verrucomicrobia
ORDER Verrucomicrobiales
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
 
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg

[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
2,740,000,000 YBN
216)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
2,730,000,000 YBN
5 6 		80)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis

2. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
3. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis

4. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn guess
and }
6. ^ guess based on Cavalier-Smith
stating that endocytosis occurs before
a cytoskeleton {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn
guess and}
 
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg

[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris.
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
2,706,000,000 YBN
299)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
2,700,000,000 YBN
55 		60) Eukaryotic cell. The first cell
with a nucleus. The first protist. The
nucleus may develop from the infolding
of plasma membrane.32

The word "Eukaryote" is from the Greek
"eu" which means "true" and "karyon"
which means "kernel", in this case
refering to the nucleus.33

All cells have several basic features
in common: They are all bounded by a
selective barrier, called the plasma
membrane. Enclosed by the membrane is a
semifluid, jellylike substance called
cytosol, in which organelles and other
components are found. All cells contain
chromosomes, which carry genes in the
form of DNA. And all cells have
ribosomes, tiny bodies that make
proteins according to instructions from
the genes.34

There are some difference between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter.35
Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic
cells have a cytoskeleton. The
cytoskeleton enables eukaryotic cells
to change their shape and to surround
and engulf other cells. Eukaryotic
cells also have internal structures
that prokaryotic cells lack such as
mitochondria and plastids.36 DNA in
prokaryotic cells is usually in the
form of a single cicular chromosome
(sometimes with additional small
circles of DNA known as plasmids),
while DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes
contains linear chromosomes (some
organelles in eukaryotes also contain
DNA, most mitochondrial and chloroplast
DNA is also circular reflecting their
prokaryote origin).37

All protists, fungi, animals and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell ancestor.38

Like prokaryotes, this first eukaryote
cell is probably haploid, having only a
single unique DNA. Most later
eukaryotes will be diploid, having two
sets of DNA.39 40 41 42


Other alternative theories are that the
nucleus may be a captured bacterium,
virus, or plasmid.43 44 45 46 47 48 49
50 51 52 53

That a eukaryote cell survived the
journey from a different star or galaxy
cannot be ruled out.54
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
2. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008,
p516-517.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
6. ^ Jill Saffrey,
"Biology: uniformity & diversity. Core
of life, Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
7. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
8. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
9. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
10. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
11. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
12. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
13. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
14. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
15. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
16. ^ Jill Saffrey,
"Biology: uniformity & diversity. Core
of life, Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
17. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
18. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
19. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
20. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
21. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
22. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
23. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
24. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
25. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
26. ^ Jill Saffrey,
"Biology: uniformity & diversity. Core
of life, Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
27. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
28. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
29. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
30. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
31. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
32. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
33. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
34. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
35. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
36. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
37. ^ Jill
Saffrey, "Biology: uniformity &
diversity. Core of life, Book 3, Volume
2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
38. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
39. ^ Montgomery
Slatkin, "Exploring evolutionary
biology: readings from American
scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
40. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
41. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
42. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
43. ^ Nature 396, 109 - 110 (12
November 1998);
doi:10.1038/24030 Rickettsia, typhus
and the mitochondrial
connection MICHAEL W. GRAY
44. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
45. ^ Nature 392, 15 - 16
(05 March 1998); doi:10.1038/32033 A
paradigm gets shifty W. FORD
DOOLITTLE
46. ^ (h2 symbiosis) The chimeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists Lynn Margulis*, Michael F.
Dolan* , and Ricardo
Guerrero file:/root/web/euk_nucleo6954.
pdf
47. ^ "Planctomycetes a phylum of
emerging interest for microbial
evolution and ecology John A.
Fuerst" planctomycetes_a1.pdf and
fuerst1.pdf
48. ^ Nature 392, 37 - 41 (05 March
1998); doi:10.1038/32096 The hydrogen
hypothesis for the first
eukaryote WILLIAM MARTIN* AND MIKLÓS
MÜLLER†
49. ^ Nature 431, 152 - 155 (09
September 2004);
doi:10.1038/nature02848 The ring of
life provides evidence for a genome
fusion origin of eukaryotes MARIA C.
RIVERA1,3,4 AND JAMES A. LAKE1,2,4
50. ^ Science,
Vol 305, Issue 5685, 766-768 , 6 August
2004 EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY: The Birth
of the Nucleus Elizabeth Pennisi
51. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).0) origin of nuclear
membrane/envelope, is anaerobic
eukorig1 thru eukorig7
52. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4, (2001).
53. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {split of archae and
eukaryote at c4.0 bybn, but eukaryote
{with nucleus?} at) 2.7 bybn}
54. ^ Ted
Huntington.
55. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {split of archae and
eukaryote at c4.0 bybn, but eukaryote
{with nucleus?} at) 2.7 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", 8th ed., 2006, p256
[2]
Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

[3] Alexey S. Kondrashov, "EVOLUTIONARY
GENETICS OF LIFE CYCLES", Annual Review
of Ecology and Systematics Vol. 28:
391-435 (Volume publication date
November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.

[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
2,700,000,000 YBN
62)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 1033-1036 , 13
August 1999 Archean Molecular Fossils
and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes Jochen J. Brocks, 1,2*
Graham A. Logan, 2 Roger Buick, 1 Roger
E. Summons 2
Northwestern Australia13 14  
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

2,700,000,000 YBN
192)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nagy, L.A. and Zumberge, J.E.,
1976. Fossil microorganisms from the
approximately 2800-2500
million-year-old Bulawaya
stromatolites: Application of
ultramicrochemical analyses. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. Wash. 73, pp.
2973-2976. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0301926800001261
2. ^ Nagy, L.A. and Zumberge, J.E.,
1976. Fossil microorganisms from the
approximately 2800-2500
million-year-old Bulawaya
stromatolites: Application of
ultramicrochemical analyses. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. Wash. 73, pp.
2973-2976. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0301926800001261
(Bulawaya rock sequence) Zimbabwe2
 
[1] Fig. 2. Organic microstructure from
the Bulawaya stromatolite, Zimbabwe (ca
2.7 Ga). (a) TEM-micrograph from
demineralized rock section. (b) Laser
mass spectrum from individual specimen
of the same population (negative ions).
Field of measurement ca 1 small mu,
Greekm diameter. Attribution of
signals: 12: C−, 13: CH−, 14:
CH−2, 16: O−, 17: OH−, 19: F−,
24: C−2, 25: C2H−, 26: CN−, 28:
Si−, 36: C−3, 37: C3H−, 40-42,
45: fragmental carbonaceous groups, 48:
C−4, 49: C4H−, 50: C4H−2, 60:
SiO−2, resp. C−5, 61: C5H−.
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig5&_ba=5
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=d9195635e48bcf1f817c009
69102189f
2,700,000,000 YBN
214)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A.
Logan, Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
"Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes", Science, Vol
285, Issue 5430, 1033-1036, 13 August
1999.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract
2. ^ Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 1033-1036, 13 August 1999.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract
3. ^ Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 1033-1036, 13 August 1999.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract
 
[1] Figure 1 and Table 2 from: Jochen
J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger
Buick, Roger E. Summons, ''Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes'', Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 1033-1036, 13 August 1999,
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.abstract
2,690,000,000 YBN
14 15 		207)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
2. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
3. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
4. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of
Botony 2005 vol95 issue 1
5. ^ Margulis,
L. 1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look
at Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
6. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
7. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of
Botony 2005 vol95 issue 1
8. ^ Margulis,
L. 1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look
at Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
9. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
10. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of
Botony 2005 vol95 issue 1
11. ^ Margulis,
L. 1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look
at Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
12. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
13. ^ Shih YL, Rothfield L.,
"The bacterial cytoskeleton.",
Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2006
Sep;70(3):729-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/pubmed/16959967
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +10mybn guess
and }
15. ^ guess based on ER and golgi
made of same material as cytoskeleton,
and after first eukaryote cell {Nucleus
2700 +10mybn guess and}
 
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg

[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
2,690,000,000 YBN
7 		208)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dr. P.D. Sharma, "Microbiology &
Plant Pathology", 2007,
p86. http://books.google.com/books?id=B
yDwOIWXp4MC&pg=PA86
2. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
3. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al., "Biology",
Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
4. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al., "Biology", Eighth
Edition, 2008, p114.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al., "Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008,
p114.
6. ^ Lynn Margulis, "Symbiosis as a
source of evolutionary innovation:
speciation and morphogenesis", 1991,
p135-136. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&lr=&id=3sKzeiHUIUQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1
35
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -10mybn
guess}
 
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD

[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
2,680,000,000 YBN
11 		65) Eukaryote cells with linear
chromosomes (instead of a circular
chromosome) evolve.7

Perhaps the first eukaryote descended
from one of those prokaryotes with
linear DNA.8

Some prokaryotes without a single
circular chromosome are: Agrobacterium
tumefaciens (Proteobacteria), Borrellia
burgdorferi (Spirochaete), Streptomyces
griseus (Actinobacteria).9
Some
prokaryotes do not have just one circle
of DNA. Brucella melitensis has 2
circular chromosomes. Agrobacterium
tumefaciens has a circular and a linear
chromosome. Streptomyces griseus can
have one linear chromosome. Borrelia
burgdorferi contains a linear
chromosome and a number of variable
circular and linear plasmids.
Chromosomes are linear in eukaryotic
nuclei, but circular in eukaryote
organelles except for the mitochondria
of most cnidarians and some other
forms.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Alexey S. Kondrashov,
"EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF LIFE CYCLES",
Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics Vol. 28: 391-435 (Volume
publication date November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Alexey S.
Kondrashov, "EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF
LIFE CYCLES", Annual Review of Ecology
and Systematics Vol. 28: 391-435
(Volume publication date November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
10. ^ Alexey S. Kondrashov,
"EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF LIFE CYCLES",
Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics Vol. 28: 391-435 (Volume
publication date November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +20mybn
guess}

MORE INFO
[1] not all prokaryotes have
circle of
DNA: http://arjournals.annualreviews.or
g/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.
391;jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
[2] Jumas-Bilak E, Maugard C,
Michaux-Charachon S, Allardet-Servent
A, Perrin A, et al. 1995. Study of the
organization of the genomes of
Escherichia coli, Brucella melitensis
and Agrobacterium tumefaciens by
insertion of a unique restriction site.
Microbiology 141:2425-32 (Medline)
[3] Lezhava A,
Kameoka D, Sugino H, Goshi K, Shinkawa
H, et al. 1997. Chromosomal deletions
in Streptomyces griseus that remove the
afsA locus. Mol. Gen. Genet. 253:478-83
[4]
Marconi RT, Casjens S, Munderloh UG,
Samuels DS. 1996. Analysis of linear
plasmid dimers in Borrelia burgdorferi
sensu lato isolates: implications
concerning the potential mechanisms of
linear plasmid replication. J. Bact.
178:3357-61
 
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg

[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
2,680,000,000 YBN
9 		291) Eukaryote cell evolves two
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.6

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell divisions.
This period is called the S (for
synthetic) phase. It is preceded by a
period called G1 (meaning "first gap")
and followed by a period called G2,
during which nuclear DNA synthesis does
not occur.7

For the first time, a cell is not
constantly synthesizing DNA and then
having a division period (as is the
case for all known prokaryotes), but
this cell has a period in between cell
division and DNA synthesis where DNA
synthesis is not performed.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p45
2. ^ "cell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/101396/cell>.
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p45
4. ^ "cell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/101396/cell>.
5. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p45
6. ^ Michael
Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists",
(London; New York: Edward Arnold,
1989).: p45
7. ^ "cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/101396/cell>.
8. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p45
9. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar,
Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and
Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the
origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -20mybn
guess}

MORE INFO
[1] Cooper GM (2000). "Chapter
14: The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle". The
cell: a molecular approach (2nd ed.).
Washington, D.C: ASM Press. ISBN
0-87893-106-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/books/NBK9876/
[2] Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th Edition, 2008, p228-245.
 
[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg

[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif
2,660,000,000 YBN
30 		72) Mitosis evolves in Eukaryote
cells.22 23

Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the chromosomes
are separated and the nucleus divides
resulting in two new nuclei, each of
which contains a complete and identical
copy of the parental chromosomes.
Mitosis is usually immediately followed
by cytokinesis, the division of the
cytoplasm.24 25

All eukaryote cells divide using the
same general plan.26 The cell division
cycle contains four stages, G1 ("first
gap"), S ("synthesis"), G2 ("second
gap"), and M ("mitotic phase".27 The
first three stages are called
"interphase" which alternates with the
mitotic phase. Interphase is a much
longer stage that often accounts for
90% of the cycle. During interphase the
cell grows and copies its chromosomes
in preparation for cell division. In
the mitotic phase, mitosis, division of
the nucleus is followed by
cytokinesis.28

Mitosis is thought to
have evolved from prokaryote binary
fission. That some proteins involved in
prokaryote binary fission are related
to eukaryotic proteins that function in
mitosis supports the idea that mitosis
evolved from prokaryote binary fission.
Possible intermediate stages can be
seen in some protists. In
dinoflagellates, replicated chromosomes
are attached to the nuclear envelope
which remains in one piece during cell
division. Microtubules from outside the
nucleus pass through the nucleus inside
cytoplasmic tunnels. The nucleus then
divides in a process similar to
prokaryote binary fission. In diatoms
and yeasts the nuclear envelope also
reamins together during cell division,
but inthese eukaryotes the microtubules
form a spindle within the nucleus.
Microtubules separate the chromosomes
and the nucleus splits into two nuclei.
Finally, in most eukaryotes including
plant and animal cells, the spindle
forms outside the nucleus, and the
nuclear envelope breaks down during
mitosis. Microtubules separate the
chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope
then forms again.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
2. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
4. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
5. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
7. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).: types
of mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
8. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
9. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
11. ^
Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes, Frieda
Reichsman, "DNA and Biotechnology",
2009, p195.
12. ^ Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes,
Frieda Reichsman, "DNA and
Biotechnology", 2009, p195.
13. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th Edition,
2008, p231.
14. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa
and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
15. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
16. ^ "mitosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
17. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
18. ^
Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes, Frieda
Reichsman, "DNA and Biotechnology",
2009, p195.
19. ^ Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes,
Frieda Reichsman, "DNA and
Biotechnology", 2009, p195.
20. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th Edition,
2008, p231.
21. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p237.
22. ^
Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).: types of mitosis,
evolution of mitosis.
23. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
24. ^ "mitosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
25. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
26. ^
Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes, Frieda
Reichsman, "DNA and Biotechnology",
2009, p195.
27. ^ Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes,
Frieda Reichsman, "DNA and
Biotechnology", 2009, p195.
28. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th Edition,
2008, p231.
29. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p237.
30. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -40mybn
guess}
 
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
2,650,000,000 YBN
7 		170)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004). (2600-2700my)
 
[1] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Myxococcus
xanthus bildet Fruchtkörper, ca.
50-fach vergrößert. English:
Starving colony of Myxococcus xanthus
forms fruiting bodies. Date
August 2006 Source own work
by Trance Gemini Author Trance
Gemini on
de.wikipedia.org Permission (Reusing
this file) GFDL Other versions from
de.wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:M._xan
thus_development.png 18:37, 22. Aug
2006 . . Trance Gemini . . 2088 x 1550
(4.365.260 Bytes) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/M._xanthus_developmen
t.png
2,640,000,000 YBN
61 62 		73) Eukaryote sex evolves. Two
identical cells fuse (isogamy)43 .
First diploid cell. First zygote.44 45
Increase in genetic variety.46
Haplontic life cycle.47 48

Eukaryotic sexual reproduction, which
is initially the fusion of two cells
and their nuclei, probably first occurs
in a single cell protist that usually
reproduces asexually by mitosis.49 Two
haploid eukaryote cells (cells with one
set of chromosomes each) merge and then
their nuclei merge (karyogamy) to form
the first diploid cell, a cell with two
sets of chromosomes, the first
zygote.50

This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which then may
immediately divide (both nucleus and
cytoplasm by a single division) back to
two haploid cells.

Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes (sequences that code
for proteins, or nucleic acids) that
might be lost with only a set of single
chromosomes.51 52

This first sexual eukaryote cell and
its descendants will have a life cycle
with two phases, alternating between
haploid and diploid.53

Conjugation, the second major kind of
sexual phenomenon, which occurs in the
eukaryotes ciliates, involves the
fusion of gametic nuclei instead of
independent gamete cells.54

"Syngamy" refers to gamete fusion and
"karyogamy" to nucleus fusion. In most
cases syngamy is immediately followed
by karyogamy, as a result, a fertilized
zygote is produced.55

Note that gender (anisogamy) probably
evolves later, initially sex is
probably the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy).56

Some protists have diploid nuclei with
two chromosomes of each type, such as
those found in the somatic cells of
most higher animals and plants, and
other protists have haploid nuclei with
unpaired chromosomes, such as those
found in the gametes of higher animals
and plants; polyploid nuclei with
several sets of chromosomes also occur
in protists. Diploid nuclei in protists
may undergo a process of meiosis to
produce haploid nuclei (a reduciton
division), but more commonly both
haploid and diploid nuclei divide by
mitosis to produce two child nuclei
like the original parent cell.57

Some of the genes related to the
process of meiosis occur in Giardia,
one of the most primitive living
protists, which is evidence that
meiosis may have evolved before the
evolution of all known eukaryotes.58

Now, two cells with different DNA can
mix providing more chance of variety
and mutation. Two chromosome sets
provides a backup copy of important
genes (sequences that code for
proteins, or nucleic acids) that might
be lost with only a set of single
chromosomes.

This first sexual eukaryote cell and
its descendants will have two phases, a
gamophase (haploid until syngamy
becoming diploid), and a zygophase
(from diploid until meiosis becoming
haploid).

For sexual species there are 3 basic
life cycles:
1) Haploid (Haplontic) life cycle:
(zygotic meiosis) Life as haploid
cells, cell division immediately after
creation of zygote from fusion. (All
fungi, Some green algae, Many
protozoa)
2) Diploid (Diplontic) life cycle:
(gametic meiosis) Instead of immediate
cell division, zygote reproduces by
mitosis. Haploid gametes never copy by
mitosis. (animals, some brown algae)
3)
Haplodiploid (Haplodiplontic,
Diplohaplontic, Diplobiontic) life
cycle: (sporic meiosis) Diploid cell
(sporocyte) meiosis results in two
haploid sporophytes (gamonts), not two
haploid gametes. These haploid cells
then differentiate? or mitosis? to form
haploid gametes. Haplodiplontic
organisms have alternation of
generations, one generation involves
diploid spore-producing single or
multicellular sporophytes (makes
spores) and the other generation
involves haploid single or
multicellular gamete-producing
multicellular gametophytes (makes
gametes). (Plants and many algae)

These first sexual cells are haplontic,
with zygotic meiosis; they reproduce
asexually through mitosis as haploid
cells, fusing to a diploid cell without
mitosis, then dividing back into
haploid cells.

An important evolutionary step evolves
here in that now two cells can
completely merge into one cell. This
merge not only includes their nuclei,
but also their cytoplasm (although the
DNA do not merge). Before now, as far
as has ever been observed, no two cells
have ever completely merged, although,
through conjugation some prokaryotes
have been observed to exchange DNA.

This is the beginning of the label
"gamete" for haploid cells that can
merge to form a diploid zygote. In
addition, the label "gametocyte" or
"gamont" is any polyploid cell that
divides (meiosis) into haploid gamete
cells which can merge to form a
zygote.


The alternation of meiosis and
fertilization is common to all
organisms that reproduce sexually, but
there are three main different types of
life cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic,
and diplontic. Haplontic organisms are
predominantly haploid; mitosis does not
occur in the diploid phase. In
Haplodiplontic organisms, mitosis
occurs in both the haploid and diploid
phases. Diplontic organisms are
predominantly diploid; mitosis does not
occur in the haploid phase. Most fungi
and some protists including some algae
have a "haplontic" life cycle where
after gametes fuse and form a diploid
zygote, meiosis occurs without a
multicellular diploid offspring
developing. Meiosis produces not
gametes but haploid cells that then
divide by mitosis and give rise to
either unicellular descendents or a
haploid multicellular adult organism.
The haploid oganism then carries out
further mitoses producing cells that
develop into gametes. The only diplod
stage found in these species is the
singe-celled zygote. Plants and some
algae have a second type of lifestyle
called "haplodiplontic" or "alternation
of generations". This type includes
both diploid and haploid stages that
are multicellular. The multicellular
diploid stage is called the
"sporophyte". Meiosis in the sporophyte
produces haploid cells called spores.
Unlike a gamete, a haploid spore
doesn't fuse with another cell but
divides mitotically, generating a
multicellular haploid stage called the
gametophyte. Cells of the gametophyte
give rise to gametes by mitosis. Fusion
of two haploid gametes at
fertilizations results in a diploid
zygote, which develops into the next
sporophyte generation. A third type of
sexual life cycle, "diplontic", occurs
in animals in which gametes are the
only haploid cells. Meiosis occurs in
germ cells producing haploid gametes
that no other cell division prior to
fertilization. After fertilization the
diploid zygote divides by mitosis
producing a multicellular organism that
is diploid.59 60
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
2. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
4. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
5. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
7. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela S. Camp,
"Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
8. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
9. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
11. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan
AP biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
12. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
14. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
15. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela S. Camp,
"Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
16. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
17. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
19. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
20. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
21. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan AP
biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
22. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
23. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
24. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
25. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela S. Camp,
"Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p626.
27. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela
S. Camp, "Biology", Third Edition,
1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
28. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
29. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
30. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
31. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
32. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
33. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan AP
biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
34. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
35. ^ Charles W. Fox, Daphne J.
Fairbair, "Evolutionary ecology:
concepts and case studies", 2001,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_dCrIwP85vkC&pg=PA155
36. ^ Janet Louise Leonard, Alex
Córdoba-Aguilar, "The evolution of
primary sexual characters in animals",
2010, p15-16.
37. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela S. Camp,
"Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
38. ^ "protist." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/480085/protist>.
39. ^ Peter Calow, "The encyclopedia of
ecology & environmental management",
1998,
p680. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LxE9RFpgJcC&pg=PA680
40. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p626.
41. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008,
p252.
42. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
43. ^ Karen Arms,
Pamela S. Camp, "Biology", Third
Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
44. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
45. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
46. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
47. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
48. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
49. ^ Charles W. Fox, Daphne J.
Fairbair, "Evolutionary ecology:
concepts and case studies", 2001,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_dCrIwP85vkC&pg=PA155
50. ^ Janet Louise Leonard, Alex
Córdoba-Aguilar, "The evolution of
primary sexual characters in animals",
2010, p15-16.
51. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan
AP biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
52. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
53. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
54. ^
"protist." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 17 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/480085/protist>.
55. ^ Peter Calow, "The encyclopedia of
ecology & environmental management",
1998,
p680. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LxE9RFpgJcC&pg=PA680
56. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p626.
57. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", 1989,
p70-71.
58. ^ Marilee A. Ramesh, Shehre-Banoo
Malik, John M. Logsdon Jr., A
Phylogenomic Inventory of Meiotic
Genes: Evidence for Sex in Giardia and
an Early Eukaryotic Origin of Meiosis,
Current Biology, Volume 15, Issue 2, 26
January 2005, Pages 185-191, ISSN
0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
96098220500028X)
59. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
60. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
61. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong
Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang,
Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A
genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -60mybn
guess)(was 2710mybn }
62. ^ estimate
based on diplomonads having sex repro,
and origin of euk being (is now)
{Nucleus 2700 -60mybn guess)(was
2710mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] J. William Schopf, "Major
Events in the History of Life",
(Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 1992).p57 (was)
 
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Zygotic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.png
2,640,000,000 YBN
28 		206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis:
2 haploid cells or two pronuclei fuse
into a diploid cell and a divide into 2
haploid cells).19 20

Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis21 , is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.22

Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and meiosis with only one cell
division is rare.23 24 Some view
one-divisional meiosis as having an
independent and secondary origin25
while others view one-step meiosis as
the primitive meiotic process26 .

Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.27

Mitosis and one-step meiosis are the
same with the only exception that: in
meiosis two haploid cells join (or 2
pronuclei fuse) before cell division,
but in mitosis the DNA is duplicated
internally in the nucleus before cell
division.

Meiosis can be one step (one fusion and
then one cell division) or two step
(fusion, DNA duplication and then two
divisions). Probably one step meiosis
evolved first and two step meiosis
later. The Protists Pyrsonympha and
Dinenympha have up to a four step
meiosis.

Because meiosis is similar and complex
in detail in all species that do
meiosis, people think that meiosis only
evolved once, and was inherited by all
species that do meiosis.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
6. ^ "meiosis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
7. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
8. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
9. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
10. ^ "meiosis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p627.
12. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
13. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
14. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
15. ^
"meiosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
16. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989), p72.
17. ^ Igor B.
Raikov, Meiosis in protists: Recent
advances and persisting problems,
European Journal of Protistology,
Volume 31, Issue 1, 15 March 1995,
Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p627.
19. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
20. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
21. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
22. ^
"meiosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
23. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989), p72.
24. ^ Igor B.
Raikov, Meiosis in protists: Recent
advances and persisting problems,
European Journal of Protistology,
Volume 31, Issue 1, 15 March 1995,
Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
25. ^ Igor B. Raikov, Meiosis in
protists: Recent advances and
persisting problems, European Journal
of Protistology, Volume 31, Issue 1, 15
March 1995, Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
26. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989), p72.
27. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestors Tail", 2004,
p627.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
 
[1] [t One-step zygotic meiosis (also
known as gametic meiosis)- gametes fuse
into 2n and then divide back into
1n] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Scan black/white/grey
outline Paint Shop Pro Reduce size
(by 20%) Brightness/contrast to get
rid of artifacts Copy-&-paste the
multicellular balls Fill-in
colours Labelling Re-fix details by
going back to Layer 1. Based on
Freeman & Worth's Biology of Plants (p.
171). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/23/Gametic_meiosis.png

[2] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
2,620,000,000 YBN
1 		210)
FOOTNOTES
S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -80mybn
guess}
  
2,610,000,000 YBN
25 		296)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^
"anisogamy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
5. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
6. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
7. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
8. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
10. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
11. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
12. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
13. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
15. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
16. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
19. ^
"anisogamy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
20. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
21. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
22. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", 2004, p626.
25. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar,
Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and
Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the
origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -90mybn
guess}
 
[1] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png

[2] Mixing of: Fig. 7. Isogamous
(left, Gymnodinium nolleri) and
anisogamous (right, Alexandrium
tamutum) gamete pairs. © Rosa I.
Figueroa and Fig. 8. Fusing gamete
pair in Gymnodinium catenatum (left)
and its nuclei in fusion process. ©
Rosa I. Figueroa COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tolweb.org/tree/ToLimages
/dinolifecyclefig.7.250a.jpg
2,590,000,000 YBN
9 		298) Sex between a flagellated gamete
and an unflagellated gamete evolves in
protists (oogamy {OoGomE7 }, a form of
anisogamy).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
6. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
8. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -110mybn
guess}
  
2,580,000,000 YBN
1 		300) Only a few species exhibit this
property (e.g. the Oxymonad Notilla,
Diatoms, Dasicladales {Acetabularia},
in many foraminiferans, and in
gregarines).

Gamontogamy may have evolved into
two-step meiosis.

The vast majority of eukaryotes living
now that reproduce sexually fuse
haploid cells. All "gametes" are
haploid cells that can merge, diploid
cells that can merge are gamonts.
Gamonts (Meiocytes) are cells that
produce gametes.

In theory this should be very similar
if not exactly like haploid cell
fusion, so perhaps this is not a major
evolutionary step.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989). p76,p79
 
[1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF
2,570,000,000 YBN
11 		295) Two-step meiosis (diploid DNA
copies and then the cell divides twice
into four haploid cells).8

Meiosis and mitosis are similar in
being nucleus and cell division, but
are different.
Differences between
meiosis and mitosis:
1) At least one crossover
per homologous pair happens in 2 step
meiosis but crossover usually does not
happen in mitosis. (explain crossover9
)
2) Two step meiosis involves cell
divisions that happen one after the
other, where the cell division of
mitosis only happens after one DNA
duplication (there are never 2 mitosis
divisions together without a DNA
duplication between them to my
knowledge).

The cell division in two step meiosis
that involves a separation of sister
chromatids (not homologous chromosome
pairs) is basically identical to
mitosis. For two step meiosis, this is
the second nucleus and cell division.

Later multistep meiosis evolves, where
there may be as many as 4 divisions
(for example in the protists
Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha).

(Determine if it can be said that
meiosis is simply a division after the
fusion of two nuclei while mitosis is a
division after an internucleus DNA
copy. Clearly the duplication of two
complete nuclei within a single
Eukaryote cell must include the inte
r-nucleus copying of DNA - and is
probably similar to a typical
prokaryote cell division. This process
just goes further in duplicating the
nuclear membrane too. Then the division
after the fusion of two nuclei must be
basically the same as a mitosis
division. So really, in this view, the
unique processes are: DNA, nucleus,
and/or cell copy, nucleus and/or cell
fusion, nucleus and/or cell division.10
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989) p71.
5. ^ Igor B.
Raikov, Meiosis in protists: Recent
advances and persisting problems,
European Journal of Protistology,
Volume 31, Issue 1, 15 March 1995,
Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
6. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar,
Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and
Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the
origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -130mybn
guess}
 
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg

[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
2,558,000,000 YBN
6 		171) The Eubacteria phylum
"Deinococcus-Thermus" evoles now
(includes Thermus Aquaticus {used in
PCR}, Deinococcus radiodurans {can
survive long exposure to radiation}).5


The Deinococcus-Thermus are a small
group of bacteria comprised of cocci
highly resistant to environmental
hazards. There are two main groups. The
Deinococcales include a single genus,
Deinococcus, with several species that
are resistant to radiation; they have
become famous for their ability to eat
nuclear waste and other toxic
materials, survive in the vacuum of
space and survive extremes of heat and
cold. The Thermales include several
genera resistant to heat. Thermus
aquaticus was important in the
development of the polymerase chain
reaction where repeated cycles of
heating DNA to near boiling make it
advantageous to use a thermo-stable DNA
polymerase enzyme. These bacteria have
thick cell walls that give them
gram-positive stains, but they include
a second membrane and so are closer in
structure to those of gram-negative
bacteria.

PHYLUM Deinococcus-Thermus
CLASS Deinococci
ORDER Deinococcales
ORDER Thermales
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
 
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg

[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
14 15 		172)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
4. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
7. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
10. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
13. ^ Jékely,
Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis."
Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
364 (October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

14. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC533871/ {2558 mybn}
15. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
{2558 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Journal of Molecular
Evolution Publisher: Springer-Verlag
New York ISSN: 0022-2844 (Paper)
1432-1432 (Online) Issue: Volume 42,
Number 2 Date: February 1996 Pages:
194 - 200
[4] Phylogenetic Relationships of
Nonaxenic Filamentous Cyanobacterial
Strains Based on 16S rRNA Sequence
Analysis jme_42_2_1996.pdf
[5]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacter
ia
[6] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
 
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg

[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
6 		315) PHYLUM Chloroflexi
CLASS
Chloroflexi
CLASS Thermomicrobia5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ "Chloroflexi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroflexi

6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
[2] Tree of Life
http://tolweb.org/tree/
 
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
2,500,000,000 YBN
52) End of the Archean and start of the
Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or ProTReZOiK16
17 } Eon.18

The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Proterozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
6. ^
"Proterozoic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
9. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
11. ^
"Proterozoic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
14. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
15. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
16. ^
"Proterozoic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
18. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
19. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
20. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
2,500,000,000 YBN
56) Banded Iron Formation starts to
appear in many places.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
greenspirit.uk
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^
greenspirit.uk
 
[1] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg

[2] This rock resulted from
accumulations of ferrous Iron (Fe+2) in
oceans and lakes (which were more green
in color than today; ferrous iron can
produce that color as, for example, in
a Coca-Cola glass bottle). The Iron
readily combined with any available
oxygen, so that the latter was always
destined to be caught up in the iron
precipitates (Fe2O3) and thus didn't
remain in the atmosphere. While BIF is
a hallmark of sedimentary rock
formations during this extended period,
other rocks also formed (shales;
sandstones) but carbonates (limestones)
were much less commmon. Starting about
2.3 billion years ago, oxygen levels
and other factors led to common
production of ferric oxides (Hematite)
that made prominent red beds
periodically to the present. One
variety includes alternating chert
layers, some rich in iron PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
2929573315_7bb69aeebb.jpg
2,400,000,000 YBN
59)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
 
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
2,400,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		316) (Determine if this is just an
example of a cell forming a spore.
Clearly forming a spore can be viewed
as cell differentiation. But clearly, a
cell changes form in small ways all the
time.5 )

Which cell differentiation is first is
unknown, between cells that form
spores, or cysts, and the cell
differentiation that is observed in
cyanobacterial filamentous cells.

Heterocysts are specialized
nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some
filamentous cyanobacteria, such as
Nostoc punctiforme and Anabaena
sperica, during nitrogen starvation.
They fix nitrogen from dinitrogen (N2)
in the air using the enzyme
nitrogenase, in order to provide the
cells in the filament with nitrogen for
biosynthesis. Nitrogenase is
inactivated by oxygen, so the
heterocyst must create a microanaerobic
environment. The heterocysts' unique
structure and physiology requires a
global change in gene expression. For
example, heterocysts:

* produce three additional cell
walls, including one of glycolipid that
forms a hydrophobic barrier to oxygen
*
produce nitrogenase and other proteins
involved in nitrogen fixation
* degrade
photosystem II, which produces oxygen
* up
regulate glycolytic enzymes, which use
up oxygen and provide energy for
nitrogenase
* produce proteins that scavenge
any remaining oxygen

Cyanobacteria usually obtain a fixed
carbon (carbohydrate) by
photosynthesis. The lack of photosystem
II prevents heterocysts from
photosynthesising, so the vegetative
cells provide them with carbohydrates,
which is thought to be sucrose. The
fixed carbon and nitrogen sources are
exchanged though channels between the
cells in the filament. Heterocysts
maintain photosystem I, allowing them
to generate ATP by cyclic
photophosphorylation.

Single heterocysts develop about every
9-15 cells, producing a one-dimensional
pattern along the filament. The
interval between heterocysts remains
approximately constant even though the
cells in the filament are dividing. The
bacterial filament can be seen as a
multicellular organism with two
distinct yet interdependent cell types.
Such behaviour is highly unusual in
prokaryotes and may have been the first
example of multicellular patterning in
evolution. Once a heterocyst has
formed, it cannot revert to a
vegetative cell, so this
differentiation can be seen as a form
of apoptosis. Certain
heterocyst-forming bacteria can
differentiate into spore-like cells
called akinetes or motile cells called
hormogonia, making them the most
phenotyptically versatile of all
prokaryotes.

The mechanism of controlling
heterocysts is thought to involve the
diffusion of an inhibitor of
differentiation called PatS. Heterocyst
formation is inhibited in the presence
of a fixed nitrogen source, such as
ammonium or nitrate. The bacteria may
also enter a symbiotic relationship
with certain plants. In such a
relationship, the bacteria do not
respond to the availability of
nitrogen, but to signals produced by
the plant. Up to 60% of the cells can
become heterocysts, providing fixed
nitrogen to the plant in return for
fixed carbon.

The cyanobacteria that form heterocysts
are divided into the orders Nostocales
and Stigonematales, which form simple
and branching filaments respectively.
Together they form a monophyletic
group, with very low genetic
variability.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Heterocyst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterocyst
7. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
8. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
9. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins
of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
 
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg

[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
2,400,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		322) Nitrogen fixation. Cells can make
nitrogen compounds like ammonia from
Nitrogen gas.14

Without bacteria that convert N2 into
nitrogen compounds, the supply of
nitrogen necessary for much of life
would be seriously limited and would
drastically slow evolution on earth.

Nitrogen
fixation is the process by which
nitrogen is taken from its relatively
inert molecular form (N2) in the
atmosphere and converted into nitrogen
compounds useful for other chemical
processes (such as, notably, ammonia,
nitrate and nitrogen dioxide).15

Nitrogen fixation is performed
naturally by a number of different
prokaryotes, including bacteria, and
actinobacteria certain types of
anaerobic bacteria. Many higher plants,
and some animals (termites), have
formed associations with these
microorganisms.16

The best-known are legumes (such as
clover, beans, alfalfa and peanuts,)
which contain symbiotic bacteria called
rhizobia within nodules in their root
systems, producing nitrogen compounds
that help the plant to grow and compete
with other plants. When the plant dies,
the nitrogen helps to fertilize the
soil. The great majority of legumes
have this association, but a few genera
(e.g., Styphnolobium) do not. 17
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
5. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
6. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
7. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
8. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
9. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
10. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
11. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
12. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
13. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
14. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
15. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
16. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
17. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
18. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
19. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
20. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
21. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract
West Africa18  
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
2,335,000,000 YBN
5 		290)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
5. ^ Ted Huntington guess
 
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg

[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
2,330,000,000 YBN
198)
 
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg

[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
2,325,000,000 YBN
199) Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus evolves
(packages proteins and lipids into
vesicles for delivery to targeted
destinations).7

A vesicle is a closed structure, found
only in eukaryotic cells, that is
completely surrounded by a membrane
but, unlike a vacuole, contains
material that is not in the liquid
state.8

(Is this the only form of cellular
digestion?9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
2. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
3. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
4. ^ "Vesicle", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights reserved.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesicle
5. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
6. ^ "Vesicle", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights reserved.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesicle
7. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
8. ^ "Vesicle", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights reserved.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesicle
9. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] "Endosome." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endosome
 
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg

[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
2,300,000,000 YBN
47) Evidence of free oxygen
accumulating in the air of Earth for
the first time, most recent uraninite
{YRANninIT7 }, a mineral that cannot
exist for much time if exposed to
oxygen.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=uranin
ite&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=uranin
ite&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=uranin
ite&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=uranin
ite&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
  
2,300,000,000 YBN
48) The oldest "Red Beds", iron oxide
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
 
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html

[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
2,156,000,000 YBN
2 		150)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
2,000,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		63) A parasitic bacterium, closely
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryote cell and over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves, where
the Rickettsia forms the mitochondria.


Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelle found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells where
cellular respiration occurs and most of
the ATP in a eukaryote cell is
produced. Mitochondria are typically
round to oval in shape and range in
size from 0.5 to 10 μm. The number of
mitochondria per cell varies widely;
for example, in humans, erythrocytes
(red blood cells) do not contain any
mitochondria, whereas liver cells and
muscle cells may contain hundreds or
even thousands. Mitochondria are unlike
other cellular organelles in that they
have two distinct membranes and a
unique genome and reproduce by binary
fission; these features indicate that
mitochondria share an evolutionary past
with prokaryotes.12

In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform
the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation using oxygen to
breakdown pyruvagte from glycolysis
into CO2 and H2O, and provide up 36 ATP
molecules.13

This presumes that all known living
eukaryotes descend from a eukaryote
that had mitochondria, and that
eukaryotes without mitochondria, like
the metamonada, lost their mitochondria
secondarily.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
4. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p100.
6. ^
"mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
7. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p162,166,176.
8. ^
http://comenius.susqu.edu/BI/202/Protist
s/EUKARYA-DOMAIN.htm
9. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008,
p162,166,176.
11. ^
http://comenius.susqu.edu/BI/202/Protist
s/EUKARYA-DOMAIN.htm
12. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008,
p162,166,176.
14. ^
http://comenius.susqu.edu/BI/202/Protist
s/EUKARYA-DOMAIN.htm
15. ^ B. Franz Lang, Michael W. Gray,
and Gertraud Burger, "Mitochondrial
Genome Evolution and the Origin of
Eukaryotes", Annu. Rev. Genet., V33,
p351-397, p385. 1999. {2 BYBN}
16. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {average of)
2230-1840 bybn} {earliest of) 2350-1640
bybn} {average of 1995my) 2350-1640
mybn}
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {1.8 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael W. Gray, et al,
"Genome structure and gene content in
protist mitochondrial DNAs", Nucl.
Acids Res. (1998) 26(4): 865-878
doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full
 
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif

[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
1,982,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 		99)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
2. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
6. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
8. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Thomas R. Bürglin,
"Analysis of TALE superclass homeobox
genes (MEIS, PBC, KNOX, Iroquois, TGIF)
reveals a novel domain conserved
between plants and animals", Nucl.
Acids Res. (1997) 25(21): 4173-4180
doi:10.1093/nar/25.21.4173
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
25/21/4173.abstract
10. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
12. ^ William Bateson,
"Materials for the study of
variation: treated with especial
regard to discontinuity in the origin
of species", Macmillan and co., 1894
http://books.google.com/books?id=_HIZA
AAAYAAJ
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
14. ^ Halder, G, P
Callaerts, and WJ Gehring. “Induction
of ectopic eyes by targeted expression
of the eyeless gene in Drosophila.”
Science 267.5205 (1995) : 1788 -1792.
http://www.sciencemag.org/citmgr?gca=s
ci;267/5205/1788
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p399.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Jongmin
Nam, Claude W. dePamphilis, Hong Ma,
and Masatoshi Nei, "Antiquity and
Evolution of the MADS-Box Gene Family
Controlling Flower Development in
Plants", Mol Biol Evol (2003) 20(9):
1435-1447 first published online May
30, 2003 doi:10.1093/molbev/msg152
http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/
20/9/1435.abstract {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
18. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
19. ^ Ted Huntington. {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004) {same as sponge for Hox
800 mybn}
 
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png

[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
1,874,000,000 YBN
33 		61)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
2. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
3. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
4. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
5. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
6. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
7. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
8. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
9. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
10. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
11. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
12. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
13. ^ Kumar S, "Megafossils from the
Mesoproterozoic Rohtas Formation (the
Vindhyan Supergroup), Katni area,
Central India." Precambrian Research.
v72, 1995, 171–184.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0301926894000856
14. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
15. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
16. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
17. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
18. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
19. ^ Schneider
et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E.
Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz and
M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks
and syndepositional iron formations,
Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
20. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
21. ^ Walter, M. R, Du, R. & Horodyski,
R. J., "Coiled carbonaceous megafossils
from the Middle Proterozoic of Jixian
(Tianjin) and Montana.", Am. J. Sei.
290A, 1990,
133-148. http://earth.geology.yale.edu/
~ajs/1990/11.1990.06SpecialWalter.pdf {
Walter_Rulin_Horodyski_1990.pdf}
22. ^ Kumar, "Megafossils from the
Mesoproterozoic Rohtas Formation",
Precambrian Research, V72, 1995,
p171-184. {Kumar_Grypania_19940907_Gryp
ania_1000mybn.pdf}
23. ^ Kumar S, "Megafossils from the
Mesoproterozoic Rohtas Formation (the
Vindhyan Supergroup), Katni area,
Central India." Precambrian Research.
v72, 1995, 171–184.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0301926894000856
24. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361:1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/361/1
470/1023.full
25. ^ Kumar, "Megafossils from the
Mesoproterozoic Rohtas Formation",
Precambrian Research, V72, 1995,
p171-184. {Kumar_Grypania_19940907_Gryp
ania_1000mybn.pdf}
26. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux,
D Hewitt, and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic
organisms in Proterozoic oceans", Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. B June 29, 2006
361:1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/361/1
470/1023.full
29. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361:1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/361/1
470/1023.full
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992.
T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar, Megascopic
eukaryotic algae from the
2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
32. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
33. ^ Schneider
et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E.
Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz and
M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks
and syndepositional iron formations,
Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn}
(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan, USA31
32  
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm

[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
1,870,000,000 YBN
2 		151)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
1,800,000,000 YBN
46) End of the Banded Iron Formation.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
 
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
1,700,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 		6279) Earliest possible multicellular
brown algae (and Stramenopiles)
fossil.7 These fossils help support a
limit for multicellular algal fossil
(metaphyta) of at least 1700 million
years ago.8

If eukaryote these would be the
earliest eukaryote fossils with both
filamentous multicellularity and cell
differentiation and also the earliest
algae fossil with leaf structures.9

Knoll et al write in 2006 that:
"Examination of Tuanshanzi structures
in outcrop by one of us (A. H. Knoll)
suggests that the features in question
can alternatively be interpreted as
rare, fortuitously shaped fragments
deposited among many irregular mat
shards.".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
2. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen
Huineng, "Megascopic Multicellular
Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
5. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen
Huineng, "Megascopic Multicellular
Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
8. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D
Hewitt, and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic
organisms in Proterozoic oceans", Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. B June 29, 2006
361:1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/361/1
470/1023.full
11. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
12. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
{Late Ordovician) 461-444 mybn}
13. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {Late Ordovician) 461-444 mybn}
14. ^
Wayne L. Fry, An algal flora from the
upper ordovician of the Lake Winnipeg
region, Manitoba, Canada, Review of
Palaeobotany and Palynology, Volume 39,
Issues 3-4, August 1983, Pages 313-341,
ISSN 0034-6667,
10.1016/0034-6667(83)90018-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/0034666783900180) {Fry_Wayne_19821108.
pdf} {Late Ordovician) 461-444 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/b
rowns/phaeofr.html
(Tuanshanzi Formation) Jixian Area,
North China11  
[1] Figure 4 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330

[2] Figure 3 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330
1,584,000,000 YBN
2 		152)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
1,570,000,000 YBN
14 15 		197)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T,
"The root of the eukaryote tree
pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13,
R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
2. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
4. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
5. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
7. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
8. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T,
"The root of the eukaryote tree
pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13,
R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
12. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
13. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
14. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{problem with 1250 my bangia red algae
fossils)1126 mybn}
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1570 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith, Ema
E.-Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", J Mol Evol
(2003) 56:540 563
[2] J Mol Evol (2003)
56:540 563 Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution Thomas
Cavalier-Smith, Ema E.-Y. Chao
 
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9

[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED

source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
1,520,000,000 YBN
71 72 73 74 75 		202) Ribosomal RNA shows the Protist
Phylum Amoebozoa (also called
Ramicristates) which includes amoeba
and slime molds evolving now.

The Amoebozoa are a major group of
amoeboid protozoa, including the
majority that move by means of internal
cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are
characteristically blunt and
finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are
unicellular, and are common in soils
and aquatic habitats, with some found
as symbiotes of other organisms,
including several pathogens. The
Amoebozoa also include the slime
moulds, multinucleate or multicellular
forms that produce spores and are
usually visible to the unaided eye. 11


Mycetozoa are the slime molds.
4. Plasmodial
Slime Molds 12
a.
Plasmodial slime molds exist as a
plasmodium. (the earlier evolved
acrasid cellular slime molds exist as
individual amoeboid cells.)
b. This
diploid multinucleated cytoplasmic mass
creeps along, phagocytizing decaying
plant material.
c. Fan-shaped
plasmodium contains tubules of
concentrated cytoplasm in which
liquefied cytoplasm streams.
d.
Under unfavorable environmental
conditions (e.g., drought), the
plasmodium develops many sporangia

that produce spores by meiosis.
e.
When mature, spores are released and
survive until more favorable
environmental conditions return;

then each releases a haploid
flagellated cell or an amoeboid cell.

f. Two flagellated or amoeboid
cells fuse to form diploid zygote that
produces a multi-nucleated plasmodium.
13

Nuclear division in giant amoebas
(Peolobiont/Amoebozoa) is neither
mitosis nor binary fission, but
incorporates aspects of both (Fig.
3-7). Chromosomes are attached
permanently to the nuclear membrane by
their centromeres (MTOCs, microtubule
organizing centers), and the nuclear
membrane remains intact throughout
division. After DNA duplication
produces two chromatids, the point of
attachment, the MTOC duplicates or
divides, and microtubules are assembled
between the two resulting MTOCs.
Elongating microtubules form something
akin to a spindle within the nuclear
membrane that pushes the daughter
chromosomes apart and elongate the
membrane-bounded nucleus until it blebs
in half in something akin to binary
fission. Simple assembly of
microtubules accomplishes the
separation of daughter genomes in this
simple nuclear division. In typical
eukaryotic mitosis, the separation of
daughter chromosomes is accomplished by
a dual action, the disassembly of
spindle fibers connecting the daughter
chromosome to the polar MTOC, and
assembly of spindle fibers running pole
to pole. 14

Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema E. -Y.
Chao write: "Amoebozoa are a key
protozoan phylum because of the
possibility that they are ancestrally
uniciliate and unicentriolar
(Cavalier-Smith 2000a,b); present data
on the DHFR-TS gene fusion leaves open
the possibility that they might be the
earliest-diverging eukaryotes
(Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith 2002),
but they may be evolutionarily closer
to bikonts or even opisthokonts.
Amoebozoa comprise two subphyla
(Cavalier-Smith 1998a): Lobosa,
classical aerobic amoebae with broad
("lobose") pseudopods (including the
testate Arcellinida), and Conosa (slime
molds {Mycetozoa, e.g., Dictyostelium}
and amitochondrial-often
uniciliate-archamaebae {entamoebae,
mastigamoebae}). Contrary to early
analyses (Sogin 1991; Cavalier-Smith
1993a), there is no reason to regard
Amoebozoa as polyphyletic; the defects
of those classical uncorrected rRNA
trees are shown by trees using 123
proteins that robustly establish the
monophyly of both Archamoebae and
Conosa (Bapteste et al. 2002). Unless
the tree's root is within Conosa,
Dictyostelium and Entamoeba must have
evolved independently from aerobic
flagellates by ciliary losses. A recent
mitochondrial gene tree based on
concatenating six different proteins
grouped Dictyostelium with Physarum
(99% support) and both Mycetozoa as
sisters to Acanthamoeba (99% support),
thus providing strong evidence for the
monophyly of Mycetozoa and the grouping
of Lobosa and Conosa as Amoebozoa
(Forget et al. 2002)-the same tree also
strongly supports the idea based on
morphology that Allomyces should be
excluded from Chytridiomycetes (in the
separate class Allomycetes) and is
phylogenetically closer to zygomycetes
and higher fungi (Cavalier-Smith 1998a,
2000c). Furthermore, the derived gene
fusion between two cytochrome oxidase
genes, coxI and coxII (Lang et al.
1999), strongly supports the holophyly
of Mycetozoa. Since Archamoebae
secondarily lost mitochondria, the root
cannot lie among them either-although
anaerobiosis in Archamoebae is derived,
it is unjustified to conclude from this
that their simple ciliary root
organization, which was a key reason
for considering them early eukaryotes
(Cavalier-Smith 1991c), is also
secondarily derived (Edgcomb et al.
2002). Thus the root of the eukaryote
tree cannot lie within the Conosa.

As Mycetozoa and Archamoebae have very
long-branch rRNA sequences, Conosa were
excluded from the analysis in Fig. 1,
which includes only Lobosa. Although
the monophyly of Acanthamoebida (99%)
and of Euamoebida (85%) is well
supported, the basal branching of the
Lobosa is so poorly resolved that the
monophyly of Lobosa might appear open
to question. The four lobosan lineages
apparently diverged early. However, in
the 279- and 227-species trees, which
included Conosa, anaeromonads did not
intrude into the Amoebozoa as they do
in Fig. 1, and Amoebozoa were
monophyletic (low support) except for
the exclusion of M. invertens. M.
invertens is another wandering branch,
which in some taxon sample/methods
groups very weakly with other
Amoebozoa, but more often ends up in a
different place in each tree! We concur
with the judgment of Milyutina et al.
(2001)Edgcomb et al. (2002) that it
should not be regarded as a pelobiont
or Archamoeba, but as a lobosan that
independently became an anaerobe with
degenerate mitochondria. Its tendency
to drift around the tree, coupled with
its short branch, suggests that it may
be a particularly early-diverging
amoebozoan lineage. If so, its
unicentriolar condition would give
added support to the idea that
Amoebozoa are ancestrally uniciliate,
if it could be shown that Amoebozoa are
either holophyletic or not at the base
of the tree.

Most, if not all, amoebae evolved from
amoeboid zooflagellates by multiple
ciliary losses (Cavalier-Smith 2000a).
As the uniciliate condition is
widespread within Amoebozoa
(Cavalier-Smith 2000a, 2002b), it may
be their ancestral condition; if so,
ordinary nonciliate amoebozoan amoebae
arose several times independently.
Evolution of amoebae from
zooflagellates by ciliary loss also
occurred separately in Choanozoa to
produce Nuclearia and in several bikont
groups, notably Percolozoa
(heterolobosean amoebae, e.g.,
Vahlkampfia) and Cercozoa. However, we
cannot currently exclude the
possibility that the eukaryote tree is
rooted within the lobosan Amoebozoa, in
which case one of its nonciliate
lineages (Euamoebida or Vanellidae)
might be primitively nonciliate and the
earliest-diverging eukaryotic lineage.
However, as the idea that the nucleus
and a single centriole and cilium
coevolved in the ancestral eukaryote
(Cavalier-Smith 1987a) retains its
theoretical merits, we think it more
likely that all Amoebozoa are derived
from a uniciliate ancestor and that
crown Amoebozoa are a clade.".15

Amoebozoa vary greatly in size. Many
are only 10-20 μm in size, but they
also include many of the larger
protozoa. The famous species Amoeba
proteus may reach 800 μm in length,
and partly on account of its size is
often studied as a representative cell.
Multinucleate amoebae like Chaos and
Pelomyxa may be several millimetres in
length, and some slime moulds cover
several square feet. 16

The cell is typically divided into a
granular central mass, called
endoplasm, and a clear outer layer,
called ectoplasm. During locomotion the
endoplasm flows forwards and the
ectoplasm runs backwards along the
outside of the cell. Many amoebae move
with a definite anterior and posterior;
in essence the cell functions as a
single pseudopod. They usually produce
numerous clear projections called
subpseudopodia (or determinate
pseudopodia), which have a defined
length and are not directly involved in
locomotion. 17

Other amoebozoans may form multiple
indeterminate pseudopodia, which are
more or less tubular and are mostly
filled with granular endoplasm. The
cell mass flows into a leading
pseudopod, and the others ultimately
retract unless it changes direction.
Subpseudopodia are usually absent. In
addition to a few naked forms like
Amoeba and Chaos, this includes most
amoebae that produce shells. These may
be composed of organic materials, as in
Arcella, or of collected particles
cemented together, as in Difflugia,
with a single opening through which the
pseudopodia emerge. 18

The primary mode of nutrition is by
phagocytosis: the cell surrounds
potential food particles, sealing them
into vacuoles where the may be digested
and absorbed. Some amoebae have a
posterior bulb called a uroid, which
may serve to accumulate waste,
periodically detaching from the rest of
the cell. When food is scarce, most
species can form cysts, which may be
carried aerially and introduce them to
new environments. In slime moulds,
these structures are called spores, and
form on stalked structures called
fruiting bodies or sporangia. 19

Most Amoebozoa lack flagella and more
generally do not form
microtubule-supported structures except
during mitosis. However, flagella occur
among the pelobionts, and many slime
moulds produce biflagellate gametes.
The flagella is generally anchored by a
cone of microtubules, suggesting a
close relationship to the opisthokonts.
The mitochondria characteristically
have branching tubular cristae, but
have been lost among pelobionts and the
parasitic entamoebids, collectively
referred to as archamoebae based on the
earlier assumption that the absence was
primitive. 20

Traditionally all amoebae with lobose
pseudopods were treated together as the
Lobosea, placed with other amoeboids in
the phylum Sarcodina or Rhizopoda, but
these were considered to be unnatural
groups. Structural and genetic studies
identified several independent groups:
the percolozoans, pelobionts, and
entamoebids. In phylogenies based on
rRNA their representatives were
separate from other amoebae, and
appeared to diverge near the base of
eukaryotic evolution, as did most slime
molds. 21

However, revised trees by
Cavalier-Smith and Chao in 1996
suggested that the remaining lobosans
do form a monophyletic group, and that
the archamoebae and Mycetozoa are
closely related to it, although the
percolozoans are not. Subsequently they
emended (to improve by editing22 ) the
older phylum Amoebozoa to refer to this
supergroup. Studies based on other
genes have provided strong support for
the unity of this group. Patterson
treated most with the testate filose
amoebae as the ramicristates, based on
mitochondrial similarities, but the
latter are now removed to the Cercozoa.
23

Amoebae are difficult to classify, and
relationships within the phylum remain
confused. Originally it was divided
into the subphyla Conosa, comprising
the archamoebae and Mycetozoa, and
Lobosa, including the more typical
lobose amoebae. Molecular phylogenies
provide some support for this division
if the Lobosa are understood to be
paraphyletic. They also suggest the
morphological families of naked
lobosans may correspond at least partly
to natural groups: 24

* Leptomyxida
* Amoebidae
* Hartmannellidae
* Paramoebidae
*
Vannellidae
* Vexilliferidae
* Acanthamoebidae
* Stereomyxidae 25

However, many amoebae have not yet been
studied via molecular techniques,
including all those that produce shells
(Arcellinida). 26

PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913 emend.)
27 28 Cavalier-Smith, 1998 29

CLASS Breviatea 30
CLASS
Variosea 31
CLASS Phalansterea
(T. Cavalier-Smith, 2000) 32

SUBPHYLUM Lobosa (Carpenter, 1861)
Cavalier-Smith, 1997 33 (lobose
amoebas)
CLASS Amoebaea 34
CLASS
Testacealobosea 35 (includes shelled
lobosid amebas {testate amoebas})
CLASS
Holomastigea T. Cavalier-Smith, 1997
("1996-1997") 36
SUBPHYLUM Conosa
(Cavalier-Smith, 1998) 37

INTRAPHYLUM Mycetozoa (De Bary, 1859)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 38 (Slime Molds)

SUPERCLASS Eumyxa (Cavalier-Smith,
1993) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Protostelea (C.J. Alexopoulos & C.W.
Mims, 1979 orthog. emend.) 39

CLASS Myxogastrea (E.M. Fries, 1829
stat. nov. J. Feltgen, 1889 orthog.
emend.) 40 (plasmodial slime molds)

SUPERCLASS Dictyostelia (Lister, 1909)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Dictyostelea™ (D.L. Hawksworth et
al., 1983, orthog. emend.) 41

INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Pelobiontea (F.C. Page,
1976 stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith,
1981) 42
CLASS Entamoebea (T.
Cavalier-Smith, 1991) 43

SUBPHYLUM Lobosa


SUBPHYLUM Conosa
The Conosea unifies amoebae
which usually possess flagellate stages
or are amoeboflagellates. This clade
consists of two relatively solid groups
� the Mycetozoa and Archamoebae,
grouped by Cavalier-Smith (1998) in the
taxon Conosa, as well as a number of
independent lineages, including two
flagellates � Phalansterium
(Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004) and
Multicilia (Nikolaev et al. 2004), and
two gymnamoebae � Gephyramoeba and
Filamoeba (Amaral Zettler et al. 2000).
Because of large variations of the
substitution rates in SSU rRNA genes
within this clade, its internal
relationships are not resolved yet. 44


The Mycetozoa comprises two distinct
groups of "slime molds", the
Myxogastria and Protostelia (Dykstra
and Keller 2000). This is a
well-defined group of protists,
characterized by the ability to form
so-called "fruiting bodies". In some
lineages of Mycetozoa the fruiting body
is raised over the substratum on a
distinct stalk. Both groups possess
complex life cycles including an
aggregation of cells, however the
essential difference between them is
that in Protostelia, only a
pseudoplasmodium is formed (without
fusion of the cells constituting the
aggregate), while in Myxogastria a true
plasmodium is formed (the cells
completely fuse, forming a single
organism) (Olive 1975; Dykstra and
Keller 2000). The monophyly of
Mycetozoa was proposed based on
elongation factor 1-alpha gene
sequences (Baldauf and Doolittle 1997)
but it is not always recovered in SSU
rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004;
Nikolaev et al. 2004).45

The Archamoebae comprise amoeboid and
amoeboflagellate protists characterized
by a secondary absence of mitochondria
(mostly due to parasitism or life in
anoxic environments). This group
includes the free-living genera
Mastigamoeba, Mastigella, and Pelomyxa
(the pelobionts) and the parasitic
genera Entamoeba and Endolimax (the
entamoebids). The consistent grouping
of all these amitochondriate amoeboid
organisms in both SSU rRNA and actin
gene phylogenies (Fahrni et al. 2003)
suggests a single loss of the
mitochondria during the evolution of
Amoebozoa. 46

CLASS Amoebaea
ORDER Euamoebida Lepsi, 1960 47

FAMILY Amoebidae (Ehrenberg 1838)
48
The Amoebidae are a family of
amoebozoa, including naked amoebae that
produce multiple pseudopodia of
indeterminate length. These are roughly
cylindrical in form, with a central
stream of granular endoplasm, and do
not have subpseudopodia. During
locomotion one pseudopod typically
becomes dominant, and the others are
retracted as the body flows into it. In
some cases the cell moves by "walking",
with the relatively permanent
pseudopodia serving as limbs. 49

The most important genera are Amoeba
and Chaos, which are set apart from the
others by longitudinal ridges. They
group together on molecular trees,
suggesting the Amoebidae are a natural
group. Shelled amoebozoans have not
been studied molecularly but produce
very similar pseudopodia, so although
they are traditionally classified
separately they may be closely related
to this group. 50

GENUS Amoeba (Bery de St. Vincent 1822)
51
Amoeba (also spelled ameba) is a
genus of protozoa that moves by means
of temporary projections called
pseudopods, and is well-known as a
representative unicellular organism.
The word amoeba is variously used to
refer to it and its close relatives,
now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all
protozoa that move using pseudopods,
otherwise termed amoeboids. 52

Amoeba itself is found in freshwater,
typically on decaying vegetation from
streams, but is not especially common
in nature. However, because of the ease
with which they may be obtained and
kept in the lab, they are common
objects of study, both as
representative protozoa and to
demonstrate cell structure and
function. The cells have several lobose
pseudopods, with one large tubular
pseudopod at the anterior and several
secondary ones branching to the sides.
The most famous species, Amoeba
proteus, is 700-800 μm in length, but
many others are much smaller. Each has
a single nucleus, and a simple
contractile vacuole which maintains its
osmotic pressure, as its most
recognizable features. 53

Early naturalists referred to Amoeba as
the Proteus animalcule, after a Greek
god who could change his shape. The
name "amibe" was given to it by Bery
St. Vincent, from the Greek amoibe,
meaning change. 54

A good method of collecting amoeba is
to lower a jar upside down until it is
just above the sediment surface. Then
one should slowly let the air escape so
the top layer will be sucked into the
jar. Deeper sediment should not be
allowed to get sucked in. It is
possible to slowly move the jar when
tilting it to collect from a larger
area. If no amoeba are found, one can
try introducing some rice grains into
the jar and waiting for them to start
to rot. The bacteria eating the rice
will be eaten by the amoeba, thus
increasing the population and making
them easier to find. 55

Family Hartmannellidae (Volkonsky
1931)
The Hartmannellidae are a common family
of amoebozoa, usually found in soils.
When active they tend to be roughly
cylindrical in shape, with a single
leading pseudopod and no
subpseudopodia. This form somewhat
resembles a slug, and as such they are
also called limax amoebae. Trees based
on rRNA show the Hartmannellidae are
paraphyletic to the Amoebidae and
Leptomyxida, which may adopt similar
forms. 56

FAMILY Vannellidae (Bovee 1970)
The
Vannellidae are a distinctive family of
amoebozoa. During locomotion they tend
to be flattened and fan-shaped,
although some are long and narrow, and
have a prominent clear margin at the
anterior. In most amoebae, the
endoplasm glides forwards through the
center of the cell, but in vannellids
the cell undergoes a sort of rolling
motion, with the outer membrane sliding
around like a tank tread. 57

These amoebae are usually 10-40 μm in
size, but some are smaller or larger.
The most common genus is Vannella,
found mainly in soils, but also in
freshwater and marine habitats. Trees
based on rRNA support the monophyly of
the family. 58

SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998

INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Pelobiontea F.C. Page, 1976
stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith, 1981

ORDER Pelobiontida (Page 1976)
The pelobionts
are a small group of amoebozoa. The
most notable member is Pelomyxa, a
giant amoeba with multiple nuclei and
inconspicuous non-motile flagella. The
other genera, called mastigamoebae, are
often uninucleate, have a single
anterior flagellum used in swimming,
and produce numerous determinate
pseudopodia. 59

Pelobionts are closely related to the
entamoebids and like them have no
mitochondria; in addition, pelobionts
also do not have dictyosomes. At one
point these absences were considered
primitive. However, molecular trees
place the two groups with other lobose
amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa, so
these are secondary losses. 60

SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998

INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Entamoebea T. Cavalier-Smith,
1991
The entamoebids or entamoebae are a
group of amoebozoa found as internal
parasites or commensals of animals. The
cells are uninucleate small, typically
10-100 μm across, and usually have a
single lobose pseudopod taking the form
of a clear anterior bulge. There are
two major genera, Entamoeba and
Endolimax. They include several species
that are pathogenic in humans, most
notably Entamoeba histolytica, which
causes amoebic dysentery. 61

Entamoebids lack mitochondria. This is
a secondary loss, possibly associated
with their parasitic life-cycle.
Studies show they are close relatives
of the pelobionts, another group of
amitochondriate amoebae, but unlike
them entamoebids retain dictyosomes.
Both groups are now placed alongside
other lobose amoebae in the phylum
Amoebozoa. 62

Studying Entamoeba invadens, David
Biron of the Weizmann Institute of
Science and coworkers found that about
one third of the cells are unable to
separate unaided and recruit a
neighboring amoeba (dubbed the
"midwife") to complete the fission. He
writes: 63

"When an amoeba divides, the two
daughter cells stay attached by a
tubular tether which remains intact
unless mechanically severed. If called
upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife
travels up to 200 μm towards the
dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a
straight trajectory with an average
velocity of about 0.5 μm/s. The
midwife then proceeds to rupture the
connection, after which all three
amoebae move on." 64

They also reported a similar behavior
in Dictyostelium. 65

Entamoeba coli is a non-pathogenic
species of entamoebid that is important
clinically in humans only because it
can be confused with Entamoeba
histolytica, which is pathogenic, on
microscopic examination of stained
stool specimens. A simple finding of
Entamoeba coli trophozoites or cysts in
a stool specimen requires no treatment.
66

Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic
parasitic protozoan, classified as an
entamoebid. It infects predominantly
humans and other primates. Diverse
mammals such as dogs and cats can
become infected but usually do not shed
cysts (the environmental survival form
of the organism) with their feces, thus
do not contribute significantly to
transmission. The active (trophozoite)
stage exists only in the host and in
fresh feces; cysts survive outside the
host in water and soils and on foods,
especially under moist conditions on
the latter. When swallowed they cause
infections by excysting (to the
trophozoite stage) in the digestive
tract. 67

Endolimax nana, a small entamoebid that
is a commensal of the human intestine,
causes no known disease. It is most
significant in medicine because it can
provide false positives for other
tests, such as for the related species
Entamoeba histolytica which causes
amoebic dysentery, and because its
presence indicates that the host once
consumed feces. It forms cysts with
four nuclei which excyst in the body
and become trophozoites. Endolimax nana
nuclei have a large endosome somewhat
off-center and small amounts of visible
chromatin or none at all. 68

Actinopod reproduction may involve
binary fission or the formation of
swarmer cells, and sexual processes
occur in some groups. Their
mitochondrial cristae are usually
tubular, but in some groups there are
vesicular or flattened, plate-like
cristae.69

(Are amoeba haplodiploid?70 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
4. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p515.
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11. ^ "Amoebozoa". Wikipedia.
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13. ^
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14. ^
http://www.bio.ilstu.edu/Armstrong/sylla
bi/222book/Chapt%203.htm
15. ^ Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema E.
-Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
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22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Amoebozoa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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24. ^ "Amoebozoa". Wikipedia.
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25. ^ "Amoebozoa". Wikipedia.
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26. ^ "Amoebozoa". Wikipedia.
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27. ^ "Amoebozoa". Wikipedia.
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28. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
29. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
30. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
31. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
32. ^
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xonTree.aspx?id=75925
33. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
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34. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
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35. ^
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36. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
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37. ^
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38. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
39. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
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40. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
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41. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
42. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
43. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
44. ^
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/bi
ani/msg/Amoeboids/Amoebozoa/Conosea.html

45. ^
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/bi
ani/msg/Amoeboids/Amoebozoa/Conosea.html

46. ^
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/bi
ani/msg/Amoeboids/Amoebozoa/Conosea.html

47. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=75925
48. ^ "Amoebidae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoebidae
49. ^ "Amoebidae". Wikipedia.
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50. ^ "Amoebidae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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53. ^ "Amoeba". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
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2008.
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55. ^ "Amoeba". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoeba
56. ^ "Hartmannellidae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartmannell
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57. ^ "Vannellidae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannellidae

58. ^ "Vannellidae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannellidae

59. ^ "Pelobiont". Wikipedia.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelobiont
60. ^ "Pelobiont". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelobiont
61. ^ "Entamoebid". Wikipedia.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entamoebid
62. ^ "Entamoebid". Wikipedia.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entamoebid
63. ^ "Entamoebid". Wikipedia.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entamoebid
65. ^ "Entamoebid". Wikipedia.
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66. ^ "Entamoeba coli". Wikipedia.
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67. ^ "Entamoeba histolytica".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entamoeba_h
istolytica
68. ^ "Endolimax nana". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endolimax_n
ana
69. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989). p174
70. ^ Ted
Huntington.
71. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1520
mybn}
72. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1400 my}
73.
^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria
L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1587mybn)
74. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1400) {c1220}
75. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c1090}
 
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg

[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
1,400,000,000 YBN
26 27 28 		173) Earliest probable fungi
microfossils, "Tappania plana".15 16 17
18 19 20 If true this would be the
oldest eukaryote fossil.21

Neoproterozoic fossils of Tappania from
the Neoproterozoic (800-900 MY) have
fused branches, a process found in
higher fungi.22 23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
2. ^ JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE J., ANDREW H.
KNOLL, and MALCOLM R. WALTER. “TEM
Evidence for Eukaryotic Diversity in
mid-Proterozoic Oceans.” Geobiology
2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full
3. ^ Andrew Knoll, "Life on a Young
Planet: The first 3 Billion Years",
(Princeton, NJ: , 2003).
4. ^ Nicholas J.
Butterfield, "Probable Proterozoic
Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1
(Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
5. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "Probable
Proterozoic Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol.
31, No. 1 (Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
6. ^ “Primordial Fungus.” Science
307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
7. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "Probable
Proterozoic Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol.
31, No. 1 (Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
8. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
9. ^ JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE J., ANDREW H.
KNOLL, and MALCOLM R. WALTER. “TEM
Evidence for Eukaryotic Diversity in
mid-Proterozoic Oceans.” Geobiology
2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full
10. ^ Andrew Knoll, "Life on a Young
Planet: The first 3 Billion Years",
(Princeton, NJ: , 2003).
11. ^ Nicholas J.
Butterfield, "Probable Proterozoic
Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1
(Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
12. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Probable Proterozoic Fungi",
Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter,
2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
13. ^ “Primordial Fungus.” Science
307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
14. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Probable Proterozoic Fungi",
Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter,
2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
15. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
16. ^ JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE J., ANDREW H.
KNOLL, and MALCOLM R. WALTER. “TEM
Evidence for Eukaryotic Diversity in
mid-Proterozoic Oceans.” Geobiology
2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full
17. ^ Andrew Knoll, "Life on a Young
Planet: The first 3 Billion Years",
(Princeton, NJ: , 2003).
18. ^ Nicholas J.
Butterfield, "Probable Proterozoic
Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1
(Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
19. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Probable Proterozoic Fungi",
Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter,
2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
20. ^ “Primordial Fungus.” Science
307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
21. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Probable Proterozoic Fungi",
Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter,
2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
22. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Probable Proterozoic Fungi",
Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter,
2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
23. ^ “Primordial Fungus.” Science
307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
24. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
25. ^ JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE J., ANDREW H.
KNOLL, and MALCOLM R. WALTER. “TEM
Evidence for Eukaryotic Diversity in
mid-Proterozoic Oceans.” Geobiology
2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full
26. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
27. ^ JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE J., ANDREW H.
KNOLL, and MALCOLM R. WALTER. “TEM
Evidence for Eukaryotic Diversity in
mid-Proterozoic Oceans.” Geobiology
2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full
28. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Probable Proterozoic Fungi",
Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter,
2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
(Roper Group) Northern Australia24 25
 
[1] a, c, Tappania plana, showing
asymmetrically distributed processes
and bulbous protrusions (arrow in a).
b, detail of a, showing dichotomously
branching process. d, Valeria
lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera sp. f,
Satka favosa. The scale bar in a is 35
m for a and c; 10 m for b; 100 m for d;
15 m for e; and 40 m for f. Figure 1
from: Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/images/412066aa.2.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE
J., ANDREW H. KNOLL, and MALCOLM R.
WALTER. “TEM Evidence for Eukaryotic
Diversity in mid-Proterozoic Oceans.”
Geobiology 2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/s
tore/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/as
set/image_n/GBI_027_f2.gif?v=1&t=gyteims
d&s=6988e942a6736a4fd4f748f2cefcc1acfbd2
ea74
1,380,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 		220) Protists Opisthokonts (ancestor of
Fungi, Choanoflagellates and
Animals).12 13 Mitochondria with
flattened christae.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
8. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
11. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
14. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1380
mybn}
16. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1400mybn}
17. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600 mybn}
18. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {960 mybn}
 
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg

[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
1,300,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 		38)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
2. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
3. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
4. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
5. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
6. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
7. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
8. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
9. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. “The Multiple
Origins of Complex Multicellularity.”
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39.1
(2011):
217-239. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.1002
09
10. ^ Inaki Ruiz-Trillo, Gertraud
Burger, Peter W.H. Holland, Nicole
King, B. Franz Lang, Andrew J. Roger,
Michael W. Gray, The origins of
multicellularity: a multi-taxon genome
initiative, Trends in Genetics, Volume
23, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 113-118,
ISSN 0168-9525, DOI:
10.1016/j.tig.2007.01.005. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952507000236)
11. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution",
2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506.
13. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
14. ^
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/full/
391553a0_fs.html
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361:1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/361/1
470/1023.full
19. ^ Kumar, "Megafossils from the
Mesoproterozoic Rohtas Formation",
Precambrian Research, V72, 1995,
p171-184. {Kumar_Grypania_19940907_Gryp
ania_1000mybn.pdf}
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
24. ^ Schneider et
al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford,
W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz and M.A.
Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and
syndepositional iron formations,
Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn} {Grypania)1874 mybn}
25. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {1874 mybn} {Grypania)1874
mybn}
26. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2009, p517.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
(c850my)
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[3] Ted huntington, Estimate based on
origin of brown algae around
1,973,000,000
(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada21  
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip

[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
1,300,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 		67) First "plastids". Cyanobacteria
form plastids (chloroplasts) through
symbiosis, within a eukaryote cell
(endosymbiosis). Like mitochondria,
these organelles copy themselves and
are not made by the cell DNA.14

Chloroplasts use their green pigment to
trap light particles to synthesize
carbon compounds from carbon dioxide
and water supplied by the host plant.15


This is a primary plastid
endosymbiosis, and genetic analysis
supports the theory that all green
plants, which are eukaryotes with
double membrane plastids, are descended
from a single common ancestor. All
primary plastids are surrounded by two
membranes, because the cyanobacteria
was enclosed in a vacuole.16 The inner
wall being that of the bacterium, the
outer wall that of the alga.17 Most
plastids contain a single, circular
chromosome of about 200 kilobases and
encode about 100-120 genes, while a
free-living cyanobacteria typically has
a genome of about 2500 Kilobases. The
genes that remain in the plastid are
primarily involved in photosynthesis,
transcription and translation of
plastid genes, and ATP synthesis. But,
most of the genes needed to maintain
the plastid are encoded in the cell
nucleus.18

A secondary plastid endosymbiosis,
where an algae cell is captured instead
of a cyanobacteria, which results in a
plastid with more than two membranes,
has happened at least three times.
Euglenozoa and chlorarachniophytes
acquired plastids from green alga, and
the Chromalveolates (the most abundant
group with secondary plastids) acquired
them from a red alga.19

A third (tertiary) plastid
endosymbiosis occurs when an alga
containing a plastid of secondary
endosymbiotic origin (for example a
chromist) is engulfed and reduced to a
photosynthetic organelle.
Dinoflagellates are the only group
currently known to have tertiary
plastids. Tertiary plastids in
dinoflagellates have been acquired from
haptophyte and prasinophyte algae and
from diatoms. Currently there are five
plastids known in dinoflagellates, each
with its own evolutionary history.20

There are different kinds of plastids
including aleuroplasts, amyloplasts,
chloroplasts, chromoplasts,
elaioplasts, and etioplasts.21
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p551.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
7. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p551.
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
9. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p551.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p551.
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
13. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
14. ^
S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
15. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p551.
16. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
17. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p551.
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
19. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
20. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
21. ^
"Plastid". Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights reserved.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plastid
22. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1300
mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {c1600 my}
24.
^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002)., see
comments {1576 MYBN}
25. ^ Knoll A, Summons
R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J, "The
Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p152. {no later than)
1200 my}
26. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin
and Evolution of Model Organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002)., see
comments {1576 MYBN} {needs to be at
least as old as Euglenozoa since many
have plastids)1956} {Euglenozoa)1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Plastid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid
 
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
1,300,000,000 YBN
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 		209)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
4. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
9. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
14. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
19. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
24. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
26. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
28. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
29. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
30. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
31. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p117. timetree.org
32. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {first plastid) 1300mybn}
33. ^ Hackett JD,
Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{first plastid) c1600}
34. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1550 mybn}
35. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1609 mybn)
36. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
37. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{1580} http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
38. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {fossil Grypania) 1874my}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema
E. -Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", Springer New
York,
(2003). file:///home/ted/ulsf/docs/cav-
smith_apusozoa_fulltext.html
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
1,300,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 11 		219) unicellular to multicellular (up
to 1 m) mostly free-living but some
parasitic or symbiotic, with
chloroplasts containing phycobilins.
Cell walls made of cellulose with
mucopolysaccharides penetrated in many
red algae by pores partially blocked by
proteins (complex referred to as pit
connections). Usually with separated
phases of vegetative growth and sexual
reproduction. Common and widespread,
ecologically important, economically
important (source of agar). No
flagella. Ultrastructural identity:
Mitochondria with flat cristae,
sometimes associated with forming faces
of dictyosomes. Thylakoids single, with
phycobilisomes, plastids with
peripheral thylakoid. During mitosis,
nuclear envelope mostly remains intact
but some microtubules of spindle extend
from noncentriolar polar bodies through
polar gaps in the nuclear envelope.
Synapomorphy: No clear-cut feature
available; possibly pit connections
Composition: About 4,000 species. 7
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P9565
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1300mybn)
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1450 mybn}
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1428mybn)
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg

[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
1,300,000,000 YBN
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 		323)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
20. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
23. ^ Jan
Tachezy, "Hydrogenosomes and mitosomes:
mitochondria of anaerobic eukaryotes",
2008 http://books.google.com/books?id=L
sPkO1fMPvQC&pg=PA273
24. ^ Donald G. Lindmark and Miklós
Müller, "Hydrogenosome, a Cytoplasmic
Organelle of the Anaerobic Flagellate
Tritrichomonas foetus, and Its Role in
Pyruvate Metabolism", J. Biol. Chem.
1973 248: 7724-7728.
http://www.jbc.org/content/248/22/7724
.short
25. ^ Tovar, Jorge, Anke Fischer, and
C. Graham Clark. “The mitosome, a
novel organelle related to mitochondria
in the amitochondrial parasite
Entamoeba histolytica.” Molecular
Microbiology 32.5 (1999):
1013-1021. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01414.x/
full
26. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1300
mybn}
27. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {2000 my}
28.
^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria
L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{2291} {2291 my}
29. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {1600}
{1600 my}
30. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{2230} {2230 my}
31. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1594 my}
32. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {1030 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heterokonts". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokonts

[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
 
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg

[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
1,274,000,000 YBN
19 20 		187) A captured red alga (rhodophyte),
through endosymbiosis, becomes a
plastid in the ancestor of all
chromalveolates.15 16 17

A secondary plastid endosymbiosis,
where an algae cell is captured instead
of a cyanobacteria, has happened at
least three times. A secondary plastid
symbiosis results in a plastid with
more than two membranes. Two groups
have acquired plastids from green algae
independently: the euglenozoa, which
are fresh-water algae, and the
chlorarachniophytes. The most abundant
groups with secondary plastids acquired
them from the red algae. Five algal
lineages have plastids of red algal
origin. These include the crytophytes,
the haptophytes, the Strameopiles,
which all together are the Chromista,
and the Alveolates apicomplexans and
dinoflagellates. The alveolate ciliates
are thought to have lost their plastid
and no traces of the organelle have yet
been found. The parasitic apicomplexans
have lost the ability to do
photosynthesis, probably because of
their intercellular lifestyle, but do
maintain a vestigial organelle derived
from a plastid called the apicoplast,
which is surrounded by four membranes
and has a small genome.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
7. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
13. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
16. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
19. ^
Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1274 mybn}
20. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1280mybn}
 
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg

[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
1,250,000,000 YBN
10 		15) Differentiation in multicellular
eukaryote. Gamete (or spore) cells and
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing),
and are not omnipotent. Start of death
by aging.

Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.5

All cells of an organism, except the
sperm and egg cells, the cells from
which they arise (gametocytes) and
undifferentiated stem cells, are
somatic cells.6

Although the DNA in each cell of a
multicellular organism is the same7 ,
each differentiated cell type produces
a different set of specific proteins,
for example liver cells make albumin
while lens cells make crystallin8 .

Another early cell differentiation are
that only the cell at the tip of the
filament can divide while the older
cells below the tip do not divide.9
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
2. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
3. ^
http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary
/Somatic_cells
4. ^ Alexandre Meinesz, "How life
began: evolution's three geneses",
2008,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AL0fo20Tk3sC&pg=PA155
5. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
6. ^
http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary
/Somatic_cells
7. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution",
2007,
p230-238. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
8. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eighth Edition, 2009, p368.
9. ^ Alexandre
Meinesz, "How life began: evolution's
three geneses", 2008,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AL0fo20Tk3sC&pg=PA155
10. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
 
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg

[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
1,250,000,000 YBN
31 32 33 34 35 36 		88)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
7. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
14. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
17. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
20. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
21. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
23. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
25. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
26. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
28. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
29. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query
.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=1
2698292&dopt=Abstract J Mol Evol. 2003
May;56(5):540-63. Phylogeny of
choanozoa, apusozoa, and other protozoa
and early eukaryote
megaevolution. Cavalier-Smith T, Chao
EE. /home/ted/ulsf/docs/cav-smith_apuso
zoa_fulltext.html
30. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=85966
http://comenius.susqu.edu/BI/202/Taxa.
htm (for 5 supergroups info)
31. ^ Yoon,
Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline
for the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1250 mybn}
32. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
33. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1665 mybn}
34. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1973mybn)
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
36. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Brown alga". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_alga
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
 
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php


[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
1,250,000,000 YBN
20 		201)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
2. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
3. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
4. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
5. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
6. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
7. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
8. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
9. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
10. ^
Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett,
"A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
11. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
12. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
13. ^ Nicholas
J. Butterfield, "Bangiomorpha pubescens
n. gen., n. sp.: implications for
the evolution of sex,
multicellularity, and the
Mesoproterozoic/ Neoproterozoic
radiation of eukaryotes", Paleobiology,
26(3), 2000, pp.
386–404. http://www.algaebase.org/pdf
/AC100CF316a8734043nPXq2B4E75/386.pdf
14. ^
http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet
.aspx?SpeciesID=1700
15. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
16. ^
Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett,
"A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
17. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Bangiomorpha pubescens n. gen., n.
sp.: implications for the evolution of
sex, multicellularity, and the
Mesoproterozoic/ Neoproterozoic
radiation of eukaryotes", Paleobiology,
26(3), 2000, pp.
386–404. http://www.algaebase.org/pdf
/AC100CF316a8734043nPXq2B4E75/386.pdf
18. ^ Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science
250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
19. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
20. ^ Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science
250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
{1250 mybn}
(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island,
arctic Canada18 19  
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905

[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
1,250,000,000 YBN
6 		301)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ John Ringo,
"Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
3. ^ John
Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004,
p201.
4. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
5. ^ Raven, Evert,
Eichhorn, "Biology of Plants", (New
York: Worth Publishers, 1992).
6. ^
Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett,
"A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905

MORE INFO
[1] Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
 
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png

[2] Figure 23.1.Plants have
haplodiplontic life cycles that involve
mitotic divisions (resulting in
multicellularity) in both the haploid
and diploid generations (paths A and
D). Most animals are diplontic and
undergo mitosis only in the diploid
generation (paths B and D).
Multicellular organisms with haplontic
life cycles follow paths A and C.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/pla
ntfig1.gif
1,230,000,000 YBN
2 		153)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
1,200,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 		221)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{c1200 mybn}
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1368 mybn}
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1513mybn) {1513 mybn}
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1200) {c1100} {c1100 mybn}
 
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg

[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
1,200,000,000 YBN
12 13 		6295)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rasmussen, Birger et al.
“Discoidal Impressions and Trace-Like
Fossils More Than 1200 Million Years
Old.” Science 296.5570 (2002): 1112
-1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/1977935.stm
3. ^ Rasmussen, Birger et al.
“Discoidal Impressions and Trace-Like
Fossils More Than 1200 Million Years
Old.” Science 296.5570 (2002): 1112
-1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/1977935.stm
5. ^ "vermiform." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vermiform
6. ^ Rasmussen, Birger et al.
“Discoidal Impressions and Trace-Like
Fossils More Than 1200 Million Years
Old.” Science 296.5570 (2002): 1112
-1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full
7. ^ Rasmussen, Birger et al.
“Discoidal Impressions and Trace-Like
Fossils More Than 1200 Million Years
Old.” Science 296.5570 (2002): 1112
-1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/1977935.stm
9. ^ "vermiform." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vermiform
10. ^ Rasmussen, Birger et al.
“Discoidal Impressions and Trace-Like
Fossils More Than 1200 Million Years
Old.” Science 296.5570 (2002): 1112
-1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full
11. ^ Rasmussen, Birger et al.
“Discoidal Impressions and Trace-Like
Fossils More Than 1200 Million Years
Old.” Science 296.5570 (2002): 1112
-1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full
12. ^ Rasmussen, Birger et al.
“Discoidal Impressions and Trace-Like
Fossils More Than 1200 Million Years
Old.” Science 296.5570 (2002): 1112
-1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full {1200 mybn}
13. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/1977935.stm {1200 mybn}
(Stirling Range Formation) Southwestern
Australia11  
[1] The oldest evidence of
multicellular animals to
date? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/19
75000/images/_1977935_worm300.jpg

[2] Figure 2 Trace-like fossils,
locality Barnett Peak, positive
hyporelief, UWA 114336. (A, C, and E)
Overviews of surfaces with
double-ridged trails. There is
low-angle lighting from the left, and
the samples are shown at the same
magnification. (B, D, and F) Drawings
showing the extent of ridges (blue).
Fractures and microfaults on the
surface are indicated in red, specimens
with a U-shaped ending are marked with
the letters “u” and “x,” and
arrows point to instances of apparent
crosscutting [black U-shaped ending
“x” in (F) is in concave
preservation]. (G and H) Close-ups of
specimens [compare positions in (B) and
(F)] with U-shaped and open expanding
ends. The specimens are coated with
ammonium chloride, and there is
low-angle lighting from the left.
Figure 2 from: Rasmussen, Birger et
al. “Discoidal Impressions and
Trace-Like Fossils More Than 1200
Million Years Old.” Science 296.5570
(2002): 1112 -1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/296/5570/1112/F2.large.jpg
1,189,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		305) Chromista "Cryptophyta"
{KriPTuFITu10 } (Cryptomonads
{KRiPToMunaDZ11 }).12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crypto
phyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ "crypto monad". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
rypto+monad
3. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crypto
phyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ "crypto monad". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
rypto+monad
6. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crypto
phyta&submit=Submit
8. ^ "crypto monad". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
rypto+monad
9. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crypto
phyta&submit=Submit
11. ^ "crypto monad". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
rypto+monad
12. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract
13. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
16. ^ Sandra L.
Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert,
W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level
Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on
Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol
290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and
apicomplexa branch

MORE INFO
[1] "Cryptomonas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptomonas

[2]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P1761
[3]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query
.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8
328023&dopt=Abstract
http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content
/full/53/6/1707 describes some of the
conflict about the placement of
cryptomonads
[4]
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/conten
t/full/26/4/865
[5]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P1901&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
1,180,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 		6280)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
2. ^ 2. ^ "dinoflagellate." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471
-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
5. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
7. ^ 7. ^ "dinoflagellate." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
10. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
11. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
12. ^ 12. ^ "dinoflagellate." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
15. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
16. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
17. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
18. ^ 18. ^ "dinoflagellate." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
21. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
22. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1180 mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1480 my}
24. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956 my}
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
26. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {1000 my}
27. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c820 my}
28. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1628}
 
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg

[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
1,150,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 21 		86) (I think it's tough to say that the
more ancient Heterokonts, brown algae
(Phaeophyta), and golden algae
(Chrysophyta) are not also plants, and
the oldest living plants. Perhaps
glaucophyta are the first green plants,
or perhaps that should be reserved for
multicellular species.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ "Glaucophytes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
s
8. ^ "Glaucophytes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
s
9. ^ "Glaucophytes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
s
10. ^ "Glaucophytes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
s
11. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P6064
12. ^ "Glaucophytes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
s
13. ^ "Glaucophytes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
s
14. ^ "Glaucophytes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
s
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1150 mybn}
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{c1290 mybn}
18. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1225 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1500my)
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1400)
21. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (1558my)
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
1,150,000,000 YBN
38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 		188) Plant Green Algae evolves now
according to genetic comparison. Green
Algae is composed of the two Phlya
Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce) and
Charophyta (Spirogyra).28 29 30 31 32

The first land plants most likely
evolved from green algae. 33

Cysts resembling modern
Micromonadophyceae cysts date from
about 1.2 billion years ago.34
Tasmanites formed the Permian "white
coal", or tasmanite, deposits of
Tasmania and similar deposits in
Alaska. Certain Ulvophyceae fossils
that date from about one billion years
ago are abundant in Paleozoic rocks.35


Knoll et al cite the earliest
recognized green algae fossil as
Proterocladus which dates to 750
million years ago36 37 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
4. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
9. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
10. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
14. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
15. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ "algae." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
20. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
21. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
22. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
24. ^ "algae." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
25. ^ "algae." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
26. ^ Knoll A, Summons R, Waldbauer J,
Zumberge J, "The Geological Succession
of Primary Producers in the Oceans",
in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p150.
27. ^
Butterfield, Knoll, Swett,
"Paleobiology of the Neoproterozoic
Svanbergfjellet Formation,
Spitsbergen", Lethaia, Volume 27, Issue
1, page 76, March
1994. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1994.tb01558.x/abs
tract
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
29. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
30. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
31. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
32. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
34. ^ "algae." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
35. ^ "algae." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
36. ^ Knoll A, Summons R, Waldbauer J,
Zumberge J, "The Geological Succession
of Primary Producers in the Oceans",
in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p150.
37. ^
Butterfield, Knoll, Swett,
"Paleobiology of the Neoproterozoic
Svanbergfjellet Formation,
Spitsbergen", Lethaia, Volume 27, Issue
1, page 76, March
1994. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1994.tb01558.x/abs
tract
38. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150
mybn}
39. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1450mybn}
40. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1300mybn)
41. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(968mybn)
42. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M.
Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1 Rebecca
L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos,
"Molecular Evidence for the Early
Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1061?)
43. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b (1650-800mybn)
44. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html (1000my)
45. ^ Herman N,
"Organic World One Billion Years Ago",
Nauka, Leningrad, 1990.
46. ^ Knoll A,
Summons R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J,
"The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p150.
 
[1] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox

[2] Photo of green algal growth
(Enteromorpha sp.) on rocky areas of
the ocean intertidal shore, indicating
a nearby nutrient source (in this case
land runoff). Photographed by Eric
Guinther near Kahuku, O'ahu,
Hawai'i. GFDL Permission is granted
to copy, distribute and/or modify this
document under the terms of the GNU
Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover
Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts Subject
to disclaimers
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg
1,100,000,000 YBN
13 14 		75)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^ Murray Wittner, Louis M. Weiss,
"The microsporidia and
microsporidiosis", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Sq
NvT_O5JKbTiAKf8PDuAg
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ "obligate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/obligate
11. ^ Murray Wittner, Louis M. Weiss,
"The microsporidia and
microsporidiosis", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Sq
NvT_O5JKbTiAKf8PDuAg
12. ^ Murray Wittner, Louis M. Weiss,
"The microsporidia and
microsporidiosis", 1999,
p130. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
SqNvT_O5JKbTiAKf8PDuAg
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (>1460mybn)
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=93911
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full
 
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg

[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
1,100,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		6284)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/
2. ^ Pratt, L. M., Summons, R. E. and
Hieshima, G. B.: 1991, Sterane and
Triterpane Biomarkers in
the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55,
911–916.
3. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/
4. ^ Pratt, L. M., Summons, R. E. and
Hieshima, G. B.: 1991, Sterane and
Triterpane Biomarkers in
the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55,
911–916.
5. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/
6. ^ Pratt, L. M., Summons, R. E. and
Hieshima, G. B.: 1991, Sterane and
Triterpane Biomarkers in
the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55,
911–916.
7. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {1100 mybn}
8. ^ A. H. Knoll,
E. J. Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen,
"Eukaryotic Organisms in Proterozoic
Oceans", Philosophical Transactions:
Biological Sciences , Vol. 361, No.
1470, Major Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1100 mybn}
9. ^ Moldowan, J. Michael
et al. “Chemostratigraphic
reconstruction of biofacies: Molecular
evidence linking cyst-forming
dinoflagellates with pre-Triassic
ancestors.” Geology 24.2 (1996): 159
-162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf {into the
Proterozoic) >542 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Delwiche, Charles F., "The
Origin and Evolution of
Dinoflagellates", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007
[2]
J.J. Brocks, R.E. Summons, 8.03 -
Sedimentary Hydrocarbons, Biomarkers
for Early Life, In: Editors-in-Chief:
Heinrich D. Holland and Karl K.
Turekian, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Treatise
on Geochemistry, Pergamon, Oxford,
2003, Pages 63-115, ISBN 9780080437514,
10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08127-5. (http:/
/www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p
ii/B0080437516081275)
[3] J. Michael Moldowan, Nina M.
Talyzina, "Biogeochemical Evidence for
Dinoflagellate Ancestors in the Early
Cambrian", Science, Vol 281, Issue
5380, 1168-1170 , 21 August 1998
 
[1] Part of figure 2 from: Moldowan,
J. Michael et al. “Chemostratigraphic
reconstruction of biofacies: Molecular
evidence linking cyst-forming
dinoflagellates with pre-Triassic
ancestors.” Geology 24.2 (1996): 159
-162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/24/2/159.full.pdf
1,080,000,000 YBN
42 43 44 45 46 		87) Excavate Discicristates
{DiSKIKriSTATS}, ancestor of protists
which have mitochondria with discoidal
shaped cristae (includes euglenids,
leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ31 },
trypanosomes {TriPaNiSOMZ32 },
kinetoplastids {KiNeTuPlaSTiDZ33 }, and
acrasid {oKrASiD34 } slime molds).35
36 37 38

The discicristates include
photosynthetic flagellates, such as the
green Euglena, and parasitic ones, such
as Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping
sickness. There are also the acrasid
slime molds, which are not closely
related to the amoebozoan dictyostelid
and plasmodial slime molds.39 40

Some euglenids exhibit colonialism and
have a cell covering ("pellicle").

In eukaryote mitochondria there are
three kinds of christae (the inner
membrane protrustions of mitochondria):
discoidal, tubular, and flattened.
Discoidal are found in kinetoplasts and
euglynoids, tubular christae are found
in diatoms, crysophyte algae, and
apicomplexans, and Flattened cristae
are found in opisthokonts (animals and
fungi) and both green and red algae.41

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
4. ^ "leishmanias."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 08 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
5. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=kineto
plastid&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
11. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
12. ^ "leishmanias." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
13. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=kineto
plastid&submit=Submit
15. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
17. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
18. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
19. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
20. ^ "leishmanias." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
21. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=kineto
plastid&submit=Submit
23. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
24. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
25. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
26. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
27. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p541.
29. ^ Baldauf, "An
overview of the phylogeny and diversity
of eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics
and Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
30. ^ Kwang W. Jeon, "International
Review Of Cytology: A Survey of Cell
Biology", 2006,
p153. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAdk7-cQ1NkC&pg=PA153
31. ^ "leishmanias." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
32. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
33. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=kineto
plastid&submit=Submit
34. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
35. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
36. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
37. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
38. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
39. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p541.
40. ^ Baldauf, "An
overview of the phylogeny and diversity
of eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics
and Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
41. ^ Kwang W. Jeon, "International
Review Of Cytology: A Survey of Cell
Biology", 2006,
p153. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAdk7-cQ1NkC&pg=PA153
42. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
43. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
44. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
45. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
46. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm

[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg

1,080,000,000 YBN
34 35 36 37 		97) A eukaryote eye evolves; the first
three-dimensional response to light.25
26 27

Eyes evolve at least eight times
independently in eukaryotes.28

The earliest eye probably evolves from
a plastid. The first proto eye is a
light sensitive area in a unicellular
eukaryote.29 30

Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.31

Halophilic archaebacteria, such as
Halobacterium salinarum, use sensory
rhodopsins (SRs) for phototaxis
(positive or negative movement along a
light gradient or vector), and some
cyanobacteria (e.g. Anabaena,
Synechocystis) can slowly orient along
a light vector.32

Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water. The eukaryotic sensory
integration, sensory processing and the
speed and mechanics of tactic responses
is fundamentally different from that
found in prokaryotes. Both
single-celled and multi-cellular
eukaryotic phototactic organisms have a
fixed shape, are polarized, swim in a
spiral and use cilia for swimming and
phototactic steering. Three-dimensional
phototaxis can be found in five out of
the six eukaryotic major groups
(opisthokonts, Amoebozoa, plants,
chromalveolates, excavates,
rhizaria).33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
3. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
4. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

5. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
6. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
7. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

8. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
9. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
10. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
11. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
12. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

13. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
14. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
15. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

16. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
17. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
18. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

19. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

20. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
21. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
22. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
23. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
24. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

25. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

26. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
27. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
28. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

29. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
30. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
31. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

32. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

33. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

34. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
35. ^ Yoon, Hwan
Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {guess based on
earliest secondary plastid 1274 my and
euglena at 1410 mybn}
36. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}
37. ^ my own estimate based on where
euglenozoa genetically appear to evolve
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter Hegemann, "Algal
Sensory Photoreceptors", Annual Review
of Plant Biology, Vol. 59: 167 -189
(Volume publication date June 2008)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/
10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092847
%40recept.2009.1.issue-1
[2] Trevor D. Lamb, Detlev Arendt, and
Shaun P. Collin, "The evolution of
phototransduction and eyes", Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. B October 12, 2009
364:2791-2793;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0106 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1
531/2791.full
[3] Kreimer, G. (2009) The green algal
eyespot apparatus: a primordial visual
system and more? Current Genetics
55:19-43 doi:10.007/s00294-008-0224-8
PMID
19107486 http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/v54v124mxg52r091/
 
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg

[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
1,080,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 8 9 		203)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
2. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
3. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
4. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution",
2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
7. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
9. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg

[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
1,050,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 		169)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
13. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
14. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p153.
15. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
16. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
17. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
18. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
19. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
20. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p153.
21. ^ Yoon, Hwan
Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1050 mybn}
22. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1180 mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1480my}
24. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
25. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956my} {Alveolates and Plant
split)1956my}
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1600 my}
{Chromalveolates)1600 my}
27. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{c775my} {c754my}
28. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {c1000my}
29. ^ Emmanuel J. P.
Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {872 my}
 
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.

[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php

1,050,000,000 YBN
297) Diplontic life cycle; organism is
predominantly diploid, mitosis in the
haploid phase does not occur.7 8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
3. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
4. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
5. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
6. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
7. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
8. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
 
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png

[2] Mark Kirkpatrick, ''The evolution
of haploid-diploid life cycles'', 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
1,050,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 		304)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
13. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html
14. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
15. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
16. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
17. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html
19. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
20. ^
http://www.life.umd.edu/labs/delwiche/PS
life/lectures/Haptophyta.html
21. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P10520
22. ^ empty
23. ^ empty
24. ^ empty
25. ^ empty
26. ^ empty
27. ^
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/emiliania/emiliania.htm
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P10520
30. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/micros
cope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=2627
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html Larsen, A. (1999).
Prymnesium parvum and P. patelliferum
(Haptophyta) - one species. Phycologia
38: 541-543
33. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1050 mybn}
34. ^
Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A
molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {920 mybn}
35. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {genetic)1382 mybn}
36. ^ De Vargas,
Aubry, Probert, Young, "Origin and
Evolution of Cocolithophores: From
Coastal Hunters to Oceanic Farmers",
Chapter 12, p251. in: Paul G.
Falkowski, Andrew H. Knoll, "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5tRSAr1JMhwC {DNA)1900mybn}
{genetic)1900mybn}
37. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {DNA)1750 mybn} {genetic)1750
mybn}
38. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {possible fossil)
318mybn}
39. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 920 mybn}
40. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {possible fossil) 318mybn}
41. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {certain fossil)
201mybn}
42. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {certain fossil) 201mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). (has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch)
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
1,040,000,000 YBN
38 39 40 41 42 		313) The ciliophora, apicomplexa and
dinoflagelatta are under the title
alveolata because they have an alveolar
membrane system, which contains
flattened membrane-bound sacs (alveoli)
lying beneath the outer cell
membrane.28

In dinoflagellates, the chromosomes are
always visible and do not condense
prior to mitosis. The chromosomes are
attached to the nuclear envelope, which
persists during mitosis.29

The main method of reproduction of the
dinoflagellates is by longitudinal cell
division, with each daughter cell
receiving one of the flagella and a
portion of the theca and then
constructing the missing parts in a
very intricate sequence. Some nonmotile
species form zoospores, which may be
colonial. A number of species reproduce
sexually, mostly by isogamy, but a few
species reproduce by anisogamy.30

Dinoflagellate zygotes are similar to
some acritarchs (early eukaryote
fossils).31

The earliest undisputed, structural
fossils of dinoflagellates are cysts
dating from the Triassic (251-201 Ma32
), with a few likely Permian records.
Some Silurian (c410 Ma) fossils have
been attributed to the group but the
relation is uncertain. Acritarchs are
microfossils with no known affinity.
Some people have tried to link
acritarchs with dinoflagellates. Some
later acritarchs from the Jurassic and
Cretaceous, have been shown to be
dinoflagellate cysts and so are no
longer treated like acritarchs. A
correlation has been noted between the
presence of triaromatic dinosteroids
and acritarch abundance, implying that
these acritarchs may be the cysts of
ancestral dinoflagellates.33

If acritachs are dinoflagellates, then
dinoflagellates may date back to at
least 1.8 billion years34 and perhaps
even 3.5 billion years to the earliest
known acritarchs35 .
Dinosterane,
derived from dinosterol produced by
dinoflagellates, occurs in the 1.1 Ga
Nonesuch Formation, in the United
States.36 37
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
8. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
12. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
13. ^ "dinoflagellate." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 26 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
18. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
19. ^ "dinoflagellate." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 26 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
20. ^ "coenocyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coenocyte
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Delwiche, Charles F.,
"The Origin and Evolution of
Dinoflagellates", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
23. ^
Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll
and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing and
Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {Dinosterane molecular
fossils)1100 my}
24. ^ Pratt, L. M.,
Summons, R. E. and Hieshima, G. B.:
1991, Sterane and Triterpane Biomarkers
in the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55,
911–916.
25. ^
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&
esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CEMQFjAB&url
=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geosociety.org%2Fscien
ce%2Ftimescale%2F&ei=Lx_1TuuwFqn8iQLx45S
LDQ&usg=AFQjCNGk2_p_MG74VBwM9lPw388A8dT7
mg&sig2=nV7SC9_xJtVzK8NrVHRU3Q
26. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
27. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
28. ^
Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
Second Edition, 2003, p135.
29. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P8047&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
30. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P8047&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
31. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P8047&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
32. ^
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&
esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CEMQFjAB&url
=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geosociety.org%2Fscien
ce%2Ftimescale%2F&ei=Lx_1TuuwFqn8iQLx45S
LDQ&usg=AFQjCNGk2_p_MG74VBwM9lPw388A8dT7
mg&sig2=nV7SC9_xJtVzK8NrVHRU3Q
33. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
34. ^ A. H. Knoll, E.
J. Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen,
"Eukaryotic Organisms in Proterozoic
Oceans", Philosophical Transactions:
Biological Sciences , Vol. 361, No.
1470, Major Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn}
35. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
{3.2 bybn}
36. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew
H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {Dinosterane molecular
fossils)1100 my}
37. ^ Pratt, L. M.,
Summons, R. E. and Hieshima, G. B.:
1991, Sterane and Triterpane Biomarkers
in the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55,
911–916.
38. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {DNA)1040 mybn}
39. ^
Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll
and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing and
Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {Dinosterane molecular
fossils)1100 my}
40. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J.
Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen,
"Eukaryotic Organisms in Proterozoic
Oceans", Philosophical Transactions:
Biological Sciences , Vol. 361, No.
1470, Major Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn} {Dinosterane
molecular fossils)1100 my}
41. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {940 mybn}
42. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {430 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1973mybn)
[2] Sandra L.
Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert,
W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level
Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on
Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol
290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and
apicomplexa branch (1600mybn)
[3] Pratt, L. M.,
Summons, R. E. and Hieshima, G. B.:
1991, Sterane and Triterpane Biomarkers
in the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 911–916
[4] J.J.
Brocks, R.E. Summons, 8.03 -
Sedimentary Hydrocarbons, Biomarkers
for Early Life, In: Editors-in-Chief:
Heinrich D. Holland and Karl K.
Turekian, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Treatise
on Geochemistry, Pergamon, Oxford,
2003, Pages 63-115, ISBN 9780080437514,
10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08127-5. (http:/
/www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p
ii/B0080437516081275)
[5] Moldowan, J. Michael et al.
“Chemostratigraphic reconstruction of
biofacies: Molecular evidence linking
cyst-forming dinoflagellates with
pre-Triassic ancestors.” Geology 24.2
(1996): 159 -162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf
[6] Raven, Evert, Eichhorn, "Biology of
Plants", (New York: Worth Publishers,
1992). p98-99
 
[1] dino4: Dinoflagellates have an
armor shell made of plates of cellulose
(the same material as in paper or a
cotton shirt)
source: dino4=http://www.mbari.org/staff
/oreilly/schoolPresentation/oceancolor/d
inoflagellates.html

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
1,005,000,000 YBN
26 		306) Earliest certain Stramenopiles
fossil a xanthophyte (or yellow-green
algae19 ): "Palaeovaucheria".20 21 22
23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Xanthophyta." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/680191/Xanthophyta>.
2. ^ Hermann, T. N. 1981. "Nitchatye
mikroorganizmy Lakhandin-skoi svity
reki Mai.", Paleontologicheskii
Zhurnal 1981(2):126- 131. English:
"Filamentous microorganisms in the
Lakhanda Formation on the Maya
River.", Paleontological Journal
1981(2):100- 107.
3. ^ Hermann, T. N., and
Timofeev, B. S. 1974. "Mitoz i
drevnikh vodoroslei.", Pp. 5-6 in
B. V. Timofeev, ed.
"Mikrofitofossilii Proterozoia i
Rannego", Paleozoia SSSR. Nauka,
Leningrad.
4. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023
5. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "A
Vaucheriacean Alga from the Middle
Neoproterozoic of Spitsbergen:
Implications for the Evolution of
Proterozoic Eukaryotes and the Cambrian
Explosion", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 231-252 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096845
6. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0012759
7. ^ "Xanthophyta." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/680191/Xanthophyta>.
8. ^ Hermann, T. N. 1981. "Nitchatye
mikroorganizmy Lakhandin-skoi svity
reki Mai.", Paleontologicheskii
Zhurnal 1981(2):126- 131. English:
"Filamentous microorganisms in the
Lakhanda Formation on the Maya
River.", Paleontological Journal
1981(2):100- 107.
9. ^ Hermann, T. N., and
Timofeev, B. S. 1974. "Mitoz i
drevnikh vodoroslei.", Pp. 5-6 in
B. V. Timofeev, ed.
"Mikrofitofossilii Proterozoia i
Rannego", Paleozoia SSSR. Nauka,
Leningrad.
10. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023
11. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "A
Vaucheriacean Alga from the Middle
Neoproterozoic of Spitsbergen:
Implications for the Evolution of
Proterozoic Eukaryotes and the Cambrian
Explosion", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 231-252 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096845
12. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0012759
13. ^ "Xanthophyta." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/680191/Xanthophyta>.
14. ^ Hermann, T. N. 1981.
"Nitchatye mikroorganizmy
Lakhandin-skoi svity reki Mai.",
Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal
1981(2):126- 131. English:
"Filamentous microorganisms in the
Lakhanda Formation on the Maya
River.", Paleontological Journal
1981(2):100- 107.
15. ^ Hermann, T. N.,
and Timofeev, B. S. 1974. "Mitoz i
drevnikh vodoroslei.", Pp. 5-6 in
B. V. Timofeev, ed.
"Mikrofitofossilii Proterozoia i
Rannego", Paleozoia SSSR. Nauka,
Leningrad.
16. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023
17. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "A
Vaucheriacean Alga from the Middle
Neoproterozoic of Spitsbergen:
Implications for the Evolution of
Proterozoic Eukaryotes and the Cambrian
Explosion", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 231-252 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096845
18. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0012759
19. ^ "Xanthophyta." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/680191/Xanthophyta>.
20. ^ Hermann, T. N. 1981.
"Nitchatye mikroorganizmy
Lakhandin-skoi svity reki Mai.",
Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal
1981(2):126- 131. English:
"Filamentous microorganisms in the
Lakhanda Formation on the Maya
River.", Paleontological Journal
1981(2):100- 107.
21. ^ Hermann, T. N.,
and Timofeev, B. S. 1974. "Mitoz i
drevnikh vodoroslei.", Pp. 5-6 in
B. V. Timofeev, ed.
"Mikrofitofossilii Proterozoia i
Rannego", Paleozoia SSSR. Nauka,
Leningrad.
22. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023
23. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "A
Vaucheriacean Alga from the Middle
Neoproterozoic of Spitsbergen:
Implications for the Evolution of
Proterozoic Eukaryotes and the Cambrian
Explosion", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 231-252 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096845
24. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0012759
25. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023
26. ^ A.H Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt,
and P Cohen, "Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023
(Lakhanda Group) Siberia25  
[1] [t Apparently this is not
Paleovaucheria (f) Segmentothallus
asperus from the Lakhanda succession, a
large uniseriate filament; From: A.H
Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt, and P
Cohen, ''Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans'', Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/361/1470/1023/F3.large.jp
g

[2] Vaucheria has siphonaceous,
coenocytic filaments that can form
feltlike mats, earning it the nickname
''water felt''. Cytokinesis does not
usually follow mitosis, so the cells
retain multiple nuclei. The thallus has
cross walls only where gametes or
zoospores were produced, and may be
branched. The cytoplasm of Vaucheria
is pushed to the cell periphery by
large vacuoles, and contains many
nuclei and discoid plastids. The
plastids can change their orientation
in response to changes in light levels.
The large cells rely on cytoplasmic
streaming to move materials around as
needed. Researchers have found
fossils in one billion- year-old
Siberian deposits that are very similar
to Vaucheria, indicating that the genus
has been evolving for quite some time.
Over 70 species are known to
science. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Vauc
heria_Key252.jpg
1,000,000,000 YBN
2 		154)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
1,000,000,000 YBN
19 20 		223)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
7. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
12. ^
"Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
17. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
18. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
19. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1460mybn)
20. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=71577&tree=0.1
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridiomy
cota
[3]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chytri
diomycetes&submit=Submit
 
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm

[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
1,000,000,000 YBN
18 		324) Protists (Mesomycetozoea
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u13 } (also called
DRIPS).14

Mesomycetozoea are in the protist
Phylum Choanozoa (which includes
Choanoflagellates).15 This phylum
contains the first protozoans
(Choanoflagellates), thought to be the
ancestor of sponges.16

DRIP is an acronym for a small group of
parasites mostly of fish and other
freshwater animals.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1000 MYBN (end of
Mesoproterozoic}

MORE INFO
[1] Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge
MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, et al.
2008 Multigene Phylogeny of Choanozoa
and the Origin of Animals. PLoS ONE
3(5): e2098.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002098
[2] Leonel Mendoza, John W. Taylor, and
Libero Ajello, "THE CLASS
MESOMYCETOZOEA: A Heterogeneous Group
of Microorganisms at the Animal-Fungal
Boundary", Annual Review of
Microbiology October 2002, Vol. 56:
315-344. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/full/10.1146/annurev.micro.56.012302.
160950
 
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg

[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
985,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 		309) Protist Phylum Oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu24 } evolves according to
genetic comparison, (includes the Class
Oomycetes25 ) (Water molds).26 27 28 29


Oomycetes (Water molds), with about 580
species, vary from unicellular, to
multicellular highly brached
filamentous forms.30

Oomycetes have mitochondria with
tubular christae.31

Oomycetes grow by closed (or nearly
closed) mitosis with pairs of
centrioles near the poles.32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
5. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life",
2009. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
18. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life",
2009. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
20. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
21. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
22. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
23. ^ Raven, Evert, Eichhorn, "Biology
of Plants", (New York: Worth
Publishers, 1992).
24. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life",
2009. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
26. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
27. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
28. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
29. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
30. ^ Raven, Evert, Eichhorn, "Biology
of Plants", (New York: Worth
Publishers, 1992).
31. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2734&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
32. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
33. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {985}
34. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Term
s/coeno128.html#coeno128
[2] "Coenocyte". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocyte
[3]
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultrane
t/BiologyPages/P/Protists.html#Water_Mol
ds
[4]
http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/16cm05/1
116/16protists.htm
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
965,000,000 YBN
2 		155)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
900,000,000 YBN
30 31 32 33 		326)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
13. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
17. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
19. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
20. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
23. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
24. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
25. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
26. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
27. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
28. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
29. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
30. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano) {900
MYBN}
31. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {900 MYBN}
32. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1020 mybn}
33. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano) {1450
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting
a Tree", Science, (2003) .
[2]
"Ichthyosporea". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://species.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthy
osporea
 
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg

[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
900,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 		6281)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
8. ^ "Rhizaria."Answers.com 28 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rhizaria
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ "Radiolaria."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 28
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
12. ^ "Rhizaria."Answers.com 28 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rhizaria
13. ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (2002).
"The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes
and phylogenetic classification of
Protozoa". International Journal of
Systematic and Evolutionary
Microbiology 52 (2): 297–354. ISSN
1466-5026. PMID 11931142. Retrieved
2007-06-08. http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/
cgi/content/abstract/52/2/297
14. ^
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/bi
ani/msg/Amoeboids/Rizharia.html
Medlin, L. , Kooistra, W. , Potter, D.
, Saanders, G. and Wandersen, R.
(1997): Phylogenetic relationships of
the 'golden algae' (haptophytes,
heterokont chromophytes) and their
plastids , The origin of the algae and
their plastids (D Bhattacharya, ed )
Plant systematics and evolution (Suppl
) http://epic.awi.de/2100/
AND http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.
pdf {900 my}
16. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=haptophyta&submit=Sea
rch {900 my}
17. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my} {754 my}
18. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1600 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Moreira D, von der Heyden S,
Bass D, López-García P, Chao E,
Cavalier-Smith T (July 2007). "Global
eukaryote phylogeny: Combined small-
and large-subunit ribosomal DNA trees
support monophyly of Rhizaria, Retaria
and Excavata". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
44 (1): 255–66.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retriev
e/pii/S1055-7903(06)00433-7
[2]
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=alveolates&submit=Sea
rch
[3] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120
 
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
855,000,000 YBN
21 22 		286) In sponges all cells are
"totipotent", which means that every
cell is capable of becoming any of the
sponge's different cell types. Any
isolated cell is capable of growing an
entire new sponge. In sponges there is
no distinction between germ line and
soma.18

Some people think that multicellular
organisms arose at least six times: in
animals, fungi and several groups of
algae.19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506.
2. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
5. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-506.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
11. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Shuhai
Xiao, Yun Zhang, Andrew H. Knoll,
"Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite", Nature
391, 553-558 (5 February
1998) http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dyn
aPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n666
7/full/391553a0_fs.html
14. ^ Buss, L. W. The Evolution of
Individuality (Princeton Univ. Press,
NJ, 1987).
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
16. ^ Shuhai
Xiao, Yun Zhang, Andrew H. Knoll,
"Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite", Nature
391, 553-558 (5 February
1998) http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dyn
aPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n666
7/full/391553a0_fs.html
17. ^ Buss, L. W. The Evolution of
Individuality (Princeton Univ. Press,
NJ, 1987).
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
19. ^ Shuhai
Xiao, Yun Zhang, Andrew H. Knoll,
"Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite", Nature
391, 553-558 (5 February
1998) http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dyn
aPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n666
7/full/391553a0_fs.html
20. ^ Buss, L. W. The Evolution of
Individuality (Princeton Univ. Press,
NJ, 1987).
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
(c850my)
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholas H. Barton,
"Evolution", 2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
[2] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2003, 188-191
 
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg

[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
850,000,000 YBN
47 48 49 50 		81) The first animal and first metazoan
evolves (Porifera: sponges). Metazoans
are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). There are only
three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians
(which include all insects and
vertebrates).33 34 35

Sponges have a variety of different
cell types: cells that line surfaces
(pinacocytes, porocytes, choanocytes),
cells that secrete the skeleton
(collencytes, sclerocytes), contractile
cells (myocytes), archaeocytes
(amoeboid cells that play a major role
in digestion and food transport), and
several other cell types.36

Sponges have many holes which is why
they are good at holding water in the
bath.37

All sponge cells are totipotent and are
capable of regrowing a new sponge.38
Mixtures of sponge cells of two species
reconstitute into the separate sponge
species. The process involves cell-cell
recognition, which is a basic attribute
for building and retaining a
multicellular body. The molecular
mechanisms that guide this process
involve many proteoglycans (compounds
made of 95% polysaccharide and 5%
protein39 ) on the cell surface.40

Sponges have no nerve cells or
muscles.41 42 Like plants their
movement is at the cellular level.
Sponges live by passing a constant
current of water through their body
from which they filter food
particles.43

The sponges have no obvious symmetry
while Cnidarians have radial symmetry,
and Ctenophores have biradial symmetry.
Porifera have a simple level of
cellular integration and are loosely
constructed, but all other later
animals including cnidarians and
ctenophores have cells which are
grouped together as tissues that are
arranged in layers.44

All sponges are capable of sexual and
asexual reproduction. There is a large
diversity of sexual reproductive
sequences in sponges. Sperm are formed
from choanocytes, and eggs from
choanocytes or archaeocytes. Generally,
sperm are contained in spermatic cysts,
which are choanocyte chambers
transformed by spermatogenesis. Eggs
are distributed throughout the mesohyl.
Some sponges are oviparous (zygote
develops outside the body). Following
gamete release, fertilization and
development occur externally. Other
sponges are viviparous, with
fertilization and development both
occurring in the mesohyl.45

Some sponges can live for over 1000
years.46
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
6. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
17. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
18. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p101.
21. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
23. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
24. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p18-19.
27. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p497-501.
28. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
29. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
30. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
31. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
32. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p101.
33. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
34. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
35. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
36. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
37. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-501.
38. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
39. ^ "Proteoglycan." The
Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science .
Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006,
2007. Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
40. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19.
41. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
42. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
43. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-501.
44. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
45. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
46. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p101.
47. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
48. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {c800my}
49. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
50. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (600?)
 
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g

[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
850,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 		224)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
17. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1250mybn)
18. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M.
Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1 Rebecca
L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos,
"Molecular Evidence for the Early
Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1107mybn)
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). (1107mybn)
20. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850m)
 
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html

[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
850,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		517)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p20.
3. ^ "testis." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
5. ^ "testis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
7. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p20.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c850my) {based on evolution of
sponge) c850my}
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
 
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
804,000,000 YBN
25 26 27 		319) Protist Phylum "Radiolaria"
{rADEOlaREo19 } evolves now according
to genetic comparison. Radiolaria are
ocean protozoa, many with silica
shells20 .21 22

Radiolarians are protists found in the
upper layers of all oceans.
Radiolarians, are mostly spherically
symmetrical, and known for their
complex and beautifully tiny skeletons,
called "tests". Tests are usually made
of silica. Pseudopodia extend through
the perforated skeleton. A chitinous
central capsule encloses the nuclei and
divides the cytoplasm into two zones.
The outer cytoplasm contains many
vacuoles that control the organism’s
buoyancy.23

Asexual reproduction is by budding,
binary fission, or multiple fission.
Generally, the skeleton divides, and
each daughter cell regenerates the
missing half. In some cases, however,
one daughter cell escapes and develops
an entirely new shell, the other
daughter remaining within the parent
skeleton.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
8. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
12. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^
"silica." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Aug.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silica
16. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
17. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
18. ^ A. Braun, J. Chen, D. Waloszek
and A. Maas, "First Early Cambrian
Radiolaria", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2007, v.
286, p.
143-149. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/
content/286/1/143.short
and http://www.core-orsten-research.de/
Publications/PDF_Paper/ulm_team/2007b_Br
aun_etal.pdf
19. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
20. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
23. ^
"radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
24. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
25. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
26. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}
27. ^ A. Braun, J.
Chen, D. Waloszek and A. Maas, "First
Early Cambrian Radiolaria", Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
2007, v. 286, p.
143-149. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/
content/286/1/143.short
and http://www.core-orsten-research.de/
Publications/PDF_Paper/ulm_team/2007b_Br
aun_etal.pdf {Earliest radiolaria
fossils) 540 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates (1600my)
[2] Keeling, Patrick J.
et al. "The tree of eukaryotes." Trends
in Ecology & Evolution 20.12 (2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
[3] Delsuc, Frederic, Henner Brinkmann,
and Herve Philippe. "Phylogenomics and
the reconstruction of the tree of
life." Nat Rev Genet 6.5 (2005):
361-375. http://www.nature.com/nrg/jour
nal/v6/n5/abs/nrg1603.html
[4]
http://www.bio.georgiasouthern.edu/Bio-h
ome/Pratt/boo305.htm
[5]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[6]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ra
diolaria.html
[7] "Polycystine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycystine

 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
804,000,000 YBN
29 30 31 32 33 		321) Protist Phylum "Foraminifera"
evolves now according to genetic
comparison.19 20

Foraminifera (or "forams" for short21
), are unicellular protists
characterized by long, fine pseudopodia
that extend from a uninucleated or
multinucleated cytoplasmic body encased
within a test, or shell. Shell sizes
may be as large as 5 cm in diameter and
vary in shape and chemical
composition.22

Foraminifera are the most diverse and
most widely studied of microfossils.
Forams are related to the amoeba but
unlike an amoeba they have a shell.
Forams secret skeletons of calcium
carbonate (the mineral calcite), which
is different than radiolarians which
secrete skeletons of silica. Most are
marine23 and live on or in the sea
bottom (are benthic) but one family,
Globigerinidae, are tiny and buoyant
and make up a major part of the marine
plankton.24

Foraminifera, especially the calcareous
forms, have a fossil record stretching
back to the Early Cambrian25 26 , and
are especially important
biostratigraphically.27

Much of the Earth's chalk, limestone,
and marble is composed largely of
foraminiferan tests.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
8. ^ "foraminiferan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212983/foraminiferan>.
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p175.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^
Prothero, "Evolution: What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p175.
16. ^
"foraminiferan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212983/foraminiferan>.
17. ^ "Foraminifera." A Dictionary of
Geography. Oxford University Press,
1992, 1997, 2004. Answers.com 30 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/foraminifer
a-1
18. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p175.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
20. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
21. ^
Prothero, "Evolution: What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p175.
22. ^
"foraminiferan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212983/foraminiferan>.
23. ^ "Foraminifera." A Dictionary of
Geography. Oxford University Press,
1992, 1997, 2004. Answers.com 30 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/foraminifer
a-1
24. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p175.
25. ^ Culver, S. J. (1991) Science 254,
689–691.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkTyp
e=ABST&journalCode=sci&resid=254/5032/68
9
and http://www.sciencemag.org/content/2
54/5032/689.full.pdf
26. ^ Culver, S. J. (1994) J.
Foraminiferal Res. 24,
191–202. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijli
nk?linkType=ABST&journalCode=gsjfr&resid
=24/3/191
27. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Eukarya/Units/Rhi
zaria/Rhizaria.html
28. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p165-167.
29. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
30. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}
31. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p165-167. {earliest
fossils, lower Cambrian) c540 my}
32. ^
Culver, S. J. (1991) Science 254,
689–691.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkTyp
e=ABST&journalCode=sci&resid=254/5032/68
9
and http://www.sciencemag.org/content/2
54/5032/689.full.pdf {earliest fossils,
lower Cambrian) c540 my}
33. ^ Culver, S.
J. (1994) J. Foraminiferal Res. 24,
191–202. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijli
nk?linkType=ABST&journalCode=gsjfr&resid
=24/3/191 {earliest fossils, lower
Cambrian) c540 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). has 1600mybn
for excavates, discricristales,
rhizaria, chromalveolates (1600mybn)
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[3]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/fo
ram.html
[4] "Allogromiida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allogromiid
a
[5] "Fusulinid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusulinid
[6] "Globigerinida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globigerini
da
[7] "Miliolid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliolid
[8] "Rotaliida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaliida
[9] "Textulariida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textulariid
a
[10]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P4356&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
[11]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2007&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
780,000,000 YBN
32 		79) Metazoan Phylum "Placozoa"
evolves.22 23

Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular.24 The only known
species in this phylum is Trichoplax
adhaerens. Trichoplax lives in the sea
and feeds on single celled organisms,
mostly algae. Trichoplax has only 4
cell types compared to the more than
200 cell types in humans. Trichoplax
has two main cell layers, like a
cnidarian or ctenophore. Between these
two layers are a few contractile cells
that are similar to muscle cells25 ,
however placozoans lack muscle and
nerve cells26 27 and have no symmetry
or organs28 . Trichoplax has only 1 hox
gene (Trox-229 ).30

Possible eggs have been observed, but
they degrade at the 32-64 cell stage.
Neither embryonic development nor sperm
have been observed, however Trichoplax
genomes show evidence of sexual
reproduction.31
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Grell, K.G.,
Gruner, H.E., Kilian, E.F., 1980.
Einfu¨hrung. In: Graner, H.E. (Ed.),
Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie, Vol.
1: Wirbellose Tiere: I. Einfu¨hrung
Protozoa, Placozoa, Porifera. Fischer,
Stuttgart.
10. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
11. ^ Bernd Schierwater, Kerstin Kuhn,
Homology of Hox Genes and the Zootype
Concept in Early Metazoan Evolution, ,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
375-381, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0489. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398904894)
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
16. ^ Grell, K.G.,
Gruner, H.E., Kilian, E.F., 1980.
Einfu¨hrung. In: Graner, H.E. (Ed.),
Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie, Vol.
1: Wirbellose Tiere: I. Einfu¨hrung
Protozoa, Placozoa, Porifera. Fischer,
Stuttgart.
17. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
18. ^ Schierwater, Bernd. “My
favorite animal, Trichoplax
adhaerens.” BioEssays 27.12 (2005) :
1294-1302. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/bies.20320/abstract
19. ^ Bernd Schierwater, Kerstin Kuhn,
Homology of Hox Genes and the Zootype
Concept in Early Metazoan Evolution, ,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
375-381, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0489. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398904894)
20. ^ Bernd Schierwater, Kerstin Kuhn,
Homology of Hox Genes and the Zootype
Concept in Early Metazoan Evolution, ,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
375-381, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0489. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398904894)
21. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
26. ^ Grell, K.G.,
Gruner, H.E., Kilian, E.F., 1980.
Einfu¨hrung. In: Graner, H.E. (Ed.),
Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie, Vol.
1: Wirbellose Tiere: I. Einfu¨hrung
Protozoa, Placozoa, Porifera. Fischer,
Stuttgart.
27. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
28. ^ Schierwater, Bernd. “My
favorite animal, Trichoplax
adhaerens.” BioEssays 27.12 (2005) :
1294-1302. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/bies.20320/abstract
29. ^ Bernd Schierwater, Kerstin Kuhn,
Homology of Hox Genes and the Zootype
Concept in Early Metazoan Evolution, ,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
375-381, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0489. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398904894)
30. ^ Bernd Schierwater, Kerstin Kuhn,
Homology of Hox Genes and the Zootype
Concept in Early Metazoan Evolution, ,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
375-381, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0489. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398904894)
31. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {780 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Srivastava, Mansi et al.
“The Trichoplax genome and the nature
of placozoans.” Nature 454.7207
(2008) :
955-960. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v454/n7207/abs/nature07191.html
[2] Dellaporta, Stephen L. et al.
“Mitochondrial genome of Trichoplax
adhaerens supports Placozoa as the
basal lower metazoan phylum.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.23 (2006) : 8751 -8756.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
23/8751.full
 
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg
767,000,000 YBN
36 37 38 		312) Protist Phylum "Ciliophora"
("Ciliates") evolves according to
genetic comparison (includes
parameceum).26 27 28 Earliest
mitochondria with tubular christae.29
30

There are about 12,000 described
species of ciliates.31 Ciliates are
very common in benthic and planktonic
communities in both marine and fresh
water. Both sessile and free moving
types are known and many are ecto- or
endosymbionts, including some parasitic
species. Most are single celled, but
branching and linear colonies are known
in several species. Ciliates have a
fixed shape which is maintained by the
alveolar membrane system and underlying
fibrous layer. Ciliates use their cilia
for locomotion. Mitochondria in
ciliates have tubular cristae. Ciliates
have two distinct types of nuclei, a
hyperpolyploid macronucleus and a
diploid micronucleus. Ciliates
reproduce by asexual reproduction using
transverse binary fission, and by
sexual reproduction using conjugation:
a pair of ciliates fuse and exchange
micronuclei through a cytoplasmic
connection at a point of joining.
Ciliates include many different feeding
types. Some are filter feeders, others
capture and inject other protists or
small invertebrates, many eat algal
filaments or diatoms, some eat attached
bacteria, and a few are saprophytic
parasites (live on dead or decaying
organic matter32 ). In almost all
ciliates feeding is restricted to a
specialized area containing the
"cytostome or "cell mouth". Food
vacuoles are formed at the cytosome and
then circulated through the cytoplasm
as digestion occurs. A few ciliates
(for example Laboea, and Stronbidium)
contain photosynthetically functional
chloroplasts derived from injested
algae. The chloroplasts lie free in the
cytoplasm, beneath the pellicle, where
they actively contribute to the
ciliate's carbon budget.33

A few ciliates (for example
tintinnids), secrete external
skeletons, or loricae, which have been
found in the fossil record as early as
the Late Proterozoic in the Doushantuo
Formation (580 million years ago).
Biomarkers for ciliates have been found
dating back ever farther to 850 million
years ago.34 35
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
7. ^ Kwang
W. Jeon, "International Review Of
Cytology: A Survey of Cell Biology",
2006,
p153. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAdk7-cQ1NkC&pg=PA153
8. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
12. ^ Kwang
W. Jeon, "International Review Of
Cytology: A Survey of Cell Biology",
2006,
p153. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAdk7-cQ1NkC&pg=PA153
13. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
14. ^ "ciliate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ciliate
15. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
17. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
18. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
19. ^ Kwang
W. Jeon, "International Review Of
Cytology: A Survey of Cell Biology",
2006,
p153. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAdk7-cQ1NkC&pg=PA153
20. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
21. ^ "ciliate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ciliate
22. ^ "saprophytic." Grzimek's Animal
Life Encyclopedia. The Gale Group, Inc,
2005. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saprophytic
-zoology
23. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
24. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
25. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
26. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
27. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
28. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
29. ^ Kwang
W. Jeon, "International Review Of
Cytology: A Survey of Cell Biology",
2006,
p153. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAdk7-cQ1NkC&pg=PA153
30. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
31. ^ "ciliate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ciliate
32. ^ "saprophytic." Grzimek's Animal
Life Encyclopedia. The Gale Group, Inc,
2005. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saprophytic
-zoology
33. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
34. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
35. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
36. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {750 my}
37. ^ Emmanuel J.
P. Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
38. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
 
[1] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg

[2] 2 Ciliates conjugating UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
767,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 		314)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.tabers.com/tabersonline/ub/vi
ew/Tabers/143072/26/Apicomplexa
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
5. ^
http://www.tabers.com/tabersonline/ub/vi
ew/Tabers/143072/26/Apicomplexa
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://www.tabers.com/tabersonline/ub/vi
ew/Tabers/143072/26/Apicomplexa
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
13. ^
http://www.tabers.com/tabersonline/ub/vi
ew/Tabers/143072/26/Apicomplexa
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
16. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
17. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
18. ^ Emmanuel J. P.
Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
19. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}
20. ^ Emmanuelle J.
Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm
Walter, "Recognizing and Interpreting
the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes",
Origins of Life and Evolution of
Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94,
DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {api+dino and ciliate
split)1100 my}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
 
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
750,000,000 YBN
7 		41) Cells that group as tissues that
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
{c750MYBN (Ctenophores are first
metazoans with tissues}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
750,000,000 YBN
30 31 32 33 		83) First nerve cell (neuron), and
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians.23 24
 This leads to the first ganglion and
brain.25 Earliest touch and sound
detection.26

The most primitive extant organisms
that contain a neuron cell are the
ctenophora.27

Simple and sessile cnidarians have no
sense organs, but they do have sensory
cells in both tissues that respond to
light, chemical or mechanical stimuli.
These sensory cells are often
structurally similar to those of
vertebrates. Each has a cilium that
protrudes into the water. The sensory
cells synapse (are closely spaced to)
with nerve cells, allowing the animal
to generally respond to stimuli at a
distance instead of responding at the
site of the stimulus.28

Some Cnidarians have ganglia,
aggregations of nerve cells.29
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
10. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker
Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle:
Jellyfish and the origin of
triploblasty, Developmental Biology,
Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages
14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
14. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
15. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p44.
16. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
17. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
18. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker
Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle:
Jellyfish and the origin of
triploblasty, Developmental Biology,
Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages
14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
21. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
22. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p44.
23. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
24. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker
Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle:
Jellyfish and the origin of
triploblasty, Developmental Biology,
Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages
14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
28. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
29. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p44.
30. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably) {775
MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as
first with nerve and muscle and
Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN} {750 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn}
31. ^ S OOta and N Saitou,
"Phylogenetic relationship of muscle
tissues deduced from superimposition of
gene trees.", Mol Biol Evol (1999)
16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
32. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably) {775
MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as
first with nerve and muscle and
Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN}
33. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {574mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Ghysen, A. (2003). The origin
and evolution of the nervous system.
The International journal of
developmental biology , 47 (7-8),
555-562. http://view.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
ubmed/14756331
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750mybn)
 
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg

[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
750,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		96)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
2. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
3. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
4. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
5. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
6. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p30.
8. ^ Katja
Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of
striated muscle: Jellyfish and the
origin of triploblasty, Developmental
Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750mybn) {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
10. ^ S OOta and N
Saitou, "Phylogenetic relationship of
muscle tissues deduced from
superimposition of gene trees.", Mol
Biol Evol (1999) 16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN}
 
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
750,000,000 YBN
14 		204) Earliest known fossil protozoan
(single celled nonphotosynthesizing
eukaryotes) and earliest fossil of a
testate amoeba9 .10

This fossil indicates that the last
common ancestor of animals and fungi
appeared at least 750 million years
ago.11

This fossil was found in the Grand
Canyon in Arizona.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000, pp.
360 385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
2. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p57.
3. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000,
pp. 360 385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
4. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p57.
5. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000,
pp. 360 385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
6. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p57.
7. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000,
pp. 360 385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
8. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000, pp. 360
385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
9. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000, pp. 360
385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
10. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p57.
11. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3),
2000, pp. 360 385 Testate amoebae in
the Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
12. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000, pp.
360 385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
13. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000, pp.
360 385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
14. ^ Paleobiology, 26(3), 2000, pp.
360 385 Testate amoebae in the
Neoproterozoic Era: evidence from
vase-shaped microfossils in the Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon Susannah M. Porter
and Andrew H.
Knoll http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.
1666/0022-3360%282003%29077%3C0409%3AVMF
TNC%3E2.0.CO%3B2
( black shales of Chuar Group) Grand
Canyon, Arizona, USA13  
[1] Knoll, Life on a Young Planet
COPYRIGHTED
source: Knoll, Life on a Young Planet
750,000,000 YBN
5 6 		225)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3. {c750MYBN (all
metazoans but sponges have a closable
mouth}
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
{c750MYBN (all metazoans but sponges
have a closable mouth}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
750,000,000 YBN
13 		414)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p491-493.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
5. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p491-493.
8. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
9. ^ Katja
Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of
striated muscle: Jellyfish and the
origin of triploblasty, Developmental
Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
11. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
12. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p47.
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p491-493. (c750)
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
750,000,000 YBN
32 33 34 		458) Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota"
(Arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR25 } mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL26 } fungi).27 28 29

Glomeromycota {GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu30 }
are also know by their class name
Glomeromycetes {GlO-mi-rO-mI-SETS31 }
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
7. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
12. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
15. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
17. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
,6393,6394&selected_taxon=6394
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
19. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
21. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
22. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
23. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
24. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
,6393,6394&selected_taxon=6394
25. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
26. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
28. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
29. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
30. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
31. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
,6393,6394&selected_taxon=6394
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c750mybn)
33. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1460 to 1210mybn)
34. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(estimate that between 947 and 968)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycetes&submit=Submit
 
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG

[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
713,000,000 YBN
10 		6320) Earliest chemical biomarker
evidence of animals (metazoans),
steranes associated with demosponges.6


Demosponges comprise 85% of all extant
sponge species.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Love, Gordon D. et al. "Fossil
steroids record the appearance of
Demospongiae during the Cryogenian
period." Nature 457.7230 (2009):
718-721. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v457/n7230/full/nature07673.html
2. ^ Love, Gordon D. et al. "Fossil
steroids record the appearance of
Demospongiae during the Cryogenian
period." Nature 457.7230 (2009):
718-721. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v457/n7230/full/nature07673.html
3. ^ Love, Gordon D. et al. "Fossil
steroids record the appearance of
Demospongiae during the Cryogenian
period." Nature 457.7230 (2009):
718-721. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v457/n7230/full/nature07673.html
4. ^ Mikel Becerro, "Sponge Research",
2012,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
8P44czALJAC&pg=PA19
5. ^ John N. A. Hooper, Philippe
Willenz, "Systema Porifera: A Guide to
the Classification of Sponges", Volume
1, 2002,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=O
QoxzqjQXWEC&pg=PA15 By
6. ^ Love, Gordon
D. et al. "Fossil steroids record the
appearance of Demospongiae during the
Cryogenian period." Nature 457.7230
(2009):
718-721. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v457/n7230/full/nature07673.html
7. ^ Mikel Becerro, "Sponge Research",
2012,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
8P44czALJAC&pg=PA19
8. ^ John N. A. Hooper, Philippe
Willenz, "Systema Porifera: A Guide to
the Classification of Sponges", Volume
1, 2002,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=O
QoxzqjQXWEC&pg=PA15 By
9. ^ Love, Gordon
D. et al. "Fossil steroids record the
appearance of Demospongiae during the
Cryogenian period." Nature 457.7230
(2009):
718-721. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v457/n7230/full/nature07673.html
10. ^ Love, Gordon D. et al. "Fossil
steroids record the appearance of
Demospongiae during the Cryogenian
period." Nature 457.7230 (2009):
718-721. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v457/n7230/full/nature07673.html
(Huqf Supergroup) South Oman Salt
Basin, Oman9  
[1] Description Nederlands:
Tonspons Date Source Own
work Author Albert Kok GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Barrel6.jpg/123
6px-Barrel6.jpg

[2] Description English: Monanchora
arbuscula (Pink Lumpy
sponge) Français: Monanchora
arbuscula (éponge rose
grumeleuse) Date 12 September
2010 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood Nick
Hobgood GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Monanchora_ungu
ifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_sponge%29.jpg/1023px
-Monanchora_unguifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_spon
ge%29.jpg
700,000,000 YBN
68 69 70 		82) Radiata Phylum Cnidarians
{NIDAREeNS} evolve (sea anemones,
corals, jellyfish).49 50 51 52
Earliest animal eye.53 54

Cnidaria {NIDAREeo} are a phylum of
invertebrate animals composed of the
sea anemones, corals, jellyfish, and
hydroids. Cnidarians are radially
symmetrical. The mouth, located at the
center of one end of the body, opens
into a gastrovascular cavity, which is
used for digestion and distribution of
food, there is no anus. Cnidarians have
a body wall composed of three layers:
an outer epidermis, an inner
gastrodermis, and a middle mesogloea.
Tentacles encircle the mouth and are
used in part for food capture.
Specialized stinging structures, called
nematocysts, are a characteristic of
the phylum and are located in the
tentacles and often in other body
parts. These contain a coiled fiber
that can be extruded suddenly. Some
nematocysts contain toxic substances
and are defense mechanisms, while
others are adhesive, helping to anchor
the animal or to entangle prey.55

Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa. A sea
anemone or Hydra is a typical polyp:
non-moving, mouth on top, bottom end
fixed to the ground like a plant. A
jellyfish is a typical medusa, swimming
through the open sea. Many cnidarians
have both polyp and medusa forms,
alternating them through life cycle,
like caterpillar and butterfly. Polyps
often reproduce by budding, like
plants. A new baby polyp grows on the
side of a freshwater Hydra, eventually
breaking off as a separate individual
clone of the parent. In many marine
relatives of Hydra, the clone doesn't
break off but stays attached, and
becomes a branch like a plant.
Sometimes more than one kind of polyp
grows on the same polyp tree,
specialized for different roles, such
as feeding, defense, or reproduction.56


Cnidarians have a nervous system which
is a network, not centralized into a
brain, ganglia or major nerve trunks.
They also have muscles which are
contracted to propel them. Their
digestive organ is a single cavity with
only one opening which is both mouth
and anus. They have no circulatory
system. All cnidarians have cells
called cnidocytes, each with its own
cell-sized harpoon called a cnida. All
cnidarians have cnidae, and only
cnidarians have them. Once triggered
the harpoon cell cannot be used again,
but are constantly replaced.57

Simple and sessile cnidarians have no
sense organs, but they do have sensory
cells in both tissues that respond to
light, chemical or mechanical stimuli.
These sensory cells are often
structurally similar to those of
vertebrates. Each has a cilium that
protrudes into the water. The sensory
cells and nerve cells are separated by
a small space (synapse), allowing the
animal to generally respond to stimuli
at a distance instead of responding at
the site of the stimulus. Medusae and
complex motile colonies of Cnidaria
have more complex sense organs: the
statocyts detect the degree of tilt of
the body, and the ocelli {OSeLlE or
OSeLlI58 } are light receptors.
Cnidarian ocelli range from patches of
photoreceptors alternating with pigment
cells, to complex structures in which
the light receptors have a cup shaped
shield of pigmented cells behind them
and are covered by a lens formed from
cytoplasmic extensions from neighboring
cells {see image}.59

Cnidarians see in black or white,
because their eyes have only one
pigment, for color vision the eye must
have more than one pigment.60 61

Porifera (sponges have no obvious
symmetry), while Cnidarians are
radially symmetrical and Ctenophores
are biradially symmetrical.62

There are differences between Cnidaria
and Ctenophora. In Cnidaria, cells have
a single flagellum or cilium, while the
cells of Ctenophora have large numbers
of cilia. Stinging cells called
cnidocytes, are unique to cnidarians,
and adhesive cells called "coloblasts"
are unique to Ctenophora. Ctenophora
swim by using arrays of fused cilia
arranged in eight rows, while the
Cnidaria move by means of muscle
contraction of an epithelial cell.
Cnidarians lack true muscle cells. The
muscle fibers in Cnidaria are always
extensions of an epithelial cell.
Ctenophora have true muscles. Unlike
Cnidaria, Ctenophora have gonoducts and
gonopores by which gametes exit the
body.63

Cnidaria do not have complex
reproductive organs; gonads develop in
the body wall or mesenteries by
differentiation of interstitial cells.
In many species the gonads are absorbed
again after spawning has occurred.
Gonads may be formed in the tissue and
gametes released directly into the
water or gonads may be endodermal and
the gametes released into the water
through breaks in the body wall or
through the mouth. Genders are usually
separate, but some species are
hermaphroditic (produce both ova and
sperm64 ). Sperm are released into the
water and fertilization is usually
external. In species that brood their
eggs, fertilization occurs at the
brooding site, which may be in the
gastrovascular cavity or on the outside
of the body. Sperm are often attracted
to the eggs by highly specific
chemicals.65

Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the
gastrovascular cavity, but once the
food is reduced to particles small
enough to enter the digestive cells of
the gastrodermis, digestion is
completed inside the cell
(intracellularly).66

Cnidarians make the great barrier reef
which is more than 2,000 kilometers
long. The cnidarian, the box jellyfish,
is one of the most dangerously venomous
animals on earth.67
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
6. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
11. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
12. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
15. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
16. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
17. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
18. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
22. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
23. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
24. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
25. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 22 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
27. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
28. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
29. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
30. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p48.
31. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
32. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
33. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
34. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
35. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
36. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
37. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 22 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
38. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
39. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
40. ^ "ocellus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ocellus
41. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
42. ^ "Biology:
Colour-blind", Nature 463, 1003 (25
February 2010)
43. ^ Megan O'Connor,Anders
Garm,Justin N. Marshall,Nathan S.
Hart,Peter Ekström,Charlotta Skogh,
and Dan-Eric Nilsson, "Visual pigment
in the lens eyes of the box jellyfish
Chiropsella bronzie", Proc. R. Soc. B
June 22, 2010 277 (1689) 1843-1848;
published ahead of print February 10,
2010, doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.2248
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/277/1689/1843
44. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
45. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p30.
46. ^ "hermaphrodite."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2011. Answers.com 13 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermaphrodi
te
47. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
48. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p42.
49. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
50. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p477-490.
51. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
52. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 22 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
53. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
54. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
55. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 22 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
56. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
57. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
58. ^ "ocellus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ocellus
59. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
60. ^ "Biology:
Colour-blind", Nature 463, 1003 (25
February 2010)
61. ^ Megan O'Connor,Anders
Garm,Justin N. Marshall,Nathan S.
Hart,Peter Ekström,Charlotta Skogh,
and Dan-Eric Nilsson, "Visual pigment
in the lens eyes of the box jellyfish
Chiropsella bronzie", Proc. R. Soc. B
June 22, 2010 277 (1689) 1843-1848;
published ahead of print February 10,
2010, doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.2248
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/277/1689/1843
62. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
63. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p30.
64. ^ "hermaphrodite."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2011. Answers.com 13 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermaphrodi
te
65. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
66. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p42.
67. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
68. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490. (c700my)
69. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
70. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] Collins, A.G. (2002).
"Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the
Evolution of Cnidarian Life Cycles"
(PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology
15 (3): 418–432.
doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x. h
ttp://cima.uprm.edu/~n_schizas/CMOB_8676
/Collins2002.pdf
[2] Philippe, H. (April 2009).
"Phylogenomics Revives Traditional
Views on Deep Animal Relationships".
Current Biology 19: 706–712.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.052. PMID
19345102. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0960982209008057
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
[4] doi:10.1038/4631003b;
Published online 24 February
2010 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v463/n7284/full/4631003b.html
 
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg

[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
700,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 		226) The second largest Fungi phylum,
"Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu17 }
evolves now according to genetic
comparison (most mushrooms, rusts, club
fungi).18 19 20

The Division Basidiomycota is a large
taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that
includes those species that produce
spores in a club-shaped structure
called a basidium. Essentially the
sibling group of the Ascomycota, it
contains some 30,000 species (37% of
the described fungi)21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
16. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
19. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
21. ^ "Basidiomycota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomyco
ta
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(968my)
23. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1210my)
24. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (700my)
 
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg

[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
700,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 		227) The largest Fungi phylum
"Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu18 }
evolves now according to genetic
comparison: (yeasts, truffles,
Penicillium, morels, sac fungi).19 20
21

There are 47,000 described Ascomycota
species.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
16. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
20. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
21. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
23. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1009my)
24. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (1140my)
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (700my)
 
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg

[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
700,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		523)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p48.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p48.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
5. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (580my) {based on
evolution of cnidaria) 580my}
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490. (c700my)
7. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
[4] Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850my)
[5] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[6] Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
680,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		222) Fungi Ascomycota Class
"Archaeascomycetes" (fission yeast,
pneumonia fungus) evolve.1 2 3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (1140my)
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1009my)
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c700)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Ascomycota&
contgroup=Fungi
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota
  
675,000,000 YBN
2 		156)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
650,000,000 YBN
69) Start of 60 million year (Varanger)
Ice Age (650-590 mybn).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
2. ^
Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp
6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic and
Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for
accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
3. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad.
Sci. USA Vol 91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
4. ^
Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp
6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic and
Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for
accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
  
630,000,000 YBN
53 54 		107) Bilateral species evolve (two
sided symmetry).41 42 43
Earliest
animal brain (ganglion, memory).44
First triploblastic species (third
embryonic layer: the mesoderm).45

In bilaterians food enters in one end
(the mouth) and waste exists at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs: light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with catching
food.46

Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and
Ctenophora, flatworms and all later
metazoans are triploblastic.47 48 A
third embryonic layer, the mesoderm,
lies between the ectoderm and endoderm.
This layer increases the options for
the development of organs with specific
functions, formed by the association of
tissues of various kinds.49

The earliest brain (ganglion, memory)
develop in a bilaterian worm.50 51

This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".52
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
12. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
15. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
16. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
17. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
18. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
19. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396.
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
21. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
22. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
23. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
24. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p59.
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p396.
26. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p69.
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p396-400.
28. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
29. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
30. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
31. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
32. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
33. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p59.
34. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p396.
35. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p59.
36. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
37. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p59.
38. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p69.
39. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
40. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
41. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
42. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
43. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
44. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
45. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p59.
46. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p396.
47. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p59.
48. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
49. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p59.
50. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p69.
51. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
52. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
53. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
54. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
630,000,000 YBN
19 20 		403) Earliest extant bilaterian:
Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and
nemertodermatida).

The phylum Acoelomorpha (acoela flat
worms and nemertodermatida) is the
oldest surviving bilaterian.12 13 14
This begins the Subkingdom
"Bilateria".15

Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track,
anus and coelom.16 17

Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin. Flatworms
also have no circulating blood and so
their branched gut presumably
transports nutrients to all parts of
the body.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "Acoelomorpha".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "Acoelomorpha".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p472-476.
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p472-476.
13. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ "Acoelomorpha".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p472-476. (630my)
20. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (575 (fossil is older)

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
630,000,000 YBN
5 6 		459)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p61,66-67.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476. (630my)
6. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
630,000,000 YBN
15 16 		532) Cylindrical gut, anus, and
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian.12

All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans
except the Phyla Acoelomorpha13 and
Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut
with an anus, mouth, and through-put of
food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta
are the earliest bilaterians with an
anus.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
5. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
8. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
11. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
12. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
14. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{630my (first bilateral
species-acoelomates}
16. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (575
(fossil is older) {575 (first bilateral
species-acoelomates)(fossil record is
older}
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
630,000,000 YBN
7 8 		593) The genital pore, vagina, and
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p58-79.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p58-79.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p58-79.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p58-79.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
8. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
630,000,000 YBN
7 8 		660) The penis evolves in a
bilaterian.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
2. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
3. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
4. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
5. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
6. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{based on some Platyhelminthes have a
penis) 630my}
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(575 (fossil is older)

MORE INFO
[1] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
625,000,000 YBN
5 		6328)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
2. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
3. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
4. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
5. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
 
[1] Clathrulina (cla-through-line-a),
showing head region and included
amoeboid cell. Differential
interference contrast. Some rights
reserved Supplier:
micro*scope Author: David Patterson
and Aimlee Laderman CC
source: http://content62.eol.org/content
/2008/12/10/21/61316_580_360.jpg

[2] Description Cercomonas sp. /
from Lake Yuniko, Nikko, Tochigi Pref.,
Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 2007/05/07 Source O
wn work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Cercomonas_sp.jpg
610,000,000 YBN
9 		95) (Perhaps the space in between body
and gut walls separates potentially
harm-food food from mixing with and
damaging important mechanical, chemical
and other parts of the metazoan.8 )
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4-5.
5. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4-5.
7. ^
http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary
/Haemocoel
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {estimate based
on coelom being before
protostome-deutostome division, after
acoelomorph) 630-590 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "coelom." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/body-cavity

 
[1] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
25 26 27 28 29 30 		91)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
3. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
6. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
7. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
9. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
10. ^ Meert, J. G.; Gibsher, A. S.;
Levashova, N. M.; Grice, W. C.;
Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin, A. (2010).
"Glaciation and ~770 Ma Ediacara (?)
Fossils from the Lesser Karatau
Microcontinent, Kazakhstan". Gondwana
Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
11. ^ James G. Gehling, "Microbial mats
in terminal Proterozoic siliciclastics;
Ediacaran death masks", PALAIOS,
February 1999, v. 14, p.
40-57. http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/14/1/40.short
12. ^ Grazhdankin D, Gerdes G,
"Ediacaran microbial colonies." 2007
Lethaia, 40(3):
201–210 http://ipgg.academia.edu/Dmit
riyGrazhdankin/Papers/380568/Ediacaran_M
icrobial_Colonies
13. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
14. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
15. ^ Ben Waggoner, "The Ediacaran
Biotas in Space and Time", Integrative
and Comparative Biology , Vol. 43, No.
1 (Feb., 2003), pp.
104-113. http://www.jstor.org/stable/38
84845
16. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
17. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
18. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
19. ^ Meert, J. G.; Gibsher, A. S.;
Levashova, N. M.; Grice, W. C.;
Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin, A. (2010).
"Glaciation and ~770 Ma Ediacara (?)
Fossils from the Lesser Karatau
Microcontinent, Kazakhstan". Gondwana
Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
20. ^ James G. Gehling, "Microbial mats
in terminal Proterozoic siliciclastics;
Ediacaran death masks", PALAIOS,
February 1999, v. 14, p.
40-57. http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/14/1/40.short
21. ^ Grazhdankin D, Gerdes G,
"Ediacaran microbial colonies." 2007
Lethaia, 40(3):
201–210 http://ipgg.academia.edu/Dmit
riyGrazhdankin/Papers/380568/Ediacaran_M
icrobial_Colonies
22. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
23. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
24. ^ Meert, J.
G.; Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
25. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
26. ^ Ben Waggoner, "The Ediacaran
Biotas in Space and Time", Integrative
and Comparative Biology , Vol. 43, No.
1 (Feb., 2003), pp.
104-113. http://www.jstor.org/stable/38
84845
27. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329. {630 mybn}
28. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). {575 mybn}
29. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {670 mybn}
30. ^ Meert, J. G.;
Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005

MORE INFO
[1] Ivantsov, A. Yu (2004). "New
Proarticulata from the Vendian of the
Arkhangel'sk Region" (PDF).
Paleontological Journal 38 (3):
247–253
 Sonora, Mexico22 |Adelaide,
Australia23 | Lesser Karatau
Microcontinent, Kazakhsta24  
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg

[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
17 		98)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
9. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
12. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
15. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
16. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {based on}
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001

[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
590,000,000 YBN
70)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
  
590,000,000 YBN
47 48 49 		93) Bilaterians Protostomes evolve.37
38 Protostomes are divided into two
major groups: the Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu39 } and the
Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu40 }. The
Ecdysozoa are animals that molt or lose
their outer skin as they grow, and
include Priapulids {PrIaPYUliDZ},
Nematodes, Tardigrades {ToRDiGRADZ},
Onychophorens {oniKoFereNS}, and the
arthropods {which is a large group
including all crustaceans and insects}.
The Lophotrochozoa, is subdivided into
the Platyzoa {PlaTiZOu}, which includes
rotifers, gastrotrics and
Platyhelminthes, and the Trochozoa,
which includes bryozoans
{BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu41
}, Phoronids {FerOniDZ}, brachiopods
{BrA-KE-O-PoDZ42 }, Entoprocts
{eNtoProKTS}, molluscs and annelids.43
44 45 46
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
3. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
4. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
11. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
12. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
19. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
20. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
23. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
24. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
26. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
27. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
28. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
29. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
30. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
31. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
32. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
34. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
35. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
36. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
37. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
38. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
39. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
40. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
41. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
42. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
43. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
44. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
45. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
46. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
47. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (590my) {590 mybn}
48. ^
Cartwright, Paulyn, and Allen Collins.
“Fossils and phylogenies: integrating
multiple lines of evidence to
investigate the origin of early major
metazoan lineages.” Integrative and
Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744
-751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {543 mybn}
49. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=priapu
lids
[2] Kevin J Peterson, James A Cotton,
James G Gehling, and Davide Pisani,
"The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
580,000,000 YBN
29 30 		131) First shell (or skeleton) evolves
in unicellular protists.18

The first known shell belongs to
unicellular protists ciliates called
the tintinnids. This shell is called a
lorica. These fossils are thought to be
in shallow marine waters, not far from
the coastline.19

Similar modes of skeleton formation
have evolved independently in different
groups to fulfill similar needs.20

These are also the earliest known
ciliate fossils.21

Unfortunately there has been no
consistent terminology for coverings.
The terms lorica, shell, test, and case
are often used synonymously. Euglenozoa
have an outside covering which is
called a "pellicle". A pellicle usually
has openings for injestion, egestion,
and water expulsion.22 Some ciliates
(tintinnids) secrete an external
skeleton called a "lorica", which start
to appear in the fossil record around
500 million years ago. Foraminifera
secrete a heavy shell of silica or
calcium carbonate. The shape of
Dinoflagellates is maintained by
alveoli beneath the cell surface, and
by a layer of supporting microtubules.
In some, these alveoli are filled with
polysaccharides, typically cellulose,
and these dinoflagellates are said to
be "thecate", or "armored", while
dinoflagellates that have empty alveoli
are said to be "athecate", or "naked".
Diatoms secrete silicon in the form of
an internal test or frustule, that
contains two parts called valves.
Beneath the test is the cell membrane
enclosing the nucleus, chloroplasts and
cytoplasm.23 Some protists build a
"test" of sand grains or other
particles cemented together. Resistant
covering are sometime formed for brief
parts of the life cycle. This is
especially true for parasites, which
usually pass from one host to another
as cysts or spores, covered by a
resistant membrane that protects them
while out of the host.24

In addition to its supportive function,
the animal skeleton may provide
protection, facilitate movement, and
aid in certain sensory functions.
Support of the body is achieved in many
protozoans by a simple stiff,
translucent, nonliving envelope called
a pellicle. In nonmoving (sessile)
coelenterates, such as coral, whose
colonies attain great size, body
support is provided by non-living
structures, both internal and external,
which form supporting axes. In the many
groups of animals that can move, body
support is provided either by external
structures known as exoskeletons or by
internal structures known as
endoskeletons.25

The skeleton may be on the body
surface, for example the lateral
sclerites of centipedes and the shell
of crabs. These structures carry no
muscle and form part of a protective
surface armor. Similarly, the scales of
fish, the projecting spines of
echinoderms (for example sea urchins),
the needle-like structures (spicules)
of sponges, and the tubes of hydroids,
raised from the body surface, all
provide protection. The bones of the
vertebrate skull protect the brain. In
the more advanced vertebrates and
invertebrates, many skeletal structures
provide a rigid base for the insertion
of muscles as well as providing
protection.26

The skeleton assists movement in a
variety of ways, depending on the
nature of the animal. The bones of
vertebrates and the exoskeletal and
endoskeletal units of the cuticle of
arthropods (insects, spiders, crabs,
etc.) support opposing sets of
muscles.27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
2. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
3. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
4. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
5. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
6. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
7. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Li, C.-W.;
et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans
from the Precambrian Doushantuo
Formation, Wengan, South China".
Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
10. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
11. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
12. ^ Meglitsch and Schram,
"Invertebrate Zoology" Third edition,
1991, p19.
13. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003 p125-178.
14. ^ Meglitsch
and Schram, "Invertebrate Zoology"
Third edition, 1991, p19.
15. ^ "skeleton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 25 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
16. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
17. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
18. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
19. ^ Li,
C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated
protozoans from the Precambrian
Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South
China". Geological Society, London,
Special Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
20. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
21. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
22. ^ Meglitsch and Schram,
"Invertebrate Zoology" Third edition,
1991, p19.
23. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003 p125-178.
24. ^ Meglitsch
and Schram, "Invertebrate Zoology"
Third edition, 1991, p19.
25. ^ "skeleton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 25 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
26. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
27. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
28. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
29. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} {earliest hard shell fossil -
ciliate) 580 mybn}
30. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Euglenozoa -pellicle) 1956 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Hamm, Smetacek, "Armor: Why,
When, and How", in Falkowski, Knoll,
"Evolution of Primary Producers in the
Sea", 2007, p311-332, p323
[2] Bengtson, S.
(2004), Early skeletal fossils, in
Lipps, J.H., and Waggoner, B.M.,
"Neoproterozoic- Cambrian Biological
Revolutions" (PDF), Paleontological
Society Papers 10: 67–78, retrieved
2008-07-18 http://www.nrm.se/download/1
8.4e32c81078a8d9249800021554/Bengtson200
4ESF.pdf
(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China28  
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}

[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}
580,000,000 YBN
6 		165) Earliest bilaterian fossil,
Vernanimalcula, 178 um in length. First
fossil of organism with bilateral
symmetry, mouth, digestive track, gut
and anus.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Jun-Yuan Chen, David J.
Bottjer, Paola Oliveri,Stephen Q.
Dornbos, Feng Gao, Seth Ruffins, Huimei
Chi, Chia-Wei Li, Eric H. Davidson,
"Small Bilaterian Fossils from 40 to 55
Million Years Before the Cambrian",
Science, Vol 305, Issue 5681, 218-222,
9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218
3. ^ Jun-Yuan Chen, David J. Bottjer,
Paola Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng
Gao, Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei
Li, Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218
4. ^ Jun-Yuan Chen, David J. Bottjer,
Paola Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng
Gao, Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei
Li, Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218
5. ^ Jun-Yuan Chen, David J. Bottjer,
Paola Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng
Gao, Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei
Li, Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218
6. ^ Jun-Yuan Chen, David J. Bottjer,
Paola Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng
Gao, Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei
Li, Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218 {580-595 my}
(Doushantuo Formation) China5  
[1] Fig. 2. Close-up images of
prominent anatomical features of
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. The scale
bar represents 18 µm in (A), 32 µm in
(B), 24 µm in (C), and 28 µm in (D).
SO, sensory organ, i.e., external pit;
LU, lumen; PH, pharynx; MO, mouth; CO,
coelomic lumen; CW, mesodermal coelomic
wall; GU, gut. (A) Detail of collared
mouth, multilayered pharynx, and one
anterior surface pit. In this image,
which is from the holotype specimen
(Fig. 1A), the floor of the pit can be
seen to be composed of a specialized
concave layer. Note the coelomic wall,
which here as elsewhere in these
specimens has a thickness of about 5 to
6 µm. (B) Mouth of a fourth specimen,
Q3105, displaying collared mouth and
pharynx, ventral view. (C) Lumen of
pharynx from a fifth specimen, X10419,
secondarily encrusted but revealing
morphology of opening of pharynx into
gut similar to that seen in the
specimens shown in Fig. 1. (D) Close-up
of spaced external pits, interpreted as
possible sensory organs, from the same
specimen as shown in Fig. 1B [compare
(A)].
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/sci;305/5681/218

[2] Fig. 1. Images of three different,
fairly well preserved specimens of the
bilaterally organized fossil animal
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. Left panels
show digitally recorded, transmitted
light images of sections about 50 µm
thick, which had been ground from
larger rock samples, mounted on slides,
and viewed through a light microscope.
Right panels show color-coded
representations of the images on the
left. These were prepared by digital
image overlay. Yellow, external
ectodermal layer; ochre, coelomic
mesodermal layer; red, surface pits;
mauve, pharynx; light tan, endodermal
wall of gut; gray-green, lumen of
mouth; dark gray, paired coelomic
cavities; lighter gray, lumen of gut;
brown, ''gland-like'' structures, with
central lumen (B); light green, mineral
inclusions (C). The scale bar
represents 40 µm in (A), 55 µm in
(B), and 46 µm in (C). (A) Holotype
specimen, X00305, slightly tilted,
almost complete ventral level coronal
section, passing through the ventrally
located mouth. (B) Coronal section of
second specimen, X08981, passing
through dorsal wall of pharynx and
displaying complete A-P length of
digestive tract, including posterior
end [not visible in (A)]. (C) Tilted
coronal section of third specimen,
X10475, possibly slightly squashed,
passing through dorsal wall of pharynx
and through the dorsal wall of the gut.
For dimensions, see Table 1.
source:
580,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 23 		318) Protostome Infrakingdom Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu16 } evolves. Ecdysozoa
are animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow.17 18 This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).19
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
15. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
19. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c580) {c580 mybn}
21. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005),p388-394.
(560) {560 mybn}
22. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
23. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {530 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p390-394
 
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
''Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of
life''. Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecd
ysozoa

[2] The figured topology and branch
lengths are for the sampled tree with
the highest likelihood (1,000 searches,
log likelihood = –796,399.2). Support
values are derived from 1,000 bootstrap
replicates. Leaf stabilities are shown
in blue above each branch. Taxa for
which we collected new data are shown
in green. from: Dunn et al., CW;
Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne,
WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et
al. (2008). ''Broad phylogenomic
sampling improves resolution of the
animal tree of life''. Nature 452
(7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg
580,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 		331) Protosomes Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u19 } evolve. Ancestor
of all brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ20 },
bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ21 }, and
molluscs.22 23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
20. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
24. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c547) {c580 mybn}
25. ^ Elizabeth
Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science,
(2003). (550) {550 mybn}
26. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
27. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {538 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
 
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
580,000,000 YBN
10 		6293) Earliest cnidarian fossil.6

These are fossil cnidarian embryos and
larvae from Doushantuo Formation in
China.7

Cnidarians which possessed hard
skeletons, in particular the corals,
have left a significant fossil record
of their existence.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full
2. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full
3. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full
4. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cn
idariafr.html
6. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full
7. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cn
idariafr.html
9. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full
10. ^ Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW;
Zhou, GQ; Gao, F; Hagadorn, JW;
Peterson, KJ; Davidson, EH (2000).
"Putative phosphatized embryos from the
Doushantuo Formation of China".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457. PMC 18256.
PMID 10781044.
http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457.
full {580 mybn}
(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China9  
[1] Figure 2 Putative cnidarian
embryos and larvae. (A) Oblique section
of a possible fossil anthozoan planula.
(B) Schematic view of a transverse
section of the late planula of the
anthozoan Euphyllia rugosa. The larval
stage represented in A and B is
constituted of an outer monocellular
layer, the ectoderm, within which is an
inner endodermal layer with various
mesenteric folds and immature septa.
This complicated bilayered structure is
typical of anthozoan late planula
larvae. Note the individual cells
visible in the ectodermal layer at
lower left in A, where it has separated
from the endodermal layer. (Scale bar,
100 μm.) (C and D) Putative fossil
gastrula of hydrozoan medusa; (C)
Bright field; (D) Polarized light.
Under polarized light (D), both layers
show the same crystal orientation at
arrows, as indicated by the same
colors. The modern hydrozoan embryo
shown in E is Liriope mucronata. B is
from Chevalier (47); E from Campbell
(48). (Scale bar in C is 50 μm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F2.large.jpg

[2] FIgure 3 Figure 3 Putative
fossil embryos that resemble bilaterian
gastrulae. (A–G) Fossils resembling
deuterostome embryos; (H) Modern
example (gastrulae of the sea urchin
Mespilia globulus, ref. 49) In A, C,
and E, the archenteron is bent to one
side, and in A and C displays bilobed
outpocketings; (A) The nearer
ectodermal layer is thicker compared
with the opposite one (possible oral
and aboral ectoderms, respectively;
compare H). (C) A section in the plane
indicated by the small arrowheads in A.
(B and D) Polarized light microscope
images, showing that the cells
comprising the outpocketings are
differently oriented, as they appear in
different colors from those
constituting the walls of the gut. In
A, part of the outer wall is deformed
(arrow) by a crystal grain visible in B
(light pink). (G), Another specimen
displaying invaginating archenteron at
early midgastrula stage. (H) Modern sea
urchin gastrulae (49). (I and J),
Fossils resembling modern spiralian
gastrulae; (K) Modern polychaete
embryos in which the dashed lines
indicate yolky endoderm cells and dots
represent mesoderm cells (Eupomatus,
left; Scoloplos, right, redrawn from
Anderson, ref. 50). In the fossils I
and J, the archenteron is thick-walled
(cf. cross section in C), and in J all
of the cells in the embryo, including
the ectodermal wall, are conspicuously
larger relative to the size of the
embryo. Note also the column of cells
along the archenteron in J. (Scale bars
represent 50 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F3.large.jpg
578,000,000 YBN
92)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
  
575,000,000 YBN
24 		139) Earliest sea pen fossils
("Charnia"). A member of the Cnidarnian
Anthozoans (sea pens, corals,
anemones14 ).15 16 17

Sea pens are grouped in the Class
"Pennatulacea".18 19 20

Some people have suggested that a
fossil from China shows that the fronds
are ciliated which implies that these
fossil organisms are possibly more
closely related to Ctenophores than sea
pens.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anthozoa." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anthozoa-1
2. ^ Guy M. Narbonne and James G.
Gehlin, "Life after snowball: The
oldest complex Ediacaran fossils",
Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf
3. ^
http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=55&It
emid=62
4. ^ Dima Grazhdankin "Patterns of
Distribution in the Ediacaran Biotas:
Facies versus Biogeography and
Evolution", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 203-221 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096843
5. ^ "Anthozoa." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anthozoa-1
6. ^ Guy M. Narbonne and James G.
Gehlin, "Life after snowball: The
oldest complex Ediacaran fossils",
Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf
7. ^
http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=55&It
emid=62
8. ^ Dima Grazhdankin "Patterns of
Distribution in the Ediacaran Biotas:
Facies versus Biogeography and
Evolution", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 203-221 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096843
9. ^ "Anthozoa." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anthozoa-1
10. ^ Guy M. Narbonne and James G.
Gehlin, "Life after snowball: The
oldest complex Ediacaran fossils",
Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf
11. ^
http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=55&It
emid=62
12. ^ Dima Grazhdankin "Patterns of
Distribution in the Ediacaran Biotas:
Facies versus Biogeography and
Evolution", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 203-221 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096843
13. ^ D.-G. Shu, S. Conway Morris, J.
Han, Y. Li, X.-L. Zhang, H. Hua, Z.-F.
Zhang, J.-N. Liu, J.-F. Guo, Y. Yao,
and K. Yasui, "Lower Cambrian
Vendobionts from China and Early
Diploblast Evolution", Science 5 May
2006: 312 (5774),
731-734. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/312/5774/731.full
14. ^ "Anthozoa." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anthozoa-1
15. ^ Guy M. Narbonne and James G.
Gehlin, "Life after snowball: The
oldest complex Ediacaran fossils",
Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf
16. ^
http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=55&It
emid=62
17. ^ Dima Grazhdankin "Patterns of
Distribution in the Ediacaran Biotas:
Facies versus Biogeography and
Evolution", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 203-221 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096843
18. ^ Guy M. Narbonne and James G.
Gehlin, "Life after snowball: The
oldest complex Ediacaran fossils",
Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf
19. ^
http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=55&It
emid=62
20. ^ Dima Grazhdankin "Patterns of
Distribution in the Ediacaran Biotas:
Facies versus Biogeography and
Evolution", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 203-221 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096843
21. ^ D.-G. Shu, S. Conway Morris, J.
Han, Y. Li, X.-L. Zhang, H. Hua, Z.-F.
Zhang, J.-N. Liu, J.-F. Guo, Y. Yao,
and K. Yasui, "Lower Cambrian
Vendobionts from China and Early
Diploblast Evolution", Science 5 May
2006: 312 (5774),
731-734. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/312/5774/731.full
22. ^ Dima Grazhdankin "Patterns of
Distribution in the Ediacaran Biotas:
Facies versus Biogeography and
Evolution", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 203-221 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096843
23. ^ Guy M. Narbonne and James G.
Gehlin, "Life after snowball: The
oldest complex Ediacaran fossils",
Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf
24. ^ Dima Grazhdankin "Patterns of
Distribution in the Ediacaran Biotas:
Facies versus Biogeography and
Evolution", Paleobiology , Vol. 30, No.
2 (Spring, 2004), pp. 203-221 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096843

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005)
[2]
http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/intro.htm
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Sirius_Passet.htm
[3]
http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/fossil
-gallery/view-species.php?id=122
[4] CONWAY MORRIS, S. 1993.
Ediacaran-like fossils in Cambrian
Burgess Shale-type faunas of North
America. Palaeontology, 36(3): 593-635
(Drook Formation) Avalon Peninsula,
Newfoundland22 23  
[1] Charnia wardi UNKNOWN
source: http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/im
ages/stories/calvert.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Guy M. Narbonne
and James G. Gehlin, ''Life after
snowball: The oldest complex Ediacaran
fossils'', Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/31/1/27.full.pdf
570,000,000 YBN
10 11 		89) Protostome Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u7 } subgroup
Trochozoa evolve. Ancestor of all
Bryozoans, Nemerteans, Phoronids,
Brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ8 }, Molluscs
and Annelids.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
3. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241

4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
6. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241

7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
9. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241

10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {565 mybn} {c570 mybn}
11. ^
S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {698 mybn}
 
[1] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg
570,000,000 YBN
94)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Xiao, S., Zhang, Y. & Knoll, A.
H. Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite. Nature 391,
553–558 (1998).
2. ^ Xiao, S., Zhang, Y. & Knoll, A. H.
Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite. Nature 391,
553–558 (1998).
3. ^ Xiao, S., Zhang, Y. & Knoll, A. H.
Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite. Nature 391,
553–558 (1998).
4. ^ Xiao, S., Zhang, Y. & Knoll, A. H.
Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite. Nature 391,
553–558 (1998).
(Doushantuo formation) China4  
[1] a, Fertilized (?) egg with thick
membrane. b, Two-cell stage. c, d,
Four-cell stage, c and d show different
views of the same specimen,
illustrating the tetrahedral geometry.
e, Eight-cell stage. f, g, Later
cleavage stages showing faceted cell
geometry and, in g, the
three-dimensional distribution of
cells. h, i, Multicellular structures
that record later cleavage stages or,
especially possible for h, colonial
protists. Scale bar (in h): 200 mum for
a, e, f, g, h and i; 150 mum for b; and
240 mum for c and d. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v391/n6667/images/391553ae.tif.2.gi
f
570,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 		105) Bilaterians Deuterostomes evolve.
This is the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS 15 } (Phylum Echinodermata:
sea cucumbers, sea urchins, starfish),
hemichordates (Phylum Hemichordata:
acorn worms), and Chordates (Phylum
Chordata: all tunicates, fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds).16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
9. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
15. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {570 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}
20. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {367 mybn}
21. ^ Jun-Yuan
Chen, David J. Bottjer, Paola
Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng Gao,
Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei Li,
Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218

MORE INFO
[1] Kevin J Peterson, James A
Cotton, James G Gehling, and Davide
Pisani, "The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
570,000,000 YBN
50 51 		311) Bilaterians Chaetognatha
{KE-ToG-nutu31 32 } evolve (Arrow
Worms).33

Earliest teeth. Animals start to eat
other animals.34 35

The evolution of teeth and then of
animal predation starts an "arms race"
that rapidly transforms ecosystems
around the Earth.36 So in this sense
hard teeth evolve first and then the
shell evolves as an advantage to
survival.37

Chaetognaths are bilaterally
symmetrical enterocoelous animals, with
an elongated cylndrical body; they are
usually colourless, transparent or
slightly opaque. The body is divided in
three parts by internal partitioning:
head, trunk and tail. The head is
slightly rounded and separated from the
trunk by a constricted neck. Each side
of the head bears a group of curved
grasping hooks and one or two rows of
teeth, called the anterior and
posterior teeth; the hooks and teeth
are made of chitin. A pair of uniquely
arranged pigmented eyespots is
present.38

The earliest Chaetognath fossil is from
around 520 mya.39 40

The placement (phylogeny) of the
Chaetognatha within the Bilateria is
currently somewhat uncertain. Some
place them as protostomes41 42 43 ,
others as deuterostomes44 . Some people
group them with the Ecdysozoa45 ,
others as Lophotrochozoa46 , others as
an independent group in between
Ecdysozoa and Lophotrochozoa.47

Chaetognatha appears close to the base
of the protostome tree in most studies
of their molecular phylogeny.48 This
may be evidence that protostomes
descend from a deuterostome ancestor,
like a chaetognath.49
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
2. ^ Vannier, J.; Steiner,
M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova,
J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian origin of
modern food webs: evidence from
predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610):
627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761.
PMC 2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
3. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
7. ^ Vannier,
J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu,
S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early
Cambrian origin of modern food webs:
evidence from predator arrow worms".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274
(1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
8. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
12. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
13. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
14. ^ "arrow worm." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
18. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
19. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "arrow
worm." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 21
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
24. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
25. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
26. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zmns&id=8&menuentry=
groepen
29. ^ Chen J.-Y, Huang D.-Y. A possible
Lower Cambrian chaetognath (arrow worm)
Science. 2002;298:187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/298/
5591/187.full
30. ^ Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.;
Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova,
J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian origin of
modern food webs: evidence from
predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610):
627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761.
PMC 2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
31. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
32. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
34. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
35. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
36. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zmns&id=8&menuentry=
groepen
39. ^ Chen J.-Y, Huang D.-Y. A possible
Lower Cambrian chaetognath (arrow worm)
Science. 2002;298:187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/298/
5591/187.full
40. ^ Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.;
Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova,
J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian origin of
modern food webs: evidence from
predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610):
627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761.
PMC 2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
41. ^ Gonzalo Giribet Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April 27,
2008 363 (1496) 1513-1522;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
42. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
43. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (570)
44. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2002,
p839.
45. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
46. ^ Gonzalo Giribet Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1513-1522;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Marletaz, F. et al.
(2006). "Chaetognath phylogenomics: a
protostome with deuterostome-like
development". Current Biology 16 (15):
R577–R578.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.07.016. PMID
16890510. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0960982206018355
49. ^ Papillon, Daniel et al. (2004).
"Identification of chaetognaths as
protostomes is supported by the
analysis of their mitochondrial
genome". Molecular Biology & Evolution
21 (11): 2122–2129.
doi:10.1093/molbev/msh229. PMID
15306659. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org
/content/21/11/2122
50. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (570)
51. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
Oxford University Press, New York.,
2009, Chap 24,
p224-225. http://timetree.org/book.php

MORE INFO
[1] Gonzalo Giribet, Daniel L.
Distel, Martin Polz, Wolfgang Sterrer,
and Ward C. Wheeler Triploblastic
Relationships with Emphasis on the
Acoelomates and the Position of
Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora,
Plathelminthes, and Chaetognatha: A
Combined Approach of 18S rDNA Sequences
and Morphology Syst Biol (2000) 49(3):
539-562 doi:10.1080/10635159950127385
[2] Martin Helmkampf, Iris
Bruchhaus, Bernhard Hausdorf, Multigene
analysis of lophophorate and
chaetognath phylogenetic relationships,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 46, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages
206-214, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2007.09.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S105579030700317X)
[3] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin and
evolution of model organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
[4] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2002, p844
 
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg

[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
570,000,000 YBN
14 15 		327) Protostome Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u9 } subgroup Platyzoa
{PlaT-i-ZO-u} evolves. Ancestor of
rotifers, gastrotrichs and
Platyhelminthes (flatworms).10 11 12

Thomas Cavalier-Smith proposed the new
infrakingdom in 1998 for "ciliated
non-segmented acoelomates or
pseudocoelomates lacking vascular
system; gut (when present) straight,
with or without anus".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Cavalier-Smith T (August
1998). "A revised six-kingdom system of
life". Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 73 (3):
203–66.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x.
PMID
9809012. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x/
pdf
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (565) {c570 mybn}
15. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {698 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Passamaneck Y, Halanych KM
(July 2006). "Lophotrochozoan phylogeny
assessed with LSU and SSU data:
evidence of lophophorate polyphyly".
Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 40 (1): 20–8.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.001. PMID
16556507. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S1055790306000510
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241

 
[1] Figure 1 from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
Figure 1 Hypothesis of metazoan
relationships based on multiple sources
of morphology and molecules. This tree
has not been generated by a consensus
or other numerical technique and
reflects the views and biases of the
author. Protostomes are divided into
two sister clades, Ecdysozoa and
Lophotrochozoa, the latter divided into
Platyzoa and Trochozoa; affinities of
Chaetognatha and Cycliophora are left
unresolved. Boxed phyla are those for
which genomic or EST data are publicly
available (as of July 2007); note the
poor representation of lophotrochozoan
genomic data. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513/F1.large.jp
g

[2] Description English: Bedford's
Flatworm (Pseudobiceros bedfordi) in
Fihalhohi, Maldives. Date March
2006 Source photographed by Jan
Derk Author Jan
Derk Permission (Reusing this file)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Bedford%27s_Flatworm.
jpg
570,000,000 YBN
17 		345)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
2. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p203.
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
14. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p203.
17. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
 
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg

[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
570,000,000 YBN
346) Deuterostome Phylum Echinodermata
("Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS 9 }) (sea
cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars,
star fish).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
 
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg

[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
21 		347) Deuterostome Phylum Chordata
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds. The most
primitive living chordate is the
tunicate.16 17 Chordates get their
name from the notochord, the cartilage
rod that runs along the back of the
animal, in the embryo if not in the
adult.18

Chordata is the highest phylum in the
animal kingdom, which includes the
lancelets or amphioxi
(Cephalochordata), the tunicates
(Urochordata), the acorn worms and
pterobranchs (Hemichordata), and the
vertebrates (Craniata) comprising the
lampreys, sharks and rays, bony fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. Members of the first three
groups, the lower chordates, are small
and strictly marine. The vertebrates
are free-living; the aquatic ones are
primitively fresh-water types with
marine groups being advanced; and the
members include animals of small and
medium size, as well as the largest of
all animals.19

The typical chordate characteristics
are the notochord, the dorsal hollow
nerve cord, the pharyngeal slits, and a
postanal tail. The notochord appears in
the embryo as a slender, flexible rod
filled with gelatinous cells and
surrounded by a tough fibrous sheath,
and contains, at least in some forms,
transverse striated muscle fibers; it
lies above the primitive gut. In lower
chordates and the early groups of
vertebrates, the notochord persists as
the axial support for the body
throughout life, but it is surrounded
and gradually replaced by segmental
vertebrae in the higher fish.20
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
14. ^ "Chordata."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 24 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chordata
15. ^ "Chordata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chordata
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
17. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
19. ^ "Chordata."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 24 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chordata
20. ^ "Chordata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chordata
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381. {565 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Douzery, E. J. P., Snell, E.
A., Bapteste, E., Delsuc, F., &
Philippe, H. (2004). The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: Does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils? Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America , 101 (43),
15386-15391. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.040398410
1
[2] Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho and Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science New Series, Vol. 271, No. 5248
(Jan. 26, 1996), pp.
470-477. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
90144
[3] Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Drafting a
Tree.” Science 300.5626 (2003) :
1694.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1694.summary
[4] Philip C. J. Donoghue and Mark A.
Purnell, "The Evolutionary Emergence of
Vertebrates From Among Their Spineless
Relatives", EVOLUTION: EDUCATION AND
OUTREACH, Volume 2, Number 2, 204-212,
DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[5]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] [t Note that this is a vertebrate -
not a pre-vertebrate chordate] Portion
of figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg

[2] Figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
7 		348) Earliest extant chordate:
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (sea
squirts).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p377-381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p377-381.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381. {565 mybn}
 
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
10 		6294) Earliest coral fossil (corals are
cnidarian anthozoans).6

These are fossil cnidarian coral
(tabulata) from Doushantuo Formation in
China.7

The tabulata are an extinct Paleozoic
order of corals of the subclass
Zoantharia characterized by an
exclusively colonial mode of growth and
by secretion of a calcareous
exoskeleton of slender tubes.8
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
2. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
3. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
4. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
5. ^ "Tabulata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tabulata-1
6. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
7. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
8. ^ "Tabulata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tabulata-1
9. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
10. ^ Xiao, S., Yuan, X., and Knoll,
A.H. (2000). "Eumetazoan fossils in
terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 97 (25): 13684–13689.
doi:10.1073/pnas.250491697. PMC 17636.
PMID
11095754. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC17636/?tool=pmcentrez
{565 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/an
thozoafr.html
(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China9  
[1] Figure 3 Sinocyclocyclicus
guizhouensis, tabulate fossils
interpreted as possible stem
cnidarians. (A) SEM of branched tube
preserved as phosphatic internal molds
of tube chambers; note branching
pattern as well as wedge-shaped chamber
formed where an incomplete and complete
cross-wall meet (arrow). (B) SEM of
four clustered tubes. (C) SEM of curved
tube. (D and E) Cross and longitudinal
sections through this specimen. (F) An
enlarged SEM view of the surface,
showing cross-walls, phosphatic laminae
on the wall, and a longitudinal ridge
on the concave side. (G)
Saffordophyllum newcombae, an
Ordovician tabulate showing bending and
thickening of cross-walls where they
meet side walls, as well as apical
budding (reproduced with permission
from Ref. 36); compare with Figs.
​Figs.22E and 3A. (The scale bar in A
represents 140 μm for A; 200 μm for
B; 150 μm for C; 80 μm for D and E;
30 μm for F; and 1 mm for
G.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/core
/lw/2.0/html/tileshop_pmc/tileshop_pmc_i
nline.html?title=An%20external%20file%20
that%20holds%20a%20picture%2C%20illustra
tion%2C%20etc.%0AObject%20name%20is%20pq
2504916003.jpg%20%5BObject%20name%20is%2
0pq2504916003.jpg%5D&p=PMC3&id=17636_pq2
504916003.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
7 		117) Earliest chordate fossil.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm
3. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm
5. ^
http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/1
0/22/1066631501521.html?from=storyrhs
6. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm
7. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm {560 mybn}
(Flinders Ranges, 490 km north of
Adelaide5 ) Australia6  
[1] from adelaide, australia
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm
560,000,000 YBN
349)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p372-376.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
6290) Earliest extant fish, Lancelets
{laNSleTS19 } (also called amphioxus
{aMFEoKSeS20 }21 ).22

Lancelets are the most primitive
chordates to have a liver and a kidney,
which are not found in hemichordates or
tunicates.23

The Lancelet is a protochordate and not
a vertebrate. Lancelets have only a
nerve tube on the notochord and no
brain other than a small swelling at
the front end of the nerve tube. They
also have an eye-spot. There are gill
slits at the sides used for filter
feeding and not primarily for breathing
which would mean that gills for
breathing evolve later. The Lancelet is
not like a worm in not being
cylindrical, and swims like a fish
using its muscles with side-to-side
undulations.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
4. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
7. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
8. ^ "amphioxus." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/amphioxus
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p202.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
11. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p205.
12. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters", 2007, p205.
13. ^ "lancelet."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 11 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
14. ^ "amphioxus." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/amphioxus
15. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p202.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
17. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p205.
18. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p372-376.
19. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
20. ^ "amphioxus." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/amphioxus
21. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p202.
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
23. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p205.
24. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p372-376.

MORE INFO
[1] Philip C. J. Donoghue and
Mark A. Purnell, "The Evolutionary
Emergence of Vertebrates From Among
Their Spineless Relatives", EVOLUTION:
EDUCATION AND OUTREACH, Volume 2,
Number 2, 204-212, DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg

[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
5 		6292) Oldest mollusc fossil.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Caron, Jean-Bernard et al. "A
soft-bodied mollusc with radula from
the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale."
Nature 442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html
2. ^ Caron, Jean-Bernard et al. "A
soft-bodied mollusc with radula from
the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale."
Nature 442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html
3. ^ Caron, Jean-Bernard et al. "A
soft-bodied mollusc with radula from
the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale."
Nature 442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html
4. ^ Caron, Jean-Bernard et al. "A
soft-bodied mollusc with radula from
the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale."
Nature 442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html
5. ^
http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/story/2006
/07/12/mollusc-fossil.html {560 mybn}
 
[1] A complete specimen of
Odontogriphus omalus that shows the
overall shape of the fossil, the
position of the radula feeding
structure at the head end, and paired
salivary glands, the darker circular
structures on either side of the
radula. (Copyright Caron et. al,
Nature 2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/ROM57720mod060712.jp
g

[2] Marianne Collins's reconstruction
of a colony of Odontogriphus omalus
grazing on cyanobacterium. (Copyright
Caron et. al, Nature
2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/mariannecollins06071
2.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
55 56 57 58 59 60 		6318) Earliest animal shell (or
skeleton).32
Earliest evidence of
animals eating other animals
(predation).33 34
Appearance of the
small shelly fossils and deep burrows
correlated with a decline in
stromatolites possibly from feeding.35


The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites36 37 in addition to
sponge skeleton fossils.38

The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)39 , possibly
made by some kind of worm.40


Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.41 42

The earliest animal shells are
agglutinated tubes built of foreign
objects by the animals inhabiting them,
an example being the worm Onuphionella,
with its collection of mica flakes
lining its shelter.43

The appearance of the small shelly
fossils and deep burrows are correlated
with a decline in stromatolites. Before
the appearance of small invertebrate
animals, nothing fed on cyanobacterial
mats. Some small shelly fossils must be
primitive molluscs that graze on
stromatolites. Stromatolites survive
today only in environments that are
hostile to grazing invertebrates. Tehse
include lagoons too salty for grazing
snails like Shark Bay, Australia, and
shallow channels in the Bahamas where
currents are too strong for clinging
invertebrates.44

The soft-bodied multicellular (but
non-skeletonized) Ediacaran fauna
appear starting around 600 mybn and may
represent the next logical step up from
single-celled life. The next stage is
the appearance of small mineralized
shells starting around 545 million
years ago. These small shells are
referred to as "small shelly fossils"
and were first reported by a team of
Soviet scientists headed by Alexi
Rozanov of the Paleontological
Institute in Moscow. Rozanov reports in
196645 that the oldest limestones of
Cambrian age contain many small and
unfamiliar skeletons, few larger than 1
cm (1/2 inch) long.46 These fossils
are referred to as "small shelly
fossils". At the time these are the
earliest known fossils of hard
skeletons. Their discovery rewrites the
story of the earliest Cambrian and
sheds light on the Cambrian
radiation.47 48

Most of the small shelly fossils are
made of calcium phosphate, the same
mineral that makes up the bones of
vertebrates, but today, most marine
invertebrate shells are made of calcium
carbonate (the minerals calcite and
aragonite). To some scientists this
suggests that the later appearance of
large calcified trilobites and other
fossils, represents a time when
atmospheric oxygen is abundant enough
to allow calcite skeletons to be
secreted.49

There is evidence that seawater
chemistry favored aragonite
precipitation during the late
Precambrian and favored calcite
precipitation during the Tommotian, and
that carbonate skeletal mineralogy is
determined by the chemistry of seawater
at the time carbonate skeletons first
evolve in a clade.50

Prokaryotic cyanobacteria also develop
the ability to secrete carbonate
skeletons around the same time.51

Eventually, the expansion of infaunal
life destroys the widespread and vast
cyanobacterial mats in shallow regions
of the sea.52
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun
Syndrome: simultaneous origin of
protective armour and infaunal shelters
at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological
Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
2. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July
1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons"
(abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

3. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

4. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
5. ^
Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
6. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July
1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons"
(abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

7. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

8. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
9. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
10. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p168.
11. ^
Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser, and
James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
12. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

13. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p166.
14. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y.
(17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

15. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

16. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun
Syndrome: simultaneous origin of
protective armour and infaunal shelters
at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological
Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
17. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

18. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

19. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
20. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
21. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p168.
22. ^
Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser, and
James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
23. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

24. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p166.
25. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y.
(17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

26. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

27. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
28. ^
ROZANOV, A. Y., AND V. V.
MISSARZHEVSKY. 1966. Biostratigrafiya i
fauna nizhnikh gorizontov
kembriya. (Biostratigraphy and fauna
of the lower horizons of the
Cambrian.). Trudy Geologicheskogo
Instituta AN SSSR, 148:1-125
29. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p163-170.
30. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
31. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun
Syndrome: simultaneous origin of
protective armour and infaunal shelters
at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological
Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
32. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun
Syndrome: simultaneous origin of
protective armour and infaunal shelters
at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological
Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
33. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

34. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

35. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
36. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
37. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p168.
38. ^
Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser, and
James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
39. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

40. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p166.
41. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y.
(17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

42. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

43. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun
Syndrome: simultaneous origin of
protective armour and infaunal shelters
at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological
Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
44. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
45. ^
ROZANOV, A. Y., AND V. V.
MISSARZHEVSKY. 1966. Biostratigrafiya i
fauna nizhnikh gorizontov
kembriya. (Biostratigraphy and fauna
of the lower horizons of the
Cambrian.). Trudy Geologicheskogo
Instituta AN SSSR, 148:1-125
46. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p163-170.
47. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p163-170.
48. ^ Bengtson, S. (2004), Early
skeletal fossils, in Lipps, J.H., and
Waggoner, B.M., "Neoproterozoic-
Cambrian Biological Revolutions" (PDF),
Paleontological Society Papers 10:
67–78. http://www.nrm.se/download/18.
4e32c81078a8d9249800021554/Bengtson2004E
SF.pdf
49. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p163-170.
50. ^ Adam C. Maloof, Susannah M.
Porter, John L. Moore, Frank Ö.
Dudás, Samuel A. Bowring, John A.
Higgins, David A. Fike, and Michael P.
Eddy, "The earliest Cambrian record of
animals and ocean geochemical change",
Geological Society of America Bulletin,
November 2010, v. 122, p. 1731-1774,
doi:10.1130/B30346.1 http://gsabulletin
.gsapubs.org/content/122/11-12/1731.full

51. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
52. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun
Syndrome: simultaneous origin of
protective armour and infaunal shelters
at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological
Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
53. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
54. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

55. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p163-170.
56. ^ Dott, Prothero, "Evolution
of the Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
57. ^
Adam C. Maloof, Susannah M. Porter,
John L. Moore, Frank Ö. Dudás, Samuel
A. Bowring, John A. Higgins, David A.
Fike, and Michael P. Eddy, "The
earliest Cambrian record of animals and
ocean geochemical change", Geological
Society of America Bulletin, November
2010, v. 122, p. 1731-1774,
doi:10.1130/B30346.1 http://gsabulletin
.gsapubs.org/content/122/11-12/1731.full

58. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
59. ^
http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/neoproter
ozoic/ediacaran/ediacaran2.htm
60. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782


MORE INFO
[1] Philip W. Signor and Mark A.
S. McMenamin "The Early Cambrian Worm
Tube Onuphionella from California and
Nevada", Journal of Paleontology , Vol.
62, No. 2 (Mar., 1988), pp.
233-240 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1305228
[2] MATTHEWS, S. C., AND V. V.
MISSARZHEVSKY. 1975. "Small shelly
fossils of late Precambrian and early
Cambrian age: a review of recent work."
Journal of the Geological Society,
131:289-304 http://jgs.geoscienceworld.
org/content/131/3/289.abstract
[3] GRANT, S. W. F. 1990. "Shell
structure and distribution of Cloudina,
a potential index fossil for the
terminal Proterozoic." American Journal
of Science, 290(A):261-294
(Ara Formation) Oman53 |Lijiagou,
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province54
 
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg

[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
559,000,000 YBN
103)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).
  
550,000,000 YBN
108)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth
Edition, 2006, p258-264,329.
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/cyclomedusa.gif
550,000,000 YBN
4 		109)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Fedonkin,
Mikhail A., and Benjamin M. Waggoner.
"The Late Precambrian fossil Kimberella
is a mollusc-like bilaterian organism."
Nature 388.6645 (1997):
868-871. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v388/n6645/full/388868a0.html
3. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/kim
berella.html
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). {550
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Fedonkin, M. A., A.
Simonetta, and A. Y. Ivantsov. "New
data on Kimberella, the Vendian
mollusc-like organism (White Sea
region, Russia): palaeoecological and
evolutionary implications." Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286.1 (2007): 157 -179.
http://specpubgsl.highwire.org/content
/286/1/157.short http://www.geosci.mona
sh.edu.au/precsite/docs/workshop/prato04
/abstracts/fedonkin2.pdf
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/kimberella.jpg


source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/Kimberallie2.gif
550,000,000 YBN
110)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/eoporpita.gif
550,000,000 YBN
111)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
 

source: http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/ex
hibits/ediac/helminth.jpg
550,000,000 YBN
112)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/dic
kinsonia.html
 
[1] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html

[2] unknown
source: UNKNOWN
550,000,000 YBN
113)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/pter.gif
550,000,000 YBN
116)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/nem
iana.html
 
[1] from white sea region in russia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/nemiana.gif
550,000,000 YBN
118)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/tri
brach.html
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/tribrach.html
550,000,000 YBN
119)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/ark
arua.html
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/arkarua.html


source:
550,000,000 YBN
2 		157)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
550,000,000 YBN
17 		328) Ecdysozoa Superphylum
"Aschelminthes" evolves. This includes
the 5 Phyla:
Kinorhyncha (kinorhynchs),

Loricifera (loriciferans),
Nematoda (round worms),
Nematomorpha
(horsehair worms),
Priapulida (priapulids).15
16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
3. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
7. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
11. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c550)
 
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g

[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
550,000,000 YBN
10 		329)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126686
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126686
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126686
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126686
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126686
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c550)
 
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/20090917_013641_Rotifer.jp
g
550,000,000 YBN
6339)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser,
and James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
2. ^ Charles Choi, "Meet Earth's
earliest animal with a skeleton",
MS-NBC,
3/8/2012. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4
6673856/ns/technology_and_science-scienc
e/#.T1rQqYHy90g
3. ^ Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser,
and James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
4. ^ Shen, Bing et al. “The Avalon
Explosion: Evolution of Ediacara
Morphospace.” Science 319.5859
(2008): 81 –84.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/319/5859/81.abstract
5. ^ Charles Choi, "Meet Earth's
earliest animal with a skeleton",
MS-NBC,
3/8/2012. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4
6673856/ns/technology_and_science-scienc
e/#.T1rQqYHy90g
6. ^ Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser,
and James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
7. ^ Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser,
and James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
8. ^ Shen, Bing et al. “The Avalon
Explosion: Evolution of Ediacara
Morphospace.” Science 319.5859
(2008): 81 –84.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/319/5859/81.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Martin Brasier, Owen Green
and Graham Shields, "Ediacarian sponge
spicule clusters from southwestern
Mongolia and the origins of the
Cambrian fauna", Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf
[2] Zhe Chen, Jie Hu, Chuanming Zhou,
Shuhai Xiao and Xunlai Yuan, "Sponge
fossil assemblage from the Early
Cambrian Hetang Formation in southern
Anhui", Chinese Science
Bulletin Volume 49, Number 15, August
2004, 1625-1628. DOI:
10.1007/BF03184133 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k88wv4712005683u/
(Rawnsley Quartzite -same as White Sea
Assemblage) Nilpena, South Australia7 8
 
[1] A reconstruction of what
Coronacollina acula may have looked
like. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia1.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-Oldest1P
hoto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg

[2] The ancient animal Coronacollina
acula, with the round depression in the
middle representing its body, while the
four lines radiating from it were its
needlelike ''spicules.'' (Scale bar is
in centimeters.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia2.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-OldestPh
oto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg
547,000,000 YBN
6 		333) Trochozoa Phyla Phoronida
(phoronids {FerOniDZ}).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c547)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
 
[1] Description English: Phoronis
hippocrepis photographed in shallow
water in Italy. Photo by Maria Grazia
Montanucci. Date Source Own
work Author
Etrusko25 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phoronis_Maria_Grazia
_Montanucci2.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
547,000,000 YBN
8 		334) Trochozoa Phylum Brachiopoda
(brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).6

Brachiopods are marine invertebrates
that have bivalve dorsal and ventral
shells enclosing a pair of tentacled,
armlike structures that are used to
sweep minute food particles into the
mouth. Also called lampshells.7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "brachiopod." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopod
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "brachiopod." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopod
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "brachiopod." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopod
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c547)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
 
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF

[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
547,000,000 YBN
5 		335) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa)
Phylum Entoprocta (entoprocts).4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c545)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=14711
 
[1] Barentsa discreta(Barentsiidae)
Japanese name:Suzukokemusi
Date;2007,05,18;Tanabe city, Wakayama
prefecture, Japan
Author;Keisotyo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Barentsa_discreta_suz
ukokemusi02.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
544,000,000 YBN
4 5 		310)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Martin Brasier, Owen Green and
Graham Shields, "Ediacarian sponge
spicule clusters from southwestern
Mongolia and the origins of the
Cambrian fauna", Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf
2. ^ Martin Brasier, Owen Green and
Graham Shields, "Ediacarian sponge
spicule clusters from southwestern
Mongolia and the origins of the
Cambrian fauna", Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf
3. ^ Martin Brasier, Owen Green and
Graham Shields, "Ediacarian sponge
spicule clusters from southwestern
Mongolia and the origins of the
Cambrian fauna", Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf
4. ^ Martin Brasier, Owen Green and
Graham Shields, "Ediacarian sponge
spicule clusters from southwestern
Mongolia and the origins of the
Cambrian fauna", Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf {fossil
sponge spicules) 543-545 my}
5. ^ Zhe Chen,
Jie Hu, Chuanming Zhou, Shuhai Xiao and
Xunlai Yuan, "Sponge fossil assemblage
from the Early Cambrian Hetang
Formation in southern Anhui", Chinese
Science Bulletin Volume 49, Number 15,
August 2004, 1625-1628. DOI:
10.1007/BF03184133 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k88wv4712005683u/
{fossil sponge) c540my}
southwestern Mongolia3  
[1] Figure from: Martin Brasier, Owen
Green and Graham Shields, ''Ediacarian
sponge spicule clusters from
southwestern Mongolia and the origins
of the Cambrian fauna'', Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/25/4/303.full.pdf

[2] Figure from: Zhe Chen, Jie Hu,
Chuanming Zhou, Shuhai Xiao and Xunlai
Yuan, ''Sponge fossil assemblage from
the Early Cambrian Hetang Formation in
southern Anhui'', Chinese Science
Bulletin Volume 49, Number 15, August
2004, 1625-1628. DOI:
10.1007/BF03184133 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k88wv4712005683u/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k88wv4712005683u/
543,000,000 YBN
12 		101)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p622-624.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {537 MYBN (based on
Annaleda - segmented worns} {543 MYBN
(based on arthropods, annelids -
segmented worns=537}
 
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg

[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
543,000,000 YBN
6 		336) Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum
Bryozoa (Bryozoans or moss animals).5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11539
 
[1] Freshwater bryozoan from a lake in
NC, USA. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Freshwater_Bryozoan23
4.JPG

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
542,000,000 YBN
14 		53) End of the "Precambrian". End of
the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK10 } Eon, and the
start of the Cambrian Period.11 12

The term "Precambrian", was
traditionally used for the division of
time older than the Phanerozoic, and is
currently considered to be informal and
without specific stratigraphic rank.13

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
4. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

5. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
6. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
7. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

8. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
9. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
10. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

11. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
12. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
13. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
14. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
542,000,000 YBN
8 		114)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Glaessner, M. F. (1958), "New
fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia" (PDF), Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia
81:
185–188 http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au
/Journals/TRSSA/TRSSA_V081/TRSSA_V081_p1
85p188.pdf
2. ^ Glaessner, M. F. (1958), "New
fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia" (PDF), Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia
81:
185–188 http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au
/Journals/TRSSA/TRSSA_V081/TRSSA_V081_p1
85p188.pdf
3. ^ Glaessner, M. F. (1958), "New
fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia" (PDF), Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia
81:
185–188 http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au
/Journals/TRSSA/TRSSA_V081/TRSSA_V081_p1
85p188.pdf
4. ^ Glaessner, M. F. (1958), "New
fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia" (PDF), Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia
81:
185–188 http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au
/Journals/TRSSA/TRSSA_V081/TRSSA_V081_p1
85p188.pdf
5. ^ Glaessner, M. F. (1958), "New
fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia" (PDF), Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia
81:
185–188 http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au
/Journals/TRSSA/TRSSA_V081/TRSSA_V081_p1
85p188.pdf
6. ^ Budd, "Stem Group Arthropods from
the Lower Cambrian Sirius Passet Fauna
of North Greenland", in Fortey and
Thomas, "Arthropod Relationships",
1997,
p125. {Budd_arthropods_full_1997.pdf}
7. ^ Glaessner, M. F. (1958), "New
fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia" (PDF), Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia
81:
185–188 http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au
/Journals/TRSSA/TRSSA_V081/TRSSA_V081_p1
85p188.pdf
8. ^ Glaessner, M. F. (1958), "New
fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia" (PDF), Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia
81:
185–188 http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au
/Journals/TRSSA/TRSSA_V081/TRSSA_V081_p1
85p188.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005)
Ediacara, Australia7  
[1] Description thumb
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Spriggina_flounensi_C
.jpg

[2] left
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/spriggina.gif
542,000,000 YBN
34 35 		6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals.26 27 28
An increase of animals with shells.29

It was once thought that the Cambrian
rocks contained the first and oldest
fossil animals, but these are now to be
found in the earlier Ediacaran (or
Vendian) strata.30 Ediacaran animals
are soft-bodied and so are infrequently
preserved. When animals begin to
develop hard parts, their probability
of preservation greatly improves. The
first animals to develop hard parts are
small shelly fossils, like sponge
spicules, gastropods, and others with
uncertain affinity. Small shelly
fossils can be found back into the
Neoproterozoic.31

Two fossil locations preserve this
period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in
British Columbia Canada, and the
Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of
China. The Burgess Shale fossils were
discovered in 1909 by Charles D.
Wolcott (CE 1850-1927), and are shiny
black impressions on the shale bedding
planes. Many are the remains of animals
that lacked hard parts. Altogether
there are four major groups of
arthropods (trilobites, crustaceans,
and the groups that include scorpions
and insects), in addition to sponges,
onycophorans, crinoids, mollusks, three
phyla of worms, corals, chordates, and
many species that cannot be placed in
any known phylum. The Chengjiang Fauna
resemble that of the Burgess Shale, but
the Chengjiang fossils are older and
better preserved. The fossils include
many soft-bodied animals that are not
usually not preserved. For example
jellyfish show the detailed structure
of tentacles, radial canals, and
muscles, and on soft-bodies worms,
eyes, segmentation, digestive organs,
and patterns on the outer skin can be
recognized. The Chengjiang fossils
include the earliest fossil of a
fish.32

One theory is that the Cambrian
radiation is triggered by predation,
since the oldest traces of feeding
within the mud occur around this time
in addition to the various ways to
protect the body by secretion of a
mineral skeleton or building tubes by
collected mineral grains that are
developed by animals around this
time.33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
3. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
5. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
6. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
7. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
9. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
11. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
12. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
13. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/ca
mb.html
14. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
15. ^
Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time",
Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
16. ^ Dott,
Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", 6th
edition 2002, p209.
17. ^ Dzik, J (2007),
"The Verdun Syndrome: simultaneous
origin of protective armour and
infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597 http://www.paleo.pan.pl/peopl
e/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
18. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
19. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
20. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
21. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
22. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/ca
mb.html
23. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
24. ^
Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time",
Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
25. ^ Dzik, J
(2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597 http://www.paleo.pan.pl/peopl
e/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
26. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
27. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
28. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
29. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
30. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/ca
mb.html
31. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
32. ^
Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time",
Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
33. ^ Dzik, J
(2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597 http://www.paleo.pan.pl/peopl
e/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
34. ^ "Cambrian explosion."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>. {542-530
mybn}
35. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
{535 mybn}
 
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg

[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
541,000,000 YBN
132)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ar
chaeocyatha&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
 
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/ar
chaeo.html
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/por
ifera/archaeo.html

[2]
http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/Hi
storyofLife/CH05images.html
source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html
540,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		104) Platyzoa Platyhelminthes
{PlaTEheLmiNtEZ} evolve (flatworms).5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)
7. ^ Douzery,
Emmanuel J. P. et al. “The Timing of
Eukaryotic Evolution: Does a Relaxed
Molecular Clock Reconcile Proteins and
Fossils?” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/
43/15386
8. ^ Peterson, Kevin J et al. “The
Ediacaran Emergence of Bilaterians:
Congruence Between the Genetic and the
Geological Fossil Records.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences 363.1496
(2008): 1435 -1443.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1435.full
 
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg

[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
540,000,000 YBN
6 		6287) Platyzoa Phylum Gastrotricha
(Gastrotrichs {GaSTreTriKS}).5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
 
[1] Description English: Darkfield
photograph of a gastrotrich. Taken
through a 10x ocular and 10x objective
with a Pentax *ist DL at 1/180th with
an understage flash. Date 18
April 2006 Source
en:Image:Gastrotrich.jpg Author
Jasper Nance GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
539,000,000 YBN
23 		461) The first circulatory system
(blood cells actively moved by muscle
contraction) evolves in bilaterians.17
18

Circulatory systems can be divided into
two kinds, "open" and "closed", both
which contain a circulatory fluid or
blood. In an open circulatory system,
the blood and body cavity (hemocoelic)
fluid are one and the same; the blood,
often called hemolymph, empties from
vessels into the body cavity (hemocoel)
and directly bathes organs. In a closed
circulatory system blood is kept
separate from the coelomic {SElomiK19 }
fluid. Circulatory systems, open or
closed, generally have structural
mechanisms for pumping the blood and
maintaining adequate blood pressures.
Beyond the influence of general body
movements, most of these structures
fall into the categories: contractile
vessels (as in annelids); osiate hearts
(as in arthropods); and chambered
hearts (as in molluscs and
vertebrates). The method of initiating
contraction of these different pumps
(the pacemaker mechanism) may be
intrinsic (originating within the
muscles of the structure itself) or
extrinsic (originating from motor
nerves from outside the structure).20

Nemerteans, cylindrical worms evolved
from an earlier ancestor, have a
network of blood channels in the
mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue
between organs) but have no heart or
pumping vessel.21 This bilaterian, a
coelomate (the earliest of which are
the molluscs), like some surviving
coelomates, has a series of channels or
blood spaces outside the coelom tissue,
that form a circulatory system, often
with muscle cell contractible walls
connected to the larger vessels that
act as pumps to move the blood cells
through the channels.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coelom
ic&submit=Submit
6. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p71-73.
7. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coelom
ic&submit=Submit
10. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p71-73.
11. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coelom
ic&submit=Submit
14. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p71-73.
15. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
16. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coelom
ic&submit=Submit
20. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p71-73.
21. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
22. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on} {539 mybn
(based on mollusca}
 
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
539,000,000 YBN
10 		506)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p124-125.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p124-125.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p124-125.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {based on} {539
MYBN (based on mollusca}
 
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
537,000,000 YBN
11 		341) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa)
Phylum Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu9 } (ribbon
worms).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c541)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
537,000,000 YBN
3 		344) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Sipuncula (peanut worms) evolve.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c537)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] English: A bucket of
deliciously-looking purple worms
(labeled 即劏北海沙虫 - '''Sand
worms' from Beihai, to be killed on
demand'') at a street vendor in
Guangzhou. At 48 yuan / 500 g (around
$7/lb), they look quite affordable...
The second character in the sign (劏,
in its simplified form), ''to slaughter
/ to butcher'', is peculiarly
Cantonese. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Sipuncula.jpg
533,000,000 YBN
34 35 36 		342) Trochozoa Mollusks evolve.20

The phylum name is derived from mollis,
meaning soft, referring to the soft
body within a hard calcareous shell.
Soft-bodied mollusks make extensive use
of ciliary and mucous mechanisms in
feeding, locomotion, and reproduction.
The Mollusca are a successful phylum
with probably over 110,000 living
species, more than double the number of
vertebrate species. More than 99% of
living molluscan species belong to two
classes: Gastropoda {GaSTroPeDu21 }
(snails) and Bivalvia (muscles and
clams). These two classes can make up a
dominant fraction of the animal biomass
in many natural communities, both
marine and fresh-water.22

The haemocoel forms the major body
cavity of molluscs, usually in the form
of several large, connected sinuses.
Haemocyanin is the chief
oxygen-carrying blood pigment, although
a number of species have haemoglobin. A
heart of variable complexity is usually
present. A coelomic space is
represented by the pericardium, kidneys
and gonads.23

Among the most primitive mollusks are
the Aplacophora which do not have
shells but their epidermis secretes
aragonite (calcareous) spicules and
their body has a repetition of
structures along their front-back
(antero-posterior) axis.24 25 Mollusks
are thought, by some, to be descended
from a segemented worm (annelid)
because of this segmented repetition of
structure which is lost in most of the
other later evolved mollusks.26 But
others think mollusks descend from a
nonsegmented ancestor.27

An early Cambrian fossil mollusk named
Maikhanella, which has a shell made
from sclerites that are only loosely
fused together, implies that after
millions of years of evolution the
spines become more fused into a single,
rigid shell familiar in mollusks of the
present time.28

Among the earliest fossil mollusks
known from the Cambrian are simple
cap-shaped shells, similar to an extant
mollusk named "Neopilina". Neopilina is
clearly a mollusk with a single
cap-shaped shell secreted by the
mantle, as well as a mouth, digestive
tract, anus, and gills. But unlike all
other known mollusks alive today,
Neopilina still retains the
segmentation of its worm-like
ancestors. Around the body are
segemented gills, kidneys, hearts,
gonads, and paired retractor muscles to
pull down the shell.29

Beyond the difference in segmentation,
in terms of skeleton, some annelids
have chaetae which are tiny, spinelike
structures and are derived from single
epidermal cells, while mollusks are
covered by a thick sheet of skin called
a mantle which secretes a hard
calcareous (KaL-KAREuS30 } (calcium)
skeleton (aragonite or calcite), either
as tiny sclerites or as plates.31 A
sclerite {SKli-rIT} is a chitinous or
calcareous plate, spicule, or similar
part of an invertebrate, especially one
of the hard outer plates forming part
of the exoskeleton of an arthropod.32
In addition annelids have a well
developed coelon and a closed
circulatory system while mollusks have
a reduced coelon and an open
circulatory system.33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
6. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
13. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
14. ^ Maximilian J. Telford, Graham E.
Budd, Invertebrate Evolution: Bringing
Order to the Molluscan Chaos, Current
Biology, Volume 21, Issue 23, 6
December 2011, Pages R964-R966, ISSN
0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.029. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
960982211011900)
15. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p703.
16. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p192-193.
17. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p762.
18. ^ Douglas
Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p69.
19. ^
Donald Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p192-193.
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
22. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
23. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p120-122.
24. ^ Maximilian
J. Telford, Graham E. Budd,
Invertebrate Evolution: Bringing Order
to the Molluscan Chaos, Current
Biology, Volume 21, Issue 23, 6
December 2011, Pages R964-R966, ISSN
0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.029. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
960982211011900)
25. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p703.
26. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p192-193.
27. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p762.
28. ^ Douglas
Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p69.
29. ^
Donald Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p192-193.
30. ^ "calcareous." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/calcareous
31. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p395,717,720.
32. ^
"sclerite." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sclerite
33. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p762.
34. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c539)
36. ^ Caron,
Jean-Bernard et al. "A soft-bodied
mollusc with radula from the Middle
Cambrian Burgess Shale." Nature
442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
530,000,000 YBN
15 		338) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda
"Arthropods" evolve (includes
crustaceans and insects).12

Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.13

The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropoda consists of more than one
million known invertebrate species in
four subphyla: Uniramia (includes
insects), Chelicerata (includes
arachnids and horseshoe crabs),
Crustacea (crustaceans), and Trilobita
(trilobites). All arthropods have a
segmented body with bilateral symmetry
covered by an exoskeleton containing
chitin, which serves as both armor and
as a surface for muscle attachment.
Each body segment may have pair of
jointed appendages. The phylum includes
carnivores, herbivores, omnivores,
detritus feeders, filter feeders, and
parasites in both aquatic and
terrestrial environments.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p476.
5. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
8. ^
"arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
11. ^
"arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
14. ^
"arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
12 		339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora
(onychophorans) evolves.10

Onychophorans, know as "velvet worms",
are the living transitional form
between worms and arthropods. Although
they have segmented worm-like bodies,
they also have jointed appendages,
antennae, and shed their cuticle like
arthropods do.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "onychophoran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm

2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "onychophoran." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm

4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution: What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p193.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution: What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p193.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
11 		340) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada
(tardigrades) evolves.9

Tardigrades are slow-moving,
microscopic invertebrates, related to
the arthropods. Tardigrades have four
body segments, eight legs, and live in
water or damp moss. Tardigrades are
also called "water bears".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tardigrade." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg

[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
530,000,000 YBN
8 		343) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa)
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
evolves.6

Annelids are various worms or wormlike
animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and
including the earthworm and leech.7
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "annelid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annelid
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "annelid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annelid
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c537)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
350) Chordata Vertebrates evolve.10
This Subphylum, Vertebrata, contains
most fishes, and all amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.

The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.11


Vertebrates evolved from a lower
chordate similar to the present-day
Cephalochordata (lancelets).
Vertebrates originate in fresh water
and develop a kidney as their organ of
water balance. The main line of
evolution in the vertebrates which
leads to the tetrapods remains in fresh
waters, however, several vertebrate
lines invade the oceans.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
6. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
9. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ "Vertebrata."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
12. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
530,000,000 YBN
351) Vetebrates Jawless fish (agnatha)
evolve.6

Some extinct jawless fish, that lived
in the Devonian 'Age of Fish', such as
ostracoderms, had hard, bony armor
plating.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p364-371.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p364-371.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p364-371.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
530,000,000 YBN
13 14 		386) Earliest vertebrate and fish
fossil.9 10

Haikouichthys ercaicunensis: About 25
mm in length.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
11. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
12. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {530 mybn}
14. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5047
76.stm {530 mybn}
(Chengjiang) Kunming, Yunnan Province,
China12  
[1] Figure 4 The Lower Cambrian
agnathan vertebrate Haikouichthys
ercaicunensis Luo, Hu & Shu gen. et sp.
nov. from Haikou, Yunnan. Specimen
HZ-f-12-127. a, Entire specimen,
anterior to the left; more posterior
region appears to fade out into
sediment, possibly representing decay
of body;attempts to excavate this area
were not successful. Scale bar
equivalent to 5 mm. b, Detail of
anterior to show putative gill bars,
possible elements of cranial
endoskeleton, and pericardic area;
scale bar equivalent to 5 mm. c,
Camera-lucida drawing of specimen to
show interpretation. Numbers 1-6
indicate units of the branchial basket
that are identified with some
confidence; ?A-?C refer to less secure
identifications. Two possible areas
representing the pericardic cavity are
indicated. To the anterior of ?C a
triangular area with patches of
diagenetic mineralization is one
possibility; a fainter region to the
posterior is the alternative location.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/images/402042ad.tif.2.gi
f

[2] Reconstruction of the early
Cambrian craniate Myllokunmingia (12).
(Copyright 1999 John
Sibbick). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/fig_tab/402042a0_F4.html

525,000,000 YBN
11 		6329) Earliest hemichordate fossil: a
Pterobranch "graptolite".7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
2. ^ University of Leicester.
"Remarkable fossil sea creature -- 525
million years old -- shows soft parts
of body including tentacles."
ScienceDaily, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 2 Feb.
2012.
3. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
4. ^ University of Leicester.
"Remarkable fossil sea creature -- 525
million years old -- shows soft parts
of body including tentacles."
ScienceDaily, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 2 Feb.
2012.
5. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
6. ^ University of Leicester.
"Remarkable fossil sea creature -- 525
million years old -- shows soft parts
of body including tentacles."
ScienceDaily, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 2 Feb.
2012.
7. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
8. ^ University of Leicester.
"Remarkable fossil sea creature -- 525
million years old -- shows soft parts
of body including tentacles."
ScienceDaily, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 2 Feb.
2012.
9. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
10. ^ University of Leicester.
"Remarkable fossil sea creature -- 525
million years old -- shows soft parts
of body including tentacles."
ScienceDaily, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 2 Feb.
2012.
11. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
(Chengjiang Konservat-Lagerstätte)
Yunnan Province, China9 10  
[1] This is the detail of
525-million-year-old hemichordate.
(Credit: Professor Derek Siveter,
Oxford University) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
011/03/110324153024-large.jpg
521,000,000 YBN
137) Start of Sirius Passet fossils in
Canada, early Cambrian fossils (521
mybn).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Sirius_Passet.html
 

source: http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic
/Cambrian/Sirius_Passet.html
520,000,000 YBN
31 32 33 34 		133) Earliest trilobite fossils.22 23
24 25

Trilobites are numerous extinct marine
arthropods of the Paleozoic Era.
Trilobites have a segmented body
divided by grooves into three vertical
lobes and are found as fossils
throughout the world.26

There is a transition, after the
soft-bodied (unshelled) organisms of
the Ediacaran are the earliest small
cylindrical shells of Cloudina and
Sinotubulites, later in the
Proterozoic, to the clam-like shells of
the brachiopods in the Tommotian (Early
Cambrian) to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites in the
Atdabianian.27

One fossil arthropod, known as
aglaspids, may be related to both
trilobites and horseshoe crabs.
Horseshoe crabs are not true crabs, but
instead are members of the group known
as the Chelicerata- a group that
includes spiders and scorpions. True
crabs are a family within the
Crustacea, a different group entirely.
So horseshoe crabs may be descended
from trilobites.28

The segmented shell of the trilobite,
which provides more movement then the
clam shell may have been a selective
advantage.29 (verify)

The largest known trilobite, Isotelus
rex, reached 72 centimeters in
length.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
2. ^
http://www.nature.com0/nature/journal/v4
27/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
3. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
5. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
6. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
7. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
9. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
10. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
11. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
13. ^ "trilobite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trilobite
14. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p209-213.
15. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
16. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
17. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
19. ^ "trilobite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trilobite
20. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p209-213.
21. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p189-191.
22. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
23. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
24. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
25. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
26. ^ "trilobite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trilobite
27. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p209-213.
28. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p189-191.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p391.
31. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters", 2007, p168.
32. ^ Dott and
Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth",
sixth edition, 2002, p210-211.
33. ^ Patel, N.H.
(1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my {510 mybn}
34. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html {540 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.trilobites.info/biostratigrap
hy.htm
[2]
http://www.trilobites.info/origins.htm
[3] Babcock, L.E., S Peng, G. Geyer, &
J.H. Shergold. 2005. Changing
perspectives on Cambrian
chronostratigraphy and progress toward
subdivision of the Cambrian System.
Geosci. Journal
9(2):101-6. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/t7062n5744462260/
[4] Niles Eldredge, "Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns", p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, "Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5", 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC
[5] Hughes, N. 2007. The evolution of
trilobite body patterning. Annu. Rev.
Earth Planet. Sci. 2007.
35:401–34. http://www.annualreviews.o
rg/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.earth.35.0313
06.140258
[6] Richard A. Fortey "Trilobite
Systematics: The Last 75 Years",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 75, No.
6, 75th Anniversary Issue (Nov., 2001),
pp.
1141-1151 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
307082
 
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg

[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
520,000,000 YBN
134) Trilobite, Brachiopod, and
Echinoderm fossils abundant all over
earth.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
  
520,000,000 YBN
135) Start of Chengjiang fossils in
China, early Cambrian fossils (520 to
515 mybn).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Chengjiang.html3
 

source: http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic
/Cambrian/Chengjiang.html
520,000,000 YBN
2 		144) Two agnathan (jawless)
lamprey-like and primitive hagfish
fossils found in Chengjiang.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nature 402, 42 - 46 (04 November
1999); doi:10.1038/46965 Lower
Cambrian vertebrates from south
China D-G. SHU*, H-L. LUO†, S. CONWAY
MORRIS‡, X-L. ZHANG*, S-X. HU†, L.
CHEN*, J. HAN*, M. ZHU§, Y. LI* & L-Z.
CHEN†
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v402/n6757/ful
l/402042a0_fs.html
2. ^ Nature 402, 42 - 46 (04 November
1999); doi:10.1038/46965 Lower
Cambrian vertebrates from south
China D-G. SHU*, H-L. LUO†, S. CONWAY
MORRIS‡, X-L. ZHANG*, S-X. HU†, L.
CHEN*, J. HAN*, M. ZHU§, Y. LI* & L-Z.
CHEN†
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v402/n6757/ful
l/402042a0_fs.html
 

source: http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dy
naPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v402/n67
57/full/402042a0_fs.html


source:
520,000,000 YBN
148)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
 
[1] A hexactinellid sponge from the
Hetang Formation. Reconstruction on the
left (scale bar = 5 cm). Photos
courtesy of Xunlai Yuan.
source: http://www.geol.vt.edu/paleo/Xia
o/
520,000,000 YBN
17 		6296) Earliest worm fossil, a
Chaetognath {KETOnat12 } (arrow
worm).13 14

The fossil is a member of the phylum
Chaetognatha (also called arrow worm),
with only about 100 living species, is
found in oceans throughout the world
and plays an important role in the food
web as primary predators15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnath&submit=Submit
2. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
3. ^
http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/
45016.htm
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnath&submit=Submit
5. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
6. ^
http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/
45016.htm
7. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnath&submit=Submit
9. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
10. ^
http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/
45016.htm
11. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnath&submit=Submit
13. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
14. ^
http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/
45016.htm
15. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
16. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
17. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002).
"A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798. {520 mybn}
(Maotianshan Shale ) near Haikou,
Kunming, China16  
[1] Figure 1 The Lower Cambrian arrow
wormEognathacantha ercainella gen. et
sp. nov., from the Maotianshan Shale,
near Ercai Village, Haikou, near
Kunming (South, China). (A) Ventral
view of the holotype (EC02001a). (B)
Enlargement of the head. Grasping
spines, white arrows; teeth, red
arrows. (C) Counterpart of holotype
(EC01001b). (D) Enlargement of (C).
Scale bar: 5 mm in (A) and (C); 2 mm in
(B) and (D). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/298/5591/187/F1.large.jpg

[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
517,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 		115) Earliest certain Echinoderm
fossils, Helicoplacus.15 16 17

Helicoplacoids are stem group
echinoderms with spiral plating and
three ambulacra arranged radially
around a lateral mouth. They are the
most primitive echinoderms and the
first to show a radial arrangement of
the water vascular and ambulacral
systems. Unlike later echinoderms,
their skeleton shows no dorsal/ventral
(aboral/oral) differentiation. They
were probably sedentary suspension
feeders.18

One theory is that Echinoderms evolved
from sessile filter feeding organisms
similar to Pterobranchs.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul C.R.C and A.B. Smith (1984).
"The early radiation and phylogeny of
echinoderms". Biol. Rev. 59 (4):
443–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00411.x
2. ^ Durham, J.W., & Caster, K. E.;
Caster, KE (17 May 1963).
"Helicoplacoidea: A New Class of
Echinoderms". Science 140 (3568):
820–822.
doi:10.1126/science.140.3568.820. PMID
17746435. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/140/3568/820
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711312

3. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
4. ^ Cowen, "History of Life", 1995,
p77-78.
5. ^ Paul C.R.C and A.B. Smith (1984).
"The early radiation and phylogeny of
echinoderms". Biol. Rev. 59 (4):
443–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00411.x
6. ^ Durham, J.W., & Caster, K. E.;
Caster, KE (17 May 1963).
"Helicoplacoidea: A New Class of
Echinoderms". Science 140 (3568):
820–822.
doi:10.1126/science.140.3568.820. PMID
17746435. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/140/3568/820
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711312

7. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
8. ^ Cowen, "History of Life", 1995,
p77-78.
9. ^ Paul C.R.C and A.B. Smith (1984).
"The early radiation and phylogeny of
echinoderms". Biol. Rev. 59 (4):
443–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00411.x
10. ^ Paul C.R.C and A.B. Smith (1984).
"The early radiation and phylogeny of
echinoderms". Biol. Rev. 59 (4):
443–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00411.x
11. ^ Durham, J.W., & Caster, K. E.;
Caster, KE (17 May 1963).
"Helicoplacoidea: A New Class of
Echinoderms". Science 140 (3568):
820–822.
doi:10.1126/science.140.3568.820. PMID
17746435. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/140/3568/820
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711312

12. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
13. ^ Paul C.R.C and A.B. Smith (1984).
"The early radiation and phylogeny of
echinoderms". Biol. Rev. 59 (4):
443–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00411.x
14. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p203.
15. ^ Paul C.R.C and A.B. Smith (1984).
"The early radiation and phylogeny of
echinoderms". Biol. Rev. 59 (4):
443–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00411.x
16. ^ Durham, J.W., & Caster, K. E.;
Caster, KE (17 May 1963).
"Helicoplacoidea: A New Class of
Echinoderms". Science 140 (3568):
820–822.
doi:10.1126/science.140.3568.820. PMID
17746435. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/140/3568/820
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711312

17. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
18. ^ Paul C.R.C and A.B. Smith (1984).
"The early radiation and phylogeny of
echinoderms". Biol. Rev. 59 (4):
443–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00411.x
19. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p203.
20. ^ Durham, J.W., & Caster, K. E.;
Caster, KE (17 May 1963).
"Helicoplacoidea: A New Class of
Echinoderms". Science 140 (3568):
820–822.
doi:10.1126/science.140.3568.820. PMID
17746435. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/140/3568/820
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711312

21. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
22. ^ Adam M. English, Loren E.
Babcock, Census of the Indian Springs
Lagerstätte, Poleta Formation
(Cambrian), western Nevada, USA,
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, Volume 295, Issues
1–2, 1 September 2010, Pages 236-244,
ISSN 0031-0182,
10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.041. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S0031018210003287)
23. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
24. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p66.

MORE INFO
[1] Dornbos, S.Q., 2006,
Evolutionary palaeoecology of early
epifaunal echinoderms: Response to
increasing bioturbation levels during
the Cambrian radiation.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, v. 237, n. 2-4, p.
225-239.
https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/sdornbos/w
ww/PDF's/Dornbos.2006.pdf
(Poleta Formation) Bishop, California,
USA20 21  
[1] Description English: Helicoplacus
(Echinodermata:Helicoplacoidea) Date
1993 Source http://www.usna.edu/Users
/oceano/pguth/website/pl00001.htm Aut
hor Durham, J.W. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Helicoplacus.jpg

[2] Figure from Prothero, ''Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters'', 2007, p203. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p203.
513,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 		6351) Ancestor of all Arthropod
Crustacea (shrimps, crabs, lobsters,
barnicles).7

The earliest crustacean fossils are
from the early Cambrian (542-513 MYBN)
of Shropshire, England.8 9

Molecular phylogenetics has suggested
to some that the subphylum Crustacea
may be paraphyletic including the
Hexapods within it, and so the Hexapoda
and Crustacea have been named
Pancrustacea.10 11 12 Not all experts
agree that Crustacea is paraphyletic,
some put hexapods as descended from the
Atelocerata, a hypothetical ancestor of
both myriapoda and hexapoda that split
from the crustaceans before the
Myriapod and Hexapod branching, citing
complex anatomical features shared by
Myriapod and Hexapod and not the
crustaceans that would need to be
independently evolved, in particular
the tentorium {internal head skeleton},
tracheae {fine respiratory tubules},
and Malpighian tubules of the Myriapods
and Hexapods).13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ David J. Siveter,
Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek, "An
early Cambrian phosphatocopid
crustacean with three-dimensionally
preserved soft parts from Shropshire,
England", Special Papers in
Paleontology, 70, 2003
6. ^ Siveter, David
J., Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek.
“A Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
8. ^ David J. Siveter,
Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek, "An
early Cambrian phosphatocopid
crustacean with three-dimensionally
preserved soft parts from Shropshire,
England", Special Papers in
Paleontology, 70, 2003
9. ^ Siveter, David
J., Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek.
“A Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
11. ^ Giribet, Gonzalo,
Gregory D. Edgecombe, and Ward C.
Wheeler. “Arthropod Phylogeny Based
on Eight Molecular Loci and
Morphology.” Nature 413.6852 (2001):
157–161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F
35093097
12. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engels, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p107-108.
14. ^ David J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, and Dieter
Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with
three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England",
Special Papers in Paleontology, 70,
2003
15. ^ Siveter, David J., Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek. “A
Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
16. ^ David J. Siveter, Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with
three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England",
Special Papers in Paleontology, 70,
2003
17. ^ Siveter, David J., Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek. “A
Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
18. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p66-67.
19. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
20. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1]
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Crustacea/fossils.html
[2]
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2001/07/0719_crustacean.html
(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England14 15  
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg

[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
507,000,000 YBN
7 8 		136) Start of Burgess shale fossils in
Canada, middle Cambrian fossils (507
mybn).1 2 3 4 5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/intro.htm

2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^
http://www.yale.edu/ypmip/
4. ^
http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/palaeontolog
ie/Stuff/casu9.htm
5. ^
http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macrae/Burge
ss_Shale/
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Burgess_Shale.html
7. ^
http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/intro.htm

8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Sirius_Passet.htm
  
507,000,000 YBN
7 		140) Aysheaia (onychophoran, also
described as lobopod) fossil, from
Burgess shale.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm
7. ^
http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/intro.htm
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Sirius_Passet.htm
 

source: 1 & 2
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm


source: 3
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/onychoph/on
ychophorafr.html
507,000,000 YBN
3 		141) Sponge fossil, from Burgess
shale.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pchoi
a.htm
3. ^
http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/intro.htm
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Sirius_Passet.htm
 

source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pchoia.htm


source:
507,000,000 YBN
3 		142)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pchoi
a.htm
3. ^
http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/intro.htm
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Sirius_Passet.htm
 
[1]
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pchoia.htm

[2]
source:
507,000,000 YBN
3 		143)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/onychoph/on
ychophorafr.html
3. ^
http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/intro.htm
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n/Sirius_Passet.htm
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ony
choph/onychophorafr.html
507,000,000 YBN
145) Priapulid worm fossils of Burgess
Shale.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
 
[1] Ottoia, showing muscle bands and
gut. Ottoia is a priapulid worm found
commonly in the Burgess Shale. It was
carnivorous, and probably lived in a
burrow like modern priapulids. This
specimen has been wetted and oriented
to reflect the light, in order to show
a delicate irridescent film which
preserves details of muscle bands, the
gut, and even the small hooks at one
end of the worm (on the right --
unfortunately out of focus). Walcott
quarry.
source: http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macr
ae/Burgess_Shale/Ottoia_muscle.gif

[2] Phylum
Priapulida Ottoia Priapulid worm.
Note the anterior proboscis (on the
left) and the dark trace of the
interior digestive tract. Ottoia was
carnivorous.
source: http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geolog
y/geo102/burgess/burgess.htm
507,000,000 YBN
146) Opabinia fossils of Burgess
Shale.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
 

source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm


source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm
507,000,000 YBN
147) Anomalocaris fossils of Burgess
Shale.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
 
[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm

[2] jaws
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm
507,000,000 YBN
149)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pmare
lla.htm
Burgess Shale 
[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm

[2] fossil
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm
505,000,000 YBN
10 		74) Oldest fossil of an arthropod in
the process of moulting (ecdysis), the
soft-bodied arthropod Marrella
splendens.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Garcia-Bellido, Diego C., and
Desmond H. Collins. “Moulting
Arthropod Caught in the Act.” Nature
429.6987 (2004):
40. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v429/n6987/full/429040a.html
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
Garcia-Bellido, Diego C., and Desmond
H. Collins. “Moulting Arthropod
Caught in the Act.” Nature 429.6987
(2004):
40. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v429/n6987/full/429040a.html
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
Garcia-Bellido, Diego C., and Desmond
H. Collins. “Moulting Arthropod
Caught in the Act.” Nature 429.6987
(2004):
40. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v429/n6987/full/429040a.html
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
Garcia-Bellido, Diego C., and Desmond
H. Collins. “Moulting Arthropod
Caught in the Act.” Nature 429.6987
(2004):
40. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v429/n6987/full/429040a.html

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (780my)
[2] S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (c1300my)
(Burgess Shale) British Columbia,
Canada. 
[1] a, Specimen of M. splendens (ROM
56781) emerging and pulling out the
flexible lateral spines from the old
exoskeleton (exuvia). b, Camera lucida
drawing of the same specimen. Scale bar
for a and b, 5 mm. c, Reconstruction of
Marrella (modified from ref.
8). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v429/n6987/fig_tab/429040a_F1.html
505,000,000 YBN
8 		6291) Early Chordata fossil "Pikaia".5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p331-333.
2. ^
http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/fossil
-gallery/view-species.php?id=101
3. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p331-333.
4. ^
http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/fossil
-gallery/view-species.php?id=101
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p331-333.
6. ^
http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/fossil
-gallery/view-species.php?id=101
7. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p331-333.
8. ^
http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/fossil
-gallery/view-species.php?id=101 {505
mybn}
(Burgess Shale) Mount Wapta, British
Columbia7  
[1] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Pikaia from the Burgess
Shale on display at the Smithsonian in
Washington, DC. Image contrast
enhanced. Image is ~4cm across. Date
12 April 2009 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Pikaia_Smithsonian.JP
G

[2] Description Pikaia gracilens,
the earliest known vertebrate ancestor,
from the Middle Cambrian of British
Columbia, digital Date 8 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Pikaia_BW.jpg
501,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 		6348) Arthropod subphylum Myriapoda
{mEREaPeDu15 } (centipedes and
millipedes).16

The earliest possible Myriapoda fossil
are marine fossils from the middle
Cambrian of Utah17 18 and the late
Cambrian (488-501 MYBN) of East
Siberia19 20 , and the earliest certain
Myriapod fossils, are land Myriapods
from the late Silurian (416 MYO) from
Shropshire, England21 22 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

8. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
9. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
10. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
11. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596
12. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
13. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A. Selden,
and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in
the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods
from Shropshire, England.” Science
250, no. 4981 (November 2, 1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
14. ^ William A Shear, Andrew J Jeram
and Paul Selden, "Centiped legs
(Arthropoda,
Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the
Silurian and Devonian of Britain and
the Devonian of North America.",
American Museum novitates 3231:1-16
(1998)
http://biostor.org/reference/30111
15. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

16. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
17. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
18. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
19. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596
20. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
21. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A. Selden,
and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in
the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods
from Shropshire, England.” Science
250, no. 4981 (November 2, 1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
22. ^ William A Shear, Andrew J Jeram
and Paul Selden, "Centiped legs
(Arthropoda,
Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the
Silurian and Devonian of Britain and
the Devonian of North America.",
American Museum novitates 3231:1-16
(1998)
http://biostor.org/reference/30111
23. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
24. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
25. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
26. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A.
Selden, and Dianne Edwards. “Land
Animals in the Silurian: Arachnids and
Myriapods from Shropshire, England.”
Science 250, no. 4981 (November 2,
1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
27. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
28. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
29. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
30. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B.,
Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple,
Simon J. Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and
Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on
Land: Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
31. ^ Budd, G.E., Högström, A.E.S.,
and Gogin, I., 2001, A myriapod-like
arthropod from the Upper Cambrian of
East Siberia: Paläontologische
Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596
32. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
33. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A. Selden,
and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in
the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods
from Shropshire, England.” Science
250, no. 4981 (November 2, 1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
34. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
35. ^ William A Shear, Andrew J Jeram
and Paul Selden, "Centiped legs
(Arthropoda,
Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the
Silurian and Devonian of Britain and
the Devonian of North America.",
American Museum novitates 3231:1-16
(1998)
http://biostor.org/reference/30111
36. ^ Grimaldi, Engels, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p107-108.
37. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
38. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
(earliest possible fossils Marine
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah,
USA23 24 and (Ust-Majan formation)
East Siberia25 |(earliest fossils)
Shropshire, England26  
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg

[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
495,000,000 YBN
2 		138) Start of Orsted fossils in ???,
late Cambrian fossils (495 mybn).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambria
n
  
488,300,000 YBN
9 		121) End of the Cambrian (542-488.3
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN7 } (488.3-443.7 mybn)
Period.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
6. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
7. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
8. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
9. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
488,000,000 YBN
10 		6314) The Ordovician radiation.
During the
Ordovician (488-444 million years ago),
the number of genera will quadruple.9
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
3. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
4. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
5. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
6. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
7. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
8. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
9. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
10. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levine, "The Eath
Through Time", 2006, p333
 
[1] A second peak time in the abundance
of shell-surviving life forms was in
the Upper Ordovician (by this time
also, the first larger vertebrates,
fossil fish, had appeared). Below are
two illustrations: the first, an
artist' conception of marine
invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg

[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
Or-03.jpg
488,000,000 YBN
17 18 		6349) Arthropod subphylum Chelicerata
(KeliSuroTo12 ) (horseshoe crabs,
mites, spiders, scorpions).13

Chelicera
ta probably appeared during the
Cambrian period. By the late Cambrian
there is evidence for both Pycnogonida
and Euchelicerata. The earliest
pycnogonid (sea spider) fossils are
larval sea spiders from the Late
Cambrian (488-501 MYO), Orsten of
Sweden.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ J. W. Shultz (2007).
"A phylogenetic analysis of the
arachnid orders based on morphological
characters". Zoological Journal of the
Linnean Society 150: 221–265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-364
2.2007.00284.x
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
10. ^ D. Waloszek, J.A.
Dunlop, "A larval sea spider
(Arthropoda: Pycnogonida) from the
Upper Cambrian ‘Orsten’ of Sweden
and the phylogenetic position of
pycnogonids", Palaeontology, 45 (2002),
pp.
421–446 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.co
m/doi/10.1111/1475-4983.00244/abstract
11. ^ Jason A. Dunlop, "Geological
history and phylogeny of Chelicerata",
Arthropod Structure & Development,
Volume 39, Issues 2–3, March–May
2010, Pages
124–142. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1467803910000046
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
13. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
14. ^ D. Waloszek, J.A.
Dunlop, "A larval sea spider
(Arthropoda: Pycnogonida) from the
Upper Cambrian ‘Orsten’ of Sweden
and the phylogenetic position of
pycnogonids", Palaeontology, 45 (2002),
pp.
421–446 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.co
m/doi/10.1111/1475-4983.00244/abstract
15. ^ Jason A. Dunlop, "Geological
history and phylogeny of Chelicerata",
Arthropod Structure & Development,
Volume 39, Issues 2–3, March–May
2010, Pages
124–142. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1467803910000046
16. ^ D. Waloszek, J.A. Dunlop, "A
larval sea spider (Arthropoda:
Pycnogonida) from the Upper Cambrian
‘Orsten’ of Sweden and the
phylogenetic position of pycnogonids",
Palaeontology, 45 (2002), pp.
421–446 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.co
m/doi/10.1111/1475-4983.00244/abstract
17. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p66-67.
18. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.

MORE INFO
[1] Charbonnier, S, J Vannier,
and B Riou. “New Sea Spiders from the
Jurassic La Voulte-sur-Rhône
Lagerstätte.” Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
274, no. 1625 (October 22, 2007): 2555
–2561. http://rspb.royalsocietypublis
hing.org/content/274/1625/2555.full
[2] Dunlop and Seldon, "The Early
History and Phylogeny of the
Chelicerates", in Fortey and Thomas,
"Arthropod Relatioinships", 1997, p231
(sea spider fossils, Orsten) Sweden16
 
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg

[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 		244) Non-vascular plants evolve,
Bryophyta, (ancestor of Liverworts,
Hornworts, Mosses).18 19

The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.20 21


The Division Bryophyta contains green,
seedless land plants that contain at
least 18,000 species and are divided
into three classes: mosses, liverworts,
and hornworts. Bryophytes are
distinguished from vascular plants and
seed plants by the production of only
one spore-containing organ in their
spore-producing stage. Most bryophytes
are 2-5 cm (0.8-2 in.) tall. Bryophytes
are found throughout the surface of
earth, from polar regions to the
tropics, they are most abundant in
humid environments, though none is
marine. Bryophytes are extremely
tolerant of dry and freezing
conditions.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
8. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
12. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
14. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
15. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
16. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
17. ^ "bryophyte." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyte
18. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
19. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
20. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
21. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
22. ^ "bryophyte." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyte
23. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p82.
24. ^ S26 (c475)
25. ^ S15 (c475)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bryophyte". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryophyte
[2] "Bryophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyta-1

 
[1] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg

[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
352) Jawless fish lampreys and hagfish
lines separate.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
 
[1] Description English: Petromyzon
marinus (Lamprey) mouth in Sala
Maremagnum of Aquarium Finisterrae
(House of the Fishes), in Corunna,
Galicia, Spain. Español: Boca de
Petromyzon marinus (lamprea) en la Sala
Maremagnum del Aquarium Finisterrae
(Casa de los Peces), en La Coruña,
Galicia, España. Galego: Boca de
Petromyzon marinus (lamprea) na Sala
Maremagnum do Aquarium Finisterrae
(Casa dos Peixes), na Coruña, Galicia,
España. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Diversas_lampreas.1_-
_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG

[2] Pacific hagfish (Eptatretus
stoutii) resting on bottom 280m down,
collected from
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/exploratio
ns/lewis_clark01/logs/jul08/jul08.html,
taken via ROV in Astoria Canyon off the
Oregon Coast in 2001. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Pacific_hagfish_Myxin
e.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
29 30 		398) Plants live on land. Earliest
fossil spores belonging to land
plants.22 23 24 These spores look like
the spores of living liverworts25 and
Cooksonia26 .

Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
2. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
5. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
8. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
11. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., &
Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant
microfossils from libya. Geology ,
April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p520-521.
16. ^ Gray, J., Massa,
D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land
plant microfossils from libya. Geology
, April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
17. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
18. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
19. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., &
Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant
microfossils from libya. Geology ,
April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p520-521.
22. ^ Gray, J., Massa,
D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land
plant microfossils from libya. Geology
, April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
23. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
24. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
25. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., &
Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant
microfossils from libya. Geology ,
April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p520-521.
28. ^ Gray, J., Massa,
D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land
plant microfossils from libya. Geology
, April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
29. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
{475 MYBN}
30. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p82.
Caradoc, Libya28  
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4
472,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 		402) The first animals live on land,
arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes and
millipedes).17 18 19

The earliest fossil land tracks are
from the Ordovician and are at least
472 MYO. The organism that produced
these fossil tracks is possibly an
Euthycarcinoidea, a rare arthropod
group thought to be descended from the
Myriapods.20

Marine stem-group hexapods support the
theory that the invasion of the land
occurred independently by the Myriapoda
and Hexapoda. Adaptation to life on
land also occurred independently in the
Crustacea (Isopoda), Cheliceriformes
(Chelicerata), Tardigrada, and
Onychophhora.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
3. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
4. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
6. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
7. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
9. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
10. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
12. ^ Heather M.
Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson,
"Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic
Millipedes (Diplopoda: Chilognatha:
Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal
of Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
13. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
15. ^ Heather M.
Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson,
"Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic
Millipedes (Diplopoda: Chilognatha:
Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal
of Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
16. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
17. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
18. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
19. ^ Heather M.
Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson,
"Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic
Millipedes (Diplopoda: Chilognatha:
Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal
of Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
20. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
21. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
22. ^ MacNaughton,
Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W.
Dalrymple, Simon J. Braddy, Derek E.G.
Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First
Steps on Land: Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
23. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
24. ^ Heather M. Wilson and Lyall I.
Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of
Paleozoic Millipedes (Diplopoda:
Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from
Scotland", Journal of Paleontology,
Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
25. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p67.
(earliest arthropod tracks) Kingston,
Ontario, Canada22  
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391

[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
470,000,000 YBN
5 6 		234) Non-vascular plants Hornworts.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c475)
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c475)
 
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki
460,000,000 YBN
13 14 		84)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel S. Heckman, David M.
Geiser, Brooke R. Eidell, Rebecca L.
Stauffer, Natalie L. Kardos, and S.
Blair Hedges, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi
and Plants", Science 10 August 2001:
293 (5532), 1129-1133.
DOI:10.1126/science.1061457 http://ww
w.sciencemag.org/content/293/5532/1129.s
hort
2. ^ Redecker, D.; Kodner, R. ; Graham,
L. E. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–1921.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/289/5486/1920
3. ^ Daniel S. Heckman, David M.
Geiser, Brooke R. Eidell, Rebecca L.
Stauffer, Natalie L. Kardos, and S.
Blair Hedges, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi
and Plants", Science 10 August 2001:
293 (5532), 1129-1133.
DOI:10.1126/science.1061457 http://ww
w.sciencemag.org/content/293/5532/1129.s
hort
4. ^ Redecker, D.; Kodner, R. ; Graham,
L. E. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–1921.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/289/5486/1920
5. ^ Redecker, D.; Kodner, R. ; Graham,
L. E. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–1921.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/289/5486/1920
6. ^ Daniel S. Heckman, David M.
Geiser, Brooke R. Eidell, Rebecca L.
Stauffer, Natalie L. Kardos, and S.
Blair Hedges, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi
and Plants", Science 10 August 2001:
293 (5532), 1129-1133.
DOI:10.1126/science.1061457 http://ww
w.sciencemag.org/content/293/5532/1129.s
hort
7. ^ Redecker, D.; Kodner, R. ; Graham,
L. E. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–1921.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/289/5486/1920
8. ^ Redecker, D.; Kodner, R. ; Graham,
L. E. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–1921.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/289/5486/1920
9. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungi
fr.html
10. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
11. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
12. ^ Redecker, D.; Kodner, R. ;
Graham, L. E. (2000). "Glomalean fungi
from the Ordovician". Science 289
(5486): 1920–1921.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/289/5486/1920
13. ^ Daniel S. Heckman, David M.
Geiser, Brooke R. Eidell, Rebecca L.
Stauffer, Natalie L. Kardos, and S.
Blair Hedges, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi
and Plants", Science 10 August 2001:
293 (5532), 1129-1133.
DOI:10.1126/science.1061457 http://ww
w.sciencemag.org/content/293/5532/1129.s
hort {460 mybn}
14. ^ Redecker, D.; Kodner,
R. ; Graham, L. E. (2000). "Glomalean
fungi from the Ordovician". Science 289
(5486): 1920–1921.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/289/5486/1920 {460 mybn}
Wisconsin, USA12  
[1] Figure 1. (A to C and E to G)
Fossil hyphae and spores from the
Ordovician and (D and H) spores formed
by extant glomalean fungi. (A and B)
Overviews of the fossilized material.
(C, E, F, and G) Fossil spore details.
(C) Detail of (B). (D) A spore of
present-day Glomus sp. S328 with
layered wall structure. In (G), the
arrow shows walls of a subtending hypha
in connection with the spore wall. (H)
A spore of present-day Glomus
leptotichum, a member of the deeply
divergent glomalean lineages. Images
were obtained by light microscopy (28)
of the specimens in air (A, C, F, and
G), differential interference contrast
microscopy of the specimens in
polyvinylalcohol-lactoglycerol (D, E,
and H), and confocal laser scanning
microscopy with the autofluorescence of
the material (B). All scale bars are 50
µm.
source:
460,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		235) Non-vasular plants Mosses.4 5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ estimated
from tree on
http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Embryophyte
s&contgroup=Green_
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^ estimated
from tree on
http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Embryophyte
s&contgroup=Green_
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(c475)
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004). (c475)
9. ^ estimated from
tree on
http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Embryophyte
s&contgroup=Green_ (c460)
 
[1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse
at Mistley, England. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
s

[2] life cycle of
moss ladyofhats public domain
source: same
460,000,000 YBN
21 		353) Jawed vertebrates evolve,
Infraphylum Gnathostomata {no toST
omoTo16 }.17 This large group includes
all jawed fish, amphibians, reptiles,
mammals, and birds. First vertebrate
teeth.18

The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton. The earliest jawed
vertebrates, have no bone, there
skeleton is made of cartilage. Humans
have cartilage too, for example, in the
lining of joints and the human skeleton
starts as flexible cartilage in the
embyro. Most of the human skeleton
becomes ossified when mineral crystals,
mostly calcium phosphate, become
integrated into the skeleton. Except
for teeth, the shark skeleton never
undergoes this mineral transformation.
Sharks lack the swim bladder of the
later bony fish, and many sharks have
to swim continuously to maintain their
desired level in the water. Sharks and
rays almost all live in the sea. Unlike
the bony fish, no sharks ever climb
onto land. Sharks have been the top of
the food chains of the sea for hundreds
of millions of years. The largest shark
known is the whale shark, Rhincodon
typus, which can be up to 12 meters
long and weigh 12 tons.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
8. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
12. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
16. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
18. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
20. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. {460 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p106,110
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
Oceans20  
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
460,000,000 YBN
13 14 		404) Jawed fishes Chondrichthyes
{KoN-DriK-tE-EZ10 } (Cartilaginous
fishes: ancestor of all sharks, rays,
skates, and sawfishes).11

The fossil record of Chondrichthyans
dates to around 455 million years ago,
but the earliest Chondrichthyan fossil
dates to 409 million years ago.12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Miller, Randall
F., Richard Cloutier, and Susan Turner.
“The Oldest Articulated
Chondrichthyan from the Early Devonian
Period.” Nature 425.6957 (2003):
501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
9. ^ Miller, Randall
F., Richard Cloutier, and Susan Turner.
“The Oldest Articulated
Chondrichthyan from the Early Devonian
Period.” Nature 425.6957 (2003):
501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
12. ^ Miller, Randall
F., Richard Cloutier, and Susan Turner.
“The Oldest Articulated
Chondrichthyan from the Early Devonian
Period.” Nature 425.6957 (2003):
501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
13. ^ Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.

[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {
Miller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
450,000,000 YBN
2 		158)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
443,700,000 YBN
5 		122) End of the Ordovician (488.3-443.7
mybn), and start of the Silurian
(443.7-416) Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
443,000,000 YBN
7 8 		90) End-Ordovician mass extinction. 60%
of all genera are observed extinct.5

Many species go extinct, mostly
trilobites, echinoderms, corals,
nautiloids, brachiopods, graptolites,
conodonts, and acritarchs.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p83.
5. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
6. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p83.
7. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {439 mybn}
8. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p83.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2] David Jablonski, "Lessons from the
Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
  
440,000,000 YBN
29 30 31 		236) Vascular plants evolve20 21
(Phylum: Tracheophytes22 ).

Vascular plants are any plant that has
a specialized conducting system
consisting mostly of phloem
(food-conducting tissue) and xylem
(water-conducting tissue), collectively
called vascular tissue.23 The phloem
transports sugar and the xylem
transports water and salts.24 Ferns,
gymnosperms, and flowering plants are
all vascular plants.25 In contrast to
the nonvascular bryophytes, where the
gametophyte is the dominant phase, the
dominant phase among vascular plants is
the sporophyte.26 Because they have
vascular tissues, these plants have
true stems, leaves, and roots,
modifications of which enable species
of vascular plants to survive in a
variety of habitats under diverse, even
extreme, environmental conditions. This
ability to flourish in so many
different habitats is the primary
reason that vascular plants have become
dominant among terrestrial plants.27

Earliest spores of vascular plants.28
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ "vascular
plant." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
10. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p96.
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
12. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
13. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
14. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
15. ^ "vascular plant." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
16. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
17. ^ "alternation of generations."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alternation
-of-generations
18. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
19. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p96.
20. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
21. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
22. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
23. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
24. ^ "vascular plant." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
25. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
26. ^ "alternation of generations."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alternation
-of-generations
27. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
28. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p96.
29. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p96.
30. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (c400)
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
31. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic.
Serm. plant from windward O'ahu
(Hawai'i) taken in December 2003 by
Eric Guinther and released under the
GNU Free Documentation License. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc
ophyte
440,000,000 YBN
23 24 		360) Ray-finned fishes (Jawed, Class
Osteichthyes, Subclass Actinopterygii)
evolve.12 13 This is the fist bony
fish (Osteichthyes) which includes the
ray-finned, lobefin, and lung fishes.14
 Bony-fish have a skeleton at least
partly composed of true bone. Other
features include, in most species, a
swim bladder (an air-filled sac to give
buoyancy), gill covers over the gill
chamber, bony platelike scales, a skull
with sutures, and external
fertilization of eggs.15

Most of the ray-finned fish are known
as teleosts. They exist in both salt
and freshwater. The name ray is because
their fins have a skeleton similar to a
handheld fan. The teleost fish are a
very successful evolutionary line, with
about 23,500 species, 30 times the
number of shark species.16

Fish with a swim bladder use the
bladder to change their depth, to sink,
the fish absorbs some molecules of gas
from its swim bladder into the blood
which reduces the volume of the
bladder, to rise, the fish does the
reverse, releasing molecules of gas
from the blood into the swim bladder
increasing the volume of the bladder.17


Some teleost fish can gulp air from the
surface, but still use their gills to
extract oxygen from the oxygenated gill
water. However, the lung does not
evolve from gills but from the swim
bladder. The swim bladder appears to
have evolved from a primitive lung, and
some surviving teleosts, for example
bowfins, gars and bichirs (BiCRZ18 ),
still use the swim bladder for
breathing.19

The Anabas and mudskipper are two
teleost fish that can walk over land.
The mudskipper can crawl on land using
its pectoral (arm) fin muscles which
can support its weight, and eats
insects and spiders.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
5. ^"bony fish." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
6. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
9. ^"bony fish." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
10. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
13. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
14. ^"bony fish." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
15. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
17. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
18. ^ "bichir." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bichir
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
20. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
22. ^ "bony fish."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363. {440 MYBN}
24. ^
Palmet et al, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p97.

MORE INFO
[1] "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
Ocean and fresh water21 22  
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
10 		6172) The first lung evolves, in
ray-finned fishes, from the swim
bladder. Some surviving teleosts, such
as bowfins, gars, and bichirs still use
their swim bladder for breathing. Fish
that breathe air through their gill
chamber evolved breathing through a
completely different route than those
fish that breathe with a lung.7

Bichirs (BiCR) are among the most
primitive of the ray-finned fishes.
Instead of the swim bladder of most
ray-finned fishes, the bichir has a
pair of lungs, which enables it to
survive out of water for several
hours.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
6. ^ "bichir." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bichir
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
8. ^ "bichir." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bichir
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363. {440 MYBN (guess based on
ray-finned fish evolving}

MORE INFO
[1] Farmer, C.G. 1999. The
evolution of the vertebrate
cardio-pulmonary system. Annual Review
of Physiology
61:573-592 http://biologylabs.utah.edu/
farmer/publications%20pdf/1999%20AnnuRev
Physiol61.pdf
Ocean (presumably)9  
[1] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png

[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
425,000,000 YBN
10 		377) Jawed fishes, Lobefin fishes
evolve. Coelacanths. Lobefin fish have
a fleshy lobe at the base of each fin.7

There are 2 living species of
coelacanths known.8

The Coelacanths are well known in the
fossil record, but were thought to have
gone extinct before the dinosaurs, but
are found to be still alive in 1938.9
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=89942
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42376
 
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
420,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 		6350) Arthropods Hexapoda {HeKsoPeDu}
(arthropods with six legs, includes all
insects).14 15
The closest relative of
the Hexapoda is most likely the
Branchiopoda, the brine shrimps and
their
allies.16

The earliest hexapod fossils are 396
million years old and from the Rhynie
chert of Scotland. They are Rhyniella
praecursor17 18 and a pair of
mandibles described as Rhyniognatha
hirsti19 .20

The proturans, (class Protura), are any
of a group of about 150 species of
minute (0.5 to 2 mm), pale, wingless,
blind, primitive insects that live in
damp humus and soil and feed on
decaying organic matter. Proturans,
frequently known as telsontails,
include some of the most primitive
hexapods.21

The first major division among hexapods
is between Entognatha and Ectognatha.
Ectognatha are more widely known as the
Insecta. In entognaths the mouthpart
appendages are recessed within a
gnathal pouch on the head capsule.
Ectognathy is more primitive and all
other hexapods have ectognathous
mouthparts.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter, "Insect
Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
8. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
10. ^
Scourfield, D. J. “THE OLDEST KNOWN
FOSSIL INSECT (RHYNIELLA PRAECURSOR
Hirst & Maulik)–FURTHER DETAILS FROM
ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS.” Proceedings of
the Linnean Society of London 152.2
(1940):
113–131. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1940.tb00251.
x/abstract
11. ^ Scourfield, D. J., 1940a. The
oldest known fossil insect. Nature,
145: 799-801.
12. ^ Engel, Michael S., and David
A. Grimaldi. “New Light Shed on the
Oldest Insect.” Nature 427.6975
(2004):
627–630. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v427/n6975/full/nature02291.htm
l
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p66.
14. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
15. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
16. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
17. ^
Scourfield, D. J. “THE OLDEST KNOWN
FOSSIL INSECT (RHYNIELLA PRAECURSOR
Hirst & Maulik)–FURTHER DETAILS FROM
ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS.” Proceedings of
the Linnean Society of London 152.2
(1940):
113–131. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1940.tb00251.
x/abstract
18. ^ Scourfield, D. J., 1940a. The
oldest known fossil insect. Nature,
145: 799-801.
19. ^ Engel, Michael S., and David
A. Grimaldi. “New Light Shed on the
Oldest Insect.” Nature 427.6975
(2004):
627–630. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v427/n6975/full/nature02291.htm
l
20. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p66.
21. ^ "proturan".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 05 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/480534/proturan>.
22. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p111-112.
23. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005,
p66,116.
24. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
25. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005,
p66,116.
26. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
27. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1] Blaxter, Mark.
“Evolutionary Biology: Sum of the
Arthropod Parts.” Nature 413.6852
(2001):
121–122. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v413/n6852/full/413121a0.html
(Rhynie chert) Scotland23  
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg

[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
417,000,000 YBN
8 9 		378) Lobefin fish, Lungfishes.5

There are only six species of lungfish
alive today. The Australian lungfish
has a single lung, the others have two.
The African and South American species
bury themselves in mud during the dry
season, breathing air through a little
breathing hole in the mud.6

The earliest fossil lungfish dates to
around this time.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42316&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg

[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
416,000,000 YBN
9 		123) End of the Silurian (443.7-416
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN7 } (416-359.2 mybn) Period.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
6. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
7. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
8. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
9. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
415,000,000 YBN
22 23 		401) Earliest fossil of land plant,
Cooksonia.15 16 17 This is also the
oldest fossil of a vascular land
plant.18

Cooksonia is only a few centimeters
tall. It has slender, leafless branches
with Y shaped forks, topped by capsules
that relase microscopic spores. Some
fossils have a dark stripe in their
stems which may be the remains of
vascular tissue, used by plants to move
water.19

They have been found in an area
stretching from Siberia to the Eastern
USA, and in Brazil. They are found
mostly in the area of Euramerica, and
most of the type specimens are from
Britain.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993).
2. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p97.
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993).
5. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p97.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Edwards, D.; Davies, K.L. & Axe,
L. (1992), "A vascular conducting
strand in the early land plant
Cooksonia", Nature 357 (6380):
683–685, Bibcode 1992Natur.357..683E,
doi:10.1038/357683a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v357/n6380/abs/357683
a0.html
8. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p99.
9. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil
Record 2", (London; New York: Chapman &
Hall, 1993).
10. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p97.
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
12. ^ Edwards, D.; Davies, K.L. & Axe,
L. (1992), "A vascular conducting
strand in the early land plant
Cooksonia", Nature 357 (6380):
683–685, Bibcode 1992Natur.357..683E,
doi:10.1038/357683a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v357/n6380/abs/357683
a0.html
13. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p99.
14. ^ "Cooksonia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooksonia
15. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993).
16. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p97.
17. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
18. ^ Edwards, D.; Davies, K.L. & Axe,
L. (1992), "A vascular conducting
strand in the early land plant
Cooksonia", Nature 357 (6380):
683–685, Bibcode 1992Natur.357..683E,
doi:10.1038/357683a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v357/n6380/abs/357683
a0.html
19. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p99.
20. ^ "Cooksonia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooksonia
21. ^ Edwards, D. & Feehan, J. (1980),
"Records of Cooksonia-type sporangia
from late Wenlock strata in Ireland",
Nature 287 (5777): 41–42, Bibcode
1980Natur.287...41E,
doi:10.1038/287041a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
287/n5777/abs/287041a0.html
22. ^ Edwards, D. & Feehan, J. (1980),
"Records of Cooksonia-type sporangia
from late Wenlock strata in Ireland",
Nature 287 (5777): 41–42, Bibcode
1980Natur.287...41E,
doi:10.1038/287041a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
287/n5777/abs/287041a0.html
23. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p97.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/IB181/VPL/E
lp/Elp1.html
(Wenlock strata) Devilsbit Mountain
district of County Tipperary, Ireland21
 
[1] Cooksonia pertoni with three
sporangia. Height of the plant 2.5
cm Pridolian (Upper
Silurian) Shropshire, England.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/eng
cook/ecookwal.html

[2] Cooksonia pertoni, fossilised
plant COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://owen.nhm.ac.uk/piclib/web
images/0/0/900/936_sml.jpg
410,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		6352) The most primitive living insects
are the order Archaeognatha, the
Bristletails, of which there are around
500 known species. The members of this
order are distinctive because their
mandibles connect with the head capsule
in only one place (monocondylic). The
mandibles of all other insects have two
points of articulation with the head
(dicondylic). Other ancestral features
of Archaeognatha include their method
of reproduction in which species do not
copulate and sperm transfer is indirect
even though fertilization is
internalized.7 8 9

In the most primitive wingless insects
(apterygotes) such as the silverfish
Lepisma, there is almost no change in
form throughout growth to the adult.
These are known as ametabolous
insects.10

Engel and Grimaldi write: "...By most
measures of evolutionary success,
insects are unmatched: the longevity of
their lineage, their species numbers,
the diversity of their adaptations,
their biomass, and their ecological
impact. ...".11

The insects co-radiate with
angiosperms; 85% of the 250,000 species
of angiosperms are pollinated by
insects. The diversity of flowers is
due in large part to the insects lured
to them.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
2. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
3. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA148
5. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA148
7. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA148
8. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/apterygota.html
9. ^ "Archaeognatha." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaeognat
ha
10. ^ "insect". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289001/insect/41265/Types-of-met
amorphosis>.
11. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql
6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA1
12. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql
6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA5
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
14. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
15. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p250-254.
16. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql
6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA1
 
[1] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg

[2] Description English: Collage
showing the diversity of insect
species. Insect species clockwise from
top to bottom left: 1. Long dance
fly (Empis livida) 2. Long Nosed
Weevil (Rhinotia hemistictus) 3.
Assassin bug in the family Reduviidae
sub-family Harpactocorinae 4. Mole
Cricket (Gryllotalpa brachyptera) 5.
Emperor gum moth (Opodiphthera
eucalypti) 6. European Wasp (Vespula
germanica) Date Source Derivative
from images uploaded by
Fir0002. Author Bugboy52.40 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Insect_collage.
png/1052px-Insect_collage.png
410,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		6354) Early arachnid fossils:
trigonotarbids, spider-like arthropods
with lung-books, the typical breathing
organs of most of the larger recent
living Arachnids.6
Unlike true
spiders, Pleophrynus lacks poison and
silk glands.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p161.
2. ^ M. F. Claridge & A. G. Lyon
(1961). "Lung-books in the Devonian
Palæocharinidae (Arachnida)". Nature
191 (4794): 1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p161.
4. ^ M. F. Claridge & A. G. Lyon
(1961). "Lung-books in the Devonian
Palæocharinidae (Arachnida)". Nature
191 (4794): 1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p161.
6. ^ M. F. Claridge & A. G. Lyon
(1961). "Lung-books in the Devonian
Palæocharinidae (Arachnida)". Nature
191 (4794): 1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p161.
8. ^ M. F. Claridge & A. G. Lyon
(1961). "Lung-books in the Devonian
Palæocharinidae (Arachnida)". Nature
191 (4794): 1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html
9. ^ Parry, S.F.; Noble S.R., Crowley
Q.G. & Wellman C.H. (2011). "A
high-precision U–Pb age constraint on
the Rhynie Chert
Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and
other implications". Journal of the
Geological Society (London: Geological
Society) 168 (4): 863–872.
doi:10.1144/​0016-76492010-043. http:
//jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/168/4/
863.abstract
10. ^ M. F. Claridge & A. G. Lyon
(1961). "Lung-books in the Devonian
Palæocharinidae (Arachnida)". Nature
191 (4794): 1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p96-97.

MORE INFO
[1] Shear, W. A. 2000.
Gigantocharinus szatmaryi, a new
trigonotarbid arachnid from the Late
Devonian of North America (Chelicerata,
Arachinida, Trigonotarbida). J.
Paleont. 74(1): 25-31
(Rhynie chert) Scotland8  
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not a
fossil from Rhnie Chert} Pleophrynus
ensifer ISM 14873 Pleophrynus is a
member of an extinct group of arachnids
called trigonotarbids. These
spider-like animals probably lived on
land. This specimen is the
holotype. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.state.il.us/ex
hibits/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus1.j
pg AND
http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits
/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus2.jpg

[2] Fig 1 from: M. F. Claridge & A.
G. Lyon (1961). ''Lung-books in the
Devonian Palæocharinidae
(Arachnida)''. Nature 191 (4794):
1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v191/n4794/abs/1911190b0.html
410,000,000 YBN
4 		6363) Dicondylic insects (insects in
which the mandible has two points of
articulation with the head instead of
one). Ancestor of Insects Zygentoma
(Silverfish). Silverfish and all
pterygota (winged insects) have
dicondylic mandibles. This second
articulation results in the movement of
the mandible being roughly confined to
a single plane of motion instead of the
rotating motion possible in
Archeognatha (bristletails) and
Entognatha (springtails and
relatives).2

Silverfish have more in common with
insects than the more primitive
bristletails.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p150-151,154
2. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p150-151,154
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p150-151,154
4. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p150-151,154
 
[1] Thysanura is an order of insects,
encompassing silverfish and
firebrats, Description
Silberfischchen, Lepisma
saccharina Date Source from the
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Silber
fischchen.jpg German wiki; taken with
Canon EOS 300D Author Sebastian
Stabinger GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Silberfischchen.jpg

[2] Image from: David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the
Insects'', 2005, p144. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
400,000,000 YBN
2 		159)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
400,000,000 YBN
399) Earliest fossil of an insect;
thought to be a winged insect.6

The oldest known insect fossil for
which there is significant remaining
structure (head and thorax fragments)
is a bristletail (Archaeognatha),
estimated to be 390 to 392 million
years old.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/earth
/fossils/article-oldest-insect-fossil/in
dex.html
2. ^
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/earth
/fossils/article-oldest-insect-fossil/in
dex.html
3. ^
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/earth
/fossils/article-oldest-insect-fossil/in
dex.html
4. ^ "Archaeognatha". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 05 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/32560/Archaeognatha>.
5. ^ Labandeira, C. C., B. S. Beall, et
al. 1988. Early insect diversification:
Evidence from a Lower Devonian
bristletail from Québec. Science 242:
913-916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1988Sci...242..913L
AND http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstr
eam/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf
6. ^
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/earth
/fossils/article-oldest-insect-fossil/in
dex.html
7. ^ "Archaeognatha". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 05 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/32560/Archaeognatha>.
8. ^ Labandeira, C. C., B. S. Beall, et
al. 1988. Early insect diversification:
Evidence from a Lower Devonian
bristletail from Québec. Science 242:
913-916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1988Sci...242..913L
AND http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstr
eam/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf
9. ^
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/earth
/fossils/article-oldest-insect-fossil/in
dex.html
10. ^ "Archaeognatha". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 05 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/32560/Archaeognatha>.
11. ^ Labandeira, C. C., B. S. Beall,
et al. 1988. Early insect
diversification: Evidence from a Lower
Devonian bristletail from Québec.
Science 242:
913-916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1988Sci...242..913L
AND http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstr
eam/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/11/scienc
e/11CND-INSECT.html?ei=5007&en=01db2c70c
5f2bd18&ex=1391922000&adxnnl=1&partner=U
SERLAND&adxnnlx=1146391843-YMWQeyxG2RWEx
JKHKf60mQ
Rhynie Chert , Scotland9 (and Gaspé
Peninsula of Québec, Canada10 11
) 
[1] Rhyniognatha hirsti. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-onli
ne/earth/fossils/article-oldest-insect-f
ossil/the-oldest-fossil-insect-in-the-wo
rld.html

[2] Figure 2 from:l Labandeira, C.
C., B. S. Beall, et al. 1988. Early
insect diversification: Evidence from a
Lower Devonian bristletail from
Québec. Science 242:
913-916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1988Sci...242..913L
AND http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstr
eam/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bit
stream/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf
390,000,000 YBN
62 63 64 65 66 67 68 		411) The first flying animal, an
arthropod insect. Ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu41
}) (Mayflies, Dragonflies,
Damselflies).42 43 44

The most primitive living pterygotes
are the Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) and
the Odonata (Dragonflies and
damselflies).45 46 Unlike most other
flying insects both the Ephemeroptera
and Odonata have freshwater aquatic
larvae, presumed to be an ancestral
habit.47

Arthropods evolve flight 90 million
years before the first flight among
vertebrates.48

Insect wings evolved only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.49 50

How flight evolved in insects is still
debated. A terrestrial origin of
pterygotes is supported by the fact
that the most basal insects
(apterygotes), the Zygentoma and
Archeognatha are fully terrestrial.51
One theory suggests that wings develop
as fixed extensions to the thoracic
terga, called paranotal lobes. The
paranotal lobes provide early insects
with the ability to glide, and
eventually to control the aerial
descent of the insect from perches of
tall plants52 , and from one
Carbiniferous gymnosperm sporangia
(which are located on branchlets) to
another53 . Another theory has the wing
evolving like the movable abdominal
gills on aquatic naiads of mayflies
which look like tiny wings and move in
a similar way.54 The development of
wings may have helped early insects to
escape predators.55

The earliest full body imprint fossil
of a flying insect is like a may-fly
(Ephemeropterida) that landed in soft
mud, during the late Carboniferous
(318-299 mybn) around a fresh water
habitat in Massachusetts.56 Some wing
impressions from the Czech Republic
date to 324 mybn.57

The Pterygota is the larger of two
subclasses of Insecta. All have wings
in the adult stage or have lost their
wings secondarily.58

Some interesting facts about Mayflies
are:
-The subimagos of mayflies are the only
insects that molt when they have
wings.
-Mayflies have paired genital openings.
During copulation, the two penes of the
male are inserted simultaneously into
the two openings of the female. Sperm
is transferred quickly (there is no
spermatophore) and eggs are fertilized
immediately.
-A few species of mayflies reproduce
parthenogenically -- no males have ever
been found.
-Although most mayflies are
herbivores, a few are predaceous.
-Adult mayflies
do not feed. Their digestive system is
filled with air, making them light
enough to float.
-Some mayfly species require
up to four years to complete
development. In that time they may molt
more than 20 times.59
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
5. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
6. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
8. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
9. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
10. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
12. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
13. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
14. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
15. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
16. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA148
17. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
18. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
20. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p158-159.
21. ^ Belayeva,
"History of Insects" 2002, p81.
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
23. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
24. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
25. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
26. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
27. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA148
28. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
29. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M. S., &
Benner, J. S. (2011). Late
carboniferous paleoichnology reveals
the oldest full-body impression of a
flying insect. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 108
(16),
6515-6519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pn
as.1015948108
30. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
31. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
32. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p158-159.
33. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p158-159.
34. ^ Belayeva, "History of
Insects" 2002, p81.
35. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p158-159.
36. ^ Belayeva, "History of Insects"
2002, p81.
37. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p146
38. ^ Knecht, R.
J., Engel, M. S., & Benner, J. S.
(2011). Late carboniferous
paleoichnology reveals the oldest
full-body impression of a flying
insect. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences , 108 (16),
6515-6519. http://www.pnas.org/content/
108/16/6515.full
39. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005)
Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota
in the Lower Carboniferous of the
Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech
Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
40. ^ "Pterygota." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pterygota
41. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
42. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
43. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
44. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
45. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
46. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA148
47. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
48. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M. S., &
Benner, J. S. (2011). Late
carboniferous paleoichnology reveals
the oldest full-body impression of a
flying insect. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 108
(16),
6515-6519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pn
as.1015948108
49. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
50. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
51. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p158-159.
52. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p158-159.
53. ^ Belayeva, "History of
Insects" 2002, p81.
54. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p158-159.
55. ^ Belayeva, "History of Insects"
2002, p81.
56. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M.
S., & Benner, J. S. (2011). Late
carboniferous paleoichnology reveals
the oldest full-body impression of a
flying insect. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 108
(16),
6515-6519. http://www.pnas.org/content/
108/16/6515.full
57. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005)
Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota
in the Lower Carboniferous of the
Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech
Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
58. ^ "Pterygota." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pterygota
59. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/c
ompendium/mayfly.html
60. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M. S., &
Benner, J. S. (2011). Late
carboniferous paleoichnology reveals
the oldest full-body impression of a
flying insect. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 108
(16),
6515-6519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pn
as.1015948108
61. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005)
Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota
in the Lower Carboniferous of the
Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech
Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
62. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146
63. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA163
64. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.
65. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
66. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {315 MYBN}
67. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
68. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.

MORE INFO
[1] Engel MS, Grimaldi DA (2004)
New light shed on the oldest insect.
Nature 427: 627–630
[2] Grimaldi D, Engel MS (2005)
Evolution of the Insects (Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge)
[3] Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known
Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous
of the Upper Silesian Basin in the
Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archoaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
[4] "Orthoptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orthoptera-
1
(Wamsutta Formation) southeastern
Massachusetts60 and Upper Silesian
Basin, Czech Republic61  
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg

[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
386,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		406) Oldest fossil spider (Attercopus
{aTRKoPuS9 }).10 11
These spiders
represent the first use of silk by
animals.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul A. Selden, William A. Shear
& Patricia M. Bonamo (1991). "A spider
and other arachnids from the Devonian
of New York, and reinterpretations of
Devonian Araneae" . Palaeontology 34:
241–281. http://homepage.mac.com/paul
selden/Sites/Website/Attercopus.pdf
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p111.
3. ^ Paul A. Selden,
William A. Shear & Patricia M. Bonamo
(1991). "A spider and other arachnids
from the Devonian of New York, and
reinterpretations of Devonian Araneae"
. Palaeontology 34:
241–281. http://homepage.mac.com/paul
selden/Sites/Website/Attercopus.pdf
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p111.
5. ^ "attercop?s=ts".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ttercop?s=ts
6. ^ Paul A. Selden, William A. Shear &
Patricia M. Bonamo (1991). "A spider
and other arachnids from the Devonian
of New York, and reinterpretations of
Devonian Araneae" . Palaeontology 34:
241–281. http://homepage.mac.com/paul
selden/Sites/Website/Attercopus.pdf
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p111.
8. ^ Selden, Paul A.,
William A. Shear, and Mark D. Sutton.
“Fossil Evidence for the Origin of
Spider Spinnerets, and a Proposed
Arachnid Order.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 105.52
(2008): 20781
–20785. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
05/52/20781.full
9. ^ "attercop?s=ts". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ttercop?s=ts
10. ^ Paul A. Selden, William A. Shear
& Patricia M. Bonamo (1991). "A spider
and other arachnids from the Devonian
of New York, and reinterpretations of
Devonian Araneae" . Palaeontology 34:
241–281. http://homepage.mac.com/paul
selden/Sites/Website/Attercopus.pdf
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p111.
12. ^ Selden, Paul A.,
William A. Shear, and Mark D. Sutton.
“Fossil Evidence for the Origin of
Spider Spinnerets, and a Proposed
Arachnid Order.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 105.52
(2008): 20781
–20785. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
05/52/20781.full
13. ^ Paul A. Selden, William A. Shear
& Patricia M. Bonamo (1991). "A spider
and other arachnids from the Devonian
of New York, and reinterpretations of
Devonian Araneae" . Palaeontology 34:
241–281. http://homepage.mac.com/paul
selden/Sites/Website/Attercopus.pdf
14. ^ Selden, Paul A., William A.
Shear, and Mark D. Sutton. “Fossil
Evidence for the Origin of Spider
Spinnerets, and a Proposed Arachnid
Order.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 105.52 (2008):
20781
–20785. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
05/52/20781.full
15. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p111.
(Givetian of) Gilboa, New York13  
[1] Fig. 1. Attercopus fimbriunguis,
Devonian of New York (localities: G,
Gilboa; SM, South Mountain), macerated
from matrix with HF and slide-mounted.
(A) First-described “spinneret,” G
334.1b.34; darkness of cuticle reflects
number of layers, so this fragment is
folded over twice. (B) Palpal femur, SM
1.11.12; arrow indicates patch of
distinctive spinules. (C) Piece of
cuticle from corner of opisthosomal
ventral plate showing setae, spigots,
and possible silk strand, SM 1.11.4.
(D) Close-up of E showing possible silk
strand emerging from spigot shaft, SM
1.11.4. (E) Flagellar structure with 12
segments (including possible
distalmost) from original Gilboa
locality; segments show distal collars
and setae, G 334.1a.4. (F) Close-up of
cheliceral fang showing a number of
holes (arrowed), the most distal of
which had been interpreted as a
venom-gland opening, G 329.22.9. (Scale
bars: 0.5 mm, except F, 0.25 mm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
52/20781/F1.large.jpg

[2] Permarachne novokshonovi, Permian
of Russia, from the Kungurian
c276mybn UNKNOWN
source: http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l
y6ahnZoxc1qgxyxw.jpg
385,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		405) The first forests. Earliest large
trees fossils.13 14

First progymnosperms (treelike
plants).15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p111.
10. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
12. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p111.
13. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
15. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p111.
16. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
17. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
{385 mybn}
18. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
19. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {380mybn}
Gilboa, New York, USA16  
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg

[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
380,000,000 YBN
14 		6330) The fish "Tiktaalik" {TiK ToLiK10
}, an important transition between fish
and amphibian.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tiktaa
lik&submit=Submit
2. ^ Edward B. Daeschler, Neil H.
Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (6
April 2006). "A Devonian tetrapod-like
fish and the evolution of the tetrapod
body plan". Nature 440 (7085):
757–763. doi:10.1038/nature04639.
PMID
16598249 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p228-230.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tiktaa
lik&submit=Submit
5. ^ Edward B. Daeschler, Neil H.
Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (6
April 2006). "A Devonian tetrapod-like
fish and the evolution of the tetrapod
body plan". Nature 440 (7085):
757–763. doi:10.1038/nature04639.
PMID
16598249 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p228-230.
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tiktaa
lik&submit=Submit
8. ^ Edward B. Daeschler, Neil H.
Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (6
April 2006). "A Devonian tetrapod-like
fish and the evolution of the tetrapod
body plan". Nature 440 (7085):
757–763. doi:10.1038/nature04639.
PMID
16598249 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p228-230.
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tiktaa
lik&submit=Submit
11. ^ Edward B. Daeschler, Neil H.
Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (6
April 2006). "A Devonian tetrapod-like
fish and the evolution of the tetrapod
body plan". Nature 440 (7085):
757–763. doi:10.1038/nature04639.
PMID
16598249 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
12. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p228-230.
13. ^ Edward B. Daeschler, Neil H.
Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (6
April 2006). "A Devonian tetrapod-like
fish and the evolution of the tetrapod
body plan". Nature 440 (7085):
757–763. doi:10.1038/nature04639.
PMID
16598249 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
14. ^ Edward B. Daeschler, Neil H.
Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (6
April 2006). "A Devonian tetrapod-like
fish and the evolution of the tetrapod
body plan". Nature 440 (7085):
757–763. doi:10.1038/nature04639.
PMID
16598249 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
(Fram Formation) Nunavut Territory,
Canada13  
[1] A reconstruction of Tiktaalik
alongside a cast of its fossil, and a
map showing where the fossil was found,
on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut,
Canada. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/news/tiktaalik_reconstru
ction.jpg

[2] Description English: Life
restoration of Tiktaalik roseae, a
transitional fossil (''missing link'')
between sarcopterygian fishes and
tetrapods from the late Devonian period
of North America. Original description:
''Fossil fish bridges evolutionary gap
between animals of land and
sea.'' Deutsch: Lebendrekonstruktion
von Tiktaalik roseae, einer
Übergangsform („Missing Link“)
zwischen Muskelflosser-Fischen und
Landwirbeltieren aus dem Oberdevon von
Nordamerika. Polski: Artystyczna
próba rekonstrukcji sposobu życia
Tiktaalika roseae, przejściowej formy
kopalnej (tzw. “brakującego ogniwa
ewolucji”) pomiędzy rybami a
czworonożnymi płazami (późny Dewon,
Ameryka
Północna). Date Unknown Source
National Science
Foundation Author Zina Deretsky,
National Science Foundation (Courtesy:
National Science
Foundation) Permission (Reusing
this file) Images credited to the
National Science Foundation, a U. S.
federal agency, are in the public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg/1280px-Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg
375,000,000 YBN
25 26 27 28 29 		380) The first tetrapods (organisms
with four feet), the amphibians evolve
in fresh water.18 The first vertebrate
limbs (arms and legs) and fingers.19
Ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads,
and salamanders.20

Almost no amphibians live in sea
water.21

The earliest fossil amphibian is
Elginerpeton, found in Scotland, dates
back 368 million years.The earliest
well known amphibians come from around
360 million years ago, and are
Acanthostega and Ichthyostega.
Acanthostega represents the most
primitive tetrapod that has hands and
feet for which there is a full
skeleton. Acanthostega has eight toes
per limb, no fin rays, a large
load-bearing pelvis and is thought to
have retained gills into adulthood.
Ichthyostega is a large carnivore,
ranging in size from 0.5 - 1.2 m. The
earliest known Ichthyostega comes from
363 million year old deposits in
Greenland (then on the equator22 ).
Ichthyostega is largely aquatic but has
massive broad ribs that may be used for
support of internal organs while on
land.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
15. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
17. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=47103
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
23. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=47103
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The origin and evolution of model
organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} {375(360+-15) mybn}
26. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329. {340 mybn}
27. ^ P. E.
Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or near-tetrapod
fossils from the Upper Devonian of
Scotland", Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28
November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html {368
mybn (fossil}
28. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html {368 mybn
(fossil}
29. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {368 mybn (fossil}
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)24  
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg

[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg

SCIENCE
375,000,000 YBN
8 		2599)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tiktallik". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiktallik
2. ^ Edward B. Daeschler, Neil H.
Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (6
April 2006). A Devonian tetrapod-like
fish and the evolution of the tetrapod
body plan. Nature 440: 757-763.
doi:10.1038/nature04639.
tiktaalik_nature04639.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Edward B.
Daeschler, Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (6 April 2006). A Devonian
tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of
the tetrapod body plan. Nature 440:
757-763. doi:10.1038/nature04639.
tiktaalik_nature04639.pdf
6. ^ "Tiktallik". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiktallik
7. ^ Gorner, Peter. "Fossil could be
fish-to-land link", Chicago Tribune,
April 5, 2006. Retrieved on 2006-04-05.
8. ^
"Tiktallik". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiktallik
(375mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v44
0/n7085/full/nature04639.html
Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, in northern
Canada6 7  
[1] Tiktaalik rosae, pencil drawing,
digital coloring Source
self-made Date Jan 22,
2007 Author ArthurWeasley GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tiktaalik_BW.jpg

[2] Tiktaalik skull cast (Cast of
Tiktaalik skull (front view)),
photographed at Science Museum, London,
2006 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ti
k_skull_raw_2a.jpg Date
16.05.2006 Author photographed
by Richard G. Clegg, tweaked by dave
souza Permission (Reusing this image)
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tiktaalik_skull_front.jpg
368,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 		407) Oldest amphibian (and tetrapod)
fossil.12 13 14
Tetrapods are
four-limbed, vertebrate animals (all
vertebrates except fish).15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
2. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
3. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html

4. ^ P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
6. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html

7. ^ "tetrapod." Saunders Comprehensive
Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C.
Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay,
Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com 26 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tetrapod
8. ^ P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
9. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
10. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html

11. ^ "tetrapod." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
26 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tetrapod
12. ^ P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
13. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
14. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html

15. ^ "tetrapod." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
26 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tetrapod
16. ^ P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
17. ^ P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html {368
mybn}
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html {368 mybn}
19. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {368 mybn}
20. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {375mybn}
Elgin, Morayshire, Scotland16  
[1] Figure 3 from: P. E. Ahlberg,
''Tetrapod or near-tetrapod fossils
from the Upper Devonian of Scotland'',
Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html

[2] [t Note that this drawing is not
from a known scholarly
source.] Description Elginerpeton
pancheni, an early tetrapod from the
Late devonian of Scotland, pencil
drawing Date 22 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Elginerpeton_BW.jpg
367,000,000 YBN
10 11 		408) Late Devonian mass extinction
caused by ice age.7 57% of all genera
are observed extinct.8

70% of all species go extinct. This
include 3 of 5 trilobite orders, 90% of
brachiopod genera, and major loss of
reefs.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
6. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p111.
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p111.
10. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {367 mybn}
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {360 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
  
365,000,000 YBN
2 		160)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
363,000,000 YBN
8 9 		379) The first vertebrates live on land
(amphibians).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
8. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {363mybn}
9. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/tetrafr.html {360mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
[2]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)7  
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg

[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
360,000,000 YBN
14 15 		237) Vascular plants ferns evolve.10

Ferns are are flowerless, seedless
vascular plants having roots, stems,
and fronds (the leaf-like part of a
fern or leaf of a palm11 ) and
reproducing by spores.12

There are around 12,000 species of
Ferns (Plant division Pteridophyta),
which are nonflowering vascular plants
that have true roots, stems, and
complex leaves and reproduce by spores.
The life cycle is characterized by an
alternation of generations between the
mature, fronded form (the sporophyte)
familiar in greenhouses and gardens and
the form that strongly resembles a moss
or liverwort (the gametophyte).13
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ "frond." Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond
5. ^ "fern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
6. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
7. ^ "frond." Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond
8. ^ "fern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
9. ^ "fern." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
11. ^ "frond." Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond
12. ^ "fern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
13. ^ "fern." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(c390 (360 for living species)
15. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full (318mybn)
[2] Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(350mybn)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] The leaflike part of a fern; the
leaf of a palm. ''frond.'' Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/Gardeners/f0107.jpg
360,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		6353) The Neoptera, folding wing
insects.9 Neoptera, means "new
wing".10

Ephemeroptera and Odonata, the most
primitive living pterygota, do not live
on the ground. It seems likely that
selective pressures on the first winged
insects heavily favor the development
of some mechanism for folding the wings
against the body after landing, making
them less conspicuous, less awkward,
and less susceptible to breakage. The
neoptera represent a remarkably
successful lineage and are the
ancestors of all "higher" orders of
insects.11

Unfoldable wings appear in butterflies
and various moths, in many dipterans
and some hymenopterans.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
5. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark Sutton.
“X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
8. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
9. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
10. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
11. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
12. ^ A. P. Rasnitsyn, "Problem of
basal dichotomy of the winged insects",
in "Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p237.
13. ^ Garwood,
Russell, and Mark Sutton. “X-ray
Micro-tomography of Carboniferous
stem-Dictyoptera: New Insights into
Early Insects.” Biology Letters 6.5
(2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146.
15. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
16. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
17. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
18. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
19. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
20. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
21. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark
Sutton. “X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full

MORE INFO
[1] Video: Virtual fossil of
Archimylacris eggintoni,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yR-_nq2
UsOc
(Fossil: Archimylacris eggintoni,
Coseley Lagerstätte) Staffordshire,
UK13  
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg

[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
359,200,000 YBN
5 		124) End of the Devonian (416-359.2
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
359,000,000 YBN
48 49 		243)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
2. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
3. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
4. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
5. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
6. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
7. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
8. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
9. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
10. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
11. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
12. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
14. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
15. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
16. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
17. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
18. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
19. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
20. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
21. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
23. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
24. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
25. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
26. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
27. ^ "integument." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/integument
28. ^ "cupule." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupule
29. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
30. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
31. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
32. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
33. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
34. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
35. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
36. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
37. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
38. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
39. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
40. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
41. ^ "integument." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/integument
42. ^ "cupule." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupule
43. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
44. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
45. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
46. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
47. ^ "Genomosperma kidstonii."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>.
48. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 {359 MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}
49. ^
"Genomosperma kidstonii." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>. {359
MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms

[2] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845
[3] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
(c320 (360 for living species)
[4] Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
[5] Dr. Singh, Dr. Pande & Dr.
Jain, "Diversity and Systematics of
Seed Plants",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GTUgfghg80gC
Scotland46 47  
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
350,000,000 YBN
6 		361) Ray-finned fishes, (Chondrostei),
Sturgeons and Paddlefish.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {350 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) Source:
http://images.fws.gov/ via wiki.en PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
350,000,000 YBN
6 		362) Ray finned fishes: Bichirs
evolve.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bichir." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bichir
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {350 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Nile Bichir (Polypterus bichir
bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G., 1880.
An introduction to the study of fishes.
Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency, New
Delhi. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
350,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 22 23 		6355) The Neoptera: Dictyoptera
{DiKTEoPTRu14 } (Cockroaches, Termites,
and Mantises).15 16

Paleozoic "roachoids" are among the
most abundant animals that live in the
extensive coal swamps of the
Carboniferous. Earliest fossils are
from the early part of the Late
Carboniferous (around 320 MYBN).17
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
9. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
11. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
12. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001.
Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p231-233.
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
15. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
16. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001.
Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
17. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p231-233.
18. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
20. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
21. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
22. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
23. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p283.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
 
[1] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg

[2] Figure 4.8. American, Oriental,
German, and Brown-banded
Cockroaches PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.08.jpg
340,000,000 YBN
52 53 54 55 56 57 58 		384) The hard-shell egg evolves.37 The
Amniota {aMnEOtu38 } (ancestor of
reptiles, mammals and birds).39 The
hard-shell egg is waterproof.40 This
is the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg
cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
so that the sperm can reach the eggs
inside the female. Much of the
development of Amniote fetuses occurs
inside the female, not in the water.41


Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds)
are distinguished from non-amniote
tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence
of complex embryonic membranes. One of
these, the amnion, gives its name to
the group.42

This group of tetropods, the Amniota,
will branch into Sauropsida
{SOR-roP-SiDu43 } (which includes
reptiles and birds) and Synapsida
{Si-naP-Si-Du44 } (which includes
mammals).45

All living amniotes (reptiles, birds,
and mammals) lay hard-shelled eggs,
except in most mammals and some snakes
and lizards, where egg laying has been
replaced by live birth.46

The earliest known amniotes,
Westlothiana (~338 MY) and Hylonomus
(~300 MY), are also the earliest known
reptiles.47 48 49
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
19. ^ T. R. Smithson,
"The earliest known reptile", Nature
342, 676 - 678 (07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
20. ^ Benton MJ, 2010 Studying Function
and Behavior in the Fossil Record. PLoS
Biol 8(3): e1000321.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000321
21. ^ Richard A. Kissel, "The Egg, the
Chicken, and the 300 Million Years in
Between", AMERICAN PALEONTOLOGIST
16(2) Summer
2008 http://www.museumoftheearth.org/fi
les/pubtext/item_pdf_198.pdf#page=41
22. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p237.
23. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
24. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
25. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
26. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
28. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
29. ^ T. R. Smithson,
"The earliest known reptile", Nature
342, 676 - 678 (07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
30. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
31. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
32. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
33. ^ Benton MJ, 2010 Studying Function
and Behavior in the Fossil Record. PLoS
Biol 8(3): e1000321.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000321
34. ^ Richard A. Kissel, "The Egg, the
Chicken, and the 300 Million Years in
Between", AMERICAN PALEONTOLOGIST
16(2) Summer
2008 http://www.museumoftheearth.org/fi
les/pubtext/item_pdf_198.pdf#page=41
35. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p237.
36. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
37. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
38. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
39. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
40. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
41. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
42. ^ T. R. Smithson,
"The earliest known reptile", Nature
342, 676 - 678 (07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
43. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
44. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
45. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
46. ^ Benton MJ, 2010 Studying Function
and Behavior in the Fossil Record. PLoS
Biol 8(3): e1000321.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000321
47. ^ Richard A. Kissel, "The Egg, the
Chicken, and the 300 Million Years in
Between", AMERICAN PALEONTOLOGIST
16(2) Summer
2008 http://www.museumoftheearth.org/fi
les/pubtext/item_pdf_198.pdf#page=41
48. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p237.
49. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
50. ^ T. R.
Smithson, "The earliest known reptile",
Nature 342, 676 - 678 (07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
51. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
52. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
53. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
54. ^ JOHN NOBLE
WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338 MYBN (oldest
reptil fossil}
55. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
56. ^
"Eryops". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryops
{295 MYBN (verify}
57. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree", 2009.
58. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Romer, Alfred Sherwood,
Price, Llewellyn Ivor, "The oldest
vertebrate egg", Am J Sci 1939 237:
826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/237/11/826?maxtoshow=&hi
ts=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&title=The+oldest+ve
rtebrate+egg&andorexacttitle=and&andorex
acttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&s
earchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevanc
e&resourcetype=HWCIT
[2] Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
[3] Robert R. Reisz, Johannes Müller,
Molecular timescales and the fossil
record: a paleontological perspective,
Trends in Genetics, Volume 20, Issue 5,
1 May 2004, Pages 237-241, ISSN
0168-9525,
10.1016/j.tig.2004.03.007. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952504000757)
Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland50 51
 
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
338,000,000 YBN
16 17 		410) Earliest amniote fossil.10 11

The next earliest amniote fossil is
Hylonomus, a small lizard-like reptile
that was trapped in the trunk of a
swamp tree in what is now Joggins, Nova
Scotia, Canada (~300 MYBN).12 13 14
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
2. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
3. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
4. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
5. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
6. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
9. ^ Robert L. Carroll, "The earliest
reptiles", Journal of the Linnean
Society of London, Zoology, Volume 45,
Issue 304, pages 61–83, April
1964 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1964.tb00488.x/abst
ract
10. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
11. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
13. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
14. ^ Robert L. Carroll, "The earliest
reptiles", Journal of the Linnean
Society of London, Zoology, Volume 45,
Issue 304, pages 61–83, April
1964 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1964.tb00488.x/abst
ract
15. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
16. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN}
17. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {315 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton, "Phylogeny
of the major tetrapod groups:
Morphological data and divergence dates
", Journal of Molecular Evolution,
Volume 30, Number 5, 409-424, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101113 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k152294003652458/
[2] S. Blair Hedges and Laura L.
Poling, "A Molecular Phylogeny of
Reptiles", Science, New Series, Vol.
283, No. 5404 (Feb. 12, 1999), pp.
998-1001 http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
97730
[3] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p142.
Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland15
 
[1] T. R. Smithson, ''The earliest
known reptile'', Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html

[2] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
335,000,000 YBN
31 32 		6331) The tetrapod Amniota divide into
the Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu22 } (which
includes reptiles and birds) and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du23 } (which
includes mammals).24

The Sauropsida include birds, dinosaurs
and modern reptiles. Sauropsids have
two major lineages: the Parareptilia
(turtles) and the Eureptilia
(dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds).25

The Synapsida are a subclass of extinct
amniota from which mammals descend.
Synapsids are sometimes called
"mammal-like reptiles" but it is
incorrect to call them reptiles because
they diverge at the beginning of
amniote evolution, before the reptiles
do.26 27 There are two major groups
of synapsids: pelycosaurs (sail-backed)
and therapsids (mammal-like).28

The earliest Sauropsid fossils, are
Lethiscus(~ 330 MYA) and Westlothiana
(~328 MY) from Scotland. The earliest
Synapsid fossil is Protoclepsydrops
(~314 MY) from Joggins, Nova Scotia,
although some people reject the
Protoclepsydrops fossil in favor the
next oldest possible synapsid fossils,
such as Echinerpeton and Archaeothyris
from Florence, Nova Scotia (~307 MY).29

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
16. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
17. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
18. ^ "Synapsida." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/synapsida-1

19. ^ Prothero, Dott, "Evolution on the
Earth", 6th edition, 2002, p 373.
20. ^
Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p119.
21. ^
Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J.
Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence
to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26
-53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
23. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
24. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
25. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
26. ^ "Synapsida." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/synapsida-1

27. ^ Prothero, Dott, "Evolution on the
Earth", 6th edition, 2002, p 373.
28. ^
Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p119.
29. ^
Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J.
Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence
to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26
-53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
30. ^ Carroll, R.L., 1964, The ear1iest
reptiles: Jour. Linn. Soc (Zool.), v.
45, p.
61-83. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1964.tb00488.x/ab
stract
31. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
32. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p271
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p263
[3] Reisz RR.
Pelycosaurian reptiles from the Middle
Pennsylvanian of North America. Bull
Mus Comp Zool Harv
1972;144:27-62. http://digitool.library
.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object
_id=47789&local_base=GEN01-MCG02
[4] "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
(earliest possible Synapsid fossil:
Cumberland group, Joggins formation.)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada30  
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
330,000,000 YBN
409)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
  
330,000,000 YBN
15 		6307) The Synapsids Pelycosauria
{PeLiKuSOREu11 } evolve (includes
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS12 },
Dimetrodon).13

There are two main groups of synapsids:
pelycosaurs (sail-backed reptiles) and
therapsids (mammal-like reptiles).
Pelycosaurs arise in the
mid-Carboniferous from cotylosaurs and
soon enjoy an extensive radiation
through the early Permian, coming to
constitute about half of the known
amniote genera of the time. Some like
Edaphosaurus are herbivorous, however,
most are carnivores that prey on fish
and aquatic amphibians. Pelycosaurs
differ in size but not in design. The
most notable feature in some species is
a broad "sail" along the back
consisting of an extensive layer of
skin supported internally by a row of
fixed neural spines projecting from
successive vertebrae. If the sail is
brightly colored, it might have been
used in courtship or in bluff displays
with rivals, similar to ornamentations
in birds. The sail may be a sun light
collector: when turned broadside to the
sun, blood moving through the sail is
heated, then carried to the rest of the
body. Somewhat suddenly pelycosaurs
decline in numbers and are extinct by
the end of the Permian. Therapsides
evolve from them, and largely replace
the Pelycosauria for a time as the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates.14
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
4. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
7. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
9. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
10. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
11. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
14. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
15. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
 
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
325,000,000 YBN
6 7 		381) The Amphibians: Caecilians
evolve.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {325
MYBN}
7. ^ Roelants, K., Gower, D. J.,
Wilkinson, M., Loader, S. P., Biju, S.
D., Guillaume, K., Moriau, L., &
Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global patterns of
diversification in the history of
modern amphibians. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 104 (3),
887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 {370 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair
Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the
Early History of Living Amphibians,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
 
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
320,000,000 YBN
36 37 		238) Gymnosperms evolve. Gymnosperm is
Greek for "Naked Seed".25 Gymnosperms
are the earliest surviving seed plants,
Spermatophyta, and ancestor of all
Cycads, Ginkos and Conifers26 27 )
evolve.28 29

The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.30

The earliest known seed bearing plants
are the Pteridosperms, seed ferns known
only from the fossil record.31
Gymnosperms are the most primitive seed
bearing plants still living.32 33

A gymnosperm is any woody plant that
reproduces by means of a seed (or
ovule) in direct contact with the
environment, as opposed to an
angiosperm, or flowering plant, whose
seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries,
or fruits. The four surviving
gymnosperm divisions are Pinophyta
(conifers, the most widespread),
Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta
(ginkos), and Gnetophyta (a small
division with only three genera). More
than half are trees; most of the rest
are shrubs. Those widely found in the
Northern Hemisphere are junipers, firs,
larches, spruces, and pines; in the
Southern Hemisphere, podocarps. The
wood of gymnosperms is often called
softwood to differentiate it from the
hardwood of angiosperms. Many timber
and pulp trees are also planted as
ornamentals. Gymnosperms also are a
minor source of food; of essential oils
used in soaps, air fresheners,
disinfectants, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics, and perfumes; of tannin,
used for curing leather; and of
turpentines. Gymnosperms were a major
component in the vegetation that was
compressed over millions of years into
coal. Most are evergreen. They produce
male and female reproductive cells in
separate male and female strobili.34 35

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
2. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
8. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
9. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
10. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
12. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
13. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
14. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
15. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
16. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
17. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
18. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
19. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
20. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
21. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
22. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
23. ^ "gymnosperm." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
24. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
25. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
26. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
27. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
28. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
29. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
30. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
31. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
32. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
33. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
34. ^ "gymnosperm." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
35. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
36. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf} (c320 (360 for
living species)
37. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms

[2] Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
[3] Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
[4]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Main/Overview/
3213.htm
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Leaves and female cone of Cycas
revoluta GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc
ad
320,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		6356) The Neoptera: Orthoptera evolve
(Crickets, Grasshoppers, Locusts,
Walking sticks).9

The Orthoptera and the later Hemiptera
are termed hemimetabolous, and are said
to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. In
incomplete metamorphosis, the general
form is constant until the final molt,
when the larva undergoes substantial
changes in body form to become a winged
adult with fully developed genitalia.10


Many insects in the order Orthoptera
produce sound (known as a
"stridulation") by rubbing their wings
against each other or their legs, the
wings or legs containing rows of
corrugated bumps. The tympanum or ear
is located in the front tibia in
crickets, mole crickets, and katydids,
and on the first abdominal segment in
the grasshoppers and locusts.11


One characteristic of Orthoptera are
jumping hind legs and a thick femur
packed with muscles. Orthopterans are
the most "vocal" of all the orders,
with calling behavior playing a major
role in the biolkogy and evolution of
the order. Mating calls are critical to
recognize many species. Males regularly
chorus on warm evenings for females.
Sound is produced wither by rubbing a
specialized area of the wing against a
corresponding area on the other,
overlapping forewing or by scraping the
legs against stiff edges of the
forewings. Scrapers of files are used
to create the rasping sounds which are
amplified by the specialized membranes
of the wings called "mirrors".12

The earliest Orthoptera fossils are
from the Late Permian of France.13
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
5. ^ "insect". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289001/insect/41265/Types-of-met
amorphosis>.
6. ^ Hoell, H.V., Doyen, J.T. &
Purcell, A.H. (1998). Introduction to
Insect Biology and Diversity, 2nd ed..
Oxford University Press. pp. 392–394.
ISBN 0-19-510033-6.
7. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p203.
8. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p208.
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
10. ^ "insect". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289001/insect/41265/Types-of-met
amorphosis>.
11. ^ Hoell, H.V., Doyen, J.T. &
Purcell, A.H. (1998). Introduction to
Insect Biology and Diversity, 2nd ed..
Oxford University Press. pp. 392–394.
ISBN 0-19-510033-6.
12. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p203.
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p208.
14. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
15. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
16. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p208.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
[2]
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/orthopteroids.html#A
 
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg

[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
320,000,000 YBN
4 		6364) Neoptera: Plectopterida
(Stoneflies, webspinners, and
zorapterans).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", p189-201.
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", p189-201.
3. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", p189-201.
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", p189-201.
 
[1] Description Eusthenia sp.
(possibly E. costalis), Marriott Falls
Track, Mt Field National Park,
Tasmania, Australia Camera
data Camera Canon EOS 400D
Lens Tamron EF 180mm f3.5 1:1 Macro
Flash Umbrella Right Focal length
180 mm Aperture f/11 Exposure
time 1/200 s Sensivity ISO
400 Date 12/04/2009 Source Own
work Author JJ Harrison
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Eusthenia_sp.jpg

[2] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
317,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 		385) Sauropsids Reptiles evolve
(ancestor of all turtles, crocodiles,
pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds18 ).19
20

The class Reptila contains
approximately 8,700 species and is a
group of air-breathing vertebrates that
have internal fertilization, and with
the exception of the birds21 , have a
scaly body, and are cold-blooded. Most
species have short legs (or none), long
tails, and lay eggs. Living reptiles
include the scaly reptiles (snakes and
lizards: Squamata), the crocodiles
(Crocodylia), the turtles (Testudines),
and the unique tuatara (Sphenodontida).
Being cold-blooded, reptiles are not
found in very cold regions; in regions
with cold winters, reptiles usually
hibernate. Reptiles range in size from
geckos that measure about 3 cm (1 in.)
long to the python, which grows to 9m
(30 ft); the largest turtle, the marine
leatherback, weighs about 1,500 lb (680
kg). Extinct reptiles include the
dinosaurs, the pterosaurs, and the
dolphin-like ichthyosaurs.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p110-111.
7. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p110-111.
12. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
16. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p110-111.
17. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
18. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
20. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
21. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p110-111.
22. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
23. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
24. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2009,
p232.
25. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
{338MYBN (oldest reptile fossil}
26. ^ JOHN
NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338MYBN (oldest
reptile fossil}
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
28. ^
Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J.
Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence
to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26
-53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
(Joggins Formation) Nova Scotia,
Canada23  
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
315,000,000 YBN
453) Allegheny mountains form as a
result of the collision of Europe and
eastern North America.2
Add other
mountain range origins too.
 
[1] This map shows the subdivisions of
the southern Appalachian Plateau as
defined by Bailey's ecoregions.[1] I,
Karl Musser, created it based on
USGS. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cumberlandplateaumap.
png
310,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 23 24 25 		6357) The Neoptera: Paraneoptera (bark
lice, true lice, thrips, and the
Hemiptera {HemiPTRu13 } who have
mouthparts adapted for piercing and
sucking:14 Cicadas, Aphids, and "true
bugs": such as Bed bugs, and Stink
bugs).15 16

The evolutionary history of the
Paraneoptera is reflected in structure
and function of their mouthparts. There
is a general trend from the "picking"
mouthparts of bark lice with standard
insect mandibles, to the probing and
puncturing mouthparts of thrips and
anopluran lice, and the distinctive
piercing-sucking rostrum or beak of the
Hemiptera.17

The Paraneopteran family tree splits
into two major branches, one with the
lice and the other with the thrips and
Hemiptera (aphids, cicadas and
Heteroptera: the true bugs). The
bark-lice and book lice are very basal
Paraneopterans.18

Not long after the piercing and sucking
mouthparts evolve, Hemiptera divides
into two sister groups. In one group,
Homoptera, (leafhoppers, cicadas,
aphids, etc.) , the rostrum is
relatively short (1-3 segments) and
emerges from near the ventral posterior
margin of the head. In members of the
second group, Heteroptera, the rostrum
is relatively long (3-4 segments) and
arises near the front or lower front of
the head (prognathous or hypognathous).
These insects are known as the "true
bugs".19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p261.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
6. ^ "true bug." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/true-bug
7. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p261.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
10. ^ "true bug." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/true-bug
11. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p261.
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
14. ^ "true bug." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/true-bug
15. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p261.
17. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p261.
18. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p263.
19. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
20. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
21. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
22. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
23. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
24. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p286.
25. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p321.
 
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg

[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
310,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 		6359) Ancestor of all Neoptera
Holometabola: Holometabolous insects
(beetles, bees, true flies, and
butterflies). Complete metamorphosis.12


Neoptera Holometabola (also called
Endopterygota) are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (holometabolous
development), These insects have four
developmental stages in the life cycle:
egg, larva, pupa, and adult (imago).
Unlike hemimetabolous insects in which
the immature structures (legs, eyes,
antennae, etc.) must also serve the
adults, holometabolous insects have a
larval stage13 and acquire a
completely new body during the pupal
stage.14 Start of larvae.15

The larva is a defining feature of
Holometabola.16 There are two theories
about how larva evolved. One is that
holometabolous larvae and
hemimetabolous nymphs are homologous
life stages, the other theory is that
the holometabolan larva is a protracted
version of the hemimetabolous pronymph-
that larvae are essentially free-living
embryos. The pronymph is a stage
between hatching and the first instar
nymph in hemimetabolous insects.17
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
5. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
7. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
8. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
9. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
10. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
11. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
12. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
14. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
16. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
17. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p333-334.
18. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
19. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
20. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
21. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
 
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg

[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
310,000,000 YBN
13 14 		6366) Holometabolous Insects: Panorpida
{PaNORPidu10 }, ancestor of all
Mecoptera (scorpionflies), Siphonaptera
(fleas), Diptera (true flies),
Trichoptera {TriKoPTRu11 } (caddis
flies), and Lepidoptera (moths and
butterflies).12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=panorp
idae
2. ^ "Trichoptera". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/T
richoptera
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=panorp
idae
5. ^ "Trichoptera". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/T
richoptera
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=panorp
idae
8. ^ "Trichoptera". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/T
richoptera
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=panorp
idae
11. ^ "Trichoptera". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/T
richoptera
12. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
14. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
 
[1] Nannochorista holostigma TILL.,
male, (ca. x 11), in position of rest.
Order Mecoptera, Family
Nannochoristidae. (After TILLYARD,
1917) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.metafysica.nl/nature/
insect/tillyard1917_pl_17_5.jpg

[2] Grimaldi, Engel, ''Evolution of
the Insects'', 2005,
p469. COPYRIGHTED
source: Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.
305,000,000 YBN
7 		242) Earliest frogs fossil, Prosalire.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature
377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
2. ^ "Pliensbachian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>.
3. ^ Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature
377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
4. ^ "Pliensbachian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>.
5. ^ Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature
377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
6. ^ "Pliensbachian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=47210
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html

[2] Figure 3 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html
305,000,000 YBN
16 		382) Amphibians: Anura {unRu12 } (Frogs
and Toads) evolve.13 14

The order Anura, are tailless
amphibians that include all frogs and
toads.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
11. ^ "frog." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
15. ^ "frog." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature
377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
[2] "Pliensbachian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
305,000,000 YBN
6 		383) Amphibians: Salamanders evolve.5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
300,000,000 YBN
2 		162)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
300,000,000 YBN
26 		387) Reptiles Testudines {TeSTUDinEZ16
}: Ancestor of Turtles, Tortoises and
Terrapins.17 18

Testudines is the order of all turtles,
tortoises and terrapins.19 20
Testudines are reptiles, most are
aquatic or semiaquatic, fresh water or
marine, but lay eggs on land. They have
webbed feet or flippers and their body
is covered by a horny shell from which
only the legs, head and neck, and tail
protrude when needed. The upper shell
is called the carapace and the
undershell the plastron.21

Tortoises are any of various
terrestrial turtles, especially one of
the family Testudinidae,
characteristically having thick
clublike hind limbs and a high, rounded
carapace.22

Terrapins are any of various North
American aquatic turtles of the family
Emydiolae, especially the genus
Malaclemys, which includes the
diamondback terrapin.23

There are inconsistencies in
terminology. In the USA "turtle" is
used broadly for all reptiles with a
shell, "terrapin" applies to a large
family, Emydidae, and "tortoise" refers
to the slow moving terrestrial species
(the land turtles) that enter water
only to drink or soak. In Great Britain
and Australia "tortoise" is applied
generally to all members of the group
except the marine species with
paddle-shaped limbs which are called
"turtles".24

DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods

SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Anapsida
ORDER Testudines
- turtles25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
7. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
10. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
12. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=48134&tree=0.1
13. ^ "turtle." Saunders Comprehensive
Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C.
Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay,
Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
14. ^ "tortoise." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tortoise
15. ^ "terrapin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrapin
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
18. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
20. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=48134&tree=0.1
21. ^ "turtle." Saunders Comprehensive
Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C.
Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay,
Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
22. ^ "tortoise." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tortoise
23. ^ "terrapin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrapin
24. ^ "turtle." Saunders Comprehensive
Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C.
Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay,
Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
25. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=48134&tree=0.1
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. {300 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "terrapin." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrapin
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. ‪中文(简体)‬:
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
300,000,000 YBN
9 10 		1310) Stramenopiles Golden algae
(Chrysophyta {KriSoFiTu7 }).8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
4. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
6. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
8. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
9. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
10. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/c
hrysophyta.html
 
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg

[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
299,000,000 YBN
5 		125) End of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
299,000,000 YBN
29 30 31 32 		6360) Holometabola: Coleoptera
{KOlEoPTRu19 20 } (Beetles).21

The earliest fossil beetle, Adiphlebia
lacoana.22 23

Coleoptera contains 350,000 named
species and is the largest order of
organisms and 40% of all insects.24

Well known beetles are: Ladybugs,
Fireflies, Dung beetles, Japanese
beetles, weevils, and scarabs.25

Some beetles have horns, in particular
the Scarabaeoidea (scarab related
families). The male usually has horns,
females very rarely do and they are
always small, which indicates that
horns are the product of sexual
selection, or intense competition among
males for mating. In many Scarabaeoidea
males fight to control access to
breeding sites and to females.26 Some
beetles secrete defensive fluids, and
are bioluminescent (like the familiar
Lampyridae more commonly called
"lightning bugs" or "fireflies"). Among
all bioluminescent insects the
mechanism of light emission involves a
luciferan in the presence of oxygen,
the enzyme luciferase, and ATP. The
reaction of these produces
oxyluciferin, CO2 and light.27
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Coleoptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
4. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
7. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
10. ^ Béthoux, Olivier.
“The Earliest Beetle Identified.”
Journal of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
11. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence
for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
12. ^ "Coleoptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
14. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
15. ^ Béthoux, Olivier.
“The Earliest Beetle Identified.”
Journal of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
16. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence
for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
17. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p357.
18. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p357-406.
19. ^ "Coleoptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
20. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
21. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
22. ^ Béthoux, Olivier.
“The Earliest Beetle Identified.”
Journal of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
23. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence
for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
24. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p357.
25. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p357-406.
26. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p379.
27. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p383.
28. ^ Béthoux, Olivier. “The
Earliest Beetle Identified.” Journal
of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
29. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence
for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
30. ^ Béthoux, Olivier. “The
Earliest Beetle Identified.” Journal
of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
31. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
32. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
(Pennsylvanian deposit) Mazon Creek,
Illinois, USA28  
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
290,000,000 YBN
9 10 		239) Gymnosperms: Ginkgophyta
(Ginkgos).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c290 (300
for living species)
10. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
 
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo

[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
290,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		6358) Holometabola: Hymenoptera (bees,
ants, and wasps).6

The earliest fossil evidence of
Hymenoptera is the stem gall of
Pteridotorichnos stipitopteri in the
Late Carboniferous.7 8 A gall is an
abnormal swelling of plant tissue
caused by insects, microorganisms, or
external injury.9 But the earliest
definitive Hymenoptera, recognized by
the distinctive wing venation, are from
the Triassic.10

The Hymenoptera are currently divided
into two suborders: "Symphyta"
(sawflies and wood wasps) and the
Apocrita (true wasps or parasitic
wasps) which includes the Aculeata
(ants, bees, and other stinging
wasps).11

In all members of the Hymenoptera
order, females have two sets of
chromosomes (are diploid), being the
union of two gametes, but males are
produced from unfertilized eggs and so
have only a single copy of the genome
(are haploid), although diploid males
do sometimes occur. Hymenoptera are
well known as parasitoids. Parasitoids,
unlike parasites develop from nutrients
extracted from a single host, and they
kill the host as a direct result or
indirect result (a parasite, while
inflicting minimal to severe ill
effects, does not kill its host). The
host remains alive for the larger part
of the of the parasitoid's period of
feeding.12 Some larvae even change the
behavior of their host to the benefit
of the parasitoid.13 Some bees are
cleptoparasitic, instead of the adult
contructing and supplying her own nest,
females steal into the nest of a host
bee and deposit an egg into the brood
cell before escaping.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
3. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009,
p260-263.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p407.
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
7. ^
Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence for
an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
8. ^ Labandeira, C. C. and T. L.
Phillips. 2002. Stem borings and
petiole galls from Pennsylvanian tree
ferns of Illinois, USA: Implications
for the origin of the borer and galler
functional-feeding-groups and
holometabolous insects.
Palaeontographica A 264:1–84, 16 pls.
9. ^
"gall." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/gall
10. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p407.
11. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p409,415,429.
12. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p408.
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p428.
14. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458.
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
16. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
17. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
18. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
19. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
20. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
21. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
 
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g

[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
290,000,000 YBN
3 		6367) Holometabolous Insects
Antliophora (ancestor of Diptera: true
flies and Mecopterids: scorpionflies
and fleas).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p468-469.
2. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p468-469.
 
[1] Cranefly Camera location 37°
47' 56'' N, 8° 40' 35'' W This and
other images at their locations on:
Google Maps - Google Earth -
OpenStreetMap (Info) Description
Nephrotoma appendiculata English:
Female Spotted Crane-Fly Français :
Un ''cousin'' femelle. Date April
2008 Source Own work Author
Alvesgaspar GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Tipulidae_April
_2008-2.jpg/1280px-Tipulidae_April_2008-
2.jpg

[2] Picture taken by myself: Tipula
leatherjacket (Emelt): GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tipula_leatherj
acket_Emelt.jpg/1024px-Tipula_leatherjac
ket_Emelt.jpg
287,000,000 YBN
11 		6308) Synapsid Therapsids evolve
(Cynodonts).8

Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs and
largely replace them for a time as the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
Therapsids appear in the late Permian
and prosper during the early Triassic.
The Therapsids are quadruperal and
their feet have five digits, but their
legs are more directly positioned under
the weight of their body. This reflects
a more efficient and active mode of
locomotion. Teeth are differentiated
into distinct types. Some herbivorous
therapsids become specialized for
rooting or grubbing, some for digging,
some for browsing. The overall
selection for more efficient
terrestrial locomotion and feeding
specializations results in greateer
diversity within therapsids. There is
some evidence that therapsids become
endothermic in parallel with their
archosaur (avian) contemporaries.9

One particularly successful group of
therapsids are the cynodonts. Some are
herbivores but more are carnivores.
They arise in the late Permian and
become dominant land carnivores in the
early part of the Triassic, until
largely replaced by the terrestrial
sauropsids of the late Triassic.
Cynodonts have teeth specialized for
slicing together with muscular cheeck
that keep the food between tooth rows
that chew the food. The Cynodont limbs
are direectly under the body,
contributing to the ease and efficiency
of ative terrestrial locomotion. In
addition, extensive turbinals are
likely present in the nose. These are
thin, scrolled, and folded plates of
bone that warm and humidify the
incoming air (as well as hold the
olfactory epithelium). These
characteristics suggest that cynodonts
had an endothermic metabolism. During
their evolution the cynodonts decline
in body size from the size of a large
dog to slightly larger than a weasel.
By the Triassic, only one group of
cynodonts, the mammals, will remain and
eventually prosper after the great
dinosaur extinctions at the end of the
Cretaceous.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
2. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
9. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
10. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
280,000,000 YBN
4 		6365) Ancestor of Holometablous insects
Neuropterida (Neuroptera: lacewings,
Raphidioptera: snakeflies, and
Megaloptera: alderflies and
dobsonflies).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146, 335.
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146, 335.
3. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p146, 335.
4. ^ David
A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146,
335.
 
[1] This image was moved from
File:Guldoeje.jpg En: Green
lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea). Da:
Guldøje (Chrysoperla carnea), der har
sat sig til overvintring på et
loft. Date: 18. august
2004. This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Chrysoperla_carnea_Gu
ldoeje.jpg

[2] Description Mantispidae, Ditaxis
biseriata (det. Hauser, 2006),
Carnarvon National Park, Queensland,
Australia Date 9 October 2002 Source
Own work Author Fritz
Geller-Grimm Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-By-SA-2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mantispidae_fg1
.jpg/1280px-Mantispidae_fg1.jpg
280,000,000 YBN
3 		6368) Holometabolous Insects
Mecopterids (ancestor of Mecoptera:
scorpionflies and Siphonaptera:
fleas).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p468-469.
2. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p468-469.
 
[1] Boreus is the main genus in the
family Boreidae, a holometabolous
insect family found in the northern
parts of Eurasia and North America.
Boreids are active during winter, when
they are found among patches of moss on
which they lay their eggs or on snow
drifts between mossy rocks. UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_VA6LeP
Z6KNY/S0rdKEWdlaI/AAAAAAAACBI/5ELa4U-reO
4/s400/Name+the+bug+11.jpg

[2] Description English: ''Boreus
hiemalis'' Česky: sněžnice matná,
''Boreus hiemalis'' Date 18 March
2006 Source Own work Author
I.Sáček, senior PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Boreus_hiemalis3.jpg
274,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 30 31 32 		307) Ancestor of all Protists:
Phaeophyta {FEoFiTu20 } (Brown
Algae).21 22 23

The Phaeophyta are a phylum (division)
of the kingdom Protista consisting of
those organisms commonly called brown
algae. Many of the Earth's familiar
seaweeds are members of Phaeophyta.
There are approximately 1,500 species.
Like the chrysophytes, brown algae
derive their color from the presence,
in the cell chloroplasts, of several
brownish carotenoid pigments, including
fucoxanthin, in addition to the
photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a
and c. With only a few exceptions,
brown algae are marine, growing in the
colder oceans of the world, many in the
tidal zone, where they are subjected to
great stress from wave action; others
grow in deep water. Among the brown
algae are the largest of all algae, the
giant kelps, which may reach a length
of over 100 ft (30 m). Fucus
(rockweed), Sargassum (gulfweed), and
the simple filamentous Ectocarpus are
other examples of brown algae.24

The cell wall of the brown algae
consists of a cellulose differing
chemically from that of plants. The
outside is covered with a series of
gelatinous pectic compounds,
generically called algin; this
substance, for which the large brown
algae, or kelps, of the Pacific coast
are harvested commercially, is used
industrially as a stabilizer in
emulsions and for other purposes. The
normal food reserve of the brown algal
cell is a soluble polysaccharide called
laminarin; mannitol and oil also occur
as storage products. The body, or
thallus, of the larger brown algae may
contain tissues differentiated for
different functions, with stemlike,
rootlike, and leaflike organs, the most
complex structures of all algae.25

Some groups of brown algae have evolved
an interesting type of alternation of
generations, in which physiologically
independent haploid gametophyte plants
produce gametes, the fusion of which
initiates the diploid sporophyte
generation. The mature sporophyte plant
produces, through meiosis, haploid
spores, which develop into new
gametophytes. The two generations, or
phases, may be indistinguishable in
size and form, or they may differ
greatly. The genus Ectocarpus, for
example, is found growing attached to
larger algae. It has similar-looking
gametophyte and sporophyte plants. In
the kelps, however, the gametophyte is
only a microscopic filament, in
contrast to the occasionally tree-sized
sporophyte.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
8. ^
"Phaeophyta." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 12
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
13. ^
"Phaeophyta." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 12
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
15. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
18. ^
"Phaeophyta." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 12
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
19. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
20. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
24. ^
"Phaeophyta." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 12
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
25. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
26. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
27. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {genetic) 274 mybn}
28. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 200 mybn}
29. ^ Zhu
Shixing and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
{Fossil) 1600-1800 mybn}
30. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
{Alveolates and Plants) 1956mybn}
31. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009.
http://www.timetree.org/book.php
{1345 my}
32. ^ Cécile Gueidan,
Constantino Ruibal, G.S. de Hoog,
Harald Schneider, Rock-inhabiting fungi
originated during periods of dry
climate in the late Devonian and middle
Triassic, Fungal Biology, Volume 115,
Issue 10, October 2011, Pages 987-996,
ISSN 1878-6146,
10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.002. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S1878614611000675) {822.5 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
[2] Douzery, Emmanuel J. P. et al.
“The timing of eukaryotic evolution:
Does a relaxed molecular clock
reconcile proteins and fossils?”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391. http://www.pnas.org/content/101
/43/15386.long
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120
[5] "Phaeophyta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeophyta
[6] Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989)
[7] "Brown algae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_algae

[8]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
270,000,000 YBN
24 25 		240) Gymnosperms: Pinophyta {PInoFiTu18
} (Conifers: includes Pine, Fir,
Spruce, Redwood, Cedar, Juniper,
Hemlock, Larch, and Cypress19 20 ).21
22

The gymnosperms, are a division of seed
plants characterized as vascular plants
with roots, stems, and leaves, and with
seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary
but are borne on cone scales or exposed
at the end of a stalk.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
2. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
3. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
7. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
8. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^
"Pinophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
13. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
14. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
17. ^
"Pinophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
19. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
20. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
21. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
23. ^
"Pinophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
24. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.abstract (c270 (290 for
living species)
25. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] Burleigh J. G. S. Mathews
2004 Phylogenetic signal in nucleotide
data from seed plants: implications for
resolving the seed plant tree of life.
American Journal of Botany 91:
1599-1613 http://www.amjbot.org/content
/91/10/1599.abstract?ijkey=b60985db66551
09e270893676c522743d400bc1e&keytype2=tf_
ipsecsha
 
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta

[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
266,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		308) Protist Stramenopiles: Diatoms.8

Diatoms are microscopic one-celled or
colonial algae, having cell walls of
silica consisting of two interlocking
symmetrical valves.9

The silica shell often has intricate
and beautiful sculpturing. Diatoms are
usually yellowish or brownish, and are
found in fresh and saltwater, in moist
soil, and on the moist surface of
plants. Diatoms carry chlorophylls a
and c and the carotenoid fucoxanthin
contained in plastids. They reproduce
asexually by cell division.10
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
2. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
3. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
4. ^ "diatom." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diatom
5. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
6. ^ "diatom." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diatom
7. ^ "diatom." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 23
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diatom
8. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
9. ^ "diatom." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diatom
10. ^ "diatom." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 23
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diatom
11. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883 {no
earlier than) 266 MYBN}
12. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf} (1
973mybn) {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
260,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 		232) Earliest warm-blooded and hair
growing animal.16

This is possibly a therocephalian
reptile.17 .

Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates which are
ectothermic (or "cold blooded) and
cannot internally generate heat.18
Endot
hermy is the physiological maintenance,
by a body, of a constant temperature
independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to
endothermy.19 Endothermy allows birds
and mammals to maintain a high and
relatively constant body temperature,
even at rest, during a wide range of
external environmental conditions.20

Respiratory conchae (or turbinates)
(small curved bones in the nasal
passage, some which reduce respiratory
water loss with rapid breathing), found
in the primitive therocephalian
Glanosuchus and in several cynodonts,
are the first reliable morphological
indicator of endothermy. Although the
actual nasal turbinal bones are rarely
preserved in fossils, their presence
can be deduced from characteristic
ridges on the walls of the nasal
cavity. Ridges probably associated with
respiratory turbinals first appear
among advanced therapsids, the
therocephalians and cynodonts. This
suggests that the evolution of the
higher oxygen consumption rates of
mammals may begin as early as the Late
Permian and develop in parallel in
therocephalians and cynodonts, with
full mammalian endothermy taking
perhaps 40 to 50 million more years to
develop.21

The earliest fossil that has hair is a
Pterosaur fossil that is around 215
million years old22 23 , and some argue
that Pterosaurs are endothermic
(warm-blooded).24 25

The common ancestor of monotremes is
180 MYBN, and all monotremes are
endothermic.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
2. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
3. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
4. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
5. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
6. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
7. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
8. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
9. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
10. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
11. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
12. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
13. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
14. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
15. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
16. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
17. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
18. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
19. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
20. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
21. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
22. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
23. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
24. ^ Niels Bonde and Per Christiansen,
"The detailed anatomy of
Rhamphorhynchus: axial pneumaticity and
its implications", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003, v.
217, p. 217-232 doi:
10.1144/​GSL.SP.2003.217.01.13 http:/
/sp.lyellcollection.org/content/217/1/21
7.abstract
25. ^ R. Wild, "A juvenile specimen of
Eudimorphodon ranzii Zambelli
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) from the upper
Triassic (Norian) of Bergamo", Rivista
del Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali
'Enrico Caffi', Bergamo, 16, 95-120.
26. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
27. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
28. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441 {c250 MYBN (Late Permian}
29. ^ Ted
Huntington. {230 MYBN (between
crocodilia 240mybn and pterosaur
220mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Schweitzer, Mary Higby, and
Cynthia Lee Marshall. “A molecular
model for the evolution of endothermy
in the theropod-bird lineage.”
Journal of Experimental Zoology 291.4
(2001) :
317-338. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/jez.1132/abstract
 
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg

[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
260,000,000 YBN
6 		364) Ray-finned fishes: Gars.5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {260 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Spotted gar (Lepisosteus
oculatus) Creator Montague,
Brian Source
WO2445-28 Publisher U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Contributor
DIVISION OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS Rights
(public domain) Source: fws.gov PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Lepisosteus_oculatus.
jpg
256,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 		6362) Holometabola: Diptera13
{DiPTRe14 } true flies, single pair of
wings: mosquito, gnat, fruit fly, house
fly)15 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
5. ^
"Diptera." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
6. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
8. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
9. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
11. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
12. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
13. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
14. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
15. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
16. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
17. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
18. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
19. ^ Wiegmann, Brian M. et al.
“Episodic Radiations in the Fly Tree
of Life.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (2011): n.
pag. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/
2011/03/15/1012675108.full.pdf+html
20. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197
 
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g

[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
255,000,000 YBN
8 		389) Reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ}
evolve.4

The tuatara is a lizardlike reptile,
and is the last survivor of the
reptilian order Rhynchocephalia, which
flourishes in the early Mesozoic era
before the rise of the dinosaurs. Also
called sphenodon, it is found on
islands off the New Zealand coast and
in Karori Wildlife Sanctuary,
Wellington, New Zealand. The olive
colored, yellow-speckled tuatara
reaches a length of 60 cm (2 ft) or
more. It is very lizardlike in external
form, with a crest of spines down its
neck and back. However, its internal
anatomy, its scales, and the attachment
of its teeth are different from those
of lizards, and its body chemistry
allows it to function at temperatures
close to freezing. Like certain
lizards, tuataras have a vestigial
third eye (pineal eye) on top of their
head, but this organ is probably not
sensitive to light. Tuataras usually
inhabit the breeding burrows of certain
small petrels (sea birds5 ). They feed
on small animals, especially insects,
and reproduce by laying eggs. Captive
tuataras mature in about 20 years, and
it appears that their life span may
exceed a century by several decades.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
5. ^ "petrel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/petrel
6. ^ "tuatara." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tuatara
7. ^ "tuatara." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tuatara
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {255 MYBN}
(Islands of) New Zealand7  
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
251,400,000 YBN
19 20 21 		102) End-Permian mass extinction. 82%
of all genera are observed extinct.12

The Permian–Triassic extinction event
is the Earth's most severe extinction
event, with up to 96% of all marine
species13 and 70% of terrestrial
vertebrate species becoming extinct14
It is the only known mass extinction of
insects.15

The are 5 known major mass
extinctions.16 17

Many organisms go extinct. Among
invertebrates: all fusulinid
forminifera, rugose and tabulate
corals, trilobites, eurypterids,
strophomenid brachiopods, and 5 orders
of insects go extinct. Among
vertebrates: two-thirds of amphibians,
reptiles, and therapsids go extinct.18

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
5. ^ David Jablonski, "Lessons from the
Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
6. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
7. ^ Benton M J (2005). When life
nearly died: the greatest mass
extinction of all time. London: Thames
& Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28573-X.
8. ^ Sahney S and Benton
M.J (2008). "Recovery from the most
profound mass extinction of all time"
(PDF). Proceedings of the Royal
Society: Biological 275 (1636):
759–765. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370.
PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.
9. ^ Labandeira CC,
Sepkoski JJ (1993). "Insect diversity
in the fossil record". Science 261
(5119): 310–315.
doi:10.1126/science.11536548. PMID
11536548.
10. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
11. ^ David Jablonski, "Lessons from
the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
12. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
13. ^ Benton M J (2005). When life
nearly died: the greatest mass
extinction of all time. London: Thames
& Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28573-X.
14. ^ Sahney S and
Benton M.J (2008). "Recovery from the
most profound mass extinction of all
time" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal
Society: Biological 275 (1636):
759–765. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370.
PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.
15. ^ Labandeira CC,
Sepkoski JJ (1993). "Insect diversity
in the fossil record". Science 261
(5119): 310–315.
doi:10.1126/science.11536548. PMID
11536548.
16. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
17. ^ David Jablonski, "Lessons from
the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
18. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p173.
19. ^ Jin YG, Wang Y, Wang W,
Shang QH, Cao CQ, Erwin DH (2000).
"Pattern of Marine Mass Extinction Near
the Permian–Triassic Boundary in
South China". Science 289 (5478):
432–436. Bibcode 2000Sci...289..432J.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5478.432. PMID
10903200. {251.4 MYBN}
20. ^ Bowring SA,
Erwin DH, Jin YG, Martin MW, Davidek K,
Wang W (1998). "U/Pb Zircon
Geochronology and Tempo of the
End-Permian Mass Extinction". Science
280 (5366): 1039–1045.
doi:10.1126/science.280.5366.1039.
{251.4 MYBN}
21. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {245 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2]
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/200
6/06/060601174729.htm
[3]
http://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?p
key=1073
 
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg

[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
251,000,000 YBN
5 		54) End of the Paleozoic and start of
the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
251,000,000 YBN
452)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ "Pangaea." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pangaea
 
[1] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif

[2] Description Pangea map, with
names of the continents. Image of
pangaea made by en:User:Kieff. Date
20 October 2009 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_contine
nts.svg/1000px-Pangaea_continents.svg.pn
g
251,000,000 YBN
11 		6306) Oldest fossil amniote egg.7 8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
2. ^ Romer, A. S. and L. I. Price.
1939. The oldest vertebrate egg. Am.
J. of Sci.
237:826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/c
ontent/237/11/826.citation
3. ^ Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
4. ^ Romer, A. S. and L. I. Price.
1939. The oldest vertebrate egg. Am.
J. of Sci.
237:826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/c
ontent/237/11/826.citation
5. ^ Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
6. ^ Romer, A. S. and L. I. Price.
1939. The oldest vertebrate egg. Am.
J. of Sci.
237:826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/c
ontent/237/11/826.citation
7. ^ Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
8. ^ Romer, A. S. and L. I. Price.
1939. The oldest vertebrate egg. Am.
J. of Sci.
237:826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/c
ontent/237/11/826.citation
9. ^ Romer, A. S. and L. I. Price.
1939. The oldest vertebrate egg. Am.
J. of Sci.
237:826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/c
ontent/237/11/826.citation
10. ^ Romer, A. S., 1974. The
stratigraphy of the Permian Wichita
redbeds of Texas. Brevioria 427:1-31.
11. ^ Karl
F. Hirsch, "The Oldest Vertebrate
Egg?", Journal of Paleontology, Vol.
53, No. 5 (Sep., 1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086

MORE INFO
[1] Romer, Alfred Sherwood,
Price, Llewellyn Ivor, "The oldest
vertebrate egg", Am J Sci 1939 237:
826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/237/11/826?maxtoshow=&hi
ts=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&title=The+oldest+ve
rtebrate+egg&andorexacttitle=and&andorex
acttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&s
earchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevanc
e&resourcetype=HWCIT
[2]
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
[3] T. R. Smithson, "The earliest known
reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678 (07
December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
[4] JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile
Fossil Reported Found in Scotland", NY
Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
[5] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[6] "Eryops". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryops
Texas (verify)9 10  
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
250,000,000 YBN
6 7 		241) Fourth oldest living Plant
Division "Gnetales".3 4
Gnetophyta -
Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia 80
species.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c250 (270
for living species)
7. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
 
[1] Photo of a Welwitschia mirabilis,
taken in the Ugab River valley in
Namibia in October 2004 by Muriel
Gottrop. The photo shows a female
plant, recognizable by the oval shaped
seed pods. Creative Commons
License Creative Commons Attribution
iconCreative Commons Share Alike icon
This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution
ShareAlike License v.
1.0: http://creativecommons.org/license
s/by-sa/1.0/
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wel
witschia

[2] Wikimedia Commons logo This is a
file from the Wikimedia Commons. The
description on its description page
there is shown below. Genus
Welwitschia Gnetopsida Oroginally
uploaded by User:Roger_Zenner at the
German Wikipedia on 24 Sept. 2004.
Caption says it was photographed by
Freddy Weber for User:Robert_Zenner in
Auhust 2004 in Namibia. Info from
German Wikipedia: Lizenz: Gemeinfrei
(Public Domain), fotografiert von
Freddy Weber (für
Benutzer:Roger_Zenner) im August 2004
in Namibia. public domain
source: same
250,000,000 YBN
7 		368) Bowfin (Ray-finned) fishes
evolve.5

Bowfins (Amiiformes) are a primitive
bony freshwater fish of central and
eastern North America, with a long
spineless dorsal fin.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"bowfin." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bowfin
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ "bowfin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bowfin
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {250 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description English: Bowfin
(Amia calva) Deutsch: Kahlhecht Date
Source USFWS alt graphic A.svg
This image originates from the
National Digital Library of the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service at
this page This tag does not indicate
the copyright status of the attached
work. A normal copyright tag is still
required. See Commons:Licensing for
more information. See Category:Images
from the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service. Author Duane
Raver/U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg
245,000,000 YBN
10 		392) Reptiles: Crocodilia {KroKoDiLEu8
} (Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}) evolve.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301. {245 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
26 27 28 		412) Reptiles: Dinosaurs evolve.20 21
22 23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
4. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
7. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
8. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
11. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
12. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
15. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
16. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
17. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
18. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
19. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
20. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
21. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
22. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
23. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
24. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
25. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
26. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
27. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
28. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}
(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina24 25  
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
21 		611) Dinosaurs divide into two major
lines: Ornithischians {ORnitiSKEiNZ16 }
(Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and
Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ17 }
(Lizard-hipped dinosaurs).18 19 The
Ornithischians will evolve into both
bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters
(herbavores), and the Saurischians will
evolve into bipedal meat-eaters
(carnivores) and quadrupedal
plant-eaters.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
2. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

3. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
4. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
5. ^ Harold Levine, "The
Earth Through Time", 2006, p417.
6. ^
"ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
7. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

8. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
9. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
10. ^ Harold Levine, "The
Earth Through Time", 2006, p417.
11. ^
"ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
12. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

13. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
14. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
15. ^ Harold Levine, "The
Earth Through Time", 2006, p417.
16. ^
"ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
17. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

18. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
19. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
20. ^ Harold Levine, "The
Earth Through Time", 2006, p417.
21. ^ James
O. Farlow, M. K. Brett-Surman, "The
Complete Dinosaur", 1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C {Carnian:
average of) 235-228 mybn}
 
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
228,000,000 YBN
35 36 37 		6282) Saurischian {SoriSKEiN25 }
Dinosaurs split into two major lines:
The Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu26 }
and the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu27 }.28

Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.29

Theropod {tERePoD30 } dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.31 32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

2. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
6. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
7. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
9. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

10. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
14. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
15. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
16. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
17. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

18. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
20. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
21. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
22. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
23. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
24. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
25. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

26. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
27. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
28. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
29. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
30. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
31. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
32. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
33. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
34. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
35. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
36. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
37. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
odomorpha&submit=Submit
(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina33 34  
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 		6283) Earliest dinosaur fossil, the
Theropod Eoraptor.6
This dinosaur is a
cat-sized meat eater.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
2. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
9. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
10. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
12. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}
(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina8 9  
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
225,000,000 YBN
17 		126)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
10. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Spencer G.
Lucas and Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus
from the Upper Triassic of West Texas:
The Oldest Mammal", Journal of
Vertebrate Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3
(Sep. 23, 1993), pp. 309-334 Published
by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of
The Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
17. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
{225 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.abqtrib.com/albq/nw_science/a
rticle/0,2668,ALBQ_21236_4546322,00.html

(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby
County, Texas, USA16  
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514

[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
225,000,000 YBN
4 		6370) Holometabolous Insect Order
Tricoptera: Caddisflies. Caddisflies
are closely related to the Lepidoptera
(butterflies and moths).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "caddisfly." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 20 May.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
addisfly>.
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p469.
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p469.
4. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p469.
 
[1] Description Original description
on website: ''Caddisfly adults resemble
moths, but the wings are covered with
fine hair instead of scales.
(Trichoptera = ''hair wing.'')
Caddisfly larvae are a favorite food of
many fish, including trout, and are
used as bait by sport fishermen. The
larvae are especially sensitive to
water pollution and their numbers can
be monitored over a period of time as a
good indicator of water quality. These
primitive flying insects are most
abundant near well-aerated streams and
fast-flowing water, but also frequent
lakes, ponds and marshes. This specimen
was found at the west branch of the
DuPage River, a fairly sluggish body of
water, home to both large and
smallmouth bass, walleye, and panfish
such as bluegills and sunfish.'' Date
27 May 2005 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/Trichoptera_c
addisfly.htm Author Bruce Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Trichoptera_caddisfly
_1.jpg

[2] Description Caddisfly larva with
pebble case in Thornton Creek, early
Summer 2007, Seattle, WA, USA. Date
20070623 Source Taken by Ashley Pond
V Author Ashley Pond V CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Caddisfly-larva
.jpg/1204px-Caddisfly-larva.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
8 		400) Earliest mammal fossil
(Adelobasileus).5

This is a fingernail-sized skull found
in Texas.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
2. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
3. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
4. ^
http://www.abqtrib.com/albq/nw_science/a
rticle/0,2668,ALBQ_21236_4546322,00.html

5. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
6. ^
http://www.abqtrib.com/albq/nw_science/a
rticle/0,2668,ALBQ_21236_4546322,00.html

7. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
8. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
{225MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-tran
sitional/part1b.html
(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby
County, Texas, USA7  
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514

[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
46 47 		428) The first flying vertebrate
(Pterosaur).33 34
Oldest Pterosaur
fossils (Preondactylus and
Eudimorphodon).35 36 37 38

Pterosaurs have hair39 , and some argue
have endothermy (are warm-blooded)40 41
 and actively fly (contracting their
wing muscles to flap, as opposed to
only glide).42

Bonde and Christiansen cite a report of
a juvenile Eudimorphon ranzii with skin
and 'hairy' impressions.43 44 However,
Benton only cites the pterosaur fossils
from the Upper Jurassic and that the
details of pterosaur hair are currently
disputed.45
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
2. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
3. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
4. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
5. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
6. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
7. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
8. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
9. ^
Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
10. ^ Dalla Vecchia F.M., 1994 - Studio
sugli pterosauri Triassici con note
sulla loro datazione, habitat e storia
evolutiva. Ph. D. dissertation,
University of Modena, Modena, 249 pp.
11. ^
Wild R., 1978 - Die Flugsaurier
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) aus der Oberen
Trias von Cene bei Bergamo, Italien.
Boll. Soc. Paleont. Ital., 17(2):
176-256.
12. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
13. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
14. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
15. ^
Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
16. ^ Dalla Vecchia F.M., 1994 - Studio
sugli pterosauri Triassici con note
sulla loro datazione, habitat e storia
evolutiva. Ph. D. dissertation,
University of Modena, Modena, 249 pp.
17. ^
Wild R., 1978 - Die Flugsaurier
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) aus der Oberen
Trias von Cene bei Bergamo, Italien.
Boll. Soc. Paleont. Ital., 17(2):
176-256.
18. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
19. ^ R. Wild, "A juvenile specimen of
Eudimorphodon ranzii Zambelli
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) from the upper
Triassic (Norian) of Bergamo", Rivista
del Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali
'Enrico Caffi', Bergamo, 16, 95-120.
20. ^
Niels Bonde and Per Christiansen, "The
detailed anatomy of Rhamphorhynchus:
axial pneumaticity and its
implications", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003, v.
217, p. 217-232 doi:
10.1144/​GSL.SP.2003.217.01.13 http:/
/sp.lyellcollection.org/content/217/1/21
7.abstract
21. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
22. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
23. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
24. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
25. ^
Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
26. ^ Dalla Vecchia F.M., 1994 - Studio
sugli pterosauri Triassici con note
sulla loro datazione, habitat e storia
evolutiva. Ph. D. dissertation,
University of Modena, Modena, 249 pp.
27. ^
Wild R., 1978 - Die Flugsaurier
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) aus der Oberen
Trias von Cene bei Bergamo, Italien.
Boll. Soc. Paleont. Ital., 17(2):
176-256.
28. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
29. ^ R. Wild, "A juvenile specimen of
Eudimorphodon ranzii Zambelli
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) from the upper
Triassic (Norian) of Bergamo", Rivista
del Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali
'Enrico Caffi', Bergamo, 16, 95-120.
30. ^
Niels Bonde and Per Christiansen, "The
detailed anatomy of Rhamphorhynchus:
axial pneumaticity and its
implications", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003, v.
217, p. 217-232 doi:
10.1144/​GSL.SP.2003.217.01.13 http:/
/sp.lyellcollection.org/content/217/1/21
7.abstract
31. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
32. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
33. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
34. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
35. ^
Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
36. ^ Dalla Vecchia F.M., 1994 - Studio
sugli pterosauri Triassici con note
sulla loro datazione, habitat e storia
evolutiva. Ph. D. dissertation,
University of Modena, Modena, 249 pp.
37. ^
Wild R., 1978 - Die Flugsaurier
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) aus der Oberen
Trias von Cene bei Bergamo, Italien.
Boll. Soc. Paleont. Ital., 17(2):
176-256.
38. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
39. ^ R. Wild, "A juvenile specimen of
Eudimorphodon ranzii Zambelli
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) from the upper
Triassic (Norian) of Bergamo", Rivista
del Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali
'Enrico Caffi', Bergamo, 16, 95-120.
40. ^
Niels Bonde and Per Christiansen, "The
detailed anatomy of Rhamphorhynchus:
axial pneumaticity and its
implications", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003, v.
217, p. 217-232 doi:
10.1144/​GSL.SP.2003.217.01.13 http:/
/sp.lyellcollection.org/content/217/1/21
7.abstract
41. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
42. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
43. ^ Niels Bonde and Per Christiansen,
"The detailed anatomy of
Rhamphorhynchus: axial pneumaticity and
its implications", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003, v.
217, p. 217-232 doi:
10.1144/​GSL.SP.2003.217.01.13 http:/
/sp.lyellcollection.org/content/217/1/21
7.abstract
44. ^ Wild R., 1978 - Die Flugsaurier
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) aus der Oberen
Trias von Cene bei Bergamo, Italien.
Boll. Soc. Paleont. Ital., 17(2):
176-256.
45. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p227.
46. ^ Peter
Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p59-60,166. {220MYBN}
47. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
{215 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://dipbsf.uninsubria.it/paleo/dvecch
ia.htm
[2] Eberhard Frey, Helmut Tischlinger,
Marie-Céline Buchy, and David M.
Martill, "New specimens of Pterosauria
(Reptilia) with soft parts with
implications for pterosaurian anatomy
and locomotion ", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003,
217:233-266;
doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.217.01.14
 
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.

[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
210,000,000 YBN
9 		317) Reptile Order: Squamata evolves
(ancestor of lizards and snakes).7 8
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=49791&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262.
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=49791&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262.
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=49791&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262.
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=49791&tree=0.1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262.
 
[1] Description English: Desert
Iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis) near
Amboy Crater, Mojave Desert,
California. Date 19 March
2011 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 http://www3.wooster.edu/ge
ology/MWilson.html Photograph taken by
Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology,
The College of Wooster) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/58/DesertIguana031
611.jpg/1280px-DesertIguana031611.jpg

[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
210,000,000 YBN
13 		369)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
210,000,000 YBN
6 		390) Reptiles Iguania evolves:
(iguanas, chameleons, and spiny
lizards).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301. {210 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
210,000,000 YBN
6 		391) Reptiles: Scleroglossa evolve
(snakes, skinks, and geckos).5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {210 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
210,000,000 YBN
413)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jaekel, Otto. “Die
Wirbeltierfunde aus dem Keuper von
Halberstadt.” Paläontologische
Zeitschrift 2.1 (1915) :
88-113-113. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/
2. ^ Skull Morphology of the Oldest
Turtles: A Preliminary Description of
Proganochelys quenstedti Eugene S.
Gaffney and Lorraine J. Meeker Journal
of Vertebrate Paleontology Vol. 3, No.
1 (Mar., 1983), pp. 25-28 Published
by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of
The Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4522924
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ Jaekel, Otto. “Die
Wirbeltierfunde aus dem Keuper von
Halberstadt.” Paläontologische
Zeitschrift 2.1 (1915) :
88-113-113. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/
5. ^ Skull Morphology of the Oldest
Turtles: A Preliminary Description of
Proganochelys quenstedti Eugene S.
Gaffney and Lorraine J. Meeker Journal
of Vertebrate Paleontology Vol. 3, No.
1 (Mar., 1983), pp. 25-28 Published
by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of
The Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4522924
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Jaekel, Otto. “Die
Wirbeltierfunde aus dem Keuper von
Halberstadt.” Paläontologische
Zeitschrift 2.1 (1915) :
88-113-113. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/ PD

source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/

[2] Description Proganochelys
quenstedti, American Museum of Natural
History Date 2 April 2008,
18:07 Source Proganochelys
Quenstedti Author Claire Houck
from New York City, USA CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Proganochelys_Quenste
dti.jpg
210,000,000 YBN
13 		6313) Earliest extant Teleosts:
Bonytongues.7

Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei8 ) are
a large group of fishes with bony
skeletons, including most common
fishes, different from cartilaginous
fishes such as sharks and rays.9 10

Teleosts will grow to include
(bonytongues, eels, herrings,
anchovies, carp, minnows, piranha,
salmon, trout, pike, perch, seahorse,
cod).11

DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes

INFRACLASS Cladistia

INFRACLASS Actinopteri

SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii

DIVISION Halecostomi

SUBDIVISION Teleostei12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
209,500,000 YBN
1 		489) Triconodonta (extinct mammals)
evolve.3
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order: Triconodonta
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Triconodonta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triconodont
a

MORE INFO
[1] Marisol Montellano, James A.
Hopson, James M. Clark (2008). "Late
Early Jurassic Mammaliaforms from
Huizachal Canyon, Tamaulipas, México".
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 28
(4): 1130–1143.
doi:10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1130
[2] Thomas Martin and Alexander O.
Averianov (2006). "A previously
unrecognized group of Middle Jurassic
triconodontan mammals from Central
Asia". Naturwissenschaften 94 (1):
43–48. doi:10.1007/s00114-006-0155-5.
PMID 17016686
[3] A. V. Lopatin, E. N. Maschenko
and A. O. Averianov (2010). "A new
genus of triconodont mammals from the
Early Cretaceous of Western Siberia".
Doklady Biological Sciences 433 (1):
282–285.
doi:10.1134/S0012496610040137
 
[1] [t May not be from scholarly
source] Description
Gobiconodon Date Source
Own Work by Pavel Riha (see also
the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB
(e-mail) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Gobiconodon.jpg
201,600,000 YBN
5 		127) End of the Triassic (251-201.6
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
5. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g
201,400,000 YBN
5 6 		228)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Whiteside, Jessica H.; Paul E.
Olsen, Timothy Eglinton, Michael E.
Brookfield, and Raymond N. Sambrotto
(March 22, 2010). "Compound-specific
carbon isotopes from Earth's largest
flood basalt eruptions directly linked
to the end-Triassic mass extinction".
PNAS 107 (15): 6721–5.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1001706107. PMC
2872409. PMID 20308590. {201.4 MYBN}
6. ^
David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {208 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
  
200,000,000 YBN
5 		370)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=93836
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {200 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] American eel (Anguilla
rostrata). CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Anguillarostratakils.
jpg
200,000,000 YBN
6 7 		6285)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. A. Fensome, R. A. MacRae, J.
M. Moldowan, F. J. R. Taylor and G. L.
Williams, "The Early Mesozoic Radiation
of Dinoflagellates", Paleobiology ,
Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092
2. ^ R. A. Fensome, R. A. MacRae, J. M.
Moldowan, F. J. R. Taylor and G. L.
Williams, "The Early Mesozoic Radiation
of Dinoflagellates", Paleobiology ,
Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092
3. ^ R. A. Fensome, R. A. MacRae, J. M.
Moldowan, F. J. R. Taylor and G. L.
Williams, "The Early Mesozoic Radiation
of Dinoflagellates", Paleobiology ,
Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092
4. ^ Nicoll, R. S., and C. B. Foster.
1994. "Late Triassic conodont and
palynomorph biostratigraphy and
conodont thermal maturation, North West
Shelf, Australia." Journal of
Australian Geology and Geophysics
15:101. {Nicoll_Foster_Dinoflagellate_F
ossils_1994.pdf}
5. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
6. ^ R. A. Fensome, R.
A. MacRae, J. M. Moldowan, F. J. R.
Taylor and G. L. Williams, "The Early
Mesozoic Radiation of Dinoflagellates",
Paleobiology , Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer,
1996), pp. 329-338 Published by:
Paleontological Society Article Stable
URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092
{240mybn}
7. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c200 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/di
noflagfr.html
[2] Riding, et al, "A review of the
chronostratigraphical ages of Middle
Triassic to Late Jurassic
dinoflagellate cyst biozones of the
North West Shelf of Australia", Review
of Palaeobotany and Palynology Volume
162, Issue 4, November 2010, Pages
543-575
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0034666710001570
 
[1] Figure 2 from: R. A. Fensome, R.
A. MacRae, J. M. Moldowan, F. J. R.
Taylor and G. L. Williams, ''The Early
Mesozoic Radiation of
Dinoflagellates'', Paleobiology , Vol.
22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092 COP
YRIGHTED
source: R. A. Fensome, R. A. MacRae, J.
M. Moldowan, F. J. R. Taylor and G. L.
Williams, "The Early Mesozoic Radiation
of Dinoflagellates", Paleobiology ,
Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092

[2] Plate 1 from: Riding, et al, ''A
review of the chronostratigraphical
ages of Middle Triassic to Late
Jurassic dinoflagellate cyst biozones
of the North West Shelf of Australia'',
Review of Palaeobotany and
Palynology Volume 162, Issue 4,
November 2010, Pages 543-575
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0034666710001570 COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0034666710001570
200,000,000 YBN
21 		6372) Ornithischians Thyreophora
{tIrEoFeru15 } evolve; ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ16 } and
the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ17 }.18


One of the most primitive Thyreophorans
is Scutellosaurus which has rows of
armored plates along its body and
tail.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
3. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
6. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
7. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p271.
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
11. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
12. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
14. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p271.
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
16. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
17. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
18. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
19. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p271.
20. ^ Colbert, "A
primitive ornithischian dinosaur from
the Kayenta Formation of Arizona",
Bulletin (Museum of Northern Arizona),
No 53, 1981.
21. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p224.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals.
London: Marshall Editions. pp.
134–135. ISBN 1-84028-152-9.
(Kayenta Formation) Arizona, USA20
 
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg

[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
195,000,000 YBN
31 32 		246) Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ23 } evolve;
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS24 }, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS25 }, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS26 }.27 28 29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
2. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

3. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
8. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
9. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

10. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
14. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
15. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

16. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
17. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

18. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
20. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
21. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
22. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
23. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
24. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

25. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
27. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
28. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
29. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
30. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
31. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
32. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
western USA30  
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg

[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
195,000,000 YBN
16 		6373) Ornithischians ornithopoda
{ORnitoPiDu12 } evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the
Hadrosaurs.13 14

One of the most primitive Ornithopods
is Heterodontosaurus.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
7. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
10. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
11. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
14. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
15. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
16. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
 
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
190,000,000 YBN
13 		358) Cartilaginous fishes: squalea
{SKWAlEo10 } evolve, ancestor of all
rays, skates, and sawfishes.11 12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=sq
ualiformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
4. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=sq
ualiformes&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=sq
ualiformes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=sq
ualiformes&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
12. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. {190 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
190,000,000 YBN
9 		359) Cartilaginous fishes: "Galea"
{GAlEu7 } evolve, (ancestor of all
sharks: includes great white,
hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse
sharks).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "galea." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/galea
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "galea." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/galea
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "galea." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/galea
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "galea." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/galea
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {190 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
190,000,000 YBN
6 		371) Teleosts: herrings and anchovies.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {190 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201773&tree=0.1
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
190,000,000 YBN
6 		6289)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
2. ^
Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time",
Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
3. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth
Edition, 2006, p176,375.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The
Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition,
2006, p176,375.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176,375.
6. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
{190 mybn}
Pangea5  
[1] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif

[2] Harold Levin, ''The Earth Through
Time'', Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176.
190,000,000 YBN
26 27 28 29 30 31 		6347) Holometabola Lepidoptera
{lePiDoPTRu18 } evolve (moths,
butterflies, caterpillars).19 20

The Lepidoptera comprise the largest
lineage of plant-feeding organisms.21
The plant eating beetles form the other
largest group.22

Butterflies are only about 6% of all
species the Lepidoptera, the rest being
moths. Because unlike the day flying
butterflies, moths are generally
smaller, night flying insects,
butterflies get all the attention.23

The Leptidoptera, among all Orders of
insects, appears to have radiated most
recently.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
3. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
6. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
9. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p556.
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
12. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
13. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p555.
15. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p555.
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p555.
17. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p555.
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
19. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
20. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
21. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p555.
22. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p555.
23. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p555.
24. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p555.
25. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p556.
26. ^ Palmer, et
al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p224.
27. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p556.
28. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p469.
29. ^
Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
2009, p262.
30. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing
of eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
31. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
Dorset, England25  
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
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of copyright law. Please do not copy
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information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
185,000,000 YBN
9 10 		194) Earliest diatom fossils.7 8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
2. ^ Rothpletz, A. (1896). U¨ ber die
Flysch-Fucoiden und einige
andere fossile Algen, sowie u¨ ber
liasische, Diatomeen fu¨ hrende
Hornschwa ¨mme. Zeitschr. Deutsche.
Geol. Ges. 48: 954–914.
3. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C.
F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution
of the diatoms (Bacillariophyta) : IV.
A reconstruction of their age from
small subunit rRNA coding regions and
the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet.
Evol. 6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
4. ^ Rothpletz, A. (1896). U¨ ber die
Flysch-Fucoiden und einige
andere fossile Algen, sowie u¨ ber
liasische, Diatomeen fu¨ hrende
Hornschwa ¨mme. Zeitschr. Deutsche.
Geol. Ges. 48: 954–914.
5. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C.
F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution
of the diatoms (Bacillariophyta) : IV.
A reconstruction of their age from
small subunit rRNA coding regions and
the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet.
Evol. 6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
6. ^ Rothpletz, A. (1896). U¨ ber die
Flysch-Fucoiden und einige
andere fossile Algen, sowie u¨ ber
liasische, Diatomeen fu¨ hrende
Hornschwa ¨mme. Zeitschr. Deutsche.
Geol. Ges. 48: 954–914.
7. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C.
F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution
of the diatoms (Bacillariophyta) : IV.
A reconstruction of their age from
small subunit rRNA coding regions and
the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet.
Evol. 6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
8. ^ Rothpletz, A. (1896). U¨ ber die
Flysch-Fucoiden und einige
andere fossile Algen, sowie u¨ ber
liasische, Diatomeen fu¨ hrende
Hornschwa ¨mme. Zeitschr. Deutsche.
Geol. Ges. 48: 954–914.
9. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C.
F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution
of the diatoms (Bacillariophyta) : IV.
A reconstruction of their age from
small subunit rRNA coding regions and
the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet.
Evol. 6,
391-407. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S1055790396900883
{185 MYBN}
10. ^ Rothpletz, A. (1896). U¨
ber die Flysch-Fucoiden und einige
andere fossile Algen, sowie u¨ ber
liasische, Diatomeen fu¨ hrende
Hornschwa ¨mme. Zeitschr. Deutsche.
Geol. Ges. 48: 954–914. {185 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Round, F. E. and Crawford, R.
M. (1990). The Diatoms. Biology and
Morphology of the Genera, Cambridge
University Press, UK
 

source: http://www.nature.com/news/2003/
030217/images/diatom_180.jpg


source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chr
omista/diatoms/diatomdiverse.jpg
180,000,000 YBN
25 		456) Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals

Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods

Series Amniota

Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988

Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi

Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872)
McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton,
ed., 1993:740
Order
Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in
Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed.,
1993:740 23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "monotreme." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
3. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
5. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
7. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
8. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "monotreme."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
13. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
14. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
15. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
17. ^
http://australianmuseum.net.au/Steropodo
n-galmani
18. ^ Archer, M., Flannery, T.F.,
Ritchie, A. & Molnar, R.E. 1985. First
Mesozoic mammal from Australia - an
early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318,
363-366. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v318/n6044/abs/318363a0.html
19. ^
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-tran
sitional/part1b.html
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=73650&tree=0.1
24. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {180 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Monotremata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotremata

Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea24
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
170,000,000 YBN
6 		372) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals

SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes

INFRACLASS Cladistia

INFRACLASS Actinopteri

SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii

DIVISION Halecostomi

SUBDIVISION Teleostei5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201774&tree=0.1
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {170 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
170,000,000 YBN
6 		373) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals

SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes

INFRACLASS Cladistia

INFRACLASS Actinopteri

SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii

DIVISION Halecostomi

SUBDIVISION Teleostei5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42775&tree=0.1
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
165,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 23 		457) Ancestor of all Marsupials.11
This is the last common ancestor of
Eutheria (includes Placental) and
Metatheria (includes Marsupial)
mammals.12

Marsupium means pouch in Latin.
Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and
crawl through their mother's fur into
the pouch where they clamp their mouths
to a nipple (teat). The other main
group of mammals are called placentals
because they feed their embryos with a
placenta which allows the baby top be
born much later. The pouch is like an
external womb.13

The earliest known marsupial is
Sinodelphys szalayi, which lived in
China around 125 million years ago
(mya).14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
6. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C,
Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A Jurassic
eutherian mammal and divergence of
marsupials and placentals", Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
8. ^ Rincon, Paul
(2003-12-12). "Rincon, P., Oldest
Marsupial Ancestor Found, BBC, Dec
2003". BBC News. Retrieved
2010-03-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/3311911.stm
9. ^ "Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial
Fossil Found in China, National
Geographic, December 2003".
News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved
2010-03-16.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2003/12/1215_031215_oldestmarsupial.ht
ml
10. ^ "Vertebrate Paleontology:
Sinodelphys szalayi". Carnegie Museum
of Natural History. Retrieved
2010-10-21. http://www.carnegiemnh.org/
vp/sinodelphys.html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
12. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C,
Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A Jurassic
eutherian mammal and divergence of
marsupials and placentals", Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf}
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
14. ^ Rincon, Paul
(2003-12-12). "Rincon, P., Oldest
Marsupial Ancestor Found, BBC, Dec
2003". BBC News. Retrieved
2010-03-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/3311911.stm
15. ^ "Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial
Fossil Found in China, National
Geographic, December 2003".
News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved
2010-03-16.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2003/12/1215_031215_oldestmarsupial.ht
ml
16. ^ "Vertebrate Paleontology:
Sinodelphys szalayi". Carnegie Museum
of Natural History. Retrieved
2010-10-21. http://www.carnegiemnh.org/
vp/sinodelphys.html
17. ^ Rincon, Paul (2003-12-12).
"Rincon, P., Oldest Marsupial Ancestor
Found, BBC, Dec 2003". BBC News.
Retrieved
2010-03-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/3311911.stm
18. ^ "Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial
Fossil Found in China, National
Geographic, December 2003".
News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved
2010-03-16.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2003/12/1215_031215_oldestmarsupial.ht
ml
19. ^ "Vertebrate Paleontology:
Sinodelphys szalayi". Carnegie Museum
of Natural History. Retrieved
2010-10-21. http://www.carnegiemnh.org/
vp/sinodelphys.html
20. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {165MYBN}
21. ^ van Rheede, T.
et al. The platypus is in its place:
nuclear genes and Indels confirm the
sister group relation of monotremes and
therians. Mol. Biol. Evol. 23,
587–597 (2006). {143-178MYBN}
22. ^ Phillips, M.
J., Bennett, T. H. & Lee, M. S. Y.
Molecules, morphology, and
ecology indicate a recent, amphibious
ancestry for echidnas. Proc. Natl Acad.
Sci. USA 106, 17089–17094 (2009).
{193-186}
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237. {140 MYBN}
China17 18 19  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
161,000,000 YBN
8 9 		6369) Holometabola Siphonaptera:
fleas.5

The oldest flea fossils, which are much
larger than modern species date to this
time.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p468-469.
2. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p468-469.
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p468-469.
4. ^ Huang,
Diying et al. “Diverse Transitional
Giant Fleas from the Mesozoic Era of
China.” Nature advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p468-469.
6. ^ Huang, Diying et
al. “Diverse Transitional Giant Fleas
from the Mesozoic Era of China.”
Nature advance online publication
(2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
7. ^ Huang, Diying et al. “Diverse
Transitional Giant Fleas from the
Mesozoic Era of China.” Nature
advance online publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
8. ^ Huang, Diying et al. “Diverse
Transitional Giant Fleas from the
Mesozoic Era of China.” Nature
advance online publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p468-469.
(Jiulongshan Formation) Daohugou,
Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia7
 
[1] Huang, Diying et al. “Diverse
Transitional Giant Fleas from the
Mesozoic Era of China.” Nature
advance online publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html


[2] Description English: Scanning
Electron Micrograph of a Flea. See
bellow for a colorized version of this
image. Fleas are known to carry a
number of diseases that are
transferable to human beings through
their bites. Included in this
infections is the plague, caused by the
bacterium Yersinia pestis. Français :
Une puce observée en microscopie
électronique. Les puces transmettent
de nombreuses maladies qu'elles peuvent
transmettre à l'homme par leur
morsures. Parmi ces maladies on trouve
la peste, causée par la bactérie
Yersinia pestis. Date Source
http://phil.cdc.gov/PHIL_Images/0507200
2/00001/PHIL_240_lores.jpg Author
Content Provider(s): Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) /
Janice Carr PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Scanning_Electron_Mic
rograph_of_a_Flea.jpg
160,000,000 YBN
7 8 		163)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
3. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
4. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
5. ^ Luo Z,
Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf}
6. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf}
7. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {160MYBN}
8. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
{130MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Nature. "Ji, Q., et al., The
Earliest Known Eutherian Mammal,
Nature, 416, Pages 816-822, Apr 2002".
Nature.com.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
416/n6883/full/416816a.html
(Daxigou) Jianchang County, Liaoning
Province, China6  
[1] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng
Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic eutherian
mammal and divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g

[2] Adapted from Figure 3 from: Luo
Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f3.
2.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
14 15 		330) Stegosaurus, an armored,
plant-eating Thyreophoran
{tIRrEoFereN10 } dinosaur lives around
this time. Stegosaurus has sharp spikes
on its tail and large bony plates on
its back. The plates may be used for
display or for controlling its body
temperature.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
15. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p225.
western USA13  
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
8 		374) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals

SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes

INFRACLASS Cladistia

INFRACLASS Actinopteri

SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii

DIVISION Halecostomi

SUBDIVISION Teleostei7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "Lightfish". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightfish
6. ^ "bioluminescence." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 26 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bioluminesc
ence
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=83588&tree=0.1
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {150 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
24 		393)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
6. ^ OSTROM, JOHN H. “Archaeopteryx
and the origin of birds.” Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society 8.2
(1976) :
91-182. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1976.tb00244.x/a
bstract
7. ^ "Tithonian Stage." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/597219/Tithonian-Stage>.
8. ^ He, H. Y., X. L. Wang, Z. H. Zhou,
F. Wang, A. Boven, G. H. Shi, and R. X.
Zhu (2004), Timing of the Jiufotang
Formation (Jehol Group) in Liaoning,
northeastern China, and its
implications, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
L12605, doi:10.1029/2004GL019790.
9. ^ Smith, Patrick E. et al.
“Dates and rates in ancient lakes:
40Ar–39Ar evidence for an Early
Cretaceous age for the Jehol Group,
northeast China.” Can. J. Earth Sci.
32.9 (2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115
10. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and Christopher
A Brochu. “Phylogenetic Context for
the Origin of Feathers.” American
Zoologist 40.4 (2000) : 486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
11. ^ Ji, Q., P. J. Currie, M. A.
Norell, and S.-A. Ji. 1998. Two
feathered dinosaurs from northeastern
China. Nature,
393753-761. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v393/n6687/full/393753a0.html
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Xu, Xing et al.
“Four-winged dinosaurs from China.”
Nature 421.6921 (2003) :
335-340. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v421/n6921/abs/nature01342.html
14. ^ Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates
and rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115
15. ^ Ivanov, M., Hrdlickova, S. &
Gregorova, R. (2001) The Complete
Encyclopedia of Fossils. Rebo
Publishers, Netherlands. pp. 312
16. ^
Zhang, Z., Gao, C., Meng, Q., Liu, J.,
Hou, L., & Zheng, G. (2009).
Diversification in an early cretaceous
avian genus: evidence from a new
species of Confuciusornis from china.
Journal of Ornithology , 150 (4),
783-790. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-009-039
9-x
17. ^ Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
18. ^ Mark Pagel,
"Encyclopedia of Evolution", 2002, vol
1,
p110. {Pagel_Encyclopedia_Of_Evolution_
2002.pdf}
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=80129
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {245 MYBN} {245 MYBN
(bird and croc split}

MORE INFO
[1] Xu, X., Z. Tang, and X. Wang.
1999a. A therizinosauroid dinosaur with
integumentary structures from China.
Nature, 399350-354
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[4] Hedges, S. Blair et al.
“Continental breakup and the ordinal
diversification of birds and
mammals.” Nature 381.6579 (1996) :
226-229. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v381/n6579/abs/381226a0.html
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
15 16 		394) Oldest bird (and feather8 )
fossil, Archaeopteryx.9

The Archaeopteryx fossil is from the
Solnhofen Limestone of the Upper
Jurassic of Germany.10

John Ostrom describes the historical
background of the Archaeopteryx
fossils:
"...
Possibly no other zoological specimens,
fossil or Recent, are considered so
importa
nt as are those of Archeopteryx
lithographica (see Figs 1, 2 and 3).
Certain
ly few other specimens have generated
such widespread interest or
provoked as
much speculation and controversy. The
reasons are several: these
specimens are the
oldest (Tithonian = Late Jurassic)
known fossil bird remains;
they are extremely
rare, only five specimens (excluding
the solitary feather) are
known at present;
several of these preserve remarkably
detailed impressions of
feathers and an
extraordinary mixture of reptilian and
avian characters; and
most important of
all, because of the last fact, out of
all presently known fossil
and living
organisms, these specimens are widely
recognized as constituting the
best example
of an organism perfectly intermediate
between two higher
taxonomic
categories-representing an ideal
transitional stage between ancestral
and
descendant stocks. Archaeopteryx may
well be the most impressive fossil
evidence of
the fact of organic evolution.
...
The first still-verifiable evidence of
Jurassic birds is the imprint of a
solitary feather in a small slab of
these same Solnhofen limestones (Fig.
2A). This find was reported by von
Meyer
(1861a) in a letter to Professor H.
Bronn, published in Bronn’s Neues
Jahrbuch
fur Mineralogie (p. 561). Less than two
months later, von Meyer
(1861b) reported the
discovery in the same limestone strata
of a partial
skeleton associated with distinct
impressions of feathers. This find, the
now
well-known London specimen (Fig. 1A),
is currently in the British Museum
(Natural
History) in London. At first, some
scholars questioned the authenticity
of both
specimens, but von Meyer (1862)
established them as genuine.".11

Some scientists view Archaeopteryx as
probably a flightless feathered
dinosaur.12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and Christopher
A Brochu. “Phylogenetic Context for
the Origin of Feathers.” American
Zoologist 40.4 (2000) : 486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
2. ^
http://www.toyen.uio.no/palmus/galleri/m
ontre/english/x499b.htm
3. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and Christopher
A Brochu. “Phylogenetic Context for
the Origin of Feathers.” American
Zoologist 40.4 (2000) : 486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
4. ^
http://www.toyen.uio.no/palmus/galleri/m
ontre/english/x499b.htm
5. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and Christopher
A Brochu. “Phylogenetic Context for
the Origin of Feathers.” American
Zoologist 40.4 (2000) : 486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
6. ^
http://www.toyen.uio.no/palmus/galleri/m
ontre/english/x499b.htm
7. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
8. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and Christopher
A Brochu. “Phylogenetic Context for
the Origin of Feathers.” American
Zoologist 40.4 (2000) : 486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
9. ^
http://www.toyen.uio.no/palmus/galleri/m
ontre/english/x499b.htm
10. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
11. ^ OSTROM, JOHN H. “Archaeopteryx
and the origin of birds.” Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society 8.2
(1976) :
91-182. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1976.tb00244.x/a
bstract
12. ^ Xu, Xing et al. “An
Archaeopteryx-like theropod from China
and the origin of Avialae.” Nature
475.7357 (2011) :
465-470. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v475/n7357/full/nature10288.html
13. ^ Matt Kaplan, "Archaeopteryx no
longer first bird", Nature, Published
online 27 July 2011,
doi:10.1038/news.2011.443
http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110727
/full/news.2011.443.html
14. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
15. ^ OSTROM, JOHN H. “Archaeopteryx
and the origin of birds.” Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society 8.2
(1976) :
91-182. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1976.tb00244.x/a
bstract {150 MYBN}
16. ^ "Tithonian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/597219/Tithonian-Stage>. {150 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.netpets.org/birds/newsroom/ar
chaeopteryx.html
[2]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/100.html#Archaeornithes
[3] Ji, Q., P. J. Currie, M. A. Norell,
and S.-A. Ji. 1998. Two feathered
dinosaurs from northeastern China.
Nature,
393753-761. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v393/n6687/full/393753a0.html
Solnhofen, Germany14  
[1] Archaeopteryx siemensii HMN
1880/81 (Berlin) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm

[2] Archaeopteryx sp. JM 2257
(Eichstätt) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm
150,000,000 YBN
6 		6334) Probable fungi microfossils of
"Tappania plana" with fused branches, a
process found in higher fungi.3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield,
"Probable Proterozoic Fungi",
Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter,
2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
2. ^ “Primordial Fungus.” Science
307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
3. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "Probable
Proterozoic Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol.
31, No. 1 (Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
4. ^ “Primordial Fungus.” Science
307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
5. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "Probable
Proterozoic Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol.
31, No. 1 (Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990
6. ^ Nicholas J. Butterfield, "Probable
Proterozoic Fungi", Paleobiology , Vol.
31, No. 1 (Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990

MORE INFO
[1] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew
H. Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
[2] JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE J., ANDREW H.
KNOLL, and MALCOLM R. WALTER. “TEM
Evidence for Eukaryotic Diversity in
mid-Proterozoic Oceans.” Geobiology
2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full
(Wynniatt Formation) Victoria Island,
northwestern Canada5  
[1] Figure 1 from: Nicholas J.
Butterfield, ''Probable Proterozoic
Fungi'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1
(Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096
990

[2] Figures from: “Primordial
Fungus.” Science 307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-
4c91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
150,000,000 YBN
30 31 32 		6374) Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ22 } are
common; large, long-necked dinosaurs
like Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS23 },
Brachiosaurus {BrAKEuSORuS24 }, and
Diplodocus {DiPloDiKuS25 }.26 27 28
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
2. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

3. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
8. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
9. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

10. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
14. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
15. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
16. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

17. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
19. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
20. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
21. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
22. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
23. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

24. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
25. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
26. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
27. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
28. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
29. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
30. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
31. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primative Life", 2009, p224.
32. ^ Palmer et
al, "Primative Life", 2009, p224-225.
western USA29  
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg

[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
146,000,000 YBN
4 		490) Multituberculata (extinct major
branch of mammals) evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Multituberculata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multituberc
ulata
2. ^ "Multituberculata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multituberc
ulata
3. ^ "Multituberculata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multituberc
ulata
4. ^
http://www.biodiversity.org.uk/scripts/j
ava/runjava.dll?java=BentonControlServer
&method=jsShowStrat&family=Arginbaatarid
ae {146 MYBN}
 
[1] [t Note: image not clearly from
scholarly source] Description
Skull of Ptilodus, a paleocene
multituberculate, after Vaughan, 1986,
pencil drawing Date 13 November
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Ptilodus_skull_BW.jpg


[2] Description Life restoration
of Ptilodus gracilis from W.B. Scott's
A History of Land Mammals in the
Western Hemisphere. New York: The
Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce Horsfall
(1869–1948); in a book by W. B. Scott
(1858–1947) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Ptilodus.jpg
145,000,000 YBN
45 46 47 48 49 		245) The first flowering plant
(angiosperm).33 34 35

Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Tea, coffee,
chocolate, wine, beer, tequila, and
cola all come from flowing plants. Much
of our clothing comes from flowering
plants too: cotton and linen are made
from "fibers" of flowering plants, as
are rope and burlap, and many
commercial dyes are extracted from
other flowering plants. Many drugs also
come from flowering plants including:
aspirin, digitalis, opium, cocaine,
marijuana, and tobacco.36

Aside from primitive flowers like the
Magnoliids, most later angiosperms can
be divided into the more primitive
Monocotyledons (Monocots), flowering
plants that have a single cotyledon
(seed leaf) in the embryo, and the more
recent Dicotyledons (Dicots), which
have two cotyledons in the embryo.37 38
 The dicots contain two groups that
account for two-thirds of all
angiosperm species: the asterids, and
the rosids.39

The earliest fossil evidence of
angiosperms is pollen 130-140 MYO in
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China. The earliest macrofossils are
leaves and flowers around 120-130
MYO.40

Archaefructus, is an early angiosperm
fossil that dates to around 125 MYO
from northeastern China.41 42
Archaefrcutus does not have petals or
sepals, but does have carpels and
stamens which are attached to an
elongated stem with the staminate
(pollen-producing) flowers below, and
pistillate (fruit-producing) flowers
above. This ancient flower is similar
in some ways to Trithuria, a genus of
Nymphaeles (waterlilies).43

Estimates of angiosperm origins based
on molecular divergence are typically
far older than those estimates based on
fossils. These rate estimates may be a
result of using living species in a
group where the basal branches of a
lineage have been extensively pruned by
extinction, which may be the case for
the angiosperm tree.44
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.short
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC1088868/
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
13. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
14. ^ "fruit". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"fruit", Encyclopedia Britannica,
2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBcheck
ed/topic/221056/fruit
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
17. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
19. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
20. ^ "fruit". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"fruit", Encyclopedia Britannica,
2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBcheck
ed/topic/221056/fruit
21. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
23. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
24. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
25. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford
Dictionary of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
26. ^ "dicotyledon." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 19
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dicotyledon

27. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree",
2009,
p169. http://timetree.org/pdf/Forest200
9Chap18.pdf
28. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p609-611.
29. ^ Sun, G. ,
Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou,
Z.-K. In search of the first flower: A
Jurassic angiosperm, Archaefructus,
from northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

30. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p607-613.
31. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p294.
32. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p610.
33. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
34. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
35. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
36. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
37. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford
Dictionary of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
38. ^ "dicotyledon." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 19
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dicotyledon

39. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree",
2009,
p169. http://timetree.org/pdf/Forest200
9Chap18.pdf
40. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p609-611.
41. ^ Sun, G. ,
Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou,
Z.-K. In search of the first flower: A
Jurassic angiosperm, Archaefructus,
from northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

42. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p607-613.
43. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p294.
44. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p610.
45. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p607-613.
46. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
47. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short (175mybn) {Gymno-angio spilt)
320 mybn (radiation at 180my}
48. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution,
(2004). http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/c
ontent/21/5/809.abstract (c100mybn)
{320-290 mybn (radiation at 100 mybn}
49. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009,
p135. http://timetree.org/pdf/Magallon2
009Chap11.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP.
“An Update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group Classification for the
Orders and Families of Flowering
Plants: APG III.” Botanical Journal
of the Linnean Society 161.2 (2009):
105–121. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339
[3] Kumar, Hedges, "Time Tree of Life",
2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China 
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

145,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 		415) Oldest flower fossil,
Archaefructus, in China, a submerged
wetland plant.13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng,
S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the
first flower: A Jurassic angiosperm,
Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.rgp.ufl.edu/publications/expl
ore/v04n1/fossil1.html
4. ^ Science November 27, 1998
5. ^ Sun, G.
, Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou,
Z.-K. In search of the first flower: A
Jurassic angiosperm, Archaefructus,
from northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.rgp.ufl.edu/publications/expl
ore/v04n1/fossil1.html
8. ^ Science November 27, 1998
9. ^ Sun, G.
, Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou,
Z.-K. In search of the first flower: A
Jurassic angiosperm, Archaefructus,
from northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^
http://www.rgp.ufl.edu/publications/expl
ore/v04n1/fossil1.html
12. ^ Science November 27, 1998
13. ^ Sun,
G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. &
Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the first
flower: A Jurassic angiosperm,
Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
15. ^
http://www.rgp.ufl.edu/publications/expl
ore/v04n1/fossil1.html
16. ^ Science November 27, 1998
17. ^ Sun,
G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. &
Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the first
flower: A Jurassic angiosperm,
Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

18. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang,
Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing,
Wang, Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous age for
the feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning,
China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July
1999. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html {125
MYBN}
19. ^ Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates
and rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115 {122 MYBN}
20. ^ Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
{145 MYBN (late Jurassic}
21. ^ "Jurassic."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jurassic
{145 MYBN (late Jurassic}
(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province,
northeastern China17  
[1] Archaefructus liaoningensis. The
leaf-like structures on the stem of
this 140 million year old fossil are
pods containing the seeds, a
characteristic unique to flowering
plants. Credit: University of Florida.
PD?
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2001/ast17apr_1.htm?list118443

[2] Archaefructus liaoningensis Sun,
Dilcher, Zheng et Zhou (Sun et al.,
1998). Fruiting axes and remains of two
subtending leaves (Photo courtesy of
David Dilcher). COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/deeptim
e/virtualfossilcollection/Archaeofructus
.html
144,000,000 YBN
128) End of the Jurassic (201.6-145.5
mybn), and start of the Cretaceous
(145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
  
143,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 25 		6288) Earliest extant flowering plant
(Angiosperm) "Amborella".17 18 19 20
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
13. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
14. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
15. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
17. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
19. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
20. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
21. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
22. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
23. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (175mybn) {179mybn}
24. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (175mybn)
25. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(c100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng,
S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the
first flower: A Jurassic angiosperm,
Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
140,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 		247) The second most primitive living
Angiosperms, the Water Lilies
("Nymphaeales").9 10

70 species.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
13. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (171mybn)
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (165mybn)
 
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae

[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
138,000,000 YBN
5 6 		248) Angiosperm "Austrobaileyales".3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (160mybn)
{165mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Austrobaileya scandens
(Austrobaileyaceae) mature
fruit Lamins Hill via Malanda,
Queensland date uncertain Larger
image (81K) Robust vine in rainforest
canopy. It is a single species in an
Australian endemic family. Its pollen
is the oldest recorded flowering plant
pollen in Australia. See reference
under Image 7-93. Mesophyll/notophyll
vine forest.
source: http://www.gu.edu.au/ins/collect
ions/webb/html/6-15.html

[2] Austrobaileya scandens C.T.
White * Query NCU-3e or IPNI
* Common Name: * Family:
Austrobaileyaceae (Croiz.) Croiz.
* Country of Origin: Australia -
Queensland * Habitat: Mesophyll /
notophyll vine forest *
Eco-region(s): o AA0117 -
Queensland tropical rain forests
* Description: Evergreen, woody vines
with loosely twining main stem and
straight, leafy lateral branches
endemic to the rainforests of northeast
Queensland, Australia. This species is
the only member of the genus and the
genus is the only member of the family,
Austrobaileyaceae. It is a very
primitive angiosperm family although it
is sometimes placed in the Magnoliales
(Cronquist) or Laurales. Cronquist
considers it an ''isolated small group,
not wholly compatible with the bulk of
either the Laurales or Magnoliales, but
not sufficiently distinctive to
constitute a family of its own.''
The flowers are rather large,
solitary in the axils of the leaves,
with a putrescent odor, probably
pollinated by flies. Its
pollen is the oldest recorded flowering
plant pollen in Australia.
source: http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/im
ages/byspecies/AUSTROBAILEYA_SCANDENS_01
.JPG
136,000,000 YBN
6 7 		249) Angiosperm "Chloranthaceae".3 4

70 living species.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {158
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (155mybn)
 
[1] Hedyosmum scaberrimum AB201a is
from arizona.edu
source: http://eebweb.arizona.edu/grads/
alice/Chloranthaceae/Hedyosmum%20scaberr
imum%20AB201a.html

[2] Scientific Name Chloranthus
japonicus Location Vityaz inlet,
Gamov Peninsula, Khasansky distr.,
Primorsky Territory (Russian
Federation) Acknowledgements courtesy
CalPhotos Copyright © 2001 Nick
Kurzenko
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chl
oranthaceae
136,000,000 YBN
9 		460) Enantiornithes {iNaNTEORNitEZ7 }
evolve (early birds).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
9. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
{136 MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil-Pictu
res/Birds/Protopteryx/Protopteryx-fengni
ngensis.htm
 
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg


[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
134,000,000 YBN
25 26 27 		250) Ancestor of all flowers:
"Magnoliids" {maGnOlEiDZ19 } (nutmeg,
avocado, sassafras, cinnamon, black and
white pepper, camphor, bay (or laurel)
leaves, magnolias.20 21 ).22 23

There are 9,000 living species.24
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
4. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
6. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
9. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
11. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
14. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
16. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
17. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
19. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
20. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
21. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
22. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
23. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
24. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
25. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
26. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
27. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids {179 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales

[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using {{no
source notified
source: same
133,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 		253) Flowers Eudicots {YUDIKoTS18 }
evolve (the largest lineage of
flowers).19 20

Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.21

The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".22
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^
"eudicot>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "eudicot>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "eudicot." The
American Heritage® Science Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ "eudicot>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "eudicot." The
American Heritage® Science Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
19. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
21. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
23. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
24. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
25. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153mybn) {155 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=eudico
t&submit=Submit
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
132,000,000 YBN
2 		462)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
 
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg

[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
11 		375) Teleosts: Perch, seahorses, flying
fish, pufferfish, barracuda.9 10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
6 		376) Teleosts: cod, anglerfish.5
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
130,000,000 YBN
8 		6338) Feathered dinosaur microraptors
fossils.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Feathers Worth a 2nd Look Found
on a Tiny Dinosaur", NY Times, March 8,
2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/09
/science/feather-cells-tell-of-microrapt
ors-crowlike-sheen.html
2. ^ Li, Quanguo et al.
“Reconstruction of Microraptor and
the Evolution of Iridescent Plumage.”
Science 335.6073 (2012): 1215 –1219.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/335/6073/1215.abstract
3. ^ "Feathers Worth a 2nd Look Found
on a Tiny Dinosaur", NY Times, March 8,
2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/09
/science/feather-cells-tell-of-microrapt
ors-crowlike-sheen.html
4. ^ Li, Quanguo et al.
“Reconstruction of Microraptor and
the Evolution of Iridescent Plumage.”
Science 335.6073 (2012): 1215 –1219.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/335/6073/1215.abstract
5. ^ "Feathers Worth a 2nd Look Found
on a Tiny Dinosaur", NY Times, March 8,
2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/09
/science/feather-cells-tell-of-microrapt
ors-crowlike-sheen.html
6. ^ Li, Quanguo et al.
“Reconstruction of Microraptor and
the Evolution of Iridescent Plumage.”
Science 335.6073 (2012): 1215 –1219.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/335/6073/1215.abstract
7. ^ "Feathers Worth a 2nd Look Found
on a Tiny Dinosaur", NY Times, March 8,
2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/09
/science/feather-cells-tell-of-microrapt
ors-crowlike-sheen.html
8. ^ "Feathers Worth a 2nd Look Found
on a Tiny Dinosaur", NY Times, March 8,
2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/09
/science/feather-cells-tell-of-microrapt
ors-crowlike-sheen.html
Northeastern China7  
[1] The fossilized Microraptor specimen
from the Beijing Museum of Natural
History. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/ima
ges/2012/03/09/science/09dinosaur_span/0
9dinosaur_span-articleLarge.jpg

[2] Credit: Jason Brougham/University
of Texas; Mick Ellison
(inset) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.sciencemag.org/scien
cenow/assets/2012/03/08/sn-microraptor.j
pg
125,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		395)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
2. ^ Swisher, Carl C.,
Wang, Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu,
Xing, Wang, Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous
age for the feathered dinosaurs of
Liaoning, China". Nature 400:58–61 1
July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
3. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
4. ^ Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
5. ^ Zhang, Z., Gao,
C., Meng, Q., Liu, J., Hou, L., &
Zheng, G. (2009). Diversification in an
early cretaceous avian genus: evidence
from a new species of Confuciusornis
from china. Journal of Ornithology ,
150 (4), 783-790. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-009-039
9-x
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang,
Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing,
Wang, Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous age for
the feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning,
China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
8. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang, Yuan-qing,
Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang, Yuan.
(1999). "Creatceous age for the
feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning,
China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html {125 MYBN}
9. ^
Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates and
rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115 {145 MYBN}
10. ^ "Jurassic."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jurassic
{145 MYBN}
(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province,
northeastern China7  
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg

[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG
120,000,000 YBN
15 		463) Neornithes {nEORnitEZ11 } evolve
(modern birds: the most recent common
ancestor of all living birds).12

Neornithes is the subclass of Aves that
contains all of the known birds other
than those placed in the
Archaeornithes. Neornithes includes
more than 30 orders, both fossil and
living, its members are characterized
by a bony, keeled sternum with fully
developed powers of flapping flight
(secondarily lost in a number of
groups); a short tail with fused
vertebrae to which all tail feathers
attach; a large fused pelvic girdle;
and a large brain and eyes contained
within a fused braincase.13 In
addition Neornithes have a
fully-separated four-chambered heart
and typically exhibit complex social
behaviors.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
9. ^ "Neornithes." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neornithes
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
11. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
13. ^ "Neornithes." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neornithes
14. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from) {120
MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Photo of
stuffed brown kiwi (Apteryx australis)
from Auckland Museum, New
Zealand. Dansk: Foto af udstoppet brun
kiwi (Apteryx australis) fra Auckland
Museum i New Zealand. Date 1999.
(2007-07-03, according to EXIF
data) Source See below Author
This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. Please credit this: Malene
Thyssen,
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:M
alene An email to malene at
mtfoto.dk would be appreciated
too. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kiwifugl.jpg
120,000,000 YBN
3 4 		6361) Bees. The earliest bee fossil is
from the Late Cretaceous, but presumed
nests that date to 95 MYO indicate that
bees are older, perhaps as old as
around 120 MYO.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458.
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458.
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458.
4. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p283.

MORE INFO
[1] Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
[2] Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
  
119,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		251) Ancestor of all Angiosperm
"Ceratophyllaceae".4 5

Closest surviving relative of all
eudicots.6

6 living species.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
6. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
7. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (155mybn)
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (128mybn)
 
[1] Ceratophyllum
submersum Description: Ceratophyllum
submersum; an aquatic plant. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cer
atophyllaceae

[2] Ceratophyllum
demersum Ceratophyllum_demersum3.jpg
(78KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Common
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum
demersum) usgs
source: same
112,000,000 YBN
26 27 28 		252) Flowers Monocotyledons (or
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.21 22 23

Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots (formally
Dicotyledons) with
70,000 living
species (20,000 species of orchids, and
15,000 species of grasses).24

The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".25
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
6. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford
Dictionary of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
17. ^
"Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
18. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
19. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
20. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
23. ^
"Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
24. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
25. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
26. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
27. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
28. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (154mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
112,000,000 YBN
16 		481) Earliest Monotreme fossil,
Steropodon galmani, the earliest
platypus-like species.7 8 9 10
Earliest
Monotreme fossil, Steropodon galmani,
the earliest platypus-like species.11
12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://australianmuseum.net.au/Steropodo
n-galmani
2. ^ Archer, M., Flannery, T.F.,
Ritchie, A. & Molnar, R.E. 1985. First
Mesozoic mammal from Australia - an
early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318,
363-366. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v318/n6044/abs/318363a0.html
3. ^
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-tran
sitional/part1b.html
4. ^
http://australianmuseum.net.au/Steropodo
n-galmani
5. ^ Archer, M., Flannery, T.F.,
Ritchie, A. & Molnar, R.E. 1985. First
Mesozoic mammal from Australia - an
early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318,
363-366. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v318/n6044/abs/318363a0.html
6. ^
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-tran
sitional/part1b.html
7. ^
http://australianmuseum.net.au/Steropodo
n-galmani
8. ^ Archer, M., Flannery, T.F.,
Ritchie, A. & Molnar, R.E. 1985. First
Mesozoic mammal from Australia - an
early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318,
363-366. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v318/n6044/abs/318363a0.html
9. ^
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-tran
sitional/part1b.html
10. ^ "Kollikodon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollikodon
11. ^
http://australianmuseum.net.au/Steropodo
n-galmani
12. ^ Archer, M., Flannery, T.F.,
Ritchie, A. & Molnar, R.E. 1985. First
Mesozoic mammal from Australia - an
early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318,
363-366. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v318/n6044/abs/318363a0.html
13. ^
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-tran
sitional/part1b.html
14. ^ "Kollikodon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollikodon
15. ^
http://australianmuseum.net.au/Steropodo
n-galmani
16. ^ "Kollikodon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollikodon
{112 MYBN}
Lightning Ridge in north central New
South Wales, Australia15  
[1] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk (Dinoguy2) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg

[2] Description Steropodon galmani,
a platypus-like monotreme from the
Early Cretaceous of
Australia. Illustrator: Anne
Musser Rights: © Anne
Musser COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Steropodon_BW.jpg
110,000,000 YBN
4 		416)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {110 MYBN}
Oklahoma, USA3  
[1] [t Note: not clearly from scholarly
source] Description Sauroposeidon
was a sauropod from the Early
Cretaceous Period, related to the more
famous Brachiosaurus. The only specimen
to date is represented by four neck
vertebrae. It was the tallest dinosaur
known, estimated at 18 m (60 ft). Date
13 December 2006 Source i
made it myself Author
LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Sauroposeidon_d
inosaur.svg/1000px-Sauroposeidon_dinosau
r.svg.png
108,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 		254) Flowers: "Basal Eudicots"
(buttercup, clematis, poppy (source of
opium and morphine), macadamia, lotus,
sycamore).17 18 19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
6. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
16. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
18. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
19. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
20. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
22. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
23. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (145mybn) {147 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] wiki
 
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg

[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
106,000,000 YBN
26 27 		267) Flowers "Core Eudicots"
(carnation, cactus, caper, buckwheat,
rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, old
world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa,
spinach, currant, sweet gum, peony,
witch-hazel, mistletoe, grape plants.21
).22 23 24 25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
5. ^ wiki
6. ^ wiki
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
11. ^ wiki
12. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
13. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
16. ^ wiki
17. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
18. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
19. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
20. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
21. ^ wiki
22. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
23. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
24. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
25. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
26. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
27. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract (145my)
{124 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 (
128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Carnation in flower Beschreibung:
Gartennelke (Dianthus caryophyllus)
creative commons
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
nation
105,000,000 YBN
9 		417) Sauropod Argentinosaurus
{oRJeNTiNuSORuS7 }, a long-neck
(sauropod) titanosaur from South
America, possibly the longest animal of
all time, at an estimated 130 to 140
feet length.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=argent
inosaurus&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=argent
inosaurus&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=argent
inosaurus&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=argent
inosaurus&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {105 MYBN}
 
[1] Description
Argentinosaurus Deutsch:
Skelettrekonstruktion in einer
Sonderausstellung des Naturmuseums
Senckenberg English: Skeletal
reconstruktion in a special exhibition
of the Naturmuseum Senckenberg Date
6 August 2010 Source Eva
K. Author Eva K. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Argentinosaurus_DSC_2
943.jpg

[2] [t May not be
scholarly] Description
Argentinosaurus huinculensis, a
titanosaur from the Middle Cretaceous
of Argentina, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 15 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Argentinosaurus_BW.jp
g
105,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 		491) Ancestor of all placental mammal
Afrotheres evolves (elephants,
manatees, aardvarks).9

Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental
mammals.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229. {105 MYBN}
13. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
14. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
Africa11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
100,000,000 YBN
2 		164)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
  
100,000,000 YBN
4 		418)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {100 MYBN}
South America3  
[1] Description Česky: Model kostry
karnotaura v Chlupáčově muzeu v
Praze English: Carnotaurus in
Chlupáč museum in Prague Date
25 June 2009 Source Own
work Author Czech Wikipedia user
Packa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Carnotaurus%2C_Chlup%
C3%A1%C4%8D_Museum%2C_Prague.jpg
100,000,000 YBN
3 		464)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
2. ^ "Tinamiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tinamiforme
s-vertebrate-zoology
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from) {100
MYBN (estimate from}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Phylum : Chordata - Class : Aves -
Order : Tinamiformes - Family :
Tinamidae - Species : Crypturellus
tataupa (Tataupa tinamou) Given to the
wikipedia by the owner, Marcos
Massarioli. Status GNU
source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gem:Crypturellus_tataupa.JPG
100,000,000 YBN
11 		465) Birds "Ratites" evolve (ostrich,
emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE9 }, kiwis).10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (estimate from) {100 MYBN
(estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.900.html#Ratites
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
100,000,000 YBN
2 		480) Kollikodon ritchiei, an extinct
monotreme.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Kollikodon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollikodon
2. ^ "Kollikodon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollikodon
  
95,000,000 YBN
419) The Therapod14 {tERePoD15 }
Spinosaurus {SPINuSORuS16 }, perhaps
the largest meat-eating dinosaur,
estimated to have been 45 to 50 feet
long.17 18

The only skeleton ever found was
destroyed during World War 2.19
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p116.
2. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=spinos
aurus&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p116.
6. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=spinos
aurus&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p116.
10. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=spinos
aurus&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p116.
15. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=spinos
aurus&submit=Submit
17. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
18. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p116.
19. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Description Spinosaurus -
01 Date 6 November 2009,
11:18 Source Spinosaurus - 01
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Kabacchi CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Spinosaurus_skeleton.
jpg

[2] [t May or may not be from
scholarly source] Description
Spinosaurus aegipticus with hands,
tail and skull fixed. Date 2003
(modified 6-May-2008) Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Bogdanov, modified by Matt
Martyniuk (User:Dinoguy2) and
User:FunkMonk. Jaw muscles taken
from[1] by User:Steveoc_86.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Spinosaurus1DBa.png
95,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 		498) Mammals "Xenarthrans"
{ZeNoRtreNZ17 } evolve (Sloths,
Anteaters, Armadillos).18 19 20
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
3. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
7. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
11. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
12. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
15. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
16. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
19. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
20. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),219-223. {95
MYBN}
22. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
23. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.

[2] Description
0,DrawImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_20
011107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 2158,
EraseImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_2001
1107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2158,DrawIm
age(''Asparagus_Tip.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1,1,0) 2945,EraseImage(''Asparagus_Tip.
jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2945,DrawImage('
'Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3
398,EraseImage(''Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 3398,DrawImage(''garlic.jpg''
,CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3895,EraseImage('
'garlic.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 3895,Dra
wImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0
) 4467,EraseImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 4964,DrawImage(''Aloevera2web
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 4964,EraseI
mage(''Aloevera2web.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1) 4467,DrawImage(''Orchid.jpg'',CENTER
,CENTER,1,1,0) 5449,EraseImage(''Orchid
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 5449,DrawImage(
''Tigerlilysmall.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1
,0) END,EraseImage(''Tigerlilysmall.jpg
'',CENTER,CENTER,1) Hoffmann's
Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
93,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 		256) Flowers: "Rosids" evolve (Basal
Rosids include: geranium, pomegranate,
myrtle, clove, guava, allspice, and
eucalyptus).13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
6. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
9. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
13. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
15. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
17. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
18. ^
N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (122mybn) {117} {109}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
93,000,000 YBN
4 5 		258) Flowers "Eurosid I" Order
"Celastrales".1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). {90 MYBN} {86 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] wiki
[2] Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (128mybn)
[3] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] Oriental Staff Vine Celastrus
orbiculatus US NPS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta
ff_vine

[2] Northern Grass of Parnassus
(Parnassia palustris) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par
nassiaceae
93,000,000 YBN
37 38 		261) Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids I"
Order "Fabales" {FoBAlEZ29 }.30 31 32

Fabales include many beans (green,
lima, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung,
fava, cow (or black-eyed), popping),
pea, peanut, soy {used in tofu, miso,
tempeh, and milk}, lentil, chick pea
(or garbonzo) {used in falafel}, lupin,
clover, alfalfa {used as sprouts},
cassia {Kasu33 }, jicama, Judas tree,
tamarind {TaMuriND34 }, acacia
{uKAsYu35 }, mesquite.36
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "cassia."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
assia>.
10. ^ "tamarind." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
amarind>.
11. ^ "acacia." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cacia>.
12. ^ wiki
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ "cassia."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
assia>.
18. ^ "tamarind." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
amarind>.
19. ^ "acacia." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cacia>.
20. ^ wiki
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
22. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
23. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
24. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
25. ^ "cassia."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
assia>.
26. ^ "tamarind." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
amarind>.
27. ^ "acacia." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cacia>.
28. ^ wiki
29. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
30. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
31. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
32. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
33. ^ "cassia."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
assia>.
34. ^ "tamarind." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
amarind>.
35. ^ "acacia." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cacia>.
36. ^ wiki
37. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
38. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
93,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 		265) Angiosperms "Base Monocots" evolve
(vanilla, orchid, asparagus, onion,
garlic, agave, aloe, lily).9 10
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
12. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
13. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153my) {141 MYBN} {154 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards),
Angiosperm Phylogeny
Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/res
earch/APweb/welcome.html
 
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus

[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
93,000,000 YBN
21 22 		266) Monocots "Commelinids"
{KomelIniDZ17 } evolve (palms, coconut,
corn, rice, barley, oat, wheat, rye,
sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple,
papyrus, turmeric {TRmRiK18 }, banana,
ginger).19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
2. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
6. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
10. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
14. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
17. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
18. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
19. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
21. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
22. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (153my)
{94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales

[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
4 5 		268) Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids I"
Order "Zygophyllales" evolves.1 2 3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
2. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
3. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {101 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[3] wiki
 
[1] Bulnesia sarmientoi is a South
American tree species that inhabits the
north of Argentina as well as southern
Brazil and Paraguay. It is one of
several species known as palo santoin
Spanish. [1] Source: Libro del Árbol,
Tome II, edited by Celulosa Argentina
S. A., Buenos Aires, Argentina, October
1975. The visual material is not
explicitly copyrighted, but the editors
thank Mr. Jorge Vallmitjana for his
''photographic
contribution''. Argentina copyright
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bulnesia_sarmientoi.jpg

[2] Fagonia, US NPS public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/jotr/activiti
es/blooms/flwrpix/fagonia.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
16 17 		274) Ancestor of flowers "Basal
Asterids". Earliest surviving Order
"Cornales" (dogwoods, tupelos, dove
tree12 ).13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
2. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
3. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ wiki
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
6. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ wiki
9. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
10. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
11. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ wiki
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {120
MYBN} {101 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

[2] European Cornel (Cornus mas)
Paris, France, cc
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cornus_mas_flowers.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
28 29 		275) Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" Order
"Ericales" {AReKAlEZ22 23 } .24 25 26
Er
icales includes kiwifruit (kiwi),
Impatiens, ebony, persimmon, heather,
crowberry, rhododendrons, azalias,
cranberries, blueberries, lingonberry,
bilberry, huckleberry, brazil nut,
primrose, sapodilla, mamey sapote
(sapota), chicle, balatá, canistel,
new world pitcher plants {carniverous},
tea {Camellia sinensis}27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
7. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
12. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
17. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
18. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
19. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
20. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^ wiki
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
23. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
24. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
25. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
26. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
27. ^ wiki
28. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
29. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {113
MYBN} {100 MYBN} {114 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg


source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Actinidia_fruit.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
4 5 		277) Angiosperm "Euasterids I" evolve,
with earliest surviving order
"Garryales".1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
2. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
3. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {112 MYBN} {93 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (128mybn)
[2] THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
(102mybn)
[3] wiki
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Garrya elliptica foliage and
catkins. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Garrya_elliptica.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
5 6 		282) Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Aquifoliales" (includes holly1 ).2 3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ wiki
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn) {107 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] English holly (female), GNU FDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:English_holly.jpg

[2] Ilex aquifolium (L.) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acebo.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
41 42 		283) Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Apiales" {APEAlEZ32 } evolving now.33
34 35
Apiales includes dill, angelica,
chervil {CRViL36 }, celery, caraway,
cumin, sea holly, poison hemlock,
coriander (or cilantro), carrot, lovage
{LuViJ37 }, parsnip, anise {aNiS38 },
fennel, cicely {SiSelE39 }, parsley,
ivy, ginseng.40
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "chervil."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
hervil>.
10. ^ "lovage." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ovage>.
11. ^ "anise." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nise>.
12. ^ "cicely." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
icely>.
13. ^ wiki
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
17. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ "chervil."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
hervil>.
19. ^ "lovage." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ovage>.
20. ^ "anise." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nise>.
21. ^ "cicely." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
icely>.
22. ^ wiki
23. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
24. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
25. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
26. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
27. ^ "chervil."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
hervil>.
28. ^ "lovage." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ovage>.
29. ^ "anise." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nise>.
30. ^ "cicely." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
icely>.
31. ^ wiki
32. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
33. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
34. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
35. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
36. ^ "chervil."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
hervil>.
37. ^ "lovage." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ovage>.
38. ^ "anise." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nise>.
39. ^ "cicely." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
icely>.
40. ^ wiki
41. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
42. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn) {95 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg

[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
29 30 		285) Angiosperms "Euasterids II" order
"Asterales" {aSTRAlEZ23 } evolves.24 25
26

Asterales includes burdock, tarragon,
daisy, marigold, safflower,
chrysanthemum (mums), chickory, endive,
artichoke, sunflower, sunroot
(Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce,
chamomile, black-eyed susan, salsify
{SoLSiFE27 }, dandelion, and zinnia.28

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Asterales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "salsify." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/purple-sals
ify
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ "salsify."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/purple-sals
ify
16. ^ wiki
17. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
18. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
19. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
20. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^ "salsify."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/purple-sals
ify
22. ^ wiki
23. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
24. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
25. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
26. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
27. ^ "salsify."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/purple-sals
ify
28. ^ wiki
29. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
30. ^ wiki

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg

[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
91,000,000 YBN
41 42 		259) Flowers: Eurosid I "Malpighiales"
{maLPiGEAlEZ32 } evolves 33 34 35
(includes gamboge {GaM BOJ36 },
mangosteen {mANGuSTEN37 }, coca {used
in cocaine and drinks}, rubber tree,
cassava (or manioc {maNEoK38 }) {used
like a potato, and in tapioca}, castor
oil, poinsettia, flax, acerola
{aSorOlu39 } (barbados cherry), willow,
poplar, aspen, and violet (or pansy).40

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
"Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "gamboge."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 11 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
amboge>.
10. ^ "mangosteen." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
angosteen>.
11. ^ "manioc." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
anioc>.
12. ^ "acerola." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cerola>.
13. ^ wiki
14. ^ "Malpighiaceae."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
17. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ "gamboge."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 11 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
amboge>.
19. ^ "mangosteen." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
angosteen>.
20. ^ "manioc." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
anioc>.
21. ^ "acerola." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cerola>.
22. ^ wiki
23. ^ "Malpighiaceae."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
24. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
25. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
26. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
27. ^ "gamboge."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 11 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
amboge>.
28. ^ "mangosteen." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
angosteen>.
29. ^ "manioc." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
anioc>.
30. ^ "acerola." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cerola>.
31. ^ wiki
32. ^ "Malpighiaceae."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
33. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
34. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
35. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
36. ^ "gamboge."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 11 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
amboge>.
37. ^ "mangosteen." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
angosteen>.
38. ^ "manioc." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
anioc>.
39. ^ "acerola." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cerola>.
40. ^ wiki
41. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {90 MYBN}
{81 MYBN} {91 MYBN}
42. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia

[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
91,000,000 YBN
8 9 		260) Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids I"
Order "Oxalidales" (fly-catcher plant,
wood sorrel family {leaves show "sleep
movements"}, oca {edible tuber}4 ).5 6
7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
2. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
3. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ wiki
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
6. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {90 MYBN}
{77 MYBN}
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Oxalis regnellii atropurpurea
(Regnell's Sorrel) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa
lidaceae
90,000,000 YBN
38 		270) Angiosperm Eudicots "Eurosids II"
evolves: the most primitive Order is
"Brassicales" {BraSiKAlEZ30 }.31 32 33
34

Brassicales includes horseradish,
rapeseed, mustard {plain, brown, black,
indian, sarepta, asian}, rutabaga,
kale, Chinese broccoli (kai-lan {KI
laN35 }), cauliflower, collard greens,
cabbage (white and red {used in
coleslaw and sauerkraut}), Brussels
sprouts, kohlrabi {KOLroBE36 },
broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi,
mignonette {miNYuNeT37 }, and papaya.
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
wiki
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
wiki
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
howjsay.com/index.php?word=kai-lan&submi
t=Submit
12. ^ "kohlrabi." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/k
ohlrabi>.
13. ^ "mignonette." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ignonette>.
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
17. ^
wiki
18. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
19. ^
howjsay.com/index.php?word=kai-lan&submi
t=Submit
20. ^ "kohlrabi." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/k
ohlrabi>.
21. ^ "mignonette." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ignonette>.
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
23. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
24. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
25. ^
wiki
26. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
27. ^
howjsay.com/index.php?word=kai-lan&submi
t=Submit
28. ^ "kohlrabi." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/k
ohlrabi>.
29. ^ "mignonette." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ignonette>.
30. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
31. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
32. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
33. ^
wiki
34. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
35. ^
howjsay.com/index.php?word=kai-lan&submi
t=Submit
36. ^ "kohlrabi." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/k
ohlrabi>.
37. ^ "mignonette." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 11 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ignonette>.
38. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {88 MYBN} {90 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
89,000,000 YBN
23 24 		262) Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Rosales" {ROZAlEZ18 }.19 20 21

Rosales includes hemp (cannibis,
marijuana) {used for rope, oil,
recreational drug}, hackberry, hop
{used in beer}, breadfruit, cempedak,
jackfruit, marang, paper mulberry, fig,
banyan, strawberry, rose, red
raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry,
cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry,
thimbleberry, serviceberry, chokeberry,
quince, loquat, apple, crabapple, pear,
plum, cherry, peach, apricot, almond,
jujube, and elm.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rosales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ wiki
18. ^
"Rosales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
19. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
20. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
21. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^ wiki
23. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {87 MYBN} {76 MYBN} {89 MYBN}
24. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula

[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
89,000,000 YBN
24 		279) Flowers "Euasterids I" order
"Gentianales" {JeNsinAlEZ19 }
evolves.20 21 22
Gentianales includes
gentian, dogbane, carissa (Natal plum),
oleander, logania, and coffee.23
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Gentianales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Gentianales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Gentianales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ wiki
14. ^
"Gentianales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
17. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ wiki
19. ^
"Gentianales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
20. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
21. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
22. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
23. ^ wiki
24. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {87 MYBN} {89 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
88,000,000 YBN
9 		284) Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Dipsacales".5 6 7
Dipsacales includes
Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn
Salad.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
2. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
3. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ wiki
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
6. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ wiki
9. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn) {88 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Adoxa moschatellina (L.). 2005
Vellefrey et Vellefrange (France). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adoxa_moschatellina01.jpg

[2] Danewort inflorescence. Sambucus
ebulus (L.). European Dwarf Elder. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sambucus_nigra_flori_bgiu.jpg
86,000,000 YBN
27 		278) Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Solanales" {SOlanAlEZ21 } evolve.22 23
24
Solanales includes deadly
nightshade or belladonna, capsicum
(bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño,
Pimento), cayenne pepper {KI YeN25 },
datura, tomato, mandrake, tobacco,
petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant,
morning glory, sweet potato, and water
spinach.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
6. ^ "cayenne pepper." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 12 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ayenne pepper>.
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
11. ^ "cayenne pepper." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 12 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ayenne pepper>.
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
13. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
17. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
18. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
19. ^ "cayenne
pepper." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 12 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ayenne pepper>.
20. ^ wiki
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
22. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
23. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
24. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
25. ^ "cayenne
pepper." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 12 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ayenne pepper>.
26. ^ wiki
27. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{86 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
29 30 		263) Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Cucurbitales" (KYUKRBiTAlEZ23 }
evolve.24 25 26
Cucurbitales includes
watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew,
casaba, cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins,
squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut,
cushaw {Kuso27 }, hubbard, pattypan,
spaghetti), zucchini, and begonia.28
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "cucurbit."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "cushaw."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 12 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ushaw>.
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ "cushaw."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 12 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ushaw>.
16. ^ wiki
17. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
18. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
19. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
20. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^ "cushaw."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 12 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ushaw>.
22. ^ wiki
23. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
24. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
25. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
26. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
27. ^ "cushaw."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 12 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ushaw>.
28. ^ wiki
29. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {85 MYBN}
{65 MYBN}
30. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg

[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
25 26 		264) Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Fagales" {FaGAlEZ20 } evolves.21 22 23

Fagales includes many flowers that
produce edible nuts: Birch, Hazel
{nut}, Filbert {nut}, Chestnut, Beech
{nut}, Oak {used for wood, and cork},
Walnut, Pecan, Hickory, and Bayberry.24

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
6. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
7. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
wiki
10. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
wiki
15. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^
wiki
20. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
21. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
23. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
24. ^
wiki
25. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). {85
MYBN} {61 MYBN}
26. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
 
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg

[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
11 		466) Birds "Galliformes" {GaLliFORmEZ9
} evolve (Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant,
Peacock, Quail).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN
(estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.100.html#Galloanser
ae
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
13 		467) Birds "Anseriformes"
{aNSRiFORmEZ10 } evolve (waterfowl:
ducks, geese, swans).11

The "Anseriformes" are an order of
birds, characterized by a broad, flat
bill and webbed feet.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1
10. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {85 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.500.html#Anseriform
es
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
85,000,000 YBN
11 12 		499) Ancestor of all placental mammal
"Laurasiatheres" evolves. This major
line of mammals includes the
Insectivora (shrews, moles, hedgehogs),
Chiroptera (bats), Cetartiodactyla
(camels, pigs, deer, sheep, hippos,
whales), Perissodactyla (horses,
rhinos), Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears,
seals, walruses) and Pholidota
(pangolins).8

Laurasiatheres originate in the old
northern continent Laurasia.9
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p200. {85 MYBN}
12. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
Laurasia10  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
84,000,000 YBN
454) The Rocky mountains start to
form.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg

[2] Description Aerial Photo of
Rocky Mountains, Canada. Date
Source Photo by Jacob
Grygowski. Author Jgrygowski CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/RockyMountainsAerial.
jpg
82,000,000 YBN
30 		271) Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order
"Malvales" {moLVAlEZ24 } evolve.25 26
27
Malvales includes okra, marsh mallow
{malO28 }, kola nut, cotton, hibiscus,
balsa, and cacao {KoKoU29 } (used in
chocolate).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
2. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ "Malvales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ "mallow."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 13 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
11. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
12. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ "mallow."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 13 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
17. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
18. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
19. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
20. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
21. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^ "mallow."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 13 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
23. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
24. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
25. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
26. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
27. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
28. ^ "mallow."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 13 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
29. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
30. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {83 MYBN} {68 MYBN} {82 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
[3] wiki
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
82,000,000 YBN
28 		272) Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order
"Sapindales" {SaPiNDAlEZ22 } evolves.23
24 25 26 Sapindales includes maple,
buckeye, horse chestnut, longan,
lychee, rambutan, guarana, bael,
langsat (or duku), mahogany, cashew,
mango, pistachio, sumac, peppertree,
poison-ivy, frankincense, and the
citris trees: orange, lemon,
grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo,
and kumquat}.27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sapindales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ wiki
6. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ wiki
11. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ wiki
16. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ wiki
21. ^ wiki
22. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
23. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
24. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
25. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
26. ^ wiki
27. ^ wiki
28. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {80 MYBN} {61 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
82,000,000 YBN
420) Hadrosaurs, Ornithopod {ORniTePoD8
} duck-billed dinosaurs.9

Duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurs) are
common. The Hadrosaurs Maiasaurs are
examples of dinosaurs from which fossil
nests, eggs, and baby dinosaurs have
been found.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg

[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg

82,000,000 YBN
11 12 		500) Laurasiatheres "Insectivora"
evolves (shrews, moles, hedgehogs).9 10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
8. ^ Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
9. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218. {82 MYBN}
12. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Blarina
carolinensis Deutsch: Amerikanische
Kurzschwanzspitzmaus English: American
short-tailed shrew Date Source
work of the US government:
http://cars.er.usgs.gov/pics/paynesprair
ie/paynes/paynes_33.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d4/Southern_short-tailed
_shrew.jpg
81,000,000 YBN
5 		281) Angiosperms "Euasterids I" family
"Boraginaceae" (includes forget-me-not1
).2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ wiki
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
{81 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Fiddleneck, species not determined.
in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve,
Alameda County, California. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fiddleneck.jpg

[2] Italian Bugloss (Anchusa azurea).
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anchusa_azurea_flores.jpg
80,000,000 YBN
11 		421) The Ornithiscian7 Ceratopsian
dinosaurs evolve. Protoceratops, an
early shield-headed (ceratopsian)
dinosaur fossil.8

This is the first dinosaur discovered
with fossil eggs. These eggs and nests
were found in Mongolia in the 1920's.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
Mongolia, China10  
[1] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg

[2] [t May or may not be
accurate] Description
Protoceratops andrewsi, a
ceratopsian from the Late Cretaceous of
Mongolia, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date December 25, 2006,
updated October 23, 2007 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Protoceratops_BW.jpg
80,000,000 YBN
15 		422) Therapods {tERePoD10 }
Dromaeosaurs {DrOmEoSORZ11 }: Raptor
fossils.12

Raptors (dromaeosaurs) are Cretaceous
dinosaurs, which have large, hook claws
on their feet. Velociraptor is one
example.13

The most famous Velociraptor is a
skeleton preserved in combat with a
Protoceratops from Mongolia, China.14
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
15. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
 
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg

[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
80,000,000 YBN
12 		482) Marsupials "Didelphimorphia"
evolve (New World opossums).9 10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
8. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237. {80 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Didelphimorphia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didelphimor
phia
Americas11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
80,000,000 YBN
17 18 		501) Laurasiatheres mammals
"Megachiroptera" {KIroPTRu13 } (Old
World fruit bats) and "Microchiroptera"
(Echolocating Bats) evolve.14 15
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Chiroptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
13. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {80 MYBN}
18. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia16  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Livingstone’s
Fruit Bat Pteropus livingstonii in
Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. An
alternative name is Livingstone's
Flying Fox. Lives in the Comoro
Islands near Madagascar in the Indian
Ocean. Eats fruit, leaves and
flowers. Wingspan 1.4 metres. Date
September 2005 Source
Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Bristol.zoo.livfruitb
at.arp.jpg
78,000,000 YBN
55 56 		502) Laurasiatheres "Cetartiodactyla"
{SiToRTEODaKTilu39 } evolve (ancestor
of all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu40 }
also called "even-toed ungulates"
{uNGYUlATS41 or uNGYUliTS42 }43 :
camels, pigs, ruminants {includes deer,
giraffe, cattle, sheep, and antelope44
}, hippos, and all Cetacea {SiTASEu or
SiTAsEu45 }: Whales, and Dolphins).46
47 48

Hippos are the closest living relative
to whales.49

Cetartiodactyla is an unranked
taxonomic group, equivalent to a
superorder, containing the orders
Artiodactyla and Cetacea. It is
proposed on the basis of molecular
evidence suggesting a close
evolutionary relationship between the
two orders.50

The artiodactyla are an order
comprising the even-toed ungulates
(hoofed mammals). There are two main
radiations: the predominantly
omnivorous Bunodontia, including suoids
(such as pigs, peccaries, and hippos);
and the more herbivorous Selenodontia,
including camels and ruminants (such as
deer, giraffe, cattle, sheep, and
antelope). Artiodactyla contains about
213 living species, making it the fifth
most speciose order of mammals. First
known from the early Eocene,
artiodactyls have proliferated during
the last 55 million years to reach
great diversity (especially among the
family Bovidae). Their radiation is
often contrasted with that of the
odd-toed ungulates, or Perissodactyla
(horses, rhinos, and tapirs).
Artiodactyls are also important for
human economy and agriculture,
comprising most of the domestic
animals, providing milk, wool, and most
of the meat supply.51

Ruminants are any of various hoofed,
even-toed, usually horned mammals of
the suborder Ruminantia, such as
cattle, sheep, goats, deer, and
giraffes, characteristically having a
stomach divided into four compartments
and chewing a cud consisting of
regurgitated, partially digested
food.52

Cetacea is an order or marine mammals
that includes the whales, dolphins, and
porpoises, characterized by a nearly
hairless body, anterior limbs modified
into broad flippers, vestigial
posterior limbs, and a flat notched
tail.53
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
5. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
6. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
10. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
11. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
12. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
15. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
16. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
19. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
20. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
23. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
24. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
25. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
26. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
27. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
28. ^ "cetacean." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cetacean
29. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
30. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
31. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
33. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
34. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
35. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
36. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
37. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
38. ^ "cetacean." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cetacean
39. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
40. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
41. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
42. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
43. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
44. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
45. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
46. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
47. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
48. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
49. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
50. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
51. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
52. ^ "ruminant." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
53. ^ "cetacean." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cetacean
54. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
55. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218. {78 MYBN}
56. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia54  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
77,000,000 YBN
6 		483) Marsupials "Paucituberculata"
evolve (Shrew opossums).3

The Marsupial Order Paucituberculata
contains 6 surviving species confined
to Andes mountains in South America.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"Paucituberculata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paucituberc
ulata
5. ^ "Paucituberculata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paucituberc
ulata
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {77 MYBN}
Andes Mountains, South America5  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] English: Shrew opossum (Family:
Caenolestidae) Author: pl.wiki:
Dixi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Shrew_opossum_-_Caeno
lestidae.png
76,000,000 YBN
36 37 		503) Laurasiatheres order
"Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu27 }
evolve (also called "odd-toed
ungulates"28 ) {uNGYUlATS29 or
uNGYUliTS30 } (Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ 31
}, Rhinos).32 33

Perissodactyla is an order of
herbivorous, odd-toed, hoofed mammals,
including the living horses, zebras,
asses, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and their
extinct relatives. They are defined by
a number of unique specializations, but
the most diagnostic feature is their
feet. Most perissodactyls have either
one or three toes on each foot, and the
axis of symmetry of the foot runs
through the middle digit.34
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
2. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
6. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
8. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
9. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
11. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
12. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
13. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
15. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
16. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
18. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
19. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
20. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
22. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
23. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
25. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
26. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
27. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
28. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
29. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
30. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
31. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
33. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
34. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
36. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218. {76 MYBN}
37. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia35  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
75,000,000 YBN
5 		423) Ceratopsian dinosaurs are common
(Monoclonius, Styrakosaurus,
Triceratops). Triceratops, is the
largest of its kind, reaching 30 feet
in length.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {75 MYBN}
 
[1] Description Life restoration
of Monoclonius Date 1917 Source
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspa
ce/bitstream/2246/1336/1/B037a10.pdf Au
thor Richard
Deckert Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1f/Monoclonius.jpg

[2] Description Monoclonius
nasicornis skeleton.[1] Date
1920 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/ear
lyimage/bones/sharp/display_naturalhisto
ry1920_monoclonius.htm Author
BARNUM BROWN PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Sharp_naturalhistory1
920_monoclonius.jpg
75,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		492) Afrotheres: Aardvark.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {75
MYBN}
8. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
Africa6  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
75,000,000 YBN
12 13 		504) Laurasiatheres order "Carnivora"
(Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, Walruses).9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {75 MYBN}
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
75,000,000 YBN
5 6 		505)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ "Placentalia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {75 MYBN}
6. ^
Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia4  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description English: Pangolin,
Manis javanica Deutsch: Schuppentier,
Manis javanica Date May
2006 2007-03-12 (original upload
date) (Original text : mai
2006) Source photo taken by:
de:User:Piekfrosch Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : selbst
fotografiert) Author Original
uploader was Piekfrosch at
de.wikipedia (Original text :
Piekfrosch
(Wikipedia-User)) Permission (Reusing
this file) Licensed under the GFDL
by the author. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Pangolin_borneo.jpg
74,000,000 YBN
27 		280) Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Lamiales" {lAmEAlEZ21 } evolves.22 23
24

Lamiales includes lavender, mint,
peppermint, basil, marjoram {moRJ
uruM25 }, oregano, perilla, rosemary,
sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame,
corkscrew plants, bladderwort,
snapdragon, olive, ash, lilac, and
jasmine.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lamiales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Lamiales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
6. ^ "marjoram." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ wiki
11. ^
"marjoram." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
12. ^ wiki
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
{74 MYBN}
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^
"Lamiales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
17. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
18. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
19. ^ "marjoram."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
20. ^ wiki
21. ^ "Lamiales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
22. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
23. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
24. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
25. ^ "marjoram."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
26. ^ wiki
27. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
{74 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg

[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
73,000,000 YBN
12 		484) Australian Marsupial Order
Peramelemorphia evolves (Bandicoots and
Bilbies {BiLBEZ9 }).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
8. ^ "Peramelemorphia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peramelemor
phia
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Peramelemorphia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peramelemor
phia
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {73 MYBN}
Australia11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
10 		424) Two of the largest meat-eating
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoD7 }): Tyrannosaurus
rex is the top predator in North
America and Giganotosaurus is in South
America.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {70 MYBN}
Americas9  
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg

[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
9 		425) The Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereNZ7 }
ankylosaurs evolve (shield back and/or
clubbed tail dinosaurs) and are the
most heavily armored land-animals
known. These plant-eating dinosaurs are
low to the ground for optimal
protection. Many have spikes that stick
out from their bone-covered back.
Ankylosaurus even has bony plates on
its eyelids.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {70 MYBN}
 
[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng

[2] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
70,000,000 YBN
426) Mosasaurs {mOSeSORZ10 }, marine
reptiles evolve.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
4. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
7. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
10. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
12. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
 
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG

[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
13 		469) Birds "Podicipediformes"
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ10 } (grebes {GreBS11
}).12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
2. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
4. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
5. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
8. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
9. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
10. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
11. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
12. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
13. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {70 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		493) Afrotheres: Tenrecs and golden
moles.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {70 MYBN}
5. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
Africa3  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Beschreibung/ description: Großer
Tenrek (Tenrec ecaudatus) Quelle/
source: selber fotografiert auf der
Insel La Réunion im Juni 2003/
selfmade on island La Réunion.
photo taken by de:User:Markus Fink
Fotograf oder Zeichner: Markus Fink
first upload: Dec 6, 2004 -
de:Wikipedia by the photographer GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia
70,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		494) Afrotheres: Elephant Shrews.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {70 MYBN}
5. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). {70 MYBN}
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003). {70 MYBN}
Africa3  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description A picture of a
male Black and Rufous Elephant Shrew at
the National Zoo. The Elephant shrew is
part of the small mammals exhibit at
the zoo. Date 16 June
2007 Source Own work Author
ZeWrestler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Rhynchocyon_petersi_o
ne.JPG
70,000,000 YBN
13 		507) Placental Mammal Order
"Lagomorpha": Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas
{PIKuZ10 }.11

Rabbits were once classified as
rodents, because they also have very
prominent gnawing teeth at the front,
but were separated into their own order
called "Lagomorpha". Lagomorphs and
rodents are grouped together in a
cohort named "Glires".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "pika." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "pika." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "pika." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "pika." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ "pika." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {70
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: A rabbit
(A cottontail, I think) posing on the
grounds of Pompeys Pillar National
Monument. Date 10 June
2008 Source © 2008 Larry D.
Moore Author Photograph created
by Larry D. Moore (Nv8200p on
en.wikipedia) using a Kodak P880
camera. Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution Specification:
For any reuse or distribution of this
image, please attribute with at least
the photographer's name Larry D. Moore
along with the license information (I
recommend a Creative Commons (CC)
license) in a format of your choosing.
Examples: (CC) Larry D. Moore or GFDL
photo by Larry D. Moore or Image by
Larry D. Moore, used under a Creative
Commons ShareAlike License. Please
provide a link back to this page if at
all possible. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Rabbit_in_montana.jpg

70,000,000 YBN
11 		516) Placental Mammals: Tree Shrews and
Colugos {KolUGOZ9 }.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Colugo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugo
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[5] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[6] "Colugos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugos
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.

[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
6 		1383) Theropod Giant bird-like dinosaur
Gigantoraptor.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v44
7/n7146/full/nature05849.html
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v44
7/n7146/full/nature05849.html
3. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v44
7/n7146/full/nature05849.html
4. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v44
7/n7146/full/nature05849.html
5. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v44
7/n7146/full/nature05849.html
6. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/13/scienc
e/13cnd-dino.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin
5  
[1] Alive, the beast is thought to have
been 8 metres long, 3.5 metres high at
the hip and 1,400 kilograms in weight -
35 times as heavy as its next largest
family members and 300 times the size
of smaller ones such as Caudiperyx. It
has been classified as a new species
and genus: Gigantoraptor erlianensis.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2007/
070611/full/070611-9.html

[2] Claro Cortes IV/Reuters A model
of the Gigantoraptor''s
head. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/1
3/science/13cnd-dino.html?_r=1&hp&oref=s
login
66,000,000 YBN
10 		120) Largest Pterosaur and largest
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS7 }.8
Quetza
lcoatlus has a wing span of 40 ft.9
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p142.
 
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG

[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
65,500,000 YBN
6 		129) End of the Mesozoic and start of
the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn)
Period.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
5. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
6. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
65,500,000 YBN
12 		397) End-Cretaceous mass extinction.
47% of all genera are observed
extinct.8
Dinosaurs become extinct.
Also called
the K-T (Kretaceous-Tertiary)
extinction.9
Huge amounts of lava
erupted from India, and a comet or
meteor collided with the Earth in what
is now the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico.
No large animals survived on land, in
the air, or in the sea.10

Extinction of 60% of plant species, and
all dinosaurs, mosasaurs, pterodactyls,
plesiosaurs and pliosaurs.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p283.
8. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p283.
12. ^
http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/16cm05/1
116/16macro.htm {65.5 MYBN}
 
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm

[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
65,000,000 YBN
9 10 		429) There is a rapid increase in new
species of fossil mammals after the
extinction of the dinosaurs.7

Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are
small.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {65 MYBN}
10. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
  
65,000,000 YBN
11 		468) Birds "Gruiformes" {GrUiFORmEZ9 }
evolve (cranes, rails, bustards).10
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
11 		470) Birds "Strigiformes"
{STriJiFORmEZ9 } evolve (owls).10
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {65 MYBN(need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
65,000,000 YBN
7 		485) Australian marsupial order
"Notoryctemorphia" evolve (Marsupial
moles).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
Australia6  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
10 		486) Australian Marsupial order
"Dasyuromorphia" (Tasmanian Devil,
Numbat).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
Australia9  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
2 		487) Marsupial Order "Microbiotheria"
evolves (Monita Del Monte).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Dromiciops
gliroides Polski: Beztorbik bambusowy
- rysunek własny released by Dixi (c)
2004 under pl:GNU FDL Date
2004-05-19 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
pl.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be
made by User:Aroche. Author Drawn
by Dixi from pl.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/Dromiciops_gliroides.
jpg
65,000,000 YBN
12 		488) Australian Marsupial Order
"Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu9 }
evolve (Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums,
Koalas).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
Australia11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
26 		508) Rodents evolve. Mammal Order
"Rodentia".
Rodent suborder: "Myomorpha"
{MIemORFu20 } (rats, mice, gerbils,
voles {VOLZ21 }, lemmings, hamsters).22
23

Rodents are an order of mammals
characterized by a single pair of
ever-growing upper and lower incisors,
a maximum of five upper and four lower
cheek teeth on each side, and free
movement of the lower jaw in an
anteroposterior direction.24

Rodents are the most diverse group of
mammals on Earth, consisting of over
2000 species, more than 40% of the
known species of mammals on Earth
today. Rodents range in size from mice,
weighing only a few grams, to the
Central American capybara, which is up
to 130 cm (4 ft) in length and weighs
up to 79 kg (170 lb). Rodents have been
found on every continent except
Antarctica. Rodents include the
semiaquatic swimming (beavers and
muskrats), gliding ("flying"
squirrels), burrowing (gophers and
African mole rats), arboreal (dormice
and tree squirrels), and hopping
(kangaroo rats and jerboas). Nearly all
rodents are herbivorous, with a few
exceptions that are partially
insectivorous to totally omnivorous,
such as the domestic rat. The great
adaptability and rapid evolution and
diversity of rodents are mainly due to
their short gestation periods (only 3
weeks in some mice) and rapid turnover
of generations. The most diagnostic
feature of the Rodentia is the presence
of two pair of ever-growing incisors
(one pair above and one below) at the
front of the jaws. These teeth have
enamel only on the front surface, which
allows them to wear into a chisellike
shape, giving rodents the ability to
gnaw.25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

7. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
10. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

11. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
14. ^ "Rodentia." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rodentia-2
15. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

16. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
19. ^ "Rodentia." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rodentia-2
20. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

21. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
23. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
24. ^ "Rodentia." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rodentia-2
25. ^ "Rodentia." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rodentia-2
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description Русский:
Мышь домовая Mus
musculus Date 24 November
2008 Source Own work Author
George Shuklin
(talk) Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%88%D1
%8C_2.jpg
65,000,000 YBN
11 12 		509) Rodents: Beavers, Pocket gophers,
Pocket mice and kangaroo rats evolve.9
10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
12. ^ Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). {65
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
65,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		807) Ancestor of camels and llamas
splits from the Even-Toed Ungulates
line (Cetardiodactyla).1 2 3

This is just after death of dinosaurs.
Both these ancestors are still small
and probably look like shrews.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
7. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] "Artiodactyl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artiodactyl

 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg


[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
64,000,000 YBN
9 		585) Birds Psittaciformes
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ7 } (Parrots).8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
2. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
3. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
4. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
5. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
6. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
7. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
8. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
9. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] "Neornithes." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neornithes
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
 
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
63,000,000 YBN
3 		510) Rodents: Springhares and
Scaly-tailed Squirrels.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {63
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: Captive
Springhare, Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha
Nebraska. Date 2007-06-14
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Devonpike at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Springharelg.jpg
63,000,000 YBN
12 		587) Primates evolve, most likely in
Africa or the Indian subcontinent.8

The order primates contains more than
300 species, including monkeys, apes,
and humans. The primates are one of the
most diverse orders of mammals on
Earth. They include the lemurs (more
than 70 species in six families), the
lorises (three or more species in one
subfamily), the tarsiers (six or more
species in one family), the New World
monkeys (almost 100 species in five
families), the Old World monkeys (more
than 100 species in one family), and
the apes and humans (about 20 species
in two families). The oldest known
fossil remains of primates are about 60
million years old.9

Unlike most other mammalian orders, the
primates cannot be defined by a
diagnostic suite of specializations,
but are characterized by a combination
of primitive features and progressive
trends. These include: 1) Increased
dominance of vision over olfaction,
with eyes more frontally directed,
development of stereoscopic vision, and
reduction in the length of the snout.
2) Eye sockets of the skull completely
encircled by bone. 3) Loss of an
incisor and premolar from each half of
the upper and lower jaws with respect
to primitive placental mammals. 4)
Increased size and complexity of the
brain, especially those centers
involving vision, memory, and learning.
5) Development of grasping hands and
feet, with a tendency to use the hands
rather than the snout as the primary
exploratory and manipulative organ. 6)
Progressive elaboration of the placenta
in conjunction with longer gestation
period, small litter size (only one or
two infants), and precocial young. 7)
Increased period of infant dependency
and more intensive parenting. 10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "primate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
6. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002
7. ^ "primate." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
8. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002
9. ^ "primate." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
10. ^ "primate." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (=63my) {63
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm
[2]
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html
Africa or India11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
62,000,000 YBN
12 13 		495) Afrotheres: Elephants.9 10
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
3. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
9. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
11. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
12. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). {62 MYBN}
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
Africa11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] African Bush Elephant, Loxodonta
africana Description פיל
אפריקאי צילום מגיסטר
2003 Date 2005-04-01 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from he.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Magister at
he.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/AfricanElephant.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
5 		430) In South America, the Andes
mountains start to form.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {60 MYBN}
 
[1] Andes, 70.30345W, 42.99203S NASA
World Wind screenshot. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Andes_70.30345W_42.99
203S.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
4 		431) Earliest fossil rodent.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {60 MYBN}
  
60,000,000 YBN
16 		432) The cat-like Laurasiatheres11
Creodonts {KrEuDoNTS12 } like Oxyaena
are common.13

Creodonts are the dominant predators
throughout the Eocene and Oligocene and
occupy many of the same niches as the
carnivores which eventually replace
them. There are two families of
Creodonts, Oxyaenidae and the more
widespread Hyaenodontidae which
includes Megistotherium one of the
largest land predators to have ever
lived.14

The last creodont, Dissopsalis
carnifex, became extinct about 9
million years ago, giving the group a
more than 50-million-year history.15
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Peter S. Ungar, "Mammal Teeth:
Origin, Evolution, and Diversity",
2010,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BGGTYS2AgncC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=creodo
nta
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ Peter S. Ungar, "Mammal Teeth:
Origin, Evolution, and Diversity",
2010,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BGGTYS2AgncC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=creodo
nta
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Peter S. Ungar, "Mammal Teeth:
Origin, Evolution, and Diversity",
2010,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BGGTYS2AgncC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=creodo
nta
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p374.
11. ^ Peter S. Ungar, "Mammal Teeth:
Origin, Evolution, and Diversity",
2010,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BGGTYS2AgncC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=creodo
nta
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p374.
15. ^ "Creodonta". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/142545/Creodonta>.
16. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p374,381
 
[1] Description Patriofelis
ferox Date 2000 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
[show]Dmitry Bogdanov Link back to
Creator infobox template GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Patriofelis22DB
.jpg/1114px-Patriofelis22DB.jpg

[2] Description Hyaenodon
cayluxi Date January 2007 Source
took the foto on the ''Muséum
national d'Histoire naturelle,
Paris'' Author Ghedo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Hyaenodon_cayluxi.JPG

60,000,000 YBN
35 36 37 		586) Earliest primate fossils.16 17

The earliest primate fossils belong to
the primate order "Plesiadapiformes"
and are found near the start of the
Paleocene (~55 mybn). These include
Purgatorius from Montana18 ,
Plesiadapis, and Dryomomys19 20 from
Wyoming,21 22 23 24 and Altiatlasius
which appears in Africa and is known
from a handful of isolated upper and
lower teeth from Morocco25 26 .

During the early Cenozoic the Earth is
much warmer and more densely populated
with plants and trees, and there is a
large diversity of different early
primates, but the planet becomes cooler
and drier in the Oligocene and the
forests disappear and primates vanish
from North America and Europe and
become restricted to Southeast Asia and
Africa. During the Oligocene, one group
of primates, the New World Monkeys
(Cebidae) manage to cross the South
Atlantic Ocean and then radiate into
great diversity.27
FOOTNOTES
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/
meet-your-ancestors.html
2. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et al. “New
Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/m
eet-your-ancestors.html
4. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et al. “New
Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/m
eet-your-ancestors.html
6. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et al. “New
Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
7. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p336.
8. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002
9. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et
al. “New Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
10. ^ Gingerich, P.D. (1976). "Cranial
anatomy and evolution of early Tertiary
Plesiadapidae (Mammalia, Primates)".
University of Michigan Papers on
Paleontology 15: 1–141.
11. ^ Palmer, et al,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p442.
12. ^ "The
Origin of Primates", Walter Carl
Hartwig 2002
13. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et al.
“New Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
14. ^ Rasmussen, D. Tab. “Fossil
Record of the Primates from the
Paleocene to the Oligocene.” Handbook
of Paleoanthropology. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2007.
889-920-920. http://www.springerlink.co
m/content/m4jl266x600652w7/
15. ^
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm (= 60my) {60 MYBN}
http://w
ww.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/meet-your
-ancestors.html
17. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et al. “New
Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
18. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p336.
19. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002
20. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I.
et al. “New Paleocene Skeletons and
the Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
21. ^ Gingerich, P.D. (1976). "Cranial
anatomy and evolution of early Tertiary
Plesiadapidae (Mammalia, Primates)".
University of Michigan Papers on
Paleontology 15: 1–141.
22. ^ Palmer, et al,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p442.
23. ^ "The
Origin of Primates", Walter Carl
Hartwig 2002
24. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et al.
“New Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
25. ^ Rasmussen, D. Tab. “Fossil
Record of the Primates from the
Paleocene to the Oligocene.” Handbook
of Paleoanthropology. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2007.
889-920-920. http://www.springerlink.co
m/content/m4jl266x600652w7/
26. ^
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm (= 60my) {60 MYBN}
27. ^
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p338.
28. ^
Rasmussen, D. Tab. “Fossil Record of
the Primates from the Paleocene to the
Oligocene.” Handbook of
Paleoanthropology. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2007.
889-920-920. http://www.springerlink.co
m/content/m4jl266x600652w7/
29. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002
30. ^ Sigé B, Jaeger J-J,
Sudre J, Vianey-Liaud M (1990)
Altiatliasius koulchii n. gen. et sp.,
primate omomyidédu Paléocène
supérieur du Maroc, et les origines
des Euprimates. Palaeontograph Abt (A)
214: 31–56
31. ^
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm (= 60my) {60 MYBN}
http://w
ww.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/meet-your
-ancestors.html
33. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I. et al. “New
Paleocene Skeletons and the
Relationship of Plesiadapiforms to
Crown-clade Primates.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.4
(2007): 1159
-1164. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
4/1159
34. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p336.
35. ^
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm (= 60my) {60 MYBN}
http://w
ww.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/meet-your
-ancestors.html
37. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002 (paleocene (65-56my)
{65-56 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Franzen JL, Gingerich PD,
Habersetzer J, Hurum JH, von
Koenigswald W, et al. 2009 Complete
Primate Skeleton from the Middle Eocene
of Messel in Germany: Morphology and
Paleobiology. PLoS ONE 4(5): e5723.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005723
[2]
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/sciencestories/
2007/bloch_primate.htm
[3] Beard, K. Christopher. “The
oldest North American primate and
mammalian biogeography during the
Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 105.10 (2008) : 3815 -3818.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
10/3815.short
Morocco, Africa28 29 30 31 , (Willwood
Formation) Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming,
USA32 33 ), and Montana, USA34  
[1] [t Note this is not a
reconstruction of the 60my old fossils
from Morocco but 55my fossils from
North America] Dryomomys 55 million
years ago We've now arrived at one of
your very earliest precursors,
Dryomomys. Something like this creature
begot something that begot something
that, after that eternity of time,
begot you—only time separates the two
of you. Now, imagine if you could erase
that intervening eternity for a moment
and meet your hugely distant forebear.
At a smidgen bigger than a mouse, this
nearly eldest of all your elders would
fit snugly in the palm of your
hand. Your Ancestor's
Profile Dryomomys is the most
primitive primate known from good
fossil material. (The first known
primate, Purgatorius, dating back as
far as 65 million years ago, is known
only from isolated teeth and jaw
fragments.) The animal most like
Dryomomys today is a wee being called
the pen-tailed tree shrew. Dryomomys
would have weighed about 1.3 ounces,
roughly akin to that of the smallest
living primates, the mouse lemurs of
Madagascar. Like its cousin, the
roughly contemporary but more advanced
Carpolestes, the Dryomomys skeleton
that the reconstruction is based on was
unearthed in Wyoming. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sci
encenow/0303/images/02-mya-09.jpg

[2] Outline evolutionary history of
the Primates. Skulls of modern species
(top): Lemur catta, Cheirogaleus
medius, Galago senegalensis, Loris
tardigradus, Tarsius bancanus, Cebus
apella, Callithrix humeralifer, Maccaca
sylvanus, Pan troglodytes. Fossil
species (bottom): skull of Adapis
parisiensis, lower jaw of Microchoerus
erinaceus. Scale bars: 1 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://accessscience.com/loadBin
ary.aspx?aID=7335&filename=YB060330FG001
0.gif
60,000,000 YBN
3 		796)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Andrewsarchus mongoliensis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrewsarch
us_mongoliensis
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "Andrewsarchus
mongoliensis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrewsarch
us_mongoliensis {60 MYBN}
 
[1] Description English: Original
description in the English Wikipedia:
''Andrewsarchus, autor -
Bogdanov,2006.'' - Andrewsarchus
mongoliensis from the Late Eocene of
Central Asia was the largest member of
the Mesonychia, a extinct group of
carnivorous hoofed mammals. Deutsch:
Andrewsarchus mongoliensis aus dem
späten Eozän von Innerasien war der
größte Vertreter der Mesonychia, eine
Gruppe fleischfressender huftragender
Säugetiere. Русский:
Реконструкция
эндрьюсарха Date 3
June 2007 (Upload date in the English
Wikipedia) Source English
Wikipedia Author w:en:User:DiBgd
(Богданов) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Andrewsarchus_DB.jpg

[2] Description Size comparison
of several giant terrestrial predators
from various periods of geologic time.
Each grid segment = 1 square
meter. Date 17 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Dinoguy2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Giantpredatorsscale1.
png
60,000,000 YBN
3 4 5 		808) The ancestors of pigs splits from
the line that leads to the Ruminants
(cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, bison,
buffalo, deer, wildebeast, antelope),
hippos, dolphins, and whales.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
5. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] "Ruminants". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruminants
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

59,000,000 YBN
8 9 		496) Afrotheres: Hyraxes.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
3. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). {59 MYBN}
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
Africa7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description English:
Yellow-spotted Hyrax (Heterohyrax
brucei), Serengeti NP, Tanzania Date
1 July 2009 Source Own
work Author D. Gordon E.
Robertson Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Yellow-spotted_Rock_H
yrax.jpg
59,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 		497) Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong.13
14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
12. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
14. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
15. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {59 MYBN}
17. ^ Mark
S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
18. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
58,000,000 YBN
10 11 		511) Rodents: Dormice, Mountain Beaver,
Squirrels and Marmots {moRmuTS8 }.9
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {58 MYBN}
11. ^
Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
58,000,000 YBN
11 		524) Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ9 }.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Tarsier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsier
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.

[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
57,000,000 YBN
4 		433) Earliest hooved mammal fossil.2
Ea
rliest hooved mammal fossil.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {57 MYBN}
  
55,800,000 YBN
7 8 		588) Widespread appearance of
primates.5

Cantius and Teilhardina are the
earliest euprimates in North America,
followed quickly by Steinius and
others. Cantius and Teilhardina also
appear in Europe with Donrussellia.6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002
2. ^ "The Origin of
Primates", Walter Carl Hartwig 2002
3. ^
"The Origin of Primates", Walter Carl
Hartwig 2002
4. ^ "The Origin of Primates",
Walter Carl Hartwig 2002
5. ^ "The Origin of
Primates", Walter Carl Hartwig 2002
6. ^
"The Origin of Primates", Walter Carl
Hartwig 2002
7. ^ USGS, "Divisions of
Geologic Time— Major
Chronostratigraphic and Geochronologic
Units", March
2007. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3015
/fs2007-3015.pdf
8. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002 (=56my)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm
 
[1] Smilodectes (lemur-like family
Adapidae from the Eocene Epoch)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyp
rimates/first_primates.htm
55,000,000 YBN
13 		435) Rhinoceros-like Placental mammals
Uintatherium {YUiNTutEREuM10 } are the
largest land animals at this time.11 12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/Uinta?s=
t
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p380
4. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/Uinta?s=
t
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p380
7. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/Uinta?s=
t
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p380
10. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/Uinta?s=
t
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
12. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p380
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer et al, Primitive
Life", 2009, p380
 
[1] Description Uintatherium Date
1890s Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/prehistoriclifeafterkt/uertatherium0
1.html Author Charles R. Knight PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Uintatherium_C_R_Knig
ht.jpg

[2] Description Uintatherium
mirabile, AMNH. Date Pre-923. Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/bones/display_osborn_uintatherium.ht
m Author Osborn. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Uintatherium.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
5 		436) Horses. Earliest fossil horse,
Hyractotherium, about the size of a
dog).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {55 MYBN}
 
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg

[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
55,000,000 YBN
3 4 		512)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {55 MYBN}
4. ^ Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). {55
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] The picture shows a Gundi
Ctenodactylus The image is a variant
of Image:Gundi Ctenodactylus gundi
051117.jpg by user de:Benutzer:BS
Thurner Hof. He tagged the image as
PD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Gundi_Ctenodactylus_g
undi_051117_2.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		809) Last common ancestor of Ruminants
with Hippos, Dolphins and Whales.3 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {55 MYBN}
6. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
7. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

54,970,000 YBN
7 		434) Earliest primate skull.3

From the Hunan Province, China. Other
fossils from the same genus are found
in Europe.4
The earliest euprimates can
be distinguished as Cantius,
Donrussellia and Teilhardina.5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Nature v427, n6969, January 1,
2004 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v427/n6969/full/nature02126.html
2. ^ Nature v427, n6969, January 1,
2004 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v427/n6969/full/nature02126.html
3. ^ Nature v427, n6969, January 1,
2004 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v427/n6969/full/nature02126.html
4. ^ Nature v427, n6969, January 1,
2004 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v427/n6969/full/nature02126.html
5. ^ Nature v427, n6969, January 1,
2004 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v427/n6969/full/nature02126.html
6. ^ Nature v427, n6969, January 1,
2004 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v427/n6969/full/nature02126.html
7. ^ Nature v427, n6969, January 1,
2004 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v427/n6969/full/nature02126.html
{54.97 MYBN}
Hunan Province, China6  
[1] Figure 3: Strict consensus of 33
equally parsimonious trees with the
optimization of activity patterns.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F3.h
tml

[2] FIGURE 1. The skull of Teilhardina
asiatica sp. nov. (IVPP V12357). a,
Dorsal view of the skull. b,
Reconstruction of the skull based on
IVPP V12357, with grey shadow
indicating the missing parts. Scale
bar, 5 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F1.h
tml
54,000,000 YBN
6 7 		810) Last common ancestor between
hippos with dolphins and whales.5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (=54) {54 MYBN}
7. ^
Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy,
Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=53) {53 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg


[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
53,500,000 YBN
9 10 11 		812) Earliest fossils of marine mammal
"Pakicetus".7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=50) {50 MYBN}
10. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=52) {52 MYBN}
11. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm (=53.5) {53.5 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg


[2] Illustration by Carl Buell, and
taken from
http://www.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/Pakice
tid.html This image is copyrighted.
The copyright holder allows anyone to
use it for any purpose, provided that
this statement is added to its caption:
''Illustration by Carl Buell, and taken
from
http://www.neoucom.edu/Depts/Anat/Pakice
tid.html ''
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pakicetus.jpg
52,500,000 YBN
9 		6179) Earliest bat fossils
(Icaronycteris3 and Onychonycteris4
).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Peter Wellnhofer, "The
illustrated encyclopedia of
pterosaurs", 1991, p182.
2. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/euth
eria/chirofr.html
3. ^ Jepsen, G.L.; MacPhee, R. D. E.
(1966). "Early Eocene bat from
Wyoming". Science 154 (3754):
1333–1339.
doi:10.1126/science.154.3754.1333. PMID
17770307. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/154/3754/1333
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720355

4. ^ Simmons, N. B., Seymour, K. L.,
Habersetzer, J. & Gunnell, G. F.
Primitive early Eocene bat from Wyoming
and the evolution of flight and
echolocation. Nature 451, 818–821
(2008)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
451/n7180/full/nature06549.html
5. ^ Peter Wellnhofer, "The illustrated
encyclopedia of pterosaurs", 1991,
p182.
6. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/euth
eria/chirofr.html
7. ^ Simmons, N. B., Seymour, K. L.,
Habersetzer, J. & Gunnell, G. F.
Primitive early Eocene bat from Wyoming
and the evolution of flight and
echolocation. Nature 451, 818–821
(2008)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
451/n7180/full/nature06549.html
8. ^ Jepsen, G.L.; MacPhee, R. D. E.
(1966). "Early Eocene bat from
Wyoming". Science 154 (3754):
1333–1339.
doi:10.1126/science.154.3754.1333. PMID
17770307. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/154/3754/1333
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720355

9. ^ Simmons, N. B., Seymour, K. L.,
Habersetzer, J. & Gunnell, G. F.
Primitive early Eocene bat from Wyoming
and the evolution of flight and
echolocation. Nature 451, 818–821
(2008)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
451/n7180/full/nature06549.html {52.5
MYBN}
(Green River Formation) Wyoming7 8
 
[1] a, Skeleton in dorsal view. b,
Skull in ventral view. c, Sternum in
ventral view. Scale bars, 1 cm. All
elements are preserved on a single slab
with the skeleton exposed on one side,
and the skull and sternum on the
reverse. The counter-part slab (ROM
55351B, not shown) preserves
impressions of parts of the dorsal
aspect of the skeleton. Features
labelled: 1, calcar; 2, cranial tip of
stylohyal; 3, orbicular apophysis of
malleus; 4, keel on manubrium of
sternum. Figure 1 from: Simmons, N.
B., Seymour, K. L., Habersetzer, J. &
Gunnell, G. F. Primitive early Eocene
bat from Wyoming and the evolution of
flight and echolocation. Nature 451,
818–821 (2008)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
451/n7180/full/nature06549.html COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v451/n7180/images/nature06549-f1.2.
jpg

[2] Figure from: Jepsen, G.L.;
MacPhee, R. D. E. (1966). ''Early
Eocene bat from Wyoming''. Science 154
(3754): 1333–1339.
doi:10.1126/science.154.3754.1333. PMID
17770307. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/154/3754/1333
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720355
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720
355
51,000,000 YBN
6 		513) Rodents: Old World Porcupines.5
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {51 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
50,000,000 YBN
6 		437) Elephants. Earliest elephant
fossil, an unnamed fossil from
Algeria.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {50 MYBN}
Algeria, Africa5   
50,000,000 YBN
8 		438) Himalayan mountains start to form
as India collides with Eurasia.5
This
will continue for millions of years.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {50 MYBN}
Himalyia Mountains, India7   
50,000,000 YBN
16 		518) Primates: Lorises {LORiSEZ13 },
Bushbabies, Pottos {PoTTOZ14 }.15
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "loris." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/loris
2. ^ "potto." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/potto
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
4. ^ "loris." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/loris
5. ^ "potto." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/potto
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
7. ^ "loris." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/loris
8. ^ "potto." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/potto
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
10. ^ "loris." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/loris
11. ^ "potto." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/potto
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
13. ^ "loris." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/loris
14. ^ "potto." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/potto
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
16. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn) {50 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[3] "Lorisidae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorisidae
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63mybn)
[7] Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (70 mybn) (=70mybn)
[8] Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70
mybn) (=70mybn)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
50,000,000 YBN
5 		816) Earliest Ambulocetus (an early
whale) fossil.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
2. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
3. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
4. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
5. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp (=40)
 
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg

[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
49,000,000 YBN
5 		439) The largest meat-eating land
animals of the Paleocene and Eocene
epochs were flightless birds, like
Diatryma from America, and Gastornis
from Europe.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Diatryma The extinct Eocene bird
Diatryma was up to nine feet high. It
is shown here chasing down an oreodont
artiodactyl. (after Spinar 1972, from
Price 1996) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Diatryma_giant_bird.gif

[2] Diatrymaby ~ministerart Digital
Art / 3-Dimensional Art / Characters /
Animals & Creatures ©2010-2012
~ministerart COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.deviantart.com/downlo
ad/154444542/Diatryma_by_ministerart.jpg

49,000,000 YBN
3 		472) Birds "Caprimulgiformes"
(nightjars, night hawks, potoos,
oilbirds).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {49 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description A wild Tawny
Frogmouth, Podargus strigoides, image
taken at night hence the black
background. Taken in south east
Australia Date Source Own
work Author Benjamint444 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Tawny_frogmouth_whole
body444.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
11 		474) Birds "Falconiformes"
{FaLKeNiFORmEZ9 } (falcons, hawks,
eagles, Old World vultures).10
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {49 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
3 		514)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {49 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description Petromus typicus,
''Noki'' Afrikaans: 'n Dassierot,
afgeneem by Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibië Deutsch: Eine Felsenratte,
aufgenommen in Twyfelfontein, Kunene,
Namibia English: A Dassie Rat, image
taken at Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibia Date 17 August
2010 Source Namibnat,
Flickr Author Vernon
Swanepoel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Petromus_typicus.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
14 		515) Rodents: New World porcupines,
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ11 },
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ12 }.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "agouti." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agouti
6. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ "agouti." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agouti
9. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ "agouti." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agouti
12. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {49 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg

46,000,000 YBN
3 		817) Earliest Rodhocetus fossil (early
whale).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
2. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
3. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp (=40)
 
[1] Painting of Rodhocetus here is by
John Klausmeyer, University of Michigan
Exhibit Museum. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.paleontology.lsa.umic
h.edu/images/Rodhocetus.gif

[2] Description Rodhocetus. Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB (e-mail) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Rodhocetus.jpg
45,000,000 YBN
9 		519) Primate: Aye-aye {I-I7 }.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "aye-aye." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aye-aye
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
3. ^ "aye-aye." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aye-aye
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
5. ^ "aye-aye." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aye-aye
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
7. ^ "aye-aye." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aye-aye
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn) {45 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[3] "Aye-aye". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aye-aye
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63 mybn)
[7] Mark
S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (70 mybn) (=70 mybn)
[8] Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70
mybn) (=70 mybn)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description Aye-aye
(Daubentonia madagascariensis) Date
9 May 2003 Source Own
work Author Tom Junek CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Aye-aye_%28Daubentoni
a_madagascariensis%29.jpg
40,000,000 YBN
6 		440) In Europe the Alpine mountains
start to form.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {40 MYBN}
Alpine mountains5  
[1] Screenshot from Worldwind
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Alps_from_space.png
40,000,000 YBN
2 		441)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {40 MYBN}
  
40,000,000 YBN
15 		525) Ancestor of all Primates "New
World Monkeys" (Sakis, Spider, Howler
and Squirrel monkeys, Capuchins {KaP YU
CiNZ11 }, Tamarins).12

The ancestor of all New World monkeys
probably originates in Africa, but all
surviving descendants now live in the
Americas, which suggests that a small
group of New World monkeys got across
the early Atlantic Ocean to South
America, perhaps by rafting on fallen
trees over a chain of islands.13
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ "capuchin." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ "capuchin." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p147
(guess is in Africa).
15. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {40
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
Africa14  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
40,000,000 YBN
3 		815) Earliest Basilosaurus fossil
(early whale).2
Basilosaurus was
renamed "Zeuglodon" by Richard Owen
because it is a mammal not a reptile
(saurus=lizard).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
2. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
3. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp (=40)

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
 
[1] Balisaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/prehisto
ricearth/images/4/4e/Basilosaurus.jpg

[2] Balisaurus COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/sea
monsters/factfiles/images/basilosaurus_c
loseup.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
5 		442) Oldest fossil of dog, similar to a
weasel, Hesperocyon.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {37 MYBN}
 
[1] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg

[2] Description Life restoration
of Hesperocyon (Cynodictis) gregarius
from W.B. Scott's A History of Land
Mammals in the Western Hemisphere. New
York: The Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce
Horsfall Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Cynodictis.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
11 		471) Birds "Apodiformes"
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ9 } (hummingbirds,
swifts).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
37,000,000 YBN
2 		473)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Speckled
Mousebird, Colius striatus, Sweetwaters
Game Reserve, Kenya Date 24 June
2007 Source Own work Author
JerryFriedman GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Colius_striatus1.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
11 		475) Birds: Cuculiformes {KUKUliFORmEZ9
} evolve (cuckoos, roadrunners).10
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
11 		476) Birds "Piciformes" {PESiFORmEZ9 }
(woodpeckers, toucans).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
35,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		811) Last common ancestor of dolphins
and whales.6

(Toothed and Baleen split.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and WHy It Matters",
2007, p298.
9. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/palaeofiles
/whales/archaeoceti.htm
10. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=~53)

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[2] Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004)
 
[1] The relations of early whales
(archaeocetes) to artiodactyls and the
two extant groups, odontoceti and
mysticeti. Tree by Felix G. Marx,
University of Bristol. Images of
cetacenas adapted from National
Geographic's The evolution of whales by
Douglas H. Chadwick, Shawn Gould and
Robert Clark Re-illustrated for public
access distribution by Sharon Mooney
©2006. Open source licence CC ASA
2.5 CC
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/pal
aeofiles/whales/pictures/clad.jpg

[2] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p298.
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p298.
34,000,000 YBN
2 		813)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (=34) {34 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

34,000,000 YBN
17 18 		814) Earliest Baleen {BulEN13 } whale
fossils, Janjucetus and Llanocetus.14
15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/baleen?s
=t
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Erich M.G Fitzgerald, "A
bizarre new toothed mysticete (Cetacea)
from Australia and the early evolution
of baleen whales", Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
2006 Dec 7;
273(1604)2955-2963. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1639514/
4. ^ Mitchell E.D. A new cetacean from
the Late Eocene La Meseta Formation,
Seymour Island, Antarctic Peninsula.
Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci.
1989;46:2219–2235. http://www.nrcrese
archpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/f89-273
5. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/baleen?s
=t
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Erich M.G Fitzgerald, "A
bizarre new toothed mysticete (Cetacea)
from Australia and the early evolution
of baleen whales", Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
2006 Dec 7;
273(1604)2955-2963. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1639514/
8. ^ Mitchell E.D. A new cetacean from
the Late Eocene La Meseta Formation,
Seymour Island, Antarctic Peninsula.
Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci.
1989;46:2219–2235. http://www.nrcrese
archpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/f89-273
9. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/baleen?s
=t
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Erich M.G Fitzgerald, "A
bizarre new toothed mysticete (Cetacea)
from Australia and the early evolution
of baleen whales", Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
2006 Dec 7;
273(1604)2955-2963. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1639514/
12. ^ Mitchell E.D. A new cetacean from
the Late Eocene La Meseta Formation,
Seymour Island, Antarctic Peninsula.
Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci.
1989;46:2219–2235. http://www.nrcrese
archpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/f89-273
13. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/baleen?s
=t
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Erich M.G Fitzgerald, "A
bizarre new toothed mysticete (Cetacea)
from Australia and the early evolution
of baleen whales", Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
2006 Dec 7;
273(1604)2955-2963. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1639514/
16. ^ Mitchell E.D. A new cetacean from
the Late Eocene La Meseta Formation,
Seymour Island, Antarctic Peninsula.
Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci.
1989;46:2219–2235. http://www.nrcrese
archpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/f89-273
17. ^ Erich M.G Fitzgerald, "A bizarre
new toothed mysticete (Cetacea) from
Australia and the early evolution of
baleen whales", Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
2006 Dec 7;
273(1604)2955-2963. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1639514/
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=34)
 
[1] Llanocetus denticrenatus UNKNOWN
source: http://ocean.si.edu/sites/defaul
t/files/WhaleEv_04llanocetus.png?1259868
752

[2] Description Frontal view from
below of the skull of a Llanocetus
denticrenatus in the Sant Hall of
Oceans in the Smithsonian Museum of
Natural History in Washington, D.C. The
name is a tribute to Dr. George Llanos,
and is combined with the Latin name for
whale (''cetus''). ''Denticrenatus''
means ''small-toothed.'' It is an
intermediate form between toothed and
baleen whales. Llanocetus
denticrenatus is the oldest known
mysticete (or baleen whale). It was
discovered in the La Meseta Formation
on Seymour Island in Antarctica in
1989. Only the skull has been unearthed
so far; the skeleton has yet to be
fully unearthed and described. It
probably lived 34 to 35 million years
ago in colder seas near the Antarctic.
It had tiny peg-like teeth which jutted
out in a fan-like spread from a larger
tooth (which was covered over by the
gums). From these teeth grew primitive
baleen (stuff like your fingernails are
made of). These baleen-growing teeth
were very widely separated within the
jaw. The skull is long and narrow,
somewhat looking like a dolphin's. The
upper jaw is exceptionally slender
(more so than the lower jaw), and the
lower jaw is exceptionally wide at the
rear. It's not entirely clear what the
body looked like, but it probably
looked like a minke whale. It was about
30 feet long (9 m). Date 7 January
2012, 13:02 Source Llanocetus
denticrinatus skull 01 -
Smithsonian Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tim from
Washington, D.C., USA, United States of
America CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Llanocetus_dent
icrinatus.jpg/1280px-Llanocetus_denticri
natus.jpg
33,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 8 		560) Primates Aegyptopithecus evolves
in East Africa.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). c34-c32 mybn
(c34-c32 mybn)
7. ^
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/apes
/aegyptopithecus/ (34 mybn)
8. ^
"Aegyptopithecus (35-33 mybn)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptopith
ecus (35-33 mybn) (35-33mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] i draw it on macromedia flash 26
oct 2005 Mateus Zica 14:30, 26 October
2005 (UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AegpPte.png
30,000,000 YBN
6 		443) The largest land mammal ever
known, the hornless Rhinoceros,
Paraceratherium lives at this time.4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p408-409.
2. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p408-409.
3. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p408-409.
4. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p408-409.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {30 MYBN}
India5  
[1] Description Skelton of
Indricotherium transouralicum
in National Science Museum,
Tokyo. Date 8 November
2006 Source Photo by
CooZone Author CooZone GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Indricotherium_skelto
n.jpg

[2] Description
Paraceratherium The
Paraceratherium (jr synonym=
Baluchitherium) was an early rhinoceros
which lived in Asia about 20 to 30
million years ago during the late
Oligocene (24 to 38 million years ago
)and early Miocene (5 to 24 million
years ago) Date All images on the
site are at least PD-US.[1] Source
http://www.50birds.com/extan/gextan
imals1.htm Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Paraceratherium_size.
jpg
30,000,000 YBN
6 		520) Primates: True Lemurs.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
4. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn)
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
6. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn) {30 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[3] "Lemuridae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuridae
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63 mybn)
[7] Mark
S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (70 mybn) (=70 mybn)
[8] Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70
mybn) (=70 mybn)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
28,000,000 YBN
19 		477) Birds "Passeriformes"
{PaSRiFORmEZ15 } (perching songbirds)
evolve. This order includes many common
birds: crows, jays, sparrows, warblers,
mockingbirds, robins, orioles,
bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ16 }, larks,
finches.17

More than half of all species of bird
are passerines. Sometimes known as
perching birds or, less accurately, as
songbirds, the passerines are one of
the most spectacularly successful
vertebrate orders: with around 5,400
species, they are roughly twice as
diverse as the largest of the mammal
orders, the Rodentia.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
3. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
4. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
5. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
6. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
7. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
8. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
9. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
10. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
11. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
12. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
13. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
14. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
15. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
16. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
17. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
18. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
19. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
27,000,000 YBN
3 		521)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) {27 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[3] "Lemuridae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuridae
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] "Indriidae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indriidae
[7] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63mybn)
[8] Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (70 mybn) (=70 mybn)
[9] Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70
mybn) (=70 mybn)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Indri
(Indri indri) in Madagascar Date
18 May 2009 Source
email Author Erik Patel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Indri_indri_001.jpg
25,000,000 YBN
444) Earliest cat fossil,
"Proailurus".4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
25,000,000 YBN
2 		522)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {25 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[5] "Lemuridae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuridae
[6] "Lepilemuridae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepilemurid
ae
[7] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[8] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description Zwerg-Mausmaki
(Microcebus myoxinus) Date
2008.02.10. Source Deutsch
wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Microz
eb.jpg Author
User:Bikeadventure PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Microcebus_myoxinus.j
pg
25,000,000 YBN
17 		531) Ancestor of all Primates "Old
World Monkeys" (Macaques, Baboons,
Mandrills, Proboscis and Colobus
{KoLiBeS11 } monkeys).12

This is also the last common ancestor
of the Old World monkeys and the
hominoids, the superfamily Hominoidea,
which includes apes and humans.13 14

There are around 100 species of Old
World Monkey.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colobus monkey." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "hominoid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hominoid
10. ^ Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd R
Disotell. “Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa.” Current Biology 8.16
(1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
11. ^ "colobus monkey." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ "hominoid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hominoid
14. ^ Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd R
Disotell. “Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa.” Current Biology 8.16
(1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
17. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {25
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) . see image
[4]
"Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
(perhaps around Lake Victoria) Africa16
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
24,000,000 YBN
8 		662) The ancestor of all Hominoids
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.6


This may be a genetic mutation or
because a tail might be an obstacle for
species like gibbons that swing from
branch to branch as opposed to more
ancient primates that leap from
branches.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (based on Aegyptopithecus=22my)
{24 MYBN (based on
Aegyptopithecus=22my}
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
23,000,000 YBN
7 		478) Monotreme: Echidna.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ "monotreme." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea6
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
23,000,000 YBN
7 		479) Monotreme: Duck-Billed Platypus.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ "platypus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/platypus
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia and Tasmania6  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source

Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
22,000,000 YBN
7 		526) New World Monkeys: Sakis, Uakaris
{WoKoREZ4 }, and Titis {TETEZ5 }.6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.merriam-webster.com/cgi-bin/a
udio.pl?uakar01v.wav=uakari
2. ^ "titi." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/titi
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://www.merriam-webster.com/cgi-bin/a
udio.pl?uakar01v.wav=uakari
5. ^ "titi." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/titi
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {22
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Pitheciidae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitheciidae

[5] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[6] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description White-faced Saki
(Pithecia pithecia) at the Oregon
Zoo Date 8-6-2006 Source This
file is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author
User:Cacophony GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/WhiteFacedSaki.jpg
22,000,000 YBN
3 		527) New World Monkeys: Howler, Spider
and Woolly monkeys.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {22
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
[6] "Atelidae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atelidae
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description these guys (well,
guy and lady friend) are unbelievably
loud. of course with a name like howler
monkey you'd have to be :) Date
16 June 2007, 08:29 Source
howler monkees doing their
thing Author Steve from
washington, dc, usa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Howler_monkey.jpg
22,000,000 YBN
2 		528) New World Monkeys: Capuchin
{KaPYUCiN3 } and Squirrel monkeys.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {22 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
[6] "Cebidae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebidae
Americas1  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description Cebus apella
group. Capuchin Monkeys Sharing Date
Published: December 22,
2003 Source Powell K: Economy of
the Mind. PLoS Biol 1/3/2003: e77.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
000077 Author (Photo courtesy of
Frans de Waal.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Cebus_capucinus.png
22,000,000 YBN
12 13 		558) Afropithecus evolves in Africa.6 7
8 9 10

This tree-dwelling ape had some
anatomical features in common with the
better-known Proconsul, and it also
seems to have been closely related to
Sivapithecus as well.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leakey RE, Leakey MG, Walker AC
(July 1988). "Morphology of
Afropithecus turkanensis from Kenya".
Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 76 (3):
289–307. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330760303.
PMID 3137824.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "Afropithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afropithecu
s
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
6. ^ Leakey RE, Leakey MG,
Walker AC (July 1988). "Morphology of
Afropithecus turkanensis from Kenya".
Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 76 (3):
289–307. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330760303.
PMID 3137824.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ "Afropithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afropithecu
s
9. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
10. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
11. ^
http://dinosaurs.about.com/od/mesozoicma
mmals/p/Afropithecus.htm
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). (c22-c17mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Afropithecus turkanensis cranium,
KNM-WK 16999 (type specimen) a:
Occlusal aspect b: Superior aspect c:''
Right lateral aspect d: Frontal aspect
e: Detail of glabella and frontal
region taken at right
angles. COPYRIGHTED
source: afropithecus.pdf
22,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		559) Hominoid Proconsul evolves in East
Africa.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
9. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). (c22-c16mybn)
11. ^
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/apes
/proconsul/ 22-10 mybn (22-10 mybn)
12. ^
"Proconsul (genus) 27-17 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_%
28genus%29 27-17 mybn (27-17mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
21,000,000 YBN
3 		529) New World Monkeys: Night (or Owl)
monkeys.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
[6] "Aotidae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aotidae
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description A Night Monkey
(Aotus lemurinus zonalis) in
Panama Date 18 March 2005,
12:00 Source night monkey Author
dsasso CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Panamanian_night_monk
ey.jpg
21,000,000 YBN
7 		530) New World Monkeys: Tamarins
{TaMariNZ4 } and Marmosets {moRmoSeTS5
}.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tamarin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tamarin
2. ^ "marmoset." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marmoset
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "tamarin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tamarin
5. ^ "marmoset." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marmoset
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {21 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
[5] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[6] "Callitrichinae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callitrichi
nae
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description Emperor
Tamarin(Saguinus imperator) is a
tamarin allegedly named for its
similarity with the William II, German
Emperor.The name was first intended as
a joke, but has become the official
scientific name. This tamarin lives in
the southwest Amazon Basin, in east
Peru, north Bolivia and in the west
Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas.
The males and females Emperor
Tamarinlook alike. Males are the ones,
who are carrying babies on their backs.
The image is of female Emperor Tamarin.
The image was taken in San Francisco
Zoo. Date 2007 Source Own
work Author Mila Zinkova, edited
by Fir0002, edited by Mbz1 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Tamarin_portrait_2_ed
it3.jpg
21,000,000 YBN
9 10 		556) Hominoid Kenyapithecus evolves in
Africa.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "Kenyapithecus wickeri".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyapithec
us_wickeri
3. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ "Kenyapithecus
wickeri". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyapithec
us_wickeri
7. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
8. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Caro-Beth
Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
(c21-c11mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Ape Evolution Branching
Diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ablongman.com/html/an
thro/phys/databank/fig5.24.html
20,000,000 YBN
6 7 		549) The ancestor of all Homonids may
move (over land) from Africa into
Eurasia.3 4

An alternative theory has this ancestor
in Africa, with a large number of
Africa to Eurasia migrations by later
species.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {20MYBN}
7. ^ Caro-Beth
Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
{20MYBN}
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
18,000,000 YBN
14 		537) Primates: Gibbons.9 10
Gibbons are
very sexual, and polygamous.11
There
are 12 species of Gibbons.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {18
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
[5] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[6] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[7] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
South-East Asia13  
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
16,000,000 YBN
5 6 		555) Hominoid Oreopithecus.1 2 3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "Oreopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oreopithecu
s
3. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). c16-c7mybn
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). c16-c7mybn
(c16-c7mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Oreopithecus bambolii COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re
cent_apes_504.htm
15,000,000 YBN
7 8 		553) Lufengpithecus evolves in China.1
2 3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=103341&tree=0.1
3. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). (c15-9 mybn)
5. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). (c15-9 mybn)
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=103341&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). (c15-9 mybn)
(c15-9mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Lufengpithecus Skull The
original Lufengpithecus relic was
thought to be a variant of Sivapithecus
but was later classified on its own.
This fossil is described as having a
'characteristically broad, low face and
large interorbital distance.' However
the last feature in particular makes me
wonder about the reconstruction of the
skull. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lamma.net/lufeng.htm
14,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 		542) Earliest extant Hominid:
Orangutans.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Begun, "African and
Eurasian Miocene hominoids and the
origins of the Hominidae", in Louis de
Bonis, George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {14 MYBN}
13. ^ Chan Y-C,
Roos C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih
C-C, et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419
14. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
15. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P.
Douzery, Patterns of macroevolution
among Primates inferred from a
supermatrix of mitochondrial and
nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution, Volume 53, Issue 3,
December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN
1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
South-East Asia11  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
13,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 12 		551) Dryopithecus evolves in Eurasia.1
2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). c13-10 mybn)
3. ^ M. J.
Benton, "The Fossil Record 2", (London;
New York: Chapman & Hall, 1993).
23.3-16.3 mybn
4. ^ M. J. Benton, "The
Fossil Record 2", M. J. Benton,
University of Bristol, (1993).
23.3-16.3 mybn
5. ^ "Dryopithecus 12-9
mybn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryopithecu
s 12-9 mybn
6. ^
http://www.primates.com/history/ 13
mybn
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). c13-10 mybn) (c13-10
mybn)
9. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). 23.3-16.3 mybn (23.3-16.3 mybn)
10. ^
M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record 2", M.
J. Benton, University of Bristol,
(1993). 23.3-16.3 mybn (23.3-16.3 mybn)
11. ^
"Dryopithecus 12-9 mybn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryopithecu
s 12-9 mybn (12-9mybn)
12. ^
http://www.primates.com/history/ 13
mybn (13 mybn)
 
[1] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus
stage 1 reconstruction COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art
icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE
DF&seq_no=1

[2] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus
final reconstruction COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art
icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE
DF&seq_no=3
12,500,000 YBN
4 5 6 		552) Hominoid Sivapithecus, possible
ancestor of modern orangutan.1 The
animal was about the size of a
chimpanzee but had the facial
morphology of an orangutan; it ate soft
fruit (detected in the toothwear
pattern) and was probably mainly
arboreal. 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
c13-6 mybn (c13-6mybn)
Petwar platein, Pakistan and India3
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Image #506 - Sivapithecus
indicus COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re
cent_apes_506.htm
10,500,000 YBN
4 		538) Gibbons: Crested Gibbons.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {10.5 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
[5] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[6] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

South-East Asia3  
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Photo of a
male White Cheeked Gibbon, holding a
child, taken at the Toledo Zoo. Date
24 September 2008 (15 March 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Albval
using CommonsHelper. (Original text :
I created this work entirely by
myself.) Author Ruby 1x2 (talk).
Original uploader was Ruby 1x2 at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/White_Cheeked_Gibbon_
Male.jpg
10,000,000 YBN
6 		533) Old World Monkeys: Colobus
{KoLiBeS3 } monkeys.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colobus monkey." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {10
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Colobinae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobinae
[5] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[6] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
Africa5  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
10,000,000 YBN
6 		534) Old World Monkeys: Langurs
{LoNGURZ3 } and Proboscis monkeys.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "langur." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/langur
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "langur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/langur
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {10
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
[6] "Colobinae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobinae
Asia5  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: A dominant
male proboscis monkey at the Singapore
Zoo, one of few places where captive
animals of this species seem to
thrive. Date 9 November
2008 Source Own work by uploader,
http://bjornfree.com/galleries.html Aut
hor Bjørn Christian
Tørrissen Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Portrait_of_a_Probosc
is_Monkey.jpg
10,000,000 YBN
5 		535) Old World Monkeys: Guenons
{GenONZ3 }.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "guenon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guenon
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "guenon." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guenon
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
[6] "Cercopithecinae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercopithec
inae
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Phylum: Chordata - Class: Mammalia
- Order: Primates - Family:
Cercopithecidae - Species:Cercopithecus
neglectus Description (De
Brazza's Monkey) taken at the Los
Angeles Zoo Date Source from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/Anima
ls/guenon Author By Aaron
Logan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Lightmatter_guenon.jp
g
10,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 		543) Hominids: Gorillas evolve in
Africa.8

The earliest possible Gorilla fossils,
are some teeth found in Ethiopia and
date to around 10 million years old9 10
 and a jaw from Kenya that is around
9.8 million years old11 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Suwa, Gen et al. "A New Species of
Great Ape from the Late Miocene Epoch
in Ethiopia." Nature 448.7156 (2007):
921–924. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v448/n7156/full/nature06113.htm
l
6. ^ Michael Kahn, "Researchers find
fossils of 10-million-year old ape",
Reuters,
08/22/2007. http://www.reuters.com/arti
cle/2007/08/22/us-apes-fossil-idUSL22633
91820070822
7. ^ Kunimatsu, Yutaka et al. "A New
Late Miocene Great Ape from Kenya and
Its Implications for the Origins of
African Great Apes and Humans."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19220 –19225.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
49/19220.abstract
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Suwa, Gen et al. "A New
Species of Great Ape from the Late
Miocene Epoch in Ethiopia." Nature
448.7156 (2007):
921–924. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v448/n7156/full/nature06113.htm
l
10. ^ Michael Kahn, "Researchers find
fossils of 10-million-year old ape",
Reuters,
08/22/2007. http://www.reuters.com/arti
cle/2007/08/22/us-apes-fossil-idUSL22633
91820070822
11. ^ Kunimatsu, Yutaka et al. "A New
Late Miocene Great Ape from Kenya and
Its Implications for the Origins of
African Great Apes and Humans."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19220 –19225.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
49/19220.abstract
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A.
Rodrigues, E.J.P. Douzery, Patterns of
macroevolution among Primates inferred
from a supermatrix of mitochondrial and
nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution, Volume 53, Issue 3,
December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN
1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)
14. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
15. ^ Suwa, Gen et al. "A New Species
of Great Ape from the Late Miocene
Epoch in Ethiopia." Nature 448.7156
(2007):
921–924. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v448/n7156/full/nature06113.htm
l
16. ^ Kunimatsu, Yutaka et al. "A New
Late Miocene Great Ape from Kenya and
Its Implications for the Origins of
African Great Apes and Humans."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19220 –19225.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
49/19220.abstract
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {7 MYBN}
18. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos
C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C,
et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Gorilla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
[4] Prothero, "Bring Fossils To Life",
Second Edition, 2004, p34
Africa12  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
9,000,000 YBN
6 7 		550) The ancestor of all Gorillas,
Chimpanzees, and archaic humans may
move over land from Eurasia back into
Africa.3 4

Alternatively, this ancestor could have
evolved in Africa if many earlier
ancestors frequently migrated to
Eurasia.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {9 MYBN}
7. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). {9 MYBN}
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
7,750,000 YBN
6 		539) Gibbons: Siamangs {SEumANGZ3 }.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "siamang." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/siamang
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "siamang." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/siamang
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {7.75
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Symphalangus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphalangu
s
[5] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[6] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
South-East Asia5  
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description shout Date
28 January 2007 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/suneko
/373310729/ Author suneko CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Suneko_-_shout_%28by%
29.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
6 		540) Gibbons: Hylobates {HIlOBATEZ3 }.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=hy
lobates&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=hy
lobates&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {6
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[5] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[6] "Hylobates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylobates
South-East Asia5  
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
6 		541) Gibbons: Hoolocks {HUleKS3 }.4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition
/hoolock
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition
/hoolock
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {6
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[5] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[6] "Hoolock". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoolock
South-East Asia5  
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Ulluk, or
Hoolock gibbon, from Shrimangal,
Sylhet, Bangladesh. Date 19 June
2007 Source Bhaskar
Chowdhury Author Bhaskar
Chowdhury CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Ulluk-2.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
14 15 		544) Chimpanzees evolve. Last common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.11
12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 6mybn
2. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
4. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
6. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
8. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
10. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
12. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
13. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). 6mybn (6mybn) {6 MYBN}
15. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4) (8mybn) {8 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Africa13  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
6,000,000 YBN
4 		565) Hominid fossils "Toumai"
(Sahelanthropus), from Chad, central
Africa1
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe:
Hominini
Subtribe: Hominina
Genus: Sahelanthropus
(Brunet et al, 2002)
Species: S. tchadensis
(Brunet et al, 2002) 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brunet, Guy, Pilbeam, Mackaye,
Likius, Djimdoumalbaye, Beauvilain,
Blondel, Bocherens, Boisserie, De
Bonis, Coppens, Dejax, Denys, Duringer,
Eisenmann, Gongdibé, Fronty, Geraads,
Lehmann, Lihoreau, Louchart, Adoum,
Merceron, Mouchelin, Otero, Pelaez
Campomanes, Ponce De Leon, Rage,
Sapanet, Schuster, Sudre, Tassy,
Valentin, Vignaud, Viriot, Zazzo &
Zollikofer, 2002. A new hominid from
the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central
Africa, Nature, 418 (6894):
145-151. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v418/n6894/pdf/nature00879.pdf
2. ^ "Toumai". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toumai
3. ^ Brunet, Guy, Pilbeam, Mackaye,
Likius, Djimdoumalbaye, Beauvilain,
Blondel, Bocherens, Boisserie, De
Bonis, Coppens, Dejax, Denys, Duringer,
Eisenmann, Gongdibé, Fronty, Geraads,
Lehmann, Lihoreau, Louchart, Adoum,
Merceron, Mouchelin, Otero, Pelaez
Campomanes, Ponce De Leon, Rage,
Sapanet, Schuster, Sudre, Tassy,
Valentin, Vignaud, Viriot, Zazzo &
Zollikofer, 2002. A new hominid from
the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central
Africa, Nature, 418 (6894):
145-151. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v418/n6894/pdf/nature00879.pdf
4. ^ Brunet, Guy, Pilbeam, Mackaye,
Likius, Djimdoumalbaye, Beauvilain,
Blondel, Bocherens, Boisserie, De
Bonis, Coppens, Dejax, Denys, Duringer,
Eisenmann, Gongdibé, Fronty, Geraads,
Lehmann, Lihoreau, Louchart, Adoum,
Merceron, Mouchelin, Otero, Pelaez
Campomanes, Ponce De Leon, Rage,
Sapanet, Schuster, Sudre, Tassy,
Valentin, Vignaud, Viriot, Zazzo &
Zollikofer, 2002. A new hominid from
the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central
Africa, Nature, 418 (6894):
145-151. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v418/n6894/pdf/nature00879.pdf

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v418/n6894/full/
418133a_fs.html
[2]
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v418/n6894/full/
nature00879_fs.html
[3] "Toumai". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toumai (=6
to 7 mybn)
[4]
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (=7
mybn)
Chad, Central Africa3  
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html

[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
6,000,000 YBN
4 		566) Hominid fossils "Orrorin" in
Kenya, east Africa.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/1055105.stm
2. ^ Senut, Brigitte; Pickford, Martin;
Gommery, Dominique; Mein, Pierre;
Cheboi, Kiptalam; Coppens, Yves (2001).
"First hominid from the Miocene
(Lukeino Formation, Kenya)". Comptes
Rendus de l'Académie de Sciences 332
(2): 137–144. Bibcode
2001CRASE.332..137S.
doi:10.1016/S1251-8050(01)01529-4.
3. ^ Senut, Brigitte; Pickford, Martin;
Gommery, Dominique; Mein, Pierre;
Cheboi, Kiptalam; Coppens, Yves (2001).
"First hominid from the Miocene
(Lukeino Formation, Kenya)". Comptes
Rendus de l'Académie de Sciences 332
(2): 137–144. Bibcode
2001CRASE.332..137S.
doi:10.1016/S1251-8050(01)01529-4.
4. ^ Senut, Brigitte; Pickford, Martin;
Gommery, Dominique; Mein, Pierre;
Cheboi, Kiptalam; Coppens, Yves (2001).
"First hominid from the Miocene
(Lukeino Formation, Kenya)". Comptes
Rendus de l'Académie de Sciences 332
(2): 137–144. Bibcode
2001CRASE.332..137S.
doi:10.1016/S1251-8050(01)01529-4.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
0/n6828/full/410526a0.html
[2] "Orrorin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrorin
(=6.1 to 5.8 mybn)
Lukeino Formation, Kenya3  
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html

[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
6,000,000 YBN
3 		1490)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/6262740.stm
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/6262740.stm
3. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/6262740.stm (6mya)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070703/ap_o
n_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0FnwfN7LIRX
nKg7VfMWM0F
[2] Sankar Chatterjee, R. Jack Templin,
and Kenneth E. Campbell, Jr. The
aerodynamics of Argentavis, the world's
largest flying bird from the Miocene of
Argentina PNAS published July 3, 2007,
10.1073/pnas.0702040104
argentavis_0702040104v1.pdf
Argentina2  
[1] Argentavis magnificens COPYRIGHTED

source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/6262740.stm#map

[2] This handout illustration recieved
courtesy of Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (PNAS) shows
Argentavis magnificens, the world's
largest known flying bird with a
wingspan of 7 meters, (7.6 yds) about
the size of a Cessna 152 aircraft,
soaring across the Miocene skies of the
Argentinean Pampas six million years
ago. Like today’s condors,
Argentavis was a lazy glider that
relied either on updrafts, in the rocky
Andes, or thermals, on the grassy
pampas, to provide lifting
power.(AFP/PNAS-HO/Jeff
Martz) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070
703/ap_on_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0Fn
wfN7LIRXnKg7VfMWM0F
5,000,000 YBN
21 22 		554) Hominid Gigantopithecus
{JIGaNTOPitiKuS16 } evolves in China.17
18 19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigant
opithecus&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Gigantopithecus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p111,117.
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
c15-c9 mybn
5. ^ "Gigantopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigant
opithecus&submit=Submit
7. ^ "Gigantopithecus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p111,117.
9. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
c15-c9 mybn
10. ^ "Gigantopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigant
opithecus&submit=Submit
12. ^ "Gigantopithecus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p111,117.
14. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
c15-c9 mybn
15. ^ "Gigantopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigant
opithecus&submit=Submit
17. ^ "Gigantopithecus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p111,117.
19. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
c15-c9 mybn
20. ^ "Gigantopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopith
ecus
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). c15-c9 mybn
(c15-c9mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/apes
/gigantopithecus/
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Bill Munns stands next to his
model of a Gigantopithecus male, a
quadrupedal, fist-walking creature that
also could have stood erect, as bears
do. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/gi
ganto.html
4,400,000 YBN
54 55 		546) Hominid: Ardipithecus.41 42 43 44
45 46 Earliest bipedal primate.47

Some theories to explain why bipedalism
evolved are:
1) to carry food home, for
later use or for others (a leopard uses
its jaws)48
2) using weapons is
easier49
3) walking may be more
efficient in traveling long
distances.50
4) sexual selection51

Primates walking upright on two legs
may signal that hominids have become
the top of the food chain on land,
which might be the result of the use of
tools, since other land animals cannot
defend themselves or attack others with
tools.52
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
2. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
3. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
4. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
5. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
7. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
8. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
9. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
10. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
11. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
12. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
14. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
15. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
16. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
17. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
18. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
19. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
21. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
22. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
23. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
24. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
25. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
26. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
28. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
29. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
30. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
31. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
32. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
33. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
34. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
35. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
36. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004)
39. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Pickford, M. &
Senut, B. The geological and faunal
context of Late Miocene hominid remains
from Lukeino, Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci.
Ser. IIa 332, 145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
42. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
43. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
44. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
45. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
46. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
47. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
48. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004)
51. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
54. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282 {6
MYBN}
55. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
{6 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Haile-Selassie, Y. Late
Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash,
Ethiopia. Nature 412, 178-181 (2001).
http://www.nature.com/uidfinder/10.103
8/35084063
Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya,
Africa53  
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS

[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
4,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 26 		547) Hominid: Australopithecus
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS17 }.18 19 20
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Australopithecus." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
4. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
5. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
8. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
9. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
12. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
13. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
16. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
17. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
19. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
20. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
21. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias
(1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot
bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
22. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
23. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger,
D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J.
(2003), "Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains
from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300,
pp. pp. 607–612. {4MYBN}
24. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {4MYBN}
25. ^ "Australopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus {3.9 to 3my}
26. ^ "Australopithecus
afarensis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus_afarensis (3.9 to 3my)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Sterkfontein, South Africa21 22  
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478

[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg
3,700,000 YBN
13 		570) Hominid footprints in Laetoli
{lITOlE7 },8 thought to be made by
Australopithicus Afarensis.9 10

Some analysts have noted that the
smaller of the two clearest trails
suggests that whoever left the prints
was burdened on one side - perhaps a
female carrying an infant on her hip.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=laetol
i&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Laetoli". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetoli
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=laetol
i&submit=Submit
4. ^ "Laetoli". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetoli
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=laetol
i&submit=Submit
6. ^ "Laetoli". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetoli
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=laetol
i&submit=Submit
8. ^ "Laetoli". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetoli
9. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/librar
y/07/1/l_071_03.html
10. ^
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/
sites/africa/laetoli.html
11. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/librar
y/07/1/l_071_03.html
12. ^ Leakey, M.D. (1981). Discoveries
at Laetoli in Northern Tanzania.
Proceedings of the Geologists’
Association. 92 (2), pp. 81–86.
13. ^
"Laetoli". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetoli
(=3.7 mybn)
Laetoli, Tanzania12  
[1] In 1976 during a fossil hunt lead
by Mary Leakey at a site called Laetoli
in Tanzania a palaeontologist called
Andrew Hill happened to look down and
notice some unusual dents in the
hardened ash that formed a dry stream
bed. Looking more closely these dents
appeared to be mammal
footprints. COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://www.liv.ac.uk/premog/imag
es/laetoli_1.jpg

[2] Laetoli Footprints COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.modernhumanorigins.ne
t/laetolifoot.html
3,390,000 YBN
6 		269) Hominids use stones as tools.
Earliest evidence of stone used as
tool.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
2. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
3. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
4. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
5. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
6. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
{3.39 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
[2] "Stone Age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Age
[3] "Paleolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic

Dikika, Ethiopia5  
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
3,180,000 YBN
3 		571) Australopithecus afarensis fossil,
"Lucy".2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Australopithecus afarensis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus_afarensis
2. ^ "Australopithecus afarensis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus_afarensis
3. ^
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1:14769428
/Fossil+Lucy+shows+her+age~R~+(age+of+Au
stralopithecus+afarensis+fossil+dated+at
+3~R~18+million+years+using+new+techniqu
e)+(Brief+Article).html?refid=ency_botnm
 (=3.18 mybn)
 
[1] Full replica of Lucy's
(Australopithecus afarensis) remains in
the Museo Nacional de Antropología at
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lucy_Mexico.jpg
3,000,000 YBN
5 		446) North and South America connect.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {3 MYBN}
  
2,700,000 YBN
12 		564) Hominid: Paranthropus {Pa raN tru
PuS9 }, a line of extinct early bipedal
hominids.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
11. ^ "Paranthropus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranthropu
s
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.

MORE INFO
[1] Thure E. Cerling, Emma Mbua,
Francis M. Kirera, Fredrick Kyalo
Manthi, Frederick E. Grine, Meave G.
Leakey, Matt Sponheimer, and Kevin T.
Uno. Diet of Paranthropus boisei in the
early Pleistocene of East Africa; PNAS
2011; published ahead of print May 2,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1104627108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/0
4/27/1104627108.full.pdf+html?sid=71bf86
4d-bcc2-420e-9c3d-6c390c4a31c3
[2] Dawkins, Richard (2004). The
Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage To the
Dawn of Life. London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson. p. 90. ISBN 0-297-82503-8
Africa11  
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG

[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
2,500,000 YBN
11 		455) Oldest formed stone tools.7

This begins the Paleolithic or "Stone
Age".8

Other species have been observed to use
tools, including Chimpanzees using
sticks they sharpen with their teeth to
rouse pray.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
2. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
3. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
4. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
5. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
6. ^ "Paleolithic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

7. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
8. ^ "Paleolithic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

9. ^ Jill D. Pruetz, Paco Bertolani,
Savanna Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes
verus, Hunt with Tools, Current
Biology, Volume 17, Issue 5, 6 March
2007, Pages 412-417, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.042. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
960982207008019)
10. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
11. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html {2.5 MYBN}
Gona, Ethiopia10  
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html

[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
2,400,000 YBN
827)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ 1999 Geologic Time Scale,
Geological Society of America
2. ^
"Mesolithic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
  
2,200,000 YBN
25 		447) Hominids: Homo Habilis evolve in
Africa (earliest member of the genus
"Homo"15 ).16 17 18 19

This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.20

Homo habilis is thought to be the
ancestor of Homo ergaster.21

As the habilis brain grows, habilis
gains a larger memory for storing
sensory information such as eye images,
sounds, pain, etc. and to play back
remembered images and sounds in
thought.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
3. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
6. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
9. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
12. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
15. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
16. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
18. ^ F. Spoor, M. G.
Leakey, P. N. Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S.
C. Antón, I. McDougall, C. Kiarie, F.
K. Manthi & L. N. Leakey (2007-08-09).
"Implications of new early Homo fossils
from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana,
Kenya". Nature 448 (7154): 688–691.
doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID
17687323 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v448/n7154/full/nature05986.html
19. ^ Donald C. Johanson, Fidelis T.
Masao, Gerald G. Eck, Tim D. White,
Robert C. Walter, William H. Kimbel,
Berhane Asfaw, Paul Manega, Prosper
Ndessokia & Gen Suwa (21 May 1987).
"New partial skeleton of Homo habilis
from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". Nature
327 (6119): 205–209.
doi:10.1038/327205a0. PMID 3106831
20. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). p78
21. ^ "Homo habilis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_habili
s
22. ^ F. Spoor, M. G. Leakey, P. N.
Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S. C. Antón, I.
McDougall, C. Kiarie, F. K. Manthi & L.
N. Leakey (2007-08-09). "Implications
of new early Homo fossils from Ileret,
east of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Nature
448 (7154): 688–691.
doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID
17687323 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v448/n7154/full/nature05986.html
23. ^ Donald C. Johanson, Fidelis T.
Masao, Gerald G. Eck, Tim D. White,
Robert C. Walter, William H. Kimbel,
Berhane Asfaw, Paul Manega, Prosper
Ndessokia & Gen Suwa (21 May 1987).
"New partial skeleton of Homo habilis
from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". Nature
327 (6119): 205–209.
doi:10.1038/327205a0. PMID 3106831
24. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). p78
25. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p445.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
(Kenya22 and Tanzania23 ) Africa24
 
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg

[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
2,000,000 YBN
12 		545) Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ9 }.10
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "bonobo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {2
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Bonobo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonobo
Africa11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
1,800,000 YBN
130) End of the Tertiary {TRsEARE10 }
(65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE11 }
(1.8 mybn-now) Period.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
3. ^ The geological Society of America
4. ^
"Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
5. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
6. ^ The geological Society of America
7. ^
"Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
8. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
9. ^ The geological Society of America
10. ^
"Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
11. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
12. ^ The geological Society of America
  
1,800,000 YBN
18 19 20 		563) Homo erectus {hOmO ireKTuS13 }
evolves.14

Some people call Homo Erectus in
Africa, "Homo Ergaster"15 , and think
that Ergaster leaves Africa and evolves
into Homo erectus in Asia, and into
Homo Neaderthalensis in Europe and
western Asia.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
3. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
5. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
7. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
9. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p68-71
12. ^
"Homo erectus." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
13. ^ "Homo erectus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
15. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p68-71
16. ^
"Homo erectus." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
17. ^ Brown, Frank et al. “Early Homo
Erectus Skeleton from West Lake
Turkana, Kenya.” Nature 316.6031
(1985):
788–792. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v316/n6031/abs/316788a0.html
18. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}
19. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
20. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4
mybn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
[2] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p416.
[3] Templeton, Alan. “Out of
Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
[4] Vekua, Abesalom et al. “A New
Skull of Early Homo from Dmanisi,
Georgia.” Science 297.5578 (2002):
85–89. Print. New Series.
Lake Turkana, East Africa17  
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm

[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
1,700,000 YBN
17 		449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia
from Africa.14 15

Homo sapiens have been around for only
200,000 years, but Homo erectus lived
for almost a million years before going
extinct.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
3. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
6. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
9. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
10. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
11. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
12. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
13. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
14. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
15. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
16. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445,460-461.
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {1.7 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p69-77.
 
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324

[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
1,500,000 YBN
12 		583) Earliest evidence of use of fire,
burned bones from Swartkrans cave in
South Africa.9

This fire could have been made by
Australopithecus (or Paranthropus)
robustus and an early species of Homo,
possibly Homo erectus.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
2. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
3. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
4. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
5. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
6. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
7. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3557
077.stm
9. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3557
077.stm
11. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
12. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South
Africa11  
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png

[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
1,440,000 YBN
4 		448) Latest Homo Habilis fossil.1

This skull shows that Homo habilis and
Homo erectus both were living at this
time.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070806/f
ull/070806-5.html
3. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070809/ap_o
n_sc/human_evolution;_ylt=AruCkwb32WrhbQ
w.YrFzooys0NUE
4. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070809/ap_o
n_sc/human_evolution;_ylt=AruCkwb32WrhbQ
w.YrFzooys0NUE (1.44mybn)
Kenya, Africa3   
1,000,000 YBN
8 9 		589) Homo erectus evolves less body
hair, except head hair, facial hair,
airpit, chest and groin areas.6

This is thought to be driven by male
sexual selection of less haired
females, perhaps because less hair
means less body lice and so is more
desirable.7

No other surviving apes have taken this
direction. Perhaps wearing furs and
other clothes for heat may have
eliminated the need for bodily hair.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275 {1 MYBN}
9. ^ Rogers AR, Iltis
D, Wooding S, "Genetic variation at the
MC1R locus and the time since loss of
human body hair." Curr Anthropol
2004;45:105-108. http://www.jstor.org/p
ss/10.1086/381006 {1.2 MYBN}
 
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
1,000,000 YBN
9 		1479)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070629/sc_
afp/spainhistoryscience;_ylt=Ao5HlbwwJoT
9W1qLcwxtoPms0NUE
2. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070629/sc_
afp/spainhistoryscience;_ylt=Ao5HlbwwJoT
9W1qLcwxtoPms0NUE
3. ^ "Homo antecessor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_antece
ssor
4. ^ "Homo heidelbergensis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_heidel
bergensis
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "Homo
heidelbergensis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_heidel
bergensis
8. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070629/sc_
afp/spainhistoryscience;_ylt=Ao5HlbwwJoT
9W1qLcwxtoPms0NUE
9. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070629/sc_
afp/spainhistoryscience;_ylt=Ao5HlbwwJoT
9W1qLcwxtoPms0NUE (1MYBN)
Madrid, Spain8  
[1] This picture released by Fundacion
Atapeurca shows a human tooth found in
the Atapuerca Sierra, near Burgos.
Spanish researchers on Friday said they
had unearthed a human tooth more than
one million years old, which they
estimated to be the oldest human fossil
remain ever discovered in western
Europe.(AFP/FA-HO) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0706
29/photos_od_afp/815788affc9d457a9223e39
1c7eea36a;_ylt=AsmNyfUR9BdumtPpp6IQZZPQO
rgF
970,000 YBN
22 23 24 		200) Hominids wear clothing.15 16

That humans (Homo antecessor) wear
clothing at this time is implied by the
cold climate that occurred at the same
time that stone tools found in the area
were used.17 18

The earliest genetic evidence of humans
wearing clothes, is based on the
differences of the head and body louse
and puts the change to around 80,000
years before now.19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
2. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
3. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
4. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
5. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
6. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
7. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
8. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
9. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
10. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
11. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
12. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
13. ^ Melissa A. Toups, Andrew Kitchen,
Jessica E. Light, and David L. Reed,
"Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates
Early Clothing Use by Anatomically
Modern Humans in Africa", Mol Biol Evol
(2011) 28(1): 29-32 first published
online September 7, 2010
doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234
14. ^ Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser,
Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of
Pediculus humanus and the Origin of
Clothing, Current Biology, Volume 13,
Issue 16, 19 August 2003, Pages
1414-1417, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0960982203005074)
15. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
16. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
17. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
18. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
19. ^ Melissa A. Toups, Andrew Kitchen,
Jessica E. Light, and David L. Reed,
"Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates
Early Clothing Use by Anatomically
Modern Humans in Africa", Mol Biol Evol
(2011) 28(1): 29-32 first published
online September 7, 2010
doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234
20. ^ Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser,
Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of
Pediculus humanus and the Origin of
Clothing, Current Biology, Volume 13,
Issue 16, 19 August 2003, Pages
1414-1417, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0960982203005074)
21. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
22. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html {970,000}
23. ^
Melissa A. Toups, Andrew Kitchen,
Jessica E. Light, and David L. Reed,
"Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates
Early Clothing Use by Anatomically
Modern Humans in Africa", Mol Biol Evol
(2011) 28(1): 29-32 first published
online September 7, 2010
doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234
{83,000-170,000YBN}
24. ^ Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser,
Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of
Pediculus humanus and the Origin of
Clothing, Current Biology, Volume 13,
Issue 16, 19 August 2003, Pages
1414-1417, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0960982203005074) {72,000YBN +/-
42,000years}
Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK21  
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg

[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
790,000 YBN
11 		584)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Goren-Inbar, Naama et al.
“Evidence of Hominin Control of Fire
at Gesher Benot Ya`aqov, Israel.”
Science 304.5671 (2004) : 725 -727.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/304/5671/725.full
2. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/su
mmary/304/5671/663a
3. ^ Goren-Inbar, Naama et al.
“Evidence of Hominin Control of Fire
at Gesher Benot Ya`aqov, Israel.”
Science 304.5671 (2004) : 725 -727.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/304/5671/725.full
4. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/su
mmary/304/5671/663a
5. ^ Record ID583. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Goren-Inbar,
Naama et al. “Evidence of Hominin
Control of Fire at Gesher Benot
Ya`aqov, Israel.” Science 304.5671
(2004) : 725 -727.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/304/5671/725.full
7. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/su
mmary/304/5671/663a
8. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/sci;304/5671/725
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Goren-Inbar, Naama et
al. “Evidence of Hominin Control of
Fire at Gesher Benot Ya`aqov,
Israel.” Science 304.5671 (2004) :
725 -727.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/304/5671/725.full
11. ^ Goren-Inbar, Naama et al.
“Evidence of Hominin Control of Fire
at Gesher Benot Ya`aqov, Israel.”
Science 304.5671 (2004) : 725 -727.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/304/5671/725.full {000 YBN}
Gesher Benot Ya`aqov, Israel10  
[1] Fig. 2. Cross section of burned
Olea europaea subsp. oleaster (wild
olive) specimen. Wood is diffuse
porous; vessels are solitary and in
short radial multiples. Bar, 0.5
mm COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG2

[2] Fig. 3. Burned grain of Aegilops
cf. geniculata: dorsal view of a basal
fragment (this grain is also shown in
fig. S2). Parts of husk and embryo are
clearly seen. Bar, 1 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG3
400,000 YBN
7 8 		615) Oldest evidence of spear.6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf}
2. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf}
3. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf}
4. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf}
5. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf}
6. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf}
7. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Lower Palaeolithic hunting
spears from Germany. Hartmut Thieme.
Letters to Nature. Nature 385, 807 -
810 (27 February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385807a0
Schöningen, Germany. 
[1] Figure 3a from: Thieme, Hartmut,
‘Lower Palaeolithic Hunting Spears
from Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997),
807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html

[2] The first Europeans - one million
years ago A few
crucial digs have given us a glimpse of
the everyday life of Homo
heidelbergensis. This early human was
developing a complex mind - once this
boundary had been reached, there was no
turning back. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehisto
ric_life/human/human_evolution/images/hu
man_evolution_article_big4.jpg
200,000 YBN
30 31 32 		548) Humans (Homo sapiens) evolve in
Africa.22 23 24 25

The oldest Homo sapiens fossils (Omo I
and II) are from Ethiopia.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
2. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
3. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
4. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
5. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
6. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
7. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
8. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
9. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
10. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
11. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
12. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
13. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
14. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
15. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
16. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
17. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
18. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
19. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
20. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
21. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
22. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
23. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
24. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
25. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
26. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
27. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
28. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
29. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
30. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
31. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
{200,000 YBN}
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p65. (165,000
YBN) {200,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Ethiopia, Africa27 28 29  
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
200,000 YBN
5 		561) Genetic evidence that complex
human language evolves in early Homo
species.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p70-73. (200,000 YBN)
2. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p70-73.
(200,000 YBN)
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p70-73.
(200,000 YBN)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
200,000 YBN
590) Humans language of thirty short
sounds begins to develop.16 All words
are single syllable.17

This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimps and
monkeys, that will result in the
"staccato" (short sound duration)
language humans use now.18

Either the majority of the 30 basic
sounds in human language (U, o, K, S,
etc.) were learned before humans moved
out of Africa, or after. That sapiens
of Eurasia, Australia and America do
not have unique base sounds is evidence
that the 30 plus base sounds of all
human language completely developed in
Africa before the sapiens movement from
Africa into Eurasia, Australia and the
Americas. In addition, that the native
humans of Eurasia, Australia and
America have different words, is
evidence that word of mouth, being not
adequate to spread words, was not
adequate to spread the base sounds
shared by all humans, after their move
out of Africa.19

It is difficult to determine when but
probably early Homo sapiens in Africa
evolve a larger vocabulary of sound
combinations to label objects and
activities than the other more
primitive primates like the
chimpanzees.20

These sounds eventually become
shortened and more finely controlled,
perhaps quicker communication being a
selective advantage, and ultimately
evolve to the 30 plus basic sounds used
to construct words in all human
languages. The vowel sounds may develop
before any consonants. Perhaps the
earliest vowels are: U (food), o
(mama), O (no), E (eat) and perhaps i
(big), e (bed), u (cup). (These sounds
are in use by the first Sumerian
writing21 .) For centuries early human
language may have been vowels only
until consonants attached to vowels are
added and in regular use.22

The first consonants are probably (the
so-called "stop consonants"23 ) T and
D, then K and G, then perhaps B and P.
But it may be impossible to know the
order, and the number of years between
the three sound families.24

Initially, this language may be very
simple, one sound applying to many
objects and situations. Some time near
here, words made of more than one sound
(compound words) evolves, then objects
and actions might have compound sounds,
although still one word.25

Clearly many mammals and birds have a
vocabulary of remembered sounds, which
are used to label other species,
objects, and situations. Chimpanzees
use sounds that sound similar to sounds
humans make, for example the U (in
food), and perhaps "E", although not
sounded in short duration breaths.26

Perhaps the development of language is
assisted by trading which requires
object name translation, because these
new sounds and words are remembered,
accepted, and included into the
language of both trading groups.27

Clearly some less common vowel sounds
evolve later based on these main
sounds, for example "i" (big), "u"
(cup), "v" (food), "a" (cat), etc.28

Perhaps there are some base (letter)
sounds that have been lost to the
past.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ (The vast
majority of Sumerian language is made
of one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian
language is made of one-syllable words)
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ (The vast
majority of Sumerian language is made
of one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington
13. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian
language is made of one-syllable words)
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington
17. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian
language is made of one-syllable words)
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ Ted
Huntington
21. ^ "Stop consonant". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008, p24.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_conson
ant
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^ "Stop consonant".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_conson
ant
24. ^ Ted Huntington
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
190,000 YBN
13 		601) The "Stop" family of sounds8 , B,
D, G, K, P and T are in use.9

The major sounds of language for any
species can be cataloged and sorted
into groups. Humans language has 30 or
so base sounds which can be grouped
into at least 4 major families, all of
which probably originated at different
times.10

The short duration, "stop" family of
sounds (B,D,G,K,P,T) probably evolve
the earliest of all consonent sounds in
the language of sapiens. Initially,
these sounds may have formed
(naturally) before the long vowel sound
(for example a "B" sound when opening
the mouth to howl a vowel sound). This
language may be simply single syllable
consonant plus vowel words (for example
"GO", "Po", etc.) with short durations.
This is basically the form of language
all humans use today, short duration
(50 ms each) sounds from a family of
only 30 sounds, combined together to
form words used to describe objects and
activities (nouns), movements and
actions (verbs), and later a second
word added to further describe objects
(adjectives) and actions (adverbs).11

This "short duration" language, means
communication must have been very
routine and optimized, which implies
that this happened through hunting or
perhaps through trading where language
is a selective advantage.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Adrian Akmajian, "Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and
Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Adrian Akmajian,
"Linguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Adrian Akmajian,
"Linguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Adrian Akmajian,
"Linguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (based on
evidence of origin of language at
200,000 YBN)
  
170,000 YBN
10 		600) The "Fricative" sound family is in
use (the sounds S, Z, s, H, F, V7 ).8

The "S" sounds may have been an
imitation of snakes, and may have
represented an early snake alarm signal
to others. The sound "s" may be related
to cause fear in others to signal to be
quiet.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Adrian Akmajian, "Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and
Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Adrian Akmajian,
"Linguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Adrian Akmajian,
"Linguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Adrian Akmajian,
"Linguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (based on evidence of origin of
language at 200,000 YBN)
  
160,000 YBN
591) Second oldest human (Homo sapiens)
skull, like the oldest in Ethiopia,
Africa.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/relea
ses/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml
2. ^
http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/relea
ses/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml
Ethiopia, Africa2  
[1] The oldest known fossil of modern
humans, dating back 160,000
years. Photo © 2000 David L. Brill,
Brill Atlanta) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med
ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml

[2] Visualization of what sapien
looked like [t: notice hair is not
curly, but straight] Image © J.
Matternes
source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med
ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml
150,000 YBN
6 		592) The sounds M, N, L, and R are in
use.4

The M and N family are called "Nasals",
and the L and R family are called
"Liquids".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Adrian Akmajian, "Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and
Communication",
p73-79. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=gPbQyRdnM18C
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p 70-74. (based on
evidence of 200,000)
  
130,000 YBN
17 18 		450) Homo Neanderthalensis evolves in
Europe and Western Asia.10

The oldest Neanderthal fossil is from
Croatia.11 12

For decades, anthropologists treated
Neanderthals as a subspecies of Homo
sapiens, (Homo sapiens
Neaderthalensis), but recent work
suggests that they were a distinct
species and did not interbreed with or
give rise to Homo sapiens sapiens. The
best evidence for this comes from the
Skhul and Qafzeh caves in Israel, where
layers bearing Neaderthals remains are
interbedded and alternate with layers
containing early modern humans. In
addition, Neaderthals appear later than
the earliest archaic Homo sapiens, so
they can not be the ancestors of Homo
sapiens. Recently Neaderthal DNA has
been sequenced, and they are clearly
not Homo sapiens13 , and are now named
Homo Neaderthalensis14 .

Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA has been
compared to sapiens and a common
ancestor of the two is estimated to be
500,000, long before the oldest sapien
fossils in Africa, which supports the
idea that sapiens did not evolve or
interbreed with Neanderthals.15
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
2. ^ Douglas Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p464.
3. ^ Donald Johanson,
"Origins of Modern Humans:
Multiregional or Out of Africa?",
ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
4. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo
_2.htm
7. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo
_2.htm
10. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
12. ^
http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo
_2.htm
13. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p342.
14. ^ Douglas Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p464.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p67
16. ^
Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern
Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
17. ^Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html {000}
http://humanorigins.si
.edu/evidence/genetics/ancient-dna-and-n
eanderthals

MORE INFO
[1] "Neanderthal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal

Europe and Western Asia16  
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg

[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
120,000 YBN
572) Start of Wurm glaciation
(120,000-20,000 YBN), which connects a
land bridge between Asia and America.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/le
c04/b65lec04.htm
2. ^
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/le
c04/b65lec04.htm
3. ^
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/le
c04/b65lec04.htm
4. ^
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/le
c04/b65lec04.htm
  
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 20 21 22 		257) Theory of Gods.12

The explanation that many phenomena in
the universe are controlled by objects
with human and animal bodies that have
supernatural powers is one of the
earliest theories that tries to explain
how the universe works.13

This theory will last for all of
recorded history to the present time,
over 5000 years. Although polytheism
will fall in popularity to monotheism
which is introduced around 1300 BCE by
the Egyptian Pharoah Amenhotep IV.14 15


The theory of gods is recorded in the
earliest recorded stories of history
4600 years before now.16

The theory that a god or gods controls
the universe is perhaps the oldest
theory that is still believed by some
humans.17

Perhaps by this time Humans have
created a word to mean "every thing"
like "universe" or "world".18
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record
ID1271. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Record
ID2727. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Record
ID2727. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Record ID1271.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely
human: the evolution of speech,
thought, and selfless behavior", 1993,
p163.
21. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR
Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218
(1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
22. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
Africa19  
[1] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg

[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 5 6 7 		6333)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely
human: the evolution of speech,
thought, and selfless behavior", 1993,
p163.
2. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
3. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
4. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
5. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
6. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
7. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, et al, "The Stone Age
of Mount Carmel", 1939
(es-Skhul cave) Mount Carmel, Israel2
3 4  
[1] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg
95,000 YBN
[93000 BC] 11 12 		594)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
2. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
4. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
6. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
8. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v43
2/n7016/full/nature03103.html
9. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v40
5/n6782/full/405024a0_fs.html
10. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
11. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html {000 YBN}
Cavalli-Sforza, L
L et al. “Reconstruction of human
evolution: bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
[2] Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa
again and again.” Nature 416.6876
(2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/abs/416045a.html
 
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml

[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
92,000 YBN
[90000 BC] 8 		597) Oldest Homo sapiens skull outside
Africa, in Israel4 , the Jebel Qafzeh
skull.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
2. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
3. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
4. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
5. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
6. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
7. ^ "Skhul remains".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skhul_remai
ns
8. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)

MORE INFO
[1] Bar-Yosef, O. in The
Geography of Neandertals and Modern
Humans in Europe and the Greater
Mediterranean (eds Bar-Yosef, O. &
Pilbeam, D.) 107−156 (Peabody Museum,
Harvard Univ., Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 2000)
[2] Mellars, Paul.
“Neanderthals and the modern human
colonization of Europe.” Nature
432.7016 (2004) :
461-465. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v432/n7016/full/nature03103.html
(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel6 7
 
[1] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of the
Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from Jebel
Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000 years
old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1

[2] Qafzeh Cave COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskn
ing/sarc/iakh/lithic/AmudNet/Asites2.htm
l
60,000 YBN
[58000 BC] 4 		573) Earliest evidence of humans in
Americas, from a rock shelter in Pedra
Furada, Brazil.2
The evidence is
controversial. Some people argue that
the chipped stones are geoartifacts,
but the artifact finders argue that the
chips are too regular to be made from
falling rocks.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.athenapub.com/10pfurad.htm
2. ^
http://www.athenapub.com/10pfurad.htm
3. ^
http://www.science-frontiers.com/sf108/s
f108p01.htm
4. ^
http://www.athenapub.com/10pfurad.htm
{60000 YBN}
  
53,300 YBN
[51300 BC] 7 		557) Homo Erectus extinct. Most recent
Homo Erectus fossil in Southeast Asia
(Java).4
This shows that Homo erectus
lived at the same time as Homo
sapiens.
These ages are 20,000 to 400,000 years
younger than previous age estimates for
these hominids and indicate that H.
erectus may have survived on Java at
least 250,000 years longer than on the
Asian mainland, and perhaps 1 million
years longer than in Africa.5
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
2. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

3. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

4. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

5. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

6. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

7. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
{300 YBN}
Ngandong, Indonesia6  
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg
46,000 YBN
[44000 BC] 16 17 18 		577) Earliest evidence of water ship.
Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach
Australia by water ship.13 14

Earliest sapians fossils Australia,
"Mungo man".15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
2. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
3. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
4. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
5. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
6. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
7. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
8. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
9. ^
Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages
for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
10. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
11. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
12. ^
Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages
for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
13. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
14. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
15. ^
Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages
for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
16. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
17. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
18. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p471.

MORE INFO
[1] David B. Goldstein and
Lounès Chikhi, "HUMAN MIGRATIONS AND
POPULATION STRUCTURE: What We Know and
Why it Matters", Annual Review of
Genomics and Human Genetics, Vol. 3:
129 -152 (Volume publication date
September
2002) http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/
abs/10.1146/annurev.genom.3.022502.10320
0
[2] Peter A. Underhill and Toomas
Kivisild, "Use of Y Chromosome and
Mitochondrial DNA Population Structure
in Tracing Human Migrations", Annual
Review of Genetics, Vol. 41: 539 -564
(Volume publication date December
2007) http://www.annualreviews.org/acti
on/showCitFormats?doi=10.1146%2Fannurev.
genet.41.110306.130407
[3]
doi:10.1038/nature01383 http://www.natu
re.com/nature/journal/v421/n6925/abs/nat
ure01383.html
[4]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
 
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.

[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
43,000 YBN
[41000 BC] 12 13 14 		1187) Earliest known mine: "Lion Cave"
in Swaziland, Africa is in use. At this
site, which by radiocarbon dating is
43,000 years old, paleolithic humans
mined for the iron-containing mineral
hematite, which they ground to produce
the red pigment ochre. Sites of a
similar age where Neanderthals may have
mined flint for weapons and tools have
been found in Hungary.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
2. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
3. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
4. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
5. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
6. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
7. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
8. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
9. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
10. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
11. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
12. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
13. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
14. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
Swaziland, Africa9 10 11   
40,800 YBN
[01/01/38800 BC] 17 18 		1262) Earliest known human-made
painting.12 13

In El Castillo Cave in Spain, one of
several large red disks on the "Panel
de las Manos", made by using a blowing
technique, has a minimum age of 40.8
ky. This age is measured using
uranium-series disequilibrium of
calcite deposits overlying or
underlying the cave art. This implies
that depictions of the human hand are
among the oldest art known from Europe.
The cave art may have been created by
the first anatomically modern humans in
Europe or possibly by Neanderthals.14
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
2. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
3. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
4. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
5. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
6. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
7. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
8. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
9. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
10. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
11. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
12. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
13. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
14. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
15. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
16. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
17. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
18. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
(The Panel de las Manos,) El Castillo
Cave, Spain15 |Southern France16  
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg

[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 6 7 8 		598) Oldest Homo sapiens fossils in
Europe from the Cro-Magnon site in
France4
This time (40,000 YA) also
marks the decline of Neaderthal
populations until their extinction
10,000 years later.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
2. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
3. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
4. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
5. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
6. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
7. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
8. ^ Palmer, "primtive Life", 2009,
p472.
 
[1] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/36/Cromagf.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 8 9 10 		604) Earliest evidence of oil lamp.6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
8. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
{40,000YBN}
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p5.
{79,000BCE}
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient oil lamp".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_oil
_lamp
Southwest France7  
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 26 27 28 		5871) Oldest indisputable musical
instrument, a flute made from the wing
bone of a vulture.21 22 23 24
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
4. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
5. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
6. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
7. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
8. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
9. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
11. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
12. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
13. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
14. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
15. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
16. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
17. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
18. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
19. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
20. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
21. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
22. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
23. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
24. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
25. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
26. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2 {40000YBN}
27. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
{35000BCE}
28. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
{34000BCE}
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany25  
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l

[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
39,000 YBN
[37000 BC] 16 17 18 19 		599) Sapiens reach China.10 11

Earliest Homo sapiens fossil in China,
from the Zhoukoudian Cave in China.12
13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
2. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
3. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
4. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
5. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
6. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
7. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
8. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
9. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (30,000 YBN)
10. ^ Shang,
Hong et al. “An Early Modern Human
from Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian,
China.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573
–6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
11. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
12. ^ Shang,
Hong et al. “An Early Modern Human
from Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian,
China.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573
–6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
13. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
14. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (30,000 YBN)
15. ^ Shang,
Hong et al. “An Early Modern Human
from Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian,
China.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573
–6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
16. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
17. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
18. ^ Palmer et
al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p473.
19. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (30,000 YBN)

MORE INFO
[1] Hu, Y. .; Shang, H. .; Tong,
H. .; Nehlich, O. .; Liu, W. .; Zhao,
C. .; Yu, J. .; Wang, C. . et al. (Jul
2009). "Stable isotope dietary analysis
of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106 (27): 10971–4. Bibcode
2009PNAS..10610971H.
DOI:10.1073/pnas.0904826106. ISSN
0027-8424. PMC 2706269. PMID 19581579.
(Tianyuan Cave) Zhoukoudian, China15
 
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg
38,000 YBN
[36000 BC] 3 		574)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/
data/art/BEGLEY01.ART
2. ^
http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/
data/art/BEGLEY01.ART
3. ^
http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/
data/art/BEGLEY01.ART {38000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.utep.edu/leb/paleo/site62.htm

 
[1] Pendejo Cave from approximately
north. Several human figures near the
mouth give the scale. A. H. Harris
photo, 2 Feb 1991. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.utep.edu/leb/paleo/si
te62.htm
35,000 YBN
[33000 BC] 5 		3943)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/arti
cle/ALeqM5gXbk_JfASsVGU1F48--LEj7X8n6wD9
85HLD02
2. ^ Conard, Nicholas J., "A female
figurine from the basal Aurignacian of
Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern
Germany", Nature, 2009/05/14, vol. 459,
is 7244,
p248-252. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v459/n7244/full/nature07995.html

3. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8047
319.stm
4. ^ Conard, Nicholas J., "A female
figurine from the basal Aurignacian of
Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern
Germany", Nature, 2009/05/14, vol. 459,
is 7244,
p248-252. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v459/n7244/full/nature07995.html

5. ^ Conard, Nicholas J., "A female
figurine from the basal Aurignacian of
Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern
Germany", Nature, 2009/05/14, vol. 459,
is 7244,
p248-252. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v459/n7244/full/nature07995.html
 {35000ybn}
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany4  
[1] Photos by H. Jensen; copyright,
University of Tübingen.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v459/n7244/images/nature07995-f1.2.
jpg
35,000 YBN
[33000 BC] 3 		4191)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. M. Roberts, "The Illustrated
History of the World, Vol. 1.,
Prehistory and the First
Civilizations", 1999, p36
2. ^ J. M.
Roberts, "The Illustrated History of
the World, Vol. 1., Prehistory and the
First Civilizations", 1999, p36
3. ^ J. M.
Roberts, "The Illustrated History of
the World, Vol. 1., Prehistory and the
First Civilizations", 1999, p36
{000ybn}
Russia2   
32,000 YBN
[30000 BC] 23 24 25 26 27 		602) Weaving and textiles.14 15

The earliest evidence of weaving are
32,000 year old flax fibers.16 17 Some
of the flax fibers are spun, dyed, and
knotted.18

Other early evidence of weaving is from
textile and flexible basketry
impressions on burnt clay from Pavlov
in the Czech Republic which date to
between 27,000-25,000 ybn (see image).
The oldest woven cloth so far
discovered is made from flax, dates to
about 9000 ybn, and comes from
Çayönü, Turkey.19 20 21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
2. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
3. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
4. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
5. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
6. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
7. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
8. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
9. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
10. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
11. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
12. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
13. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
14. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
15. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
16. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
17. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
18. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
19. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534.
20. ^
"weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
21. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
22. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
23. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359 {32,000 YBN}
24. ^ ADOVASIO
J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996:
Upper Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {000 YBN}
{26,000 YBN}
25. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
{9000YBN}
27. ^ E. J. W. Barber, "Prehistoric
Textiles: The Development of Cloth in
the Neolithic and Bronze ...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HnSlynSfeEIC {7000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>
Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia22  
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
31,700 YBN
[29700 BC] 8 9 		42) Humans raise dogs. (Dog
domesticated). One theory supported by
evidence is that dog anatomy changes
abruptly from wolf anatomy as a result
of domestication by humans.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
2. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
3. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
4. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
5. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
6. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
7. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
8. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380) {31,700 YBN}
9. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7. {10,000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticati
on
Goyet cave, Belgium7  
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg

[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
30,000 YBN
[28000 BC] 3 		575) Mitochondrial DNA shows a sapiens
migration to the Americas now.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
2. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
3. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html {30000 YBN}
  
29,000 YBN
[27000 BC] 12 13 		6215) Earliest ceramic object, the
Venus figurines.6

The Venus figurines are created around
this time.7 The Venus of Dolní
Věstonice is the oldest of these
ceramic objects at 29,000 years old.
This figurine, together with a few
others from nearby locations, is the
oldest known ceramic in the world8 ,
predating the earliest pottery of China
(18,000) by 11,000 years9 . Some of the
figurines appear to be wearing
clothing.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
2. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
3. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

4. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

5. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

6. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

7. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
8. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

9. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46 {18,000}
10. ^ O. Soffer, J. M.
Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, "The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
11. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

12. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 {29,000}
13. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA
SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI
SVOBODA, "The Origins of Ceramic
Technology at Dolni Věstonice,
Czechoslovakia", Science 24 November
1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
{26,000}
Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia11
 
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
28,000 YBN
[26000 BC] 8 9 		451) Neanderthals extinct. Most recent
Neanderthal fossil.4

Genetic evidence suggests interbreeding
took place with Homo sapiens between
roughly 80,000 and 50,000 years ago in
the Middle East, resulting in 1–4% of
the genome of people from Eurasia
having been contributed by
Neanderthals.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Richard E. Green et al (2010). "A
Draft Sequence of the Neanderthal
Genome". Science 328 (5979): 710–722.
doi:10.1126/science.1188021. PMID
20448178. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/328/5979/710.short
6. ^ Rincon, Paul (2010-05-06).
"Neanderthal genes 'survive in us"'.
BBC News (BBC).
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nat
ure/8660940.stm
7. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
8. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
{000 YBN}
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, D. A. E., Buxton, L.
H. D., Elliot Smith, G. & Bate, D. M.
A. Excavation of a Mousterian
Rock-shelter at Devil's Tower,
Gibraltar. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. 58,
91–113
(1928) http://www.jstor.org/stable/4619
528
[2] Busk, G. On a very ancient cranium
from Gibraltar. Report of the 34th
Meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science (Bath, 1864)
91–92 (1865)
Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain7  
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
26,000 YBN
[24000 BC] 10 		6224) Earliest "fired" clay (clay dried
and hardened by fire).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
3. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
5. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
7. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
9. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
10. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {26000 YBN}
Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech
Republic9  
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
23,000 YBN
[21000 BC] 8 		6231) Earliest human-made structure. A
stone wall.5 The oldest wall in
Jericho, also a stone wall dates to
8,000 BCE.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
2. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
3. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
4. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
5. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
6. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>.
7. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
8. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html {23,000 YBN}
(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka, Greece7
 
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
20,000 YBN
[18000 BC] 4 		576) Y Chromosome DNA shows a sapiens
migration to the Americas now.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
2. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
3. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
4. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html {20000 YBN}
  
20,000 YBN
[18000 BC] 3 		1291)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Franchthi Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franchthi_C
ave
2. ^ "Franchthi Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franchthi_C
ave
3. ^ "Franchthi Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franchthi_C
ave (=9000bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Neolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic
in the Peloponnese, in the southeastern
Argolid, is a cave overlooking the
Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village
of Koilada.2  		 
19,000 YBN
[17000 BC] 7 		6184) Cereal gathering.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
2. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
3. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
4. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
5. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
6. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
7. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {19000 YBN}
Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey,
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)6  
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
18,000 YBN
[16000 BC] 11 12 13 14 		603) Oldest evidence of pottery.6

The oldest known ceramic objects are
the "Venus" figurines which date back
to 29,000 years before present, 11,000
years earlier.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
8. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

9. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm
10. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
11. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46 {18,000}
12. ^ "pottery." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pottery
{17,500YBN}
13. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm {17,500YBN}
14. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan
Province, China9 10  
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 19 		6225) Earliest rope, a 30 cm fragment
of rope, only 7 or 8 mm in diameter.13
14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
3. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
4. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
5. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
6. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
7. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
8. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
9. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
10. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
11. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
12. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
13. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
14. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
15. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
16. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
17. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
18. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
19. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux:
¿Composición o Acumulación?",
Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521 {17000 YBN}
Lascaux, France16 17 18  
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.

[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 15 		6227) Earliest known map.10 11 12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Gladkih, M. I., Kornietz, N. L.,
and Soffer, 0. "Mammoth Bone Dwellings
on the Russian Plain." Scientific
American (1984): 251.
2. ^ Bibikov, S.
N. (Sergei Nikolaevich) (1981).
Drevneishii Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz
Kostei Mamonta: Ocherk Materialnoi i
Dukhovnoi Kultury Paleoliticheskogo
Cheloveka (The Oldest Musical Complex
Made of Mammoth Bones). Akademiia Nauk
Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut Arkheologii.
Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka. In
Russian. Contains summary in English
and French; table of contents also in
English and French.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
4. ^ Gladkih, M. I.,
Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0.
"Mammoth Bone Dwellings on the Russian
Plain." Scientific American (1984):
251.
5. ^ Bibikov, S. N. (Sergei
Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii
Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta:
Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury
Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest
Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones).
Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut
Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in
English and French; table of contents
also in English and French.
6. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
7. ^ Gladkih, M. I.,
Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0.
"Mammoth Bone Dwellings on the Russian
Plain." Scientific American (1984):
251.
8. ^ Bibikov, S. N. (Sergei
Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii
Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta:
Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury
Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest
Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones).
Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut
Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in
English and French; table of contents
also in English and French.
9. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
10. ^ Gladkih, M. I.,
Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0.
"Mammoth Bone Dwellings on the Russian
Plain." Scientific American (1984):
251.
11. ^ Bibikov, S. N. (Sergei
Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii
Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta:
Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury
Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest
Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones).
Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut
Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in
English and French; table of contents
also in English and French.
12. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
13. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
14. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/
15. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/ {12,000 BC (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1998)
Upper Palaeolithic dwellings of mammoth
bones in the Ukraine:
Kiev-Kirillovskii, Gontsy,
Dobranichevka, Mezin and Mezhirich,
Oxford: J. and E. Hedges. ISBN
0-86054-949-6
[2] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1978) The
Mezhirich mammoth-bone houses, U.S.
Geological Survey. ISBN B0006WZGIS
[3] (Ukrainian)
(1972). Icтopiя мicт i ciл
Укpaїнcькoї CCP -
Черкаськa область
(History of Towns and Villages of the
Ukrainian SSR - Cherkasy Oblast), Kiev
[4]
"Mezhyrich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezhyrich
Mezhirich, Ukraine13 14  
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
13,000 YBN
[11000 BC] 24 25 26 		578) Humans enter America. Oldest human
bones in America.15 16

The earliest bones of a human in the
Americas, a skull (Peñon woman) from
Mexico17 and bones from "Arlington
Springs" woman18 19 , in the California
Channel Islands date to now.20

These three bones are discovered on the
Channel Islands, on a ridge called
Arlington, just off the California
coastline.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
2. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
3. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
4. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
6. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
7. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
8. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
9. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
10. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
11. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
12. ^ Johnson, J.R., T.W. Stafford,
Jr., H.O. Ajie and D.P. Morris. 2002.
Arlington Springs Revisited. Pages
541–545. In: Browne, D., K. Mitchell
and H. Chaney (eds.), Proceedings
of the Fifth California Islands
Symposium. USDI Minerals Management
Service and The Santa Barbara Museum
of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
13.
^ Agenbroad et al., 2005 L.D.
Agenbroad, J.R. Johnson, D. Morris and
T.W. Stafford Jr., Mammoths and humans
as late Pleistocene contemporaries on
Santa Rosa Island. In: D.K. Barcelon
and C.A. Schwemm, Editors, Proceedings
of the Sixth California Islands
Symposium, Institute for Wildlife
Studies, Arcata, CA (2005), pp.
3–7. http://165.83.37.15/im/units/med
n/symposia/6th%20California%20Islands%20
Symposium%20(2003)/Archaeology%20and%20P
aleontology/Agenbroad_Mammoths_Humans.pd
f
14. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
15. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
16. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
17. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
18. ^ Johnson, J.R., T.W. Stafford,
Jr., H.O. Ajie and D.P. Morris. 2002.
Arlington Springs Revisited. Pages
541–545. In: Browne, D., K. Mitchell
and H. Chaney (eds.), Proceedings
of the Fifth California Islands
Symposium. USDI Minerals Management
Service and The Santa Barbara Museum
of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
19.
^ Agenbroad et al., 2005 L.D.
Agenbroad, J.R. Johnson, D. Morris and
T.W. Stafford Jr., Mammoths and humans
as late Pleistocene contemporaries on
Santa Rosa Island. In: D.K. Barcelon
and C.A. Schwemm, Editors, Proceedings
of the Sixth California Islands
Symposium, Institute for Wildlife
Studies, Arcata, CA (2005), pp.
3–7. http://165.83.37.15/im/units/med
n/symposia/6th%20California%20Islands%20
Symposium%20(2003)/Archaeology%20and%20P
aleontology/Agenbroad_Mammoths_Humans.pd
f
20. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
21. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
22. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
23. ^ Michael Vincent McGinnis,
Negotiating ecology: Marine bioregions
and the destruction of the Southern
California Bight, Futures, Volume 38,
Issue 4, Futures of Bioregions, May
2006, Pages 382-405, ISSN 0016-3287,
DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382)
24. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm {13000 YBN}
25. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/ {13000 YBN}
26. ^ Michael
Vincent McGinnis, Negotiating ecology:
Marine bioregions and the destruction
of the Southern California Bight,
Futures, Volume 38, Issue 4, Futures of
Bioregions, May 2006, Pages 382-405,
ISSN 0016-3287, DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382) {13000 YBN}
Mexico City22 and Arlington Canyon on
Santa Rosa Island, California, USA23
 
[1] Peñon Woman III see also a
different skull: Luzia Woman is the
name for the skeleton of a
(Paleo-Indian) woman found in a cave in
Brazil, South America. Some
archaeologists believe the young woman
may have been part of the first wave of
immigrants to South America. Nicknamed
Luzia (her name pays homage to the
famous African fossil ''Lucy'', who
lived 3.2 million years ago), the
11,500 year-old skeleton was found in
Lapa Vermelha, Brazil, in 1975 by
archaeologist Annette
Laming-Emperaire [1] The skull is
said to be 13,000 years
old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/imag
es/38542000/jpg/_38542745_150concho1.jpg


[2] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/
13,000 YBN
[11000 BC] 3 		579)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.abotech.com/Articles/firstame
ricans.htm
2. ^
http://www.abotech.com/Articles/firstame
ricans.htm
3. ^
http://www.abotech.com/Articles/firstame
ricans.htm

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.leg.state.nv.us/70th/Minutes/
AM-HH-990517-AJR%2024.html
 
[1] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/

[2] Skull wars:' Facial reconstruction
of the 'Spirit Cave Man,' based on
bones found in Spirit Cave, Churchill
County, Nevada (David Barry--Courtesy
Nevada State Museum; facial
reconstruction by Sharon Long)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.abotech.com/Articles/
firstamericans.htm
12,500 YBN
[10500 BC] 3 		582) Human artifacts from Monte Verde,
southern Chile.1

This date puts the possibility of
walking over the Being Straight in
doubt.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2003/11/1106_031106_firstamericans.html
2. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2003/11/1106_031106_firstamericans.html
3. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2003/11/1106_031106_firstamericans.html
 
[1] Mastodon tusk fragment with
polished and probably worked edge (Tom
Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin
e/features/clovis/

[2] Two lanceolate basalt points and a
slate perforator (Tom
Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin
e/features/clovis/
11,500 YBN
[9500 BC] 2 		581) Spear Head from Clovis, New
Mexico. 1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2003/11/1106_031106_firstamericans.html
2. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2003/11/1106_031106_firstamericans.html
 
[1] Fluted projectile points unearthed
in Clovis, New Mexico, provide the
earliest reliably dated evidence of
human habitation in North America. The
11,500-year-old artifacts have been
associated with small groups of people
believed to have descended from
Siberian ancestors who crossed an
ancient land mass that spanned Siberia
and Alaska. Some scientists are now
pondering whether other early peoples
arrived in the Americas by
boat. Photograph copyright David L.
Arnold, National Geographic Society
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/2003/11/1106_031106_firstamerica
ns.html
11,500 YBN
[9500 BC] 8 9 		719) Earliest evidence of rice
cultivation in China.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
2. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
3. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
4. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
5. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
6. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
7. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
8. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full {11500}
9. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
{3500 YBN}
Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan provinces),
China7  
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg

[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
11,130 YBN
[9130 BC] 3 		1292)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Göbekli Tepe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekl
i_Tepe
2. ^ "Göbekli Tepe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekl
i_Tepe
3. ^ "Göbekli Tepe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekl
i_Tepe (=9000bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Neolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic
2 =9130BCE 
[1] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm

[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com
/2006/061203-gobekli-tepe-turquia-.-en-b
usca-del-paraiso-de-adan-y-eva.php
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 12 13 		606) Oldest city, Jericho.7

Jericho is located in the West bank,
near the Jordan river (east of
Mediterranean).8

Jericho is one of the earliest
continuous settlements on Earth,
starting from perhaps about 9000 bce.
This city provides evidence of the
first permanent settlements.9
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "West bank". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_bank
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ "West bank". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_bank
9. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>.
10. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
11. ^
"Jericho." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jericho
12. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
13. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {000
YBN} {8,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Kathleen Kenyon, "Excavations
at Jericho", 1981,
p6. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_1981
.pdf}
Jericho, (modern West Bank10 )
Palestine11  
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg

[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 22 23 		608) Oldest saddle quern {KWRN15 }.16
17 18

A saddle quern consists simply of a
flat stone bed and a rounded stone to
be operated manually against it19 , to
grind grain into flour.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
4. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
5. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
8. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
9. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
11. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
12. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
13. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
14. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
15. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
16. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
17. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
18. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
19. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
20. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
21. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
22. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
23. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Abu Hureyra, Syria21  
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg

[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 6 7 8 		617) Goats kept, fed, milked, and
killed for food.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000 YBN}
5. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "The
History of the Domestication of Goats".
About.com.
6. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of
the Domestication of Goats". About.com.
7. ^
Breeds of Livestock; Goats: (Capra
hircus). Oklahoma State University
Board of Regents
Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication
and early agriculture in the
Mediterranean Basin: Origins,
diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori,
Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).5  
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg

[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 4 		1290)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Spirit Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Cave

2. ^ "Spirit Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Cave

3. ^ "Spirit Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Cave

4. ^ "Spirit Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Cave
 (=9000bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Neolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic
Pangmapha district, Mae Hong Son
Province, northwest Thailand3  		 
10,700 YBN
[8700 BC] 24 		829) Humans shape metal objects.15 16
Ol
dest copper (and metal) artifact, from
Northern Iraq.17 18
This starts the
"Copper Age" (Chalcolithic).19
This is
a copper ear ring.20
Copper is the
first metal shaped by humans.21
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
2. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
3. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
4. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
5. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
6. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
7. ^ "Chalcolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithi
c
8. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
9. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
10. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
11. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
12. ^ "Chalcolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithi
c
13. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
14. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
15. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
16. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
17. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
18. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
19. ^ "Chalcolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithi
c
20. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
21. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
22. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
23. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
24. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp {700 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.kkhec.ac.ir/Iran%20informatio
n/iranian_copper_iran_exports.htm
Northern Iraq22 23   
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 7 8 		6315) Sheep raised for wool, skins,
meat and dung (for fuel).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology
of domestic animals: an introductory
text. CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN
9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early
agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin:
Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
6. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early
agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin:
Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
8. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A.
(2003). Groundbreaking Scientific
Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries
of the Ancient World. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3
Northern Zagros to southeastern
Anatolia5 |(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean6  
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg


[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
10,350 YBN
[8350 BC] 		828)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Neolithic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic

MORE INFO
[1] "Mesolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
  
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 9 10 		205) Pigs raised and killed for food.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
2. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
3. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
4. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
5. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
6. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
7. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early
agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin:
Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early
agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin:
Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
10. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean5 6
and Island South East Asia7
|southeastern Anatolia8  
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg

[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬:
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 11 12 		614) Oldest evidence of bow and arrow.6


The earliest potential arrow heads date
from about 64,000 ybn in the South
African Sibudu Cave.7 8

The first actual bow fragments are the
Stellmoor bows from northern Germany.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

8. ^ ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
9. ^ Collins, Desmond
(1973). Background to archaeology:
Britain in its European setting
(Revised ed.). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0521201551.
10. ^ ^ Lucinda Backwella,
Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley
(june 2008). "Middle Stone Age bone
tools from the Howiesons Poort layers,
Sibudu Cave, South Africa".
ScienceDirect.
11. ^ ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
{10,000YBN}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jim Hamm, "The Traditional
Bowyer's Bible", Volume 2, 2000,
p86. books.google.com/books?id=D9yQiKTt
prAC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86
Stellmoor (near Hamburg), Germany10
 
[1] Stellmoor bows UNKNOWN
source: http://img.photobucket.com/album
s/v692/Rodsbucket/Primitive%20Bows/paste
dGraphic5.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 14 15 16 		1259) Clay tokens of various
geometrical shapes are used for
counting in Sumer.7 8

From the neolithic age (7000 BCE) on,
stone tokens used to represent counted
units, such as sheep or grain, are
gradually replaced by tokens of baked
clay. Clay has the advantage of being
formed into any desired shape. Clay
tokens are particularly popular in
stoneless Babylonia. Large quantities
of clay tokens found in various
geometric shapes such as spheres,
rhombuses, discs, and tetrahedrons are
thought to represent different specific
numerical values.9

These tokens may initially be kept in
small bags of materials like cloth or
leather. But after 4000 BCE10 , tokens
will be kept inside clay bullas
(spherical clay sealed containers used
to protect the contents until
broken).11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
2. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
3. ^ Fischer, "A
History of Writing", 2001, p25.
4. ^ Nissen,
et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping", 1993,
p11.
5. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
6. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
7. ^ Fischer, "A
History of Writing", 2001, p25.
8. ^ Nissen,
et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping", 1993,
p11.
9. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
10. ^ Fischer, "A
History of Writing", 2001, p25.
11. ^
Nissen, et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping",
1993, p11.
12. ^ Fischer, "A History of
Writing", 2001, p25.
13. ^ Nissen, et al,
"Archaic Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
14. ^
Fischer, "A History of Writing", 2001,
p25.
15. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
16. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
eastern Iran, southern Turkey, Israel,
Sumer (modern Iraq)12 |Babylonia13
|Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran 
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg

[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 8 9 		6233)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>.
2. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>.
3. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>.
4. ^ Kathleen Kenyon, "Excavations at
Jericho", 1981,
p6-7. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf}
5. ^ Kathleen Kenyon, "Excavations at
Jericho", 1981, p436,
502. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_198
1.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>.
8. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {8000 BCE}
9. ^ Kathleen
Kenyon, "Excavations at Jericho", 1981,
p6-7. {8000
BCE} {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_198
1.pdf}
Jericho (modern West Bank)7  
[1] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf

[2] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 10 11 		6316) Cows raised for milk, meat and
for plowing.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
3. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
6. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
7. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
8. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
9. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
10. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
11. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
upper Euphrates Valley9  
[1] The aurochs ( /ˈaʊrɒks/ or
/ˈɔrɒks/; also urus, Bos
primigenius), the ancestor of domestic
cattle, were a type of large wild
cattle which inhabited Europe, Asia and
North Africa, but is now extinct; it
survived in Europe until
1627. Description Español: Uro
(Bos taurus primigenius), agriotipo de
las vacas y toros domésticos Original
caption: ''Augsburger Abbildung des Urs
(echten Auerochsen).'' Translation
(partly): ''Augsburg depiction of an
Auerochs.'' This painting is a copy of
the original that was present at a
merchant in Augsburg in the 19th
century. The original probably dates
from the 16th century. It is not known
if the original as well the copy still
exist somewhere (Van Vuure,
2003). Size: 5.0 x 3.1 in² (12.8 x
7.8 cm²) Date Brehms Tierleben,
Small Edition
1927 Source http://animalpicturesar
chive.com/ArchOLD-6/1188058432.jpg Au
thor Unkown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Egyptian_Domest
icated_Animals.jpg/1024px-Egyptian_Domes
ticated_Animals.jpg

[2] Description English:
Cows Date Source Own
work Author Route11 Permission
(Reusing this file) Own Work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ur-painting.jpg
/1024px-Ur-painting.jpg
9,300 YBN
[7300 BC] 9 10 		6185) Wheat grown.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
2. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
3. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
4. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
5. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
6. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
7. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
8. ^ Which came first, monumental
building projects or farming?". Archaeo
News. 2008-12-14.
9. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {9300 YBN}
10. ^ Which
came first, monumental building
projects or farming?". Archaeo News.
2008-12-14.
southeastern Turkey and northern Syria7
 (Nevali Cori, Turkey8 ) 
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
9,240 YBN
[7240 BC] 8 9 		1478) Oldest domesticated plants in the
Americas. Squash grown in Peru.6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
6. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
7. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
8. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {9240}
9. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/28/scienc
e/28cnd-squash.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=s
login&adxnnlx=1183057296-Up92joKUeK1fZr+
Wt4cXsQ (10000ybn)
Paiján, Peru7  
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 12 		273) Woven cloth. The oldest woven
cloth is made from flax, comes from
Çayönü, Turkey.7 8 9

Weaving apparently precedes spinning of
yarn; woven fabrics probably originate
from basket weaving.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
2. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
3. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
4. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
5. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
6. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
7. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
8. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
9. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
10. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
11. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
12. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>. {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000)
[2] E. J. W. Barber,
"Prehistoric Textiles: The Development
of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze
...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HnSlynSfeEIC
[3] ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534
Çayönü, Turkey11   
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 6 		1288) Mehrgarh, an Indus Valley
neolithic city begins now.4

Mehrgarh is one of the most important
Neolithic (7000 BCE to 3200 BCE) sites
in archaeology. Mehrgarh lies on the
"Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan,
and is one of the earliest sites with
evidence of farming (wheat and barley)
and herding (cattle, sheep and goats)
in South Asia.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mehrgarh". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh
2. ^ "Mehrgarh". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh
3. ^ "Mehrgarh". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh
4. ^ "Mehrgarh". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh
5. ^ "Mehrgarh". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh
6. ^ "Mehrgarh". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh

MORE INFO
[1] "Indus Valley Civilization".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valle
y_Civilization
 
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg

[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 3 		1289)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jarmo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarmo
2. ^ "Jarmo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarmo
3. ^ "Jarmo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarmo
(=7000bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Timeline of Ancient
Mesopotamia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_Ancient_Mesopotamia
Iraq2  
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
8,600 YBN
[6600 BC] 7 		848) Symbols created on a tortoise
shell from a neolithic grave in China
may be the ancestors of Chinese
writing.3

These symbols predate the earliest
recorded writings from Mesopotamia by
more than 2,000 years. The
archaeologists say they bear
similarities to written characters used
thousands of years later during the
Shang dynasty, which lasted from
1700-1100 BC.4

This creates a space of about 5,000
years between these symbols and the
next oldest which may indicate that
they are not related.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "'Earliest writing' found in
China",
BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science
/nature/2956925.stm
2. ^ "'Earliest writing' found in
China",
BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science
/nature/2956925.stm
3. ^ "'Earliest writing' found in
China",
BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science
/nature/2956925.stm
4. ^ "'Earliest writing' found in
China",
BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science
/nature/2956925.stm
5. ^ "'Earliest writing' found in
China",
BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science
/nature/2956925.stm
6. ^
http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun
/66806.htm
7. ^ "'Earliest writing' found in
China",
BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science
/nature/2956925.stm

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/ant/077/Ant07
70031.htm (antiquity2003_tortoise.html)
Jiahu, in central China's Henan
Province6  
[1] This tortoise shell is over 8,000
years old and has inscribed symbols
similar to the Chinese character ''mu''
(meaning ''eye'') in oracle bone
inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. This
may not be the evidence of the
existence of characters 8,000 years
ago, but one thing is for sure, that
the Chinese people had already begun to
express their thoughts through symbols
at that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/1439a64c77
7f51442934daf575c6bc7a.jpg

[2] First attempt at writing on a
tortoise shell. COPYRIGHTED but PD on
wiki
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/2956925.stm
8,410 YBN
[6410 BC] 3 		580)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/html/kennew
ick_man.html
2. ^
http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/html/kennew
ick_man.html
3. ^
http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/html/kennew
ick_man.html
 
[1] t: might be newsweek
image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unl.edu/rhames/course
s/current/current2005.htm

[2] Kennewick reconstruction The face
of Kennewick Man, as reconstructed by
Jim Chatters and Thomas
McClelland. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fir
st/kennewick.html
8,200 YBN
[6200 BC] 3 		1295)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Map". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map
2. ^ "Map". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map
3. ^ "Map". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map
(=6200ybn)

MORE INFO
[1] *Miles Harvey, The Island of
Lost Maps: A True Story of Cartographic
Crime. New York : Random House, 2000
ISBN 0-7679-0826-0, cited above; also
ISBN 0-375-50151-7
Catal Huyuk2  
[1] City plan of Çatal Höyük. The
map is painted on a wall and measures
more than de 2,5 m long. Image courtesy
of Ali Turan in Turkey in maps
www.turkeyinmaps.com COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.infovis.net/printMag.
php?num=110&lang=2

[2] City plan of Çatal Höyük.
Recreation of the original plan, where
you can appreciates the structure of
the city. An erupting volcano also
appars. It's probably the Hasan Dag,
still visible from Çatal Höyük in
the present time. COPYRIGHTED
source: same
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 8 9 		605) Oldest known boat, the Pesse
canoe, a dug-out boat.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant.
ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10
.html
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant.
ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10
.html
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant.
ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10
.html
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Netherlands7  
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg

[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 11 12 		607) Oldest flint sickle.6

A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.7
Oldest flint sickle.8

A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
10. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121–6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
12. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121–6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955

MORE INFO
[1] Banning, E.B. (1998). "The
Neolithic Period: Triumphs of
Architecture, Agriculture, and Art".
Near Eastern Archaeology 61 (4):
188–237. doi:10.2307/3210656. JSTOR
3210656. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F32
10656 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210656
Palestine10  
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg

[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 3 		609) Einkorn (one-seeded wheat1 )
grown.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "einkorn." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/einkorn
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 7 		610) Flax grown.5 The flax plant is
the source of flaxseed for linseed oil
and fiber for linen products.6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "flax." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/flax
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "flax." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/flax
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 5 		612) Barley grown.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 9 		613) Millet grown.6 Millet is a grass
grown for its grains and as hay to feed
animals.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "millet." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/millet
5. ^ "hay." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/hay
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
7. ^ "millet." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/millet
8. ^ "hay." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/hay
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
 
[1] Pearl millet developed by USDA-ARS
and grown at Tifton, GA.
Non-copyrightable image courtesy of the
USDA-ARS. (From the English
Wikipedia) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Grain_millet%2C_early
_grain_fill%2C_Tifton%2C_7-3-02.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 14 		616) City "Catal Hüyük" {CaTL HvEK10
or KeToL HoYqK11 } in modern Turkey.12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=catalh
oyuk
2. ^ "Çatal Hüyük." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 20 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atalh-y-k
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=catalh
oyuk
5. ^ "Çatal Hüyük." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 20 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atalh-y-k
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=catalh
oyuk
8. ^ "Çatal Hüyük." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 20 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atalh-y-k
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=catalh
oyuk
11. ^ "Çatal Hüyük." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 20 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atalh-y-k
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
13. ^ "Çatal Hüyük." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atalh-y-k
14. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Çatal Hüyük, (modern:) Turkey13
 
[1] Excavations at the South Area of
Çatal Höyük Çatal Höyük,
Turkey GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG

[2] On-site restoration of a typical
Çatal Höyük interior Inside a model
of a neolithic house at Catal
Hüyük GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catal_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Restauration_B.
JPG
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 11 		6220) Earliest drum.7 Giant frame
drums are used in the temples of
ancient Sumer. Mesopotamian objects
from about 3000 bce depict frame drums
and small cylindrical drums played
horizontally and vertically. Early
Egyptian artifacts (c. 4000 bce) show a
drum with skins stretched by a network
of thongs.8

Mesopotamian art works show at least
four types of drums: 1) shallow or
frame drums of all sizes, 2) a small
cylindrical drum held in a horizontal
position, 3) a large drum played with
foot, and 4) a small drum with one
head, carried vertically on a belt and
struck with both hands.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
2. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
3. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
4. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
5. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
6. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
7. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
8. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
9. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p74.
10. ^
"drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
11. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>. {6000 BC}
Moravia, Czeck Republic10  
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
7,300 YBN
[5300 BC] 3 		626)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ubaid period". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaid_perio
d (5300 BCE)
2. ^ "Ubaid period". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaid_perio
d (5300 BCE)
3. ^ "Ubaid period (5300 BCE)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaid_perio
d (5300 BCE) (=5300bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eridu". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridu
[2] "Eridu". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2897/Eridu
[3] "Mesopotamia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia

[4] "Timeline of Ancient Mesopotamia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_Ancient_Mesopotamia
south Iraq, shore of Persian Gulf2
 
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 10 11 		618) City of Sumer (in Mesopotamia,
modern southern Iraq6 ).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Sumer." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sumer
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Sumer." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sumer
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Sumer." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sumer
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ "Sumer." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sumer
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
11. ^ "Sumer". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/573176/Sumer>.
Sumer. (Mesopotamia, modern southern
Iraq8 )9  		 
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 3 		619) City of Ur (in Sumer1 ).2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Ur." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ur
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
  
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 2 		620)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 10 11 12 13 		627) Oldest evidence of copper melting
and casting.7

Moorey writes "Casting involves, at its
simplest, pouring liquid metal into a
suitably shaped mould of baked clay,
stone, metal, or sand. The earliest
moulds to survive in archaeological
contexts are one-piece, of clay or
stone. They remained usual for the
manufacture of simple tools, flat
weapons such as tanged arrowheads,
bar-ingots...and jewellery. Simple
jewellery moulds of stone are more
common in excavations than their more
complex relatives used for tools and
weapons. ...
Two-piece (bivalve) moulds,
probably of baked clay at first, were
introduced some time in the fourth
millenium, if not before, with core
pieces for sockets when required, as on
axe, adze- and hammer0heads. ...It was
probably common practice to cast the
simple tools in open moulds and
subsequently hammer them to the desired
shape. ...".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
2. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
3. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
4. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
5. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
6. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient
Mesopotamian Materials and Industries.
The Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p269-270. {Mesopotamiun_Materials_and_I
ndustries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
7. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
8. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient
Mesopotamian Materials and Industries.
The Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p269-270. {Mesopotamiun_Materials_and_I
ndustries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
9. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
10. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) {c7000 YBN}
11. ^ P.t.,
Craddock. “From hearth to furnace :
evidences for the earliest metal
smelting technologies in the Eastern
Mediterranean.” Paléorient (2000) :
151-165.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_2_4716 {8000BCE}
{article_paleo_0153-9345_2000_num_26_2
_4716.pdf} {5500BCE}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 BCE)
(=3500bce)
13. ^ "Copper (5000 BCE)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
(5000 BCE) (=5000bce) {5000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Metals and Metallurgy in the
Chalcolithic Period Noël H.
Gale Bulletin of the American Schools
of Oriental Research No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp. 37-61 Published by:
The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357261
Belovode, Eastern Serbia9  
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 2 		631)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 5 6 		727) Earliest Reed boats.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

5. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Kuwait4  
[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918


[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 5 6 		1296) The city of Uruk is founded in
southern Babylonia. Uruk will last
until the 400s CE.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p4.
2. ^ Nissen, et al,
"Archaic Bookkeeping", 1993, p4.
3. ^
Nissen, et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping",
1993, p4.
4. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p4.
5. ^ Nissen, et al,
"Archaic Bookkeeping", 1993, p4.
6. ^
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/uruk/hd
_uruk.htm (=3500BCE)
Uruk, southern Babylonia4  
[1] Excavated walls at the site of
Uruk. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd
/uruk/hd_uruk.htm

[2] Kish (Sumer) localisation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Meso2mil.JPG
6,900 YBN
[4900 BC] 11 12 13 		648) Oldest evidence of sail boat.7 8
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
3. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
5. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
6. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
7. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
8. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
9. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
10. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p9.
11.
^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
{5300-4900 BC}
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p9. {5000-4001 BC}
13. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {3000 BC}
Mesopotamia9 10  
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
6,500 YBN
[01/01/4500 BC] 3 		1263)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "History of writing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
writing
2. ^ "Vinca script". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinca_scrip
t
3. ^
http://freepages.history.rootsweb.com/~c
atshaman/121Indus/0iconogrph.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of languages by first
written accounts". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lan
guages_by_first_written_accounts
Vinča, a suburb of Belgrade
(Serbia) 
[1] Drawing of a clay vessel unearthed
near Vinca. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vinca_vessel.png

[2] Amulets from the Vinca culture in
Tartania Balkan ca 4500 BCE
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://freepages.history.rootswe
b.com/~catshaman/121Indus/0iconogrph.htm

6,500 YBN
[4500 BC] 5 6 		1293)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/72595.stm
2. ^ "Nabta Playa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabta_Playa

3. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/72595.stm
4. ^ "Nabta Playa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabta_Playa

5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/72595.stm (=6500ybn)
6. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/20
00/418.html (=7000ybn)
Nabta, Egypt3 4  
[1] A stone circle at Nabta Playa in
Egypt's Western Desert is thought to
act as a calendar and was constructed
around 7000 BC [t error is 6,500 years
old so 4,500 BCE] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/prehistory.htm

[2] None COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://hej3.as.utexas.edu/~www/w
heel/africa/blueprint.htm
6,250 YBN
[4250 BC] 7 		720) Earliest evidence of Corn (maize)
grown in Mexico.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
2. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
3. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
4. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
5. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
6. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
7. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short {6250}

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000)
Oaxaca, Mexico6  
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 		633)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
  
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 2 		1061)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.imh.org/imh/kyhpl1b.html#xtoc
id2243625
2. ^ "Saddle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddle
Ukraine1   
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 13 		6232) Sun-dried mud brick and mud-brick
house.8

Mud brick, dried in the sun, is one of
the first building materials. Before
sun-dried bricks, perhaps mud deposited
by a river could be used to shape into
huts or building units for protection
from the weather. In the ancient city
of Ur, in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq),
the first true arch of sun-baked brick
is made about 4000 BCE. The arch itself
has not survived, but a description of
it includes the first known reference
to mortars other than mud. A bitumen
mixture is used to bind the bricks
together. Burned brick can be produced
simply by containing a fire with mud
bricks.9

The early Ubaid period settlement is
founded on marshy soil and may have
been a camping place, because no walls
exist at this level. A thick layer of
reed matting is the earliest sign of
occupation. Above that in later Ubaid
levels, walls are found to have been
built, first of pisé (Clay, earth, or
gravel beaten down until it is solid
and used as a building material for
floors and walls10 ) and then
mud-brick.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
6. ^ "pisé." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pis
7. ^ I. E. S. Edwards, "The Cambridge
Ancient History", 1970,
p369. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VbPz-5RCx_YC
8. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
9. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
10. ^ "pisé." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pis
11. ^ I. E. S. Edwards, "The Cambridge
Ancient History", 1970,
p369. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VbPz-5RCx_YC
12. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
13. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {4000 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)12  
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC

source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg

[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
5,800 YBN
[3800 BC] 4 		6235)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}
2. ^ Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}
3. ^ Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}
4. ^ Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf} {3800 BCE}
Harran, Mesopotamia3  
[1] Image of map from: Leo Bagrow,
''History of Cartography'', Second
Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf} PD
source: Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}

[2] Redrawing with
interpretation UNKNOWN
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ancientimages/100E.JPEG
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 11 		621) Earliest plow (used to break up
ground7 ).8 Pictographs from
Mesopotamia show a beam-ard, a simple
machine that scratches a trench without
turning the soil.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "plow." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plough
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "plow." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plough
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA2
7. ^ "plow." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plough
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA2
10. ^ Lal, R., D.C. Reicosky, and J.D.
Hanson. “Evolution of the Plow over
10,000 Years and the Rationale for
No-till Farming.” Soil and Tillage
Research 93.1 (2007):
1–12. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S0167198706002522
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] M. Green/H. J. Nissen,
Zeichenliste der Archaischen Texte aus
Uruk (ATU 2; Berlin 1987)
Mesopotamia10  
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN

source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png

[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 9 		622) Irrigation (artificial supply of
water to land to maintain or increase
yields of food crops6 ), in the "Middle
east" (eastern part of Mediterranean).7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "irrigation." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irrigation
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "irrigation." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irrigation
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "irrigation." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irrigation
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Middle east (eastern part of
Mediterranean)8  
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 6 		625) Donkeys raised and used for
transport.4

Perhaps the donkey also provides food
in times of starvation.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
 
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 9 		634) The Egyptian Calendar.7 The
"years" of ancient Egyptian history
consisted of 12 months of 30 days each
and 5 additional ("epagomenal") days at
the end.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 2 		636)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 23 24 		646) The earliest known wheel, a
pottery wheel, in Mesopotamia.16 17

Sir Leonard Woolley who excavates Ur
(in modern Iraq) between 1922 and 1934,
writes "...Low down in this 'Uruk'
stratum we found a remarkable object, a
heavy disc of baked clay about 3 feet
in diameter with a central pivot-hole
and a small hole near the rim to take a
handle; it was a pooter's wheel as used
by the makers of the Uruk vases, the
earliest known example of that
invention whereby man passed from the
age of pure handicraft into the age of
machinery....".18

Moorey writes "There are no certain
illustrations of potters' wheels from
Mesopotamia and the material evidence
is ... meagre... No certain example of
a tournette - a slowly turning wheel-
has yet been published from a
prehistoric context, though their use
has been assumed from the evidence of
the vessels produced on them.
Nissen...has postulated the emergence
of a 'pivoted working surface
(tournette)' towards the end of the
Halaf period {ULSF: 5500 BC}, largely
on the basis of changes in the type and
layout of painted patterns on pottery
at this time. By the end of the Ubaid
period {ULSF: 4000BC}, he argued, a
more sophisticated device had appeared
to be fully exploited for the first
time in the Uruk period: 'setting the
wheel's axle in bearings and hence the
creation of an actual potter's wheel.
It is possible that plano-convex disks
of gypsum from Tell Abada in the
Hamrin, where there is other evidence
for on-site pottery manufacture, may
have been pivoted for pot-building on
the upper flat surface...".19

Another similar pottery wheel dates
back to the Protoliterate Period which
is approximately 3500BC-2900BC. The
piece was excavated at the site of
Choga Mish (Iran) and is one of a few
pieces to have survived the excavation
due to the destruction of the dig house
during the Iranian Revolution.20
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Sir Leonard Woolley, "Ur 'of the
Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
2. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
4. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
7. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
10. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
12. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
13. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
14. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
15. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
16. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
17. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
18. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
19. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient
Mesopotamian Materials and Industries.
The Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p146. {Mesopotamiun_Materials_and_Indus
tries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
20. ^ email from Monica Velez, The
Oriental Institute, University of
Chicago
21. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
22. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
23. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE) (=3500BCE) {35000BCE}
24. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE) (=3500BCE)
{35000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Margaret Sax, Nigel D. Meeks
and Dominique Collon , "The Early
Development of the Lapidary Engraving
Wheel in Mesopotamia", Iraq, Vol. 62,
(2000), pp. 157-176 Published by:
British Institute for the Study of
Iraq Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200487
[2]
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/image_archiv
e/ue/uea.html
[3] Stuart Piggott, "The earliest
wheeled transport : from the Atlantic
Coast to the Caspian Sea", Thames and
Hudson, 1983
[4] "WORLD'S OLDEST WHEEL FOUND
IN SLOVENIA" March
2003 http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_re
lations/background_information/culture/w
orlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/
Mesopotamia21 22 (and a similar
pottery wheel from Choga Mish,
Iran) 
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg

[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 15 16 17 		1260) Writing (on clay tablets). First
numbers. First stamp (or seal).11

The first writing begins as numbers on
clay tablets and stamped seals12 .

This system of writing on clay tablets
will evolve into modern written
language. Writing was first used to
solve simple accounting problems; for
example to count large numbers of sheep
or bales of hay. Writing may have
arisen out of the need for arithmetic
and storage of information, but will
grow to record and perpetuate stories,
songs, and most of what we know about
human history.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
4. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
5. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
6. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
8. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
9. ^ "Sexagesimal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal

10. ^ "0 (number)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0_%28number
%29
11. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
12. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, pp13-14.
13. ^ "Sexagesimal".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal

14. ^ "0 (number)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0_%28number
%29
15. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm {5500 YBN}
16. ^ "writing."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>. {3500 BC}
17. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {for
stamp)3500BC}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
Sumer (Syria, Sumer, Highland
Iran) 
[1] MS 3007 NUMBERS 10 AND 5 +4 + 4
+ 4 + 5 + 3 ms3007MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 elliptical tablet,
6,7x4,4x1,9 cm, 2+1 compartments, 2 of
which with 3 columns of single numbers
as small circular
depressions. Commentary:Numerical or
counting tablets with their more
complex combination of decimal and
sexagesimal numbers are a further step
from the tallies with the simplest form
of counting in one-to-one
correspondence. They were used parallel
with the bulla-envelopes with tokens.
The commodity counted was not indicated
in the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms3007.jpg

[2] MS 4647 NUMBERS 3+4, POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 3 MEASURES OF BARLEY AND 4
MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY, IN
SEXAGESIMAL NOTATION ms4647MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 tablet, 4,4x5,0x2,3 cm,
2 lines with 3 small circular
depressions and 4 short
wedges. Numerical or counting
tablets with their more complex
combination of decimal and sexagesimal
numbers are a further step from the
tallies with the simplest form of
counting in one-to-one correspondence.
They were used parallel with the
bulla-envelopes with tokens. The
commodity counted was not indicated in
the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. Exhibited: The Norwegian
Intitute of Palaeography and Historical
Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4647.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 4 		1285) Symbols on pottery from Harrapa
an Indus Valley civilization.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/334517.stm
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/334517.stm
3. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/334517.stm
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/334517.stm

MORE INFO
[1] "Indus script". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scrip
t
[2]
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/292/5526/2418
Harrapa, Indus Valley3  
[1] The fragments of pottery are about
5,500 years old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/334517.stm
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 11 12 13 		6223) Sundial, earliest timekeeping
device. The first device for indicating
the time of day was probably the
gnomon, dating from about 3500 bc. The
gnomon is a vertical object and the
length of it's shadow indicates the
time of day. The earliest known sundial
still preserved is an Egyptian shadow
clock of green schist dating to the 8th
century BCE.6 The hour-glass, which
uses a fixed quantity of fine sand
falling through a small hole, is also
invented around this time.7 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
2. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
3. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
4. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
5. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
6. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
7. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
8. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
10.
^ "sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
11. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
12. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
13. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
{2600-2501 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p15
China8 9 and Chaldea10  
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg

[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
5,490 YBN
[3490 BC] 8 9 		702) Earliest cotton grown.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
6. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {5490 YBN}
9. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}
Northwestern Peru6 |Indus valley7
 
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
5,400 YBN
[3400 BC] 2 		913)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
  
5,310 YBN
[3310 BC] 14 15 16 		704) Ox pulled vehicles with wheels in
Krakow Poland. This is the earliest
evidence for both animal pulled
vehicles and wheeled vehicles.9 10 The
earliest instance of a wheeled vehicle
is from the TRB (Funnel Beaker) culture
in Bronocice, in north-east Krakow
Poland and is a pot incised decoration
that has the repeated motif of a
schematically rendered four-wheeled
vehicle. Note the Y-junction with the
yoke.11

Stuart and Piggot reject the claim that
the first wheeled vehicle originated in
Sumer, home of the earliest pottery
wheel, writing: "...The calibrated
range of date for phase III at
Bronocice, to which the cup with the
wagon representation belongs is c.
3530-3310 BC, but it would be improper
to compare this date with that of
3200-3100 BC assigned to Uruk IVa, in
which sledge-on-wheels pictographs
appear. ...".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The Earliest
Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
5. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ Stuart
and Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
7. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
8. ^ Stuart
and Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
9. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
10. ^
Stuart and Piggott, "The Earliest
Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
11. ^ Stuart
and Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
12. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
13. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
14. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
{c3530-3310 BC}
15. ^ Stuart and Piggott,
"The Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63. {Standard of Ur) 2600-2400
BC}
16. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Zettler, Richard L.; Horne,
Lee; Hansen, Donald P.; Pittman, Holly.
Treasures from the royal tombs of Ur,
pp. 45-47. UPenn Museum of Archaeology,
1998. ISBN 9780924171543
[2]
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_stand
ard_of_ur.aspx
(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture)
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland13  
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.

[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
5,300 YBN
[3300 BC] 52 53 		1261) Symbols of the Alphabet.29

Now along with numbers on clay tablets
are symbols that represent the
commodity (such as cows, sheep, and
cereals30 ).31 These symbols represent
the earliest record of what will become
the modern alphabet.32

First training and industry of
scribes.33 This will ultimately evolve
into the modern school system.34
Writing will be continuously taught
eventually in all major civilizations
(even through the Dark Ages) until
now.35

These tablets are all economic records,
used to keep a record of objects owned
or traded36 , and contain no stories.37
 Writing begins as a method for
increasing the human memory to keep
track of the many transactions of a
city, and not for the purpose of
recording or remembering stories.38

The symbol for ox ("gud" in Sumerian39
, later "aleph" in Egyptian) will
become the letter "A" (alpha), the
symbol for house, (/e/ in Sumerian and
/bitum/ in Akkadian 40 ) will become
"B" (beta).41

These symbols are drawn with curved
lines which will later be replaced by
the easier and faster to draw straight
lines and later the wedges of
cuneiform.42 In Latin "Cuneus" means
"wedge".43

Around 1200 symbols have been
identified in these ancient texts,
around 60 are numerals.44

This writing is evidence that most of
the 30 or so basic sounds of humans
language were already in use by the
origin of writing.45

One text from this time is a "titles
and professions", which is the most
popular list, copies of these lists
span over a thousand years. This list
describes titles and professions
probably arranged according to rank,
starting with the symbol for king, and
is evidence that the social order is
already well defined in a strict
hierarchy by the time writing is
invented.46

This early writing shows that there is
a standardized system of measures in
place. Tablets describe quantities of
bread, jars of beer, silver, barley,
fish, cows, lambs, laborer-days, and
specific measures of land.47

Among tablets found in the third
millenium BCE (2000-2999 BCE) are long
lists of names of trees, plants,
animals (including insects and birds),
countries, cities and villages, and of
stones and minerals.48 These lists
represent a familiarity with botany,
zoology, geography and mineralology.49
Sumerian scholars also prepared
mathematical tables and detailed
mathematical problems with their
solutions.50

From tablets dating to 2000 BCE,
scribes who identify themselves all
appear to be males indicating that few
if any females are formally taught to
be scribes. In addition the parents of
the scribes are all high ranking
wealthy people.51
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
2. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
3. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
4. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
5. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, p19.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
p105.
8. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
9. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
10. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, p19.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington
12. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
13. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ A Manual of Sumerian
grammar and texts, Hayes, 2000, p36.
16. ^
Ted Huntington
17. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
18. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
19. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, p19.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington
21. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^ Ted Huntington
24. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
25. ^ Ted Huntington
26. ^ A
Manual of Sumerian grammar and texts,
Hayes, 2000, p36.
27. ^ Ted Huntington
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
30. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
31. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, p19.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington
33. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
34. ^ Ted Huntington
35. ^ Ted Huntington
36. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
37. ^ Ted Huntington
38. ^ Ted
Huntington
39. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum1
0.htm#xref_18
40. ^ A Manual of Sumerian grammar and
texts, Hayes, 2000, p36.
41. ^ Ted
Huntington
42. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p118.
43. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, p118.
44. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, p25.
45. ^ Ted
Huntington.
46. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p111.
47. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, pp49-57.
48. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), 5.
49. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 5.
50. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 5.
51. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), 3.
52. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm (3300bce)
53. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993 (3100bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://cdli.ucla.edu:16080/wiki/index.ph
p/The_Late_Uruk_period
[2] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
Sumer 
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg

[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
5,250 YBN
[3250 BC] 3 		637) Scribes in Sumer (seeing that
writing is smudged when writing in
columns) change from writing in columns
to writing left to right. Pictures are
also turned 90 degrees.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
  
5,200 YBN
[3200 BC] 10 11 		650) Oldest artifact with cuneiform
writing, at Uruk5 which is a large
city at this time6 . These are clay and
stone tablets that have names of humans
(thought to be wage lists), lists of
objects, plus receipts and memos.
Pictures are not drawn with pointed
reed, but drawn with (diagonally) cut
reed-stem pressed in to the wet clay to
make wedges. What were pictures (of
oxen, etc.) are changed to be made of
all single presses, not pictures drawn
freehand.7 8 This writing contains
about 600 unique symbols.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p32
2. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p32
4. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm
5. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116. (c3100BCE
and end of 4th millenium), p116.
6. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116. (c3100BCE
and end of 4th millenium), p116.
7. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993). p32
8. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm
9. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm
10. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm (=3200BCE)
11. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116. (c3100BCE
and end of 4th millenium) (=c3100BCE
end of 4th millenium)
 
[1] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png

5,200 YBN
[3200 BC] 6 		1266) Earliest writing in Egypt.2
a
group ivory, bone and stone tags
attached to jugs, bags and boxes
containing linens and oils in the tomb
of King Scorpian I in Egypt.3


Günter Dreyer, director of the German
Institute of Archaeology in Cairo,
found writing on a group ivory, bone
and stone tags attached to jugs, bags
and boxes containing linens and oils in
the tomb of King Scorpian I in Egypt
which date to around 3,400 to 3,200
BCE. The tags are thought to indicate
the quantity or size (on number tags)
and the origin location or institution
of the commodities.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Mattessich (2002). "The
oldest writings, and inventory tags of
Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal
29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4
2. ^ Richard Mattessich (2002). "The
oldest writings, and inventory tags of
Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal
29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4
3. ^ Richard Mattessich (2002). "The
oldest writings, and inventory tags of
Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal
29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4
4. ^ Richard Mattessich (2002). "The
oldest writings, and inventory tags of
Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal
29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4
5. ^ Richard Mattessich (2002). "The
oldest writings, and inventory tags of
Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal
29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4
6. ^ Richard Mattessich (2002). "The
oldest writings, and inventory tags of
Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal
29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4

MORE INFO
[1] "Egyptian hieroglyphs".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hi
eroglyphs (3400bce-3200bce)
(Tomb U-j supposedly of King Scorpian,
Royal Cemetery of:) Abydos (modern:)
Umm el-Qa'ab5  
[1] Figure 1 from: Richard Mattessich
(2002). ''The oldest writings, and
inventory tags of Egypt''. Accounting
Historians Journal 29 (1): 195–208.
JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069
8264

[2] These insciptions show early
writing making the transition from
pictorial to phonetic
meaning. Courtesy Gunter Dreyer,
German Institute of Archaeology,
Cairo. Dreyer says the symbols for a
stork and a chair found on one label
''make no sense as symbols'' literally
interpreted. In subsequent
hieroglyphics, however, they would have
the phonetic significance of
''Ba-fet,'' a city on the Nile Delta.
Thus Dreyer concludes the symbols are
actually writing that inform us that
the commodity attached to the tag came
from Ba-fet. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://whyfiles.org/079writing/2
.html
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 3 		638)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
  
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 2 		640)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p35
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p35
  
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 4 		641) The Narmer Palette, early Egyptian
hieroglyphic writing.2

Narmer palette (tablet) carved with
pictures showing unification of Egypt
under king Narmer, who starts the first
Egyptian Dynasty of history (Dynasty
1). The top of the palette has two
faces of the cow-headed goddess Hathor.
Between the Hathor heads is name of
Narmer, a "n'r" fish and a "mr" chisel
(this is the oldest egyptian writing).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p36
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p36
3. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p36
4. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p36

MORE INFO
[1] Wengrow, David, "The
archaeology of early Egypt : social
transformations in north-east Africa,
10,000 to 2650 BC", Cambridge
University Press, 2006, ISBN
978-0521835862 p.207
 
[1] Reverse and obverse sides of Narmer
Palette, this facsimile on display at
the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto,
Canada Image:NarmerPalette ROM.jpg by
Captmondo, gamma adjusted to bring out
more detail at lower resolutions PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NarmerPalette_R
OM-gamma.jpg/1280px-NarmerPalette_ROM-ga
mma.jpg
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 2 		642)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p3
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p3
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 14 15 16 		628) Oldest evidence of bronze (copper
mixed with tin) melted, and casted.9 10


Figurines of men and women from Tell
Judaidah, Turkey, are the oldest
examples of true bronze (combination of
copper and tin) known.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
2. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
3. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
4. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
5. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
6. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
7. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
8. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
9. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
10. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
11. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
12. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
13. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
14. ^ "Artifacts
provide insights on Fertile Crescent",
University of Chicago News Office, Jan.
12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
16. ^ "Bronze (late
3000 BCE)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE) (late 3000bce) {Late
3000 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Copper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
[2] V. Gordon Childe, "The Bronze Age",
Cambridge University Press, 2011
http://books.google.com/books?id=Fxb9brY
SPVYC
[3] "Bronze". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE)
[4] "Bronze Age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age
[5]
http://www.asa3.org/archive/ASA/199604/0
288.html
Tell Judaidah, Turkey12 |Egypt13  
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg

[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		645)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		647)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		649)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		651) Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian
languages all use cuneiform writing.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p33
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p33
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		653)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		664)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		665)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		666) Hemp grown in China.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 3 		668) Silk making in China.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		669) Evidence of the wheel in China.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		670)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		671) Evidence of the arch in Egypt. 1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		672)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 3 		673)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Egypt2   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 5 		675) Earliest silver objects, in Ur. 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Ur4   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 7 		676) Melting wax in clay (cire-perdu)
metal casting.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Lost wax casting". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_wax_ca
sting
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Lost wax casting". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_wax_ca
sting
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Lost wax casting". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_wax_ca
sting
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 26 27 		1265) Written symbols combined to form
words.14

In the proto-cuneiform Sumarian script,
symbols are combined to form words
based on their sound.15

Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for
"arrow" that is now also defined as the
Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which
starts with the same sound.16 After
this phonetic abstraction, the
introduction of multi-symbol words,
names and words for which no symbols
had existed can be created.17 For
example, the symbol originally defined
as the Summerian verb "bal" (to dig)
can also be spelled with the syllabic
signs "ba" + "al", while the Akkadian
word for dig ("heru"18 ) sounds
differently.19 (show image if
possible20 )

The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words.21 This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.22

Sumerian contains syllabic symbols,
where a symbol represents a consonent
and a vowel together such as /Bo/
(ball), or /Bv/ (put), although some
vowel sounds have one symbol and are
true letters. This writing will later
be fully alphabetic when the consonents
are represented by one symbol and the
vowel at the end dropped.23

Sumerian and the languages that follow
in the 3000 year history of cuneiform,
all have monophony (one sound has more
than one symbol), and polyphony (many
sounds may be represented by one
symbol).24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
4. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
7. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
8. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
9. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
10. ^
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nisson, 1993, p117.
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
15. ^
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
16. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
17. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nisson, 1993, p117.
18. ^
www.premiumwanadoo.com/cuneiform.languag
es/dictionary/
19. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington
23. ^ Ted Huntington
24. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading
the Past, Ancient Writing from
Cuneiform to the Alphabet", (Berkeley:
University of California Press/British
Museum, 1990), p22.
25. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, 9.
26. ^
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993
(during writing phase Uruk III 3000bce)
27. ^
"Sumer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer
(3200bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565349/A
lphabet.html
Jemdet Nasr25  
[1] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg

[2] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 5 		1268)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Steven Roger Fischer, "A History
of Writing", (London: Reaktion Books,
2001). p46, p57.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Steven Roger
Fischer, "A History of Writing",
(London: Reaktion Books, 2001). p46,
p61.
4. ^ Steven Roger Fischer, "A History
of Writing", (London: Reaktion Books,
2001). p46
5. ^ Steven Roger Fischer, "A
History of Writing", (London: Reaktion
Books, 2001). p46
modern southwest Iran4   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 14 15 		6219) Earliest stringed musical
instrument (lyre and harp).10 11 The
lyre is first depicted in Sumerian art
works around 3000 BC. Harps have the
plane of the strings vertical, not
parallel, to the soundboard. There are
two main types, the "arched harp" in
which the body is curved into an arch,
and an "angular harp", in which the
body and neck form an angle. Sumer has
only arched harps, which originate from
the bow. Arched harps are depicted on a
stone slab from Khafage that dates to
around 3000 BC.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
2. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
3. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p17.
5. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80.
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p17.
7. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
8. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
9. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
10. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80.
11. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p17.
12. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
13. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
14. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80. {-3000 BC}
15. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p17. {-3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur
Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal
Cemetery.", 1934
{Ur_Excavations_Royal_Cemetary_1934.pd
f}
[2]
http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibit
s/267-iraq.html
Sumer (modern Iraq)13  
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg

[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 10 11 12 		6222) Inclined plane (ramp).8

The inclined plane is thought to be
older than any of the other basic
machines, and is based on the concept
that moving an object from a lower to
higher elevation is easier when pushed
up a flatter slope.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
9. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {3000 BC}
11. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p11. {2900
BCE (based on Pyramid of Giza}
12. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p9. {2.4
Million BC}
Egypt? 
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 5 		6226)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p16.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p16.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p16. {3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Ifrah, Georges (2001), The
Universal History of Computing: From
the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN
0471396710.
Mesopotamia4  
[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png
4,980 YBN
[2980 BC] 5 		654)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
3. ^ "Imhotep".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imhotep
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1. {flourished
2980-2950 BCE}
Sakkara, Egypt4  
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
4,925 YBN
[2925 BC] 3 		643) Hieratic script, a cursive script
of traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs
replaces traditional hieroglyphs.
Hieratic script was almost always
written in ink with a reed pen on
papyrus. The word 'hieratikos' means
'priestly' because by the Greco-Roman
period this writing was used only by
priest humans.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hieratic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
2. ^ "Hieratic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
3. ^ "Hieratic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
  
4,800 YBN
[2800 BC] 11 		629)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sumer#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer#Histo
ry
2. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 5.
3. ^ "Archaic
Bookkeeping", p109.
4. ^ "Archaic
Bookkeeping", p117.
5. ^
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565349/A
lphabet.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "Archaic Bookkeeping",
p117.
8. ^
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565349/A
lphabet.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Archaic Bookkeeping",
p117.
11. ^ "Sumer#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer#Histo
ry
  
4,800 YBN
[2800 BC] 4 		1276)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Erech". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erech
2. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp29-31.
3. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p29.
4. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p29.
Sumer, Uruk, Kish, 3   
4,750 YBN
[2750 BC] 10 		320) Earliest metal saw.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
2. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
3. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
{Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
4. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
5. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
6. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
7. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
8. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
9. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
10. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l {2750 BC}
Mesopotamia9  
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml

[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
4,613 YBN
[2613 BC] 3 		652)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sneferu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneferu
2. ^ "Sneferu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneferu
3. ^ "Sneferu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneferu
  
4,600 YBN
[01/01/2600 BC] 2 		1258)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sumer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer
2. ^ "Sumer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer
Sumer  
4,600 YBN
[2600 BC] 6 7 		1269) Enmebaragesi is the earliest
ruler on the Sumerian king list whose
name is attested directly from
archaeological remains, two alabaster
vase fragments with inscriptions about
him found at Nippur - where he is said
to have built the first temple
according to the Sumerian Tummal
chronicle.3

Enmebaragesi is also mentioned in a
section of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which
places Gilgamesh as a historical king
of Uruk.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p23.
2. ^ "En-Men-Barage-Si". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En-Men-Bara
ge-Si
3. ^ "En-Men-Barage-Si". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En-Men-Bara
ge-Si
4. ^ "En-Men-Barage-Si". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En-Men-Bara
ge-Si
5. ^ "Kish (Sumer)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish_%28Sum
er%29
6. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990).
7. ^
"En-Men-Barage-Si". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En-Men-Bara
ge-Si
Kish, a city in Sumer, 80km south of
modern Bagdad5  		 
4,600 YBN
[2600 BC] 66 		1271) The oldest known written story
(or literature), the Sumerian flood
story, the "Ziusudra epic" is known
from a single fragmentary tablet,
writing in Sumerian.35 The name
Ziusudra means "found long life" or
"life of long days". The first part
tells the story of the creation of man,
animals and the first cities, Eridu,
Badtibira, Larak, Sippar, and
Shuruppak. After a missing section in
the tablet, the story describes how the
gods send a flood to destroy mankind.
The god Enki (lord of the underworld
ocean of fresh water and Sumerian
equivalent of Ea) warns Ziusudra of
Shuruppak to build a large boat (the
passage describing the directions for
the boat is also lost). When the tablet
resumes, it tells about a terrible
storm that rages for seven days. Then
(the god36 ) Utu (|vTv| or |oTo| or
|uTu|37 ) (the sun) appears and
Ziusudra opens a window, prostrates
himself, and sacrifices an ox and a
sheep. After another break the text
resumes, the flood is apparently over,
and Ziusudra is prostrating himself
before An (|oN|38 ) (the sky-god) and
Enlil (the chief of the gods), who give
him "breath eternal" and take him to
live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem is
lost.39

More than 80% of all known Sumerian
literary compositions have been found
at Nippur.40

The name Ziusudra also appears in the
WB-62 version of the Sumerian king list
as a king/chief of Shuruppak who
reigned for 10 (shar) years. Ziusudra
was preceded in this king list by his
father SU.KUR.LAM who was also king of
Shuruppak and ruled 8 (shar) years. On
the next line of the King List are the
sentences "The flood swept thereover.
After the flood swept thereover, ...
the kingship was in Kish." The city of
Kish flourished in the Early Dynastic
II period soon after an
archaeologically attested river flood
in Shuruppak that has been radio-carbon
dated about 2900 BC. Polychrome pottery
from below the flood deposit have be
dated to the Jemdet Nasr period that
immediately preceded the Early Dynastic
I period.41

The importance of Ziusudra in the King
List is that it links the flood
mentioned in the Epics of Ziusudra,
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim, etc to river
flood sediments in Shuruppak, Uruk, and
Kish that have been radio carbon dated
as 2900 BCE. So scholars conclude that
the flood hero was king of Shuruppak at
the end of the Jemdet Nasr period
(3100-2900) which ended with the river
flood of 2900 BCE.42

Ziusudra being king of Shuruppak is
supported in the Gilgamesh XI tablet by
the reference to Utnapishtim as "man of
Shuruppak" at line 23.

A Sumerian document known as "The
Instructions of Shuruppak" dated to
around 2500 BCE, refers in a later
version to Ziusudra indicating that
Ziusudra may have become a venerable
figure in the literary tradition by
2500 BCE.43

Scholars have found many similarities
between the stories of Ziusudra,
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim and Noah.44

At this time, the scribes learning in
the tablet houses must be transferring
their oral stories onto clay, in
addition to studying, copying and
imitating earlier texts.45 46 Works
created in these years are almost all
poetic in form, some extending to
thousands of lines. These texts are
mainly myths and epic tales in the form
of narrative poems celebrating the
adventures of Sumerian gods and heros,
hymns to gods and kings, lamentations
of Sumerian cities, wisdom compositions
that include proverbs, fables, and
essays.47 In the scribal schools,
students attend school from sunrise to
sunset, and teachers use a rod to
inflict discipline.48

The Sumerians belief in a variety of
gods and goddesses, so already, by the
time of the invention of writing we see
the theory of gods and goddesses.49 50
51 This inaccurate belief in a god
theory will continue into present
times.52 The Sumerians have around 50
gods and 50 goddesses so far counted.53
54 55 The view expressed is the
traditional view that many of the gods
have human form, many are related, and
they control various objects such as
the sky (the god Anu56 , also god of
heaven which indicates belief in a
heaven (but this may be Christian
misinterpretation, do dead people go to
sky/heaven in Sumerian myths?57 )), the
earth (the goddess Ki, consort to Anu58
), the wind (the god Ishkur), the sun
(the god Utu), the earth (the god
Enki), grain (the goddess Ashnan),
venus (the goddess Inanna), and many
more.59 60

Many of the gods will be renamed as
time continues, for example, the
Sumerian goddess "Inanna", the first
god known to be associated with the
planet Venus, is named "Ishtar" by the
Akkadians and Babylonians, "Isis" by
the Egyptians, "Aphrodite" by the
Greeks, "Turan" by the Etruscans, and
"Venus" by the Romans.61 The Sumerians
call Inanna the "Holy Virgin"62 and
this may indicate an early example of
the erroneous belief that a female that
has not had sex is somehow more pure.63

It is possible that the Sumerian
influence through their invention of
writing is the origin of the idea of
human-like gods controlling nature, but
more likely this idea developed long
before writing and spread through oral
interaction only. Possibly the idea of
human-like gods was originated even
before humans left Africa. The
beginning of writing creates the first
memory of the past, where before
writing, any events of history have to
be passed on through talking which
vastly reduces the number of events
remembered by any generation of
people.64
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
2. ^
http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects
/nip/nsc.html
3. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
4. ^
http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects
/nip/nsc.html
5. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
6. ^
http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects
/nip/nsc.html
7. ^ "Ziusudra." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Z
iusudra>.
8. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
9. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
10. ^
http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects
/nip/nsc.html
11. ^ "Ziusudra." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Z
iusudra>.
12. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
13. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
14. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
15. ^
http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects
/nip/nsc.html
16. ^ "Ziusudra." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Z
iusudra>.
17. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
18. ^
http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects
/nip/nsc.html
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
21. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
22. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
23. ^ "Utu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utu
24. ^ "Category:Sumerian gods".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_gods
25. ^ "Category:Sumerian goddesses".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_goddesses
26. ^ "Utu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utu
27. ^ "Category:Sumerian gods".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_gods
28. ^ "Category:Sumerian goddesses".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_goddesses
29. ^ "Anu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anu
30. ^ "Ki (goddess)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki_%28godde
ss%29
31. ^ "Category:Sumerian gods".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_gods
32. ^ "Category:Sumerian goddesses".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_goddesses
33. ^ "Inanna". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inanna
34. ^ "Inanna". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inanna
35. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
40. ^
http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects
/nip/nsc.html
41. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
42. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
43. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
44. ^ "Ziusudra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
45. ^ Ted Huntington
46. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959). (5)
47. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959). (5)
48. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959). (6)
49. ^ "Utu". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utu
50. ^ "Category:Sumerian gods".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_gods
51. ^ "Category:Sumerian goddesses".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_goddesses
52. ^ Ted Huntington
53. ^ "Utu". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utu
54. ^ "Category:Sumerian gods".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_gods
55. ^ "Category:Sumerian goddesses".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_goddesses
56. ^ "Anu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anu
57. ^ Ted Huntington.
58. ^ "Ki (goddess)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki_%28godde
ss%29
59. ^ "Category:Sumerian gods".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_gods
60. ^ "Category:Sumerian goddesses".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Su
merian_goddesses
61. ^ "Inanna". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inanna
62. ^ "Inanna". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inanna
63. ^ Ted Huntington
64. ^ Ted Huntington
65. ^ "Ziusudra".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziusudra
66. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p23. {600 YBN} {4,600 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient literature".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_lit
erature
[2] Arno Poebel, "Historical and
grammatical texts", vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
[3] Jeffrey H. Tigay, "The evolution of
the Gilgamesh epic",
http://books.google.com/books?id=cxjuH
TH6I2sC
Sumer65  
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- note I did not verify that this is
the earliest tablet of the earliest
written story[t] Arno Poebel,
''Historical and grammatical texts'',
vols 1-5, 1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 3 		677) Bronze sickle. 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 2 		688) Seed drills in Babylonia. 1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 5 		689) First animal and vegetable
coloring dyes.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 4 		691) Oldest evidence of skis used in
Skandinavia.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 2 		692)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 2 		693)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 2 		694)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 2 		1052)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Arch". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch
2. ^ "Arch". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 3 		1151) Oars mounted on the side of ships
for steering are documented from the
3rd millennium BCE in Ancient Egypt in
artwork, wooden models, and even
remnants of actual boats. These will
evolve into quarter rudders, which will
be used until the end of the Middle
Ages in Europe.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rudder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder
2. ^ "Rudder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder
3. ^ "Rudder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder
(millenium estimate)
Egypt2   
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 10 		6230) Earliest dice and boardgame.5 6
There is a claim of earlier dice and
boardgame from Iran (see image of dice
- but there is no image of the actual
board).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
2. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
3. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
4. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
5. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
6. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
7. ^ “World’s Oldest Backgammon
Discovered in Burnt City,” available
at
www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029.html,
8. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
9. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
10. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx {2400-2600 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur
Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal
Cemetery.", 1934
Ur, Mesopotamia8 9  
[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg

[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg
4,450 YBN
[2450 BC] 6 7 		708) Animal skin (leather) used for
writing.3 After the use of leather,
the refined forms of leather parchment
and vellum (made from calf skins) are
also used.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
2. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
3. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
4. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
5. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
6. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] "vellum." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/v
ellum>
Egypt5  
[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi
4,400 YBN
[2400 BC] 3 		915)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 75
2.
^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 75
3. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). 75
  
4,400 YBN
[2400 BC] 3 		1277)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp37-38.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p37.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p37.
Sumer, Lagash, Umma 2   
4,345 YBN
[2345 BC] 2 		695)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,345 YBN
[2345 BC] 7 8 9 10 		800) Writing on Papyrus.4

Fibrous layers within the stem of the
papyrus plant are removed and placed
side by side. They are then crossed at
right angles with another set of
strips. The two layers form a sheet,
which is then dampened and pressed. The
gluelike sap of the plant acts as an
adhesive to join the layers together.
The sheet is finally hammered and dried
in the sun. These sheets are then
joined together with paste to form a
roll.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
2. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
3. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
4. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
5. ^ "papyrus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/442267/papyrus>.
6. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
7. ^ "papyrus." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/papyrus
8. ^
http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egert
on/BellSkeat2.html
9. ^
http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archive
s/2005/07/prisse_davennes.html (=3300)
10. ^
"Djedkare Isesi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djedkare_Is
esi (=2407 or 2419)
Egypt6  
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 13 14 15 16 17 18 		667) Earliest evidence of glass making,
glass beads.9

The first human-made glass beads and
pendants are made around 4,300 years
ago (2300 BC)10 in
the area of modern
Iraq and northern Syria (Mesopotamia),
with the first strikingly colored
(coreformed) vessels appearing there in
the 16th/15th centuries BC.11
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
2. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
3. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
4. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
5. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
6. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
7. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
8. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
9. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
10. ^ A. Leo Oppenheim, "Towards a
History of Glass in the Ancient near
East", Journal of the American
Oriental Society, Vol. 93, No. 3 (Jul.
- Sep., 1973), pp. 259-266 Published
by: American Oriental Society Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/599459
11. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
12. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
13. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf {4300 YBN}
14. ^
P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient Mesopotamian
Materials and Industries. The
Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p190. {Mesopotamiun_Materials_and_Indus
tries_Moorey_1994.pdf} {c4000YBN}
15. ^ James
Owen, "Ancient Egyptian City Yields
World's Oldest Glassworks", National
Geographic News June 16,
2005 http://news.nationalgeographic.com
/news/2005/06/0616_050616_egyptglass.htm
l {35000 YBN}
16. ^ Thilo Rehren and Edgar
B. Pusch, "Late Bronze Age Glass
Production at Qantir-Piramesses,
Egypt", Science New Series, Vol. 308,
No. 5729 (Jun. 17, 2005), pp.
1756-1758 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3841666
{35000 YBN}
17. ^
http://glassonline.com/infoserv/history.
html {5500YBN}
18. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {5000YBN}
Mesopotamia12  
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf

[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 2 		701)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,234 YBN
[2234 BC] 		632)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sargon of Akkad". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargon_of_A
kkad
  
4,200 YBN
[2200 BC] 4 		1294)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2006/05/observatory-peru.html
2. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2006/05/observatory-peru.html
3. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2006/05/observatory-peru.html
4. ^
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2006/05/observatory-peru.html
(=4200ybn)
Lima, Peru3  
[1] A giant carving of a frowning face
is among the sculptures found at what
experts say is the oldest known
astronomical observatory in the Western
Hemisphere. Structures at the site,
discovered near Lima, Peru, align with
the directions of sunrise and sunset at
critical points in the agricultural
calendar, including December 21, the
start of the Southern Hemisphere's
growing season, and June 21, the end of
harvest. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/66237588.html
4,181 YBN
[2181 BC] 2 		696)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,160 YBN
[2160 BC] 2 		697)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,134 YBN
[2134 BC] 2 		698)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,134 YBN
[2134 BC] 2 		699)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,130 YBN
[2130 BC] 12 		6234) Earliest evidence of horn used as
musical instrument.5 Several
inscriptions of the Sumerian
priest-king Gudea mention an
instrument, si-im, alongside with the
temple drums, a-lal and balag. As si
(Akkadian qarnu) means 'horn,' and im
'wind,' there is little doubt that this
was a blowing horn. One of the
Carchemish reliefs, dating from about
1250 B.C. depicts a rather short and
thick horn played together with a large
frame drum which...corresponds either
to the a-lal or to the balag.
From Gudea's
time on (c2130 BCE6 ), the si is
occasionally mentioned; some texts add
the metal determinative and some refer
to horns made of gold. ...".7

The oldest survivng animal horn is from
around 2300 BC, from a deep bog in
Visnum, Sweden. It is a cow horn, dated
from the late Iron Age, and has five
finger holes. (verify)8

A list of the presents offered by King
Tushratta to King Amenophis IV of Egypt
around 1400 BC contains a list of forty
horns, all covered with gold and some
studded with precious stones. Seventeen
of them are called ox horns. The rest
of the horns are probably not straight
trumpets since straight trumpets are
more often made of gold instead of
covered with gold.9

The earliest specimen of a silver
trumpet is from the tomb of Tutankhamen
(1300s bce).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
2. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p73.
3. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p73.
4. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
5. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p73.
6. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx
7. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
8. ^
http://www.ancientmusic.co.uk/wind.html
9. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
10. ^ "wind
instrument." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/645041/wind-instrument>.
11. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx
12. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx {around) 2130 BCE}
Lagash, Mesopotamia11  
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 9 10 		1279) The earliest Health science
(medical) text, found in Nippur.5

There are more than 10 remedies listed
on this clay tablet. Materials used are
mostly from plants, such as cassia,
myrtle, asafoetida, thyme, and from
trees such as the willow, pear, fir,
fig and date trees, but also include
sodium chloride (salt), potassium
nitrate (saltpeter), milk, snake skin,
and turtle shell. For mixtures taken
internally, beer, milk and or oil are
used to make the "medicine" more
palatable.6

In this, the oldest medical text, there
are no references to any god, demon,
magic spell or incantation.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p52.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), pp60-62.
5. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
6. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), pp60-62.
7. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p64.
8. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p60.
9. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p60. (=toward the
end of the 3rd millenium) (=toward the
end of the 3rd millenium)
10. ^
http://www.uic.edu/classes/osci/osci590/
11_1OldestPrescription.htm (The tablet
was inscribed toward the end of the
dynasty founded by Sargon the Great,
some time during the last quarter of
Third Millennium B.C)
Nippur8   
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 10 		6376) The first place value number
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use.6

This sexagesimal, base 60, number
system is still in use to measure time
(60 seconds, 60 minutes), and angles
(for example in astronomical and
geographic coordinates7 ).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "sexagesimal." A
Dictionary of Weights, Measures, and
Units. Oxford University Press, 2002,
2004. Answers.com 19 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sexagesimal

6. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp5,142-143.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "sexagesimal." A
Dictionary of Weights, Measures, and
Units. Oxford University Press, 2002,
2004. Answers.com 19 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sexagesimal

9. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp5,142-143.
10. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
[7]
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
[8] "writing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>.
[9] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Babylonia9  
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.

[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp148. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp148.
4,050 YBN
[2050 BC] 8 		1278) The earliest recorded laws, the
Ur-Nammu tablet.4 Ur-Nammu founded the
Third Dynasty of Ur. The laws are
written in Sumerian cuneiform and are
damaged so only a few have been
deciphered. One law involves a trial by
water, another describes the return of
a slave to their master. Other laws
describe monetary penalties for violent
crimes such as for cutting off a foot
or nose.5

This tablet was found in Nippur. 6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p52.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
5. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp53-54.
6. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
7. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p52.
8. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
Ur 7   
4,040 YBN
[2040 BC] 2 		700)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		703)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}
China2   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		705) Stonehenge built.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 5 		706) Horse riding in Asian steppes.4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 2 		709)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		710) Shaduf (Shadoof), an irrigation
tool.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] "Shaduf". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaduf
 
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] One man and his Shadoof. Kom Ombo,
Egypt. Photo taken by Hajor,
December 2001. Released under cc-by-sa
and/or GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Egypt.KomOmbo.Shaduf.
01.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 7 		711) Spoked wheel.5 Toy-cart wheels
made of clay with spokes painted on and
in relief were made in the Harappan
civilization of the Indus Valley and
Northwestern India. Spokes make the
wheel lighter in weight.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Ghosh, A. (1989). An Encyclopedia
of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
p.337. http://books.google.com/books?id
=Wba-EZhZcfgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it#
v=onepage&q=wheel&f=false
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Ghosh, A. (1989). An Encyclopedia
of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
p.337. http://books.google.com/books?id
=Wba-EZhZcfgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it#
v=onepage&q=wheel&f=false
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Ghosh, A. (1989). An Encyclopedia
of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
p.337. http://books.google.com/books?id
=Wba-EZhZcfgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it#
v=onepage&q=wheel&f=false
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg

[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 14 15 		733) Oldest lock, found in ruins of the
palace of Khorsabad near Nineveh. The
lock is made of wood and uses a tumbler
design, similar to modern locks. This
kind of lock will be used widely in
Egypt. 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
2. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
3. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
4. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
5. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
6. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
7. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
8. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
9. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
10. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
11. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
12. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
13. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh)
14. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh) {4000 YBN(nineveh}
15. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(=1200bce/egypt) {1200 BCE (egypt}
Nineveh13  
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 8 9 		830) Shaped iron artifacts made from
meteorites.3 4
Oldest iron artifacts,
made of iron from meteorites, in
Egypt.5 6

Some might argue this is the beginning
of the Iron Age, but others would start
the Iron Age only at smelting and
casting of Iron.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Iron age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
2. ^
http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/trades/met
als.htm
3. ^ "Iron age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
4. ^
http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/trades/met
als.htm
5. ^ "Iron age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
6. ^
http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/trades/met
als.htm
7. ^ George Robert Rapp,
"Archaeomineralogy", 2002,
p164. http://books.google.co.uk/books?i
d=7VMVguiMmY0C&pg=PA164
8. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Materials Science: History, Properties,
Applications", 2004,
p125. http://books.google.co.uk/books?i
d=DaAmwiJ4rnEC&pg=PA125
9. ^ George Robert Rapp,
"Archaeomineralogy", 2002,
p164. http://books.google.co.uk/books?i
d=7VMVguiMmY0C&pg=PA164

MORE INFO
[1] "Iron age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
(=4000)
[2]
http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/trades/met
als.htm (=4000)
[3] Bjorkman, J. K., "Meteors
and Meteorites in the Ancient Near
East", Meteoritics, volume 8, number 2,
page
91. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1973
Metic...8...91B
Egpyt (and near East)7   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 2 		1273)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p48.
2. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990).
Ur  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		1275) The "School Days" essay dates to
now. This is the story of a scribal
student who is late for school and is
caned for various offenses such as
talking and because his copying is not
good enough. So the student invites a
teacher to his house for dinner. The
teacher is brought from school, seated
in the seat of honor and served dinner.
The father of the student dresses the
teacher in a new garment, gives him a
gift, and puts a ring on his hand.
After this the teacher praises the
student.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 9.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), 8.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), 8.
Sumer2   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 4 5 		1283)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p217.
2. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm
3. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm
4. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm (2000BCE)
5. ^ Ted Huntington. (find more
exact if possible)
Nippur3  
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 5 6 7 		1286) The earliest known versions of
the Gilgamesh (or Gish-gi(n)-mash)
story are written in Sumerian on clay
tablets.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11000/110
00-h/11000-h.htm
2. ^
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11000/110
00-h/11000-h.htm
3. ^
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11000/110
00-h/11000-h.htm
4. ^
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11000/110
00-h/11000-h.htm
5. ^
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11000/110
00-h/11000-h.htm (2000bce)
6. ^
http://www.ancientdays.net/nimrod.htm
(2000bce)
7. ^
http://mockingbird.creighton.edu/english
/fajardo/teaching/eng120/gilgames.htm
(2000bce)
Nippur4  
[1] The Yale Tablet of the Gilgamesh
Epic License: The Project Gutenberg
eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the
Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by
Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T.
Clay This eBook is for the use of
anyone anywhere at no cost and
with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org
source: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1
1000/11000-h/11000-h.htm
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 14 		5860) Earliest written musical
composition.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ West, M. L., 'The Babylonian
Musical Notation and the Hurrian
Melodic Texts', Music & Letters, Vol.
75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179
2. ^ A. D.
Kilmer and M. Civil, "Old Babylonian
Musical Instructions Relating to
Hymnody", Journal of Cuneiform Studies,
Vol. 38, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/13599
53
3. ^ "Ancient music". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_mus
ic
4. ^ West, M. L., 'The Babylonian
Musical Notation and the Hurrian
Melodic Texts', Music & Letters, Vol.
75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179
5. ^ A. D.
Kilmer and M. Civil, "Old Babylonian
Musical Instructions Relating to
Hymnody", Journal of Cuneiform Studies,
Vol. 38, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/13599
53
6. ^ "Ancient music". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_mus
ic
7. ^ West, M. L., 'The Babylonian
Musical Notation and the Hurrian
Melodic Texts', Music & Letters, Vol.
75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179
8. ^ A. D.
Kilmer and M. Civil, "Old Babylonian
Musical Instructions Relating to
Hymnody", Journal of Cuneiform Studies,
Vol. 38, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/13599
53
9. ^ "Ancient music". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_mus
ic
10. ^ West, M. L., 'The Babylonian
Musical Notation and the Hurrian
Melodic Texts', Music & Letters, Vol.
75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179
11. ^ A. D.
Kilmer and M. Civil, "Old Babylonian
Musical Instructions Relating to
Hymnody", Journal of Cuneiform Studies,
Vol. 38, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/13599
53
12. ^ "Ancient music". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_mus
ic
13. ^ A. D. Kilmer and M. Civil, "Old
Babylonian Musical Instructions
Relating to Hymnody", Journal of
Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 38, No. 1
(Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/13599
53
14. ^ "Ancient music". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_mus
ic {2000BCE (verify}
Nippur, Babylonia13 (now Iraq)
(verify) 		 
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 7 		6236) Metal traded as money.4

The use of metal for money can be
traced back to Babylonia more than 2000
years bc, but standardization in the
form of coins does not occur
systematically until the 7th century
bc. Historians generally ascribe the
first use of coined money to Croesus,
king of Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The
earliest coins are made of electrum, a
natural mixture of gold and silver, and
are bean-shaped ingots bearing a
primitive punch mark certifying to
either weight or fineness or both.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
5. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
6. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
7. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {older than) 2000 BCE}
Babylonia6  
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
3,842 YBN
[1842 BC] 18 19 20 		712) First all phonetic language and
alphabet. Proto-semitic alphabet made
in turquoise mines probably by Semitic
humans. This alphabet is thought to
have replaced cuneiform, and may be
root of all other alphabets.11 12

This first strictly phonetic alphabet
is in use until 1797 BCE.13

Encyclopedia Britannica states that the
evolution of the alphabet involves two
important achievements. The first step
is the invention of an all-consonant
writing system. The second is the
invention of characters for
representing vowels which is made by
Greek people between 800 and 700 bce.14


Around this time the Egyptians have a
large-scale project to search for
turquoise in the high mountains of
southern Sinai at a site today called
Serabit el-Khadem. In this mine an
alphabetic script, is found with has
far fewer signs than the Egyptian
hieroglyphic system. In 1916, Sir Alan
Gardiner, an English Egyptologist,
notices that a group of four signs are
frequently repeated in these
inscriptions. Gardiner correctly
identified the repetitive group as a
series of four letters in an alphabetic
script that represent a word in a
Canaanite language: b-‘-l-t,
vocalized as Baalat, "the Mistress".
Gardiner suggests that Baalat was the
Canaanite name for Hathor, the goddess
of the turquoise mines.
An important
key to the decipherment is a unique
bilingual inscription. It is inscribed
on a small sphinx from the temple and
features a short inscription in what
appears to be parallel texts in
Egyptian and in the new script.
The Egyptian
hieroglyphic inscription on the sphinx
reads:
"The beloved of Hathor, the mistress of
turquoise."
Each of the critical letters in the
word Baalat is a picture—a house, an
eye, an ox goad and a cross.
Gardiner
correctly recognizes that each
pictograph has a single phonic value:
The picture stands not for the depicted
word but only for its initial sound. So
the pictograph bêt, "house",
represents only the initial consonant
b.
This principle is at the root of all
of our alphabetic systems. Each sign in
this script stands for one consonant in
the language. (The representation of
vowels happens later).
The alphabet is
invented in this way by Canaanites at
Serabit in the Middle Bronze Age, in
the middle of the 19th century B.C.E.,
probably during the reign of Amenemhet
III of the XIIth Dynasty.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p30
2. ^
Goldwasser, O. (March/April 2010). "How
the Alphabet Was Born from
Hieroglyphs". Biblical Archaeology
Review 36 (2): 40–53.
3. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). p30
4. ^ Goldwasser, O. (March/April
2010). "How the Alphabet Was Born from
Hieroglyphs". Biblical Archaeology
Review 36 (2): 40–53.
5. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). p30
6. ^ Goldwasser, O. (March/April
2010). "How the Alphabet Was Born from
Hieroglyphs". Biblical Archaeology
Review 36 (2): 40–53.
7. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). p30
8. ^ Goldwasser, O. (March/April
2010). "How the Alphabet Was Born from
Hieroglyphs". Biblical Archaeology
Review 36 (2): 40–53.
9. ^ "alphabet."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Jan.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/17212/alphabet>
10. ^ Goldwasser, O. (March/April
2010). "How the Alphabet Was Born from
Hieroglyphs". Biblical Archaeology
Review 36 (2): 40–53.
11. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). p30
12. ^ Goldwasser, O.
(March/April 2010). "How the Alphabet
Was Born from Hieroglyphs". Biblical
Archaeology Review 36 (2): 40–53.
13. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p30
14. ^
"alphabet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 14 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/17212/alphabet>
15. ^ Goldwasser, O. (March/April
2010). "How the Alphabet Was Born from
Hieroglyphs". Biblical Archaeology
Review 36 (2): 40–53.
16. ^ "alphabet."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Jan.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/17212/alphabet>
17. ^ Goldwasser, O. (March/April
2010). "How the Alphabet Was Born from
Hieroglyphs". Biblical Archaeology
Review 36 (2): 40–53.
18. ^ Goldwasser, O.
(March/April 2010). "How the Alphabet
Was Born from Hieroglyphs". Biblical
Archaeology Review 36 (2): 40–53.
19. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p30
{3842}
20. ^ "alphabet." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/17212/alphabet>
(Caanan modern:) Palestine16
|(turquoise mines ) Serabit el-Khadem,
Sinai Peninsula17  
[1] Combination of 3 images: [1] Erich
Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE SPHINX. This
10-inch-long sphinx fashioned from
sandstone proved to be the key to
deciphering the Proto-Sinaitic script.
It was discovered by Petrie amid the
ruins of Serabit’s Hathor temple and
includes dedicatory inscriptions on
both sides of the base (underlined in
yellow in the photo above) and on the
right shoulder. Both inscriptions on
the base are written in the
Proto-Sinaitic alphabetic script. The
inscription on the right shoulder is
written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, The
hieroglyphic text identifies the name
of the goddess to whom the sphinx is
dedicated as Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg

[2] Erich Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE
SPHINX. This 10-inch-long sphinx
fashioned from sandstone proved to be
the key to deciphering the
Proto-Sinaitic script. It was
discovered by Petrie amid the ruins of
Serabit’s Hathor temple and includes
dedicatory inscriptions on both sides
of the base (underlined in yellow in
the photo above) and on the right
shoulder. Both inscriptions on the base
are written in the Proto-Sinaitic
alphabetic script. The inscription on
the right shoulder is written in
Egyptian hieroglyphs, The hieroglyphic
text identifies the name of the goddess
to whom the sphinx is dedicated as
Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg
3,800 YBN
[1800 BC] 2 		713)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p30
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p30
  
3,800 YBN
[1800 BC] 2 		802)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
2. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
  
3,800 YBN
[1800 BC] 2 		803)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
2. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
  
3,786 YBN
[1786 BC] 2 		714)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 2 		715)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ , "History of Man: The Last Two
Million Years", (New York: Reader's
Digest, 1981).
2. ^ , "History of Man: The
Last Two Million Years", (New York:
Reader's Digest, 1981).
  
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 6 		1280)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p65.
2. ^ Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ dictionary.com
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p67.
5. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p65.
6. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p66.
Nippur5   
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 3 		1281)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p133.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p133.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p133.
Nippur and Ur, Sumer2   
3,650 YBN
[1650 BC] 6 		716)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Ahmes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmes
4. ^ "Ahmes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmes
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
3,635 YBN
[01/01/1635 BC] 2 		1272) A library of 3,000 clay tablets
in a priest's house in Tell ed-Der
dates to this time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p48.
2. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990).
Tell ed-Der  
3,600 YBN
[1600 BC] 2 		804)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
2. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
  
3,595 YBN
[01/01/1595 BC] 3 		1274)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p48.
2. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990).
3. ^
J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990).
Babylon2   
3,595 YBN
[1595 BC] 3 4 		6335)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lambert, W. G.; Reiner, Erica
(1987). "Babylonian Planetary Omens.
Part One. Enuma Anu Enlil, Tablet 63:
The Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa".
Journal of the American Oriental
Society 107 (1): 93.
doi:10.2307/602955. JSTOR
602955 http://www.jstor.org/stable/6029
55
2. ^ Lambert, W. G.; Reiner, Erica
(1987). "Babylonian Planetary Omens.
Part One. Enuma Anu Enlil, Tablet 63:
The Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa".
Journal of the American Oriental
Society 107 (1): 93.
doi:10.2307/602955. JSTOR
602955 http://www.jstor.org/stable/6029
55
3. ^ Hermann Hunger, ed. (1992).
Astrological reports to Assyrian kings.
State Archives of Assyria. 8. Helsinki
University Press. ISBN 951-570-130-9
4. ^ David
Brown, "Mesopotamian Planetary
Astronomy-Astrology" (2000): 254–5.

MORE INFO
[1] "Enuma anu enlil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
Babylon2   
3,551 YBN
[1551 BC] 2 		717)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
3,550 YBN
[1550 BC] 5 		1282)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p127.
2. ^ "Aesop".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesop
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p127.
4. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p127.
5. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p127. (millenium before aesop)
(millenium before aesop)
Sumer4   
3,531 YBN
[1531 BC] 14 15 		639) First planet recognized, Venus.9
10

Evidence of this comes from the
so-called "Venus Tablet of
Ammi-saduqa", which is known only from
copies from the 600 BCE only. The Venus
Tablet records astronomical
observations placing Venus on the
horizon just before sunrise on the date
of the new moon for the 21 year reign
of Ammi-saduqa.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
2. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
3. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
4. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
5. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
6. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
7. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
8. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
9. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
10. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
11. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
12. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
13. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
14. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
15. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
Babylon13  
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 12 		624) Oven-baked mud brick (also called
"burned brick").8 9
A burned brick is a
mud brick that been baked in an oven
(kiln) at an elevated temperature to
harden it, give it mechanical strength,
and improve its resistance to
moisture.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
6. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
7. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
8. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
9. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
10. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
11. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
12. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {1500 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)11  
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 2 		721)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 2 		722)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 13 14 		723) Earliest pulley.7

The oldest simple pulleys are used in
Assyria.8
A pulley is a wheel that has
a grooved rim for carrying a rope or
other line and turning in a frame. The
pulley wheel is also called a
"sheave".9

One or more independently rotating
pulleys can be used to gain mechanical
advantage, especially for lifting
weights. The shafts around which the
pulleys turn may attach them to frames
or blocks, and a combination of
pulleys, blocks, and rope is called a
block and tackle. The pulley is
considered one of the five simple
machines.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ "pulley." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Architecture and Construction.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pulley
6. ^ "pulley." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 14 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pulley
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ "pulley." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Architecture and Construction.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pulley
10. ^ "pulley." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 14 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pulley
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
12. ^ Sir Austen Henry Layard, "Nineveh
and its remains: with an account of a
visit to the Chaldean ...", 1850,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-J5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA219
13. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {1500 BC}
14. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p21. {before 260 BC}
Nimroud, Assyria11 12  
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of
Nimroud. PD
source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 2 		725)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 42 43 		1516)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.answers.com/vedas
2. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
3. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
4. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
5. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
6. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
7. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
8. ^ "Vedic religion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-761
9/Vedic-religion
9. ^ "Vedic religion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-761
9/Vedic-religion
10. ^ "Soma". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma
11. ^ "soma". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8638/soma
12. ^ "Veda". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4939/Veda
13. ^ "Councils of Ephesus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Councils_of
_Ephesus
14. ^ "Second Council of Ephesus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Coun
cil_of_Ephesus
15. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
16. ^ "Rigveda". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-50362
7/Rigveda
17. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
18. ^ www.ccel.org (Socrates
Ecclesiastical History)
19. ^ "Vedas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
20. ^ "History of democracy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy
21. ^ Ted Huntington
22. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
23. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
24. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
25. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
26. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
27. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
28. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
29. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
30. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
31. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
32. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
33. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
34. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
35. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
36. ^ "vedas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/vedas
37. ^ http://www.answers.com/vedas
38. ^ "Vedic religion".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-761
9/Vedic-religion
39. ^ "Vedic religion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-761
9/Vedic-religion
40. ^ "Veda". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4939/Veda
41. ^ "Veda". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4939/Veda (1500-1200BCE)
42. ^ "Vedas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
(1500-1200BCE)
43. ^ Ted Huntington (1500-1200BCE)
India41   
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 13 14 		6228) Water clock (Clepsydra
{KlePSiDru7 }).8

The science of telling the time of day
(horology) began around 3500 BC with
the invention of the gnomon and
sundial, and the hour-glass. Around
1500 BC, the Egyptian clepsydra (water
clock) used dripping water between two
containers which were marked to
indicate the time.9

In China, in the 100s CE, astronomer
Zhang Heng built a celestial globe
whose movement is regulated by
clepsydra. In the 700s Yi Xing and
Liang Lingzan added a mechanical
clock.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
3. ^
"quaternary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
5. ^
"quaternary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
7. ^
"quaternary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
9. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
10. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987), p114-116.
11. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p27.
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p17.
13. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p27. {1500 BC}
14. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p17. {1450-1401 BC}
Egypt11 12  
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg

[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 3 		6229)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/mapas_
antiguos/ancient_webpage/101.htm
2. ^
http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/mapas_
antiguos/ancient_webpage/101.htm
3. ^
http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/mapas_
antiguos/ancient_webpage/101.htm {1500
BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p13.
Nippur, Mesopotamia2  
[1] Nippur, Babylonia circa 1500 B.C.
— Earliest known map drawn to
scale PD
source: http://bookofjoe.typepad.com/.sh
ared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/20
08/04/10/2ftftyfytf.jpg
3,358 YBN
[1358 BC] 30 31 		2727) When Akhenaton dies, he will be
succeeded briefly by Smenkhkare and
then by a second son-in-law,
Tutankhaton. Tutankhaton is forced to
change his name to Tutankhamen,
dropping the Aton and embracing Amon,
to abandon Amarna and move back to
Thebes, and to pay penance by giving
the old gods new riches and privileges.
A few years after the death of the
young king, Tutankhamen, the army takes
over the throne led by General
Horemheb. Horemheb institutes
counterreforms in order to restore the
old system fully.23

As was done at the command of Akhenaten
years before, the new kings attempt to
erase all traces of the heretical
religion. Akhenaten's name and images
of the Aten sun disk are ordered
removed from monuments and official
king lists. Akhenaten's temples are
dismantled and the stone reused. Amarna
is left to crumble in the desert.
Inscriptions refer to Akhenaten only as
the heretic pharaoh of Akhetaten.24
The
re is an interesting similarity between
"Aton" and "Satan" being 3 of 4
sounds/letters the same. It may be
coincidence, but perhaps Aton was given
a negative connotation to try to erase
the history of the origin of Judaism,
or remove suspicions of the
monotheistic theorists as copying
Amenhotep. If the name "Aton" is used,
people will recognize the ancient deity
Aton, however, by adding a letter, only
a subtle reference or connotation to
the ancient God, Aton remains.25 It is
interesting also the way Amon is viewed
against Aton as if rival gods with
Amenhotep switching to place his belief
in Aton.26

There is a claim that followers of
Akhenaton's new monotheistic religion
ended each prayer with the name of
Amenhotep and that this is the origin
of the use of the word "amen" at the
end of Judean, Christian and Islamic
prayers.27

What about the possible relation of the
word "Aton" to the Greek word "atom"?28

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
2. ^ "Monotheism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Akhenaten".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
6. ^ "Akhenaton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton
7. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
8. ^ "Akhenaton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton
9. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Akhenaton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton
12. ^ "Akhenaten". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten
13. ^ Freud, S. (1939). Moses and
Monotheism: Three Essays.
14. ^ Gunther
Siegmund Stent, Paradoxes of Free Will.
American Philosophical Society, DIANE,
2002. 284 pages. Pages 34 - 38. ISBN
0871699265
15. ^ Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian:
The Memory of Egypt in Western
Monotheism. Harvard University Press,
1997. 288 pages. ISBN 067458739
16. ^ N. Shupak,
The Monotheism of Moses and the
Monotheism of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995.
17. ^
Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: sex,
Fantasy, and Ancient Egypt. Routledge,
2000. 219 pages. ISBN 0415301866
18. ^ William F.
Albright, From the Patriarchs to Moses
II. Moses out of Egypt. The Biblical
Archaeologist, Vol. 36, No. 2 (May,
1973), pp. 48-76. doi 10.2307/3211050
19. ^ S. Freud,
The Standard Edition of the Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,
Volume XXIII (1937-1939), "Moses and
monotheism". London: Hogarth Press,
1964.
20. ^ Freud, S. (1939). Moses and
Monotheism: Three Essays
21. ^ "Akhenaten".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten
22. ^ "Akhenaten". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten
23. ^ "Akhenaton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton
24. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "Akhenaton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton
30. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
(5th year in reign 1365bce)
31. ^ "Akhenaton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton (reign: BCE
1353�1336)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great Hymn to the Aten".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hymn_
to_the_Aten
[2] "Amen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amen
[3] "Psalm 104". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalm_104
[4] "amen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6072/amen
Amarna, Egypt29  
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG

[2] English: Amun and
Mut Nederlands: Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
3,310 YBN
[1310 BC] 2 		728)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 2 		729)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p47
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p47
  
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 2 		914)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 75
2.
^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 75
  
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 1 		730)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).? (?)
  
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 2 		731)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ unknown source,
maybe: Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).? (unknown source ?)
  
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 3 		734)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Penteconter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penteconter

3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 2 		735)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 2 		736)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 2 		737)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,198 YBN
[1198 BC] 2 		738)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
3,180 YBN
[1180 BC] 2 		805)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
2. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
  
3,087 YBN
[1087 BC] 2 		739)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		741)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		742)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		743)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		744)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		745)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 6 		746) Complex pulleys.4 The lifting
power of a pulley is multiplied by the
number of strands acting directly upon
the moving pulleys.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p21.
4. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p21.
6. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {1000 BC}
 
[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		747)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 1 		749)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		806)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
2. ^
http://fixedreference.org/2006-Wikipedia
-CD-Selection/wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		1048)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tea#Tea origin and early history
in Asia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea#Tea_ori
gin_and_early_history_in_Asia
2. ^ "Tea#Tea origin and early history
in Asia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea#Tea_ori
gin_and_early_history_in_Asia
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 16 		6237) Earliest lens8 9 , a plano-convex
lens (one side plane the other convex)
made from rock-crystal found in Nimrud,
a magnifying and burning glass.10

Sir David Brewster described the lens
writing: "This lens is plano-convex,
and of a slightly oval form, its length
being 1 6/10 inch, and its breadth l
4/10 inch. It is about 9/10ths of an
inch thick, and a little thicker at one
side than the other. Its plane surface
is pretty even, though ill polished and
scratched. Its convex surface has not
been ground, or polished, on a
spherical concave disc, but has been
fashioned on a lapidary's wheel, or by
some method equally rude. The convex
side is tolerably well polished, and
though uneven from the mode in which it
has been ground, it gives a tolerably
distinct focus, at the distance of 4
1/2 inches from the plane side. There
are about twelve cavities in the lens,
that have been opened during the
process of grinding it: these cavities,
doubtless contained either naphtha, or
the same fluid which is discovered in
(opazi quartz, and other minerals. As
the lens does not show the polarised
rays at great obliquities, its plane
surface must be greatly inclined to the
axis of the hexagonal prism of quartz
from which it must have been taken. It
is obvious, from the shape and rude
cutting of the lens, that it could not
have been intended as an ornament; we
are entitled, therefore, to consider it
as intended to be used as a lens,
either for magnifying, or for
concentrating the rays of the sun,
which it does, however, very
imperfectly.".11

Another, possibly 5th century BC, lens
was found in a sacred cave on Mount Ida
on Crete and is more powerful and of
far better quality than the Nimrud
lens. Aristophanes (c450-c388 bce),
Greek playwright, in his play "Clouds",
around 423 BCE, describes a crystal
lens used for burning.12 13 Also,
Roman writers Pliny and Seneca refer to
a lens used by an engraver in
Pompeii.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
2. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
3. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
4. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
5. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
6. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
7. ^ Layard, Austen Henry (1853).
Discoveries in the ruins of Nineveh and
Babylon: with travels in Armenia. G.P.
Putnam and Co. pp.
197–8,674. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=1KITAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA674&dq=british+
museum+lens+layard&hl=en#v=onepage&q=len
s&f=false
8. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
9. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
10. ^ Layard, Austen Henry (1853).
Discoveries in the ruins of Nineveh and
Babylon: with travels in Armenia. G.P.
Putnam and Co. pp.
197–8,674. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=1KITAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA674&dq=british+
museum+lens+layard&hl=en#v=onepage&q=len
s&f=false
11. ^ Layard, Austen Henry (1853).
Discoveries in the ruins of Nineveh and
Babylon: with travels in Armenia. G.P.
Putnam and Co. pp.
197–8,674. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=1KITAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA674&dq=british+
museum+lens+layard&hl=en#v=onepage&q=len
s&f=false
12. ^ "Aristophanes." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/34467/Aristophanes>.
13. ^ Aristophanes, "The Clouds",
Rivingtons,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
FLpewUrE6uQC&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=Aristop
hanes+The+Clouds+burning+lens&source=bl&
ots=iJZioTrO20&sig=ax3L0WNU0byszGT3uo_yC
5rrEMI&hl=en&ei=2czJTrGSIomliQKZ1c3PDw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CCQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
14. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
15. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
16. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm {3000YBN}
Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)15
 
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
2,999 YBN
[999 BC] 2 		1181) Calamine Brass is first made in
this millenium {narrow time}, brass
made with copper and clamine, a zinc
ore (instead of zinc metal, because
extracting zinc metal from ore will not
be understood until around 1781).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Calamine brass". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamine_br
ass
2. ^ "Calamine brass". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamine_br
ass (estimate millenium)
  
2,945 YBN
[945 BC] 2 		748)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
2,922 YBN
[922 BC] 2 		753)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,910 YBN
[910 BC] 23 24 25 26 		635) The oldest smelted iron artifacts
are from Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan
and date to around 2800-2700 years
ago16 , but two charcoal samples from
the same site date to 2930-2910 years
before now17 .

This is the start of the Iron Age, as
iron becomes more popular because iron
is more abundant.
in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and
Egypt.18

It is possible, under certain
conditions, to produce iron when
smelting copper, and so it may be that
iron produced before the late Bronze
Age may have been produced in the
process of smelting copper, or possibly
lead. If iron oxide in any one of its
three forms (haematite; limonite;
magnetite) is accidentally or
deliberately added to the furnace
charge as a fluxing agent (a mineral
added to the metals in a furnace to
promote fusing or to prevent the
formation of oxides19 ), in smelting
copper or lead, the iron will combine
with the silica in the ore to form slag
that will melt and eventually run off.
In circumstances of high temperature
and extreme reducing atmosphere, small
bits of relatively pure iron could have
been produced.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
2. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
3. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
4. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
5. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
6. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
7. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
8. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
9. ^ "Iron". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN)
10. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
11. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline
van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
12. ^ "Iron". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN)
13. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline
van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
14. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
15. ^ "Iron". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN)
16. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline
van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
17. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
18. ^ "Iron". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN)
19. ^ "flux." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Oct.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/flux
20. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient
Mesopotamian Materials and Industries.
The Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p279. {Mesopotamiun_Materials_and_Indus
tries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
21. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
22. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline
van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
23. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/ {930/910 BCE}
24. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 YBN)
(3500)
25. ^
http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/ptabl
e/fe.htm (3000 YBN) (3000)
26. ^ "Iron (3500
YBN)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN) (3500)

MORE INFO
[1] "Iron age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan21 22
 
[1] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
2,900 YBN
[900 BC] 1 		750)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,850 YBN
[850 BC] 3 		751)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). {2850 YBN}
Greece2   
2,848 YBN
[848 BC] 3 		752)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ "Jehoram of Judah".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehoram_of_
Judah
3. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,819 YBN
[819 BC] 2 		754)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 5 		718)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate based on
name Pythagarus, if pronounced with u
(cup))
2. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate based on
name Pythagarus, if pronounced with u
(cup))
3. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate based on
name Pythagarus, if pronounced with u
(cup))
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate
based on name Pythagarus, if pronounced
with u (cup))
  
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 4 		818) Theta sound {t} sound invented,
(for example in the words "theater",
"fifth") and in use in Greece.3

Theta (Θ) is the eighth letter of the
Greek alphabet, derived from the
Phoenician letter Teth.

The theta sound survives only in Greek
and later languages.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate
based on name Pythagarus, if pronounced
with u (cup))
3. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate
based on name Pythagarus, if pronounced
with u (cup))
4. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate
based on name Pythagarus, if pronounced
with u (cup))

MORE INFO
[1] "Koine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine
 
[1] From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teth GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet
h
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 2 		1036)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Latin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin
2. ^ "Latin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin (9th
or 8th century)

MORE INFO
[1] "History of the Latin
language". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_Latin_language
[2]
http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyo
gh/thorn.html
  
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 5 		5862)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
4. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
5. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>. {800 BCE}
Mesopotamia4   
2,785 YBN
[785 BC] 9 		771) Babylonian astronomers can predict
eclipses.4

The reason there are not two eclipses a
month is because the orbit of the Moon
around the Earth is tilted 5 degrees
from the Earth's plane of rotation
around the Sun. This means that the
moon must be at or near the two points
in its orbit that intersects the
Earth's plane of rotation around the
Sun5 when the Moon is between the
Earth and Sun or behind them6 . This
alignment occurs at least twice a year,
and at most rarely 5 times a year.7
Usua
lly, if an eclipse of the Sun occurs,
an eclipse of the Moon precedes of
follows it by 2 weeks, because the Sun,
Earth and Moon are then in alignment
with each other.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
3. ^ Richard
Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the
Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit Books,
1987).
4. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
5. ^ Exploring the
Cosmos, fifth edition, Louis Berman,
J.C. Evans, p21.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Exploring the
Cosmos, fifth edition, Louis Berman,
J.C. Evans, p21.
8. ^ Exploring the Cosmos,
fifth edition, Louis Berman, J.C.
Evans, p24.
9. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman,
"Who wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
 
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
2,731 YBN
[731 BC] 4 		6299) Lunar eclipses recorded.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
2. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
3. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
4. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
Babylon3   
2,728 YBN
[728 BC] 2 		755)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4

MORE INFO
[1] "8th century BC". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_century
_BC
[2] "Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-four
th_Dynasty_of_Egypt
[3] "Tefnakhte". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefnakhte
  
2,722 YBN
[722 BC] 2 		756)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987). (City of David
archeological group is cited as
describing increase in population)
2. ^ Richard
Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the
Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit Books,
1987). (City of David archeological
group is cited as describing increase
in population)
  
2,716 YBN
[716 BC] 2 		757)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
2,715 YBN
[715 BC] 2 		758)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,700 YBN
[700 BC] 2 		1062)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Saddle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddle
2. ^ "Saddle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddle

MORE INFO
[1] "Girth (tack)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girth_%28ta
ck%29
Assyria1   
2,700 YBN
[700 BC] 13 14 		1075) Consonant letters can represent
more than one sound. Letter "C" sounded
as "K" in addition to traditional "G"
sound.7 8

Latin or Etruscan speaking people start
using the letter "C" (Gamma), not only
to represent it's traditional sound
"G", but also for the sound "K",
usually reserved for the letter "K"
(Kappa). This will add confusion to how
to pronounce a word, and violates a
more simple, logical system where one
letter equals only one sound.9 10

At this time Latin speaking people
start replacing words with K with the
letter "C".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "C". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "C". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "C". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "C". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ "C". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Ted
Huntington
13. ^ "C". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C (guess
based on)
14. ^ "Etruscan language".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_la
nguage (and based on)
Italy12   
2,688 YBN
[688 BC] 2 		916)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000). 19
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000). 19
  
2,669 YBN
[669 BC] 5 		1287) The "standard" version of the
story of Gilgamesh: a wild-man Enkidu
is tamed by having sex with a woman,
Enkidu and Gilgamesh destroy Humbaba,
the beast-like guardian of the forest,
and a bull sent from Heaven, Enkidu is
killed as a punishment by the Gods, and
Gilgamesh visits him in the
Underworld.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Epic of Gilgamesh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gil
gamesh
2. ^ "Epic of Gilgamesh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gil
gamesh
3. ^ "Epic of Gilgamesh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gil
gamesh
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Epic of Gilgamesh".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gil
gamesh (669bce starts reign (presumed
library is built then)
Nippur4   
2,668 YBN
[668 BC] 2 		917)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000). 19
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000). 19
  
2,668 YBN
[668 BC] 5 		1284) Clay tablet library of
Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, an early
systematically organized library from
which 20,720 Assyrian tablets and
fragments have been preserved.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Ashurbanipal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/38437/Ashurbanipal>.
2. ^ "Ashurbanipal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/38437/Ashurbanipal>.
3. ^ "Ashurbanipal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/38437/Ashurbanipal>.
4. ^ "Ashurbanipal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/38437/Ashurbanipal>.
5. ^ "Ashurbanipal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/38437/Ashurbanipal>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Assur-bani-pal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assur-bani-
pal (669bce starts reign (presumed
library is built then)
Nineveh (Assyria)4  
[1] Ashurbanipal on a Babylonian stela
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_als_hogepriester.jpg

[2] Ashurbanipal hunting, a palace
relief from Nineveh PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_op_jacht.jpg
2,664 YBN
[664 BC] 4 5 		759)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
"7th century BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_century
_BC
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
4. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
(=664)
5. ^ "Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-four
th_Dynasty_of_Egypt (=656)
  
2,660 YBN
[660 BC] 5 6 		644) In Egypt, the Demotic script
replaces hieratic in most secular
writing, but hieratic continued to be
used by priests for several more
centuries.2

The Demotic symbol set, is a short
hand, very rapid, abbreviated form of
hieratic, and looks like series of
"agitated commas".3 The word "demotic"
is from Greek meaning "of the people"
or "popular".4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hieratic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
2. ^ "Hieratic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p39
4. ^
"Hieratic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
5. ^ "Hieratic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
(=660)
6. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p39
(=700)

MORE INFO
[1] "Demotic Egyptian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_Egy
ptian
  
2,651 YBN
[651 BC] 11 12 		6337) All planets visible to the naked
eye clearly distinguished from stars
(Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) in Babylonia. The position of
these five planets compared to the
stars is found in a series of baked
clay tablet astronomical "diaries". The
earliest datable tablet, from 651 BCE
contains the names of all five
planets.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

2. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
3. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
5. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

6. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
7. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

8. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
9. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

10. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
11. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

12. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
Babylonia9 10  
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
2,650 YBN
[650 BC] 6 		1066) Evidence of the earliest
aquaduct, a channel used to move water
from one place to another, is in
Assyria. This aquaduct is built of and
carries water across a valley to the
capital city, Nineveh.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
2. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
3. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
4. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
5. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
6. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
(7th cent)
Nineveh5   
2,640 YBN
[640 BC] 2 		760)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,624 YBN
[624 BC] 3 4 5 		761)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
"Thales". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
4. ^
"Thales". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
5. ^ some have 548=death
  
2,622 YBN
[622 BC] 2 		763)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987). (cites a photo of
found clay stamp in an israel museum)
2. ^
Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote
the Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit
Books, 1987). (cites a photo of found
clay stamp in an israel museum)
  
2,622 YBN
[622 BC] 8 9 10 		826) Old Testament (The Torah, Hebrew
Bible, The Ten Commandments, The Story
of Genesis).4

The earliest record of the reading of a
“Torah book” is provided by the
narrative describing the reformation
instituted by King Josiah of Judah in
622 BCE following the fortuitous
discovery of a “book of the Torah”
during the renovation of the Temple.5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
2. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
3. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
4. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
5. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
6. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
7. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
8. ^ "biblical
literature". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
9. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
10. ^ "Hebrew Bible".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/259039/Hebrew-Bible>.
Judah6 |(Israel7 ) 
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
2,621 YBN
[621 BC] 4 		1519)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Draco". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1112/Draco
2. ^ "Draco". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1112/Draco
3. ^ "Draco". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1112/Draco
4. ^ "Draco". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1112/Draco (621)

MORE INFO
[1] "Draco (lawgiver)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_%28la
wgiver%29
Athens, Greece3   
2,609 YBN
[609 BC] 2 		767)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,609 YBN
[609 BC] 2 		768)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "7th century BC". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_century
_BC
2. ^ "7th century BC". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_century
_BC
  
2,605 YBN
[605 BC] 2 		918)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000). 19?
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000). 19?
  
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 7 		630) Metal coin money.4

Historians generally ascribe the first
use of coined money to Croesus, king of
Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The
earliest coins are made of electrum, a
natural mixture of gold and silver, and
are crude, bean-shaped ingots bearing a
primitive punch mark certifying to
either weight or fineness or both.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
5. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
6. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
7. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {7th Century BC}
Lydia, Anatolia6  
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 20 		762) Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) is
the first human of record to explain
the universe with out using any gods in
the explanation, claiming the universe
originated as water.13 14 15

Thales explains that moon light is
reflected sun light.16

Thales measures a pyramid by comparing
the pyramid shadow with the shadow from
a stick.17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Thales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
3. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
6. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
9. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Thales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
15. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
19. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
20. ^ estimate on
guess of 30 years old when realizes to
remove Marduct
Miletus, Greece19  
[1] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thales.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 2 		765)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 7 8 		2619) This concept of a Devil will grow
to be included in the Christian
religion, and coupled with the concept
of a Hell will work as a powerful myth
against science and free inquiry into
the scientific nature of the universe.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Satan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5840/Satan
2. ^ "The Book of Job". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3696/The-Book-of-Job
3. ^ "job new 2". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/job-new-2
4. ^ The Origin of Satan, Pagels, 1995,
p39.
5. ^ "job new 2". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/job-new-2
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "job new 2". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/job-new-2
(between 600BCE-400BCE)
8. ^ "The Book of Job".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3696/The-Book-of-Job (before 6th
century BCE)
  
2,590 YBN
[590 BC] 11 		1518) At this time people in Greece
have not yet begun to write history or
biography. It will not be until the
400s BCE that accounts of the life of
Solon and his works began to be put
together.6

Before Solon's reforms, the Athenian
state is administered by nine archons
appointed or elected annually by the
Areopagus on the basis of noble birth
and wealth. The Areopagus is made of
former archons and therefore has, in
addition to the power of appointment, a
large amount of influence. The nine
archons take the oath of office while
ceremonially standing on a stone in the
agora, declaring their readiness to
dedicate a golden statue if they should
ever be found to have violated the
laws. There is an assembly of Athenian
citizens (the Ekklesia) but the lowest
class (the Thetes) are not admitted and
its deliberative procedures are
controlled by the nobles. There is no
method to control or punish an archon
who violates a law unless the Areopagus
decides to prosecute the archon.7

According to Aristotle, Solon creates a
law to allow all citizens to be
admitted into the Ekklesia and for a
court (the Heliaia) to be formed from
all the citizens. The Heliaia appears
to have been the Ekklesia, or some
representative portion of it, sitting
as a jury. Ancient sources credit Solon
with the creation of a Council of Four
Hundred, drawn from the four Athenian
income groups to serve as a steering
committee for the enlarged Ekklesia.8

Solon broadens the financial and social
qualifications required for election to
public office. The Solonian
constitution divides citizens into four
political classes defined according to
assessable property, a classification
that might previously have served the
state for military or taxation purposes
only. The standard unit for this
assessment is one medimnos
(approximately 12 gallons) of corn.9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Solon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8622/Solon
2. ^ "Solon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8622/Solon
3. ^ "Solon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8622/Solon
4. ^ "Draco". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1112/Draco
5. ^ "Draco". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1112/Draco
6. ^ "Solon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8622/Solon
7. ^ "Solon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon
8. ^ "Solon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon
9. ^ "Solon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8622/Solon
10. ^ "Solon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8622/Solon
11. ^ "Solon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8622/Solon (BCE c630-c560)
Athens, Greece10  
[1] This bust, titled 'Solon' (National
Museum, Naples) is technically more
sophisticated than anything produced in
Solon's own time. Ancient literary
sources, from which history largely
derives its knowledge of Solon, were
similarly constructed long after the
event. PD
source: http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/Cla
sDram/images/03/solon.jpg

[2] The Areopagus, as viewed from the
Acropolis, is a monolith where Athenian
aristocrats decided important matters
of state during Solon's time. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Areopagus_from_the_Acropolis.jpg
2,587 YBN
[587 BC] 2 		769)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,585 YBN
[05/08/585 BC] 2 		770)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,580 YBN
[580 BC] 8 		764) Anaximander (Greek:
Αναξίμανδρος)
(Anaximandros) oNoKSEMoNDrOS or
ANAKSEmANDrOS? (BCE 610-546), friend
and student of Thales, describes an
Earth-centered Universe theory, and a
theory that humans evolved from fish,
the first recorded theory of evolution
in history.4 .5

Anaximander had a more abstract idea of
the universe than Thales. Anaximander
introduced the science of the ancient
east to Greece, made use of the sundial
(known for centuries in Egypt and
Babylonia), was the first to draw a map
of the entire known earth. Anaximander
recognized that the stars appeared to
orbit the pole star, and so viewed the
sky as a complete sphere (not just a
semisphere over the earth). This is
the first evidence for the idea of
spheres in astronomy. This would grow
to contribute to the complicated and
erroneus system of Ptolomy which will
dominate science until Copernicus and
Kepler. Anaximander thinks that the
earth is curved to explain the change
in position of the stars, thinking the
earth to be a cylinder. The first
papyrus by Anaximander is lost.6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ estimate on guess of 30
years old when makes science
contributions

MORE INFO
[1] "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Miletus7   
2,580 YBN
[580 BC] 11 		1522) The bulk of her poetry, which is
well-known and greatly admired
throughout antiquity, has been lost,
but her immense reputation has
endured.2
Because she writes love poems
addressed to both women and men, Sappho
has long been considered bisexual. The
word "lesbian" derives from the name of
the island of her birth, Lesbos.3
Her
homoerotica should be placed in a 600s
BCE Greece context. The poems of
Alcaeus and later Pindar record similar
romantic bonds between the members of a
given circle4
Ancient sources state
that Sappho produced nine volumes of
poetry, but only a small proportion of
her work survives. Papyrus fragments,
such as those found in the ancient
rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, are an
important source. One substantial
fragment is preserved on a potsherd.
The rest of what we know of Sappho
comes through citations in other
ancient writers, often made to
illustrate grammar, vocabulary, or
meter. There is a single complete poem,
Fragment 1, Hymn to Aphrodite.5

The themes of Sappho's known writing
are primarily concerned with her
thiasos, the usual term (not actually
found in any of Sappho's surviving
writings) for the female community,
with a religious and educational
background, that meets under her
leadership. In her poems, Sappho
attacks other thiasoi directed by other
women.6

The goal of the thiasos is the
education of young women, especially
for marriage. Aphrodite is the group's
tutelary divinity and inspiration.
Sappho is the intimate and servant of
the goddess and her intermediary with
the girls. In the ode to Aphrodite, the
poet invokes the goddess to appear, as
she has in the past, and to be her ally
in persuading a girl she desires to
love her. Frequent images in Sappho's
poetry include flowers, bright
garlands, naturalistic outdoor scenes,
altars smoking with incense, perfumed
unguents to sprinkle on the body and
bathe the hair-that is, all the
elements of Aphrodite's rituals. In the
thiasos the girls are educated and
initiated into grace and elegance for
seduction and love. Singing, dancing,
and poetry play a central role in this
educational process and other cultural
occasions. As is true for other female
contemporary communities, including the
Spartan, and for the corresponding
masculine institutions, the practice of
homoeroticism (allusions to same gender
physical love and sexuality7 ) within
the thiasos plays a role in the context
of initiation and education. In
Sappho's poetry love is passion, an
inescapable power that moves at the
will of the goddess; it is desire and
sensual emotion; it is nostalgia and
memory of affections that are now
distant, but shared by the community of
the thiasos. There is a personal poetic
dimension, which is also collective
because all the girls of the group
recognize themselves in it. An
important part of Sappho's poetry is
occupied by epithalamia, or nuptial
songs.8

It is not known how her poems were
published and circulated in her own
lifetime and for the following three or
four centuries. In the era of
Alexandrian scholarship (3rd and 2nd
centuries BC), what survives of her
work will be collected and published in
a standard edition of nine books of
lyrical verse, divided according to
metre. This edition will not endure
beyond the early Middle Ages. By the
8th or 9th century CE Sappho wil be
represented only by quotations in other
authors. Only the ode to Aphrodite, 28
lines long, is complete. The next
longest fragment is 16 lines long.
Since 1898 these fragments have been
greatly increased by papyrus finds,
though, in the opinion of some
scholars, nothing equal in quality to
the two longer poems.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sappho". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5707/Sappho
2. ^ "Sappho". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho
3. ^ "Sappho". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho
4. ^ "Sappho". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho
5. ^ "Sappho". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho
6. ^ "Sappho". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5707/Sappho
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Sappho". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5707/Sappho
9. ^ "Sappho". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5707/Sappho
10. ^ "Sappho". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5707/Sappho
11. ^ "Sappho". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5707/Sappho (610BCE+30)
Lesbos10  
[1] Sappho of Lesbos, from a Pompeiian
fresco; in the National Archaeological
Museum, Naples. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-16992/Sappho-of-Lesbos-from-a-Pompeiian
-fresco-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
2,575 YBN
[575 BC] 2 		773)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
(estimate based on)
  
2,550 YBN
[550 BC] 5 		1035)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Duenos inscription". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duenos_insc
ription
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Praeneste fibula".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeneste_f
ibula
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Duenos inscription".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duenos_insc
ription (6th century)

MORE INFO
[1] "Latin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin
[2]
http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyo
gh/thorn.html
[3] "C". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
 
[1] The w:en:Duenos inscription is an
Old Latin inscription from a vase found
near the Quirinal Hill in
Rome. Source: John Edwin Sandys,
''Epigraphy'', in A Companion to Latin
Studies (ed. John Edwin Sandys),
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1913; p. 733, plate 108. This, in
turn, credits Heinrich Dressel
(1845-1920), Annali, pl. 1, 1880.
Probably this means the Annali dell'
Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Duenos_inscription.jpg

[2] This is a turn-of-the-century
rubbing of the Forum inscription, which
dates to the 5th century BCE and is one
of the oldest known Latin
inscriptions. Source: John Edwin
Sandys, ''Epigraphy'', in A Companion
to Latin Studies (ed. John Edwin
Sandys), Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1913; p. 732, plate
107. This, in turn, credits Domenico
Comparetti (1835-1927), Iscrizione
archaica del Foro Romano, Firenze,
1900. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Forum_inscription.jpg
2,545 YBN
[545 BC] 4 		919)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peisistratus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peisistratu
s
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 75
3.
^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
4. ^ "Peisistratus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peisistratu
s (estimate from)
  
2,545 YBN
[545 BC] 6 		920) Herodotus' invention will earn him
the title "The Father of History" and
the word he uses for his achievement,
"historie", which previously had meant
simply "inquiry", will pass into Latin
and take its modern connotation of
"history" or "story". This nickname
will be given to him by Cicero (De
legibus I,5) 3
Herodotos writes that
doctors are very specialized in Egypt.
There are doctors for eyes, head,
teeth, stomach, and for "invisible
diseases", which may be disturbances of
the "nervous system". 4 or perhaps
simply any disease without a clear
cause (incl bacteria, virus).5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Herodotos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotos
2. ^ "Herodotos". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotos
3. ^ "Herodotos". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotos
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 121
5.
^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington (estimate
from)
  
2,540 YBN
[540 BC] 7 		783)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos",
Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los
Angeles, (1980).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ estimate on guess
of 30 years old when makes science
contributions
Miletus6  
[1] [t Find better image if possible,
perhaps writing of Anaximenes work or
about him.] Description English:
Anaximenes of Miletus, presocratic
philosopher. Français : Anaximène de
Milet, philosophe
présocratique. Date Source first
upload to de.wikipedia by Dr. Manuel on
10 Mar 2005, cropped from
http://www.sir-ray.com/Anaximenes.jpeg
and tagged as Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Anaximenes.jpg
2,540 YBN
[540 BC] 8 		784) Xenophanes (~570 BC - ~480 BC), a
Greek philosopher, poet, social and
religious critic 2 , learns from
Pythagoras, but leaves Ionia for
Southern Italy, (to a town named
"Elea"). Xenophanes is less mystical
than Pythagoras and writes about the
school of Pythagoras. Xenophanes did
not believe in transmigrartion of
souls, or in the primitive Greek Gods,
but instead in a monotheism rare to
Greek people. Xenophanes finds
seashells on mountain tops and reasons
that the earth changes over time, so
that mountains must have been in the
sea and then rose, therefore Xenophanes
is the first human in history to make a
contribution to the science of Geology.
Not until Hutton were any other
contributions to Geology made.3

Our knowledge of his views comes from
his surviving poetry, all of which are
fragments passed down as quotations by
later Greek writers. His poetry
criticized and satirized a wide range
of ideas, including the belief in the
pantheon of human-like gods and the
Greek people's continued support of
athleticism.4

Xenophanes rejected the idea that the
gods resembled humans in form. One
famous passage ridiculed the idea by
claiming that, if oxen were able to
imagine gods, then those gods would be
in the image of oxen. Because of his
development of the concept of a "one
god greatest among gods and men" that
is abstract, universal, unchanging,
immobile and always present, Xenophanes
is often seen as one of the first
monotheists.5

This shows that there was a large
amount of tolerence of religious
criticism, without any serious
punishment.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Xenophanes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophanes
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Xenophanes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophanes
5. ^ "Xenophanes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophanes
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ estimate on guess of 30
years old when makes science
contributions
Elea, Southern Italy7   
2,538 YBN
[538 BC] 3 4 		788)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ "6th Century BC".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Century
_BC
3. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987). (=538)
4. ^ "6th Century
BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Century
_BC (=537)
  
2,530 YBN
[530 BC] 6 		797) Eupalinus, Eupalinus of Megara (20
mi west of athens), a Greek architect,
constructed for the tyrant Polycrates
of Samos a tunnel to bring water to the
city, passing the tunnel through a hill
for half a mile, starting at both ends,
meeting at the center and unaligned by
only a few inches. 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Eupalinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eupalinus
4. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Samos, Greece5   
2,529 YBN
[529 BC] 31 		772) Pythagoras describes the earth as
a sphere.17 18 "Pythagorean Theorem"
(in a right triangle: the square of the
lengths of the hypotenuse always equals
the sum of the square of the length of
the two other sides).19 20

Pythagoras is credited with being the
first person to recognize that the
morning star (Phosphorus) and evening
star (Hesperus) are the same star,
after this time, the star is called
"Aphrodite" (this "star" is later
recognized to be planet Venus).
Pythagoras is the first to write that
the orbit of the earth moon is not in
the plane of the Earth equator but at
an angle to that plane. Pythagoras is
the first to teach that the Sun, Moon,
and planets do not follow the motion of
the stars, but have paths of their own.
This changes the star system theory
from the theory of Anaximander of a
single heavenly crystalline sphere, to
adding separate spheres for the
planets. This theory of the star system
will last until Kepler.21 22

Pythagoras moves from Samos to Croton
in Southern Italy, to escape the harsh
rule of Polycrates, and starts a school
in Croton.23 24

Pythagoras experiments with a
monochord, an instrument that has a
single string is stretched over a sound
box. The string is fixed at both ends
and a moveable bridge alters the
pitch.25 Pythagoras finds that strings
of musical instruments make higher
pitch sounds when made shorter, finding
pitch related to length. Pythagoras
finds, for example, twice the length
equals 1 octave lower, a 3 to 2 ratio
equals a fifth, a 4 to 3 ratio equals a
fourth. Pythagoras finds that also
increasing tension raises pitch.26

A Pythagorean named Hippasus is
credited with the proof that the square
root of 2 can not be expressed as a
ratio of two numbers (is irrational).
Pythagorian humans decide to keep
secret "irrational numbers".27 28

Pythagoras mistakenly thinks that
vibrations from the crystaline spheres
rubbing together create a harmonious
"Music of the Spheres", which will last
for a long time.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Pythagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Pythagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Pythagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Pythagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Pythagoras.html
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Pythagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Pythagoras.html
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Pythagoras.html
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ "Pythagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Pythagoras.html
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
22. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Pythagoras.html
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ "Pythagoras".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/485171/Pythagoras>.
25. ^ "Monochord". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochord
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
28. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Pythagoras.html
29. ^
http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-state.edu/
~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
31. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). {529 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Polycrates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrates
[2] "Pythagorean theorem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean
_theorem
Croton, Italy30  
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g

[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
2,525 YBN
[525 BC] 4 5 		820)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
"6th century BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_century
_BC
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
4. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
(=664)
5. ^ "Koine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine
(=656)
  
2,520 YBN
[520 BC] 11 12 13 		785) This skepticism of religion
appears to be widespread and higly
tolerated in this time of history in
Ionia. 4
Hecataeus was one of the first
classical writers to mention the Celtic
people.5
Some have credited Hecataeus
with a work entitled Ges Periodos
("Travels round the Earth" or "World
Survey'), in two books each organized
in the manner of a periplus, a
point-to-point coastal survey. One on
Europe, is essentially a periplus of
the Mediterranean, describing each
region in turn, reaching as far north
as Scythia. The other book, on Asia, is
arranged similarly to the Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea of which a version
of the 1st century CE survives.
Hecataeus described the countries and
inhabitants of the known world, the
account of Egypt being particularly
comprehensive; the descriptive matter
was accompanied by a map, based upon
Anaximander"s map of the earth, which
he corrected and enlarged. The work
only survives in some 374 fragments, by
far the majority being quoted in the
geographical lexicon Ethnika compiled
by Stephanus of Byzantium. 6

The other known work of Hecataeus was
the Genealogiai, a rationally
systematized account of the traditions
and mythology of the Greeks, a break
with the epic myth-making tradition,
which survives in a few fragments, just
enough to show what we are missing. 7

Hecataeus' work, especially the
Genealogiai, shows a marked scepticism,
opening with "Hecataeus of Miletus thus
speaks: I write what I deem true; for
the stories of the Greeks are manifold
and seem to me ridiculous."1 Unlike his
contemporary Xenophanes, he did not
criticize the myths on their own terms;
his disbelief rather stems from his
broad exposure to the many
contradictory mythologies he
encountered in his travels. 8

An anecdote from Herodotus (II, 143),
of a visit to an Egyptian temple at
Thebes, is illustrative. It recounts
how the priests showed Herodotus a
series of statues in the temple's inner
sanctum, each one supposedly set up by
the high priest of each generation.
Hecataeus, says Herodotus, had seen the
same spectacle, after mentioning that
he traced his descent, through sixteen
generations, from a god. The Egyptians
compared his genealogy to their own, as
recorded by the statues; since the
generations of their high priests had
numbered three hundred and forty-five,
all entirely mortal, they refused to
believe Hecataeus's claim of descent
from a mythological figure. This
encounter with the immemorial antiquity
of Egypt has been identified as a
crucial influence on Hecataeus's
scepticism: the mythologized past of
the Hellenes shrank into insignificant
fancy next to the history of a
civilization that was already ancient
before Mycenae was built. 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
"Î"ιβλιοθήκη
της
Αλεξάνδρει
ας". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B
9%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE
%BA%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%B
B%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE
%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Hecataeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus
6. ^ "Hecataeus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus
7. ^ "Hecataeus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus
8. ^ "Hecataeus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus
9. ^ "Hecataeus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Hecataeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus
13. ^ estimate on guess of 30 years
old when makes science contributions
Miletus, Greece10   
2,515 YBN
[03/12/515 BC] 4 		821)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ "6th century BC".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_century
_BC
3. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
4. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
(estimate based on)

MORE INFO
[1] "Temple in Jerusalem".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_in_J
erusalem
  
2,515 YBN
[515 BC] 3 		1264)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Behistun". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun
2. ^ "Behistun". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun
3. ^ "Behistun". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun
Persia (Kermanshah Province of
Iran) 
[1] Behistun Inscription, with some
modern annotations Sketch: Fr.
Spiegel, Die altpers. Keilinschriften,
Leipzig 1881. Source:
http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/did
act/idg/iran/apers/behistun.htm Copyrig
ht expired due to age of document PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg

[2] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Darius_I_the_Great%27s_inscription.jp
g
2,510 YBN
[510 BC] 6 7 		786) Heraclitus (~540 BC Ephesus 30 mi
north of Miletus, ~540 bc - ~475 bc)
disagrees with Thales, Anaximander, and
Pythagorus about the nature of the
ultimate substance, thinking fire to be
a fundamental element of the universe.2
3 Heraclitus claims that the nature of
everything is change itself. A
typically pessimistic view led to
Herkleitos being called the "weeping
philosopher". Only fragments of text by
Heraclitus have been found.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Heraclitus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Heraclitus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ estimate on guess of 30
years old when makes science
contributions
Miletus, Greece5  
[1] Heraclitus, by Johannes Moreelse
(1602-1634) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Heraclitus%2C_Johanne
s_Moreelse.jpg
2,510 YBN
[510 BC] 4 		787) Parmenides (~540 BC Elea (now
Velia), Italy - ??) a student of
Ameinias, and pre-Socratic
philosopher,2 follows in the tradition
of the Ionian exiled Pythagorus and
Xenophanes. Parmenides opposed the view
of Heraclitus, claiming that one object
can not turn in to other object
fundamentally different. Parmenides
argued that creation (something from
nothing) and destruction (nothing from
something) is impossible. Parmenides
chose reason over senses, feeling
senses to be untrustworthy. Parmenides
founds school in Elea, the "Eliatic
School" based on this philosophy of
reason over senses. Zeno was the most
recognized person educated in the
school. Zeno, will use distrust of
senses to describe a set of paradoxes.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Parmenides".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (estimate on guess of
30 years old when makes science
contributions)
  
2,508 YBN
[508 BC] 20 21 		1517)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
2. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
3. ^ "History of democracy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy
4. ^ "democracy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9895/democracy
5. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
6. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
7. ^ "Attica". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1175/Attica
8. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
9. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
10. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
11. ^ "Cleisthenes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisthenes

12. ^ "Cleisthenes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisthenes

13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Cleisthenes Of
Athens". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
15. ^ "Cleisthenes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisthenes

16. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
17. ^ "Cleisthenes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisthenes

18. ^ "Cleisthenes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisthenes

19. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens
20. ^ "Cleisthenes Of Athens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4296/Cleisthenes-Of-Athens (507/508)
(507/508 BCE)
21. ^ "Cleisthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisthenes
 (507/508) (507/508 BCE)
Athens, Greece19   
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 2 		824)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
  
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 3 4 5 		825)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^
http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_madein
china/2005-07/21/content_70877.htm
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
4. ^ "Cross-bow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-bow
(=500)
5. ^
http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_madein
china/2005-07/21/content_70877.htm
(=500)
  
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 2 		831)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p33-34
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p33-34
  
2,499 YBN
[499 BC] 2 		832)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=499)
  
2,490 YBN
[490 BC] 6 7 8 9 10 11 		789) Hanno (BCE c530-???), Cathaginian
(a branch of the Phoenicians)
Navigator, sails 60 ships with 3000
people, down the coast of Africa in
order to start new settlements. Much of
what is learned about Hanno is from an
18 sentence travel-record, or
"Periplus" of this journey, from
Herodotus, and Pliny the Elder. 2 3
Herodotus will express doubts about the
accuracy of Hanno's story, because of a
report that in the far south the sun at
noon was in the nothern half of the
sky, which Herodotus will think is
impossible, but is in fact true for the
southern hemisphere of earth. This is
strong evidence, taken together with
the Periplus of Hanno's journey that
Hanno is the first Mediterranean human
to sail over the equator into the
Southern Hemisphere.4 Herodotus also
declares that Hanno claimed to have
circumnavigated Africa.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.metrum.org/mapping/hanno.htm
3. ^
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/afric
angeographers/a/Hanno.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^
http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hanno/hanno0
3.html (=550-600)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~570)
8. ^
http://www.compuserve.co.uk/channels/res
earch/education/timeline/start.asp
(=490)
9. ^
http://www.4to40.com/QA/index.asp?catego
ry=science&counter=191 (=500)
10. ^
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/afric
angeographers/a/Hanno.htm (=400-499)
11. ^
http://www.metrum.org/mapping/hanno.htm
(=contemp w herodotus 460)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hanno the Navigator".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanno_the_N
avigator
Carthage (modern: Tunis) 
[1] Description Français : Carte du
trajet de Hannon English: Map in
French of Hanno the Navigator's
exploration Deutsch: Karte in
Franzosisch der Reiseroute von Hanno
dem Seefahrer Español: Zona explorada
por Hannón el Navegante en su famoso
Periplo, en francés Date 26 April
2009 Source travail personnel (own
work) + File:Africa topography map.png
(relief bitmap embedded in the svg) +
File:Periplo de Hannón.jpg
(data) Author Bourrichon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Hannon_map-fr.s
vg/1000px-Hannon_map-fr.svg.png
2,490 YBN
[490 BC] 		819)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 12 		836) Anaxagoras views the Sun to be a
mass of red-hot metal, that people live
on the Moon, and thinks that the
Universe is made of tiny bodies.6 The
contemporary prevailing belief is that
the Sun and the Moon are gods.7
Diogenes Laerteus confirms that this is
the belief of the Egyptian people
writing (translated from Greek):
"...They (the Egyptians) say that the
first principle is matter then that the
four elements were formed out of matter
and divided and that some animals were
created and that the sun and moon are
gods of whom the former is called
Osiris and the latter Isis and they are
symbolised under the names of beetles
and dragons and hawks and other
animals...".8

Anaxagoras (BCE c500-c428) introduces
the Ionian science of Thales to Athens,
saying that the universe is not made by
a deity, but through the action of
infinite "seeds", which will later
develop into atomic theory under
Leucippos. Anaxagoras accurately
explains the phases of the earth moon,
and both eclipses of moon and sun in
terms of their movements.9

Anaxagoras teaches in Athens for 30
years, and the school formed by
Anaxagoras starts the scholarly
tradition that lasts for 1000 years.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
3. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr:
R. D. Hicks, "Lives of Eminent
Philosophers Books I-V", 137-139.
(similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
7. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
8. ^
Diogenes Laertius, "The lives and
opinions of eminent philosophers", G.
Bell & sons, 1901,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jk
YzAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=diogen
es+laertius+lives+of+eminent+philosopher
s&hl=en&sa=X&ei=QXRET7LVMaepiALh3aHJDg&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=hecat&f=false

9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (450bc+30yrs
estimate for science contributions)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
(=490?-430?)
Athens11  
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 21 22 23 		840)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "alcmaeon". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "alcmaeon". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"alcmaeon". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "alcmaeon". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "alcmaeon". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"alcmaeon". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "alcmaeon". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "alcmaeon". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"alcmaeon". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^
"alcmaeon". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "alcmaeon".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "alcmaeon". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/
20. ^ "alcmaeon". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"alcmaeon". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "alcmaeon".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=500bce) {500 BCE}
22. ^
"Alcmaeon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmaeon
(=450bce) {450 BCE}
23. ^ "". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "alcmaeon". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/ (=500-450bce) {500-450 BCE}
  
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 4 		907)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Oenopides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenopides
2. ^ "Oenopides". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenopides
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
4. ^
"Oenopides". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenopides
(+30)
  
2,468 YBN
[468 BC] 2 		837)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980)
  
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 30 		1894) Particle (or wireless)
communication. The optical telegraph
(or semaphore)21 22 23

An optical telegraph is an apparatus
for conveying information by using
visual signals, for example, using
towers with turnable blades or paddles,
shutters, or hand-held flags etc.24

The Greek playwright, Aeschylus,
describes in the play "Agamemnon" how
news of the fall of Troy reaches the
city of Argos (600 km away) in only a
few hours by the use of fire signals.25
26

Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) gives a
clear description of an optical
telegraph (or semaphore) using
telescopes to the Royal Society in
1684.27

Claude Chappe in France will develop
one of the first practical optical
telegraphs in 1794.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
2. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
4. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
5. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
7. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
8. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
10.
^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
11. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
13.
^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
14. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Communicat
ion.htm
15. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
16. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
17. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
18.
^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
19. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
20. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Communicat
ion.htm
21. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
22. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
23. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
24.
^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
25. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
26. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Communicat
ion.htm
27. ^ Robert Hooke, "A Way how to
communicate one's Mind at Great
Distances", May 21,
1684 http://books.google.com/books?id=C
x5HXxTW1lsC&pg=PA44
28. ^ "semaphore". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6703/semaphore
29. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
30. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
{467 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Hooke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[3] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[5]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[6] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[7]
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[8]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[9] "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History (1684)
Greece (presumably)29  
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif

[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 7 8 		835)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (450bc+30yrs
estimate for science contributions)
8. ^ "Zeno of
Elea". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_of_Ele
a (=490?-430?)
  
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 27 28 		841) Theory that all matter is made of
atoms.15 16

Leukippos (Greek Λευκιππος 17
) (lEUKEPOS?) (BCE c490-???) is the
first person to support an atomic
theory.18 Leukippos theorizes that the
universe is made of two different
elements, which he calls "solid" and
"empty",19 and that matter is composed
entirely of an infinity of small
indivisible particles called atoms,
which are constantly in motion, and
through their collisions and
regroupings form various compounds.20

The most famous among Leucippus' lost
works are titled "Megas Diakosmos"
("The Great Order of the Universe" or
"The great world-system"21 ) and "Peri
Nou" ("On mind").22

The argument for indivisible atoms is
said to have been a response to Zeno's
argument about the absurdities that
follow if magnitudes are divisible to
infinity. 23

Leukippos represents the final part of
science and logic in Asia Minor before
the destruction of the coastal cities
by humans from Persia.24 Leukippos
teaches Democritos.25
Leukippos is the
first person to say that every event
has a natural cause.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
11. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ "leucippus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "leucippus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/leucippus/
14. ^ "Leucippus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/337658/Leucippus>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
17. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ "leucippus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "leucippus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/leucippus/
20. ^ "Leucippus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/337658/Leucippus>.
21. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
22. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
23. ^ "leucippus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"leucippus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leucip
pus/
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
28. ^
"Leucippus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
(=500-450bce)
 
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 19 20 		842)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos",
Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los
Angeles, (1980) .
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos",
Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los
Angeles, (1980) .
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "empedocles". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "empedocles". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"empedocles". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/empedocles/
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "empedocles". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "empedocles". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"empedocles". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/empedocles/
15. ^ "empedocles". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"empedocles". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "empedocles".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/empedocles/
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Empedocles".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles
18. ^ "empedocles". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"empedocles". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "empedocles".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/empedocles/
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
20. ^ "Empedocles".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles
(=500-450bce)
  
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 2 		1037)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Diogenes Apolloniates".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_Ap
olloniates
2. ^ "Diogenes Apolloniates".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_Ap
olloniates (c460BCE)
  
2,458 YBN
[458 BC] 2 		834)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,454 YBN
[454 BC] 1 		844)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/ (=454bce)
  
2,451 YBN
[451 BC] 3 		906) Protagoras (Greek:
Πρωταγόρας) (c. 481-c. 420
BC) publishes an agnostic text.
Diogenes describes it this way
(translated from Greek): "...another of
his treatises he begins in this way:
"Concerning the Gods, I am not able to
know to a certainty whether they exist
or whether they do not. For there are
many things which prevent one from
knowing, especially the obscurity of
the subject, and the shortness of the
life of man.". And on account of this
beginning of his treatise he was
banished by the Athenians. And they
burnt his books in the market-place,
calling them in by the public crier,
and compelling all who possessed them
to surrender them.".2
FOOTNOTES
Diogenes Laertius "Lives of Eminent
Philosophers", 397-398. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
Diogenes Laertius "Lives of Eminent
Philosophers", 397-398. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
3. ^ "Protagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras
(+30)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/quot
es/quote-s2.htm
 
[1] [t Get better image- perhaps of
text.] Picture of Protagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://i2.listal.com/image/59712
8/600full-protagoras.jpg
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 15 16 		843)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The lives and
opinions of eminent philosophers", H.
G. Bohn, 1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "philolaus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/
7. ^ "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/
8. ^ "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/
9. ^ "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/
10. ^ "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/
11. ^ "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/
12. ^ "philolaus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/
13. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The lives and
opinions of eminent philosophers", H.
G. Bohn, 1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
14. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The lives and
opinions of eminent philosophers", H.
G. Bohn, 1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~480bce)
16. ^ "". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/ (=470-385bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.neo-tech.com/zero/part2.html
Croton, Italy14   
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 4 		1033)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Twelve Tables". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Tabl
es
2. ^ "Twelve Tables". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Tabl
es
3. ^ "Spurius Carvilius Ruga".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spurius_Car
vilius_Ruga
4. ^ "Twelve Tables". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Tabl
es
  
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 2 		1053)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chainmail". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chainmail
2. ^ "Chainmail". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chainmail
(5th cent)
  
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 1 		1112)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Grand Canal (China)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Canal
_%28China%29

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China 
[1] Grand Canal of China. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kaiserkanal01.jpg
2,438 YBN
[438 BC] 4 5 		823)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Parthenon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon
3. ^ "Parthenon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
5. ^ "Parthenon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon
(=438)
  
2,434 YBN
[434 BC] 		839)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,432 YBN
[432 BC] 19 20 21 		849) Metonic calendar: 12 years of 12
months, 7 years of 13 months.10 11 12

Greek astronomer Meton (c440BC Athens -
???) finds that 235 lunar months make
around 19 years, so 12 years of 12
months and 7 years of 13 months will
allow the lunar calendar to match the
seasons. The Greek calendar will be
based on the Metonic cycle until 46 BCE
when the Julian calendar will be made
by Julius Caesar with the help of
Sosigenes.13 This calendar is also in
use in Babylonia around the same time
if not earlier.14 15
Greek astronomer
Meton (~440BC Athens - ???) finds that
235 lunar months (moon rotations of
earth) are close to 19 earth years, so
if there are 12 years of 12 lunar
months, and 7 years of 13 lunar months,
every 19 years, the lunar calendar
would match the seasons. This will come
to be called the "Metonic cycle"
(although probably recognized by
astonomers in Babylonia before this
time). The Greek calendar will be based
on the Metonic cycle until 46 BCE when
the Julian calendar will be made by
Julius Caesar with the help of
Sosigenes.16

This cycle can be used to predict
eclipses, forms the basis of the Greek
and Jewish calendars, and is used to
determine the date for Easter each
year. 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
6. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
9. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
12. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
15. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ James Evans,
"History and practice of ancient
astronomy", 1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
21. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)
[2] "Meton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meton
Athens, Greece (presumably)18   
2,431 YBN
[431 BC] 10 		1372)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ "Mahavamsa". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahavamsa
3. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
4. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
5. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
6. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
7. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
8. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
9. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
10. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital

MORE INFO
[1] "Mihintale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihintale
Sri Lanka9  
[1] Mihintale, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
Mihintale and Missaka Pabatha is
situated near to Anuradhapura in Sri
Lanka GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mihintale_missaka.jpg
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 6 		838)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~dhutchin/s
26a.htm {430 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980)
Athens, Greece5   
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 26 27 28 29 		845)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Democritus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus
8. ^ "Democritus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
12. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
13. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
14. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
15. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/2/36.html
16. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
17. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
18. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
19. ^
Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Demokratia, Henry George
Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English
Lexicon", at
Perseus http://web.archive.org/web/2007
0914202111/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/
cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0
057:entry%3d%2324422
21. ^ Professor Paul Cartledge, "The
Democratic
Experiment" http://www.bbc.co.uk/histor
y/ancient/greeks/greekdemocracy_01.shtml

22. ^ "democracy." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Politics. Oxford
University Press, 1996, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/democracy
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~470-~380bce)
27. ^
"Democritus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus
(=~450-~370bce)
28. ^ "". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "democritus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/ (=~460-)
29. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/2/36.html
(=460-370)
Abdera, Thrace24 25   
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 9 10 		847) There is much uncertainty, but
Hippocrates was born of a family in a
hereditary guild of magicians on the
Isle of Cos, described to be descended
from Asklepios, the Greek god of
medicine. Hippocrates visits Egypt
early in life, there studies medical
works credited to Imhotep. Some people
claim that he was a student of
Democritus. Hippocrates teaches in
Athens (and other places), before
opening his own school of health in
Cos.5

Humans that graduate with a "medical"
degree must still repeat the oath
credited to Hippocrates (although
repeating oaths is stupid, and few if
any actually people actually follow
this advice of do no harm, in
particular in psychiatric hospitals). 6
7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Hippocrates".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates

8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=460-~370 BCE)
10. ^
"Hippocrates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates
 (=460-377 BCE)
Cos8   
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 3 		910)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/huma
nism/79214
2. ^ "Diagoras". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagoras
3. ^ "Diagoras". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagoras
  
2,424 YBN
[424 BC] 6 		1138) Although in the comedy "Clouds",
Aristophanes paints Ionian science in a
bad light through a portrayal of
Socrates encouraging young people to
beat their parents.3 But perhaps even
then, people paid for such a message to
be read during a play (now newspapers,
magazines, television and movies accept
money for such messages), and money for
propaganda, a very old (albeit
secretive) system, may have influence
Aristophanes even then.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Aristophanes, "The Knights", 424
BCE. http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.
au/a/aristophanes/knights/
AND http://classics.mit.edu/Aristophane
s/knights.html
2. ^ Aristophanes, "The Knights", 424
BCE. http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.
au/a/aristophanes/knights/
AND http://classics.mit.edu/Aristophane
s/knights.html
3. ^ "socrates". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"socrates". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "socrates".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "socrates". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrat
es/
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Aristophanes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophane
s
6. ^
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristophanes/kni
ghts.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/quot
es/quote-a2.htm
[2]
http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/at
h/blathp_greece.htm
Athens, Greece5  
[1] Description English: Theatre of
Dionysus and the throne for the archon
eponymos (the throne is dedicated to a
Roman citizen, Marcus Ulpius, and to
his two sons, 3rd Century A.D., in
recognition of their charitable works
during a time of famine). Deutsch:
Dies ist die Ehrensitzreihe des
Dionysostheaters in Athen. Date 31
March 2008 Source Own
work Author DerHexer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Ehrentribuene_Dionyso
stheater_Athen.jpg

[2] Aristophanes - Project Gutenberg
eText 12788 The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Library Of The World's Best
Literature, Ancient And Modern, Vol. 2,
by Charles Dudley
Warner http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
2788 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aristophanes_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTex
t_12788.png
2,409 YBN
[409 BC] 2 		852)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,408 YBN
[408 BC] 3 		5877)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Claude V. Palisca, "Norton
Anthology of Western Music", fourth
edition, 2001, p4-5.
2. ^ "Euripides." The
Concise Oxford Companion to Classical
Literature. Oxford University Press,
1993, 2003. Answers.com 04 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/euripides
3. ^ Claude V. Palisca, "Norton
Anthology of Western Music", fourth
edition, 2001, p4-5. {408 BCE}
Athens, Greece2 (or perhaps
Macedon) 
[1] Fragmento em papiro com trecho
do coro de Orestes (Eurípides), ca.
200 a.C., transcrito em NAWM 1. * *
* UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tS9ZBw
8iKyY/SMLKWhnAKhI/AAAAAAAAAVo/CCfi_POmD4
E/s400/euripides-orestes-papiro.jpg

[2] Description English: Bust of
Euripides. Marble, Roman copy after a
Greek original from ca. 330
BC. Français : Buste d'Euripide.
Marbre, copie romaine d'un original
grec de 330 av. J.-C. environ. Date
Current location [show]Vatican
MuseumsLink back to Institution infobox
template Museo Pio-Clementino, Sala
delle Muse Accession number Inv.
302 Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (2006) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Euripides_Pio-Clement
ino_Inv302.jpg
2,404 YBN
[404 BC] 2 		855)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
  
2,399 YBN
[399 BC] 11 12 13 		846)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "socrates". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"socrates". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrat
es/
2. ^ "Socrates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted
Huntington
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Philostratus
and Eunapius, translation by Wilmer
Cave Wright, "Philostratus and
Eunapius", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1961), p382.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(=~470-399bce)
12. ^ "Socrates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates
(=470-399bce)
13. ^ "". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "socrates".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrat
es/ (=469-399)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.wsu.edu/~tcook/doc/Socrates2.
htm
[2] "Laconophile". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laconophile

[3] "Critias". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critias
[4] "Aristophanes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophane
s
Athens, Greece10  
[1] From
http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This
image is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired in the United
States and those countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years or less. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socrates.png

[2] The Death of Socrates, by
Jacques-Louis David (1787) The
two-dimensional work of art depicted in
this image is in the public domain in
the United States and in those
countries with a copyright term of life
of the author plus 100 years. This
photograph of the work is also in the
public domain in the United States (see
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.).
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socratesdeath.jpg
2,390 YBN
[390 BC] 8 		909)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristip.htm
2. ^ "Aristippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristippus
3. ^
http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristip.htm
4. ^
http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristip.htm
5. ^ "Cyrenaic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaic
6. ^ "Cyrenaic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaic
7. ^
http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristip.htm
8. ^
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/7842/jbc
onv17.htm (estimate based on)
  
2,387 YBN
[387 BC] 20 		851) Plato's Academy.5

Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn,
"wide, broad-shouldered") (c427BC
Athens - 347 BC Athens) founds a school
in western Athens on a piece of land
once owned by a legendary Greek human
named "Academus", and so this school
comes to be called "The Academy", and
this word will eventually generally
apply to any school.6 The Academy will
be a center for science and education
for 900 years until 529 CE.7

Plato is an Athethian aristocrat (of
the ruling class or nobility) whose
original name is "Aristocles", but he
gets the nick name "Platon" (meaning
"broad") because of his broad
shoulders. (Cicero also was a nick
name). Plato is in the "war service"
(tph military?) and is interested in
politics, but rejects Athenian
democracy. 8

In this year, Plato returned to Athens.
(on the way to Athens, Plato is
supposed to have been captured by
pirates and held for ransom). 9

The Academy has shrine to the muses
(mouseion) and is viewed as a religious
organisation by the government. 10

Plato stayed at the Academy for the
rest of his life, except for 2 years in
the 360s, when he visited Syracuse, the
main city of Greek Sicily, to tutor the
new king Dionysius II. Dionysius II
appeared brutal, and Plato returned
safely to Athens. Plato is supposed to
have died in his sleep at the age of 80
after attending a wedding feast of a
student. Writing credited to Plato are
consistently popular and are of a
series of dialogues between Socrates
and others. Most of what is known about
Socrates is from these texts. Like
Socrates, Plato was mainly interested
in moral philosophy and hated natural
philosophy (science). To Plato,
knowledge had no practical purpose.
Plato liked mathematics, perhaps
because the perfection of math, the
loftiest form of pure thought, was
different from the reality of the
universe (viewed as "gross" and
imperfect). Above the main doorway to
the academy were the words in Greek:
"Let no one ignorent of mathematics
enter here." Plato did think that math
could be applied to the universe. The
planets, he thought, exhibited perfect
geometric form. This is in Timaeus. He
describes the 5 and only 5 perfect
solids, those objects with equal faces,
lines and angles. (4 sided tetrahedron,
six sided hexahedron (or cube), 8 sided
octahedron, 12 sided dodecahedron, and
20 sided icosahedron. 4 of the 5
represented the 4 elements, while the
dodecahdron represented the whole
universe. These solids were first
discovered by the Pythagoreans. Plato
thought the planets were spheres and
moved in circles along the crystalline
spheres that held them in place. The
idea that the universe must reflect the
perfection of abstract mathematics was
most popular until Kepler, even though
compromises with reality had to be made
constantly, beginning after the death
of Plato with Eudoxus and Callippus.
In Timaeus, Plato invented a moralistic
story of a completely fictional land
called "Atlantis". This legend has had
unending popularity and has persisted
to now. One Aegean island exploded
vocanically in 1400 BC and this may
have given rise to this story. The
views of Plato had a strong influence
on Christian people until the 1200s
when Aristotle gained more popularity.
11
Carl Sagan states that:
"Plato and
his followers separated the earth from
the "heavens" (the rest of the
universe), Plato taught contempt for
the real world and disdain for the
practical application of science. Plato
served tyrants, and taught the
separation of the body from the mind, a
natural enough idea in a slave
society." 12
and that "{Plato}
preferred the perfection of these
mathematical abstractions to the
imperfections of everyday life. He
believed that ideas were far more real
than the natural world. He advised the
astronomers not to waste their time
observing the stars and planets. It was
better, he believed, to just think
about them. Plato expressed hostility
to observation and experiment. He
taught contempt for the real world and
disdain for the practical application
of scientific knowledge. Plato's
followers succeeded in extinguishing
the light of science and experiment
that had been kindled by Democritus and
the other Ionians. Plato's unease with
the world as revealed by the senses was
to dominate and stifle Western
philosophy. Even as late as 1600,
Johannes Kepler was still struggling to
interpret the structure of the Cosmos
in terms of Pythagorean solids and
Platonic perfections." 13 I am not
sure that we should fully blame
Pythagoras and Plato for the collapse
of science, as much as we should the
tradition of religion that came long
before them. But clearly the support
of these incorrect views by a majority
of later intellectuals shows large
scale bad judgement. The popularity of
Plato is a mystery since Plato did not
make one contribution to science. 14
Sagan says that this popularity is
because the views of Plato justify a
corrupt social order, where I think
that this popularity was simply a
mistaken belief. In addition the
Academy served as a center for science
and education until 529 CE. 15

In "The Republic", one of the earliest
and most influential books on political
theory, Plato presents a plan for the
ideal society and government. Plato
disliked Athenian democracy. It was the
leaders of the Athenian democracy that
had sentenced his teacher to die for
seeking truth and wisdom. Plato
preferred Sparta's model of government.
In Sparta, the needs of the state
(country) were put above the
individual. Serving the government was
more important than achieving personal
goals. Plato believed that too much
personal freedom led to disorder and
chaos. Athens was a primary example of
this disorder. 16

" Plato wanted only the most
intelligent and best-educated citizens
to participate in government. He
divided people into three classes:
workers to produce life's necessities,
soldiers to defend the people, and
specially trained leaders to govern the
state (country). The specially trained
leaders would be an elite class that
included both men and women. The wisest
of all would be a philosopher-king with
ultimate authority. The
philosopher-king would be well educated
to make decisions for the good of all
the people." 17

"Rather than being remembered for a
specific model of the Universe it was
his views on its nature, put forward in
his dialogue Timaeus, that were to so
strongly influence subsequent
generations. To Plato the Universe was
perfect and unchanging. Stars were
eternal and divine, embedded in an
outer sphere. All heavenly motions were
circular or spherical as the sphere was
the perfect shape. Such was his
influence that the concept of circular
paths was not challenged until Kepler,
after many years of painstaking
calculations, discovered the elliptical
orbits of planets nearly 2,000 years
later." 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^
http://www.historyalive.com/resources/ha
/AWH/biographies/AWH_T6Bio.aspx
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient
Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990). 84
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos",
Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los
Angeles, (1980).
13. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos",
Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los
Angeles, (1980).
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^
http://www.historyalive.com/resources/ha
/AWH/biographies/AWH_T6Bio.aspx
16. ^
http://www.historyalive.com/resources/ha
/AWH/biographies/AWH_T6Bio.aspx
17. ^
http://www.historyalive.com/resources/ha
/AWH/biographies/AWH_T6Bio.aspx
18. ^
http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/
senior/cosmicengine/classicalastronomy.h
tml#palto
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Plato". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
[2] "plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/

Athens, Greece19  
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g

[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
2,384 YBN
[384 BC] 2 3 		860)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aristotle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993). p4
3. ^
"Aristotle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
  
2,378 YBN
[378 BC] 4 		854)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=408-355 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eudoxus of Cnidus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudoxus_of_
Cnidus
 
[1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus
elaborated a geocentric model composed
of crystalline spheres, incorporating
the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion. System of 27 Spheres:
* 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each
for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for
the 5 planets Spheres within
spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde
motions. Spheres within
Spheres (Click on the image to
view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4
Spheres for each planet: * One
was aligned with the celestial poles,
turning once a day to give rising &
setting. * Second was tilted
23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite
direction to give the usual
west-to-east drift of the planets
relative to the fixed stars. *
Third & Fourth were introduced to
produce the periodic retrograde motions
of the planets. All were in uniform
circular motion about their axes.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st
ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html
2,378 YBN
[378 BC] 2 		861)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p4.
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p4.
  
2,372 YBN
[372 BC] 14 		1038) Diogenes "the Cynic", is a Greek
philosopher, born in Sinope (in modern
day Sinop, Turkey) about 412 BCE
(according to other sources 399 BCE),
and died in 323 BCE at Corinth.

Diogenes lives with no possessions in a
tub belonging to the temple of Cybele.8


At the Isthmian Games he lectured to
large audiences, who turned to him from
his one-time teacher Antisthenes.9

When Plato gave Socrates's definition
of man as "featherless bipeds" and was
much praised for the definition,
Diogenes plucked a cock and brought it
into Plato's school, and said, "This is
Plato's man." After this incident,
"with broad flat nails" was added to
Plato's definition.10

The ideas of Diogenes of Sinope, as
well as most of the other Cynics,
arrive indirectly. No writings of
Diogenes survive even though he is
reported to have authored a number of
books.11

Happiness, for Diogenes, was to be
found in radical autonomy. For Diogenes
and the other Cynics the best way to
achieve this autonomy was to minimize
one's dependence upon things and
people. The ascetic lifestyle that
Diogenes pursued--which involved
sleeping out of doors in cold weather
and eating whatever he could
obtain--was an expression of this
ideal, which also prepared the Cynic
for anything that might happen.
Nevertheless, it seems that Diogenes
was not against pleasure (as his
masturbation implies): when reproved
for walking out of a brothel (where
apparently he had been enjoying,
apparently for free, the services
offered) he replied that he should be
reproved for walking in rather than
walking out.12

Diogenes maintained that all the
artificial growths of society were
incompatible with happiness and that
morality implies a return to the
simplicity of nature. So great was his
austerity and simplicity that the
Stoics would later claim him to be a
sage or "sophos", a perfect man. In his
words, "Man has complicated every
simple gift of the gods."13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cynic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynic
2. ^ Oxford Greek-English Learner's
Dictionary
3. ^ "Cynic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynic
4. ^ "Cynicism". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism
5. ^ Oxford Greek-English Learner's
Dictionary
6. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope
7. ^ Oxford Greek-English Learner's
Dictionary
8. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope
9. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope
10. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope
11. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope
12. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope
13. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope
14. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of
_Sinope (+30)
  
2,370 YBN
[370 BC] 		883)
FOOTNOTES













  
2,366 YBN
[366 BC] 7 8 		858)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
"Aristotle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
3. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Diving bell#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell
#History
6. ^ Arthur J. Bachrach, "History of
the Diving Bell", Historical Diving
Times, Iss. 21 (Spring 1998)
7. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993). p4
8. ^
"Aristotle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
 
[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg

[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png
2,357 YBN
[357 BC] 12 13 		856)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
"Î-ράκλειτος
". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CF%8
1%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%84%CE
%BF%CF%82
3. ^ "article 32539". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-325
39
4. ^
http://www.neo-tech.com/zero/part2.html
5. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
6. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
7. ^
"Heracleides". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides

8. ^ "Heracleides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides

9. ^ "Heracleides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides

10. ^ "Heracleides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides

11. ^ "article 32539". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-325
39
12. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
13. ^
"Heracleides". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides
 (=387 - 312 BCE)
 
[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
2,347 YBN
[347 BC] 3 		853)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,342 YBN
[342 BC] 3 		857)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Aristotle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,341 YBN
[341 BC] 3 4 		867)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
3. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p4
(=664)
4. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Bios/Praxa
gorasOfCos.html (=656)
  
2,340 YBN
[340 BC] 2 		801)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060601/ap_o
n_sc/greece_ancient_scroll;_ylt=AoqysU8i
ut.BHoIoKldhTAKs0NUE;_ylu=X3oDMTA3MzV0MT
dmBHNlYwM3NTM-
2. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060601/ap_o
n_sc/greece_ancient_scroll;_ylt=AoqysU8i
ut.BHoIoKldhTAKs0NUE;_ylu=X3oDMTA3MzV0MT
dmBHNlYwM3NTM-
  
2,336 YBN
[336 BC] 2 		868)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,335 YBN
[335 BC] 24 		859) During the thirteen years (335
BCE-322 BCE) which Aristotle spends as
teacher of the Lyceum, he composes most
of his writings. Imitating Plato,
Aristotle writes "Dialogues" in which
his doctrines were expounded in
somewhat popular language. He also
composes the several treatises on
sciences, logic, metaphysics, and
ethics, in which the language is more
technical than in the Dialogues. These
writings succeeded in bringing together
the works of his predecessors in Greek
philosophy, and how he pursued, either
personally or through others, his
investigations in the realm of natural
phenomena. Pliny will claim that
Alexander placed under Aristotle's
orders all the hunters, fishermen, and
fowlers of the royal kingdom and all
the overseers of the royal forests,
lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and
Aristotle's works on zoology make this
statement believable. Aristotle was
fully informed about the doctrines of
his predecessors, and Strabo will
assert that he was the first to
accumulate a great library. 9

During the last years of Aristotle's
life the relations between him and
Alexander became very strained, owing
to the disgrace and punishment of
Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had
recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless,
Aristotle continued to be regarded at
Athens as a friend of Alexander and a
representative of Macedonia.
Consequently, when Alexander's death
became known in Athens, and the
outbreak occurred which led to the
Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the
general unpopularity of the
Macedonians. The charge of impiety,
which had been brought against
Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now
brought against Aristotle. He left the
city, saying, "I will not allow the
Athenians to sin twice against
philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He took
up residence at his country house at
Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died
the following year, 322 BC. His death
was due to a disease, reportedly 'of
the stomach', from which he had long
suffered. 10

Aristotle's legacy also had a profound
influence on Islamic thought and
philosophy during the middle ages.
Muslim thinkers such as Avicenna,
Farabi, and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi
were a few of the major proponents of
the Aristotelian school of thought
during the Golden Age of Islam. 11

Though we know that Aristotle wrote
many elegant treatises (Cicero
described his literary style as "a
river of gold"), the originals have
been lost in time. All that we have now
are the literary notes of his pupils,
which are often difficult to read (the
Nicomachean Ethics is a good example).
It is now believed that we have about
one fifth of his original works.

Aristotle underestimated the importance
of his written work for humanity. He
thus never published his books, only
his dialogues. The story of the
original manuscripts of his treatises
is described by Strabo in his Geography
and Plutarch in his "Parallel Lives,
Sulla": The manuscripts were left from
Aristotle to Theophrastus, from
Theophrastus to Neleus of Scepsis, from
Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants
sold them to Apellicon of Teos. When
Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he
carried off the library of Appellicon
to Rome, where they were first
published in 60 BC from the grammarian
Tyrranion of Amisus and then by
philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes. 12

Aristotle did not like the idea of
atoms that Democritos had thought
about. If matter was made up of tiny
particles there must be spaces between
them, spaces that would have nothing in
them - a vacuum. Aristotle's refusal to
accept the possibility that a vacuum
could exist came from his ideas about
forces. He said that non-living objects
could have "natural" or "forced"
motion. The natural motion of earth and
water was downwards because they had
"gravity" while air and fire always
rose because they had "levity". An
object was given forced motion when it
was thrown into the air and Aristotle
concluded that the speed of an object
depended on the force acting on it - no
force, no speed. 13

Arostotle writes "History of
Animals".14

Though we know that Aristotle wrote
many elegant treatises (Cicero
described his literary style as "a
river of gold"), the originals have
been lost in time. All that we have now
are the literary notes of his pupils,
which are often difficult to read (the
Nicomachean Ethics is a good example).
It is now believed that we have about
one fifth of his original works.15

Aristotle underestimates the importance
of his written work for humanity. He
thus never publishes his books, only
his dialogues. The story of the
original manuscripts of his treatises
is described by Strabo in his
"Geography" and Plutarch in his
"Parallel Lives, Sulla": The
manuscripts were left from Aristotle to
Theophrastos, from Theophrastos to
Neleus of Scepsis, from Neleus to his
heirs. One of Neleus' descendents (it
is unknown who), digs up the buried
scrolls and sells them for a large sum
in gold to a bibliophile16 , Apellicon
of Teos. Apellicon of Teos makes a
'botched up' edition titled the 'Lost
Texts of Aristotle'.17 When Sulla
occupies Athens in 86 BCE, he will
carry off the library of Appellicon to
Rome. The grammarian Tyrannion of
Amisus in Rome, friend of Atticus and
Cicero, obtains the scrolls on loan,
gives up on making his own compiled
edition and entrusts the project to
Andronicus of Rhodes, who subdivides
the treatises into books.18 The
originals are returned to Sulla's
library.19 This edition of the texts
of Aristotle will be published in 60
BCE.20

Faustus is the son of the Emperor
Sulla, and Pompey's son-in-law. The
cultural elite go to Faustus' house to
consult these precious texts of
Aristotle. Cicero writes a letter to
Atticus about the delight of Faustus'
library. To pay off debts, Faustus
sells the scrolls of Aristotle, and
they have never been located since.21
Much of this story comes from Strabo
who was presumably a pupil of Tyrannion
of Amisus. 22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lyceum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352514/Lyceum>.
2. ^ "Aristotle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
3. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
4. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993). p4
5. ^ Lucio
Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution",
(Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag,
2004), p302.
6. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). p4
7. ^ "Aristotle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
8. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
9. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
10. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
11. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
12. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
13. ^
http://www.longman.co.uk/tt_secsci/resou
rces/scimon/aristotle/aristotle1.htm
14. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
15. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
16. ^ Luciano
Canfora, "The Vanished Library : A
Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
17. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
18. ^ Luciano
Canfora, "The Vanished Library : A
Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
19. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
20. ^ "Aristotle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
21. ^ Luciano
Canfora, "The Vanished Library : A
Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
22. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
23. ^ "Lyceum."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352514/Lyceum>.
24. ^ "Lyceum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352514/Lyceum>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Faustus (I) Cornelius
Sulla". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faustus_%28
I%29_Cornelius_Sulla
Athens, Greece23   
2,332 YBN
[332 BC] 5 6 		880)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alexander the Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_t
he_Great
2. ^ "Alexander the Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_t
he_Great
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p16
4. ^
http://www.historytelevision.ca/content/
ContentDetail.aspx?ContentId=61
5. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p16
(=323?)
6. ^ "Alexander the Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_t
he_Great (=332-331bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria
  
2,332 YBN
[332 BC] 2 3 		921) It is possible that the Museum
(Mouseion) of Alexandria is built
starting now, and much of the city was
constructed by the time Ptolemy arrives
to rule 9 years later in 323 BCE.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). p16 (=323?)
3. ^ "Alexander the Great".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_t
he_Great (=332-331bce)

MORE INFO
[1] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
[2] The Library of Alexandria,
History Channel Video
  
2,327 YBN
[327 BC] 4 5 		875)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Callisthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisthene
s
3. ^ "Proskynesis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proskynesis

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=664)
5. ^ "Proskynesis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proskynesis
 (=656)
  
2,325 YBN
[325 BC] 3 4 		865)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dicaearchus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicaearchus

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~355 BCE-~285 BCE)
4. ^
"Dicaearchus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicaearchus
 (=~350 BCE-~285 BCE)
  
2,325 YBN
[325 BC] 7 8 9 10 		887) Pytheas PitEoS (Πυθέας)3
(BCE 380-310) sails to Great Britain
and "Thule" (probably Norway or
Iceland). Pytheas is the first person
to explain tides as happening because
of the influence of the moon. Only 2000
years later will Newton explain the
attraction of the Moon. Pytheas is also
the first person to show that the North
star is not exactly at the pole and
makes a small circle in a day.4 The
written history of Britain begins with
Pytheas.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Pytheas", Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Pytheas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 2nd
edition, 2000, p729-730.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~300bce+30-??)
8. ^ "Pytheas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas
(=~380-~310)
9. ^ "Πυθέας ο
Μασσαλιώτη
ς". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%8
5%CE%B8%CE%AD%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%9C%
CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%8
E%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82 (=~380-~310)
10. ^ "Pytheas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas
(voyage 325BCE 320-330BCE)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ahepafamily.org/d5/pytheas.ht
ml
[2] "Pytheas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/485262/Pytheas>.
Massalia (now: Marseille France)6
 
[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg
2,323 YBN
[06/10/323 BC] 2 		876)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "323 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/323_BC
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=323)
  
2,323 YBN
[323 BC] 4 		862) After Aristotle moves to Chalcis,
Aristotle choses Theofrastos
(Theophrastus) (Greek:
Θεόφραστος) (tEOFrASTOS?)
(BCE c372-287) to preside over the
Peripatetic school, which he does for
thirty-five years. The Lyceum maintains
it's highest quality under
Theophrastos. Theophrastos describes
over 500 species of plants and is the
founder of botony, the study of plants.
Theophrastus is charged with asebeia
(atheism) but acquitted by a jury in
Athens.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://users.myqnet.gr/~paris1/theofrast
os.htm
[2]
http://www.iep.utm.edu/t/theophra.htm
[3] "Theophrastus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastu
s (=384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
Athens3   
2,323 YBN
[323 BC] 6 		863) The charge of impiety, which had
been brought against Anaxagoras and
Socrates, was now brought against
Aristotle. He leaves Athens saying, "I
will not allow the Athenians to sin
twice against philosophy" (Vita
Marciana 41). He takes up residence at
his country house at Chalcis, where his
mother had lived, in Euboea, and there
he dies the following year, 322 BC. His
death was due to a disease, reportedly
'of the stomach', from which he had
long suffered.3

After the death of Alexander, the
anti-Macedonian party accuses Aristotle
of impiety. With the example of
Socrates behind him, Aristotle escapes
to Chalcis in Euboea, where he dies in
the same year. 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aristotle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Aristotle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
4. ^
http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/aris
totle.html
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Aristotle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
Athens5   
2,323 YBN
[323 BC] 9 		864)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Callippus.html
2. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Callippus.html
3. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Callippus.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Callippus.html
6. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Callippus.html
7. ^
http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciIn
stSite/Workshops/PracMedAstro_2.htm
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Callippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callippus
  
2,323 YBN
[323 BC] 4 		877)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ptolemy I Soter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_S
oter
2. ^ "Ptolemy I Soter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_S
oter
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Ptolemy I Soter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_S
oter (=323)
  
2,322 YBN
[03/07/322 BC] 2 		879)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,320 YBN
[320 BC] 12 13 		866)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Bios/Praxa
gorasOfCos.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Praxagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
4. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
5. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
6. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
7. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
8. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
9. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
10. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
11. ^ "Praxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~350-??)
13. ^ "Praxagoras".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras
(~340-??)
  
2,317 YBN
[317 BC] 6 		899)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ecclesia.gr/greek/holysynod/c
ommitees/worship/metafraseis_latreia.htm

2. ^ "Demetrius of Phaleron".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_o
f_Phaleron
3. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html
4. ^ "Demetrius of Phaleron".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_o
f_Phaleron
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Demetrius of Phaleron".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_o
f_Phaleron
  
2,316 YBN
[316 BC] 4 		908)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Euhemerus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euhemerus
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
3. ^
"Euhemerus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euhemerus
4. ^ "Euhemerus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euhemerus
(+30)
  
2,311 YBN
[311 BC] 24 		885) "Is God willing to prevent evil
but not able? Then He is not
omnipotent. Is He able but not willing?
Then He is malevolent. Is He both able
and willing? Then whence cometh evil?
Is He neither able nor willing? Then
why call Him God?" 21
Admiting of
females and slaves shocks and interests
the scholarly people of the time. 22

After the official approval of
Christianity by Constantine,
Epicureanism was repressed. Epicurus'
theory that the gods were unconcerned
with human affairs had always clashed
strongly with the Judeo-Christian God,
and the philosophies were essentially
irreconcilable. For example, the word
for a heretic in the Talmudic
literature is "Apikouros". Lactantius
criticizes Epicurus at several points
throughout his Divine Institutes. The
school endured a long period of
obscurity and decline. However, there
was a resurgance of atomism among
scientists in the 18th and 19th
Centuries, and in the late 20th
Century, the school was revived. 23
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
3. ^
"Επίκουρος".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%8
0%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BF%CF
%82
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
6. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
11. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Epicurus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
18. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
19. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
20. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
21. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
23. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=306bce)
  
2,310 YBN
[310 BC] 9 		869) Kidinnu (BCE 340-???), head of the
Astronomical school in Sippar
(Babylonia), understands the precession
of equinoxes (a wobbling in the
orientation of Earth's axis with a
cycle of almost 26,000 years5 ).6

Hipparchus will make use of the
precession of the equinoxes as
documented by Kidinnu. Kidinnu makes a
complicated method of expressing
movement of the moon and planets,
differing from the view that these
objects must move at a constant
velocity.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "precession of the equinoxes."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/precession-
1
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "precession of the
equinoxes." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/precession-
1
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "precession of the
equinoxes." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/precession-
1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Precession of the
equinoxes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precession_
of_the_equinoxes
(Astronomical School) Sippar,
Babylonia8  
[1] A Babylonian almanac, mentioning
future positions of the planets
(British Museum) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.livius.org/a/1/mesopo
tamia/babylonian_almanac.jpg
2,310 YBN
[310 BC] 7 8 		871)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Straton of Lampsacus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straton_of_
Lampsacus
3. ^ "Straton of Lampsacus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straton_of_
Lampsacus
4. ^ "Straton of Lampsacus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straton_of_
Lampsacus
5. ^ "Straton of Lampsacus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straton_of_
Lampsacus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=340-270)
8. ^ "Straton of
Lampsacus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straton_of_
Lampsacus (=340-268bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
"Ελληνικός
Στρατός".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B
B%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF
%82_%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C
%CF%82
  
2,310 YBN
[310 BC] 3 		911)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristip.htm
2. ^
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/huma
nism/79214
3. ^
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/huma
nism/79214
  
2,307 YBN
[307 BC] 2 		901)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Demetrius of Phaleron".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_o
f_Phaleron
2. ^ "Demetrius of Phaleron".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_o
f_Phaleron

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html
[2]
http://www.ecclesia.gr/greek/holysynod/c
ommitees/worship/metafraseis_latreia.htm

  
2,305 YBN
[305 BC] 30 		884) Pre-Christian Greek humans did not
object to human dissection, thinking a
"soul" most important, and a dead body
just a group of flesh. In Egypt, human
dissection is a serious impiety. He is
particularly interested in the brain.
19
Several of our sources speak of
Herophilus and Erasistratus undertaking
not merely dissections, but also
vivisections (dissections on living
bodies), on human subjects. The
Christian writer Tertullian (ca.
155-23020 ) describes Herophilus as
‘that butcher who cut up innumerable
corpses in order to investigate nature
and who hated mankind for the sake of
knowledge" ("On the Soul", chap. 10)21
. However, Tertullian was totally
opposed to the scientific
investigations of pagan researchers and
did everything he could to defame them
and their work. 22
Pliny and Rufus both
refer in general terms to the practice
of human dissection without specifying
who first undertook this. Another first
century CE source, the Roman medical
writer Celsus, both identifies the men
concerned and reports the arguments
that were used to justify this practice
and that of vivisection. In the
introduction (23 ff.) of his work "On
Medicine" Celsus writes as follows
concerning the group of doctors known
as the Dogmatists: 23
"Moreover since
pains and various kinds of diseases
arise in the internal parts, they hold
that no one who is ignorant about those
parts themselves can apply remedies to
them. Therefore it is necessary to cut
open the bodies of dead men and to
examine their viscera and intestines.
Herophilus and Erasistratus proceeded
in by far the best way, they cut open
living men-criminals they obtained out
of prison from the kings-and they
observed, while their subjects still
breathed, parts that nature had
previously hidden, their position,
colour, shape, size, arrangement,
hardness, softness, smoothness, points
of contact, and finally the processes
and recesses of each and whether any
part is inserted into another or
receives the part of another into
itself." 24
The Dogmatists wrote of the
advantages of vivisection over
dissection and defended this viewpoint
against the charge of inhumanity by
claiming that the good outweighed the
evil: ‘nor is it cruel, as most people
state, to seek remedies for multitudes
of innocent men of all future ages by
means of the sacrifice of only a small
number of criminals."25
Unlike
Tertullian, Celsus cannot be accused of
malicious distortion. He himself
disagrees with the Dogmatists. 'To cut
open the bodies of living men,' he says
later in his introduction (74 f), "is
both cruel and superfluous: to cut open
the bodies of the dead is necessary for
medical students. For they ought to
know the position and arrangement of
parts-which the dead body exhibits
better than a wounded living subject.
As for the rest, which can only be
learnt from the living, experience
itself will demonstrate it rather more
slowly, but much more mildly, in the
course of treating the wounded." The
tone of his whole account is restrained
and we have no good grounds for
rejecting it. No one can doubt that
religious and moral considerations
inhibited the opening of the human
body, whether dead or alive, in
antiquity. But that is not to say that
such inhibitions could never, under any
circumstances, be overcome. The
situation at Alexandria in the third
century BCE was clearly an exceptional
one in the particular combination of
ambitious scientists and patrons of
science that existed there at that
time. For all the ancients' respect for
the dead, corpses were desecrated often
enough by people other than scientists.
Moreover, when we reflect that the
ancients regularly tortured slaves in
public in the law courts in order to
extract evidence from them, and that
Galen, for example, records cases where
new poisons were tried out on convicts
to test their effects, it is not too
difficult to believe that the Ptolemies
permitted vivisection to be practised
on condemned criminals.26

Before Herofilos, doctors were called
Asclepiadae, in the sense that they
were spiritual descendants of the Greek
God of healing, Asclepius27 . Much of
this new health research is done in
Alexandria and rival capital Antioch.
Herofilos and his students are
interested in direct knowledge and
precise terminology. Galen (129-200
CE28 ),will praise Herofilos in
relation to the ovarian arteries and
veins observed by Herofilos in the
womb, writing "I have not seen this
myself in other animals except
occasionally in monkeys. But I do not
disbelieve that Herofilos observed them
in women; for he was efficient in other
aspects of his art and his knowledge of
facts acquired through anatomy was
exceedingly precise, and most of his
observations were made not, as is the
case with most of us, on brute beasts
but on human beings themselves." Some
of Herofilos' pupils form their own
schools. One such student is
Callimachus. According to Polybius
around 150 BCE, the medical profession
is dominated by two schools, the
Herophileans and the Callimacheans.
Another pupil of Herofilos, Philinus of
Cos, will form a rival school, refered
to as the Empiricists, who differed
from Herofilos in disregarding anatomy
and physiology, focusing mainly on
therapeutics, claiming that a disease
must be treated experimentally. They
based their school on experiment and
past history of success.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Herophilus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ John Marlowe,
"The golden age of Alexandria: from its
foundation by Alexander the Great in
331 BC to its capture by the Arabs in
642 AD.", (London: Gollancz, 1971).
4. ^
"Heart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart
5. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Herophilus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilus
10. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
11. ^
"Herophilus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilus
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
15. ^ "Herophilus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilus
16. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
17. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
18. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^
"Tertullian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian
21. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p118.
22. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
23. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
24. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
25. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
26. ^
http://www.bakeru.edu/faculty/jrichards/
World%20Civ%20I/E-Source%2014-Lloyd.htm
27. ^ "Asclepius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepius
28. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
29. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p118.
30. ^ "Herophilus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilus
(+30)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:Lxv_
AigSQQkJ:www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/medi
cine/anatomy/AnatHis.pdf+herophilus+tert
ullian&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=16
  
2,305 YBN
[305 BC] 7 		934)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lighthouse of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthouse_
of_Alexandria
2. ^ "Lighthouse of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthouse_
of_Alexandria
3. ^ "Lighthouse of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthouse_
of_Alexandria
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden
age of Alexandria: from its foundation
by Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
6. ^ John Marlowe,
"The golden age of Alexandria: from its
foundation by Alexander the Great in
331 BC to its capture by the Arabs in
642 AD.", (London: Gollancz, 1971).
7. ^
"Lighthouse of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthouse_
of_Alexandria
  
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 9 		927) While in Egypt Hekataeos of Abdura
writes that priests teach children two
kinds of writing, sacred (hieratic) and
the more common (demotic), in addition
to geometry and arithmetic. Hecataeus
writes "they (Egyptians) have preserved
to this day the record concerning each
of the stars over an incredible number
of years...they have also observed with
great interest the motions, ... orbits
and stoppings of the planets".7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.avdera.gr/frames/istoria/ekat
aios.htm
2. ^
http://www.avdera.gr/frames/istoria/ekat
aios.htm
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
4. ^
http://www.avdera.gr/frames/istoria/ekat
aios.htm
5. ^
http://www.avdera.gr/frames/istoria/ekat
aios.htm
6. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
7. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
8. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient
Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990).
9. ^
http://www.avdera.gr/frames/istoria/ekat
aios.htm (guess of 40 yrs old based on)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hecataeus of Abdera".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus_o
f_Abdera
Egypt8  
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 4 		1166) This tomb is constructed to look
like a temple (it looks similar to
Dendera). The outside is decorated in
typical Late Period style, while the
outer court is decorated in a
Greek-style.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ www.stuartking.co.uk/lathe.htm
2. ^ "Tuna el-Gebel#Tomb of
Petosiris". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuna_el-Geb
el#Tomb_of_Petosiris
3. ^ www.stuartking.co.uk/lathe.htm
4. ^
www.stuartking.co.uk/lathe.htm (300bce)
Egypt3  
[1] find book this is from The
earliest picture of a lathe is one on
the wall of an Egyptian grave of the
third century B.C., shown here in a
line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dis
pater/turning.htm
2,297 YBN
[297 BC] 5 		900)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p81.
2. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p81.
4. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
5. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html
  
2,297 YBN
[297 BC] 8 9 10 11 		902) Museum of Alexandria.4

Ptolemy I Soter (Πτολεμαίου
Σωτήρα) starts construction of
the Soma, in Alexandria, a mausoleum
where Alexander and subsequent kings
will be stored after death, the famous
Lighthouse of Pharos, the research
center known as the Mouseion (a temple
to the Muses, a "Mousaeion"
(Μουσείον also
Μουσείου, Museum: in actuality
a University and Library 5 ) and the
Royal Library (which may have been a
separate building near the Mousaeion or
may have been inside the Mousaeion)6 ,
in the Royal Palaces area. The
Mousaeion will house the smartest
scientists of this time. This research
center will also include a zoo. Some of
these monuments will take more time to
build than 2 decades and will be
completed under the reign of Ptolemy
II.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
5. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/2/94.html
6. ^ "Library of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_
Alexandria
7. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html
8. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html (=297bce)
9. ^
"article 29287". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-292
87 (=late 200s by P1)
10. ^ "Museum of
Alexandria". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/articl
e-9372871/Museum-of-Alexandria (=280 by
P2)
11. ^
http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/A
rticleView.cfm?AID=9 (= 283 BCE by P2
Soter)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009440".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9440
[2]
http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/lette
raristeas.html
[3]
http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepi
g/aristeas.htm (translated letter)
[4] "Letter
of Aristeas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_A
risteas
[5] http://www.bede.org.uk/Library2.htm
has sources for LofA
[6] "Timon
(philosopher)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timon_%28ph
ilosopher%29
[7] "Herodas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodas
[8]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3707
641.stm
 
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
2,297 YBN
[297 BC] 2 		925)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p85.
2. ^ guess based on P1 construction,
and Eukleidos age, being c30 years old
  
2,295 YBN
[295 BC] 18 19 		878) Euclid may have run a school of
mathematics in Alexandria. Pappus of
Alexandria (fl. c320 CE) will write
that the Greek mathematician Apollonius
learned geometry from the students of
Euclid in Alexandria.10 11

Eukleidis is a Greek mathematician, who
lived in Alexandria, Egypt during the
reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC283 BC), and
is often considered to be the "father
of geometry". His most popular work,
Elements, is the most successful
textbook in the history of mathematics.
Within it, the properties of
geometrical objects are deduced from a
small set of axioms, thereby founding
the axiomatic method of mathematics. 12


Although best-known for its geometric
results, the Elements also includes
various results in number theory, such
as the connection between perfect
numbers and Mersenne primes. 13

Euclid also wrote works on perspective,
conic sections, spherical geometry, and
possibly quadric surfaces. Neither the
year nor place of his birth have been
established, nor the circumstances of
his death. 14

Although many of the results in
Elements originated with earlier
mathematicians, one of Euclid's
accomplishments was to present them in
a single, logically coherent framework.
In addition to providing some missing
proofs, Euclid's text also includes
sections on number theory and
three-dimensional geometry. In
particular, Euclid's proof of the
infinitude of prime numbers is in Book
IX, Proposition 20. 15

The geometrical system described in
Elements was long known simply as the
only "geometry". Today, however, it is
often referred to as Euclidean geometry
to distinguish it from other so-called
non-Euclidean geometries which will be
found in the 1800s CE. These new
geometries will grow out of more than
2000 years of investigation into
Euclid's fifth postulate, one of the
most-studied axioms in all of
mathematics, known as the "parallel
postulate", the postulate that no two
angles in a triangle can be equal or
greater than 2 90 degree angles. 16
This postulate will be shown to only be
true for flat surfaces and not for the
surface of a sphere or hyperboloid.

One story about Euclid is from Stobaeus
and relates that one of Euclid's
students, when he had learned the first
proposition, asked his teacher, "But
what is the good of this and what shall
I get by learning these things?", to
which Euclid calls a slave and says,
"Give this fellow a penny, since he
must make gain from what he learns. "17

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Euclid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
5. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
6. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden
age of Alexandria: from its foundation
by Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971), p73.
7. ^
http://library.thinkquest.org/22494/stor
ies/Euclid.htm
8. ^
http://www.obkb.com/dcljr/euclid.html
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^
http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2
006/04/euclid-of-alexandria.html
11. ^
http://www.obkb.com/dcljr/euclid.html
12. ^ "Euclid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
13. ^ "Euclid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
14. ^ "Euclid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
15. ^ "Euclid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
16. ^ "Euclid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
17. ^
http://library.thinkquest.org/22494/stor
ies/Euclid.htm
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c325-c270bce)
19. ^ "Euclid".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
(=325-265bce)
  
2,295 YBN
[295 BC] 4 		926)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
2. ^ Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ guess based on Euklid,
close to time of Alexander, 323-281,
possibly move stuff back to 323? time
to build?
  
2,290 YBN
[290 BC] 4 		903)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p98.
2. ^ "Berossos". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berossos
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p98.
4. ^ "Berossos". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berossos
(based on ?)
(Book probably funded by and stored in
the Museum of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egypt 
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
2,288 YBN
[03/07/288 BC] 2 3 		881)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/2/16.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (but could not have
been young as this source states)

MORE INFO
[1] "Aristarchus of Samos".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristarchus
_of_Samos
  
2,288 YBN
[288 BC] 7 8 		873)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Septuagint". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint
2. ^ "Pentateuch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentateuch
3. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
4. ^ "Septuagint".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Septuagint". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint
7. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus (coregent
288-285, 281?)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus (coregent 288-285, 281?)
(=coregent 288-285 (281?)
8. ^ Roy MacLeod,
"The Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000),
ISBN:1850435944. (possibly move to 275
based on this source) (possibly move to
275 based on)

MORE INFO
[1] "Letter of Aristeas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_A
risteas
[2]
http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepi
g/aristeas.htm
[3] "Torah". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah
[4] "Old Testament". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testame
nt
[5] "Hebrew Bible". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_Bibl
e
  
2,288 YBN
[288 BC] 4 		905)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
2. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971).
3. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus
4. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus (=288-285)
  
2,287 YBN
[287 BC] 4 		872)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Straton of Lampsacus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straton_of_
Lampsacus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
(Lyceum) Athens, Greece3  
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Strato of
Lampsacus. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source Aristotle_and_his_discipl
es_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg Author Aristotl
e_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg:
Eduard Lebiedzki, after a design by
Karl Rahl derivative work:
Singinglemon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Aristotle_Theophrastu
s_Strato_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg
2,287 YBN
[287 BC] 2 		924)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p96.
2. ^ "Theophrastos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrasto
s
  
2,285 YBN
[285 BC] 9 10 11 		1028) Ktesibios (Ctesibius) (TeSiBEOS4
5 ) (Greek Κτησίβιος6 ), (fl.
285 - 222 BCE) starts the engineering
tradition in Alexandria. Ktesibius
invents several devices using
compressed air: a water organ, in which
air is forced through the organ pipes
by the weight of water, and an
air-powered catapult.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

2. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

3. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A08
14186.html
6. ^ "Ctesibius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibius
7. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

8. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c300bce) (=c300bce)
10. ^
"Ctesibius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibius
(=(working 285 - 222 BCE)
11. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/31.html
(flourished285-222bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Water clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock

[2] "Pipe organ". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ
Alexandria, Egpyt8  
[1] Ktesibios water organ. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm

[2] Ktesibios water pump. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm
2,283 YBN
[283 BC] 2 		928)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000). (283-245 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life
and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
[2] Diana
Delia, "From Romance to Rhetoric: The
Alexandrian Library in Classical and
Islamic Traditions", The American
Historical Review, (1992).
[3] dictionary.com
  
2,283 YBN
[283 BC] 7 		929)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^ dictionary.com
3. ^ Diana Delia, "From
Romance to Rhetoric: The Alexandrian
Library in Classical and Islamic
Traditions", The American Historical
Review, (1992).
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p93.
5. ^ "John Tzetzes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tzetze
s
6. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p68.
7. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
(283-245 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
  
2,281 YBN
[281 BC] 5 6 		904)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus
2. ^ "283 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/283_BC
3. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus
4. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus
5. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus (=281)
6. ^ "283 BC". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/283_BC
(=283 death of p1)

MORE INFO
[1] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
  
2,281 YBN
[281 BC] 8 		935)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden
age of Alexandria: from its foundation
by Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
3. ^ Roy MacLeod,
"The Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
4. ^ Roy
MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria
Centre of Learning in the Ancient
World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd,
2000).
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p87.
6. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus
7. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus
8. ^ "Ptolemy Philadelphus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Phi
ladelphus
  
2,280 YBN
[06/10/280 BC] 		922)

MORE INFO
[1] Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life
and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 76
 
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
2,280 YBN
[280 BC] 1 		1199)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.geartechnololgy.com/mag/gt-aa
rch.htm
Athens, Greece 
[1] Input torque is applied to the ring
gear, which turns the entire carrier
(all blue), providing torque to both
side gears (red and yellow), which in
turn may drive the left and right
wheels. If the resistance at both
wheels is equal, the pinion gear
(green) does not rotate, and both
wheels turn at the same rate. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_free.png

[2] If the left side gear (red)
encounters resistance, the pinion gear
(green) rotates about the left side
gear, in turn applying extra rotation
to the right side gear (yellow). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_locked.png
2,275 YBN
[275 BC] 6 		888)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.apologitis.com/gr/ancient/man
ethon.htm
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p66-67,98.
3. ^ "Manetho." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manetho
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p66-67,98.
5. ^ "Manetho." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manetho
6. ^
http://www.phouka.com/pharaoh/egypt/hist
ory/KLManetho.html (based on 271bce)

MORE INFO
[1] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). p6
[2] "Manetho". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manetho
[3] Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
[4]
"Tertullian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian
Heliopolis, Egypt5  
[1] Manetho's ''Aegyptiaca'' Extract
from a comprehensive History of Egypt,
written in the 2nd century B.C. by a
Greek-speaking priest of
Heliopolis. PD
source: http://www.und.edu/instruct/cjac
obs/Manetho1.JPG
2,275 YBN
[275 BC] 2 		897)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p120.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(late 3rd century)
  
2,275 YBN
[275 BC] 7 		930)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Callimachus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callimachus

2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
3. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p69.
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient
Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990), p102.
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p102.
7. ^ "Callimachus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callimachus
 (+30)


MORE INFO
[1] Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
  
2,274 YBN
[274 BC] 17 18 19 		886) Erasistratus, is born on the
island of Chios in ancient Greece, to a
family with a history of doctors. His
father and brother are doctors, and his
mother is the sister of a doctor. He
studies health science in Athens and
then, around 280 B.C., enrolls in the
University of Cos, a center of the
medical school of Praxagoras.11
Erisistratos then moves to Asia and is
court physician for Seleucus I, who
controls a major portion of what had
been the Persian Empire.12
Erasistratus then moves to Alexandria,
where he teaches and is a practicing
doctor, continuing the work of
Herophilus. In his later years, he
retires from being a practice doctor
and joins the Alexandrian museum, where
he devotes himself to research.
Although Erasistratus writes
extensively in a number of
health-related fields, none of his
works survive. He is best known for his
observations based on his numerous
dissections of human cadavers (and
rumored, his vivisections of criminals,
a practice allowed by the Ptolemy
rulers). Erasistratus accurately
describes the structure of the brain,
including the cavities and membranes,
and makes a distinction between its
cerebrum and cerebellum (larger and
smaller parts). He views the brain, not
the heart, as the seat of intelligence.
By comparing the brains of humans and
other animals, Erasistratus correctly
concludes that a greater number of
brain convolutions results in greater
intelligence. He also accurately
describes the structure and function of
the gastric (stomach) muscles, and
observes the difference between motor
and sensory nerves. Erasistratus
promotes hygiene, diet, and exercise in
health care.13

In Alexandria, the view at the time is
that the nerves carry "nervous spirit",
arteries "animal spirit", and the veins
blood, however Erasistratos takes a
step backwards from Herofilos in
mistakenly thinking that arteries do
not carry blood. He thinks air is
carried from lungs to heart and changed
in to the "animal spirit" that is
carried in the arteries.14

He is best known for curing Antiochos,
Seleucus's son. Erasistratus said that
Antiochos was in love with his
stepmother, and that that was what was
ailing him, so he let them marry.15
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Erasistratus.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Erasistratus.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Erasistratus.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Erasistratus."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erasistratu
s
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ "Erasistratus."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erasistratu
s
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ "Erasistratus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratu
s
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(=~304bce+30-~250BCE)
18. ^ "Erasistratus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratu
s (=330?-250?BCE)
19. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Erasistratus.html (~304bce-~250bce)
Alexandria, Egpyt16   
2,270 YBN
[270 BC] 7 		932)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
"ΑπολλώνιοÏ
ο Ρόδιος".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%8
0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE
%BF%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%A1%CF%8C%CE%B4%CE%B
9%CE%BF%CF%82
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p93.
3. ^ "Apollonius of Rhodes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_
of_Rhodes
4. ^ "Apollonius of Rhodes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_
of_Rhodes
5. ^ "Apollonius of Rhodes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_
of_Rhodes
6. ^ "Apollonius of Rhodes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_
of_Rhodes
7. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
2,265 YBN
[265 BC] 3 		931) Pliny the Elder will record in the
1st century CE that Hermippus (Greek:
Ἕρμιππος1 ) of Smyrna, a
student of Callimachus writes a
commentary on the versus of Zoroaster
now. This implies that these stories
have been translated from Iranian to
Greek.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hermippus of Smyrna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermippus_o
f_Smyrna
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
3. ^ guess based on Callimachus
being 40, this is at the earliest

MORE INFO
[1] Hermippos of Smyrna Critical
edition and English translation of the
extant frangments by J. Bollansèe,
Leiden, Brill, 1999.
 
[1] Ionia, Smyrna AE 19mm. Circa
3rd-2nd Century BC, magistrate Pytheos.
Turreted head of Tyche right /
IMURNAIWN PYQEOS, Aphrodite standing
right, Nike before; magistrate
Pytheos. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/g
reece/ionia/smyrna/SNGCop_1183cf.jpg
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 15 		663) Lever.9 10

The earliest remaining writings
regarding levers date from the 3rd
century BC and were provided by
Archimedes. "Give me a place to stand,
and I shall move the earth with a
lever" is a remark of Archimedes who
formally stated the correct
mathematical principle of levers
(quoted by Pappus of Alexandria).11 12


It is assumed that in ancient Egypt,
constructors used the lever to move and
uplift obelisks weighting more than 100
tons.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
2. ^ Pappus, Collection,
Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD 340.
3. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
4. ^
Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book
VIII, c. AD 340.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p16.
6. ^ Pappus,
Collection, Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD
340.
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
8. ^
Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book
VIII, c. AD 340.
9. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p16.
10. ^ Pappus,
Collection, Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD
340.
11. ^ Mackay, Alan Lindsay (1991).
"Archimedes ca 287–212 BC". A
Dictionary of scientific quotations.
London: Taylor and Francis. p. 11. ISBN
9780750301060.
12. ^ Pappus, Collection, Synagogue,
Book VIII, c. AD 340.
13. ^ Budge, E.A.
Wallis (2003). Cleopatra's Needles and
Other Egyptian Obelisks‎. Kessinger
Publishing. p. 28. ISBN 9780766135246.
14. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p16.
15. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p16. {before) 260
BC}
Mesopotamia14  
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 15 16 17 		822) Screw.9

Archimedes (Greek: Αρχιμήδης )
(287-212 BCE)10 is usually credited
with with the concept of the spiral
screw. A spiral screw is an inclined
plane wrapped around a cylinder. The
spiral is called a "thread", and the
distance between adjacent edges is
called the "pitch" of the screw. The
pitch is equal to the distance that the
screw advances in one turn in a solid
medium.11

Although Archimedes is credited with
inventing the screw in the 3rd century
BC, his screw is not the fastener kind
of screw, but actually is two other
screw-type devices. One is a kind of
water pump, still used today for
large-volume, low-lift, industrial
applications, the device is now called
the inclined screw conveyor or
"Archimedes screw"12 . The second is
the "endless screw", which is the same
as the worm of a worm and gear set, one
of the five ancient devices for raising
heavy weights.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
2. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
3. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p22.
6. ^ "hand tool."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p22.
9. ^ "hand tool."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p22.
12. ^ "Archimedes
screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/32831/Archimedes-screw>.
13. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p22. {260 BC}
16. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
17. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nin
eveh (=600)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/ha
nging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44,
Number 1, January 2003 (PDF) Dalley,
Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter.
"Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the
Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tec
hnology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
Syracuse, Sicily14  
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Archimedes-screw_one-
screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated
_small.gif
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 14 		882) Aristarchos understands that the
Earth rotates around the Sun each year
and that the earth rotates around its
own axis once a day.7

In 450 BC, Philolaus had theorized that
the earth moves through space.8

Aristarchus’s only extant work is "On
the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and
Moon". Aristarchus finds that as
observed during a lunar eclipse, the
diameter of Earth’s shadow is twice
the diameter of the Moon. Aristarchos
uses the observation that, at the time
when the Moon appears half-lit (quarter
Moon), the angular distance between the
Moon and the Sun is 87 degrees, to
determine that the Sun is between 18
and 20 times farther away from Earth
than the Moon is. (The actual ratio is
about 390.).9

The Greek philosopher Cleanthes, the
Stoic, declares in his "Against
Aristarchus" that Aristarchus should be
indicted for impiety "for putting into
motion the hearth of the universe".10

Aristarchus’s work on the motion of
Earth has not survived, but his ideas
are known from references by the Greek
mathematician Archimedes, the Greek
biographer Plutarch, and the Greek
philosopher Sextus Empiricus.11

In his manuscript of "Six Books
Concerning the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Orbs" (1543), Copernicus will
cite Aristarchus as an ancient
authority who supported the motion of
Earth, but later crosses out the
reference.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Aristarchus of Samos".
Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/34377/Aristarchus-of-Samos>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Aristarchus of Samos".
Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/34377/Aristarchus-of-Samos>.
10. ^ "Aristarchus of Samos".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/34377/Aristarchus-of-Samos>.
11. ^ "Aristarchus of Samos".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/34377/Aristarchus-of-Samos>.
12. ^ "Aristarchus of Samos".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/34377/Aristarchus-of-Samos>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). {c260 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009438".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9438
[2] "Cleanthes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanthes
(Mousion of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egpyt13  
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg

[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 3 		941)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bab-el-mandeb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab-el-mand
eb
2. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971), p73.
3. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971). (guess based on during reign of
philadelphus)
  
2,257 YBN
[257 BC] 39 		891) Archimedes calculates the oldest
known example of a geometric series
with the ratio 1/4 (see image).14
He
proves that the ratio of a circle's
perimeter to its diameter is the same
as the ratio of the circle's area to
the square of the radius. He does not
call this ratio π but gives a
procedure to approximate it to
arbitrary accuracy and gave an
approximation of it as between 3 +
10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 +
1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He proves
that the area enclosed by a parabola
and a straight line is 4/3 the area of
a triangle with equal base and height.
(see image)15

Archimedes is the first to identify the
concept of center of gravity, and he
found the centers of gravity of various
geometric figures, assuming uniform
density in their interiors, including
triangles, paraboloids, and
hemispheres.16

Asimov calls Archimedes the greatest in
science and math before Newton.17
Archim
edes is a Greek mathematician,
physicist, engineer, astronomer, and
philosopher born in the seaport colony
of Syracuse, Sicily.18

It's possible that in a long duration
seige that even the burning of a landed
ship from a roof might be of value.19

Cicero writes that the Roman consul
Marcellus brought two devices back to
Rome from the sacked city of Syracuse.
One device mapped the sky on a sphere
and the other predicted the motions of
the sun and the moon and the planets
(i.e., an orrery). He credits Thales
and Eudoxus for constructing these
devices. For some time this was assumed
to be a legend of doubtful nature, but
the discovery of the Antikythera
mechanism has changed the view of this
issue, and it is indeed probable that
Archimedes possessed and constructed
such devices. Pappus of Alexandria
writes that Archimedes had written a
practical book on the construction of
such spheres entitled On
Sphere-Making.20

Archimedes' works were not widely
recognized, even in antiquity. He and
his contemporaries probably constitute
the peak of Greek mathematical rigour.
During the Middle Ages the
mathematicians who could understand
Archimedes' work were few and far
between. Many of his works were lost
when the library of Alexandria was
burnt (twice) and survived only in
Latin or Arabic translations. As a
result, his mechanical method was lost
until around 1900, after the
arithmetization of analysis had been
carried out successfully. We can only
speculate about the effect that the
"method" would have had on the
development of calculus had it been
known in the 16th and 17th centuries.21


Archimedes requests that his tombstone
include a cylinder circumscribing a
sphere, accompanied by the inscription
of his amazing theorem that the sphere
is exactly two-thirds of the
circumscribing cylinder in both surface
area and volume.22

Writings by Archimedes23
* On the
Equilibrium of Planes (2 volumes)
This scroll
explains the law of the lever and uses
it to calculate the areas and centers
of gravity of various geometric
figures.24

* On Spirals
In this scroll, Archimedes defines
what is now called Archimedes' spiral.
This is the first mechanical curve
(i.e., traced by a moving point) ever
considered by a Greek mathematician.25


* On the Sphere and The Cylinder
In this scroll
Archimedes obtains the result he was
most proud of: that the area and volume
of a sphere are in the same
relationship to the area and volume of
the circumscribed straight cylinder.26


* On Conoids and Spheroids
In this scroll
Archimedes calculates the areas and
volumes of sections of cones, spheres
and paraboloids.27

* On Floating Bodies (2 volumes)
In the first
part of this scroll, Archimedes spells
out the law of equilibrium of fluids,
and proves that water around a center
of gravity will adopt a spherical form.
This is probably an attempt at
explaining the observation made by
Greek astronomers that the Earth is
round. Note that his fluids are not
self-gravitating: he assumes the
existence of a point towards which all
things fall and derives the spherical
shape. One is led to wonder what he
would have done had he struck upon the
idea of universal gravitation.
In the second part, a
veritable tour-de-force, he calculates
the equilibrium positions of sections
of paraboloids. This was probably an
idealization of the shapes of ships'
hulls. Some of his sections float with
the base under water and the summit
above water, which is reminiscent of
the way icebergs float, although
Archimedes probably was not thinking of
this application.28

* The Quadrature of the Parabola
In this scroll,
Archimedes calculates the area of a
segment of a parabola (the figure
delimited by a parabola and a secant
line not necessarily perpendicular to
the axis). The final answer is obtained
by triangulating the area and summing
the geometric series with ratio 1/4.29


* Stomachion
This is a Greek puzzle similar to
Tangram. In this scroll, Archimedes
calculates the areas of the various
pieces. This may be the first reference
we have to this game. Recent
discoveries indicate that Archimedes
was attempting to determine how many
ways the strips of paper could be
assembled into the shape of a square.
This is possibly the first use of
combinatorics to solve a problem.30

* Archimedes' Cattle Problem
Archimedes wrote a
letter to the scholars in the Library
of Alexandria, who apparently had
downplayed the importance of
Archimedes' works. In these letters, he
dares them to count the numbers of
cattle in the Herd of the Sun by
solving a number of simultaneous
Diophantine equations, some of them
quadratic (in the more complicated
version). This problem is one of the
famous problems solved with the aid of
a computer. The solution is a very
large number, approximately 7.760271 ×
10206544 (See the external links to the
Cattle Problem.)31

* The Sand Reckoner
In this scroll, Archimedes
counts the number of grains of sand
fitting inside the universe. This book
mentions Aristarchus of Samos' theory
of the solar system (concluding that
"this is impossible"), contemporary
ideas about the size of the Earth and
the distance between various celestial
bodies. From the introductory letter we
also learn that Archimedes' father was
an astronomer.32

* "The Method"
In this work, which was unknown
in the Middle Ages, but the importance
of which was realised after its
discovery, Archimedes pioneered the use
of infinitesimals, showing how breaking
up a figure in an infinite number of
infinitely small parts could be used to
determine its area or volume.
Archimedes did probably consider these
methods not mathematically precise, and
he used these methods to find at least
some of the areas or volumes he sought,
and then used the more traditional
method of exhaustion to prove them.
Some details can be found at how
Archimedes used infinitesimals.33

What an interesting group of people and
interesting time it must have been for
the people at the university in
Alexandria, perhaps unknown to them, to
be with the smartest and most
interesting humans on earth like
Aristarchos, Archimedes, Eritosthenes,
etc.). All people eat together at the
university which must have made for
some very enlightened conversations.34


Archimedes' father is an astronomer.35
Archimedes learns in Alexandria, and
decides to move back to Syracuse (which
is rare for most people in Alexandria)
perhaps because he is related to the
King of Syracuse Hieron II.
Archimedes is
independently wealthy and does not
depend on the wealth of royal people in
Egypt.36

Archimedes is asked by Hieron if a
crown from a gold smith was really all
gold, or if the crown had silver mixed
in. Archimedes is told that he cannot
damage the crown in the determination.
Archimedes can not think of how to
solve the problem until one time he
steps in a bath and notes that the
water overflows. Archimedes realizes
that the amount of water that falls out
is equal to the volume of his body. If
put in water, Archimedes could measure
the volume of the crown, then measure
the weight of the crown, and compare
this weight with an equal volume of
pure gold. The crown and the piece of
gold with the same volume should weight
the same. If the crown weighes more
than the pure gold with the same
volume, then the crown is not pure
gold. Archimedes, excited by this
realization, ran naked through the
streets of Syracuse (although people
were not as disturbed by nudity then)
yelling "eureka! eureka!" (or
'Heureka'; Greek ηὕρηκα; I have
found it). The crown is partly silver
and the goldsmith is executed.37

Archimedes makes use of levers (Strato
was aware of the idea). Archimedes is
told to have said "give me a place to
stand and I can move the world". Hieron
is supposed to have challanged
Archimedes, and Archimedes said to have
lifted a ship from a harbor on to
shore.38
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Roy MacLeod,
"The Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
5. ^
"Archimedes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
6. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Archimedes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
11. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^
www.geartechnology.com/mag/gt-aarch.htm
14. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
15. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
16. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^
"Archimedes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ Ted Huntington
21. ^ Ted
Huntington
22. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
23. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
24. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
25. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
26. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
27. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
28. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
29. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
30. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
31. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
32. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
33. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
34. ^ Ted Huntington
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
36. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
37. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
38. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
39. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.philonnet.gr/about/index.html

[2] "Claw of Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claw_of_Arc
himedes
[3]
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.co
m/Planetarium
 
[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes

[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 2 		893)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
 
[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes

[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 5 6 		894)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.diodos.gr/diodos/index.php?op
tion=com_content&task=view&id=21&Itemid=
34
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (261 BCE Perga {south
coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?)
3. ^
"Apollonius of Perga". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_
of_Perga (270 BC? - unknown, after 245
BC)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (261 BCE Perga {south
coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (261 BCE Perga {south
coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?)
6. ^
"Apollonius of Perga". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_
of_Perga (270 BC? - unknown, after 245
BC)
  
2,246 YBN
[246 BC] 35 36 37 		898) Eratosthenes of Cyrene (Kurinaios)
(Ἐρατοσθένης17 18 ) (BCE
276-196) is the first person to
accurately calculate the size of the
earth.19 20 21

On the day of summer solstace, the
longest day of the year, the Sun is
directly over head in Syene (now Aswan)
in southern Egypt, but at the same time
in Alexandria, the Sun is a few degrees
from the (perpendicular22 or) zenith
in Alexandria. The difference is
because the surface of the earth is
curved and not flat. Erastosthenes is
aware that Syene and Alexandria are
almost on the same line of longitude
(or meridian)23 and also knows the
distance between Syene and Alexandria
(Erastothenes hired a human to pace out
the distance between Alexandria and
Syene 24 ), and uses this distance and
the angle of the Sun to calculate the
diameter of the planet earth. This
result is in units of measurement of
space called "stadia". Eratosthenes
calculates a distance between
Alexandria and Syene as 5,000 stadia,
and calculates that the angle of the
Sun (in Alexandria at noon on the
longest day of the year25 ) is 1/50th
the circumference of a circle.26 This
puts the circumference Eratosthenes
measures at at 40,000 km (25,000 miles)
which is accurate (the current estimate
is 40,075.02 km27 ). This number is
larger than most humans can accept and
so the smaller estimate of Poseidonius
is accepted.28 From this large number
compared to the "known" earth,
Eratosthenes thought the various seas
formed a single interconnected ocean.29
 Eratosthenes teaches that Africa might
be circumnavigated, and that India can
be reached by sailing westwards from
Spain.30

Eratosthenes makes the "Sieve of
Eratosthenes", a system for determining
prime numbers. Eratosthenes makes a map
of the "known" earth which is better
than any before. In astronomy,
Eratosthenes measures the angle of the
earth's axis with the plane the sun
appears to move in, and gets an
accurate value. This value is called
the "obliquity of ecliptic".
Eratosthenes makes a star map of 675
stars.31

Eratosthenes denounces those who divide
mankind into two groups, Greeks and
non-Greeks and advocates the Stoic
moral principles of virtue and vice as
a criterion for the division of men.32


Eratosthenes is a friend of
Archimedes.33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
2. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
3. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
5. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
6. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
7. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
8. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
9. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
10. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
11. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
12. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
13. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
14. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
15. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
16. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
17. ^
http://www.topo.auth.gr/Ylibrperiod.html

18. ^
http://www.cup.gr/catalogue/book.asp?boo
kID=87
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
20. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
21. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
22. ^
Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Dutka, Jacques.
“‘Eratosthenes’ Measurement of
the Earth Reconsidered’.” Archive
for History of Exact Sciences 46.1
(1993): 55–66. Web. 25 May
2012. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/km185753675743p8/fulltext.pdf
(c230BCE {275-194BCE})
24. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos",
Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los
Angeles, (1980).
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00029475/ap010
419/01a00030/0
27. ^ "Earth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
30. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
31. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
32. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). (c276-194BCE), p111.
33. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
34. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
35. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
36. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). (c276-194BCE)
37. ^ Dutka, Jacques.
“‘Eratosthenes’ Measurement of
the Earth Reconsidered’.” Archive
for History of Exact Sciences 46.1
(1993): 55–66. Web. 25 May
2012. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/km185753675743p8/fulltext.pdf
(c230BCE {275-194BCE})
Alexandria, Egypt34  
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg

[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
2,246 YBN
[246 BC] 2 		933)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ptolemy III Euergetes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_III
_Euergetes
2. ^ "Ptolemy III Euergetes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_III
_Euergetes
  
2,246 YBN
[246 BC] 11 		936)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance
to Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
3. ^ Diana
Delia, "From Romance to Rhetoric: The
Alexandrian Library in Classical and
Islamic Traditions", The American
Historical Review, (1992).
4. ^ Roy MacLeod,
"The Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000), p65.
5. ^
Roy MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria
Centre of Learning in the Ancient
World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd,
2000).
6. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
7. ^ Roy
MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria
Centre of Learning in the Ancient
World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd,
2000).
8. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
9. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance
to Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
10. ^ Roy
MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria
Centre of Learning in the Ancient
World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd,
2000).
11. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).

MORE INFO
[1] "Ptolemy III Euergetes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_III
_Euergetes
  
2,245 YBN
[245 BC] 3 		896)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Conon of Samos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conon_of_Sa
mos
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,240 YBN
[240 BC] 24 25 		923) The Serapeion is a massive raised
acropolis of buildings.6 7

The Serapeum is away from the main
library in the south west corner of
Alexandria, the Egyptian quarter of
Rhakotis. 8 9 The Serapeum is called
the "daughter library".10 In the
bilingual foundation plaques, the name
Serapis is rendered in the Egyptian
form of Osor-Hapi (the Egyptian name is
Osorapis).11 Two obelisks (a thin 4
sided monument becoming thinner up to
the top with a pyramidal top12 ), are
said to have stood there as well as two
red granite sphinxes which are still at
the site.13 A black granite Apis bull
(an egyptian god) now in the Alexandria
museum was also in the Serapeum. This
shows how the vision of the Ptolemies
was to combine the Egyptian and Greek
populations.14

Ptolemy 3 creates a temple of Serapis
in the South-West part of Alexandria,
some distance from the royal quarters.
15 16 : The excavations by Alan Rowe
and others in 1943-1944 will find
foundation plaques that clearly bear
the name of Ptolemy 3 Euergetes, even
though medieval writers will attribute
the Serapeum to Ptolemy 2 17 At the
southern end are two long corridors
opening into small rooms, and in
particular a row of 19 uniform rooms,
each about 3 by 4 meters. The
excavators theorize that these rooms
were used to shelve the scrolls of the
Serapeum library, and that the scrolls
were consulted in the corridors.18

One
source has the Serapeum started under
Ptolemy I Soter but finished under
Ptolemy 3 as the foundation plaques
excavated in 1942 indicate.19

In the east end is a huge statue of the
god Serapeus (who looks like Zeus),
made of wood and covered with ivory and
gold, the outstretched arms nearly
reach the two side-walls. In the left
hand is a sceptre and under the right
hand was an image of Cerberus, with a
triple head of lion, dog and wolf, with
a python coiled around he three heads.
An east window behind the statue is
arranged so that the first rays of the
rising sun light up the features of the
god.20

Under the plateau are underground
passages and storerooms.21

Aphthonios (a Greek sophist and
rhetorician living in the second half
of the 4th century CE), in his
"Progymnasmata", an introductory book
on different kinds of rhetoric (fable,
narration, comparison, etc.), gives a
sample for the style of writing titled
"Description" that describes the
Sarapeion. Aphthonios writes:
"Description: the
temple in Alexandria, together with the
acropolis

Citadels are established for the common
security of cities - for they are the
highest points of cities. They are not
walled round with buildings, so much as
they wall round the cities. The centre
of Athens held the Athenian acropolis;
but the citadel which Alexander
established for his own city is in fact
what he named it, and it is more
accurate to call this an acropolis than
that on which the Athenians pride
themselves. For it is somewhat as this
discourse shall describe.

A hill juts out of the ground, rising
to a great height, and called an
acropolis on both accounts, both
because it is raised up on high and
because it is placed in the high-point
of the city. There are two roads to it,
of dissimilar nature. One is a road,
the other a way of access. The roads
have different names according to their
nature. Here it is possible to approach
on foot and the road is shared also
with those who approach on a wagon;
there flights of steps have been cut
and there is no passage for wagons. For
flight after flight leads higher and
higher, not stopping until the
hundredth step; for the limit of their
number is one which produces a perfect
measure.

After the steps is a gateway, shut in
with grilled gates of moderate size.
And four massive columns rise up,
bringing four roads to one entrance. On
the columns rises a building with many
columns of moderate size in front, not
of one colour, but they are fixed to
the edifice as an ornament. The
building's roof is domed, and round the
dome is set a great image of the
universe.

As one enters the acropolis itself a
single space is marked out by four
sides; the plan of the arrangement is
that of a hollow rectangle. There is a
court in the centre, surrounded by a
colonnade. Other colonnades succeed the
court, colonnades divided by equal
columns, and their length could not be
exceeded. Each colonnade ends in
another at right angles, and a double
column divides each colonnade, ending
the one and starting the other.
Chambers are built within the
colonnades. Some are repositories for
the books, open to those who are
diligent in philosophy and stirring up
the whole city to mastery of wisdom.
Others are established in honour of the
ancient gods. The colonnades are
roofed, and the roof is made of gold,
and the capitals {tops} of the columns
are made of bronze overlaid with gold.
The decoration of the court is not
single. For different parts are
differently decorated, and one has the
exploits of Perseus. In the middle
there rises a column of great height,
making the place conspicuous (someone
on his way does not know where he is
going, unless he uses the pillar as a
sign of the direction) and makes the
acropolis stand out by land and sea.
The beginnings of the universe stand
round the capital of the column. Before
one comes to the middle of the court
there is set an edifice with many
entrances, which are named after the
ancient gods; and two stone obelisks
rise up, and a fountain better than
that of the Peisistratids. And the
marvel had an incredible number of
builders. As one was not sufficient for
the making, builders of the whole
acropolis were appointed to the number
of twelve {by the dozen}.

As one comes down from the acropolis,
here is a flat place resembling a
race-course, which is what the place is
called; and here there is another of
similar shape, but not equal in size.

The beauty is unspeakable. If anything
has been omitted, it has been bracketed
by amazement; what it was not possible
to describe has been omitted."22
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p91.
2. ^
http://www.focusmag.gr/articles/view-art
icle.rx?oid=708
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
4. ^ Roy
MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria
Centre of Learning in the Ancient
World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd,
2000).
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p91.
6. ^
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/classics/resource
s/rhetoric/prog-aph.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
9. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
10. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971).
11. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
12. ^
"Obelisk". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelisk
13. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
14. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
15. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
16. ^ Roy
MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria
Centre of Learning in the Ancient
World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd,
2000), p68.
17. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p91.
18. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p68.
19. ^ John Marlowe, "The
golden age of Alexandria: from its
foundation by Alexander the Great in
331 BC to its capture by the Arabs in
642 AD.", (London: Gollancz, 1971).
20. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971).
21. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
22. ^
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/classics/resource
s/rhetoric/prog-aph.htm
23. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p42.
24. ^ "Serapeum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serapeum
(guess based on)
25. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient
Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990), p42.
Alexandria, Egypt23  
[1] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg

[2] Hypatia (Rachel Weisz) teaching at
the Serapeum UNKNOWN
source: http://dmkraig.net/page13/page5/
files/agora1.jpg
2,240 YBN
[240 BC] 4 		1325) Chinese people possibly ob served
Halley's comet as early as 2467 BCE.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
2. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
3. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
4. ^ "Halley's comet (240BCE)'s comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet (240BCE) (240BCE)
China3   
2,235 YBN
[235 BC] 4 5 		890)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "article 9025907".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
5907
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=Byzanteum 300 bce -
??)
5. ^
http://www.philonnet.gr/about/index.html
 (265-202 BCE)
  
2,235 YBN
[235 BC] 5 6 		895)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Apollonios". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonios
2. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html
3. ^
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Biogr
aphies/Eratosthenes.html
4. ^ "Eratosthenes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
5. ^ "Apollonios". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonios
(=retires 246/245)
6. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html
(=succeeded him in 235bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Library of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_
Alexandria
  
2,230 YBN
[230 BC] 5 		1034) The letter "G" is added to the
Latin alphabet in Rome. Before this the
letter "C" could be either the "K" or
"G" sound, now the letter "G" will have
the "G" sound and the letter "C" will
only have the "K" sound.3 A more
logical system would be to not add any
letter "G", and to use the letter "C"
only as "G", "K" for all "K" sounds,
but this simple one letter equals one
sound only system is not recognized.
This confusion about how to pronounce
the letter "C" will continue for
thousands of years, persisting even
today. Later the letter "C" will also
take on an "S" and "CH" sound and "G"
will take on the "J" sound, adding to a
simple and unnecessary confusion.4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "G". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G
2. ^
http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyo
gh/thorn.html
3. ^ "G". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "G". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G
 
[1] The Latin alphabet was used for the
language of Latin - which was spoken by
the Romans. It was developed around 400
BCE. Since the Roman Empire covered a
good portion of Europe - the Latin
alphabet was spread throughout Europe -
and later around the world. UNKNOWN
source: http://i1.squidoocdn.com/resize/
squidoo_images/590/draft_lens19075914mod
ule156500317photo_1327177503latin_alphab
et.gif
2,230 YBN
[230 BC] 9 		1373) Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the
ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and
contemporary of Ashoka, is recorded by
Pliny the Elder as sending an
ambassador named Dionysius to the
Mauryan court at Pataliputra in India:5

"But {India} has been treated of by
several other Greek writers who resided
at the courts of Indian kings, such,
for instance, as Megasthenes, and by
Dionysius, who was sent thither by
Philadelphus, expressly for the
purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon
the power and vast resources of these
nations."6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Asoka". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asoka
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ "Asoka". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9884/Asoka
4. ^ "Asoka". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9884/Asoka
5. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
6. ^ Pliny the Elder, The Natural
History, Chap. 21
7. ^ "hospital".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
8. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
9. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
Hindustan8  
[1] Ashoka the Great Mauryan
emperor Modern reconstruction of
Ashoka's portrait. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ashoka2.jpg

[2] A poltical map of the Mauryan
Empire, including notable cities, such
as the capital Pataliputra, and site of
the Buddha's enlightenment. Dark blue
represents the extend of the Mauryan
Empire under Emperor Ashoka, light blue
represents possible tributary states,
vassals or allies. Green blue
represents notable rivers, black
represetns modern political borders,
and brown represents the border of
South Asia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mauryan_Empire_Map.gif
2,212 YBN
[212 BC] 3 		892)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Archimedes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Archimedes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
  
2,208 YBN
[208 BC] 2 		1051)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Great wall of china". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_wall_
of_china
2. ^ "Great wall of china". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_wall_
of_china (based on)
  
2,205 YBN
[205 BC] 2 		937)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000). (late 3rd century)
  
2,204 YBN
[204 BC] 6 		938)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p93.
3. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p112.
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p113.
6. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
2,204 YBN
[204 BC] 2 		939)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ptolemy V Epiphanes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_E
piphanes
2. ^ "Ptolemy V Epiphanes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_E
piphanes
  
2,200 YBN
[200 BC] 3 		1063)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stirrup". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirrup
2. ^ "Stirrup". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirrup
3. ^ "Stirrup". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirrup

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/t
utor/oldwrld/armies/stirrups.html
India2   
2,196 YBN
[196 BC] 3 		1267)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Steven Roger Fischer, "A History
of Writing", (London: Reaktion Books,
2001). p46, p46.
2. ^ Steven Roger Fischer,
"A History of Writing", (London:
Reaktion Books, 2001). p46
3. ^ Steven
Roger Fischer, "A History of Writing",
(London: Reaktion Books, 2001). p46
Egypt2   
2,191 YBN
[191 BC] 2 		940)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ptolemy VI Philometor".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_
Philometor
2. ^ "Ptolemy VI Philometor".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_
Philometor
  
2,189 YBN
[189 BC] 3 		948)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p93.
2. ^ Ted Huntington, some people think
this is a mistake in from the
Oxyrhynchus papyrus? or maybe Tzetzes
list.
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(=189/6-175 BCE)
  
2,186 YBN
[186 BC] 3 		1117) The Suàn shù shū is an ancient
Chinese collection of writings on
mathematics approximately 7000
characters in length, written on 190
bamboo strips, recovered from a tomb
that appears to have been closed in 186
B.C. This anonymous collection is not a
single coherent book, but is made up of
approximately 69 independent sections
of text, which appear to have been
assembled from a variety of sources.
Problems treated range from elementary
calculations with fractions to
applications of the Rule of False
Position and finding the volumes of
various solid shapes.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Christopher Cullen, The Suàn
shù shū , “Writings on
reckoning”: Rewriting the history of
early Chinese mathematics in the light
of an excavated manuscript, Historia
Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1,
February 2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN
0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
2. ^ Christopher Cullen, The Suàn shù
shū , “Writings on reckoning”:
Rewriting the history of early Chinese
mathematics in the light of an
excavated manuscript, Historia
Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1,
February 2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN
0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
3. ^ Christopher Cullen, The Suàn shù
shū , “Writings on reckoning”:
Rewriting the history of early Chinese
mathematics in the light of an
excavated manuscript, Historia
Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1,
February 2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN
0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
Zhangjiashan, Hubei Provience,
China 
[1] Fig. 1. Some of the bamboo strips
on which the Suàn shù shū was
written. Counting from the right, the
first strip shows the label Suàn shù
shū, “Writings on Reckoning,” that
described the contents of the original
bundle. The second, third, fourth, and
eighth strips show section titles above
the upper node of the bamboo, and the
second and fifth strips have the names
Wáng and Yáng below their lower
nodes. The ninth strip has the words
Yáng yıˇ chóu, “Checked by
Yáng,” below the lower node. In the
numbering system used for the
translation in [Cullen, 2004], the
strips shown here are numbered as 6
(reverse side shown here), 119, 148,
113, 102, 101, 134, 133, and 56.
Reproduced with permission from {Péng,
2001}. COPYRIGHTED [1] The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical
Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0315086005001084-gr00
2.jpg


source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
2,175 YBN
[175 BC] 4 5 		949)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p93.
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), 7.
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient
Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990), p114.
4. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000). (=175 BCE)
5. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). (-175-145BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ptolemy VI Philometor".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_
Philometor
  
2,173 YBN
[173 BC] 		955)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polybius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p76.
  
2,164 YBN
[09/??/164 BC] 3 		1324)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
2. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
3. ^ "Halley's comet (164BCE)'s comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet (164BCE) (164BCE)
Babylonia2  
[1] A Babylonian tablet recording
Halley's comet during an appearance in
164 BC. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Halleys_comet.jpg
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 57 58 		1029) Pliny will claim, in his "Natural
History", that Hipparchos compiled his
catalog of stars so that future
astronomers can detect changes in
positions and the possible appearance
of novae.16 Lucio Russo writes that
Edmund Halley, "probably without
realizing that he was completing an
experiment ... started two thousand
years earlier" will be the first to
notice this difference in 1718.17 18

In the 2nd and 3rd centuries coins were
made in his honour in Bithynia that
bear his name and show him with a
globe; this confirms the tradition that
he was born there.19
Hipparchus is
believed to have died on the island of
Rhodes, where he spent most of his
later life--Ptolemy attributes
observations to him from Rhodes in the
period from 141 BC to 127 BC.20
Hipparch
us is recognized as the originator and
father of scientific astronomy. He is
believed to be the greatest Greek
astronomical observer, and many regard
him as the greatest astronomer of
ancient times, although Cicero gave
preferences to Aristarchus of Samos.
Some put in this place also Ptolemy of
Alexandria. Hipparchus' writings had
been mostly superseded by those of
Ptolemy, so later copyists have not
preserved them for posterity.21
Earlier
Greek astronomers and mathematicians
were influenced by Babylonian astronomy
to a limited extent, for instance the
period relations of the Metonic cycle
and Saros cycle may have come from
Babylonian sources. Hipparchus seems to
have been the first to exploit
Babylonian astronomical knowledge and
techniques systematically.22 He was
the first Greek known to divide the
circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes
(Eratosthenes before him used a simpler
sexagesimal system dividing a circle
into 60 parts). He also used the
Babylonian unit pechus ("cubit") of
about 2° or 2½°.23

Hipparchus also studied the motion of
the Moon and confirmed the accurate
values for some periods of its motion
that Chaldean astronomers had obtained
before him. The traditional value (from
Babylonian System B) for the mean
synodic month is 29 days;31,50,8,20
(sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... d.
Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours +
793/1080 hours this value has been used
later in the Hebrew calendar (possibly
from Babylonian sources). The Chaldeans
also knew that 251 synodic months = 269
anomalistic months. Hipparchus extended
this period by a factor of 17, because
after that interval the Moon also would
have a similar latitude, and it is
close to an integer number of years
(345). Therefore, eclipses would
reappear under almost identical
circumstances. The period is 126007
days 1 hour (rounded). Hipparchus could
confirm his computations by comparing
eclipses from his own time (presumably
27 January 141 BCE and 26 November 139
BCE according to {Toomer 1980}), with
eclipses from Babylonian records 345
years earlier (Almagest IV.2; {Jones
2001}).24

Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and
their pupils at Athens had made a
solstice observation (i.e., timed the
moment of the summer solstice) on June
27, 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar).
Aristarchus of Samos is said to have
done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also
had an observation by Archimedes.
Hipparchus himself observed the summer
solstice in 135 BC, but he found
observations of the moment of equinox
more accurate, and he made many during
his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an
extensive discussion of Hipparchus'
work on the length of the year in the
Almagest III.1, and quotes many
observations that Hipparchus made or
used, spanning 162 BCE to 128 BCE.25
At the end of his career, Hipparchus
wrote a book called Peri eniausíou
megéthous ("On the Length of the
Year") about his results. 26

Before Hipparchus the Chaldean
astronomers knew that the lengths of
the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus
made equinox and solstice observations,
and according to Ptolemy (Almagest
III.4) determined that spring (from
spring equinox to summer solstice)
lasted 94 + 1/2 days, and summer (from
summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92 +
1/2 days. This is an unexpected result
given a premise of the Sun moving
around the Earth in a circle at uniform
speed. Hipparchus' solution was to
place the Earth not at the center of
the Sun's motion, but at some distance
from the center. This model described
the apparent motion of the Sun fairly
well (of course today we know that the
planets like the Earth move in ellipses
around the Sun, but this was not
discovered until Johannes Kepler
published his first two laws of
planetary motion in 1609).27 It's not
clear if Hipparchos or Ptolemy found
these values.28
Hipparchus also
undertook to find the distances and
sizes of the Sun and the Moon. He
published his results in a work of two
books called Peri megethoon kai
'apostèmátoon ("On Sizes and
Distances") by Pappus in his commentary
on the Almagest V.11; Theon of Smyrna
(2nd century) mentions the work with
the addition "of the Sun and Moon".29

Hipparchus measured the apparent
diameters of the Sun and Moon with his
diopter. Like others before and after
him, he found that the Moon's size
varies as it moves on its (eccentric)
orbit, but he found no perceptible
variation in the apparent diameter of
the Sun. He found that at the mean
distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon
had the same apparent diameter30

Like others before and after him, he
also noticed that the Moon has a
noticeable parallax, i.e., that it
appears displaced from its calculated
position (compared to the Sun or
stars), and the difference is greater
when closer to the horizon. He knew
that this is because the Moon circles
the center of the Earth, but the
observer is at the surface - Moon,
Earth and observer form a triangle with
a sharp angle that changes all the
time. From the size of this parallax,
the distance of the Moon as measured in
Earth radii can be determined. For the
Sun however, there was no observable
parallax (we now know that it is about
8.8", more than ten times smaller than
the resolution of the unaided eye).31

In the first book, Hipparchus assumes
that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as
if it is at infinite distance. He then
analyzed a solar eclipse, presumably
that of 14 March 190 BC. Alexandria and
Nicaea are on the same meridian.
Alexandria is at about 31° North, and
the region of the Hellespont at about
41° North; authors like Strabo and
Ptolemy had fairly decent values for
these geographical positions, and
presumably Hipparchus knew them too. So
Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed
by the two places and the Moon, and
from simple geometry was able to
establish a distance of the Moon,
expressed in Earth radii. Because the
eclipse occurred in the morning, the
Moon was not in the meridian, and as a
consequence the distance found by
Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any
case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus
found that the least distance is 71
(from this eclipse), and the greatest
81 Earth radii.32

In the second book, Hipparchus starts
from the opposite extreme assumption:
he assigns a (minimum) distance to the
Sun of 470 Earth radii. This would
correspond to a parallax of 7', which
is apparently the greatest parallax
that Hipparchus thought would not be
noticed (for comparison: the typical
resolution of the human eye is about
2'.33 In this case, the shadow of the
Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder
as under the first assumption.
Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses)
that at the mean distance of the Moon,
the diameter of the shadow cone (of the
earth34 ) is 2+½ lunar diameters. That
apparent diameter is, as he had
observed, 360/650 degrees (of the sky35
). With these values and simple
geometry, Hipparchus could determine
the mean distance; because it was
computed for a minimum distance of the
Sun, it is the maximum average distance
possible for the Moon. With his value
for the eccentricity of the orbit, he
could compute the least and greatest
distances of the Moon too. According to
Pappus, he found a least distance of
62, a mean of 67+1/3, and consequently
a greatest distance of 72+2/3 Earth
radii. With this method, as the
parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e.,
its distance increases), the minimum
limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth
radii - exactly the mean distance that
Ptolemy will later derive.36

Hipparchus therefore had the
problematic result that his minimum
distance (from book 1) was greater than
his maximum mean distance (from book
2). He was intellectually honest about
this discrepancy, and probably realized
that especially the first method is
very sensitive to the accuracy of the
observations and parameters (in fact,
modern calculations show that the size
of the solar eclipse at Alexandria must
have been closer to 9/10 than to the
reported 4/5).37

Ptolemy later measured the lunar
parallax directly (Almagest V.13)
(presumable against the position of a
star?38 ), and used the second method
of Hipparchus' with lunar eclipses to
compute the distance of the Sun
(Almagest V.15). He will criticize
Hipparchus for making contradictory
assumptions, and obtaining conflicting
results (Almagest V.11): but apparently
he will fail to understand Hipparchus'
strategy to establish limits consistent
with the observations, rather than a
single value for the distance.
Hipparchos' results are the best until
his time: the actual mean distance of
the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within
his limits from book 2.39

Pliny (Naturalis Historia II.X) tells
us that Hipparchus demonstrated that
lunar eclipses can occur five months
apart, and solar eclipses seven months
(instead of the usual six months); and
the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty
days, but as seen by different nations.
Ptolemy discussed this a century later
at length in Almagest VI.6. The
geometry, and the limits of the
positions of Sun and Moon when a solar
or lunar eclipse is possible, are
explained in Almagest VI.5. Hipparchus
apparently made similar calculations.
The result that two solar eclipses can
occur one month apart is important,
because this can not be based on
observations: one is visible on the
northern and the other on the southern
hemisphere - as Pliny indicates -, and
the latter was inaccessible to the
Greek.40

Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e.,
exactly when and where it will be
visible, requires a solid lunar theory
and proper treatment of the lunar
parallax. Hipparchus must have been the
first to be able to do this. A rigorous
treatment requires spherical
trigonometry, but Hipparchus may have
made do with planar approximations. He
may have discussed these things in Peri
tes kata platos meniaias tes selenes
kineseoos ("On the monthly motion of
the Moon in latitude"), a work
mentioned in the Suda.41

Hipparchus is credited with the
invention or improvement of several
astronomical instruments, which were
used for a long time for naked-eye
observations. According to Synesius of
Ptolemais (4th century) he made the
first astrolabion: this may have been
an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy
however says he constructed, in
Almagest V.1); or the predecessor of
the planar instrument called astrolabe
(also mentioned by Theon of
Alexandria). With an astrolabe
Hipparchus was the first to be able to
measure the geographical latitude and
time by observing stars. Previously
this was done at daytime by measuring
the shadow cast by a gnomon, or with
the portable instrument known as
scaphion.42

Ptolemy mentions (Almagest V.14) that
he used a similar instrument as
Hipparchus, called dioptra, to measure
the apparent diameter of the Sun and
Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it
(in his commentary on the Almagest of
that chapter), as did Proclus
(Hypotyposis IV). It was a 4-foot rod
with a scale, a sighting hole at one
end, and a wedge that could be moved
along the rod to exactly obscure the
disk of Sun or Moon.43

Hipparchus also observed solar
equinoxes, which may be done with an
equatorial ring: its shadow falls on
itself when the Sun is on the equator
(i.e., in one of the equinoctial points
on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls
above or below the opposite side of the
ring when the Sun is south or north of
the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in
Almagest III.1 (H195)) a description by
Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in
Alexandria; a little further he
describes two such instruments present
in Alexandria in his own time.44

Contributions to geography: Hipparchus
applied his knowledge of spherical
angles to the problem of denoting
locations on the Earth's surface.
Before him a grid system had been used
by Dicaearchus of Messana, but
Hipparchus was the first to apply
mathematical rigor to the determination
of the latitude and longitude of places
on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a
critique in three books on the work of
the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene
(3rd century BC), called Pròs tèn
'Eratosthénous geografían ("Against
the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is
known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who
in his turn criticised Hipparchus in
his own Geografia. Hipparchus
apparently made many detailed
corrections to the locations and
distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It
seems he did not introduce many
improvements in methods, but he did
propose a means to determine the
geographical longitudes of different
cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo
Geografia 7). A lunar eclipse is
visible simultaneously on half of the
Earth, and the difference in longitude
between places can be computed from the
difference in local time when the
eclipse is observed. His approach would
give accurate results if it were
correctly carried out but the
limitations of timekeeping accuracy in
his era made this method impractical.45


Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the
4th century B.C. had described the
stars and constellations in two books
called Phaenomena and Entropon. Aratus
wrote a poem called Phaenomena or
Arateia based on Eudoxus' work.
Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the
Arateia - his only preserved work -
which contains many stellar positions
and times for rising, culmination, and
setting of the constellations, and
these are likely to have been based on
his own measurements.

Hipparchus made his measurements with
an equatorial armillary sphere, and
obtained the positions of maybe about
850 stars. It is disputed which
coordinate system he used. Ptolemy's
catalogue in the Almagest, which is
derived from Hipparchus' catalogue, is
given in ecliptic coordinates. 46

Hipparchus' original catalogue has not
been preserved today. However, an
analysis of an ancient statue of Atlas
(the so-called Farnese Atlas) published
in 2005 shows stars at positions that
appear to have been determined using
Hipparchus' data.47 .

As with most of his work, Hipparchus
star catalogue has been adopted and
expanded by Ptolemy. It has been
strongly disputed how much of the star
catalogue in the Almagest is due to
Hipparchus, and how much is original
work by Ptolemy. Statistical analysis
(e.g. by Bradly Schaeffer, and others)
shows that the classical star catalogue
has a complex origin. Ptolemy has even
been accused of fraud for stating that
he re-measured all stars: many of his
positions are wrong and it appears that
in most cases he used Hipparchus' data
and precessed them to his own epoch
three centuries later, but using an
erroneous (too small) precession
constant.48

In any case the work started by
Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage,
and has been worked on much later by Al
Sufi (964), and by Ulugh Beg as late as
1437. It was superseded only by more
accurate observations after invention
of the telescope.49

Hipparchus (is the first?50 ) ranks
stars in six magnitude classes
according to their brightness: he
assignes the value of one to the twenty
brightest stars, to weaker ones a value
of two, and so forth to the stars with
a class of six, which can be barely
seen with the naked eye. A similar
system is still used today (perhaps a
system based on number of photons
received/second will be next51 ).52

Hipparchus is perhaps most famous for
having discovered the precession of the
equinoxes. His two books on precession,
On the Displacement of the Solsticial
and Equinoctial Points and On the
Length of the Year, are both mentioned
in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy.
According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus
measured the longitude of Spica and
other bright stars. Comparing his
measurements with data from his
predecessors, Timocharis and
Aristillus, he realized that Spica had
moved 2° relative to the autumnal
equinox. He also compared the lengths
of the tropical year (the time it takes
the Sun to return to an equinox) and
the sidereal year (the time it takes
the Sun to return to a fixed star), and
found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus
concluded that the equinoxes were
moving ("precessing") through the
zodiac, and that the rate of precession
was not less than 1° in a century.53

Ptolemy followed up on Hipparchus' work
in the 2nd century AD. He confirmed
that precession affected the entire
sphere of fixed stars (Hipparchus had
speculated that only the stars near the
zodiac were affected), and concluded
that 1° in 100 years was the correct
rate of precession. The modern value is
1° in 72 years.54

As far as is known, Hipparchus never
wrote about astrology, i.e. the
application of astronomy to the
(fraudulent albeit nonviolent and
legal55 ) practice of divination.56
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Hipparchus
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
3. ^
http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/acade
mics/courses//astro201/hipparchus.htm
4. ^
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/p
eople/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
5. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Hipparchus
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
9. ^
http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/acade
mics/courses//astro201/hipparchus.htm
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Hipparchus
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
12. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
13. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
14. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p32.
16. ^ Lucio
Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution",
(Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag,
2004), p88 Pliny, Naturalis historia,
II 95.
17. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p89.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington
19. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
20. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
21. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
22. ^
http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/acade
mics/courses//astro201/hipparchus.htm
23. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
24. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
25. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
26. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
27. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
28. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
29. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
30. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
31. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
32. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
33. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ "Hipparchus
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
37. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ "Hipparchus
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
40. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
41. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
42. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
43. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
44. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
45. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
46. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
47. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
48. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
49. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ Ted Huntington.
52. ^ "Hipparchus
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
53. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
54. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
55. ^ Ted Huntington.
56. ^ "Hipparchus
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
(+30+30)
{+30+30}
 
[1] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg

[2] hipparchos stamp UNKNOWN
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac
.uk/history/PictDisplay/Hipparchus.html
2,150 YBN
[150 BC] 17 		1039) Seleukos lives in Babylonia and
is probably called "Chaldean" or
"Babylonian", but was probably part
Greek, and lives during the same time
as Hipparchos.7
Strabo will explain
that Seleukos understood the yearly
changes of the tides from season to
season, revealing the fact that tides
show a maximum change in height with
each consecutive high tide (diurnal
inequality) during the solstice, and
minimum change of height difference of
consecutive high tides during the
equinox. This phenomenon is explained
by the fact that the earth is tilted to
the sun, during the solstice, but is
not tilted to the sun during the
equinox {add image},8 although this
could be explained with a tilted sun in
an earth-centered theory.9 This
phenomenon will not be understood again
until G. H. Darwin in 1898.10

Plutarch writes: Was {Timaeus} giving
the earth motion ..., and should the
earth ... be understood to have been
designed not as confined and fixed but
as turning and revolving about, in the
way expounded later by Aristarchos and
Seleukos, the former assuming this as a
hypothesis and the latter proclaiming11
12 it?"13

Aetius will write, "Seleucus the
mathematician (also one of those who
think the earth moves) says that the
moon's revolution counteracts the
whirlpool motion of the earth".14
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Lucio Russo, "The
Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin; New
York: Springer-Verlag, 2004), p311.
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33.
4. ^ Lucio Russo,
"The Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin;
New York: Springer-Verlag, 2004), p88.
(Aetius and Heraclides of Pontus)
5. ^
"Plutarch." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Feb.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plutarch
6. ^ Plutarch, "Plutarch's Morals,
Volume 10",
p438-439. http://books.google.com/books
?id=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33.
8. ^ Lucio Russo,
"The Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin;
New York: Springer-Verlag, 2004), p313.
9. ^
Ted Huntington
10. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p314.
11. ^ Oxford
Greek-English Learner's Dictionary
12. ^ The
Oxford Greek Dictionary
13. ^ Lucio Russo, "The
Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin; New
York: Springer-Verlag, 2004), p311.
14. ^
Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p315.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000eaa..b
ookE3998.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Seleucus of Seleucia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_of
_Seleucia (c460BCE)
Seleucia (on the Tigris River),
Babylon15 16  
[1] from: Plutarch, ''Plutarch's
Morals, Volume 10'',
p438-439. http://books.google.com/books
?id=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
2,145 YBN
[145 BC] 2 		950)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
(=145BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ptolemy VIII Physcon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VII
I_Physcon
  
2,145 YBN
[145 BC] 4 		951)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p94.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p93.
3. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
4. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
(=145BCE)
  
2,143 YBN
[143 BC] 3 		1337) Shishi, in Chinese means "Stone
House", which refers to how the school
was originally built.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Shishi Middle School".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shishi_Midd
le_School
2. ^ "Shishi Middle School". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shishi_Midd
le_School
3. ^ "Shishi Middle School". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shishi_Midd
le_School (between 143 and 141 BCE)
Chengdu, China  
2,140 YBN
[140 BC] 22 23 		1070) The invention of paper. The
earliest paper artifact (although
without writing) is made of hemp fibers
and comes from a tomb in China.14 15

Before this bamboo and silk are written
on in China.16

The method of making paper by pouring
wood pulp mixed in water into a flat
mold and drying the sediment will take
over 1000 years to be understood in
Europe17 18 , although it will reach
India in the 600s CE.19

Paper is considered one of the most
important inventions in history, since
it enables China to develop its
civilization much faster than with
earlier writing materials (primarily
bamboo), and it does the same with
Europe when it is introduced in the
12th century or the 13th century.20
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
2. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
3. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
4. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
5. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
6. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
7. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
8. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
9. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
10. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
11. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
12. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
13. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
14. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
15. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
16. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
17. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
18. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
19. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
20. ^ "Tsai Lun".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsai_Lun
21. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
22. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
(=140-87BCE)
23. ^
http://www.amateras.com/trip/china/xian-
e.htm {140-87BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] David Buisseret (1998),
Envisaging the City, U Chicago Press,
p. 12, ISBN 978-0-226-07993-6
[2] Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin
(1985). Paper and Printing. Joseph
Needham, Science and Civilisation in
China, Chemistry and Chemical
Technology. Vol. 5 part 1. Cambridge
University Press, p38.
Xian, China21  
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg

[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87 BC)
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
2,134 YBN
[01/01/134 BC] 4 		1041)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
2. ^ "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
  
2,127 YBN
[127 BC] 3 4 		943)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Athenaeus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenaeus
2. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971), p81.
3. ^
"Cleopatra II". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_I
I
4. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).

MORE INFO
[1] "Ptolemy VIII Physcon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VII
I_Physcon
  
2,120 YBN
[120 BC] 2 		942)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971), p73.
2. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971).
  
2,105 YBN
[01/01/105 BC] 12 		1042) Poseidonios is a Greek Stoic
philosopher, politician, astronomer,
geographer, historian, and teacher. He
is acclaimed as the greatest polymath
of his age. None of his vast body of
work can be read in its entirety today
as it exists only in fragments.5

Like Pytheas, Poseidonios thinks that
the moon causes the tides, and goes
west to the Atlantic ocean to study
tides. Poseidonios uses Canopus in
place of the sun in order to calculate
the size of the earth, but his
measurement is too small (as described
by Strabo the only source for this
data). Ptolemy will accept this lower
number, instead of accurate calculation
made by Eratosthenes, and this will be
the accepted value of the Earth's
circumference for the next 1,500 years,
and may influence Christopher Columbus
that the earth can be circumnavigated.6
7 Poseidonius supports the
pseudoscience of astrology.8

He attempted to measure the distance
and size of the Sun. In about 90 BCE
Posidonius estimated the astronomical
unit to be a0/rE = 9893, which was
still too small by half. In measuring
the size of the Sun, however, he
reached a figure larger and more
accurate than those proposed by other
Greek astronomers and Aristarchus of
Samos.9

Posidonius also calculated the size and
distance of the Moon.10

Posidonius constructed an orrery,
possibly similar to the Antikythera
mechanism. Posidonius's orrery,
according to Cicero, exhibited the
diurnal motions of the sun, moon, and
the five known planets.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Posidonius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p34.
3. ^ "Posidonius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
4. ^ "Posidonius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
5. ^ "Posidonius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p34.
7. ^ "Posidonius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p34.
9. ^ "Posidonius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
10. ^ "Posidonius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
11. ^ "Posidonius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (+30) (+30)
  
2,100 YBN
[100 BC] 3 		952)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p126.
2. ^ "Antiochus of Ascalon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_o
f_Ascalon
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
2,100 YBN
[100 BC] 3 		1064)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/t
utor/oldwrld/armies/stirrups.html
2. ^
http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/t
utor/oldwrld/armies/stirrups.html
3. ^
http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/t
utor/oldwrld/armies/stirrups.html
Central Asia2   
2,100 YBN
[100 BC] 5 		1374)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
4. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
5. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
Rome4   
2,080 YBN
[80 BC] 4 		870)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Differential gear". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentia
l_gear
2. ^
http://www.imm.org/Parts/Parts3.html
3. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera
_mechanism
4. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera
_mechanism
  
2,080 YBN
[80 BC] 2 		1046)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).?
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).?
  
2,076 YBN
[76 BC] 9 		1047)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004).
2. ^ "Cicero".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Cicero". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero
5. ^ "Cicero". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero
6. ^ "Cicero". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero
7. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p234.
8. ^ Lucio
Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution",
(Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag,
2004), p82.
9. ^ "Cicero". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero
(+30)

MORE INFO
[1] The New College Latin &
English dictionary
  
2,075 YBN
[75 BC] 8 9 10 		1116) Negative numbers.5
The first use
of negative numbers is in the Chinese
mathematics book "The Nine Chapters on
the Mathematical Art" (Jiuˇ zhāng
suàn shù). Negative numbers are in
red and positive numbers in black.6
The
Nine Chapters is a Chinese counterpart
to Euclid’s Elements, which dominates
Western mathematics in the same way the
Nine Chapters is the basis of ancient
Chinese mathematics for nearly two
millennia. Euclid’s text is uses an
axiomatic method while The Nine
Chapters, is a much more down-to-Earth
handbook for the solution of practical
problems.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber
2. ^ "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber
3. ^ "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber
4. ^ "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber
5. ^ "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber
6. ^ "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber
7. ^ Joseph W. Dauben, Ancient Chinese
mathematics: the (Jiu Zhang Suan Shu)
vs Euclid’s Elements. Aspects of
proof and the linguistic limits of
knowledge, International Journal of
Engineering Science, Volume 36, Issues
12–14, September–November 1998,
Pages 1339-1359, ISSN 0020-7225,
10.1016/S0020-7225(98)00036-6.
8. ^ "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber (100bce-50bce)
9. ^ "Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Chapte
rs_on_the_Mathematical_Art
(200bce-100ce)
10. ^ "Suàn shù shū". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A0n_s
h%C3%B9_sh%C5%AB (100ce)

MORE INFO
[1] Christopher Cullen, The Suàn
shù shū , “Writings on
reckoning”: Rewriting the history of
early Chinese mathematics in the light
of an excavated manuscript, Historia
Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1,
February 2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN
0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
China 
[1] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg

[2] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
2,070 YBN
[70 BC] 3 		953)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p120.
2. ^
http://www.innvista.com/health/ancient.h
tm
3. ^
http://www.innvista.com/health/ancient.h
tm (fl. c. 70BCE)
  
2,060 YBN
[60 BC] 2 		958)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Diodorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus
2. ^ "Diodorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus
(+30)
  
2,060 YBN
[60 BC] 14 		959)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p128.
, i. 12.
4. ^ "Philo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
, i. 495.
6. ^ "Philo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
7. ^ "Philo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
8. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
9. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
10. ^ "Philo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
11. ^ "Therapeutae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutae

12. ^ "Philo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
13. ^ "Philo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
14. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(+30)
  
2,056 YBN
[56 BC] 31 		1045) Lucretius (BCE c95-c55)22
describes light and heat as being made
of tiny atoms that move very fast.23 24
25

Lucretius {LYUKREsEuS}, Titus Lucretius
Carus, Roman poet and philosopher26 ,
writes "De Natura Rerum" (On the Nature
of things) which describes a mechanical
Epikourean view of universe in a
(longer than average) poem. Influenced
by Democritus, Lucretius supports the
idea that all things are made of atoms
including souls and even Gods. Like
Epikouros, Lucretius thinks that the
Gods are not concerned with the lives
of humans, and death is not to be
feared. In addition Lucretius thinks
that there is no after life, only
peaceful nothingness. Lucretius is the
first to divide human history in to the
stone age, bronze age, and iron age.
Lucretius is the boldest person of this
time to speak out against religion,
superstition and mysticism.27

In "De rerum natura" Lucretius writes
(translated from Latin): "...the
velocity with which these images travel
is enormous: light things made of fine
atoms often travel very swiftly, as
sunlight; it is natural then that these
images should do the same; of which too
there is a constant succession one
following on the other like light or
heat from the sun. ...".28 29
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex,
Volume 1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
2. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
3. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
4. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
6. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
7. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
8. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
9. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p36.
11. ^ Titus Carus
Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1", 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
12. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
13. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p36.
15. ^ Titus Carus
Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1", 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
16. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
17. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
18. ^ "Lucretius." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lucretius
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p34.
20. ^ Titus Carus
Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1", 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
21. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p36.
23. ^ Titus Carus
Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1", 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
24. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
25. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
26. ^ "Lucretius." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lucretius
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p34.
28. ^ Titus Carus
Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1", 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
29. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
31. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp36-37. (=(95
BCE Rome - 55 BCE Rome) 56 BCE date of
book) (=(95 BCE Rome - 55 BCE Rome) 56
BCE date of book)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lucretius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius
(=(ca. 94 BC- ca. 49 BC)
[2] "Light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light
[3] "didactic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/didactic
Rome, Italy30  
[1] Text copied from: [1] Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ

[2] Lucretius, from
http://www.ironorchid.com/clipart/person
s/images/Lucretius.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Lucretius.jpg
2,055 YBN
[08/??/55 BC] 2 		1057)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "55 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55_BC
2. ^ "55 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55_BC
  
2,050 YBN
[50 BC] 3 		1050)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Glass blowing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_blowi
ng
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (based on this source estimate
of 1st century BCE) (based on this
source estimate of 1st century BCE)
  
2,048 YBN
[48 BC] 2 3 4 5 		956) A fire set by soldiers for Julius
Caesar may have burned only some
storehouses of books, or may have
partially or completely burned the
Royal Library too, but in any event,
the Royal Mouseion (which possibly
housed the Royal Library) and Sarapeion
survived undamaged.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
3. ^ Diana
Delia, "From Romance to Rhetoric: The
Alexandrian Library in Classical and
Islamic Traditions", The American
Historical Review, (1992).
4. ^
http://www.bede.org.uk/library.htm
5. ^ some have 47/48

MORE INFO
[1] "Polybius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius
  
2,045 YBN
[45 BC] 4 		954)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00029475/ap010
430/01a00140/0
2. ^ "Didymus Chalcenterus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didymus_Cha
lcenterus
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p126.
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(based on teacher of Augustus)
  
2,045 YBN
[45 BC] 7 		1056)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Julian calendar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_cale
ndar
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p35.
3. ^ Pliny book 18,
210-212.
http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:B3yYT
R2UH14J:www.ymparisto.fi/download.asp%3F
contentid%3D10722%26lan%3Dfi+%22stack+ca
sting%22+chinese&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=
14
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Pliny book 2,
8.
http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:B3yYT
R2UH14J:www.ymparisto.fi/download.asp%3F
contentid%3D10722%26lan%3Dfi+%22stack+ca
sting%22+chinese&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=
14
7. ^ "Julian calendar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_cale
ndar
  
2,045 YBN
[45 BC] 4 		1523)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Roman Empire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empir
e
2. ^ "Julius Caesar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8314/Julius-Caesar
3. ^ "45 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45_BC
4. ^ "45 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45_BC
(45bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "History of democracy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy
Rome, Italy3  
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg


[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
2,041 YBN
[41 BC] 6 		957)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Ro
man/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html
3. ^
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Ro
man/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html
4. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p72.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Luciano
Canfora, "The Vanished Library : A
Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).

MORE INFO
[1] Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
[2] Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990).
  
2,040 YBN
[40 BC] 22 23 24 		1058) Earliest waterwheel11 12 and
elevator (vertical lift)13 .

In the first century BC Roman engineer
Vitruvius writes "De architectura",
known today as "The Ten Books of
Architecture", a treatise in Latin on
architecture, dedicated to the emperor
Augustus. It is the only surviving
major book on architecture from
classical antiquity.14

In a section of "De architectura" that
describes machines rarely used,
Vitruvius describes the undershot water
wheel.15 Vitruvius also describes the
first geared vertical wheel for which
there is good evidence. This mill is
also of major significance because it
is the first application of gearing
which uses something besides muscle
power. This mill has an undershot wheel
which, unlike the breast or overshot
wheels, does not make use of the weight
of falling water.16 An "overshot"
waterwheel uses water from above to
move the wheel by filling buckets on
the wheel, while an "undershot"
waterwheel uses the force of the water
passing below to spin a paddle wheel. A
"breast" waterwheel uses the wheel
horizontally.17 18

Vitruvius {ViTrUVEuS} describes lifting
platforms that use pulleys and capstans
(apparatus used for hoisting weights,
consisting of a vertical spool-shaped
cylinder that is rotated manually or by
machine and around which a cable is
wound19 ), or windlasses (hauling or
lifting machines consisting of a
horizontal cylinder turned by a crank
or a motor so that a line attached to
the load is wound around the cylinder),
operated by human, animal, or water
power.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
4. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
7. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
10. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
11. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
13. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
14. ^ "Vitruvius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius
15. ^ Terry S, Reynolds, "Medieval
Roots of the Industrial Revolution",
Scientific American, July 1984, v1,
p123.
{Water_Wheel_Sci_Am_198406xx.pdf}
16. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
17. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
18. ^ Terry S, Reynolds, "Medieval
Roots of the Industrial Revolution",
Scientific American, July 1984, v1,
p123.
{Water_Wheel_Sci_Am_198406xx.pdf}
19. ^ "capstan." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capstan
20. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
21. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>.
22. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>. {after 27BCE}
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c70-c25) (c70-c25)
24. ^
"Vitruvius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius
(=c80/70-c25)

MORE INFO
[1] "Waterwheel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwheel
Rome21  
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg

[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
2,033 YBN
[08/01/33 BC] 7 		961)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "30 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_BC
2. ^ "30 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_BC
3. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Luciano Canfora,
"The Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
6. ^ "30 BC".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_BC
7. ^ "30 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_BC
(+30)

MORE INFO
[1] Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life
and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990)
  
2,033 YBN
[08/01/33 BC] 5 		962)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Didymus Chalcenterus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didymus_Cha
lcenterus
2. ^ "Didymus Chalcenterus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didymus_Cha
lcenterus
3. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
4. ^ "Didymus Chalcenterus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didymus_Cha
lcenterus
5. ^ "Didymus Chalcenterus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didymus_Cha
lcenterus (+30)
  
2,033 YBN
[33 BC] 10 11 		1059) Strabo was born in a wealthy
family from Amaseia, which is in modern
Amasya, Turkey, within Pontus; which
had recently become part of the Roman
Empire. He studies under various
geographers and philosophers; first in
Nysa, later in Rome. He is
philosophically a Stoic and politically
a proponent of Roman imperialism. Later
he will make extensive travels to Egypt
and Ethiopia, among others. It is not
known when his Geography is written,
though comments within the work itself
place the finished version within the
reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place
its first drafts at around 7 CE, others
around 18 CE. Mention is given to the
death in 23 CE of Juba, king of
Maurousia.3

Strabo's History is nearly completely
lost. Although Strabo quotes it
himself, and other classical authors
mention that it existed, the only
surviving document is a fragment of
papyrus now in possession of the
University of Milan (renumbered
{Papyrus} 46).4

Impressed by the size of the unmapped
parts of earth, Strabo suggests that
there are other continents.5
Strabo
wrongly accepts Homer's geographic
descriptions over the more accurate
data of Herodotus.6
Strabo writes about
the Mouseion in Alexandria in addition
to the original papyri of Aristotle's
writing.7
Strabo's conversion from a
sphere to plane in inaccurate.8

Strabo's "Geography" is an important
source for information about the
Mouseion of Alexandria. In book 17,
Strabo writes: "The Museum is also a
part of the royal palaces; it has a
public walk, an Exedra {a semi-circular
room} with seats, and a large house, in
which is the common mess-hall of the
men of learning who share the Museum.
This group of men not only hold
property in common, but also have a
priest in charge of the Museum, who
formerly was appointed by the kings,
but is now appointed by Caesar."9
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p38.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p38.
3. ^ "Strabo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo
4. ^ "Strabo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo ,
p38.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p38.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p38.
8. ^
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Ro
man/Texts/Strabo/17A1*.html
9. ^ "Strabo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo
10. ^ "Strabo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo
(=63/64BCE-c24CE) (63BCE-19CE?)
11. ^ "Lucretius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius
(=63/64BCE-c24CE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Exedra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exedra
Amasya, Pontus {on the coast of
Turkey} 
[1] The Greek geographer Strabo in a
16th century engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Strabo.jpg
2,031 YBN
[09/02/31 BC] 2 		967)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Battle of actium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_a
ctium
2. ^ "Battle of actium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_a
ctium
Actium, Greece 
[1] The Battle of Actium, 2 September
31 BC, by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted
1672. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castro%2C_Battle_of_Actium.jpg
2,030 YBN
[08/01/30 BC] 3 		960)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "30 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_BC
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p156.
3. ^ "30 BC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_BC
  
2,030 YBN
[08/01/30 BC] 3 		963)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tryphon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryphon
2. ^ "Tryphon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryphon
3. ^ "Tryphon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryphon
(+30)

MORE INFO
[1] Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
  
2,030 YBN
[30 BC] 19 20 		3060) The chief teacher of Varro is L.
Aelius Stilo, the first systematic
student, critic and teacher of Latin
(language2 ) and literature, and of the
antiquities of Rome and Italy. Varro
also studies at Athens, especially
under the philosopher Antiochus of
Ascalon, whose aim it is to lead back
the Academic school from the scepticism
of Arcesilaus and Carneades to the
tenets of the early Platonists, as he
understands them.3

In 59 Varro wrote a political pamphlet
entitled "Trikaranos" ("The
Three-Headed") on the coalition of
Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Crassus.4

Varro serves under Pompey in the civil
war. When he returns to Rome after the
Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE, Caesar,
the victor, pardons Varro and
commissions Varro to establish a public
library of Greek and Latin literature.5
 Varro then dedicates the second part
of his "Antiquitates rerum humanarum et
divinarum" ("Antiquities of Human and
Divine Things") to Julius Caesar.6
After Julius Caesar is murdered in 44
BCE, under the second triumvirate, Mark
Antony puts Varro's name on the list of
those considered to be enemies of the
state. Although his books are burned7 ,
his villa plundered, and his library
destroyed, Varro escapes death through
the intervention of Octavian (later
Augustus). Thereafter, Varro spends his
remaining years in seclusion, reading
and writing.8

Varro's distinct literary works are
numbered at 74 and the number of
separate "books" at about 620.9

Varro writes on a wide variety of
subjects, including law, astronomy,
geography, education, and literary
history, as well as satires, poems,
orations, and letters. The only
complete work to survive is the "Res
rustica" ("Farm Topics"), which
contains instruction for plant and
animal farming.10

Varro dedicates his "De lingua Latina"
("On the Latin Language") to Cicero.
This work contains 25 books, of which
only parts of books v to x are known,
in addition to other fragments.11

Of Varro's "Saturae Menippeae", 90 of
the 150 books and nearly 600 fragments
still exist. These satires are humorous
medleys in mixed prose and verse in the
manner of the 200s BCE cynic
philosopher Menippus of Gadara.12
According to biography, these writings
try to make serious logical discussion
palatable to the uneducated reader by
blending it with humorous treatment of
contemporary society. Two themes run
through the satires. One is the
absurdity of much of Greek philosophy;
the other, the contemporary
preoccupation with material luxury, in
contrast to the old days, when the
Romans were thrifty and self-denying.13


Varro wrote "Portraits" which contains
brief biographical essays on some 700
famous Greeks and Romans, with
likenesses of each.14

Of the 25 books of De lingua Latina,
books 5-10 survive, although even they
are incomplete. After an introduction
(book 1), the work is divided into
etymology (history of language) (2-7),
inflection (8-13), and syntax
(14-25).15

Cicero's praises Varro writing "When we
were foreigners and wanderers -
strangers, as it were, in our own land
- your books led us home and made it
possible for us at length to learn who
we were as Romans and where we
lived.".16

Varro creates a chronology, although
the chronology of Livy is viewed as
more accurate. The Romans call their
years after the two supreme
magistrates, the consuls. With a list
of magistrates, all past events can be
dated.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcus_T
erentius_Varro
4. ^ "Varro, Marcus Terentius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4866>.
5. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcus-tere
ntius-varro
6. ^ "Varro, Marcus Terentius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4866>.
7. ^ "Varro, Marcus Terentius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4866>.
8. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcus-tere
ntius-varro
9. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcus_T
erentius_Varro
10. ^ "Varro, Marcus Terentius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4866>.
11. ^ "Varro, Marcus Terentius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4866>.
12. ^ "Varro, Marcus Terentius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4866>.
13. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcus-tere
ntius-varro
14. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcus-tere
ntius-varro
15. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcus-tere
ntius-varro
16. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcus-tere
ntius-varro
17. ^
http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronology/v
arro.html
18. ^ "Varro, Marcus Terentius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4866>.
19. ^ Ted Huntington (30BCE (guess
based on most works from later in life)
20. ^
"Fracastoro, Girolamo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>. (1st century BCE)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Varr
o
[2]
http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Marcus+T
erentius+Varro
Rome, Italy18  
[1] Marcus Varro PD/Corel
source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcr
op/history/lecture19/fig_19-03.jpg
2,027 YBN
[01/06/27 BC] 8 		1524)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Augustus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9389/Augustus
2. ^ "Roman Empire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empir
e
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Roman Empire".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empir
e
6. ^ "History of democracy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy
7. ^ "Roman Empire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empir
e
8. ^ "Roman Empire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empir
e (01/06/27bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "45 BC". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45_BC
[2] "Augustus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus
Rome, Italy7  
[1] Bust of Emperor Augustus. An old,
beginning of the 20th century photo
plate. Digitally cleaned up (both the
photo and the and slightly colored. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aug11_01.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Caesar
Augustus. Marble, head: ca. 30-20 BC,
body: middle of the 2nd century
CE. Dimensions H. 1.96 m (6 ft. 5
in.) Credit line Borghese Collection;
purchase, 1807 Accession number Ma
1278 (MR 99) Location Department of
Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities,
Denon wing, ground floor, room
23 Photographer/source English
Wikipedia, original upload 4 June 2004
by ChrisO under same filename PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caesar_augustus.jpg
2,027 YBN
[27 BC] 4 		1065)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pantheon, Rome". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheon%2C
_Rome
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Pantheon, Rome". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheon%2C
_Rome
4. ^ "Pantheon, Rome". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheon%2C
_Rome
Rome 
[1] An image of Pantheon in Rome,
Italy. Image taken by Martin Olsson
(mnemo on wikipedia and commons,
martin@minimum.se), 2nd of May 2005.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantheon_rome_2005may.jpg
2,019 YBN
[19 BC] 3 		1067)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
Pont Du Gard, France 
[1] Pont du Gard, France, a Roman
aqueduct built circa 19 BC. It is one
of France's top tourist attractions and
a World Heritage Site. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pont_du_gard.jpg
2,010 YBN
[08/01/10 BC] 3 		964)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
2. ^
http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/
0012.html
3. ^ "Tryphon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryphon
(+50)
  
2,010 YBN
[08/01/10 BC] 3 		965)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
2. ^
http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/
3414.html
3. ^
http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/
3414.html (guess based on)
  
2,008 YBN
[8 BC] 8 		1071)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
2. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
3. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
4. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
5. ^ "Gansu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu
6. ^ "Gansu". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu
7. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
8. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm (=8BCE)
Dunhuang4 , Jiuquan5 , Gansu province6
, China7  		 
2,000 YBN
[1960/0 AD] 10 		5737)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated
Flying Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
2. ^ "computed tomography (CT)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 29 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/130695/computed-tomography>.
3. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated Flying
Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
4. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated Flying
Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated Flying
Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
10. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated
Flying Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
{08/30/1960}
(University of California Medical
Center) Los Angeles, California, USA9
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Oldendorf, W. H.,
''Isolated Flying Spot Detection of
Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object'', Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
{Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838


[2] William Henry Oldendorf, MD., 1925
- 1992 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.catscanman.net/blog/w
p-content/uploads/oldendorf.jpg
FUTURE
2,000 YBN
[0 AD] 		6298) Artificial muscle wing flapping
plane.
 
[1] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,991 YBN
[9 AD] 4 		1055)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^
http://www.archaeometry.gr/oldv/symposiu
m2003/pages_en/abstracts/papers/metals/m
etal4.htm
3. ^
http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:B3yYT
R2UH14J:www.ymparisto.fi/download.asp%3F
contentid%3D10722%26lan%3Dfi+%22stack+ca
sting%22+chinese&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=
14
4. ^
http://www.archaeometry.gr/oldv/symposiu
m2003/pages_en/abstracts/papers/metals/m
etal4.htm (based on)
  
1,980 YBN
[08/01/20 AD] 2 		966)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p85.
2. ^ "Tiberius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius
(guess based on)

MORE INFO
[1] "Aristonicus of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristonicus
_of_Alexandria
  
1,980 YBN
[20 AD] 13 14 		912) This Celsus is different from the
Celsus of the 2nd Century CE who will
write "The True Word", a book critical
of Christianity.2

His only extant work, the De Medicina,
is the only surviving section of a much
larger encyclopedia, and is a primary
source on diet, pharmacy and surgery
and related fields. The lost portions
of his encyclopedia likely included
volumes on agriculture, law, rhetoric,
and military arts. Celsus' De Medicina
is one of the best sources on
Alexandrian medical knowledge.3

In "Of Medicine", Celsus describes the
preparation of numerous ancient
medicinal remedies including the
preparation of opioids. In addition, he
describes many 1st century Roman
surgical procedures which include
treatment for bladder stones,
tonsillectormy, and the setting of
fractures.4

Celsus is the first to discuss heart
attacks. Celsus writes on dentistry and
describes the use of a dental mirror.
He describes a "cataract", a condition
where the lens of the eye grows opaque,
in addition to a procedure for removing
the clouding5 6 . Asimov claims that
Celsus is the first to write about
insanity7 (although I think there must
be somebody before this8 ), which is an
abstract label and is the source of
many human rights abuse and much
pseudoscience.9
Celsus probably copied
much of his writings from the writings
of Hippocrates.10

Celsus expresses his (in my view,
mistaken) belief in the ethicalness of
experimentation on humans, writing in
"De Medicina": "It is not cruel to
inflict on a few criminals sufferings
which may benefit multitudes of
innocent people through all
centuries."11

Celsus' work was rediscovered by Pope
Nicholas V and published in 1478. His
work became famous for its elegant
Latin style.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p38.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Aulus
Cornelius Celsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Corne
lius_Celsus
4. ^ "Aulus Cornelius Celsus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Corne
lius_Celsus
5. ^ "Aulus Cornelius Celsus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Corne
lius_Celsus
6. ^ "Cataract". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataract
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p38.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p38.
11. ^ "Aulus
Cornelius Celsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008, De Medicina, Prooem.
26.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Corne
lius_Celsus
12. ^ "Aulus Cornelius Celsus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Corne
lius_Celsus
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c10bce-?+30)
14. ^ "Aulus
Cornelius Celsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Corne
lius_Celsus (=25bce-50ce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gallia Narbonensis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Narb
onensis
Gallia Narbonensis, southern France12
 
[1] Celsus, Aulus Cornelius Medicinae
libri octo ... praefixa de Celsi vita
dissertatione : concinnavit ...
Eduardus Milligan. Edinburg : veneunt
apud Maclachlan et Stewart, 1826.
Despite the advent of Linnaean
classification Celsus was still being
retranslated and consulted in the
nineteenth century. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/medicine/CelsusMedicinae18
26tp.jpg
1,980 YBN
[20 AD] 16 		1390) Some people question the actual
existence of a person named Jesus,
explaining the similarities with
stories of past martyrs born on
December 25 and executed such as
Mithra.13
The earliest images of Jesus
show Jesus without a beard.14
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Jesus Christ". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6456/Jesus-Christ
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ The Lost Gospel, Burton
L. Mack, 1993
4. ^ Who Wrote The New
Testament?, Burton L. Mack, 1995
5. ^ The
Lost Gospel, Burton L. Mack, 1993,
p115.
6. ^ Who Wrote The New Testament?,
Burton L. Mack, 1995, p40.
7. ^ The Lost
Gospel, Burton L. Mack, 1993, ,259.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Ted
Huntington
13. ^ Zeitgeist the movie
http://video.google.com/url?docid=928518
742089256264
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Who Wrote The New
Testament?, Burton L. Mack, 1995
16. ^
"Jesus Christ". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6456/Jesus-Christ

MORE INFO
[1] "Jesus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus
[2] "Calvary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvary
Galilee15  
[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg

[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/
1,965 YBN
[35 AD] 2 		1049)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Silk Road". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road
2. ^ "Silk Road". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road
(estimate based on Seneca+40)
  
1,960 YBN
[40 AD] 3 		944)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971), p258.
2. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971), p258.
3. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden
age of Alexandria: from its foundation
by Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
  
1,959 YBN
[41 AD] 2 		968)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990). cites (Suetonius, Life of
Claudius, 42)
2. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990). cites
(Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 42)
  
1,957 YBN
[43 AD] 8 9 		1076)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p39.
2. ^ "Pomponius
Mela". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomponius_M
ela
3. ^ "Pomponius Mela". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomponius_M
ela
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p39.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p39.
6. ^ "Pomponius
Mela". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomponius_M
ela
7. ^ "Pomponius Mela". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomponius_M
ela
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=5BCE-?) (=5BCE-?)
9. ^
"Pomponius Mela". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomponius_M
ela (=wrote around 43)
Tingentera, Southern Spain  
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 2 		1068)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (based on) (based on)
China  
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 29 30 		1078) Steam engine.20 21
Heron of
Alexandria (Greek: Ήρων ο
Αλεξανδρεύς22 ) (CE
c10-c70), a Greek engineer in
Alexandria, makes the first recorded
steam engine.23 24

Heron invents an aeopile, which is a
hollow metal sphere that rotates from
the power of steam jets that escape
through open tubes on each side of the
sphere.25 26

The potential of the steam engine will
not be understood until the late
1600s.27

Heron describes the lever, pulley,
wheel, inclined plane, screw, and
wedge. Understands and uses syphons,
syringes and gears. Hero uses gears to
change the wheel rotations of a chariot
to the rotations of a pointer that
indicate the number of wheel rotations,
which is the first odometer (meter that
indicates distance traveled). Hero
writes a book on air, which shows that
air is a substance and will not enter a
container already filled with air,
unless air is allowed to escape and be
replaced. Hero also reasons that
because air can be compressed, air must
be made of particles separated by
space.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
4. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
6. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
8. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
9. ^ "Ήρων". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%89%CF%8
1%CF%89%CE%BD
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
11. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
13. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
14. ^ "Ήρων". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%89%CF%8
1%CF%89%CE%BD
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
16. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
17. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p40.
21. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
22. ^ "Ήρων". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%89%CF%8
1%CF%89%CE%BD
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
24. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
25. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
26. ^ Ted Huntington
27. ^ "Steam engine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engin
e
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
29. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(=c20-?)
30. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria (=c.10-c.70(+40)

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG

[2] Heron's formula can also be
written this way. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her
on%27s_formula
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 2 		1097)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990), Suetonius, Life of
Claudius, p42.
2. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990). (estimate
based on Claudius (41-54 CE))
Alexandria, Egypt  
1,948 YBN
[52 AD] 3 4 		1079)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (23 CE - August 24,
79 CE), p40.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (23 CE - August 24,
79 CE), p40.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (23 CE - August 24,
79 CE)
4. ^ (23-79) unknown source
Novum Comun, Italy  
1,938 YBN
[62 AD] 3 		945)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
2. ^ John Marlowe,
"The golden age of Alexandria: from its
foundation by Alexander the Great in
331 BC to its capture by the Arabs in
642 AD.", (London: Gollancz, 1971),
p258.
3. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
  
1,938 YBN
[62 AD] 2 		1080) Hero of Alexandria writes about a
lunar eclipse (the shadow of the earth
on the moon) this year.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=62) (=62)
  
1,934 YBN
[66 AD] 3 		1327)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
2. ^ "Talmud#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud#Hist
ory
3. ^ "Halley's comet (66CE)'s comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet (66CE) (66CE)
Judea2   
1,930 YBN
[70 AD] 5 		1081) A year after Vespasian is made
emperor, Vespasian makes Pliny the
Elder, who is a friend of Vespasian's,
procurator in Gallia Narbonensis (the
Roman representative of part of Gaul).1
2 3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ "Pliny the
Elder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_E
lder
3. ^ "Gallia Narbonensis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Narb
onensis
4. ^ "Procurator". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procurator
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Gaul 
[1] Map of Gallia (58 BC) with
important Tribes, Towns, Rivers etc.
labeled Karte von Gallien (58 v. Chr.)
mit wichtigen gallischen Stämmen,
Städten etc. Created 15th January
2005 by Feitscherg. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Map_Gallia_Tribes_Towns.png
1,927 YBN
[73 AD] 4 		1082) Pliny is made procurator of
Hispania Tarraconensis (Governor of a
part of Spain).1 2 During his stay in
Spain he became familiar with the
agriculture and the mines of the
country, in addition to visiting Africa
(vii.37)3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ "Pliny the
Elder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_E
lder
3. ^ "Pliny the Elder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_E
lder
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Spain  
1,925 YBN
[75 AD] 4 		1270)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
2. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p27.
3. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p29.
4. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
Sumer/Babylon3   
1,923 YBN
[77 AD] 11 		1083) Encyclopedia.6 Pliny the Elder's
"Historia naturalis" ("Natural
History").7

Pliny the Elder, ("Gaius Plinius
Cecilius Secundus") (PlinE) (CE 23-79)
completes his major work titled
"Natural History" in 37 volumes.8

"Natural History" is made from copying
text of 500 other earlier people and
contains astronomy, geology and
zoology. Pliny shows wisdom in
rejecting the idea of immortality.
In
addition to "Natural History", Pliny
writes a "History of his Times" in
thirty-one books, which has yet to be
found.9

Historia naturalis serves as a major
source for other encyclopaedias for at
least the next 1,500 years. Even today
it is still an important record for
details of Roman sculpture and
painting.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
2. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
4. ^ "encyclopedia."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2012. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
6. ^ "encyclopedia."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2012. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
9. ^ "Pliny the
Elder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_E
lder
10. ^ "encyclopaedia". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/186603/encyclopaedia/32024/Encyc
lopaedias-of-countries-and-regions>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Spain? 
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG

[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
1,921 YBN
[79 AD] 3 		1084) Pliny the Elder is killed at age
56, by poisonous gas when he goes
ashore to investigate the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ "Pliny the
Elder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_E
lder
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
near Mount Vesuvius, Italy  
1,920 YBN
[80 AD] 4 5 		1077) These descriptions are accurate
and free from superstition.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p40.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c20-?) (=c20-?)
5. ^
"Pomponius Mela". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomponius_M
ela (=c.40-c.90(+40)
Tingentera, Southern Spain 
[1] Dioscorides from www.nlm.nih.gov PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dioscorides.jpg

[2] Dioscorides: Materia Medica.
(Arabic copy) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg

1,919 YBN
[81 AD] 3 		969)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990). cites (Suetonius, Life of
Domitian, 20)
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000), p72.
3. ^
Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished Library
: A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990). cites (Suetonius, Life of
Domitian, 20)
  
1,917 YBN
[83 AD] 11 12 13 14 		766) Magnetic compass.6

The first reference to a magnetic
compass is from 83 CE, and describes a
"south-controlling spoon" which is
thrown on the ground and comes to rest
pointing to the south.7

Another early reference to a specific
magnetic direction finder device is
recorded in a Song Dynasty book dated
to 1040-44. There is a description of
an iron "south-pointing fish" floating
in a bowl of water, aligning itself to
the south. The device is recommended as
a means of orientation "in the
obscurity of the night".8

The Chinese developed both the floating
needle and pivoting needle compass. In
1187, English writer Alexander Neckam
(1157-1217) describes a "pointer
carried on board {a ship} which enables
a course to be followed even when the
Polar star is hidden by clouds.". The
"gyrocompass" is invented in 1905 in
the United States by Elmer Ambrose
Sperry (1860-1930). The gyrocompass
uses the angular momentum of a
gyroscope with the force produced by
the Earth's rotation to maintain a
north-south orientation of the spin
axis, therefore providing a stable
directional reference.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
2. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
3. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
4. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
5. ^ Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df}
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df}
8. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
9. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p24.
10. ^ Needham,
Joseph and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The
shorter Science and civilisation in
China : an abridgement of Joseph
Needham's original text, Vol. 3,
Chapter 1: "Magnetism and Electricity",
Cambridge University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
11. ^ Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} {83 CE}
12. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p24. {83 CE}
13. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5 {1040-1044}
14. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {600 BC}
China10 (more specific) 
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df}

[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
1,903 YBN
[97 AD] 6 7 		1085) A valuable edition of the De
aquis (text and translation) has been
published by C. Herschel (Boston,
Mass., 1899). It contains numerous
illustrations; maps of the routes of
the ancient aqueducts and the city of
Rome in the time of Frontinus; a
photographic reproduction of the only
manuscript (the Monscassinensis);
several explanatory chapters, and a
concise bibliography, in which special
reference is made to P. de Tissot,
Etude sur Ia condition des agrimensores
(1879). There is a complete edition of
the works by A. Dederich (1855), and an
English translation of the Strategemata
by R. Scott (1816); more recent
editions include that of both the
Aqueducts and the Strategemata in the
Loeb Classical Library (1925).5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p41.
2. ^ "Frontinus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontinus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p41.
4. ^ "Frontinus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontinus
5. ^ "Frontinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontinus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=30-104/97)
(=30-104/97)
7. ^ "Frontinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontinus
(=c20-103/95)
Rome, Italy  
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 8 9 		5861)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
2. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
3. ^ Claude V. Palisca, "Norton
Anthology of Western Music", fourth
edition, 2001, p1.
4. ^ "Seikilos epitaph".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
5. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
6. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1-7.
7. ^
"Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
8. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1-7.
{100CE}
9. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph {200 BCE- 100 CE (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BWyXPpf7V
jo
[2] MP3 recording of the Seikilos
song. http://www.biblicallanguagecenter
.com/assets/audio/SEIKILOU_WDH_2006.mp3
(now Aidin, Turkey)7 (verify) 
[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg

[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 3 		5872)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p8.
2. ^
http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/i
mage/mosaic-0
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p8.
{100}
(Villa of Cicero) Pompeii, Italy2
 
[1] Caption: Street Musicians.
Imperial Roman First Style mosaic,
“Street Musicians” by Dioskourides
of Samos from the Villa of Cicero,
Pompeii. Man with cymbals, woman with
double-flute, child, and man with
tambourine. Artist’s signature at top
left. H 43 cm. W 41 cm. Naples, Museo
Nazionale. weight: 8 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moor
e/sites/laits.utexas.edu.moore/files/ima
ges/0002030207_1024.preview.jpg
1,895 YBN
[105 AD] 10 11 		1086) Tsai Lun (TSI lUN) (c.50 CE
Kueiyang, Kweichow - c.118 CE) is
thought by many to have invented paper
from matter like tree bark, hemp, silk
and fishing net,4 but artifacts of
paper have been found that date to
before Lun by more than 100 years.5 6

Tsai Lun is a eunuch person, usually a
male that is castrated (testicles are
removed) viewed as a safer (less
aggressive) servant for royal people.7
8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
2. ^ "Paper".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
3. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
5. ^ "Paper".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
6. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
8. ^ "Tsai Lun".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsai_Lun
9. ^ "Eunuch". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=50-118/105)
(=50-118/105)
11. ^ "Tsai Lun". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsai_Lun
(=c.50-121)
Kueiyang, Kweichow?, China 
[1] Cai Lun (traditional Chinese:
蔡倫; simplified Chinese: 蔡伦;
pinyin: Cài Lún; Wade-Giles: Ts'ai
Lun) (ca. AD 50-121), courtesy name
Jingzhong (敬仲), was a Chinese
eunuch, who is conventionally regarded
as the inventor of paper, in forms
recognizable in modern times as paper
(as opposed to Egyptian papyrus). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cai_Lun.jpg
1,880 YBN
[01/01/120 AD] 		1040)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Philostratus and Eunapius,
translation by Wilmer Cave Wright,
"Philostratus and Eunapius",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1961), p95.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted
Huntington
  
1,878 YBN
[122 AD] 5 		1103) Hadrian's Wall is constructed1
in Britain. Hadrian's Wall (Latin:
Vallum Hadriani) is a stone and turf
fortification built by the Roman
Emperor Hadrian (CE 76-138) across the
width of Great Britain to prevent
military raids by the tribes of
Scotland to the north, to improve
economic stability and provide peaceful
conditions in the Roman province of
Britannia to the south, to define the
frontier of the Empire physically, and
to separate the unruly Selgovae tribe
in the north from the Brigantes in the
south and discourage them from
uniting.2

The wall is sometimes thought to serve
as a border between Scotland and
England, however for most of its length
the wall follows a line well south of
the modern border, and neither the
Scoti tribe nor the English lived in
Britain at the time of the wall's
construction.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Hadrian's wall's wall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian%27s
_wall
3. ^ "Hadrian's wall's wall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian%27s
_wall
4. ^ "Hadrian's wall's wall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian%27s
_wall
5. ^ "Hadrian's wall's wall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian%27s
_wall
Britain4  
[1] Hadrian's wall just east of
Greenhead Lough - October
2005 Location: Hadrian's wall,
Northumberland PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hadrian%27s_wall_at_Greenhead_Lough.j
pg
1,870 YBN
[130 AD] 8 		970) Earth-centered universe of
Ptolomy.4

Ptolomy's "Almagest" describes an
Earth-centered universe.5

Claudius Ptolemaeus (Klaudios
Ptolemaios) (Greek: Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαῖος) (CE c100-c170)
writes a 13-volume "The Great
Treatise", later named "Almagest",
systematizes Alexandrian knowledge of
astronomy and catalogs a thousand
stars. Ptolemy creates a mathematical
system of epicycles to explain the
apparent motions of the stars and
planets based on the incorrect
earth-centered theory. This view
dominates Europe until the 1500s.6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
3. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
4. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
5. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
6. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42-432.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p42-432.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ptolemy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
(+30)
(some traditions place at) Alexandria7
 
[1] Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy
being guided by the muse Astronomy,
from Margarita Philosophica by Gregor
Reisch, 1508. Although Abu Ma'shar
believed Ptolemy to be one of the
Ptolemies who ruled Egypt after the
conquest of Alexander the title ‘King
Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a
mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated
standing in science. Summary An
early Baroque artist's rendition of
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek:
Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος
Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c.
168), known in English as Ptolemy , was
a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy was
the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by en:User:Tuckerresearch. It
is under public domain because it comes
from an old manuscript. PD
source: http://www.astronomie.de/typo3te
mp/pics/fa4e97de5a.jpg

[2] surviving works; only a few brief
and unsupported biographical statements
are made by much later sources.
'Claudius' suggests he held Roman
citizenship, 'Ptolemy' that he was of
Greek descent and lived in Egypt. The
astronomical observations that he
listed as having himself made cover the
period 127-141 AD, from which it may be
inferred that he was active in the
first and into the second half of the
second century AD, and all of those
observations are listed as made in
Alexandria, so it is likely that he
lived in or near that city, still a
great centre of learning at that time.
In the Middle Ages, before the twelfth
century, when his work was being
discovered and studied in detail by
Islamic scholars, little more than his
name was remembered in the Latin West;
as early as the Encyclopedia of Isidore
of Description English: Sixteenth
century engraving of Claudius Ptolemy
(AD c100-170) being guided by the muse
Astronomy - Margarita Philosophica by
Gregor Reisch, published in
1508. Date 28 June
2011 Source magazine Author Traditiona
L aSTROLOGER PD
source: http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/
ptolemylrg.jpg
1,851 YBN
[149 AD] 6 7 		1088) Galen was born in Pergamum
(modern-day Bergama, Turkey), the son
of Nicon, a wealthy architect. His
interests were diverse - agriculture,
architecture, astronomy, astrology,
philosophy - until he finally focuses
on medicine.4

By the age of twenty he had become a
therapeutes ("attendant" or
"associate") of the god Asclepius in
the local temple for four years. It is
after his father's death in 148 or 149,
that he goes abroad to study in Smyrna,
Corinth and Alexandria.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Î"αληνός".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B
1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^
"Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
5. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=159) (=159)
7. ^ "Galen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
(=157)
Pergamum, Turkey 
[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg
1,850 YBN
[12/27/150 AD] 7 		1109) Hegesippus (c.110 - c.180), is a
Christian chronicler of the early
Church who writes against heresies.1

His works are lost, save some passages
quoted by Eusebius, who tells us that
he wrote Hypomnemata (Memoirs) in five
books, in the simplest style concerning
the tradition of the Apostolic
preaching. Hegesippus was also known to
Jerome. His work was written to refute
the new heresies of the Gnostics and of
Marcion. He appealed principally to
tradition as embodied in the teaching
which had been handed down through the
succession of bishops, thus providing
much information about the earliest
bishops that otherwise would have been
lost.2

Eusebius says that Hegesippus was a
convert from Judaism, for he quoted
from the Hebrew, was acquainted with
the Gospel of the Hebrews and with a
Syriac Gospel, and he also cited
unwritten traditions of the Jews. He
seems to have lived in some part of the
East, possibly Palestine, in the time
of Pope Anicetus (155-166 A.D.) he
travelled to Corinth and Rome,
collecting on the spot the teachings of
the various churches which he visited,
and ascertaining their uniformity with
Rome, according to this excerpt:
"And the
Church of the Corinthians remained in
the true word until Primus was bishop
in Corinth; I made their acquaintance
in my journey to Rome, and remained
with the Corinthians many days, in
which we were refreshed with the true
word. And when I was in Rome, I made a
succession up to Anicetus, whose deacon
was Eleuterus. And in each succession
and in each city all is according to
the ordinances of the law and the
Prophets and the Lord" (quoted in
Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. IV, 22).3

With great ingenuity J.B. Lightfoot, in
Clement of Rome (London, 1890), has
found traces of this list of popes in
Epiphanius of Cyprus, Haer., xxvii, 6,
which extends from St Peter to Anicetus
in the poem of Pseudo-Tertullian
against Marcion. 4

Eusebius quotes from Hegesippus a long
and perhaps legendary account of the
death of James the Just, "the brother
of the Lord", also the story of the
election of his successor Simeon, and
the summoning of the descendants of
Jude to Rome by Domitian. A list of
heresies against which Hegesippus wrote
is also cited. Dr. Lawlor has argued
(Hermathena, XI, 26, 1900, p. 10) that
all these passages cited by Eusebius
were connected in the original, and
were in the fifth book of Hegesippus.
He has also argued (Journal of
Theological Studies, April, 1907, VIII,
436) the likelihood that Eusebius got
from Hegesippus the statement that John
was exiled to Patmos by Domitian.
Hegesippus mentioned the letter of
Clement to the Corinthians, apparently
in connection with the persecution of
Domitian. It is very likely that the
dating of heretics according to papal
reigns in Irenaeus and Epiphanius --
e.g., that Marcion of Sinope's disciple
Cerdon and Valentinus came to Rome
under Anicetus -- was derived from
Hegesippus, and the same may be true of
the assertion that Hermas, author of
The Shepherd of Hermas, was the brother
of Pope Pius (as the Liberian
Catalogue, the poem against Marcion,
and the Muratorian fragment all
state).5

The Church History of Hegesippus
appears in an inventory of books in the
Abbey of Corbie; the inventory is of
uncertain date, often called 12th
century. Zahn has shown that the work
of Hegesippus was still extant in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in
three Eastern libraries.6 (Zeitschrift
für Kirchengeschichte, II (1877-8),
288, and in Theologisches
Litteraturblatt (1893), 495)

The Catholic Encyclopedia writes: "We
must lament the loss of other portions
of the Memoirs which were known to
exist in the seventeenth century."{1
Cath. Encyc. 1908 edition}

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hegesippus (chronicler)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_
%28chronicler%29
2. ^ "Hegesippus (chronicler)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_
%28chronicler%29
3. ^ "Hegesippus (chronicler)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_
%28chronicler%29
4. ^ "Hegesippus (chronicler)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_
%28chronicler%29
5. ^ "Hegesippus (chronicler)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_
%28chronicler%29
6. ^ "Hegesippus (chronicler)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_
%28chronicler%29
7. ^ "Hegesippus (chronicler)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_
%28chronicler%29
  
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 2 		972)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p91.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(=middle 2nd century)

MORE INFO
[1] "Letter of Aristeas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_A
risteas
  
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 2 		973)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p101.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(=2nd century)
  
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 38 39 40 41 		1087)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
3. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5845/Almagest
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
5. ^ "Ptolemy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
6. ^ "Almagest". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5845/Almagest
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
8. ^ "Ptolemy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
9. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
10. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
11. ^ "Almagest". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5845/Almagest
12. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p42.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p42.
17. ^ "Ptolemy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p42.
20. ^
"Ptolemais". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemais
21. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
22. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
23. ^ "Gazetteer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer
24. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
25. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
26. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
27. ^ "Aristoxenus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoxenus

28. ^ "Tetrachord". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachord
29. ^ "Monochord". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochord
30. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
31. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
32. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
33. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
34. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
35. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
36. ^ "Praenomen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praenomen
37. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
38. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, 1986,
Berman, Evansc150) (almagest=)c150)
39. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5845/Almagest (almagest=c150)
(almagest=)c150)
40. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=75-?)
41. ^ "Ptolemy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
(c90-c168)
Alexandria, Egypt  
1,843 YBN
[157 AD] 3 4 		1090)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Î"αληνός".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B
1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82
2. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=159) (=159)
4. ^ "Galen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
(=157)
Pergamum, Turkey 
[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg
1,838 YBN
[162 AD] 33 		971) Galen is the first person to use a
pulse in solving a problem.4
Galen also
argues that the mind is in the brain,
not in the heart as Aristotle claimed.5

Galen does not recognize blood
circulation and wrongly thinks that
venous and arterial systems are
separate.6 Galen recpgnizes that blood
must get from one half of the heart to
the other half, and theorizes that
there are tiny holes too small to see
in the thick muscular wall separating
the two halves.7 This view will not
change until, 1500 years later, with
William Harvey's work in the 17th
century. Since most of his knowledge of
anatomy is based on dissection of pigs,
dogs, and Barbary apes, he also
presumes wrongly that "rete mirabile",
a blood vessel plexus of ungulates
(hooved animal and whales8 9 ), also
existed in the human body. He also
resists the idea of tourniquets to stop
bleeding and tragically vigorously
spreads the inaccurate opinion of blood
letting as a treatment.10

Galen's authority will dominate health
science all the way to the 16th
century. With the rise of Christianity,
people will not experiment and studies
of physiology and anatomy will stop.
Blood letting becomes a standard
medical procedure. Vesalius
(1514-1564), more than 1300 years
later, will present the first serious
challenge to the dominance of Galen's
views.11


Galen is attracted to Alexandria
because of the reputation of the health
profession there. Galen will be the
last great physician of this time.
Galen writes numerous works.12
Interestingly, those who practice
healing through science and the temple
priests who practice the pseudoscience
of religious healing both coexist
together in the Serapeum.13
Galen will
be court physician under emperor Marcus
Aurelius for some time.14

According to Isaac Asimov, Galen's best
work is in anatomy. Dissection of
humans is viewed as bad in Rome and
Galen could only dissect other species,
including dogs, goats, pigs, and
monkeys. Galen is describes anatomy in
meticulous detail. Galen writes that
muscles work in groups. Galen cuts the
spinal cord of many species at various
levels and writes on the resulting
paralysis (loss of movement of the body
part). Galen uses the three fluid
theory of Erasistratus.15

Galen regards wounds as "windows into
the body".16 Galen performed many
audacious operations that were not
again used for almost two millennia,
including brain and eye surgery. To
perform cataract surgery, Galen would
insert a long needle-like instrument
into the eye behind the lens. He would
then pull it back slightly and remove
the cataract. The slightest slip could
cause permanent blindness. Galen had
set the standard for modern medicine in
many different ways.17

In Rome, Galen writes extensively,
lectures and publicly demonstrates his
knowledge of anatomy. Galen gains a
reputation as an experienced physician
and his practice had a widespread
clientèle. One of them is the consul
Flavius Boethius who introduces him to
the Imperial court where Galen becomes
a court physician to Emperor Marcus
Aurelius. Later he will also treat
Lucius Verus, Commodus and Septimius
Severus. Reputedly, he speaks mostly
Greek, which in the field of medicine
is a more highly respected language
than Latin at the time.18

Galen spends the rest of his life in
the Imperial court, writing and
experimenting. He performs vivisections
of numerous animals to study the
function of the kidneys and the spinal
cord.19

Galen transmitted Hippocratic medicine
all the way to the Renaissance. His "On
the Elements According to Hippocrates"
describes the philosopher's inaccurate
system of four bodily humours, blood,
yellow bile, black bile and phlegm,
which were mystically identified with
the four classical elements, and in
turn with the seasons. He created his
own theories from those principles, and
much of Galen's work can be seen as
building on the Hippocratic theories of
the body, rather than being new. Galen
mainly ignores the Latin writings of
Celsus, but accepts the ancient works
of Asclepiades.20

Amongst Galen's own major works is a
seventeen-volume "On the Usefulness of
the Parts of the Human Body". Like
Pliny, Galen wrongly thinks that
everything in the universe is made by a
God for some purpose.21 He also writes
about philosophy and philology (the
study of words and language22 ), as
well as extensively writing on anatomy.
His collected works total twenty-two
volumes, and he writes a line a day for
most of his life.23

Galen's own theories, in accord with
Plato's, emphasizes purposeful creation
by a single Creator (24 "Nature", in
Greek "phusis") - a major reason why
later Christian and Muslim scholars
will be able to accept his views25 and
will preserve his writings26 . His
fundamental principle of life was
pneuma (air, or breath) that later
writers will connect with the erronius
ancient idea of a "soul". These
writings on philosophy are a product of
Galen's well rounded education, and
throughout his life Galen is keen to
emphasise the philosophical element to
medicine. Galen maintained the
inaccurate opinions that "Pneuma
physicon" (animal spirit) in the brain
is responsible for movement,
perception, and senses, that "Pneuma
zoticon" (vital spirit) in the heart
controls blood and body temperature,
and that "Natural spirit" in the liver
handled nutrition and metabolism.
However, he correctly rejects the
Pneumatic theory that air passes
through the veins rather than blood.27


Galen expands his knowledge partly by
experimenting with live animals (in a
way that is clearly painful to the
animal and which I vote against,
although science was advanced by such
experimentation). One of his methods is
to publicly dissect a living pig,
cutting its nerve bundles one at a
time. Eventually he cuts a laryngeal
nerve (now also known as Galen's Nerve)
and the pig stops squealing. He also
ties the ureters of living animals,
swelling the kidneys28 , therefore
showing that urine comes from the
kidneys, and severes spinal cords to
demonstrate paralysis. In addition to
working with pigs, Galen also
experiments with barbary apes and
goats, but emphasizes that he practises
on pigs due to the fact that, in some
respects, they are anatomically similar
to humans. Public dissections are also
a highly valuable way of disputing and
disproving the biological theories of
others, and are one of the main methods
of academic medical learning in Rome.
It is quite common for large numbers of
medical students to attend these public
gatherings, which will sometimes turn
into debates where learning is
increased.29

Galen's books will be the standard book
of healing through science until
Vesalius.30
It is very possible that
Galen excelled in part from use of the
Pergamum public library, a library
second only to that of
Alexandria.{check in Galen writings}31

Galen, through his works, will transmit
the Greek knowledge of healing into the
future.32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
2. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p43.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p43.
5. ^ "Galen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
6. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p43.
8. ^ "Ungulates".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungulates
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
11. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
12. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008, p122.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
13. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p124.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p43.
16. ^ "Galen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
17. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
18. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
19. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
20. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
22. ^ "Philology".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology
23. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
24. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
26. ^ "Galen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
27. ^
http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/int
ernet/library/historical/artifacts/antiq
ua/galen.cfm
28. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
30. ^
http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/int
ernet/library/historical/artifacts/antiq
ua/galen.cfm
31. ^
http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/int
ernet/library/historical/artifacts/antiq
ua/galen.cfm
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.

 
[1] Galen of Pergamon. Vasiliadis et
al. Scoliosis 2009 4:6
doi:10.1186/1748-7161-4-6 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scoliosisjournal.com/
content/figures/1748-7161-4-6-11-l.jpg

[2] Description English: Claude
Galien. Lithograph by Pierre Roche
Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et
Deneux, ca.
1865). Date Source http://www.nlm.nih
.gov/hmd/greek/popup/images/galen_detail
.jpg Author NLM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Galen_detail.jpg
1,838 YBN
[162 AD] 3 4 		1089) Galen (Greek:
Γαληνό`
2;1 ) (c.130 CE Pergamum {now Bergama,
Turkey} - c.200 CE probably Sicily),
moves to Rome.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Î"αληνός".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B
1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82
2. ^ "Galen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=164) (=164)
4. ^ "Galen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
(=162)
Pergamum, Turkey 
[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg
1,827 YBN
[03/31/173 AD] 2 		974)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990). cites: (Papyrus Merton,
19)
2. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990). cites: (Papyrus Merton,
19)
  
1,823 YBN
[177 AD] 11 12 		1030) According to Origen, Celsus was
the author of an anti-Christian work
titled The True Word. This work is
lost, but we have Origen's account of
it in his writings.3 4

Celsus, as a Platonist philosopher,
argues for monotheism against what he
sees as the Christians' dualism (of
Deity and Devil) writing "If one
accepts that all of nature, and
everything in the universe, operates
according to the will of God, and that
nothing works contrary to his purposes,
then one must also accept that the
angels and daimones, hereos - all
things in the universe - are subject to
the will of the one God who rules over
all."5 According to Elaine Pagels,
many Pagans in this time tend toward
monotheism, however believe in a unity
of all the gods and daimones in one
divine source.6 Celsus writes that the
Christians deviate from monotheism in
their "blasphemous" belief in the
devil. Of all the "impious errors" the
Christians make, Christians show their
greatest ignorance in "making up a
being opposed to God, and calling him
'devil,' or, in the Hebrew language,
'Satan."' According to Celsus, all such
ideas are nothing but human inventions,
and that "it is blasphemy...to say that
the greatest God...has an adversary who
constrains his capacity to do good."
Celsus expresses anger that the
Christians who claim to worship one
God, "impiously divide the kingdom of
God, creating a rebellion in it, as if
there were opposing factions within the
divine, including on e that is hostile
to God!" Celsus accuses Christians of
"inventing a rebellion" in heaven to
justify rebellion here on earth.7 The
concept of a devil or "Satan"
originated in the 500s BCE in Hebrew
writings. The earliest known reference
to a Satan appears in the Hebrew Bible
in the book of Numbers and in Job as
one of God's obedient servants, a
messenger, or angel that obstructs
human activity.8



Celsus writes his only work of record
"True Discourse" (or, "True Reason")
against Christianity in approximately
178 CE. Celsus divides the work into
two sections, the first in which
objections are explained from a
fictional Jewish person and the other
in which Celsus speaks as the Pagan
philosopher that he is. Celsus
ridicules Christians because they
advocate blind faith instead of reason.
Around 60 years after it is first
published, the book written by Celsus
will inspire a rebuttle written by
Origen titled "Contra Celsum", which is
the only source for Celsus' book, who
will be later condemned along with
other critics of Christianity such as
Porphyry.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H.Chadwick, Origen:Contra Celsum,
CUP 1965. p xxviii
2. ^ "Celsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsus
3. ^ H.Chadwick, Origen:Contra Celsum,
CUP 1965. p xxviii
4. ^ "Celsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsus
5. ^ The Origin of Satan, Pagels, 1995,
p141.
6. ^ The Origin of Satan, Pagels, 1995,
p142.
7. ^ The Origin of Satan, Pagels, 1995,
p143.
8. ^ The Origin of Satan, Pagels, 1995,
p39.
9. ^ "Celsus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsus
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ H.Chadwick,
Origen:Contra Celsum, CUP 1965. p
xxviii
12. ^ The Origin of Satan, Pagels,
1995, p138.

MORE INFO
[1] The Origin of Satan, Pagels,
1995, p138. (c180CE)
  
1,820 YBN
[03/31/180 AD] 4 		975)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pantaenus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantaenus
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p167.
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p129.
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 2 		976)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Clement of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_
Alexandria
2. ^ "Pantaenus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantaenus
(based on)
  
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 2 3 		979)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p131.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(guess based on this source)
3. ^ "Gnostism".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnostism
(guess based on this source)
  
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 5 		1073) Earliest "press-on" printing.
Chinese people put ink to Buddhist text
inscribed on marble pillars and apply
damp paper to the inscriptions to make
a copy of the text onto the paper. Also
around this time, religious seals are
used to transfer pictures and texts of
prayers to paper using ink. Ink of a
good consistency for printing is
developed in the 300s or 400s, and
around the 500s use of a wood block for
printing will appear. Movable type will
not be invented until around the years
1041-48.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
5. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {By 200}

MORE INFO
[1] "Woodblock printing".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_p
rinting (704-751)
China4  
[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 4 		1093) The Coptic language is invented.
Coptic is the Egyptian language,
written with in alphabet almost
identical to the Greek alphabet, and
will be a valuable resource in
translating the Egyptian language for
later scholars because Egyptian written
with hieroglyphs, hieratic and demotic
symbols contain no vowels, but in
Coptic vowels are included.1 2 Coptic
will be the last script used for the
Egyptian language.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Coptic language". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_lang
uage
2. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p47.
3. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p47.
4. ^
"Coptic language". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_lang
uage (=late 2nd century)
Egypt 
[1] Stone with Coptic
inscription Coptic writing circa third
century. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coptic.jpg
1,798 YBN
[202 AD] 2 		1027)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
1,797 YBN
[03/07/203 AD] 2 		977)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Perpetua". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetua
2. ^ "Perpetua". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetua
  
1,797 YBN
[03/07/203 AD] 4 		978)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Origen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen
2. ^ "Book of Nepos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nep
os
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p129.
4. ^ "Origen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen
  
1,785 YBN
[215 AD] 6 		980)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p158.
2. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
3. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p158.
4. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971).
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p158.
6. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,768 YBN
[232 AD] 5 		981)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ammonius Saccas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonius_Sa
ccas
2. ^ "Ammonius Saccas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonius_Sa
ccas
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p131.
4. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).

MORE INFO
[1] "Ammonius of Alexandria
(Christian)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonius_of
_Alexandria_%28Christian%29
  
1,755 YBN
[245 AD] 6 		982)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Plotinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p132.
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Plotinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p45.
6. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,750 YBN
[250 AD] 15 16 		1091) 1/6x+1/12x+1/7x+5+x/2+4=x
.1667x+0.083x+.1429x+.5x+9=x
.8926x+9=x x=84
So he grows a beard at 21,
gets married at 33, has a son at 38 who
lives for 42 years, and dies 4 years
before Diofantos dies at age 84.14
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p44.
2. ^ "Diophantine
equation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine
_equation
3. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
4. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
5. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
6. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
7. ^ "Arithmetica". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetica

8. ^ "Quadratic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_e
quation
9. ^ "Quadratic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_e
quation
10. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
11. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
12. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
13. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
14. ^ "Diophantine equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine
_equation
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c210-c290)
(=c210-c290)
16. ^ "Diophantus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus
(=circa 200/214 - circa 284/298)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/diophantus
 
[1] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), translated from Greek into
Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de
Méziriac. This edition of the book was
published in 1621. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-cover.jpg

[2] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), with additions by Pierre de
Fermat (died in 1665). This edition of
the book was published in 1670. p. 61
contains Diophantus' problem II.VIII,
with the famous note added by Fermat
which became known as Fermat's last
theorem. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg
1,738 YBN
[262 AD] 13 14 		1031) (reduce and check is exact from
wiki4 )

Porphyry (c.232-c. 304 AD) was a
Neoplatonist philosopher. He was born
Malchus ("king") in Tyre, but his
teacher in Athens, Cassius Longinus,
gave him the name Porphyrius (clad in
purple), a punning allusion to the
color of the imperial robes. Under
Longinus he studied grammar and
rhetoric. In 262 he went to Rome,
attracted by the reputation of
Plotinus, and for six years devoted
himself to the study of Neoplatonism.
Having injured his health by overwork,
he went to live in Sicily for five
years. On his return to Rome, he
lectured on philosophy and completed an
edition of the writings of Plotinus
(who had died in the meantime) to
gether with a biogrpahy of his teacher.
Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient
Neoplatonic writings as his pupis, but
this most likely means only that he was
the dominant figure in the next
generation of philosophers. The two men
differed publicly on the issue of
theurgy. In his later years, he married
Marcella, a widow with seven children
and an enthusiastic student of
philosophy. Little more is known of his
life, and the date of his death is
uncertain.5

Porphyry is best known for his
contributions to philosophy. Apart from
writing the Aids to the Study of the
Intelligibles, a basic summary of
Neoplatonism, he is especially
appreciated for his Introduction to
Categories (Introductio in
Praedicamenta), a commentary on
Aristotle's Categories. The
Introduction describes how qualities
attributed to things may be classified,
breaking down the philosophical concept
of substance as a relationship
genus/species.6

As Porphyry's most influential
contribution to philosophy, the
Introduction to Categories incorporated
Aristotle's logic into Neoplatonism, in
particular the doctrine of the
categories interpreted in terms of
entities (in later philosophy,
"universal"). Boethius' Isagoge, a
Latin translation of the Introduction,
became a standard medieval textbook in
the schools and universities which set
the stage for medieval
philosophical-theological developments
of logic and the problem of universals.
In medieval textbooks, the
all-important Arbor porphyriana
("Porphyrian Tree") illustrates his
logical classification of substance. To
this day, taxonomists benefit from
Porphyry's Tree in classifying
everything from plants to animals to
insects to whales.7

Porphyry is also known as a violent
opponent of Christianity and defender
of Paganism; of his Adversus
Christianos (Against the Christians) in
15 books, only fragments remain. He
famously said, "The Gods have
proclaimed Christ to have been most
pious, but the Christians are a
confused and vicious sect."
Counter-treatises were written by
Eusebius of Caesarea, Apollinarius (or
Apollinaris) of Laodicea, Methodius of
Olympus, and Macarius of Magnesia, but
all these are lost. Porphyry's
identification of the Book of Daniel as
the work of a writer in the time of
Antiochus Epiphanes, is given by
Jerome. There is no proof of the
assertion of Socrates, the
ecclesiastical historian, and
Augustine, that Porphyry was once a
Christian.8

Porphyry was also opposed to the
theurgy of his disciple Iamblichus.
Much of Iamblichus' mysteries is
dedicated to the defense of mystic
theurgic divine possession against the
critiques of Porphyry.9

Porphyry was, like Pythagoras, known as
an advocate of vegetarianism on
spiritual or ethical grounds. These two
philosophers are perhaps the most
famous vegetarians of classical
antiquity. He wrote the De Abstinentia
(On Abstinence) and also a De Non
Necandis ad Epulandum Animantibus
(roughly On the Impropriety of Killing
Living Beings for Food) in support of
abstinence from animal flesh, and is
cited with approval in vegetarian
literature up to the present day.10

Porphyry also wrote widely on
astrology, religion, philosophy, and
musical theory; and produced a
biography of his teacher, Plotinus.
Another book of his on the life of
Pythagoras, named Vita Pythagorae or
Life of Pythagoras, is not to be
confused with the book of the same name
by Iamblichus.11


In "On Abstinence from Animal Food",
Porfurios advocates rights for the
other species, saying "he who forbids
men to feed on animals, and thinks it
is unjust, will also say that it is not
just to kill them, and deprive them of
life". In this work, Porfurios also
argues against sacrificing animals,
writing: "Pythagoreans themselves did
not spare animals when they sacrificed
to the gods. ... I intend to oppose
these opinions, and those of the
multitude".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hellenicreligion.gr/doc/ontol
ogia.htm
2. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
3. ^
http://www.animalrightshistory.org/porph
yry/animal-food-bk1.htm
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
6. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
7. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
8. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
9. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
10. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
11. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29
12. ^
http://www.animalrightshistory.org/porph
yry/animal-food-bk1.htm
13. ^ "Porphyry (philosopher)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_%2
8philosopher%29 (+30) (+30)
14. ^
Philostratus and Eunapius, translation
by Wilmer Cave Wright, "Philostratus
and Eunapius", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1961). (=233-301?)
(=233-301?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyre". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre
  
1,735 YBN
[265 AD] 2 		983)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p158.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,733 YBN
[267 AD] 3 		984)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Heruli". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heruli
2. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
3. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
  
1,728 YBN
[272 AD] 5 		985) After the occupation of Alexandria
by Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, Emperor
Aurelian attacks in the royal quarter
result in so much destruction that
members of the Mouseion either flee the
country or take refuge in the
Serapeum.1
Ammianus Marcellinus
records: "But Alexandria itself was
extended, not gradually, like other
cities, but at its very beginning, to
great dimensions, and for a long time
was exhausted with internal disputes,
until finally, after many years, when
Aurelian was emperor, the civic
quarrels escalated into deadly strife.
Its walls were torn down and it lost
the greater part of the area which was
called the Brucheion, and which had
long been the dwelling place of its
most distinguished men."2
Possibly
scrolls are transfered to the Serapeum,
Kaisareion or Claudianum annexes.3
Epiph
anius will write about the Brucheion a
few years after Ammianus, that where
the library had once been, "there is
now a desert" (Patrologia Graeca, 43,
252)4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p158.
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p73.
3. ^ Diana Delia, "From
Romance to Rhetoric: The Alexandrian
Library in Classical and Islamic
Traditions", The American Historical
Review, (1992).
4. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990), p195.
5. ^ Roy
MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria
Centre of Learning in the Ancient
World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd,
2000).
 
[1] Zenobia in the triumph of
Aurelius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.heritage-history.com/
books/horne/rome/zpage438.gif
1,716 YBN
[284 AD] 2 		988)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p101.
2. ^ "Diocletian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian
(guess based on)
  
1,710 YBN
[290 AD] 8 		1092)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sangraal.com/library/gsa1.htm
l
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p45.
4. ^
http://www.sangraal.com/library/gsa1.htm
l
5. ^
http://www.sangraal.com/library/gsa1.htm
l
6. ^ "Chemistry". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry
7. ^ http://world.altavista.com/tr
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c250CE-?)
(=c250CE-?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alchemy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt  
1,703 YBN
[297 AD] 3 4 		986)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p158.
2. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
3. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990). (297/298)
4. ^ Diana
Delia, "From Romance to Rhetoric: The
Alexandrian Library in Classical and
Islamic Traditions", The American
Historical Review, (1992). (295)
  
1,697 YBN
[303 AD] 1 		987)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Diocletian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian
  
1,695 YBN
[12/27/305 AD] 9 		1108) Eusebius of Caesarea (c.275 - May
30, 339) (often called Eusebius
Pamphili, "Eusebius {the friend} of
Pamphilus") was a bishop of Caesarea in
Palestine and is often referred to as
the father of church history because of
his work in recording the history of
the early Christian church. An earlier
history by Hegesippus that he referred
to has not survived.1

The two greatest historical works of
Eusebius are his Chronicle and his
Church History. The former (Greek,
Pantodape historia, "Universal
History") is divided into two parts.
The first part (Greek, Chronographia,
"Annals") purports to give an epitome
of universal history from the sources,
arranged according to nations. The
second part (Greek, Chronikoi kanones,
"Chronological Canons") attempts to
furnish a synchronism of the historical
material in parallel columns, the
equivalent of a parallel timeline.2

In his Church History or Ecclesiastical
History (Historia Ecclesiastica),
Eusebius attempted according to his own
declaration (I.i.1) to present the
history of the Church from the apostles
to his own time, with special regard to
the following points:
(1) the successions
of bishops in the principal sees;
(2) the
history of Christian teachers;
(3) the
history of heresies;
(4) the history of the
Jews;
(5) the relations to the heathen;
(6)
the martyrdoms.
He grouped his material according
to the reigns of the emperors,
presenting it as he found it in his
sources. The contents are as follows:
* Book
i: detailed introduction on Jesus
Christ
* Book ii: The history of the
apostolic time to the destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus
* Book iii: The
following time to Trajan
* Books iv and v:
the second century
* Book vi: The time from
Septimius Severus to Decius
* Book vii:
extends to the outbreak of the
persecution under Diocletian
* Book viii: more
of this persecution
* Book ix: history to
Constantine's victory over Maxentius in
the West and over Maximinus in the
East
* Book x: The reëstablishment of
the churches and the rebellion and
conquest of Licinius.3

Eusebius wrote other minor historical
works, a "Life of Constantine" (Vita
Constantini) which is a eulogy.4

To the class of apologetic and dogmatic
works belong:
(1) the Apology for Origen,
the first five books of which,
according to the definite statement of
Photius, were written by Pamphilus in
prison, with the assistance of
Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book
after the death of Pamphilus. We
possess only a Latin translation of the
first book, made by Rufinus;
(2) a treatise
against Hierocles (a Roman governor and
Neoplatonic philosopher), in which
Eusebius combated the former's
glorification of Apollonius of Tyana in
a work entitled "A Truth-loving
Discourse" (Greek, Philalethes logos);
(3)
Praeparatio evangelica ('Preparation
for the Gospel'), commonly known by its
Latin title, which attempts to prove
the excellence of Christianity over
every pagan religion and philosophy.
The Praeparatio consists of fifteen
books which have been completely
preserved. Eusebius considered it an
introduction to Christianity for
pagans. But its value for many later
readers is more because Eusebius
studded this work with so many
fascinating and lively fragments from
historians and philosophers which are
nowhere else preserved. Here alone is
preserved a summary of the writings of
the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of
which the accuracy has been shown by
the mythological accounts found on the
Ugaritic tables, here alone is the
account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth
book of Euhemerus' wondrous voyage to
the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus
purports to have found his true history
of the gods, and here almost alone is
preserved writings of the neo-Platonist
philosopher Atticus along with so much
else.
(4) Demonstratio evangelica ('Proof
of the Gospel') is closely connected to
the Praeparatio and comprised
originally twenty books of which ten
have been completely preserved as well
as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here
Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus
Christ. The work was probably finished
before 311;
(5) another work which
originated in the time of the
persecution, entitled "Prophetic
Extracts" (Eklogai prophetikai). It
discusses in four books the Messianic
texts of Scripture. The work is merely
the surviving portion (books 6-9) of
the General elementary introduction to
the Christian faith, now lost.
(6) the
treatise "On Divine Manifestation"
(Peri theophaneias), dating from a much
later time. It treats of the
incarnation of the Divine Logos, and
its contents are in many cases
identical with the Demonstratio
evangelica. Only fragments are
preserved;
(7) the polemical treatise "Against
Marcellus," dating from about 337;
(8) a
supplement to the last-named work,
entitled "On the Theology of the
Church," in which he defended the
Nicene doctrine of the Logos against
the party of Athanasius.
A number of writings,
belonging in this category, have been
entirely lost.5

A more comprehensive work of an
exegetical nature, preserved only in
fragments, is entitled "On the
Differences of the Gospels" and was
written for the purpose of harmonizing
the contradictions in the reports of
the different Evangelists.6

Eusebius follows closely in the
footsteps of Origen. No point of this
doctrine is original with Eusebius, all
is traceable to his teacher Origen.7


Eusebius echos the racist anti-Jewish
views associated with the early
Christian people. Eusebius mystically
blames the calamities which befell the
Jewish nation on the Jewish people's
role in the death of Jesus:
"that from
that time seditions and wars and
mischievous plots followed each other
in quick succession, and never ceased
in the city and in all Judea until
finally the siege of Vespasian
overwhelmed them. Thus the divine
vengeance overtook the Jews for the
crimes which they dared to commit
against Christ." (Hist. Eccles. II.6:
The Misfortunes which overwhelmed the
Jews after their Presumption against
Christ) 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
2. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
3. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
4. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
5. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
6. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
7. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
8. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
9. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of
_Caesarea
 
[1] Eusebius of Caesarea, church
historian. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eusebius_of_Caesarea.jpg
1,695 YBN
[305 AD] 2 		989)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p164.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,685 YBN
[315 AD] 2 		1004)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
Aphthonios, Prosgymnasmata 12
2. ^ Diana
Delia, "From Romance to Rhetoric: The
Alexandrian Library in Classical and
Islamic Traditions", The American
Historical Review, (1992). Aphthonios,
Prosgymnasmata 12 (actual date should
probably be when written?)
  
1,681 YBN
[319 AD] 3 		946)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971), p264.
2. ^ Ted
Huntington
3. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
  
1,680 YBN
[320 AD] 27 		1094) In geometry, there are several
theorems that are known by the generic
name Pappus's Theorem, attributing them
to Pappus of Alexandria. They include:
*
Pappus's centroid theorem,
* the Pappus
chain,
* Pappus's harmonic theorem, and
*
Pappus's hexagon theorem17

In his "Synogogue", Pappus gives no
indication of the date of the authors
whose treatises he makes use of, or of
the time at which he himself writes. If
we had no other information than can be
derived from his work, we should only
know that he was later than Claudius
Ptolemy (c90-c16818 ) whom he often
quotes. Suidas states that he was of
the same age as Theon of Alexandria,
(father of Hypatia19 ) who will write
commentaries on Ptolemy's great work,
the "Syntaxis mathematica", and will
flourish in the reign of Theodosius I
(A.D. 372-395). Suidas says also that
Pappus wrote a commentary upon the same
work of Ptolemy. But it seems
unbelievable that two contemporaries
should have at the same time and in the
same style composed commentaries upon
one and the same work, and yet neither
should have been mentioned by the
other, whether as friend or opponent.
It is more probable that Pappus's
commentary was written long before
Theon's, and is largely included into
the work by Theon, and that Suidas,
through failure to disconnect the two
commentaries, assigned a like date to
both.20 There is a chronological table
by Theon of Alexandria which, when
being copied (in a 10th-century
manuscript21 ), has had inserted next
to the name of Diocletian (who ruled
284 CE-305 CE) "at that time wrote
Pappus". Similar insertions give the
dates for Ptolemy, Hipparchus and other
mathematical astronomers.22 Rome shows
that it can be deduced from Pappus's
commentary on the Almagest that Pappos
observes the eclipse of the sun in
Alexandria which takes place on 18
October 320. This fixes clearly the
date of 320 for Pappus's commentary on
Ptolemy's Almagest.23

Pappos is born and appears to have
lived in Alexandria all his life. He
dedicates works to Hermodorus,
Pandrosion and Megethion but other than
knowing that Hermodorus is Pappus's
son, nothing is known about these other
men. Pappus refers to a friend who is
also a philosopher, named Hierius, who
encourages Pappus to study certain
mathematical problems. A reference to
Pappos in Proclus's writings says that
he headed a school in Alexandria.24
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://users.ira.sch.gr/thafounar/Genika
/problemGeometry/doublingCubePappus/Papp
us.html
2. ^
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p45.
4. ^ "Pappus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
5. ^
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
6. ^ "Polyhedron". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedron
7. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p45.
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^
http://www.ldolphin.org/mouseion.html
11. ^
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/
mouseion.htm
12. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
13. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
14. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
15. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
18. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
21. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
22. ^
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
23. ^
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
24. ^
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ "Pappus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pappus
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (+40) (+40)
Alexandria, Egypt25 26   
1,679 YBN
[321 AD] 4 		4060)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Constantine I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
633>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Constantine I."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
633>. {321}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Constantine I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine
_I
Constantanople3  
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
1,675 YBN
[07/??/325 AD] 4 		947)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971), p267.
2. ^ John
Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria:
from its foundation by Alexander the
Great in 331 BC to its capture by the
Arabs in 642 AD.", (London: Gollancz,
1971), p267.
3. ^ "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
4. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
  
1,669 YBN
[331 AD] 3 		1375)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Constantine I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine
_I
[3] "Constantine I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
633>.
Constantanople2  
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
1,660 YBN
[340 AD] 7 		990)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Epiphanius of Salamis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius_
of_Salamis
2. ^ "Valentinius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinius

3. ^ "Epiphanius of Salamis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius_
of_Salamis
4. ^ "Epiphanius of Salamis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius_
of_Salamis
5. ^ "Epiphanius of Salamis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius_
of_Salamis
6. ^ "Epiphanius of Salamis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius_
of_Salamis
7. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,660 YBN
[340 AD] 2 		991)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p68.
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
(guess based on)
  
1,643 YBN
[357 AD] 4 		995)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Constantius II". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius
_II
2. ^ "Themistius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themistius
3. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
4. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The
Vanished Library : A Wonder of the
Ancient World (Hellenistic Culture and
Society)", (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1990).
  
1,638 YBN
[362 AD] 2 		1032)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Julian tr: Wilmer C. Wright,
"Julian, Volume III (Loeb Classical
Library, No. 157)", 1923. (contains
fragments of "Against the Galileans")
2. ^ "Julian
the Apostate". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_
Apostate (=tolerance edict)
 
[1] 10253. JULIAN II, AD 355-363. AE20.
Reverse: VOT V MVLT XX. VF. Much better
than photo. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/julian-ii-
10253.jpg

[2] 7166. JULIAN II, 360-363. GOLD
SOLIDUS, EF. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/n1/b7166.j
pg
1,637 YBN
[06/26/363 AD] 		1044)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Julian the Apostate". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_
Apostate
2. ^ "Julian the Apostate". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_
Apostate
3. ^ Ted Huntington
  
1,637 YBN
[363 AD] 3 		1010)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, translation
by J.C. Rolfe, "Ammianus Marcellinus",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1956), XXII 16.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^
Ammianus Marcellinus, translation by
J.C. Rolfe, "Ammianus Marcellinus",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1956).
  
1,636 YBN
[364 AD] 3 		993)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p166.
2. ^ Luciano Canfora, "The Vanished
Library : A Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990). cites Ammianus (XIV, 6,
18)
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).

MORE INFO
[1] "Ammianus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus
[2]
http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianu
s/biography.htm
  
1,636 YBN
[364 AD] 2 		996)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p166.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,634 YBN
[366 AD] 2 		1100)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred J. Butler, "The Arab
Conquest of Egypt", (New York: Oxford
at the Clarendon Press, 1998).
2. ^ Alfred J.
Butler, "The Arab Conquest of Egypt",
(New York: Oxford at the Clarendon
Press, 1998).
Alexandria, Egypt  
1,630 YBN
[370 AD] 5 		1376)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^
byzantine_hospitals_1984.pdf Byzantine
Hospitals Timothy S. Miller Dumbarton
Oaks Papers, Vol. 38, Symposium on
Byzantine Medicine. (1984),
pp53-63 Stable
URL: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0
070-7546%281984%2938%3C53%3ABH%3E2.0.CO%
3B2-%23 Dumbarton Oaks Papers is
currently published by Dumbarton Oaks,
Trustees for Harvard University.
4. ^ "hospital".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
5. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital (c370)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Basil of Caesarea". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_of_Ca
esarea
Cappadocia4  
[1] Archbishop of Caesarea in
Cappadocia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BASIL.jpg
1,626 YBN
[374 AD] 6 		5863) (Saint) Ambrose (CE 339-397),
Bishop of Milan, attempts to codify the
growing repertory of chants. This body
of Milanese church music, therefore,
comes to be called "Ambrosian chant".1


Ambrose also composes hymns, notably
"Aeterne rerum Conditor" ("Framer of
the earth and sky") and "Deus Creator
omnium" ("Maker of all things, God most
high").2
As an example of the early
anti-Jewish views of the followers of
Jesus (who ironically was Jewish if he
existed at all3 ), in 388 Ambrose
criticizes the emperor Theodosius for
having punished a bishop who had burnt
a Jewish synagogue.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
2. ^ "Saint Ambrose." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/19014/Saint-Ambrose>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Saint Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/19014/Saint-Ambrose>.
5. ^ "Saint Ambrose." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/19014/Saint-Ambrose>.
6. ^ "Saint Ambrose." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/19014/Saint-Ambrose>. {374 CE (guess
- when made Bishop of Milan}
Milan, Italy5  
[1] Description English: St Ambrose
converting Theodosius Date
1699-1749 Source
http://www.1st-art-gallery.com/Pier
re-Subleyras/St-Ambrose-Converting-Theod
osius.html Author [show]Pierre
Subleyras (1699–1749) Link back to
Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/St_Ambrose.jpg
1,625 YBN
[375 AD] 2 		992)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p68.
2. ^ "Aphthonius of
Antioch". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphthonius_
of_Antioch (guess based on (second
half of 4th century)
  
1,625 YBN
[375 AD] 2 		994)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p159.
2. ^ guess based on El-Abbadi
353-378ce, try to narrow down more
  
1,620 YBN
[380 AD] 2 		999)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(Suidas, s.v. Theon), p160.
2. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). (Suidas, s.v. Theon)
  
1,614 YBN
[386 AD] 2 		997)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p158.
2. ^ "Jerome". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome
(has 30 years after death of Anthony
the Great=356)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anthony the Great".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_the
_Great
  
1,613 YBN
[387 AD] 3 		874) The illogical and racist
anti-Jewish anger felt by many early
Christian fathers is shown clearly in
the writing of "Saint" John Chrysostom
(Greek
Ιωάννη`
2; ο
Χρυσόσ`
4;ομος) (347-407),
bishop of Constantinople, who writes
"The Jews sacrifice their children to
Satan"1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ "St. John Chrysostom".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John_Ch
rysostom
3. ^ "St. John Chrysostom". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John_Ch
rysostom (+40)
Constantinople, 2  
[1] Portrait of Saint John Chrysostom
of Antioch (Hagios Ioannis
Chrysostomos). An early Byzantine
mosaic from the Cathedral of Hagia
Sophia in Constantinople (modern
Istanbul). The mosaic is approximately
1,000 years old. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johnchrysostom.jpg

[2] John Chrysostom, Constantinople,
early or mid 11th c. A.D. Soapstone and
highlights of gold. Location: Louvre,
Department of Decorative
Arts Photographer: Jastrow (2005) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Chrysostom_Louvre_OA3970.jpg
1,611 YBN
[389 AD] 2 		1001)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I
2. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I
  
1,610 YBN
[390 AD] 2 		1000) By now a circle of friends and
students around Hypatia is firmly
established.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996), p27.
2. ^ Maria Dzielska,
F. Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
  
1,609 YBN
[391 AD] 5 		1002)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Auspice".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auspice
4. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I
5. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I
  
1,609 YBN
[391 AD] 13 		1003) Library in Alexandria (The
Serapeion) destroyed.5

The library in the Temple to Serapis
(the Serapeion) in Alexandria is
violently destroyed by Christian people
and the temple is converted to a
Christian church.6

Historian Socrates Scholasticus writes
'At the request of Theophilus, Bishop
of Alexandria, the Emperor issued an
order at this time for the demolition
of the heathen temples in that
city...'7 and that 'Theophilus threw
down the temple of Serapis ...The
temples were overthrown, and the bronze
statues melted down to make domestic
vessels.'. Historian Eunapius
(Ευνάπιος8 ) (CE 346-c4149 )
wrote that 'they wrought havoc with the
Serapeum and made war on its
statues....The foundations alone were
not removed owing to the difficulty in
moving such huge blocks of stone.'
Historian Theodoret, writes, 'The
sanctuaries of the idols were uprooted
from their foundations.' Historian
Sozomen (c400-c45010 ) describes the
Christians as having uninterruptedly
occupied the Serapeum from its capture
by Theophilus to his own time.
Historian Rufinus (who dies in 410 CE11
) writes that the exterior range of
buildings round the edge of the plateau
are practically uninjured, though void
of its former pagan occupiers, but that
the great temple of Serapis and the
colonnades around it are levelled to
the ground.". Much of the Serapeum
lasts as late as the 12th century.12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
2. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient
Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990).
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
5. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
6. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient
Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990).
7. ^
http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-02/TO
C.htm (book V Chapter XVI)
8. ^
"Ευνάπιος". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%8
5%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82
9. ^ Philostratus and Eunapius,
translation by Wilmer Cave Wright,
"Philostratus and Eunapius",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1961), p319. (p319)
10. ^, Book 7 Chap
15.
http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-02/Np
nf2-02-25.htm#P4305_1911940 (Book 7
Chap 15)
11. ^
http://www.bede.org.uk/library.htm
12. ^ Alfred J. Butler, "The Arab
Conquest of Egypt", (New York: Oxford
at the Clarendon Press, 1998), p418.
(p418)
13. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I (391/392)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/classics/rhetoric
/prog-aph.htm
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg

[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
1,606 YBN
[08/24/394 AD] 4 		1095)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I
2. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p36.
3. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
4. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
island of Philae, near Aswan3   
1,600 YBN
[400 AD] 13 		1005)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
2. ^ Diana
Delia, "From Romance to Rhetoric: The
Alexandrian Library in Classical and
Islamic Traditions", The American
Historical Review, (1992).
3. ^ Orosius, Hist.
adv. pagan. 6.15.32
4. ^ Diana Delia, "From
Romance to Rhetoric: The Alexandrian
Library in Classical and Islamic
Traditions", The American Historical
Review, (1992).
5. ^ "Paganism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "Deus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deus
8. ^ Harry Thurston Peck, Harper's
Dictionary of Classical Antiquity,
1897; "pagus"
9. ^ "Paganism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism
10. ^ "Paganism". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism
11. ^ "Augustine of Hippo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_o
f_Hippo
12. ^ "Paganism". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism
13. ^ Diana Delia, "From Romance to
Rhetoric: The Alexandrian Library in
Classical and Islamic Traditions", The
American Historical Review, (1992).
(=beginning of 5th century)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eunapius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunapius
  
1,600 YBN
[400 AD] 4 		1072)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Iron pillar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_pillar

2. ^ "Iron pillar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_pillar

3. ^ "Iron pillar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_pillar

4. ^ "Iron pillar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_pillar
 (estimate (375-414)
Vishnupadagiri, India3   
1,600 YBN
[400 AD] 3 		1118)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Indian mathematics#Bakhshali
Manuscript .28200 BC - 400 CE.29".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_math
ematics#Bakhshali_Manuscript_.28200_BC_-
_400_CE.29
2. ^ "Bakhshali Manuscript". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakhshali_M
anuscript
3. ^ "Indian mathematics#Bakhshali
Manuscript .28200 BC - 400 CE.29".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_math
ematics#Bakhshali_Manuscript_.28200_BC_-
_400_CE.29 (200 BCE - 400 CE)
Bakhshali, Pakistan2  
[1] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
1,600 YBN
[400 AD] 		1329)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Amatl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amatl
4. ^ "Amatl". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amatl
5. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
Mesoamerica5  
[1] Part of the Huexotzinco Codex,
printed on amatl Source URL:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr
t045.html Image made in 1531 by Nahua
Indians in legal case in Mexico and
Spain against Spanish administrators
who abused them. The Indians were part
of the Cortes estate. Cortes was a
co-plantiff against the administrators
who mismanaged his estate. Image taken
form a Library of Congress page. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Huex_codex_1a_loc.jpg
1,598 YBN
[402 AD] 		998) Last known contemporarily written
reference to the Mouseion in
Alexandria. Synesios (Synesius)
(c370-413 CE3 ), who studies under
Hypatia, describes the pictures of
philosophers in the Mouseion.4 5 There
is no later reference to the Mouseion's
existence in the fifth century.6

This is in Chapter 6 of "A Eulogy of
Baldness", Synesios writes: "You may
look at the pictures in the Museum, I
mean those of Diogenes and Socrates,
and whomever you please of those who in
their age were wise, and your survey
would be an inspection of bald heads."7
 This is evidence that the Mouseion
survived intact after the destruction
of the Sarapeion in 391. Since Synesios
is thought to have died around 414, and
there are no other references after
Synesios, it is possible that the
Mouseion was destroyed a short time
before or after the murder of Hypatia.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(Synesius, Calvitii Encomium, 6), p159.
2. ^
Synesios of Cyrene, translation by
Augustine Fitzgerald, "Synesius of
Cyrene, Essays and Hymns", (London:
Oxford University Press, 1930), p250.
{synesios.pdf}
3. ^ Synesios of Cyrene, translation by
Augustine Fitzgerald, "Synesius of
Cyrene, Essays and Hymns", (London:
Oxford University Press, 1930).
{synesios.pdf}
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(Synesius, Calvitii Encomium, 6), p159.
5. ^
Synesios of Cyrene, translation by
Augustine Fitzgerald, "Synesius of
Cyrene, Essays and Hymns", (London:
Oxford University Press,
1930). {synesios.pdf}
6. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(Synesius, Calvitii Encomium, 6), p159.
7. ^
Synesios of Cyrene, translation by
Augustine Fitzgerald, "Synesius of
Cyrene, Essays and Hymns", (London:
Oxford University Press, 1930), p250.
{synesios.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington

MORE INFO
[1] "Synesius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesius
[2]
http://www.geocities.com/athens/acropoli
s/5164/synesius.html has all letters
and some other writings but not
Calvitii Encomium
[3]
http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/inst/browse
r?uid=&work=2006006&filepos=12624&contex
t=31&GreekFont=Unicode&perseus=N&perseus
_mirror=&showescs=Y&rawescs=N&printable=
N&outline=N&betalink=Y&unicode=Y
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14386a.h
tm (400-409)
[5] Synesios of Cyrene, translation
by Augustine Fitzgerald, "The Letters
of SYnesium of Cyrene", 1926, p75
(letter 29 and 74 )
 
[1] Mosaic from the Eastern Basilica,
Cyrene. PD
source: http://www.livius.org/a/libya/cy
rene/cyrene_eastern_basilica_museum_2.jp
g

[2] Bust of Arcadius. Forum of
Theodosius, Constantinople (Arkeoloji
Müzesi, İstanbul) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.livius.org/a/1/empero
rs/istanbul_forum_theodosius_arcadius_ia
m1.JPG
1,588 YBN
[10/15/412 AD] 3 		1006)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p84.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p84.
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,588 YBN
[10/17/412 AD] 5 		1007)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/inst/browse
r?uid=&lang=eng&work=4090176&context=31&
rawescs=N&printable=N&betalink=Y&filepos
=0&outline=N&GreekFont=Unicode_All
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p84.
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^
http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-02/Np
nf2-02-12.htm#P1998_868901 book 6 chap
7
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,588 YBN
[412 AD] 2 		1008)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996), p38.
2. ^ Maria Dzielska,
F. Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
  
1,585 YBN
[03/??/415 AD] 25 		1009) Hypatia (Greek: Υπατία13
and Ὑπατίας14 ) (c36015 -
415), a popular female philosopher,
mathematician and astronomer in
Alexandria is murdered by Christian
people.16 17
Many people cite this as
the end of ancient science.18 19 20
Clearly, the seed of science survived,
as science grows now, in the time we
live in.21

Socrates of Scholasticus, a Christian
historian alive at the time of the
murder of Hypatia writes (translated
from Greek):
"Of Hypatia the Female
Philosopher.
There was a woman at Alexandria named
Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher
Theon, who made such attainments in
literature and science, as to far
surpass all the philosophers of her own
time. Having succeeded to the school of
Plato and Plotinus, she explained the
principles of philosophy to her
auditors, many of whom came from a
distance to receive her instructions.
On account of the self-possession and
ease of manner, which she had acquired
in consequence of the cultivation of
her mind, she not unfrequently appeared
in public in presence of the
magistrates. Neither did she feel
ashamed in coming to an assembly of
men. For all men on account of her
extraordinary dignity and virtue
admired her the more. Yet even she fell
a victim to the political jealousy
which at that time prevailed. For as
she had frequent interviews with
Orestes (the Roman Prefect or Governor
of Egypt at the time 22 ), it was
slanderously reported among the
Christian populace, that it was she who
prevented Orestes from being reconciled
to the Bishop. Some of them therefore,
hurried away by a fierce and bigoted
zeal, whose ringleader was a reader
named Peter, waylaid her returning
home, and dragging her from her
carriage, they took her to the church
called Caesareum, where they completely
stripped her, and then murdered her
with tiles {the words are
οστράκοις ανείλον,
oyster shells, but this word was
applied to brick ceiling tiles}. After
tearing her body in pieces, they took
her mangled limbs to a place called
Cinaron, and there burnt them. This
affair brought disgrace not only upon
Cyril, but also upon the whole
Alexandrian church. And surely nothing
can be farther from the spirit of
Christianity than the allowance of
massacres, fights, and transactions of
that sort. This happened in the month
of March during Lent, in the fourth
year of Cyril's episcopate, under the
tenth consulate of Honorius, and the
sixth of Theodosius."23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
2. ^ tlg.uci.edu (Socrates
Ecclesiatical History b7 c15)
3. ^ Ted
Huntington
4. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
5. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
6. ^ tlg.uci.edu (Socrates
Ecclesiatical History b7 c15)
7. ^ Ted
Huntington
8. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
9. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
10. ^ tlg.uci.edu (Socrates
Ecclesiatical History b7 c15)
11. ^ Ted
Huntington
12. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
13. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
14. ^ tlg.uci.edu (Socrates
Ecclesiatical History b7 c15)
15. ^ Ted
Huntington
16. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
17. ^ "Hypatia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia
18. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
"...let me tell you about the end..."
19. ^
Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p15.
20. ^
http://www.hypatia-lovers.com/page21.htm
l
21. ^ Ted Huntington
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^
http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.
ii.x.xv.html
24. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
25. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).

MORE INFO
[1] "Socrates Scholasticus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_Sc
holasticus
[2] from Damascius (in Suida):
http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hyp
atia-bio-suda.html "From Damascius's
Life of Isidore, reproduced in The Suda
Translated by Jeremiah Reedy, from
"Alexandria 2"
[3]
http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hyp
atia-bio-john.html
(steps of a church called The Caesarium
) Alexandria, Egypt24  
[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg

[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg
1,584 YBN
[416 AD] 		1011) Museum in Alexandria closed.4

Paulus Orosius describes the temples in
Alexandria as having empty bookshelves,
the contents emptied "by men of our
time". Adding this together with the
Suda reference to Theon being a member,
and the last reference to the Mouseion
from Synesios in 409 with no mention of
any destruction before his death in
414, and no mention of any public
library in Alexandria by people writing
in the 5th and 6th century5 , it
appears probable that the Mouseion
(including any remaining library) may
have been completely and permanently
destroyed by 415 or 416.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred J. Butler, "The Arab
Conquest of Egypt", (New York: Oxford
at the Clarendon Press, 1998).
2. ^ Alfred J.
Butler, "The Arab Conquest of Egypt",
(New York: Oxford at the Clarendon
Press, 1998).
3. ^ Alfred J. Butler, "The Arab
Conquest of Egypt", (New York: Oxford
at the Clarendon Press, 1998).
4. ^ Alfred J.
Butler, "The Arab Conquest of Egypt",
(New York: Oxford at the Clarendon
Press, 1998).
5. ^ Alfred J. Butler, "The Arab
Conquest of Egypt", (New York: Oxford
at the Clarendon Press, 1998).
6. ^ Ted
Huntington

MORE INFO
[1] Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life
and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990)
  
1,577 YBN
[423 AD] 		1012)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/ency
clopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/serapeu
m.html
  
1,569 YBN
[431 AD] 8 		1139) The Council of Ephesus sentences
Porfurios' (and other1 ) books against
Christianity to be burned (but does not
mention the emperor Julian's
anti-christian writings).2

This is the first of 3 major book
burnings that will remove any and all
writings that criticize the Christian
religion.3 4 The result will be very
effective, leaving the only surviving
works so far found to be rebuttles of
these works by Christian writers.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Flavius Claudius
Julianus. Translation by Wilmer Cave
Wright, "The Works of the Emperor
Julian", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1954), p316.
3. ^ Flavius
Claudius Julianus. Translation by
Wilmer Cave Wright, "The Works of the
Emperor Julian", (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1954), p316.
4. ^
Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Flavius Claudius
Julianus. Translation by Wilmer Cave
Wright, "The Works of the Emperor
Julian", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1954), p316.
7. ^
"Ephesus." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ephesus
8. ^ Flavius Claudius Julianus.
Translation by Wilmer Cave Wright, "The
Works of the Emperor Julian",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1954). (431) (431)
Ephesus6 , (Asia Minor, modern:)
Turkey7  		 
1,561 YBN
[439 AD] 3 		1013)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.polyamory.org/~howard/Hypatia
/primary-sources.html
2. ^ "Socrates Scholasticus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_Sc
holasticus
3. ^ "Socrates Scholasticus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_Sc
holasticus
  
1,552 YBN
[448 AD] 		1043) Theodosius II (April, 401 - July
28, 4502 ), Eastern Roman Emperor
(408-4503 ) orders all non-Christian
books burned.4 5 In fighting the
ancient Hellenic tradition, or
"Paganism" as it would be later called,
the Christian people destroy much of
the science learned and recorded in
books stored in temples to the
traditional Greek Gods.6

No remains have ever been found from
the books critical of the Christian
religion written by Kelsos, Porfurios
and others, although some of these
writings are preserved in rebuttles by
Christian writers that have survived.7
8 With this law, the anti-Christian
writings of Porfurios will be condemned
but those of Julian are ignored.9
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004).
2. ^ "Theodosius II".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
II
3. ^ "Theodosius II". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
II
4. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.ysee.gr?type=english&f=lovest
ories
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Flavius Claudius
Julianus. Translation by Wilmer Cave
Wright, "The Works of the Emperor
Julian", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1954), p316.
9. ^ Flavius
Claudius Julianus. Translation by
Wilmer Cave Wright, "The Works of the
Emperor Julian", (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1954), p316.
 
[1] Description English: Bust of
Byzantine Empreror Theodosius II
(reigned 408–450 AD). Marble, 5th
century AD. Français : Buste de
l'empereur byzantin Théodose II
(règne 408-450 ap. J.-C.). Marbre, Ve
siècle ap.
J.-C. Date Dimensions H. 29 cm (11
¼ in.) Current
location [show](Inventory)Louvre
Museum Département des Antiquités
grecques, étrusques et romaines,
Denon, ground floor, room 29 Accession
number Ma 1036 (OA 9056) Credit
line In the royal collections since
the 16th
century Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (User:Jastrow),
2009 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other
versions P1080088 Louvre tête
empereur Téodose II Ma1036 rwk.JPG CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Theodosius_II_L
ouvre_Ma1036.jpg/768px-Theodosius_II_Lou
vre_Ma1036.jpg

[2] THEODOSIUS II, 402-450, (son of
Arcadius) 10616. THEODOSIUS II.
AD 402-450. AV Solidus (20mm, 4.42 g,
12h). Ravenna mint. Struck AD 423-425.
Pearl-diademed, draped, and cuirassed
bust right / Emperor standing right,
holding labarum and Victory on globe,
placing foot on captive on the ground
below; R-V//COMOB. RIC X 1801; Depeyrot
7/3. Good VF. Ex Peus 369 (31 October
2001), lot 899. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/theodosius
-10616.jpg
1,550 YBN
[450 AD] 21 		1096) Proclus is born 410 or 411 CE
(his birth year is deduced from a
horoscope cast by a disciple, Marinus,
and hence is to a degree uncertain) in
Constantinople to a family of high
social status in Lycia- his father
Particius is a high legal official,
very important in the Byzantine
Empire's court system- and raised in
Xanthus, he studies rhetoric,
philosophy and mathematics in
Alexandria, Egypt, with the intent of
pursuing a judicial position like his
father. Proklos comes back to
Constantinople part-way through his
studies when his rector, his principal
instructor (one Leonas) has business
there, and is a successful praticing
lawyer for a period.9

Actually experiencing the practice of
law makes Proclus realize that he truly
prefers philosophy, so he returns to
Alexandria, and begins studying the
works of Aristotle under Olympiodorus
the Elder (he also began studying
mathematics during this period as well
with a teacher named Heron {not Hero of
Alexandria}). Eventually, this gifted
student became dissatisfied with the
level of philosophical instruction
available in Alexandria, and went to
Athens, the preeminent philosophical
center of the day, in 431 to study at
the Neoplatonic successor of the famous
Academy founded 800 years before by
Plato (in 387 BCE); there he is taught
by Plutarch of Athens and Syrianus; he
succeeds Plutarch as head of the
Academy, and is in turn succeeded on
his death by Syrianus. He dies around
aged 73, and is buried near Mount
Lycabettus in a tomb.10

He lives in Athens as an unmarried
vegetarian bachelor, prosperous and
generous to his friends, until the end
of his life, except for a voluntary one
year exile, which is designed to lessen
the pressure put on him by his
political-philosophical activity,
little appreciated by the Christian
rulers; he spends the exile travelling
and being initiated into various
mystery cults as befitted his
universalist approach to religion,
trying to become "a priest of the
entire universe."11

In addition to his commentaries,
Proclus writes two major systematic
works. "The Elements of Theology" is a
singular work in the history of ancient
philosophy. It consists of 211
propositions, each followed by a proof,
beginning from the existence of the One
(the first principle of all things) and
ending with the descent of individual
souls into the material world. The
Platonic Theology is a systematisation
of material from Platonic dialogues,
showing from them the characteristics
of the divine orders, the part of the
universe which is closest to the One.12

Three small works have also survived,
only in Latin translation: "Ten doubts
concerning providence"; "On providence
and fate"; and "On the existence of
evils".13

He also wrote a number of minor
works.14

Just as a brief summary of Proklos'
views, and Neoplatonism, which is very
abstract and have no relation to actual
science but simply for context:
There are three
basic concepts in Neoplatonism:
1) "The One" (to Hen)
is the first principle in Neoplatonism.
It is the principle which produces all
Being.15 This idea of "The One" is
compared by many to be similar to the
idea of a God, and may be related to
the popularity of the monotheism of
Christianity.
2) "Intellect" (Nous), is the principle
which is produced below the level of
the One.16
3) "Soul" (Psuche) is
produced by Intellect, and so is the
third principle in the Neoplatonic
system. It is a mind, like Intellect,
but it does not grasp all of its own
content as once.17

By far the greatest transmission of
Procline ideas will be through the
Pseudo-Dionysius. This 5th century
Christian Greek author wrote under the
pseudonym Dionysius the Areopagite, the
figure converted (from Paganism18 ) by
St. Paul in Athens. Because of this
fiction, his writings were taken to
have almost apostolic authority. He is
an original thinker, and Christian
rather than Pagan, but in his writings
can be found a great number of Procline
metaphysical principles. Another
important source for Procline influence
on the Middle Ages is Boethius'
Consolation of Philosophy, which has a
number of Proclus principles and
motifs.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p45.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p31.
3. ^
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p45.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p45.
7. ^ "Proclus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
8. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
9. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
10. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
11. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
12. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
13. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
14. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
15. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
16. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
17. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ "Proclus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
Athens, Greece20   
1,524 YBN
[09/04/476 AD] 3 		1098)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Romulus Augustulus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Aug
ustulus
2. ^ "Romulus Augustulus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Aug
ustulus
3. ^ "Romulus Augustulus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Aug
ustulus
Rome, Italy2   
1,520 YBN
[480 AD] 4 		1113) Isidore of Alexandria is a Greek
philosopher and one of the last of the
Neoplatonists. He lives in Athens and
Alexandria toward the end of the 5th
century CE. Isidore becomes head of the
school in Athens in succession to
Marinus, who followed Proclus.1
Isidore is known mainly for teaching
Damaskios2 the last head of the
Academy.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Isidore of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Alexandria
2. ^ "Isidore of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Alexandria
3. ^ "Damascius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius
4. ^ "Damascius, make more accurate".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. guess
based on
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Alexandria and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius,
make more accurate
Athens, Greece  
1,511 YBN
[489 AD] 4 		1384)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gundishapur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundishapur

2. ^ Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and
Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ.
Press. ISBN 0-7486-0455-3, p.4
3. ^
"Gundishapur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundishapur

4. ^ "Gundishapur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundishapur


MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6344
/1/Medicine-under-Islam-Arabic-Medicine.
html
Gundishapur, Khuzestan (southwest of
Iran, not far from the Karun river.)3
 		 
1,501 YBN
[499 AD] 8 		1309) Aryabhata (Devanāgarī:
आर्यभट) (CE 476-550)4 ,
Indian astronomer and mathematician,
writes in his "Aryabhatiya" (c499),
that the apparent westward motion of
the stars is due to the spherical
Earth’s rotation about its axis.
Aryabhata also correctly explains the
luminosity of the Moon and planets to
reflected sunlight.5

In the 600s the astronomer Brahmagupta
will severely criticize the view of
Aryabhata I that the Earth is a
spinning sphere, a view that will
widely disseminated by Brahmagupta’s
contemporary and rival Bhaskara I.6
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.
2. ^ "Aryabhata". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata
3. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.
4. ^ "Aryabhata". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata
5. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.
6. ^ "Brahmagupta". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/77073/Brahmagupta>.
7. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.
8. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Aryabhatiya". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhatiya

[2] "Bhāskara II". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81ska
ra_II (date of book)
Kusumapura (modern Patna), India7
 
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
1,500 YBN
[500 AD] 4 		1101)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Clinker-built". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinker-bui
lt
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (6th century) (6th century)
Scandinavia3   
1,500 YBN
[500 AD] 4 		1102)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Bulkhead (partition)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulkhead_%2
8partition%29
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (6th century) (6th century)
China3   
1,500 YBN
[500 AD] 4 		1105)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (get better time estimate) (get
better time estimate)
Rome3   
1,480 YBN
[01/01/520 AD] 18 19 		1099) Boethius' birth date is unknown,
generally placed around 480 CE, the
same year of birth as St. Benedict.
Boethius was born to a patrician family
which had been Christian for about a
century. His father's line included two
popes and both parents count Roman
emperors among their ancestors.14

Boethius was born in Rome to an ancient
and important family which included the
emperor Olybrius and many consuls. His
father Fl. Manlius Boethius held that
position in 487 after Odoacer deposed
the last Western Roman Emperor.
Boethius holds the same position in 510
in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.15

It is unknown where Boethius received
his formidable education in Greek.
Boethius may have studied in Athens,
and perhaps Alexandria. Since a
Boethius is recorded as proctor of the
school in Alexandria circa AD 470,
perhaps the younger Boethius received
some grounding in the classics from his
father or a close relative. In any
case, his accomplishment in Greek,
though traditional for his class, was
remarkable given the reduced knowledge
which accompanies the end of the empire
in this time.16
As a result of his
increasingly rare education and
experience, Boethius enters the service
of Theodoric the Great, who commissions
the young Boethius to perform many
roles.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Theodoric the Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_t
he_Great
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p46.
3. ^ "Boethius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p46.
5. ^ "Boethius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
6. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p46.
8. ^ "Boethius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
9. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
12. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
13. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
14. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
15. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
16. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
17. ^ "Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c.480 CE - 524 CE
+40) (c.480 CE - 524 CE +40)
19. ^
"Boethius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius
(480-524 or 525)
Italy 
[1] Initial depicting Boethius teaching
his students from folio 4r of a
manuscript of the Consolation of
Philosophy (Italy?, 1385) MS Hunter
374 (V.1.11), Glasgow University
library Source URL:
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/tre
asures/boethius.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius_initial_consolation_philosop
hy.jpg

[2] Boethius: Consolation of
philosophy. This early printed book has
many hand-painted illustrations
depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of
daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent
(1485). From English Wikipedia:
en:Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy
.jpg Original sources:
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/hum
an.html and
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/ima
ges/eu025001.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg
1,472 YBN
[528 AD] 4 		1377)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Saint Sampson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Samps
on
2. ^ byzantine_urological_1997.pdf
3. ^ "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
4. ^ "hospital (c528 (based on
Justinian reign (527 565), and Sampson
life (dies 530))". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital (c528 (based on Justinian
reign (527-565), and Sampson life (dies
530))

MORE INFO
[1] "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
[2]
http://www.serbianorthodoxchurch.net/cgi
-bin/saints.cgi?view=083086275378
Constantanople3  
[1] Saint Sampson the
Hospitable COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Samson_the_Hospitable.jpg
1,471 YBN
[529 AD] 14 		1014) Roman Emperor Justinian (CE
483-565) closes the schools of
Alexandria and Athens (including
Plato's Academy).8

The head of the Academy, Damascus and 6
other philosophers seek asylum in
Persia.9

Justinian also decrees that all
anti-Christian books are to be burned
in this year {exact date}.10 None of
the 'True Doctrine" of Kelsos in the
second century, the 15 books of
Porfurios' "Against the Christians" in
the third century, and Julian's
"Against the Galileans" of the fourth
century have ever been found, however
some of their writing remains in
rebuttles by Christian writers, for
example Origen's "Against Kelsos"
quotes Kelsos, Macarius Magnes may
possibly preserve some of Porfurios'
writing for which even 3 major
Christian rebuttles have never been
found, and Kurillos (Cyril) of
Alexandria's "Pro Christiana Religione"
reveals some of Julian's writings.11 12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
3. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
5. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

6. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
7. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

8. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

9. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
10. ^ Flavius Claudius Julianus.
Translation by Wilmer Cave Wright, "The
Works of the Emperor Julian",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1954), p316.
11. ^ Flavius Claudius
Julianus. Translation by Wilmer Cave
Wright, "The Works of the Emperor
Julian", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1954), p317.
12. ^
Porphyfy, R. Joseph Hoffman,
"Porphyry's Against the Christians: The
Literary Remains", (Amherst, NY:
Prometheus Books, 1994).
13. ^ "Justinian."
The Concise Oxford Companion to
Classical Literature. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 2003. Answers.com 26 Feb.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

14. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5


MORE INFO
[1] "Damascius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius
[2] "Justinian I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/308858/Justinian-I>
Athens, Greece (and Alexandria,Egypt)13
 
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg

[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
1,471 YBN
[529 AD] 7 		1378) As often happens with early
Christian institutions, the monastery
iwas constructed on top of an older
pagan site, a temple of Apollo that
crowned the hill, enclosed by a
fortifying wall above the small town of
Cassino, still largely pagan at the
time and recently devastated by the
Goths. Benedict's first act is to smash
the sculpture of Apollo and destroy the
altar. Benedict rededicats the site to
John the Baptist.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ "Monte Cassino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Cassi
no
3. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
4. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
5. ^ "Monte Cassino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Cassi
no
6. ^ "Monte Cassino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Cassi
no
7. ^ "Monte Cassino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Cassi
no (c529)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Saint Benedict". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Bened
ict
Monte Cassino, Italy6  
[1] Detail from fresco by Fra
Angelico c. 1437-1446 museum of san
marca, florence PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fra_Angelico_031.jpg

[2] The restored Abbey at dusk. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Monte_Cassino_Opactwo_1.JPG
1,471 YBN
[529 AD] 6 		1423)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Burning at the stake".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_at_
the_stake
2. ^ "Corpus Juris Civilis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juri
s_Civilis
3. ^ "Corpus Juris Civilis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juri
s_Civilis
4. ^ "Corpus Juris Civilis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juri
s_Civilis
5. ^ "Corpus Juris Civilis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juri
s_Civilis
6. ^ "Corpus Juris Civilis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juri
s_Civilis
Byzantium5  
[1] Mosaic of Justinian I, obtained
from the Macedonia FAQ website,
http://faq.Macedonia.org/ The mosiac
itself is in the San Vitale church in
en:Ravenna, Italy. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Justinian.jpg

[2] Alphabetical index on the Corpus
Juris (Index omnium legum et
paragraphorum quae in Pandectis, Codice
et Institutionibus continentur, per
literas digestus.), printed by Gulielmo
Rovillio, Lyon, 1571 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Digesto_01.jpg
1,470 YBN
[530 AD] 5 6 7 		1426)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
2. ^ "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
3. ^ "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
4. ^ "John Philoponus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9725/John-Philoponus
5. ^ "John Philoponus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9725/John-Philoponus (500s)
6. ^ "". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/ (c490 to c570) (c490 to c570)
7. ^
"John Philoponus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Philop
onus (c490 to c570)
Alexandria, Egypt4   
1,467 YBN
[533 AD] 2 		1015)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p187.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,463 YBN
[12/27/537 AD] 8 		1106) Nothing remains of the first
church that was built on the same site
during the 300s. Following the
destruction of the first church, a
second was built by Constantius, the
son of Constantine the Great, but was
burned down during the Nika riots of
532, before being rebuilt by
Justinian.4

Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest
surviving examples of Byzantine
architecture. Of great artistic value
is its decorated interior with mosaics
and marble pillars and coverings. The
temple itself is so richly and
artistically decorated that Justinian
proclaimed "Solomon, I have surpassed
thee!"
(Νενίκη
54;ά σε
Σολομώ_
7;). Justinian himself oversees the
completion of the greatest cathedral
ever built up to that time, and it will
remain the largest cathedral for 1,000
years until the completion of the
cathedral in Seville.5

The name comes from the Greek name
Αγία
Σοφία, a
contraction of Ναός
της
Αγίας
του
Θεού
Σοφίας
(Church of the Holy Wisdom of God).6

The Eastern Orthodox church will be
converted to a mosque in 1453, and then
converted into a museum in 1935, the
Ayasofya Museum, in Istanbul, Turkey.
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
3. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
4. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
5. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
6. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
7. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
8. ^ "Water mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill
Constantinople7  
[1] Hagia Sophia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aya_sofya.jpg

[2] Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June
1994 [t being restored] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hagia-Sofia-Int-01s.jpg
1,460 YBN
[540 AD] 10 		1107) The writings of Procopius are the
primary source of information for the
rule of the emperor Justinian.
Procopius was the author of a history
in eight books of the wars fought by
Justinian I, a panegyric (a formal
public speech delivered in high praise
of a person or thing2 ) on Justinian's
public works throughout the empire, and
a book known as the Secret History
(Greek: Anekdota) that claims to report
the scandals that Procopius could not
include in his published history.3

The first seven books of his History of
Justinian's Wars, which were published
as a unit, seem to have been largely
completed by 545.4

The Secret History will be discovered
centuries later in the Vatican Library
and published in 1623, but its
existence is already known from the
Suda, which refers to it as the
Anekdota ("the unpublished
composition"). The Secret History
covers the same years as the seven
books of the History of Justinian's
Wars and appears to have been written
after they were published. Current
consensus generally dates it to 550, or
maybe as late as 562.5

The De Aedificiis tells us nothing
further about Belisarius but it takes a
sharply different attitude towards
Justinian. He is presented as an
idealised Christian emperor who built
churches for the glory of God and
defenses for the safety of his subjects
and who showed particular concern for
the water supply. Theodora, who was
dead when this panegyric was written,
is mentioned only briefly but
Procopius' praise of her beauty is
fulsome. The panegyric is likely
written at Justinian's request,
however, and so it is doubtful if its
sentiments are sincere.6

Procopius belongs to the school of late
antique secular historians who continue
the traditions of the Second Sophistic;
they write in Attic Greek, their models
are Herodotus and especially
Thucydides, and their subject matter is
secular history. They avoid vocabulary
unknown to Attic Greek and insert an
explanation when they have to use
contemporary words. Thus Procopius
explains to his readers that ekklesia,
meaning a Christian church, is the
equivalent of a temple or shrine and
that monks are "the most temperate of
Christians...whom men are accustomed to
call monks." (Wars 2.9.14; 1.7.22) In
classical Athens, monks were unknown
and an ekklesia was the assembly of
Athenian citizens which passed the
laws.7

The secular historians dismiss the
history of the Christian church, which
they leave to ecclesiastical history-a
genre that was founded by Eusebius of
Caesarea. However, Averil Cameron has
argued convincingly that Procopius'
works reflect the tensions between the
classical and Christian models of
history in 6th century Byzantium.
Procopius indicates (Secret History
26.18) that he plans to write an
ecclesiastical history himself and, if
he had, he would probably have followed
the rules of that genre. But, as far as
we know, the ecclesiastical history
remained unwritten.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Procopius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procopius
2. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
3. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
4. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
5. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
6. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
7. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
8. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
9. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
10. ^ "Panegyric". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panegyric
Constantinople9  
[1] Hagia Sophia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aya_sofya.jpg

[2] Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June
1994 [t being restored] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hagia-Sofia-Int-01s.jpg
1,458 YBN
[542 AD] 5 6 		1381)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hôtel-Dieu". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
4. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
5. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital (542)
6. ^
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/action/
showFullText?submitFullText=Full+Text+HT
ML&doi=10.1046%2Fj.1445-2197.2002.02492.
x (hotel_dieu_lyon.html) (542) (542)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Hôtel-Dieu de Paris". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu_de_Paris
Lyon, France4  
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
1,411 YBN
[589 AD] 3 		1328)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paper#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper#Histo
ry
2. ^ "Paper#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper#Histo
ry
3. ^ "Paper#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper#Histo
ry (589CE)
China2   
1,400 YBN
[600 AD] 3 		1110) Viking ships use a keel and a
mast for a sail.1
In this sense a keel
refers to a fin that projects from the
bottom of a ship that helps to keep the
ship balanced (Confusingly the word
"keel" may also refer to a structural
beam that serves as the foundation of a
ship).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Keel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keel
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
1,400 YBN
[600 AD] 7 8 9 		1111) Earliest known windmill. This
windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
3. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
7. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63. {600}
8. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (6th century) (6th century)
9. ^ "Wind
mill". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_mill
(6th century)

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p25
Persia (Iran)6  
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
1,400 YBN
[600 AD] 5 		5864) Charlemagne, king of the Franks
(CE 768–814), will impose Gregorian
chant on his kingdom, where another
liturgical tradition—the Gallican
chant—is in common use. During the
700s and 800s, a process of
assimilation takes place between
Gallican and Gregorian chants; and the
chant in this evolved form is the what
has reached us in present times.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Gregorian chant." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/245481/Gregorian-chant>.
2. ^ "plainsong." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/462788/plainsong>.
3. ^ "Gregorian chant." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/245481/Gregorian-chant>.
4. ^ "Saint Gregory I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/245549/Saint-Gregory-I>.
5. ^ "Gregorian chant." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/245481/Gregorian-chant>. {CE
590–604 (Duration of Gragory 1 as
pope}
Rome, Italy4  
[1] A dedication miniature from the a
11th century manuscript of St.
Gregory's Moralia in Job (Bamberg,
Staatsbibliothek, MS Msc. Bibl. 84).
The miniature shows the scribe, Bebo of
Seeon Abbey, presenting the manuscript
to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry II. In
the upper left the author is seen
writing the text under divine
inspiration. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/BambergGregoryUnkFolD
edicationMin.jpg
1,396 YBN
[604 AD] 4 		1104)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
3. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
4. ^ "Paper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
Korea3  
[1] Map of the Three Kingdoms of Korea,
at the end of the 5th century, with the
largest expansion of Goguryeo. Hanseong
was initially the capital of Baekje.
Note that the spellings of the
countries and cities may differ
significantly in different
sources. See also: Image:Three
Kingdoms of Korea blank.png for a blank
map. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea_Map.png
1,387 YBN
[613 AD] 8 		1391)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Muhammad". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5853/Muhammad
2. ^ "Muhammad". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Muhammad". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Muhammad". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
7. ^ "Muhammad". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5853/Muhammad
8. ^ "Muhammad". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
Mecca, Arabia (modern Saudi Arabia)6 7
 
[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg
1,367 YBN
[633 AD] 25 26 		1114) Isidore was born in Cartagena,
Spain, to Severianus and Theodora, part
of an influential family who were
instrumental in the political-religious
maneuvering that converted the
Visigothic kings from Arianism to
Catholicism. Isidore receives his
elementary education in the Cathedral
school of Seville. In this institution,
which was the first of its kind in
Spain, the trivium (a theory of
education which teaches the three
subjects grammar, logic, and rhetoric12
) and quadrivium (a secondary more
advanced education of the four
subjects: arithmetic, geometry, music,
and astronomy13 ) were taught by a body
of learned men, among whom was the
archbishop, Leander. Isidore applies
himself with such diligence that he
learns Latin, Greek and Hebrew in a
short time.14 Shockingly the
quadrivium is considered preparatory
work for the serious study of
philosophy and theology15 , which are
highly abstract and largely fraudulent
in my opinion.16

Whether Isidore ever embraced monastic
life or not is not known, but though he
may never have been affiliated with any
of the religious orders, he esteems
them highly, on his elevation to the
episcopate (to bishop) he immediately
constitutes himself protector of the
monks and in 619 he pronounces anathema
(denouncement and excommunication17 )
against any ecclesiastic who should in
any way disturb the monasteries.18

On the death of Leander, Isidore
succeeded to the See (the jurisdiction
of a bishop19 ) of Seville.

His long incumbency in this office is
spent in a period of disintegration and
transition. The ancient institutions
and classic learning of the Roman
Empire are fast disappearing. In Spain
a new civilization is beginning to
evolve itself from the blending racial
elements that made up its population.
For almost two centuries the Goths had
been in full control of Spain, and
their uneducated manners and contempt
of learning threaten greatly to put
back the progress of civilization in
Spain.20

Isidore supports the intolerant
single-minded view of Christianity and
works to end Arianism, the new heresy
of Acephales, and all other
interpretations of Christianity.21 22

Isidore presides over the Second
Council of Seville, begun 13 November
619, in the reign of Sisebut. The
bishops of Gaul and Narbonne attend, as
well as the Spanish prelates. In the
Council's Acts the nature of Christ is
fully set forth, countering Arian
conceptions.23

At the Fourth National Council of
Toledo, begun 5 December 633, all the
bishops of Spain are in attendance. St.
Isidore, though far advanced in years,
presides over its deliberations, and is
the originator of most of its
enactments. The position and deference
granted to the king is remarkable. The
church is free and independent, yet
bound in solemn allegiance to the
acknowledged king: nothing is said of
allegiance to the bishop of Rome.24
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p46.
3. ^ "Isidore of
Seville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
4. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
5. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
6. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
7. ^ "Bestiary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestiary
8. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p46.
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^
"Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
12. ^ "Trivium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivium
13. ^ "Trivium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivium
14. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
15. ^ "Trivium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivium
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "Anathema". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anathema
18. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
19. ^ dictionary.com
20. ^ "Isidore of Seville".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
21. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^ "Isidore of Seville".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
24. ^ "Isidore of Seville". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ "Isidore of Seville".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_
Seville
Seville, Spain 
[1] Holy Isidor of Sevilla,
bishop between 1628 and
1682 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo [t
perhaps important to note that no
paintings or drawings exist of Isadore
(to my knowledge and I haven't
searched) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg

[2] Statue of Isidore of Seville,
outside of the Biblioteca Nacional de
España, in Madrid. San Isidoro. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SanIsidoroBibNac.JPG
1,360 YBN
[640 AD] 4 		1119)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), 5.
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p49.
3. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
4. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
Egypt3   
1,360 YBN
[640 AD] 5 		1120) Theophanes records that Greek
fire was invented around 670 in
Constantinople by Kallinikos
(Callinicus), an architect from
Heliopolis in Syria (now Baalbek,
Lebanon).2 This is the first reported
use of a flame throwing weapon.3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ James Riddick Partington (1998).
A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder.
The Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0801859549.
2. ^ "Greek fire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_fire
3. ^ James Riddick Partington (1998). A
History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder.
The Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0801859549.
4. ^ "Greek fire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_fire
5. ^ "Brahmagupta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta

Constantinople4  
[1] Depiction of Greek fire in the
Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image
from an illuminated manuscript showing
greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes
manuscript in Madrid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg
1,358 YBN
[642 AD] 1 		1016)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,358 YBN
[642 AD] 10 		1017)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p167.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p168.
3. ^ Rufinus of Aquilea, Philip R.
Amidon (Translator), "The Church
History of Rufinus of Aquileia : Books
10 and 11", (New York: Oxford
University Press, USA, 1997).
4. ^ Luciano
Canfora, "The Vanished Library : A
Wonder of the Ancient World
(Hellenistic Culture and Society)",
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990).
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
,178.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p74.
8. ^ Diana Delia, "From
Romance to Rhetoric: The Alexandrian
Library in Classical and Islamic
Traditions", The American Historical
Review, (1992).
9. ^ Rufinus of Aquilea, Philip
R. Amidon (Translator), "The Church
History of Rufinus of Aquileia : Books
10 and 11", (New York: Oxford
University Press, USA, 1997), p425.
10. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
1,340 YBN
[660 AD] 5 6 		1380) The hospital still resides on the
Île de la Cité, its original
location, and is now recognized for
extensive support for charities and for
the exceptional quality of doctors and
surgeons who have been residents at the
facility.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hôtel-Dieu". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ "Hôtel-Dieu de Paris". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu_de_Paris
4. ^ "Hôtel-Dieu de Paris". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu_de_Paris
5. ^ "Hôtel-Dieu de Paris". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu_de_Paris (651)
6. ^ "hospital".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital (660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
Paris, France4  
[1] Main entrance of the Hôtel-Dieu,
in 2007 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hotel_Dieu_Paris_P1200006.jpg
1,320 YBN
[680 AD] 2 		1018)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p180.
2. ^ "Yazid I". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazid_I
(estimate based on)
  
1,315 YBN
[685 AD] 2 		1019)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p180.
2. ^
http://history.enotes.com/peoples-chrono
logy/year-7th-century-d (estimate based
on)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jerusalemites.org/history_of_
palestine/7.htm
[2] "Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Mali
k_ibn_Marwan
  
1,287 YBN
[713 AD] 18 		1123) Bede's writings are classed as
scientific, historical and theological,
reflecting the range of his writings
from music and metrics to Scripture
commentaries. Bede quotes Pliny the
Elder, Virgil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace
and other classical writers, but with
some disapproval. He knows some Greek,
but no Hebrew. Bede writes in Latin.7

The most important and best known of
his works is the Historia ecclesiastica
gentis Anglorum, giving in five books
and 400 pages the history of England,
ecclesiastical and political, from the
time of Caesar to the date of its
completion (731). The first twenty-one
chapters, treating of the period before
the mission of Augustine of Canterbury,
are compiled from earlier writers such
as Orosius, Gildas, Prosper of
Aquitaine, the letters of Pope Gregory
I and others, with the insertion of
legends and traditions.8

After 596, documentary sources, which
Bede took pains to obtain throughout
England and from Rome, are used, as
well as oral testimony, which he
employed with critical consideration of
its value. He cites his references and
is very concerned about the sources of
all his sources, which creates an
important historical chain.9

The Historia, like other historical
writing from this period cannot be
expected to have the same degree of
objectivity as modern historical
writings. It was indeed a form of
literature, a mixture of fact, legend
and literature. For example, Bede took
liberties by making up fictional
quotations from people who were not his
contemporaries.10

In Historia Ecclesiastica (I.2), he
creates a method of referring to years
prior to the Christian era (anno
Domini), which the monk Dionysius
Exiguus created in 525. He uses "ante
incarnationis dominicae tempus" (before
the time of the incarnation of the
Lord). This and similar Latin terms are
roughly equivalent to the English
before Christ.11

The noted historian of science, George
Sarton, called the eighth century "The
Age of Bede;" clearly Bede must be
considered as an important scientific
figure,12 even though his actual
scientific contributions are minimal.13
 He writes several major works: a work
"On the Nature of Things", modeled in
part after the work of the same title
by Isidore of Seville; a work "On
Time", providing an introduction to the
principles of computing the correct
time for Easter; and a longer work on
the same subject; "On the Reckoning of
Time", which will become the
cornerstone of clerical scientific
education during the so-called
Carolingian renaissance of the ninth
century. He also writes several shorter
letters and essays discussing specific
aspects of computus and a treatise on
grammar and on figures of speech for
his pupils.14

"The Reckoning of Time" includes an
introduction to the traditional ancient
and medieval view of the cosmos,
including an explanation of how the
spherical earth influences the changing
length of daylight, of how the seasonal
motion of the Sun and Moon influences
the changing appearance of the New Moon
at evening twilight, and a quantitative
relation between the changes of the
Tides at a given place and the daily
motion of the moon. (Wallis 2004, pp.
82-85, 307-312). Since the focus of his
book is calculation, Bede gives
instructions for computing the date of
Easter and the related time of the
Easter Full Moon, for calculating the
motion of the Sun and Moon through the
zodiac, and for many other calculations
related to the calendar.15

For calendric purposes, Bede makes a
new calculation of the age of the world
since the Creation and begins the
practice of dividing the Christian era
into BC and AD. Due to his innovations
in computing the age of the world, he
is accused of heresy at the table of
Bishop Wilfred, his chronology being
contrary to accepted calculations. Once
informed of the accusations of these
"lewd rustics," Bede refutes them in
his Letter to Plegwin (Wallis 2004, pp.
xxx, 405-415).16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp47-48.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp47-48.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp47-48.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp47-48.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "Bede".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede
8. ^ "Bede". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede
9. ^ "Bede". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede
10. ^ "Historia ecclesiastica gentis
Anglorum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ec
clesiastica_gentis_Anglorum
11. ^ "Bede". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ "Bede".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede
15. ^ "Bede". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede
16. ^ "Bede". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (+40) (+40)
Jarrow, Durham17  
[1] Depiction of the Venerable Bede
(CLVIIIv) from the Nuremberg Chronicle,
1493. From:
http://www.beloit.edu/~nurember/book/ima
ges/People/Early_Christian_Medieval/ PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nuremberg_Chronicle_Venerable_Bede.jp
g

[2] ''The Venerable Bede Translates
John'' by J. D. Penrose PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Venbedes.jpg
1,277 YBN
[723 AD] 5 		1795)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Escapement#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escapement#
History
2. ^ "Yi Xing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_Xing
3. ^ "Yi Xing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_Xing
4. ^ "Yi Xing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_Xing
5. ^ "Escapement#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escapement#
History (723)
?, China4   
1,249 YBN
[751 AD] 16 17 		1253) Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan
(Arabic: جابر بن حيان) (CE
c721-c8157 8 ), with Latinised name
Geber9 , is the first of the important
Arab alchemists10 and introduces the
experimental method into alchemy11 .
Jabir is credited with being the first
to prepare and identify sulfuric and
other acids.12

Jabir gives accurate descriptions of
valuable chemical experiments. Jabir
describes ammonium chloride, shows how
to prepare white lead, prepares weak
nitric acid, and distills vinegar to
get strong acetic acid. Jabir also
works with dyes and metals, and
experiments with methods for refining
metals. Jabir writes numerous works on
alchemy, although many people will
later use his name.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sulfuric acid#History of
sulfuric acid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_ac
id#History_of_sulfuric_acid
2. ^ "Sulfuric acid#History of sulfuric
acid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_ac
id#History_of_sulfuric_acid
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
5. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
6. ^ "Sulfuric acid#History of sulfuric
acid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_ac
id#History_of_sulfuric_acid
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
9. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
12. ^ "Sulfuric acid#History of
sulfuric acid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_ac
id#History_of_sulfuric_acid
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ "Geber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (+30) (+30)
17. ^ "Geber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
(+30)
Kufa, (now Iraq)14 15  
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg

[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
1,240 YBN
[760 AD] 4 		1020)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p180.
2. ^ "Al-Mansur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mansur
3. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun

4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
(guess based on) (guess based on)
  
1,230 YBN
[770 AD] 4 		1060) Earliest wood block Printed book.
Diamond Sūtra.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {868}
China3  
[1] A page from the Diamond Sutra,
printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era
of the Tang Dynasty, i.e. 868 CE.
Currently located in a museum in
London. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif
1,230 YBN
[770 AD] 8 		1074) Wood-cut Printing.5

Possibly around the 500s CE, carved
wood block appears as a substitute to
pressing paper onto marble pillars and
seals covered with ink. First, all of
the text is written in ink on a sheet
of fine paper, then the written side of
the sheet is applied to the smooth
surface of a block of wood, coated with
a rice paste that retains the ink of
the text. Next, an engraver cuts away
the uninked areas so that the text
stands out in relief and in reverse. To
make a print, the wood block is then
inked with a paintbrush, a sheet of
paper spread on it, and the back of the
sheet rubbed with a brush. Only one
side of the sheet can be printed. The
oldest known printed works are made by
this technique. In Japan about
764–770, Buddhist incantations
ordered by Empress Shōtoku are printed
using this technique, and in China in
868, the first known book, the Diamond
Sūtra is printed using wood blocks.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
5. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
6. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
7. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
8. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {868}
Japan7  
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif

[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
1,219 YBN
[781 AD] 15 16 		1254) Lower case letters.6

Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus (Alcuin)
(oLKWiN) (c.7327 -May 19, 804) a
scholar, ecclesiastic, poet and teacher
from York, England, accepts an
invitation from Charlesmagne to be head
of education for Charlemagne's kingdom
which is most of Western Europe.8 In
the Palace School of Charlemagne,
Alcuin will revolutionize the
educational standards of the Palace
School, introducing Charlemagne to the
liberal arts and creates an atmosphere
of scholarship and learning.9 In
Aachen, Alcuin designs a method of
writing "Carolingian minuscule" to fit
as much text on the expensive
parchment. This symbol set is the
ancestor of lower-case letters.10 All
writing before this is done in capital
(or majuscule) letters.11

In my opinion, while possibly saving
space on paper, lower case has
complicated language, and the most
simple and logical representation of
sound with symbols is a single
"one-letter-for-one-sound" phonetic
alphabet that can be used for all human
languages.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
5. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
9. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
11. ^ "Lower case". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_case
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
14. ^ "804,
781=accepts Charlemagne invitation)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
16. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great vowel shift".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel
_shift
[2] "Phonological history of the
English language". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologica
l_history_of_the_English_language
[3] "Carolingian minuscule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian
_minuscule
Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York,
England13 14  
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg

[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
1,211 YBN
[01/01/789 AD] 3 		1256) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (789) (789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charlesmagne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlesmagn
e
Aachen, in north-west Germany2  
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg

[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
1,204 YBN
[01/01/796 AD] 5 		1255) Alcuin establishes a school in
Tours where scribes are trained to
carefully copy manuscripts.2 The new
Carolingian miniscule alphabet letters
created by Alcuin will spread from text
copied here and ultimately develop into
the miniscule (or lower case) letters
used today.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Carolingian
minuscule". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian
_minuscule
4. ^ "Alcuin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
5. ^ "Alcuin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(796)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great vowel shift".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel
_shift
[2] "Phonological history of the
English language". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologica
l_history_of_the_English_language
[3] "Lower case". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_case
Tours, France 4  
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg

[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
1,200 YBN
[800 AD] 3 		1126) The first paddle-boat is invented
in China.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (estimate) (estimate)
China2   
1,200 YBN
[800 AD] 3 		1128) Paper making reaches Bagdad, 700
years after being invented in China.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (estimate) (estimate)
Bagdad2   
1,200 YBN
[800 AD] 8 		6221) Earliest bow for stringed
instrument.4 Plucking of stringed
instruments goes back at least 5000
years,5 but using a bow to play a
stringed instrument is a more recent
invention, dating to around the 800s
CE.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p47.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p47.
4. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
5. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80.
6. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
7. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p47.
8. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p47. {no later than 9th century) 800
CE}
River Oxus (modern) Turkmenistan
(Central Asia)7  
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg

[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
1,185 YBN
[815 AD] 14 15 		1021) "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of
Wisdom).8

Caliph al-Mamun9 10 founds the "Bayt
al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad,
Iraq. (Some people argue that
al-Mamun's father al-Rashid founded the
Bayt al-Hikma). A library and
observatory are joined to this house.11
 In the House of Wisdom, many works
will be translated from Greek, Persian
and Indian into Arabic. Many original
works will be created here too. The
House of Wisdom recruits and supports
the most talented scholars.12
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
2. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987).
3. ^ Seyyed Hossein
Nasr, "Science and Civilization in
Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts
Society, 1987).
4. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p69.
5. ^ Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek
Science Passed to the Arabs", (London;
New York: Kegan Paul, 2001), p166.
6. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
7. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987).
8. ^ Seyyed Hossein
Nasr, "Science and Civilization in
Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts
Society, 1987).
9. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p69.
10. ^ Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek
Science Passed to the Arabs", (London;
New York: Kegan Paul, 2001), p166.
11. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
12. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990), p181.
13. ^ Seyyed Hossein
Nasr, "Science and Civilization in
Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts
Society, 1987).
14. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987). (c815) (c815)
15. ^ Delacy O`Leary,
"How Greek Science Passed to the
Arabs", (London; New York: Kegan Paul,
2001). (before 828/829) (before
828/829)

MORE INFO
[1] "House of Wisdom)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayt_al-Hik
ma
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_W
isdom)
[2] "Harun Al-Rashid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harun_Al-Ra
shid
Baghdad13  
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg

[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
1,180 YBN
[820 AD] 4 		1127) "Oseberg ship", a viking ship
dates to here.1 This ship is a
clinker-built ship made of oak.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Oseberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseberg
3. ^ "Oseberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseberg
4. ^ "Oseberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseberg
Tønsberg, Vestfold county, Norway3
 
[1] The Oseberg longship (From the
Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oseberg_longship.png

[2] Detail from Osebergskipet,
Vikingskipmuseet, Oslo CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Osebergskipet-Detail.jpg
1,175 YBN
[825 AD] 9 		1257) Hindu-Arabic numerals (1 through
9), and decimal point notation.5

Al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: محمد بن
موسى الخوارزمي‎)
(oLKWoriZmE), as a scholar in the House
of Wisdom in Baghdad6 , writes a book
on elementary algebra, "al-Kitāb
al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr
waʾl-muqābala" ("The Compendious Book
on Calculation by Completion and
Balancing"). When this book is
translated into Latin in the 1100s, the
word for transposition "al-jabr" will
come to represent the science started
by Diofantos (Latin: Diophantus),
"Algebra". Algebra is the branch of
mathematics that involves solving
equations by using methods such as
transposition and cancellation.7
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "al-Khwārizmī." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
2. ^ "al-Khwārizmī." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
3. ^ "al-Khwārizmī." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
4. ^ "al-Khwārizmī." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
5. ^ "al-Khwārizmī." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
6. ^ "Al-Khwarizmi, Abu 'Ja'far
Muhammad Ibn Musa", "Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography", 2000,
p486-487.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "al-Khwārizmī."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
9. ^ "algebra". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/14885/algebra/231065/Islamic-con
tributions>.

MORE INFO
[1] "The Compendious Book on
Calculation by Completion and
Balancing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008,
p45.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Compend
ious_Book_on_Calculation_by_Completion_a
nd_Balancing
[2] "Al-Khwarizmi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khwarizm
i (c780+30)
[3] "Al-Khwarizmi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khwarizm
i (830CE (algebra book)
[4] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c780+30)
(c780+30)
(House of Wisdom) Bagdad, Iraq8  
[1] A page from Al-Khwārizmī's
al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb
al-jabr wa-l-muqābala. Source John
L. Esposito. The Oxford History of
Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195107993. Date c. 830 Author
al-Khwarizmi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab
r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg

[2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet
Union commemorative stamp, issued
September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his
name and says ''1200 years'', referring
to the approximate anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТА СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ
1200 LET 1200 years Мухаммед
аль·Хорезми Muxammed
al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
1,171 YBN
[829 AD] 8 		1299)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek
Science Passed to the Arabs", (London;
New York: Kegan Paul, 2001), p163.
2. ^ Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek Science
Passed to the Arabs", (London; New
York: Kegan Paul, 2001), p163.
4. ^ Delacy
O`Leary, "How Greek Science Passed to
the Arabs", (London; New York: Kegan
Paul, 2001), p163.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted
Huntington, p45.
7. ^ Delacy O`Leary, "How
Greek Science Passed to the Arabs",
(London; New York: Kegan Paul, 2001).
8. ^
Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek Science
Passed to the Arabs", (London; New
York: Kegan Paul, 2001).

MORE INFO
[1] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science
and Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge:
The Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
Sinjar in Mesopotamia, west of Mosul7
 		 
1,167 YBN
[833 AD] 8 9 		1298) Al-Khwārizmī writes a third
major work, his Kitāb ṣūrat
al-arḍ ("The Image of the Earth";
translated as "Geography"), which
presents the coordinates of localities
in the known world based, ultimately,
on those in the Geography of Ptolemy
(fl. CE 127–145) but with improved
values for the length of the
Mediterranean Sea and the location of
cities in Asia and Africa.
Al-Khwārizmī also assists in the
construction of a world map for
al-Maʾmūn and participates in a
project to determine the circumference
of the Earth by measuring the length of
a degree of a meridian through the
plain of Sinjār in Iraq.1

Al-Khwarizmi overestimates the
circumference of earth as (40,000
miles, actual is 25,000 miles2 3
).(units4 )5

Al-Khwārizmī also compiles a set of
astronomical tables (Zīj), based on a
variety of Hindu and Greek sources.
This work includes a table of sines,
evidently for a circle of radius 150
units.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "al-Khwārizmī." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
2. ^ "Earth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
3. ^ "Unit conversion table".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_conver
sion_table
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "al-Khwārizmī."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/317171/al-Khwarizmi>.
7. ^ "Al-Khwarizmi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khwarizm
i
8. ^ "Al-Khwarizmi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khwarizm
i
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "The history of
cartography". http://www-gap.dcs.st-and
.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Cartography.h
tml
Bagdad, Iraq7  
[1] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet
Union commemorative stamp, issued
September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his
name and says ''1200 years'', referring
to the approximate anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТА СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ
1200 LET 1200 years Мухаммед
аль·Хорезми Muxammed
al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg

[2] Hubert Daunicht's reconstruction
of al-Khwārizmī's
planisphere COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Khwarizmi%27s_map.png
1,159 YBN
[841 AD] 16 17 		1304) Al-Kindi grew up in Kufa where
his father was governor, and Kufa had
become a center of the sciences.
Al-Kindi becomes especially interested
in the philosophical sciences after
going to Baghdad. By this time a major
movement of translation (from Greek10 )
into Arabic had begun (in Baghdad11
).12

al-Kindi's full name is:
Abu Yusuf Ya'qub
ibn Ishaq al-Kindi
Many Arabic names follow a
similarf pattern. "Abu Yusuf", abu is
"father of" and Yusef is Joseph, so
al-Kindi had a child named Yusef.
Ya'qub is the person's first name, in
this case "Jacob". "ibn Ishaq", "ibn"
is "son of", "Ishaq" is "Isaac", so
al-Kindi's father's name is Ishaq.
Finally, the last name is where they
are from or a profession associated
with their family, "al-Kindi" is from
the tribe of Kindah13 .14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Al-Kindi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi
2. ^ "Al-Kindi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi
3. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p44.
4. ^
"Al-Kindi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi
5. ^ "Islamic astronomy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_ast
ronomy
6. ^ "Relativity an introduction to the
special theory", by Asghar Qadir, p5.
7. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p43.
8. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p44.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987), p43.
13. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987).
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^
"Al-Kindi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi
16. ^ "Al-Kindi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi
(c. 801-873 CE)
17. ^ "Islamic astronomy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008, p43.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_ast
ronomy (c. 801-873 CE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Yaqub ibn Ishaq as Sabah al
Kindi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5485/Yaqub-ibn-Ishaq-as-Sabah-al-Kindi
Baghdad, Iraq15  
[1] Al-Kindi depicted in a Syrian Post
stamp. http://www.apprendre-en-ligne.ne
t/crypto/stat/Al-Kindi.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kindi.jpg

[2] Abū-Yūsuf Ya''qūb
ibn Ishāq
al-Kindī http://www.islamonline.co
m/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp
?service_id=982
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-kindi.jpeg
1,150 YBN
[850 AD] 21 22 		1144) Gunpowder.13 14

The earliest Chinese records of
gunpowder indicate that it was a
byproduct of Taoist alchemical efforts
to develop an elixir of immortality.15
16 A book dating from c. 850 CE called
"Classified Essentials of the
Mysterious Tao of the True Origin of
Things" warns of one elixir:
"Some have
heated together sulfur, realgar and
saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames
result, so that their hands and faces
have been burnt, and even the whole
house where they were working burned
down.".17

The earliest gunpowder, black powder is
a mixture of saltpeter (potassium
nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal.18
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006),
"Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot:
Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
2. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
3. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
4. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
5. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
7. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
8. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
9. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
10. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
11. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
12. ^ Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder:
Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The
History of the Explosive that Changed
the World. Basic Books. ISBN
0-465-03718-6, 3.
13. ^ Buchanan, Brenda
J., ed. (2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives
and the State: A Technological
History", Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN
0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
14. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
15. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
16. ^ Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder:
Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The
History of the Explosive that Changed
the World. Basic Books. ISBN
0-465-03718-6, 3.
17. ^ Kelly, Jack
(2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, &
Pyrotechnics: The History of the
Explosive that Changed the World. Basic
Books. ISBN 0-465-03718-6, 4.
18. ^
"gunpowder." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 26 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gunpowder
19. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006),
"Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot:
Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
20. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
21. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
{850}
22. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7. {850}
China19 20  
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
1,150 YBN
[850 AD] 14 15 16 17 		1332) Hunayn ibn Ishaq is appointed by
Caliph al-Mutawakkil to the post of
chief physician to the court, a
position that ibn Ishaq will hold for
the rest of his life. Hunayn travels to
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to get
ancient Greek manuscripts.10 From his
translators' school in Baghdad, Ibn
Ishaq and his students will transmit
Arabic and (more frequently) Syriac
versions of classical Greek texts
throughout the Arabic population.11

Ibn Ishaq means "son of Isaac".12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Hunain ibn Ishaq". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunain_ibn_
Ishaq
2. ^ "Hunain ibn Ishaq". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunain_ibn_
Ishaq
3. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p44.
4. ^
"Hunayn ibn Ishaq". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1525/Hunayn-ibn-Ishaq
5. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p44.
6. ^
"Hunayn ibn Ishaq". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1525/Hunayn-ibn-Ishaq
7. ^ "Hunain ibn Ishaq". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunain_ibn_
Ishaq
8. ^ "Hunain ibn Ishaq". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunain_ibn_
Ishaq
9. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p44.
10. ^
"Hunayn ibn Ishaq". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1525/Hunayn-ibn-Ishaq
11. ^ "Hunayn ibn Ishaq". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1525/Hunayn-ibn-Ishaq
12. ^ "Ibn Ishaq". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ishaq
(different Ibn Ishaq)
13. ^ "Hunain ibn
Ishaq". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunain_ibn_
Ishaq
14. ^ Ted Huntington. (830 put in
charge of bayt al hikma (changed back
to 850 because al-Mutawakkil is not
Caliph until 847 and ibn-Ishaq is then
40)
15. ^ "Hunain ibn Ishaq". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunain_ibn_
Ishaq (830 put in charge of bayt al
hikma (changed back to 850 because
al-Mutawakkil is not Caliph until 847
and ibn-Ishaq is then 40)
16. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987). (810-877)
(810-877)
17. ^ "Hunain ibn Ishaq". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunain_ibn_
Ishaq (809-873)

MORE INFO
[1] "Al-Mutawakkil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutawakk
il
[2] "al Mutawakkil". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4493/al-Mutawakkil
Baghdad, Iraq13   
1,150 YBN
[850 AD] 7 		1333) As a young man, Al-Mutawakkil
held no political or military positions
of importance but took a keen interest
in religious debates that had
far-reaching political importance.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Al-Mutawakkil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutawakk
il
2. ^ "Al-Mutawakkil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutawakk
il
3. ^ "Al-Mutawakkil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutawakk
il
4. ^ "al Mutawakkil". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4493/al-Mutawakkil
5. ^ "al Mutawakkil". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4493/al-Mutawakkil
6. ^ "Al-Mutawakkil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutawakk
il
7. ^ "Al-Mutawakkil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutawakk
il (850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samarra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarra
Samarra (near Baghdad), Iraq6   
1,141 YBN
[859 AD] 4 		1336) University and mosque of Al
Qaraouine in Fès, Morocco. The oldest
University on Earth,1 however only
Muslims are admitted into the mosque.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Qarawīyīn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/485494/Qarawiyin>.
2. ^ "Qarawīyīn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/485494/Qarawiyin>.
3. ^ "Qarawīyīn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/485494/Qarawiyin>.
4. ^ "Qarawīyīn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/485494/Qarawiyin>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Madrasa#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa#His
tory
[2] "University of Al Karaouine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Al_Karaouine (founded in 859)
[3]
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170
Fes, Morocco3  
[1] Fes
(Maroc) Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine
(porte) Auteur : Fabos
1/4/05 Interior of the Al Karaouine
Mosque and University PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fes_Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine.jpg
1,124 YBN
[876 AD] 11 		1115) The number zero.6

The Babylonians appear to have
developed a placeholder symbol that
functioned as a zero by the 3rd century
BC, but its precise meaning and use is
still uncertain.7

There is no doubt that the symbol for
the number zero is invented in India,
but exactly how and for what purpose is
unclear.8

The oldest symbol "0" in India that can
be assigned a definite date, is
inscribed on a temple in Gwalior.9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
2. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
3. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
4. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
5. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
6. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
7. ^ "mathematics". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/369194/mathematics/65970/The-num
eral-system-and-arithmetic-operations>.
8. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
9. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
10. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero
11. ^ Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, "All for
Nought" http://www.ams.org/samplings/fe
ature-column/fcarc-india-zero

MORE INFO
[1] "Law of gravity". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_grav
ity
[2] "Brahmagupta's identity".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta
%27s_identity
[3] "Image:Brahmaguptra's theorem.svg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Brahm
aguptra%27s_theorem.svg
[4] "Puranic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puranic
[5] "Brahmagupta". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/77073/Brahmagupta>
Gwalior, India10  
[1] Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, ''All for
Nought'' http://www.ams.org/samplings/f
eature-column/fcarc-india-zero PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/samplings/fea
ture-column/fcarc-india-zero

[2] The temple is dated to 876 A. D.
and is much older than the current
fort, whose construction was begun in
the late 15th century, although it was
built quite a while after the original
one constructed on the plateau. It is,
like many temples in India, monolithic
- that is to say, originally carved out
of one single chunk of stone. It was
dedicated to Vishnu, but is no longer
an active site of worship. PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn
/images/february2007/temple3-small.jpg
1,124 YBN
[876 AD] 29 30 31 32 		1300) Thabit is a scion of a prominent
family settled in Harran (now in
Turkey17 ), a city noted as the seat of
a Hellenized Semitic astronomical cult,
the Sabians, of which Thabit was a
member. By calling themselves Sabians,
after a group mentioned in the Qur'an,
the cult members established themselves
as "People of the Book" and therefore
were freed from the requirement of
conversion to Islam.18

The Sabians of Harran, are a sect of
Hermetists, often confused with the
Mandaeans. As star-worshippers, Sabians
show a great interest in astronomy,
astrology, magic, and mathematics.19
This religious cult is centered around
the symbolism of the planets, and is
very interested in the Pythagorean
mathematical and mystical tradition.20
This sect lives will near the main
center of the Caliphate until 1258,
when the Mongols will destroy their
last shrine. During Muslim rule, they
are a protected minority, and around
the time of al-Mutawakkil's reign their
town will become a center for
philosophical, esoteric, and medical
learning. They are joined by the
descendants of pagan Greek scholars
who, having been persecuted in Europe,
settled in lands that became part of
the Abbasid caliphate. In this time the
Muslims are greatly interested in Greek
culture and science, collecting and
translating many ancient Greek works in
the fields of philosophy and
mathematics. Although they later became
Arabic speakers, in pre-Islamic times,
it was common for Sabians to speak
Greek.21

Some sources describe Thabit as a money
changer in Harran, the sources give two
different accounts of his life.22

Thabit and his pupils live in the midst
of the most intellectually vibrant, and
probably the largest, city of this
time, Baghdad. Ibn Qurra occupies
himself with mathematics, astronomy,
astrology, magic, mechanics, medicine,
and philosophy. His native language is
Syriac, which is the eastern dialect of
Aramaic (a semitic language) from
Edessa, and Thabit knows Greek well.23


Only a few of Thabit's works are
preserved in their original form.24

Through the influence of the
mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa ibn
Shakir (father of the three famous Banu
Musa mathematician brothers), late in
his life Thabit ibn Qurrah will become
court astronomer for the 'Abbasid
caliph al-Mu'tadid (reigns 892-902)25
and become the Caliph's personal
friend26 .

Several of Thabit ibn Qurrah's works
will be translated into Latin and
Hebrew and will prove to be influential
in the Latin West. A son, Sinan ibn
Thabit, will become a renowned
physician and director of a hospital in
Baghdad, and a grandson, Ibrahim ibn
Sinan, will win fame as an important
mathematician.27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
2. ^ "Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
3. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
4. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
5. ^ "Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^
http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/QU
RRA.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
10. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p45.
11. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Thabit ibn
Qurra". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
15. ^
http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/QU
RRA.html
16. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
17. ^ "Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
18. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
19. ^ "Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
20. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p44.
21. ^
"Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
22. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
23. ^ "Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
24. ^ "Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
25. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
26. ^ "Thabit Ibn Qurra". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
27. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
30. ^ "Thabit Ibn
Qurra". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabit_Ibn_
Qurra
31. ^ "Thabit ibn Qurra". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1897/Thabit-ibn-Qurra
32. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987). (826 or
836-901) (826 or 836-901)

MORE INFO
[1] "Syriac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac
Bagdad, Iraq28  
[1] None, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.islam.org.br/Ibn_Qurr
a.gif

[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.renaissanceastrology.
com/thabit.html
1,122 YBN
[878 AD] 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 		1301) Alfred creates a legal Code,
reconciling the long established laws
of the Christian kingdoms of Kent,
Mercia and Wessex. These formed
Alfred"s "Deemings" or Book of "Dooms"
(Book of Laws).12 The Doom Book, Code
of Alfred or Legal Code of Aelfred the
Great, was the code of laws (dooms,
laws, or judgments) compiled by Alfred
the Great from three prior Saxon codes,
to which he prefixed the Ten
Commandments of Moses, and incorporated
rules of life from the Mosaic Code and
the Christian code of ethics. The title
"Doom book" (originally dom-boc or
dom-boke) comes from dōm
(pronounced "doom") which is the
Anglo-Saxon word meaning "judgment", or
"law".13

Apart from the lost Handboc or
Encheiridion, which seems to have been
only a commonplace book kept by the
king, the earliest work to be
translated is the "Dialogues" of
Gregory, a book that is very popular in
the Middle Ages. In this case the
translation is made by Alfred's great
friend Werferth, Bishop of Worcester,
the king providing a foreword. The next
work to be undertaken is Gregory's
"Pastoral Care", especially for the
benefit of the parish clergy. In this
translation Alfred keeps very close to
his original; but the introduction
Alfred writes for this book is one of
the most interesting documents of the
reign, or indeed of English history.
The next two works translated are
historical, the "Universal History" of
Orosius and Bede's "Ecclesiastical
History of the English People".
Probably Orosius was first. In the
Orosius translation, by omissions and
additions, Alfred so changes the
original as to produce an almost new
work; however in the Bede translation
the author's text closely follows the
original with no additions being made,
though most of the documents and some
other less interesting matters are
omitted.14

One of the most interesting
translations by Alfred is his
translation of "The Consolation of
Philosophy" of Boethius, the most
popular philosophical handbook of the
Middle Ages. Here again Alfred deals
very freely with his original copy.
Many of the additions to the text can
be traced to the glosses and
commentaries Alfred uses and not to
Alfred himself. In the Boethius
translation is an often quoted
sentence: "My will was to live worthily
as long as I lived, and after my life
to leave to them that should come
after, my memory in good works." This
book has only survived in two
manuscripts. In one of these the
writing is prose, in the other a
combination of prose and alliterating
verse. The latter manuscript was
severely damaged in the 18th and 19th
centuries, and the authorship of the
verse has been much disputed; but
likely it also is by Alfred. In fact,
he writes in the prelude that he first
created a prose work and then used it
as the basis for his poem, the Lays of
Boethius, his crowning literary
achievement. Alfred spends a great deal
of time working on these books, and
explains that he gradually wrote
through the many stressful times of his
reign to refresh his mind.15

The last of Alfred's works is one to
which he gave the name "Blostman",
i.e., "Blooms" or "Anthology". The
first half is based mainly on the
Soliloquies of St Augustine of Hippo,
the remainder is drawn from various
sources, and contains much that is
Alfred's own and highly characteristic
of him. The last words of it may be
quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for
the noblest of English kings.
"Therefore he seems to me a very
foolish man, and truly wretched, who
will not increase his understanding
while he is in the world, and ever wish
and long to reach that endless life
where all shall be made clear."16
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
2. ^ "Alfred". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5679/Alfred
3. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Alfred The Great".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
6. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
7. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
8. ^ "Annals". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals
9. ^ "Anglo-Saxon chronicle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon
_chronicle
10. ^ "Martyrology". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyrology

11. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
12. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
13. ^ "Doom book". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_book
14. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
15. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
16. ^ "Alfred The Great". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great
17. ^ "Alfred". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5679/Alfred
18. ^ "Alfred". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5679/Alfred (878 invites scholars)
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (birth=849)
(birth=849)
20. ^ "Alfred". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5679/Alfred (birth=849)
21. ^ "Alfred The Great".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great (birth=849)
22. ^ "Alfred". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5679/Alfred (death= 10/28/899)
23. ^ "Alfred The
Great". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_The_
Great (death= 10/28/899)
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=10/28/900)
(=10/28/900)
Wessex (871-899), a Saxon kingdom in
southwestern England.17  
[1] Alfred the
Great Corbis-Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8295?articleTypeId=1

[2] Statue of Alfred the Great,
Wantage, Oxfordshire GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg
1,112 YBN
[888 AD] 8 9 10 11 		1305) Arab astronomer, Al-Battani
refines existing values for the length
of the year and of the seasons, for the
annual precession of the equinoxes, and
for the inclination of the ecliptic.1
The inclination of the ecliptic is the
angle made between the plane the earth
rotates the sun in (the celestial
equator) and the plane the Earth
rotates itself in.2 The ecliptic is a
circle in the celestial sphere that is
the apparent path of the Sun among the
constellations in the course of a year.
The ecliptic intersects the plane of
the celestial equator at the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes.3 4

This improved value for the length of
the year will be used 700 years later
in the Gregorian reform of the Julian
Calendar.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "al Battani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3772/al-Battani (c858-929)
2. ^ "ecliptic."
Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley .
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 26
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ecliptic
3. ^ "ecliptic." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Feb.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ecliptic
4. ^ "ecliptic." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley .
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 26
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ecliptic
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "al Battani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3772/al-Battani
8. ^ "al Battani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3772/al-Battani
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c858 - 929) (c858 -
929)
10. ^ "Muhammad ibn Jābir
al-Harrānī al-Battānī".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ib
n_J%C4%81bir_al-Harr%C4%81n%C4%AB_al-Bat
t%C4%81n%C4%AB (c853-929)
11. ^ "al Battani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3772/al-Battani (c858-929)

MORE INFO
[1] "Raqqa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa
[2] Al-Battānī, Abū ‘Abd Allāh
Muḥammad Ibn Jābir Ibn Sinān
Al-Raqqī Al-Ḥarrānī
Al-Ṣābi’." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 507-516.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012
ar-Raqqa6 , Syria7  
[1] Description Deutsch: Al-Battani
(850-926) Date 7 March 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
de.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Septembermorgen using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
http://usuarios.lycos.es/Torbi/astronomi
aenelmundoarabe/albattani.htm) Author u
nbekannt. Original uploader was Dr.
Manuel at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. Other
versions http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Al-Battani.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Albategnius.jpeg
1,110 YBN
[890 AD] 4 		1129) The Gokstad ship is a late 9th
century clinker-built Viking ship found
in a ship burial beneath a burial mound
at Gokstad farm in Sandar, Sandefjord,
Vestfold, Norway. Dendrochronolgical
(tree ring) dating suggests that the
ship was built of timber that was
felled around 890 CE.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gokstad Ship". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gokstad_Shi
p
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Gokstad Ship". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gokstad_Shi
p
4. ^ "Gokstad Ship". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gokstad_Shi
p
Sandar, Sandefjord, Vestfold, Norway3
 		 
1,110 YBN
[890 AD] 4 		1302)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alfred". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5679/Alfred
2. ^ "Anglo Saxon Chronicle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7591/Anglo-Saxon-Chronicle
3. ^ "Anglo-Saxon chronicle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon
_chronicle
4. ^ "Anglo Saxon Chronicle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7591/Anglo-Saxon-Chronicle (890)
Wessex (871-899), a Saxon kingdom in
southwestern England.3  
[1] The initial page of the
Peterborough Chronicle, marked
secondarily by the librarian of the
Laud collection. The manuscript is an
autograph of the monastic scribes of
Peterborough. The opening sections were
likely scribed around 1150. The section
displayed is prior to the First
Continuation. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peterborough.Chronicle.firstpage.jpg

[2] A page from the C manuscript of
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It shows the
entry for the year 871. British
Library Cotton Tiberius B i. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ASC_C_ms_871.jpg
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 13 14 15 16 		1379) Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum,
or the "Salerno Book of Health" from
this school will be first printed in
1484.10
This school shows that the
people of Italy are very early in the
development of universities, education
and women's rights.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Schola Medica Salernitana".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medi
ca_Salernitana
2. ^ "dispensary". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"dispensary". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
ispensary
3. ^ "university". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4363/university
4. ^
http://www.galter.northwestern.edu/libra
ry_notes/40/salerno.cfm
5. ^
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/conten
t/abstract/64/6/1855
6. ^ "University of Salerno".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5054/University-of-Salerno
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Schola Medica
Salernitana". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medi
ca_Salernitana
9. ^
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/conten
t/abstract/64/6/1855
10. ^
http://www.galter.northwestern.edu/libra
ry_notes/40/salerno.cfm
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ "Schola Medica
Salernitana". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medi
ca_Salernitana
13. ^
http://www.galter.northwestern.edu/libra
ry_notes/40/salerno.cfm (900)
14. ^
"university". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4363/university (800s)
15. ^ "Schola Medica
Salernitana". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medi
ca_Salernitana (monestary founded in
800s)
16. ^ "University of Salerno".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5054/University-of-Salerno (notes for
physicians at 900)

MORE INFO
[1] "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
[2] "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[3] "Salerno#Salerno and the revival of
medical learning in Western Europe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salerno#Sal
erno_and_the_revival_of_medical_learning
_in_Western_Europe
Salerno, Italy12  
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg

[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 9 10 		5865) Polyphonic works are called
"Organum" (plural: Organa). The
earliest written form of polyphonic
music is found in the treatise "Musica
enchiriadis" (c. 900; "Musical
Handbook"), in which organum consists
of two melodic lines moving
simultaneously note against note.3 The
planchant melody is called the "vox
principalis" (principal voice), and the
additional voice is called the "vox
organalis" (the organal, or added,
voice). In the simplest parallel
organum, a single organal voice runs a
fourth or fifth below the principal
voice. Other examples include four
voices, with the principal voice
doubled an octave down and the organal
voice doubled an octave up.4 In some
instances, the two voices start in
unison, then move to wider intervals.5


At this early stage, there are no
rhythmic signs beyond the words of the
chant in the "Musica Enchiriadis", but
the pitches are indicated precisely
through the daseian signs in the margin
at left. Adapted from grammatical
accent marks in ancient Greek, each of
these corresponds to a specific pitch.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003,
p50-52.
2. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
3. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003,
p50-52.
5. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
6. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003,
p50-52.
7. ^ "Musica enchiriadis." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 31 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/musica-ench
iriadis
8. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003,
p50-52.
9. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>. {c900}
10. ^ Mark Evan
Bonds, "A History of Music in Western
Culture", 2003, p50-52. {c850-900}
northern part of the West Frankish
empire7 |Possibly written in what is
now Eastern France8  
[1] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png
1,096 YBN
[904 AD] 4 		1145)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
2. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
3. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
4. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
China3  
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
1,095 YBN
[905 AD] 9 10 11 		1303) Plaster used to hold broken bones
in place.3 Al-Razi {oL-rAZE} rejects
Islam and other religions.4

Al-Razi {oL-rAZE} (full name Abū Bakr
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi Latin:
Rhazes), a Persian physician and
chemist, is the first to prepare
"plaster of paris" and describes how it
can be used to hold broken bones in
place, to identify and distinguish
between smallpox and measles5 , is the
first of record to divide all
substances into animal, vegetable and
mineral, accepts the atom theory,
dismisses miracles and mysticism,
thinks religion harmful and the cause
of hatred and wars.6

Al-Razi openly criticizes religions7
including the new rising religion of
Islam describing the Koran as
(translated) "...a work which recounts
ancient myths, and which at the same
time is full of contradictions and does
not contain any useful information or
explanation.".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Al-Rāzī, Abū Bakr
Muḥammad Ibn Zakariyyā." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 323-326. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Feb.
2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830903599&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Al-Rāzī, Abū Bakr
Muḥammad Ibn Zakariyyā." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 323-326. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Feb.
2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830903599&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Rhazes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Al-Rāzī, Abū Bakr
Muḥammad Ibn Zakariyyā." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 323-326. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Feb.
2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830903599&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Jennifer Michael Hecht, "Doubt: A
History: The Great Doubters and Their
Legacy of Innovation from Socrates and
Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily
Dickinson", pg. 227-230
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c845 - c930)
(c845 - c930)
10. ^ "Rhazes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes
(865-925)
11. ^ "ar Razi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2842/ar-Razi (c865-923/932)
Rayy (near Tehran, Iran)  
[1] Description English: Muhammad ibn
Zakariya ar-Razi Date before
1970 Source Iranian 2nd year of
Rahnamai textbook Author Unknown PD
source: http://www.hmc.org.qa/hmc/qmj/ju
ne2002/biography/BIO3.HTM

[2] Al-Razi from a book cover
COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhazes.jpg
1,090 YBN
[910 AD] 17 18 19 		1407) Al-Farabi studies music theory
and composes music. Some of al-Farabi's
compositions have survived in the rites
of the Sufi brotherhoods, in particular
those in Anatolia.12
Al-Farabi is a
practicing Sufi.13

Al-Farabi had great influence on
science and philosophy for several
centuries, and was widely regarded to
be second only to Aristotle in
knowledge (alluded to by his title of
"the Second Teacher"). His work, aimed
at synthesis of philosophy and Sufism,
paved the way for Ibn Sina's work.

The major part of al-Farabi's writings
are directed to the problem of the
correct ordering of the state.
Al-Farabi's views are similar to
Plato's "Republic" in the elitist
undemocratic belief14 that, just as
God rules the universe, so should the
philosopher, as the most perfect kind
of man, rule the state; al-Farabi
therefore relates the political
upheavals of his time to the separation
of the philosopher from government.15
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
2. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987).
3. ^ "Al-Farabi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi
4. ^ "Al-Farabi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi
5. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
6. ^
"Al-Farabi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi
7. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
8. ^ "al
Farabi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3714/al-Farabi
9. ^ "al Farabi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3714/al-Farabi
10. ^ "Al-Farabi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi
11. ^ "Al-Farabi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi
12. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
13. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987).
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "al
Farabi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3714/al-Farabi
16. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
17. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987). (c870-950)
(c870-950)
18. ^ "al Farabi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3714/al-Farabi (c878-c950)
19. ^ "Al-Farabi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi
(c870-950 or 951)
Baghdad, Iraq16  
[1] Al-Farabi's imagined face appears
on the currency of the Republic of
Kazakhstan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:200TengeNote.jpg
1,080 YBN
[920 AD] 17 		6183) Norwegian explorers reach North
America.11 12

In 1961 (verify) Helge Ingstad, finds
in Northern Newfoundland a site that
establishes the presence of European
settlers in North America prior to
Columbus. For seven successive summers
expeditions excavate this site under
the leadership of Anne Stine Ingstad, a
trained archaeologist. They excavate
seven house sites, a smithy, and four
"boat sheds," as well as some open-air
hearths and a charcoal kiln.
All of the walls
were built of turf, now largely
decomposed, and nearly
all of the rooms were
equipped with simple hearths. The
artifacts collected
number in the hundreds, but
most of them are
small iron objects (rivets
and nails), slag and bog-ore, stone
implements,
charcoal, and brittle-burned stones;
there are two unquestionably Norse
pieces of
handicraft, a soapstone spindle whorl,
and a ring-headed pin
of bronze (thought to
be a belt pin). Bones were found of a
pig, a whale, and a seal.13 14
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
2. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
3. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
4. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
5. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
6. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
7. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
8. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
9. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
10. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
11. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
12. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
13. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
14. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
15. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
16. ^ Wallace, Birgitta. “L’Anse
Aux Meadows, Leif Eriksson’s Home in
Vinland.” Journal of the North
Atlantic 2.sp2 (2011) :
114-125. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/
10.3721/037.002.s212
17. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
{920}
L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland15 16
 
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.

[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
1,064 YBN
[936 AD] 		1408) Al-Mas'udi is known as the
"Herodotus of the Arabs".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "al Masudi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1339/al-Masudi
2. ^ "al Masudi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1339/al-Masudi
3. ^ "al Masudi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1339/al-Masudi
4. ^ "al Masudi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1339/al-Masudi
5. ^ "al Masudi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1339/al-Masudi
6. ^ "al Masudi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1339/al-Masudi
7. ^ "Al-Masudi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Masudi
8. ^ Mas'udi, The Meadows of Gold, The
Abbasids, transl. Paul Lunde and
Caroline Stone, Kegan Paul, London and
New York, 1989
9. ^ "Al-Masudi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Masudi
10. ^ Mas'udi, The Meadows of Gold, The
Abbasids, transl. Paul Lunde and
Caroline Stone, Kegan Paul, London and
New York, 1989
11. ^ "Al-Masudi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Masudi
12. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/al-masudi
[2] "Paper#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper#Histo
ry
Baghdad, Iraq12   
1,040 YBN
[960 AD] 13 14 		6186) Earliest evidence of rockets.
These are gun-powder rockets probably
in hollow bamboo tubes.8

Fire-arrow technology is described in
the "Complete Compendium of Military
Classics" (960 CE), which provides
evidence that Emperor Tseng Kung-Liang
had a group of rocketeers equipped to
make and fire powder rockets in
combat.9

Certainly by the year 1045 CE, the use
of gunpowder and rockets forms an
integral aspect of Chinese military
tactics.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
2. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
3. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
4. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
5. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
6. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10.
7. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
8. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
9. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10.
10. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
11. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10.
12. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
13. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10. {960
CE}
14. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt {1045} {1045 CE}
China11 12  
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif

[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
1,036 YBN
[964 AD] 11 		1502)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Al Sufi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
2. ^ "Andromeda Galaxy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_G
alaxy
3. ^ Kepple, George Robert; Glen W.
Sanner (1998). The Night Sky Observer's
Guide, Volume 1. Willmann-Bell, Inc.,
18. ISBN 0-943396-58-1.
4. ^ "Al Sufi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
5. ^ "Magellanic Clouds". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magellanic_
Clouds
6. ^ "Al Sufi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
7. ^ "Al Sufi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
8. ^ "Al Sufi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
9. ^ "Isfahan (city)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan_%28
city%29
10. ^ "Al Sufi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
11. ^ "Al Sufi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
(964)
Isfahan (Eşfahān), Persia
(modern Iran9 )10  
[1] Persian Astronomer Al Sufi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al_Sufi.jpg

[2] The constellation Centaurus from
The Depiction of Celestial
Constellations. An image of Al Sufi
from the 'Depiction of Celestial
Constellations' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Book_Al_Sufi.jpg
1,030 YBN
[970 AD] 7 8 		1338) The mosque is built in two years
from 969 CE, the year in which its
foundation is laid. Studies will begin
in Al-Azhar in Ramadan by October 975
CE, when Chief Justice Abul Hasan Ali
ibn Al-No'man starts teaching the book
"Al-Ikhtisar", on the Shiite
Jurisprudence.4
Al-Azhar University is
the leading institution for Sunni
learning in the Islamic world.5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "al-Azhar University."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/46851/al-Azhar-University>.
2. ^ "Al-Azhar University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_Un
iversity
3. ^ "Al-Azhar University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_Un
iversity
4. ^ "Al-Azhar University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_Un
iversity
5. ^ "Al-Azhar University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_Un
iversity
6. ^ "al-Azhar University."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/46851/al-Azhar-University>.
7. ^ "Al-Azhar University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_Un
iversity (Studies began in Al-Azhar in
Ramadan by October 975 CE)
8. ^ "al-Azhar
University." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/46851/al-Azhar-University>.
Cairo, Egypt6  
[1] Description English: Al-Azhar
Mosque and Al Azhar University,
Cairo. Date June 2006 Source Own
work Author Tentoila PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Al-Azhar_2006.j
pg/1280px-Al-Azhar_2006.jpg

[2] Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo
Egypt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Azhar_Mosque_.jpg
1,025 YBN
[975 AD] 3 		1839)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
2. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
3. ^ "Pascal's triangle (975)'s
triangle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle (975) (975)
?, India2 (presumably)  
1,024 YBN
[976 AD] 2 		1307)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "History of the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_Hindu-Arabic_numeral_system
2. ^ "History of the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_Hindu-Arabic_numeral_system

MORE INFO
[1] "Codex Vigilanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Vigil
anus
 
[1] The first Arabic numerals in a
Western manuscript, AD 976. From Codex
Vigilanus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1st_Arabic_numerals_in_West.jpg
1,021 YBN
[979 AD] 4 		1410)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
2. ^
http://www.muslimheritage.com/day_life/d
efault.cfm?ArticleID=431&Oldpage=1&yearl
ist=1
3. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
4. ^
http://www.muslimheritage.com/day_life/d
efault.cfm?ArticleID=431&Oldpage=1&yearl
ist=1 (979 makes astronomical
observations.)

MORE INFO
[1] "Al-Majriti". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Majriti
Cordova, Spain3   
1,019 YBN
[981 AD] 4 		1385) The Al-Adudi hospital is named
after Emir 'Adud al-Daula. The hospital
will be destroyed in 1258 by the Mongol
invasion.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Al-Adudi Hospital". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Adudi_Ho
spital
2. ^ "Al-Adudi Hospital". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Adudi_Ho
spital
3. ^ "Al-Adudi Hospital". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Adudi_Ho
spital
4. ^ "Al-Adudi Hospital". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Adudi_Ho
spital
Baghdad, Iraq3   
1,018 YBN
[982 AD] 5 		1130) Norse people from Iceland reach
Greenland, which they find
uninhabited.1 2 They establish three
settlements near the very southwestern
tip of the island, where they will live
for about 450 years.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Greenland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Greenland". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland
4. ^ "Greenland". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland
5. ^ "Greenland". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland
Greenland4   
1,015 YBN
[985 AD] 16 17 		1306) In 999 Gerbert will become the
first French Pope as Sylvester II.13
In
a letter of 984, Gerbert asks Lupitus
of Barcelona for a translation of an
Arabic astronomical treatise.14
Gerbert
may have been the author of a
description of the astrolabe that will
be edited by Hermannus Contractus
around 50 years later.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gerbert of Aurillac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_
Aurillac
2. ^ "Gerbert of Aurillac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_
Aurillac
3. ^ "Arabic numerals". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_nume
rals
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Gerbert of Aurillac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_
Aurillac
6. ^ "Arabic numerals". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_nume
rals
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Sylvester II".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0706/Sylvester-II
10. ^ "Gerbert of Aurillac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_
Aurillac
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Gerbert of
Aurillac". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_
Aurillac
15. ^ "Gerbert of Aurillac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_
Aurillac
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c. 945-May 12,
1003)
17. ^ "Gerbert of Aurillac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_
Aurillac (c. 950 - May 12, 1003)
Auvergne, France 
[1] Impression of Sylvester II. Artist
unknown. immediate source:
italycyberguide.com [1] [2], marked
''© Copyright 1999-2004 Riccardo
Cigola'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II.JPG

[2] Pope Silvester II. and the
Devil Illustration from Cod. Pal.
germ. 137, Folio 216v Martinus
Oppaviensis, Chronicon pontificum et
imperatorum ~1460 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II._and_the_Devil_Cod._Pal.
_germ._137_f216v.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 19 20 21 22 		1022) The "Suda", one of the first
encyclopedias is compiled, credited to
a person named Suidas.10 11

Suda, or Suidas, breaks with tradition
by adopting alphabetical order for its
contents.12

There is evidence that the Suda is
compiled in the latter part of the
900s. Passages referring to Michael
Psellus (end of 11th century) are
considered later interpolations. The
lexicon is arranged alphabetically with
some slight deviations; letters and
combinations of letters having the same
sound being placed together. The Suda
is both a dictionary and
encyclopedia.13

The Suda includes numerous quotations
from ancient writers; the scholiasts
(commentary on the margin of a
manuscript) on Aristophanes, Homer,
Sophocles and Thucydides are also used
often. The biographical notices, the
author explains, are condensed from the
"Onomatologion" or "Pinax" of Hesychius
of Miletus; other sources were the
excerpts of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, the chronicle of
Georgius Monachus, the biographies of
Diogenes Laertius and the works of
Athenaeus and Philostratus.14


Most of the Suda was lost during the
crusader sacking of Constantinople and
the Ottoman pillage of the city in
1453.15
The lexicon is arranged, not
quite alphabetically, but according to
a system (formerly common in many
lagnauges) called antistoichia; namely
the letters follow phonetically, in
order of sound (in the pronunciation of
Suida's time, which is the same as
modern Greek, and serves as a key to
the authentic pronunciation of each
letter, letter group and word).16 17
Mos
t of the Alexandrian librarians are
listed with more details in the Suda.18

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Suidae lexicon: Graecè et
Latinè, Volume 1, Part 1, page XXXIX
(in Greek and
Latin) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7OFCgP0UCy4C
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
3. ^
http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
4. ^ Suidae lexicon: Graecè et
Latinè, Volume 1, Part 1, page XXXIX
(in Greek and
Latin) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7OFCgP0UCy4C
5. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
6. ^
http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
7. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
8. ^ "Suidas." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/suidas
9. ^ "encyclopaedia". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/186603/encyclopaedia/32024/Encyc
lopaedias-of-countries-and-regions>.
10. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
11. ^ "Suidas." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/suidas
12. ^ "encyclopaedia". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/186603/encyclopaedia/32024/Encyc
lopaedias-of-countries-and-regions>.
13. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
14. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
15. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
16. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ Roy MacLeod,
"The Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
19. ^
Suda On Line: Byzantine
Lexicography http://www.stoa.org/sol/
20. ^ "Suidas." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 26
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/suidas
21. ^ http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
22. ^ "encyclopaedia."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/186603/encyclopaedia>.
 
[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 10 		1054) Paper money.6

The first use of paper money occurred
in China more than 1,000 years ago.7

Initially paper money represents
promises to pay specified amounts of
metal coin money (gold and silver) for
which carrying in large quantities is
inconvenient and a risk for loss or
theft. These promises are initially
issued by individuals or companies as
banknotes or as the transferable book
entries that come to be called
deposits. Although deposits and
banknotes begin as claims to gold or
silver on deposit at a bank or with a
merchant, this later changes. Knowing
that everyone will not claim their
balance at once, bankers and merchants
start to issue more claims to the gold
and silver than the amount they
actually hold. In periods of distress,
however, when borrowers did not repay
their loans or in case of overissue,
the banks could fail. So gradually,
governments assume a supervisory role.
Later paper money—promises to pay in
gold or silver are replaced by
Governments with "fiat" paper money—
notes that are legal tender but are not
promises to pay something else like
gold or silver.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
5. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
6. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
7. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
8. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
9. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
10. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {before) 1000 YBN}
China9  
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg

[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 3 		1131) Watermills are widely used in
Europe at this time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (estimate) (estimate)
Europe2   
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 5 		1132) Motte-and-bailey castles are
constructed.1 Many were built in
Britain and France in the 11th and 12th
centuries, especially in England
following the Norman Conquest of 1066.

The motte is a raised earth mound, like
a small hill, usually assembled and
topped with a wooden or stone structure
known as a keep. The earth for the
mound would be taken from a ditch, dug
around the motte or around the whole
castle. The outer surface of the mound
could be covered with clay or
strengthened with wooden supports.2

The bailey is an enclosed courtyard,
typically surrounded by a wooden fence
and overlooked by the motte. A castle
could have more than one bailey,
sometimes an inner and an outer.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Motte-and-bailey castle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte-and-b
ailey_castle
3. ^ "Motte-and-bailey castle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte-and-b
ailey_castle
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (estimate) (estimate)
Europe4  
[1] Model of a motte-and-bailey Museum
of Bayeux, model of castle / Personal
Picture taken bu user Urban, February
2005 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tapisserie_motte_maquette.jpg

[2] The remains of a large Norman
motte-and-bailey castle at Brinklow in
Warwickshire, England. At one time a
wooden fort would have stood on top of
the mound which measures 13 metres (40
feet) high. The castle at Brinklow is
especially well preserved, and has been
declared an Ancient Monument. This
one is believed to be built upon the
site of an ancient burial mound, which
pre-dated the Norman invasion, although
this has not been proved. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brinklow_castle_mound.jpg
990 YBN
[1010 AD] 38 39 40 41 		1311) Ibn Sina is an infant prodigy
that can recite the Quran and many
Persian poems22 at age 1023 24 .
Ibn
Sina wrongly believes that
transmutation (changing of atoms from
one kind to the other) to be
impossible (although only achieved in
the 1900s in particle physics by
Rutherford, Fermi and others).25 26

Ibn Sina turnes his attention to health
at age 16, and achieves full status as
a physician at age 18, Ibn Sina writes
that "Medicine is no hard and thorny
science, like mathematics and
metaphysics, so I soon made great
progress; I became an excellent doctor
and began to treat patients, using
approved remedies." The youthful
physician's popularity spreads quickly,
and he treats many patients without
asking for payment.27

In Hamadan, Ibn Sina is even raised to
the office of vizier (a high ranking
advisor to an Arab monarch such as a
Caliph, Amir, Malik (king) or Sultan28
)29 in Hamadan30 .

Ibn Sin'a book حكمت
مشرقيه
(hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya, in Latin
"Philosophia Orientalis"), which Roger
Bacon will mention, is now lost.
According to Averroes this book is
pantheistic in tone.31

Ibn Sina is, like all his countrymen,
ample in the enumeration of symptoms,
and is said to be inferior to Ali in
practical medicine and surgery. Ibn
Sina introduces into medical theory the
four causes of the Peripatetic system.
The Canon will still be used as a
textbook in the universities of Leuven
and Montpellier up to around the year
1650.32

In the museum at Bukhara, there are
displays showing many of Ibn Sina's
writings, surgical instruments from the
period and paintings of patients
undergoing treatment. Ibn Sina was
interested in the effect of the mind on
the body, and writes a great deal on
psychology, likely influencing Ibn
Tufayl and Ibn Bajjah.33

Some of Ibn Sina's books are dictated
from horseback while accompanying a
ruler to some battle.34

Ibn Sina writes extensively on the
subjects of philosophy, logic, ethics,
metaphysics and other disciplines. Most
of his works were written in Arabic,
and some are written in the Persian
language. Of linguistic significance
even to this day are a few books that
Ibn Sina writes in nearly pure Persian
language (particularly the
Danishnamah-yi 'Ala', Philosophy for
Ala' ad-Dawla'). Avicenna's
commentaries on Aristotle often correct
the philosopher, encouraging a lively
debate in the spirit of ijtihad35 , (a
technical term of Islamic law that
describes the process of making a legal
decision by independent interpretation
of the legal sources, the Qur'an and
the Sunnah36 ).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Avicenna".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1433/Avicenna
3. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p49.
4. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p49.
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p49.
7. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
10. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
17. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
18. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
19. ^ "Momentum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum
20. ^ "Momentum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum
21. ^ A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn
Sīnā and Buridan on the
Motion of the Projectile", Annals of
the New York Academy of Sciences 500
(1), p. 477-482: "Thus he
considered impetus as proportional to
weight times velocity. In other words,
his conception of impetus comes very
close to the concept of momentum of
Newtonian mechanics."
22. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p48.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Ted Huntington
27. ^ "Ibn sina".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
28. ^ "Vizier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier
29. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
30. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p48.
31. ^
"Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
32. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
33. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
34. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p49.
35. ^
"Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
36. ^ "Ijtihad". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad
37. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
38. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (980-06/1037)
(980-06/1037)
39. ^ "Ibn sina". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_sina
(980-1037)
40. ^ "Avicenna". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1433/Avicenna (980-1037)
41. ^ Seyyed Hossein
Nasr, "Science and Civilization in
Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts
Society, 1987), p48. (980-1037)
(980-1037)
Hamadan, Iran37  
[1] Source:
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/ir
an_sience.htm - Permission granted by
CAIS. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg

[2] Ibn Sina - w:Avicenna, as
appearing on a Polish stamp PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna2.jpg
975 YBN
[1025 AD] 8 		5868) The system of Arezzo consists in
the construction by thirds of a system
of four lines, or staff, and the use of
letters as clefs. The red F-line and
the yellow C-line were already in use,
but Guido adds a black line between the
F and the C and another black line
above the C. The neumes (notational
signs used in the Middle Ages that
represented specific kinds of melodic
motion and manners of performance3 )
can now be placed on the lines and
spaces between and a definite pitch
relationship established. With this
system it is no longer necessary to
learn melodies by memory, and Guido
declares that his system reduces the 10
years normally required to become an
ecclesiastical singer to one year.4

A well-developed "solmization" (a
system of designating musical notes by
syllable names) exists in the music of
India, using the syllables ṣa, ṛi,
ga, ma, pa, dha, ni; and similar
systems occur in, for example, Chinese,
Southeast Asian, and ancient Greek
music. The system that predominates in
European music is introduced by the
Italian monk, Guido of Arezzo, who
derives it from the Latin hymn, "Ut
queant laxis".5

During the half century after Guido’s
death (CE 1050-1100), developments
occur more rapidly as the plainsong
chant becomes the lower rather than the
upper voice. Then the organal part, vox
organalis is freed. The peak of this
freedom is reached in the organums of
the monastery of Saint-Martial in
Limoges, France, where the plainsong
part is reduced to the role of
sustaining each tone while the organal
part performs in free melismata (groups
of notes sung to a single syllable),
either improvised or composed. This new
style is called organum purum.6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Guido d’Arezzo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248582/Guido-dArezzo>.
2. ^ "solmization." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/553469/solmization>.
3. ^ "Neumes." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 31 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neumes
4. ^ "Guido d’Arezzo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248582/Guido-dArezzo>.
5. ^ "solmization." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/553469/solmization>.
6. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
7. ^ "Guido d’Arezzo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248582/Guido-dArezzo>.
8. ^ "Guido d’Arezzo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248582/Guido-dArezzo>. {c1025}
(Cathedral school) Arezzo, Italy7
 
[1] The 11th century Benedictine monk
Guido d’Arezzo invented a mnemonic
system using parts of the hand to
indicate pitches for singers. The note
names ut, re, mi, fa, sol and la were
also placed on horizontal lines to
notate pitch. These inventions evolved
into solfeggio (do re mi fa sol la ti
do) and staff notation as used today.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.designwritingresearch
.org/music/images/3.jpg

[2] Statue of Guido of Arezzo, Arezzo,
Italy (photo taken by Wilson Delgado,
March 30, 2003) Author:
en:User:Wilson Delgado Source:
en:Image:Guido of arezzo.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Statue_of_Guido_of_Ar
ezzo.jpg
970 YBN
[1030 AD] 10 11 12 13 		1409) Al-Biruni (full name: Abu Rayhan
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni6 ) (CE
973-c1051), a Persian scholar, writes
about the movement of the Earth
relative to the Sun, and that all
astronomical appearances can be
explained if the Earth rotates each
day, and notes "the attraction of all
things towards the centre of the
earth"7 .8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "al Biruni". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5394/al-Biruni
2. ^ Al-Biruni, trans. by Edward C.
Sachau (1888), 'Alberuni's India: an
account of the religion, philosophy,
and literature',
p.246 http://books.google.com/books?id=
xEcVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246
3. ^ Douglas, A. V., 'R.A.S.C. Papers-
Al-Biruni, Persian Scholar, 973-1048',
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol. 67,
p.209 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
73JRASC..67..209D
4. ^ Al-Biruni, trans. by Edward C.
Sachau (1888), 'Alberuni's India: an
account of the religion, philosophy,
and literature',
p.246 http://books.google.com/books?id=
xEcVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246
5. ^ Douglas, A. V., 'R.A.S.C. Papers-
Al-Biruni, Persian Scholar, 973-1048',
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol. 67,
p.209 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
73JRASC..67..209D
6. ^ "al Biruni". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5394/al-Biruni
7. ^ Al-Biruni, trans. by Edward C.
Sachau (1888), 'Alberuni's India: an
account of the religion, philosophy,
and literature',
p.246 http://books.google.com/books?id=
xEcVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246
8. ^ Douglas, A. V., 'R.A.S.C. Papers-
Al-Biruni, Persian Scholar, 973-1048',
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol. 67,
p.209 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
73JRASC..67..209D
9. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
10. ^ Douglas,
A. V., 'R.A.S.C. Papers- Al-Biruni,
Persian Scholar, 973-1048', Journal of
the Royal Astronomical Society of
Canada, Vol. 67,
p.209 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
73JRASC..67..209D
11. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
(973-c1051) (973-c1051)
12. ^ "al Biruni".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5394/al-Biruni (973-1048)
13. ^ "Al-biruni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-biruni
(973-1048)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/al-biruni
[2] "Hydrostatics". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic
s
[3] G. Saliba: Al-Biruni; Dictionary of
the Middle Ages, Ed Joseph Strayer; Vol
2. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York;
1980 ff
[4] C. De Vaux: Les Penseurs de
l'Islam; Vol 2; Geuthner; Paris; p. 217
[5]
G. Wiet; V. Elisseeff; P. Wolff; and J.
Naudu: History of Mankind;op cit; ; p.
649
[6] Al-Biruni, trans. by Edward C.
Sachau (1888), 'Alberuni's India: an
account of the religion, philosophy,
and literature',
p.277 http://books.google.com/books?id=
xEcVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA277
Ghazna, Afghanistan9  
[1] Biruni on a 1973 post stamp
commemorating his one thousandth
anniversary PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu-Rayhan_Biruni_1973_Afghanistan_po
st_stamp.jpg

[2] An illustration from Beruni's
Persian book. It shows different phases
of the moon. Illustration by Al-Biruni
(973-1048) of different phases of the
moon, from Kitab al-tafhim (in
Persian). Source Scanned from:
Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1976). Islamic
Science: An Illustrated Study, World of
Islam Festival Publishing Company. ISBN
090503502X PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunar_eclipse_al-Biruni.jpg
962 YBN
[1038 AD] 24 25 26 27 28 		1308) Pin-hole camera (or camera
obscura).9 Ibn al-Haytham {iBN oL
HIteM10 } (Full Name: Abu 'Ali al-Hasan
ibn al-Haytham11 12 ) (Arabic and
Persian: ابو علی، حسن بن
حسن بن هيثم)13 (Latinized:
Alhazen (oLHoZeN)) (CE c965-1039),
builds the first recorded pin-hole
camera (camera obscura).14

Ibn al-Haytham's optical work "Ṣūrat
al-kusūf" ("On the Shape of the
Eclipse") includes a discussion of the
camera obscura).15

Al-Haytham is the first of record to
understand that light comes from the
Sun and reflects off objects into the
eyes contradicting the theory of Euclid
and Ptolemy that rays of light emit
from the eye.16

Al-Haytham constructs parabolic mirrors
(now used in telescopes to better focus
light than a spherical mirror).17

Al-Haytham studies the focusing of
light.18

Like Ptolemy, al-Haytham thinks that
the atmosphere has a finite height, and
estimates this height as 10 miles.19
(actual units20 )

Al-Haytham's "Optics" will have a major
influence not only on 13th-century
thinkers such as Roger Bacon but also
on later scientists such as the
astronomer Johannes Kepler
(1571–1630)21 , who after 600 years
will be the first to improve on the
science of optics.22 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Ibn al-Haytham." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Ibn al Haytham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5710/Ibn-al-Haytham
7. ^ "Alhazen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Ibn al-Haytham." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Ibn al Haytham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5710/Ibn-al-Haytham
13. ^ "Alhazen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ "Ibn al-Haytham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/738111/Ibn-al-Haytham>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Ibn
al-Haytham." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/738111/Ibn-al-Haytham>.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
23. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p50.
24. ^ "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū
ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 189-210. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Feb.
2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830901904&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c965-1039)
(c965-1039)
26. ^ "Ibn al Haytham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5710/Ibn-al-Haytham (c965-c.1040)
27. ^ "Alhazen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen
(965-1039)
28. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
(c965-1039) (c965-1039)

MORE INFO
[1] "Camera obscura". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obsc
ura
[2] "Heliocentrism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
sm
[3] "Catoptrics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catoptrics
Cairo, Egypt23  
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g

[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
959 YBN
[1041 AD] 11 		1124) The first known movable-type
system for printing using ceramic
materials was created in China around
1040 AD by Pi Sheng (990–1051). As
described by a contemporary account of
Shen Kua (1031–1095):

"During the reign of Chhing-li
{1041-48} Pi Sheng, a man of unofficial
position, made moveable type. His
method was as follows: he took sticky
clay and cut in it characters as thin
as the edge of a coin. Each character
formed, as it were, a single type. He
baked them in the fire to make them
hard. He had previously prepared an
iron plate and he had covered his plate
with a mixture of pine resin, wax, and
paper ashes. When he wished to print,
he took an iron frame and set it on the
iron plate. In this he placed the
types, set close together. When the
frame was full, the whole made one
solid block of type. He then placed it
near the fire to warm it. When the
paste {at the back} was slightly
melted, he took a smooth board and
pressed it over the surface, so that
the block of type became as even as a
whetstone.
If one were to print only two or
three copies, this method would be
neither simple not easy. But for
printing hundreds or thousands of
copies, it was marvelously quick. As a
rule he kept two formes going. While
the impression was being made from the
one forme, the type was being put in
place on the other. When the printing
of the one forme was finished, the
other was then ready. In this way the
two formed alternated and the printing
was done with great rapidity.
For each
character there were several types, and
for certain common characters there
were twenty or more types each, in
order to be prepared for the repetition
of characters on the same page. When
the characters were not in use, he had
them arranged with paper labels, one
label for words of each rhyme-group,
and kept them in wooden cases. If any
rare characters appeared that had not
been prepared in advance, it was cut as
needed and baked with a fire of straw.
In a moment it was finished.
The reason why he
did not use wood is because the tissue
of wood is sometimes coarse and
sometimes fine, and wood also absorbs
moisture, so that the forme when set up
would be uneven. Also the wood would
have stuck in the paste and could not
readily have been pulled out. So it was
better to use burnt earthenware. When
the printing was finished, the forme
was again brought near the fire to
allow the paste to melt, and then
cleansed with the hand, so that the
types fell off of themselves and were
not in the least soiled.
When Pi Sheng died,
his font of type passed into the
possession of my nephews, and up to
this time it has been kept as a
precious possession.".5

In about 1313 a magistrate named Wang
Chen will have a craftsman carve more
than 60,000 characters on movable
wooden blocks so that a treatise on the
history of technology can be published.
Chen is also credited with the
invention of horizontal compartmented
cases that revolve around a vertical
axis to allow easier handling of the
type. But Wang Chen’s innovation,
like that of Pi Sheng, is not followed
up in China. However, in Korea,
typography is extensively developed
under the stimulus of King Htai Tjong,
who, in 1403, orders the first set of
100,000 pieces of type to be cast in
bronze. Nine other fonts followed from
then to 1516; two of them were made in
1420 and 1434, before Europe discovers
typography.6

Johannes Gutenberg is generally
credited in 1435 with the earliest
printing press in Europe.7

One explanation for the fact that
printing develops in Europe in the
1400s instead of in the Far East, even
though the principle of printing was
known in the Orient long before is that
European writing is based on an
alphabet made of a limited number of
symbols. This simplifies the problems
involved in developing techniques for
the use of movable type. However,
Chinese handwriting, has some 80,000
symbols, which is not as well fitted to
typography.8

The development of printing gives
impetus to the growth and accumulation
of knowledge, for example from
Diderot’s encyclopaedia to the many
publications currently printed
throughout the Earth.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
5. ^ Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}
6. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "printing."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
9. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
10. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
11. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {1041-48}
China10  
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}

[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}
959 YBN
[1041 AD] 4 		1136) Krak des Chevaliers ("fortress of
the knights") is built.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Krak des Chevaliers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak_des_Ch
evaliers
3. ^ "Krak des Chevaliers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak_des_Ch
evaliers
4. ^ "Krak des Chevaliers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak_des_Ch
evaliers
east of Tripoli in the Homs Gap3   
936 YBN
[1064 AD] 25 26 27 		1313) Khayyam means "tentmaker".22
Khayy
am is funded by the Vizier of the
Seljuk Sultan Alp Arsian and then his
successor Malik Shah.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cubic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equat
ion
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Omar Khayyám".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
5. ^ "Omar Khayyam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7079/Omar-Khayyam
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Cubic equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equat
ion
8. ^ "Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
9. ^ "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubaiyat_of
_Omar_Khayyam
10. ^ "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubaiyat_of
_Omar_Khayyam
11. ^ "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubaiyat_of
_Omar_Khayyam
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p33.
14. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p33.
15. ^ "Disputation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disputation

16. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p36.
17. ^
"Esoteric". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoteric
18. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science
and Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge:
The Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p37.
19. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p34.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington
21. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ "Pascal's
triangle's triangle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (05/18/1048 -
12/04/1131)
26. ^ "1131)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m (05/18/1048 - 12/04/1131)
27. ^ Ted
Huntington, 1064=guess for early paper
on cubic equations, try to identify
year
Persia, Iran (presumably)24  
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg

[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
934 YBN
[1066 AD] 5 		1326) Having first seen it as a young
boy in 989, Eilmer of Malmesbury
declares: "You've come, have
you?...You've c-ome, you source of
tears to many mothers, you evil. I hate
you! It is long since I saw you; but as
I see you now you are much more
terrible, for I see you brandishing the
downfall of my country. I hate you!".3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
2. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
3. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
4. ^ "Halley's comet's comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet
5. ^ "Halley's comet (1066CE)'s comet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_
comet (1066CE) (1066CE)
England and New Mexico4  
[1] Bayeux Tapestry - King Harold and
Halley's Comet PD
source: http://www.udel.edu/ArtHistory/C
ourseGallery/pages/Btcomet.html

[2] Halley's Comet appears and the
news is brought to Harold, Bayeux
Tapestry PD
source: http://www.cornellcollege.edu/me
ms/
932 YBN
[1068 AD] 3 		1840)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
2. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
3. ^ "Pascal's triangle (1068)'s
triangle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle (1068) (1068)
?, India2 (presumably)  
930 YBN
[1070 AD] 10 		1314)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Omar Khayyam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7079/Omar-Khayyam
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Quadratic equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_e
quation
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Cubic equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equat
ion
8. ^ "Omar Khayyam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7079/Omar-Khayyam
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Omar Khayyám".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m (1070)
 
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg

[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
927 YBN
[1073 AD] 10 11 12 		1316)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p53.
2. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p80.
3. ^
"Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Omar Khayyám".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Omar Khayyám".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Omar Khayyám".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m (called to observatory=1073)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (makes new
calendar=1074) (makes new
calendar=1074)
12. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p53.
(called to reform calendar) (called to
reform calendar)

MORE INFO
[1] "Omar Khayyam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7079/Omar-Khayyam
[2] "Cubic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equat
ion
[3] "Quadratic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_e
quation
 
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg

[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
923 YBN
[1077 AD] 6 		1315)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
2. ^ "Omar Khayyam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7079/Omar-Khayyam
3. ^ "Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
4. ^ "Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
5. ^ "Omar Khayyam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7079/Omar-Khayyam
6. ^ "Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m (1077)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Cubic equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equat
ion
[3] "Quadratic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_e
quation
 
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg

[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
921 YBN
[03/15/1079 AD] 2 		1317) Sultan Jalal al-Din Malekshah
Saljuqi (1072-92) puts Omar Kyayyam's
corrected calendar into effect.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m
2. ^ "Omar Khayyám". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%
C3%A1m (1079)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Omar Khayyam".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7079/Omar-Khayyam
[3] "Cubic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equat
ion
[4] "Quadratic equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_e
quation
[5] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
 
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg

[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
919 YBN
[1081 AD] 17 18 19 		1312) Al-Zarqali (Latin: Arzachel7 )
(Spanish and Italian: Azarquiel), (In
Arabic8 أبو أسحاق
ابراهيم بن يحيى
الزرقالي ),(full name: Abū
Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā
Al-Naqqāsh) (CE ?-1100), describes the
orbit of Mercury as being oval instead
of circular.9 10

In Al-Zarqali's text "Tratado de la
lamina de los siete planetas"
("Treatise on the sheets of the seven
planets") contains one of the most
debated passages in medieval astronomy.
In the graphic representation included
in the Castilian translation ordered by
Alfonso X (The Wise) the orbit of
Mercury is not circular. On this basis
it has been alleged that al–ZarqāĪi
anticipated Kepler in stating that
orbits–the orbit of Mercury in this
case–are elliptical. Although the
Arabic text merely states that an orbit
is baydi ("oval").11

Al-Zarqali also invents the apparatus
called the azafea (Arabic: al-safiha),
which is widely used by navigators
until the 1500s.12

Al-Zarqali is also credited with the
explicit proof of the motion of the
aphelion (of the earth or apogee of the
sun) with respect to the fixed stars.13

Working in an observatory in Toledo,
Al-Zarqali edits the famous "Tables of
Toledo" (Toledan Zij) {Zij?}, a
compilation of astronomical data which
are among the most accurate of the
Islamic period.14 These tables are
composed with the help of several other
Muslim and Jewish scientists and will
be widely used by both Latin and Muslim
astronomers in later centuries.15
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Al-Zarqālī (or Azarquiel),
Abū Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā
Al-Naqqāsh." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 592-595.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830904769&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Spain" (History, Muslim Spain,
Science). Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-703
82/Spain
3. ^ "Arzachel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzachel
4. ^ "Al-Zarqālī (or Azarquiel), Abū
Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā
Al-Naqqāsh." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 592-595.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830904769&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Spain" (History, Muslim Spain,
Science). Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-703
82/Spain
6. ^ "Al-Zarqālī (or Azarquiel), Abū
Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā
Al-Naqqāsh." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 592-595.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830904769&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p80.
8. ^
"Arzachel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzachel
9. ^ "Al-Zarqālī (or Azarquiel),
Abū Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā
Al-Naqqāsh." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 592-595.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830904769&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ "Spain" (History, Muslim Spain,
Science). Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-703
82/Spain
11. ^ "Al-Zarqālī (or Azarquiel),
Abū Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā
Al-Naqqāsh." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 592-595.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830904769&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Spain" (History, Muslim Spain,
Science). Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-703
82/Spain
13. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p171.
14. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p80.
15. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p172.
16. ^
"Arzachel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzachel
17. ^ "Al-Zarqālī (or Azarquiel),
Abū Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā
Al-Naqqāsh." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 592-595.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830904769&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ "Arzachel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzachel
(1028-1087 CE)
19. ^ "Spain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-703
82/Spain (died 1100)

MORE INFO
[1] "ovoid". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"ovoid". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
void
Toledo (in Castile, now) Spain16  
[1] Spain 1986. Al-Zarqali (dead 1100).
Astronomer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://worldheritage.heindorffhu
s.dk/frame-SpainCordoba.htm

[2] None, but next to text about
al-Zarqali COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/
issue/200407/science.in.al-andalus-.comp
ilation..htm
914 YBN
[1086 AD] 5 		1135)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "Geomancer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomancer
3. ^ "Compass". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass
4. ^ "Compass". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass
5. ^ "Compass". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass
China4   
912 YBN
[1088 AD] 5 		1163)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Escapement". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escapement
2. ^ "Su Song". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Song
3. ^ "Astronomical clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomica
l_clock
4. ^ "Su Song". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Song
5. ^
http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/China
/SongClock.html

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
[2] "Clock#Early
mechanical clocks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Early
_mechanical_clocks
China4  
[1] A scale model of Su Song's
Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th
century Kaifeng, China. It was driven
by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and
escapement mechanism. Su Song's Water
Clock (蘇頌鐘). This
picture is a scaled model of Su Song's
water-powered clock tower. The
original clock tower was 35 feet tall.
It was a 3 story tower with an
armillary sphere on the roof, and a
celestial globe on the third
floor. This picture was taken in
July 2004 from an exhibition at Chabot
Space & Science Center in Oakland,
California. The quality of the picture
is not ideal because flash photography
was not allowed. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SuSongClock1.JPG
912 YBN
[1088 AD] 7 		1339) The University of Bologna
(Italian: Alma Mater Studiorum
Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is
founded4 , and is one of the oldest and
most famous universities in Europe.5
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
2. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
3. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
4. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
5. ^ "University of Bologna".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/72231/University-of-Bologna>.
6. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
7. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

[2] "University of Bologna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Bologna (1088)
[3]
http://www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/Univer
sity/Our+History/default.htm
Bologna, Italy6  
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg

[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
905 YBN
[1095 AD] 6 7 		1137)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ "Crusade". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade
3. ^ "First Crusade". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Crusa
de
4. ^ "First Crusade". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Crusa
de
5. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
6. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
7. ^
"Crusade". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade
Jerusalem 
[1] Pope Urban II at the Council of
Clermont, painting from c. 1490 Pope
Urban II at the Council of Clermont,
where he preached an impassioned sermon
to take back the Holy Land. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CouncilofClermont.jpg

[2] Jewish people, identifiable by
their Judenhuts, are being killed by
Crusaders, from a 1250 French Bible PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FirstCrusade.jpg
901 YBN
[1099 AD] 7 8 		1382) This order has survived through
the centuries as the St. John's
Ambulance Corps.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Knights Hospitalers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hos
pitalers
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
5. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
6. ^ "Knights Hospitalers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hos
pitalers
7. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital (1099)
8. ^
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm/major_m
edieval.htm (1069)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
Jerusalem6  
[1] grand master & senior knights
hospitaller after 1307 move to rhodes
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Knights_hospitaller.JPG

[2] Hospital of the Knights of St.
John, Jerusalem, c. 1959. The hospital
was founded in 1069 to care for
pilgrims to the Holy Land and run by a
small group of monks. After the capture
of Jerusalem in 1099, the monks became
a regular religious order called the
Knights of St. John, or the
Hospitallers. Major, ''The Knights of
St. John of Jerusalem,'' Ralph Major
vertical file. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/m_07p.jpg
900 YBN
[1100 AD] 2 		1023)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p185.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
900 YBN
[1100 AD] 4 		1142) Post mill windmills are built in
Europe. Post mills are the earliest
type of windmill and have the fan
connected to a single post which can be
turned in the direction of the wind.1 2


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Post mill". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_mill
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (century estimate) (century
estimate)
Europe3  
[1] Pitstone Windmill. Photograph taken
by Michael Reeve, 1 September 2002.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pitstone-windmill.600px.jpg
900 YBN
[1100 AD] 8 		1521) The "Charter of Liberties" is
issued upon the ascension of King Henry
I to the throne in 1100. It binds the
king to certain laws regarding the
treatment of church officials and
nobles.4 The document addressea
certain abuses of royal power by his
predecessor, his brother William Rufus,
specifically the over-taxation of the
barons.5
Henry Beauclerc (meaning: Good
Scholar) is the youngest and considered
to be the ablest of William I the
Conqueror's sons.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry I". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0019/Henry-I
2. ^ "Charter of Liberties". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_of_
Liberties
3. ^
http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/ch
arter.html
4. ^ "Charter of Liberties". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_of_
Liberties
5. ^ "Charter of Liberties". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_of_
Liberties
6. ^ "Henry I". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0019/Henry-I
7. ^ "Henry I". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0019/Henry-I
8. ^ "Charter of Liberties". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_of_
Liberties (1100)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry I of England".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_I_of_
England
London, England7  
[1] Henry I of England PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry1.jpg
900 YBN
[1100 AD] 6 		1841)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, Volume 3, 137.
2. ^ "Yang
Hui". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Hui
3. ^ Needham, Volume 3, 137.
4. ^ "Yang
Hui". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Hui
5. ^ "Yang Hui". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Hui
6. ^ "Yang Hui". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Hui
(1100)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pascal's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
?, China5 (presumably)  
900 YBN
[1100 AD] 6 		5883)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 04 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p57.
3. ^ "Western music."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 04 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Western music."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 04 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
6. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 04 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>. {early 1100s}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p90
Provence, France (Southern France)5
 
[1] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg

[2] 03-08-01/20 ROMANESQUE MANUSCRIPT,
ILLUMINATED 12TH King David
playing the harp surrounded by his
musicians. Psalter, 12th century.
Municipial Library, Mantua,
Italy UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030801/03080120.jpg
894 YBN
[1106 AD] 11 12 13 14 		1411) in 1085, al-Ghazali was invited
to go to the court of Nizam al-Mulk,
the powerful vizier of the Seljuq
sultans. The vizier was so impressed by
al-Ghazali's scholarship that in 1091
he appointed him chief professor in the
Nizamiyah college in Baghdad. While
lecturing to more than 300 students,
al-Ghazali was also mastering and
criticizing the Neoplatonist
philosophies of al-Farabi and Avicenna
(Ibn Sina). He passed through a
spiritual crisis that rendered him
physically incapable of lecturing for a
time. In November 1095 he abandoned his
career and left Baghdad on the pretext
of going on pilgrimage to Mecca. Making
arrangements for his family, he
disposed of his wealth and adopted the
life of a poor Sufi, or mystic. After
some time in Damascus and Jerusalem,
with a visit to Mecca in November 1096,
al-Ghazali settled in Tus, where Sufi
disciples joined him in a virtually
monastic communal life. In 1106 he was
persuaded to return to teaching at the
Nizamiyah college at Nishapur.9
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Al-Ghazzali". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazzali

2. ^ "Al-Ghazzali". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazzali

3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Al-Ghazzali". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazzali

5. ^ "Al-Ghazzali". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazzali

6. ^ "Al-Ghazzali". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazzali

7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ "Al-Ghazzali".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazzali

10. ^ "Nishapur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishapur
11. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987). (CE
1058-1111) (CE 1058-1111)
12. ^ "al Ghazali".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6672/al-Ghazali (CE 1058-1111)
13. ^
http://www.amazon.com/Incoherence-Philos
ophers-Islamic-Translation/dp/0842523510
 (written after more than a decade of
ascetic contemplation)
14. ^
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Incohe
rence_of_The_Incoherence/intro (thought
to be during period of doubts)

MORE INFO
[1] "The Incoherence of the
Philosophers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Incoher
ence_of_the_Philosophers
Nishapur, Iran10  
[1] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif

[2] Haruniyah stucture in Tus, Iran,
named after Harun al-Rashid, the
mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to
be situated on the entrance of this
monument Haruniyeh, Razavi Khorasan.
Sufis used to hang out here during the
Middle Ages. Iran GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Haruniyeh.JPG
880 YBN
[1120 AD] 5 6 		1141) First papermill (factory
dedicating to making paper1 ) in
Europe.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Papermill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papermill
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Papermill". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papermill
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (1100estimate) (1100estimate)
6. ^ "Paper".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper
(1120)
in Spain, at Xavia (modern Valencia)3 ,
Europe4  		 
880 YBN
[1120 AD] 21 		1318) Abelard wanders from school to
school at Paris, Melun, Corbeil, and
elsewhere. In 1113 or 1114 he goes
north to Laon to study theology under
Anselm of Laon, the leading biblical
scholar of the day. He quickly
developed a strong contempt for
Anselm's teaching, which he finds
vacuous, and returns to Paris.12
Abelard
teaches openly (publicly?13 ) in Paris
but is also given as a private pupil,
the young Héloïse, niece of one of
the clergy of the cathedral of Paris,
Canon Fulbert. Abelard and Héloïse
fall in love and have a son whom they
called Astrolabe. They then marry
secretly. To escape her uncle's wrath
Héloïse withdraws into the convent of
Argenteuil outside Paris.14 Heloise's
uncle Fulbert, the powerful canon of
Notre Dame, finds out about their
relationship and hires people to
castrate Abelard in 1121 (at the age of
42).15 I have found no record of any
identity or arrest of anybody for this
vicious first degree assault and
battery.16 In shame Ableard embraces
the monastic life, becoming a monk at
the royal abbey of Saint-Denis near
Paris and makes the unwilling Héloïse
become a nun at Argenteuil.17

Abelard will write "Dialogue of a
Philosopher with a Jew and a
Christian".18
In the early 1130s Pierre
and Héloïse will compose a collection
of their own love letters and religious
correspondence.19
Later in life Pierre
Abelard will write an autobiography
"Historia Calamitatum" in Latin. This
book is in the form of a letter, and is
clearly influenced by Augustine of
Hippo's "Confessions". The "Historia"
is exceptionally readable, and presents
a remarkably honest self-portrait of a
man who could be arrogant and often
felt persecuted. It provides a clear
and fascinating picture of intellectual
life in Paris before the formalization
of the University, of the intellectual
excitement of the period, of monastic
life, and of his affair with Heloise,
one of history's most famous love
stories.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "Sic et non". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic_et_non
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/11
20abelard.html
5. ^ "Sic et non". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic_et_non
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Peter Abelard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
8. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
9. ^
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/Ab
elard-SicetNon-Prologue.html
10. ^
http://individual.utoronto.ca/pking/reso
urces/abelard/Sic_et_non.txt
11. ^
http://individual.utoronto.ca/pking/reso
urces/abelard/Sic_et_non.txt
12. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Peter Abelard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "Peter
Abelard". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
18. ^ "Pierre Abelard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Abel
ard
19. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
20. ^ "Historia Calamitatum".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Ca
lamitatum
21. ^
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/11
20abelard.html (1120)
(the royal abbey of Saint-Denis near)
Paris, France 
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg

[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
874 YBN
[1126 AD] 4 5 		1155)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michel Wuttmann, "The Qanats of
'Ayn-Manâwîr, Kharga Oasis, Egypt",
in Jasr 2001, p. 1 (pdf)
2. ^
http://www.carlo-bergmann.de/Discoveries
/discovery.htm
3. ^ "Artesian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian
4. ^ "Artesian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian
(=1126)
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=1216) (=1216)
Artois, France 
[1] Geological strata giving rise to an
Artesian well. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesian_Well.png

[2] An roadside artesian well with a
pipe for filling bottles or jugs.
Copyright as if PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesianwell.jpg
870 YBN
[1130 AD] 11 		1140)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.j
sp?artid=879&letter=B&search=bernard_of_
clairvaux
2. ^ dictionary.com
3. ^ "Bernard of Clairvaux".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_
Clairvaux
4. ^ "Martin Bouquet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Bouq
uet
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.j
sp?artid=879&letter=B&search=bernard_of_
clairvaux
7. ^ "Bernard of Clairvaux". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_
Clairvaux
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Bernard of
Clairvaux". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_
Clairvaux
11. ^ "Historia ecclesiastica gentis
Anglorum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ec
clesiastica_gentis_Anglorum
France10  
[1] Bernard of Clairvaux, as shown in
the church of Heiligenkreuz Abbey near
Baden bei Wien, Lower Austria. Portrait
(1700) with the true effigy of the
Saint by Georg Andreas Wasshuber
(1650-1732), (painted after a statue in
Clairvaux with the true effigy of the
saint) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heiligenkreuz.Bernard_of_Clervaux.jpg


[2] Bernhard of Clairvaux Initial B
from a 13th century illuminated
illuminated manuscript PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_%28Initiale-B%
29.jpg
870 YBN
[1130 AD] 19 20 		1322) Adelard is the tutor of future
King Henry II.15 During a period of
seven years16 Adelard travels through
Greece, Asia Minor, and North Africa.
Adelard learns arabic.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Adelard Of Bath". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3712/Adelard-Of-Bath
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Adelard Of Bath".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3712/Adelard-Of-Bath
6. ^ "Adelard Of Bath". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3712/Adelard-Of-Bath
7. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
8. ^ "Universals". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universals
9. ^ "Adelard Of Bath". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3712/Adelard-Of-Bath
10. ^ "Adelard". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard
11. ^ "Adelard". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard
12. ^ "Adelard Of Bath". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3712/Adelard-Of-Bath
13. ^ "Adelard". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard
14. ^ "Adelard". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ "Adelard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ "Adelard Of Bath".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3712/Adelard-Of-Bath
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE c1090 - c1150)
(CE c1090 - c1150)
20. ^ "Adelard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard
(1116?-1142?)
Bath, England18  
[1] Detail of a scene in the bowl of
the letter 'P' with a woman with a
set-square and dividers; using a
compass to measure distances on a
diagram. In her left hand she holds a
square, an implement for testing or
drawing right angles. She is watched by
a group of students. In the Middle
Ages, it is unusual to see women
represented as teachers, in particular
when the students appear to be monks.
She may be the personification of
Geometry. * Illustration at the
beginning of Euclid's Elementa, in the
translation attributed to Adelard of
Bath. * Date: 1309 - 1316 *
Location: France (Paris). Copyright:
The British Library. * original
from
http://www.bl.uk/services/learning/curri
culum/medrealms/t2womantask2.html
* second version adapted from
http://prodigi.bl.uk/illcat/ILLUMIN.ASP?
Size=mid&IllID=2756 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg
868 YBN
[1132 AD] 17 18 		1146) First cannon and gun.12 13

In Buddhist caves of Western China, a
temple in Ta-tsu in Szechuan Province
shows the earliest depiction of a gun.
One relief depicts a small demon with
two horns showing flames and a ball
being shot from a handheld cannon. A
second relief shows a devil holding a
grenade.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
2. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
3. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
4. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
5. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
6. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
7. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
8. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
9. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
10. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
11. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
12. ^ Peter
James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
13. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
14. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
15. ^ Peter
James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
16. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
17. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
18. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "gunpowder". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8534/gunpowder
[2] Needham, Joseph (1986), Science &
Civilisation in China, V:7: The
Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 0521303583
[3] "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
Ta-tsu, Szechuan Province, China15 16
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
865 YBN
[1135 AD] 3 		1321)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
2. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
3. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard (1135)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre Abelard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Abel
ard
[3] "Sic et non". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic_et_non
[4]
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/11
20abelard.html
[5]
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/Ab
elard-SicetNon-Prologue.html
[6]
http://individual.utoronto.ca/pking/reso
urces/abelard/Sic_et_non.txt
[7] "Sens,Yonne". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens%2CYonn
e
(Mont-Sainte-Geneviève outside) Paris,
France2  
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg

[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
864 YBN
[1136 AD] 7 		1143) The Basilica of Saint Denis.1 2
This is considered to be the first
major structure built in the gothic
style.3
Construction of the church
began in 1136 by the Abbot Suger
(1081-1155), but the major construction
will not be complete until the end of
the 13th century.4
All but three of the
monarchs of France from the 10th
century until 1789 have their remains
here.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Abbey of St. Denis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_St
._Denis
3. ^ "Abbey of St. Denis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_St
._Denis
4. ^ "Abbey of St. Denis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_St
._Denis
5. ^ "Abbey of St. Denis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_St
._Denis
6. ^ "Abbey of St. Denis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_St
._Denis
7. ^ "Abbey of St. Denis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_St
._Denis
Paris France6  
[1] Front of Saint Denis Basilica (July
2002) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SaintDenisExterior.jpg

[2] Interior Photo of Saint Denis
Church in north Paris. As shot of the
northeast nave with the sun coming in
from the south. If you look carefully,
one of the plates of glass is actually
plywood. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SaintDenisInterior.jpg
860 YBN
[1140 AD] 4 		1320)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
2. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
3. ^ "Sens,Yonne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens%2CYonn
e
4. ^ "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard (1140)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre Abelard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Abel
ard
[3] "Sic et non". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic_et_non
[4]
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/11
20abelard.html
[5]
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/Ab
elard-SicetNon-Prologue.html
[6]
http://individual.utoronto.ca/pking/reso
urces/abelard/Sic_et_non.txt
Sens, France2 3  
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg

[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
856 YBN
[1144 AD] 3 		1148) A boy is found dead in England
and all Jewish people are blamed. In
many cities, Jewish humans are
sentenced to death for child
sacrificing.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
3. ^
James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
England2   
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 5 6 		1152) Cog-built ships are built in
Europe.1 2 Cog-built vessels (Cogs).
They are characterized by flush-laid
flat bottom at midships but gradually
shifted to overlapped strakes near the
posts. They have full lapstrake
planking covering the sides.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Cog (ship)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cog_%28ship
%29
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (century estimate) (century
estimate)
6. ^ "Cog (ship)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cog_%28ship
%29 (century estimate) (century
estimate)
Europe4  
[1] Reconstructed excavated cog from
1380 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hansekogge_Bremerhaven_uf.jpg
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 3 		5866) A more elaborate form of organum
(polyphonic or "many-voiced" style)
evolves at the abbeys of Santiago de
Compostela, Spain (c. 1137), and
Saint-Martial of Limoges, France (c.
1150), in which a highly florid melody
(duplum) is added above the plainchant
"tenor".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
2. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
3. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>. {c1150}
Santiago de Compostela, Spain and
Saint-Martial of Limoges, France2
 		 
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 5 6 		5882)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p50-51.
2. ^ "Hildegard von Bingen."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 05 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hildegard-v
on-bingen
3. ^ "Saint Hildegard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265747/Saint-Hildegard>.
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p50-51.
5. ^
http://www.uncloistered.com/hildegard/
{c1150 (verify}
6. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p50-51. {when
establishes convent at 1147}
(convent) Rupertsberg, Germany4  
[1] Description Hildegard von
Bingen empfängt eine göttliche
Inspiration.
en:Image:Hildegard.jpg Date Source
Miniatur aus dem Rupertsberger
Codex des Liber Scivias. Author
Original uploader was
RobertLechner at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-OLD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Hildegard.jpg
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 3 		6239)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p77.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p77.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p77. {well established by) 1150}
Europe2  
[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg
846 YBN
[1154 AD] 18 19 20 21 		1323)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Gerard Of Cremona".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6534/Gerard-Of-Cremona
4. ^ "Gerard Of Cremona". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6534/Gerard-Of-Cremona
5. ^ "Gerard Of Cremona". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6534/Gerard-Of-Cremona
6. ^ "Gerard Of Cremona". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6534/Gerard-Of-Cremona
7. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
8. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
9. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
10. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
11. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
12. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
13. ^ "Translations into Latin (c.
1050-c.1250)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation
s_into_Latin_%28c._1050-c.1250%29
14. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
15. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
16. ^ "Gerard of Cremona". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (AD c1114 - 1187)
(AD c1114 - 1187)
19. ^ "Gerard of Cremona".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_C
remona (AD c1114 - 1187)
20. ^ "Gerard Of
Cremona". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6534/Gerard-Of-Cremona (AD c1114 -
1187)
21. ^ "Gerard Of Cremona". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6534/Gerard-Of-Cremona (finishes
almagest translation in 1175)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vatican/math
.html
Toledo, Spain17  
[1] Ptolemy, Almagest In
Latin Translated by Gerard of
Cremona Parchment Thirteenth
century The most important medieval
Latin translation of the Almagest,
which is found in many manuscripts, was
made from the Arabic in Spain in 1175
by Gerard of Cremona, the most prolific
of all medieval translators from Arabic
into Latin. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vati
can/images/math11a.jpg

[2] w opisie obrazka było ''A
midwife and an assistant stand by at
the birth of twins. Miniature from
Chururgia, by Gerard of Cremona,
twelfth century, Codex Series Nova
2641, fol 41 r. Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.'' PD
source: http://www.freha.pl/lofiversion/
index.php?t8228.html
834 YBN
[1166 AD] 23 24 25 		1330) After the death of the
philosopher Ibn Tufayl, Averro's
succeeded him as personal physician to
the caliphs Abu Ya'qub Yusuf in 1182
and his son Abu Yusuf Ya'qub in 1184.21

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Averroes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
2. ^ "Averroes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
3. ^ "Averroes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
4. ^ "Averroes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
5. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p54.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington
7. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p54.
8. ^
"Averroes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Averroes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
11. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p54.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "Averroes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
16. ^ "Averroes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
17. ^ "Averroes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
18. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p53.
19. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p54.
20. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p54.
21. ^
"Averroes". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
22. ^ "Averroes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1126 -
12/10/1198) (CE 1126 - 12/10/1198)
24. ^
"Averroes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
(CE 1126 - 12/10/1198)
25. ^ "Averroes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes (1126-1198)
Cordova, Spain22  
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg

[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
833 YBN
[1167 AD] 6 		1340)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
2. ^ "University of Oxford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Oxford
3. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

4. ^ "University of Oxford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Oxford
5. ^ "University of Oxford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/436492/University-of-Oxford>.
6. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ox.ac.uk/aboutoxford/history.
shtml (1167 but teaching starts 1096)
Oxford, England (now: United Kingdom)5
 
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg

[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
830 YBN
[1170 AD] 8 		1319) University of Paris.4

The University of Paris is founded
around this time growing out of the
cathedral schools of Notre-Dame.5

The university was originally divided
into four faculties: three
“superior,” theology, canon law,
and medicine; and one “inferior,”
arts. In the faculty of arts, the
trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and
dialectic) and the quadrivium
(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and
music) were taught together with
general scientific, literary, and
general culture. Each faculty was
headed by a dean, and the dean of the
faculty of arts had by the 14th century
become the head of the collective
university under the title of rector.
Many colleges were built to accommodate
the students. The most celebrated was
the Sorbonne, founded by the theologian
Robert de Sorbon about 1257.6
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
2. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
3. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
4. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
5. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
6. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
7. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
8. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
Paris, France7  
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
830 YBN
[1170 AD] 4 		5867)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Léonin." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 31 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-onin-musi
c
2. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
3. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
4. ^ "Léonin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336501/Leonin>. {1170}
(Notre Dame Cathedral) Paris, France3
 
[1] Two-voice conductus ''Presul
nostri,'' from Magnus liber organi.
Holsinger, 174. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.echo.ucla.edu/volume4
-issue2/reviews-media/grier1.jpg
825 YBN
[1175 AD] 2 		1149) Arabic copy of Ptolomy "Almagest"
is translated to Latin.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
  
825 YBN
[1175 AD] 2 		1341)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Modena".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Modena
2. ^ "University of Modena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Modena

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Modena and Reggio Emilia,
Emilia-Romagna, Italy1  
[1] The see in Reggio Emilia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reggio_emilia_foro_boario_uni.jpg
824 YBN
[1176 AD] 23 24 25 		1334) Maimonides' earliest work,
composed in Arabic at the age of 16, is
the "Millot ha-Higgayon" ("Treatise on
Logical Terminology"), a study of
various technical terms that were
employed in logic and metaphysics.
Another early work, also in Arabic, is
the "Essay on the Calendar" (Hebrew
title: "Ma'amar ha'ibur").5

Maimon's Greek name is Moses
Maimonides, which literally means,
"Moses, son of Maimon".6

When the Almohads (Arabic:
al-Muwahhidun, "the Unitarians"), who
are a fanatically Islamic people,
capture Córdoba in 1148, Jewish people
are forced to submnit to Islam or leave
the city. The Maimon family dresses in
Islamic clothes but secretly practices
Judaism in their house.7

In Fez, Morroco Moses studies at the
University of Al Karaouine.8 During
this time9 Maimonides' writes his
first major work, begun at the age of
23 and completed at age 33, his
commentary on the Mishna, "Kitab
al-Siraj", written in Arabic. The
Mishna is a summary of decisions in
Jewish law that dates from earliest
times to the 3rd century (CE10 ).11
While living in Fez, in 1165, Rabbi
Judah ibn Shoshan, with whom Moses had
studied, was arrested as a Jewish
person practicing Judism, was found
guilty and then executed.12 After this
the Maimon family moves to Palestine
briefly and then to Egypt.13

In Egypt, unlike other nations under
Islam, Jewish people are free to
practice Judaism openly, but any Jewish
human who had once accepted Islam might
be put to death if they go back to
Judaism. Moses himself is at one time
accused of being a reconverted Muslim,
but is able to prove that he had never
actually accepted Islam.14

In Egypt, Maimonides is influenced by
Arabic writers such as Ibn Rushd and
Al-Ghazali.15

After his commentary on the Mishna,
Maimon spends ten years writing "Mishne
Torah" ("The Torah Reviewed"), the code
of Jewish law written in a clear Hebrew
style. This code offers a brilliant
systematization of all Jewish law and
doctrine. Maimon also writes two minor
works on Jewish law: the "Sefer
ha-mitzwot" (Book of Precepts), a
digest of law for average people,
written in Arabic; and the "Hilkhot
ha-Yerushalmi" ("Laws of Jerusalem"), a
digest of the laws in the Palestinian
Talmud, written in Hebrew.16

After practicing as a physician,
Miamon's popularity grows.17 Maimon is
the physician to Saladin (who opposes
Richard the Lion-Heart in the 3rd
crusade).18 Maimon rejects Richard the
Lion-Heart's invitation to live in
England choosing Egypt (which Asimov
described as the more civilized at this
time).19


In 1233, Rabbi Solomon, a religious
zelot of Montpellier, in southern
France, gets church authorities to burn
"The Guide for the Perplexed" as a
dangerously heretical book. Maimonides
will come to be recognized as a (wise20
) Jewish philosopher.21

Maimonides' philosophic work, when
translated into Latin, will influence
medieval Scholastic writers, and even
later people, such as Benedict de
Spinoza and G.W. Leibniz. Maimonides'
health writings are part of the hisory
of health science.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Moses Maimonides".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
3. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
4. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
5. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
6. ^ "Maimonides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides
7. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
8. ^ "Maimonides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides
9. ^ "Maimonides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Moses Maimonides".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
12. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
13. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
14. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
15. ^ "Maimonides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides
16. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
17. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Moses
Maimonides". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
22. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides
23. ^ "Moses Maimonides". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0165/Moses-Maimonides (completes guide
to perplexed in 1176)
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1135 -
12/13/1204)
25. ^ "1135 or 1138-December 13,
1204)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides
(03/30/1135 or 1138-December 13, 1204)
 
[1] Commonly used image indicating one
artist's conception of Maimonides's
appearance Moses Maimonides, portrait,
19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-2.jpg

[2] Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba,
Spain GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-Statue.jpg
820 YBN
[1180 AD] 7 		1150) Stern-mounted rudder used in
europe.1 The oldest known depiction of
a stern-mounted rudder can be found on
church carvings that date to around
1180.2 As the size of ships and the
height of the freeboards increased (a
vessel's side between waterline and
gunwale3 ), quarter-rudders became less
satisfactory and were replaced in
Europe by the more sturdy stern-mounted
rudders with pintle (pin or bolt4 ) and
gudgeon (circular metal fitting
attached to a rudder so that the rudder
can rotate5 ) attachment from the 12th
century. 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Rudder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder
3. ^ dictionary.com
4. ^ "Pintle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pintle
5. ^ "Gudgeon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudgeon
6. ^ "Rudder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
820 YBN
[1180 AD] 8 9 10 11 		1335) In 1213 Neckam will become the
Abbot of Circencester.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Alexander Neckam".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5150/Alexander-Neckam
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Alexander Neckam".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5150/Alexander-Neckam
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1157-1217)
(1157-1217)
9. ^ "Alexander Neckam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5150/Alexander-Neckam (1157-1217)
10. ^ "Alexander
Neckam". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_N
eckam (1157-1217)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (writes book in 1180)
(writes book in 1180)
  
820 YBN
[1180 AD] 6 		5869)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
2. ^ "Pérotin." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 31 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/p-rotin-mus
ic
3. ^ "meter." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 31
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meter-music
 Read more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_an
swer.jsp#ixzz1NuinoSIQ
4. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
5. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
6. ^ "Pérotin." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 31 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/p-rotin-mus
ic {1180-90}
(Notre Dame Cathedral) Paris, France5
 
[1] Perotin: Alleluia
nativitas Source: Historical
Background of Early Polyphony at the
Internet Archive PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Perotin_-_Alleluia_na
tivitas.jpg
816 YBN
[11/??/1184 AD] 20 		1153) Start of the Inquisition.11 12

The Inquisition starts when Pope Lucius
III holds a synod at Verona, Italy,
creating the shockingly brutal law that
burning is to be the official
punishment for heresy.13 14

Pope Lucius II starts the medieval
Inquisition to repress and punish
people for heresy (heretics).
At the Synod of
Verona in 1184, Pope Lucius III, in
agreement with the Holy Roman emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa, initiates the
"Inquisition", by declaring the
excommunication of heretics and their
protectors. This requires bishops to
make a judicial inquiry or inquisition,
for heresy in their dioceses. After
ecclesiastical trial, heretics who
refuse to recant are to be transferred
to civil authorities for
punishment—usually death by
burning.15 16

The Inquisition will brutally try to
enforce belief in religion and slow
progress in science for centuries,
murdering many thousands of people, in
particular science and truth loving
people, before ending.17

The Inquisition lasts until the
1800s.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
2. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
3. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
4. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
5. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
6. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
7. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
8. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
9. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
10. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
11. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
12. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
13. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
14. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
15. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
16. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ "inquisition."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
19. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
20. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Saint Dominic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Domin
ic
[2] "Inquisition". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition

[3] "Pope Lucius III". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Lucius
_III (11/1184)
Verona, Italy19  
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg

[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
805 YBN
[1195 AD] 5 		1331)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Averroes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Averroes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
4. ^ "Averroes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes
5. ^ "Averroes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1420/Averroes (1195)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987).
[3] "Lucena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucena
Lucena, Spain 
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg

[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
798 YBN
[1202 AD] 17 18 19 20 		1393) Little is known about the life of
Fibonacci. Leonardo's father,
Guglielmo, a Pisan merchant, was
appointed consul over the community of
Pisan merchants in the North African
port of Bugia (now Bejaïa, Algeria)
and Leonardo was sent to study
calculation with an Arab master.
Leonardo later went to Egypt, Syria,
Greece, Sicily, and Provence, where he
studied different numerical systems and
methods of calculation.7

The first seven chapters of "Liber
Abaci" explain the principle of place
value, how the position of a figure
determines whether it is a unit, 10,
100, etc., and demonstrating the use of
the numerals in arithmetical
operations. The techniques are then
applied to practical problems such as
profit margin, barter, money changing,
conversion of weights and measures,
partnerships, and interest. Most of the
work is devoted to speculative
mathematics-proportion (represented by
such popular medieval techniques as the
Rule of Three and the Rule of Five,
which are rule-of-thumb methods of
finding proportions), the Rule of False
Position (a method by which a problem
is worked out by a false assumption,
then corrected by proportion),
extraction of roots, and the properties
of numbers, concluding with some
geometry and algebra.8



French-born mathematician Albert Girard
will represent this series with a
formula in 1634: un + 2 = un + 1 + un,
in which u represents the term and the
subscript its rank in the sequence.9
The
mathematician Robert Simson at the
University of Glasgow in 1753 will note
that the as the numbers increase, the
ratio between succeeding numbers
approaches the number a, the golden
ratio, 1.6180.10 The golden ratio is
defined as the ratio that results when
a line is divided so that the whole
line has the same ratio to the larger
segment as the larger segment has to
the smaller segment.11 Expressed
algebraically, normalising the larger
part to unit length, it is the positive
solution of the equation:

    x    1
    - = ---
    1   x-1 

 or equivalently x2-x-1=0,

                      1 + √5
which is 
equal to φ = ------   = 
1.618033988749894848204586834366... 
   
                    2

In the 1800s scientists will find
Fibonacci-type sequences in nature; for
example, in the spirals of sunflower
heads, in pine cones, in the regular
descent (genealogy) of the male bee, in
the related logarithmic (equiangular)
spiral in snail shells, in the
arrangement of leaf buds on a stem, and
in animal horns.12

Asimov describes Fibonacci as the first
great Western mathematician after the
end of Greek science.13
Fibonacci will
be presented to Holy Roman Emperor
Federick II in 1225, because Fibonacci
is recognized for learning.14
For
several years Leonardo corresponded
with Frederick II and his scholars,
exchanging problems with them.15
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leonardo Pisano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Leonardo Pisano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
5. ^ "Liber Abaci". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber_Abaci

6. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
7. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
8. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
9. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
10. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
11. ^ "Fibonacci number#Golden ratio
defined". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_n
umber#Golden_ratio_defined
12. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ "Leonardo Pisano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
16. ^ "algebra#762147.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-231
066/algebra#762147.hook
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1170 - c1240)
(c1170 - c1240)
18. ^ "Leonardo Pisano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano (c1170 - c1240)
19. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1202 writes Liber
Abaci) (1202 writes Liber Abaci)
20. ^
"Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano (1202 writes Liber
Abaci)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fibonacci". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci
Pisa, Italy (guess based on:)16  
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg

[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
791 YBN
[1209 AD] 5 		1342) Cambridge and Oxford will have a
long history of competition with each
other.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Cambridge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Cambridge
2. ^ "University of Cambridge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Cambridge
3. ^ "University of Cambridge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Cambridge
4. ^ "University of Cambridge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Cambridge
5. ^ "University of Cambridge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Cambridge

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Cambridge, England4  
[1] The town centre of Cambridge with
the University Church (Great St Mary's)
on the right, the Senate House of
Cambridge University on the left, and
Gonville and Caius College in the
middle at the back. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CambridgeTownCentre.jpg

[2] Photograph of Cambridge colleges
seen from St Johns College Chapel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cam_colls_from_johns.jpg
788 YBN
[1212 AD] 4 		1343)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Valladolid".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Valladolid
2. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

3. ^ "University of Valladolid".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Valladolid
4. ^ "University of Valladolid".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Valladolid
Valladolid province of the autonomous
region of Castile-Leon,in northern
Spain.3  
[1] Statue of Cervantes in the
University Square, opposite to the
Faculty of Law. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cervantes_Valladolid_lou.jpg
785 YBN
[06/15/1215 AD] 23 		1520) The anti-Jewish religious and
racist prejudice of Christian people in
this time is evident in clause 1116 ,
"And if anyone dies indebted to the
Jews, his wife shall have her dower and
pay nothing of that debt..."17

In addition, the reality of slavory is
evident in clause 2718 , "If any free
man dies without leaving a will, his
chattels shall be distributed by his
nearest kinsfolk and friends under the
supervision of the church...".19

However, some rights are gained by
women, for example clause 820 , "No
widow shall be forced to marry so long
as she wishes to live without a
husband..."21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Magna Carta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0003/Magna-Carta
2. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

3. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

4. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

5. ^ "Magna Carta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0003/Magna-Carta
6. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

7. ^
http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/ch
arter.html
8. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

9. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

10. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

11. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

12. ^ "Magna Carta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0003/Magna-Carta
13. ^ "Magna Carta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0003/Magna-Carta
14. ^ "Magna Carta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
6848/Magna-Carta
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "Magna
Carta". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
6848/Magna-Carta
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ "Magna Carta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
6848/Magna-Carta
20. ^ Ted Huntington
21. ^ "Magna Carta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
6848/Magna-Carta
22. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta

23. ^ "Magna Carta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta
 (06/15/1215)
Runnymede, England22  
[1] # Magna Carta. This is not the
original charter signed by John of
England, which has been lost (though
four copies survive), but the version
issued in 1225 by Henry III of England
and preserved in the UK's National
Archives. # Quelle:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathw
ays/citizenship/images/citizen_subject/m
agna_carta.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magna_Carta.jpg

[2] John of England signs Magna
Carta Image from Cassell's History of
England - Century Edition - published
circa 1902 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:King_John_of_England_signs_the_Magna_
Carta_-_Illustration_from_Cassell%27s_Hi
story_of_England_-_Century_Edition_-_pub
lished_circa_1902.jpg
785 YBN
[1215 AD] 		1154)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
  
782 YBN
[1218 AD] 3 		1344)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Salamanca".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Salamanca
2. ^ "University of Salamanca".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Salamanca
3. ^ "University of Salamanca".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Salamanca

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Salamanca, west of Madrid, Spain2
 
[1] Plateresque facade of the
University GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:University_of_Salamanca.jpg
780 YBN
[1220 AD] 3 		1345)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Montpellier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Montpellier
2. ^ "University of Montpellier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Montpellier
3. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Montpellier in the Languedoc-Roussillon
région of the south of France.2  
[1] The University of Montpellier is
one of the oldest in France, having
been granted a charter in 1220 by
Cardinal Conrad von Urach and confirmed
by Pope Nicholas IV in a papal bull of
1289. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/herefordand
worcester/content/image_galleries/montpe
llier_photo_gallery.shtml?17
780 YBN
[1220 AD] 2 		1394)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
2. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano (1220)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Fibonacci". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci
Pisa, Italy (guess) 
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg

[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
780 YBN
[1220 AD] 10 		3134) The minute larval insects fasten
in myriads on the young shoots, and,
inserting their long proboscides into
the bark, draw their nutriment from the
sap of the plant. The insects begin at
once to exude the resinous secretion
over their entire bodies; this forms in
effect a cocoon. A continuous hard
resinous layer regularly honeycombed
with small cavities is deposited over
and around the twig. From this living
tomb the female insects, which form the
great bulk of the group, never escape.
After their impregnation, which takes
place on the liberation of the males,
about three months from their first
appearance, the females develop into a
singular amorphous organism consisting
in its main features of a large smooth
shining crimson-colored sac - the ovary
- with a beak stuck into the bark, and
a few papillary (pipillae are small
nipplelike projections7 ) processes
projected above the resinous surface.
The red fluid in the ovary is the
substance which forms the lac dye of
commerce. To obtain the largest amount
of both resin and dye-stuff it is
necessary to gather the twigs with
their living inhabitants in or near
June and November. Lac encrusting the
twigs as gathered is known in commerce
as "stick lac"; the resin crushed to
small fragments and washed in hot water
to free it from coloring matter is
"seed lac"; and this, when melted,
strained through thick canvas, and
spread out into thin layers, is known
as "shellac", and is the form in which
the resin is usually brought to
European markets. Shellac varies in
color from a dark amber to an almost
pure black.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Shellac". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellac
2. ^ Merrifield, Mary (1849). Original
Treatises on the Art of Painting. ISBN
0486404404.
3. ^ "shellac." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7262>.
4. ^ "shellac." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shellac
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "shellac." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shellac
7. ^ "papillary>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"papillary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 20 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
apillary>.
8. ^ "Lac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Lac
9. ^ Merrifield, Mary (1849). Original
Treatises on the Art of Painting. ISBN
0486404404.
10. ^ Merrifield, Mary (1849). Original
Treatises on the Art of Painting. ISBN
0486404404. (1220)
Spain9  
[1] Blond shellac sample PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Schellak.jpg
778 YBN
[1222 AD] 6 7 		1346)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Padua". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Padua
2. ^ "University of Padua". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Padua
3. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

4. ^ "University of Padua". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Padua
5. ^ "University of Padua". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Padua
6. ^ "University of Padua". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Padua
7. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Padua, Italy5  
[1] Ornate ceiling in the conference
auditorium. University of Padua, Padua,
Italy, January 31, 2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.big6.com/showarticle.
php?id=342

[2] University of Padua, anatomical
theater, from Jacob Tomasini''s
Gymnasium Patavinum, 1654. Major, 327,
347 PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/major_17th.htm
776 YBN
[06/05/1224 AD] 3 4 		1347)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Naples Federico
II". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Naples_Federico_II
2. ^ "University of Naples Federico
II". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Naples_Federico_II
3. ^ "University of Naples Federico
II". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Naples_Federico_II
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Naples, Italy2  
[1] Main building, university of
Naples, Federico II PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uninap.JPG
775 YBN
[1225 AD] 3 		1395) "Liber quadratorum" is devoted
entirely to Diophantine equations of
the second degree (equations that
contain squares). The "Liber
quadratorum" is considered Leonardo's
masterpiece. "Liber quadratorum" is a
systematically arranged collection of
theorems, many invented by Fibonacci,
who used his own proofs to work out
general solutions.1
Although the
"Liber abaci" will be more influential
and of wider scope, "Liber quadratorum"
alone ranks Leonardo as the major
contributor to number theory between
Diophantus and the 1600s French
mathematician Pierre de Fermat.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
2. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano
3. ^ "Leonardo Pisano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7817/Leonardo-Pisano (1225)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Fibonacci". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci
Pisa, Italy (guess) 
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg

[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
773 YBN
[1227 AD] 8 9 		1400) Scot is a believer in and writes
works on astrology.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Michael Scot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6342/Michael-Scot
3. ^ "Michael Scot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6342/Michael-Scot
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Michael Scot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Sco
t
7. ^ "Michael Scot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6342/Michael-Scot
8. ^ "Michael Scot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6342/Michael-Scot (1175-1235)
9. ^ "Michael Scot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6342/Michael-Scot (after 1227 is in
Sicily)
Sicily7   
772 YBN
[1228 AD] 31 32 33 34 35 		1392) Theory that all matter is made of
light published by Robert Grosseteste
(GrOSTeST), (CE c1175-1253)20 21 22

In "De Luce", Grossteste writes "Lux
est ergo prima forma corporalis."23 ,
"Light is therefore the first corporeal
(material) form"24 .

Grossetest brings in scholars from the
Byzantine Empire to translate works
from the original Greek.25

Interested in optics, Grosseteste
performs experiments with mirrors and
lenses using al-Haytham's (Alhazen's)
writings as a guide.26

In "De Iride" ("On the rainbow")
Grosseteste writes:
"This part of optics,
when well understood, shows us how we
may make things a very long distance
off appear as if placed very close, and
large near things appear very small,
and how we may make small things placed
at a distance appear any size we want,
so that it may be possible for us to
read the smallest letters at incredible
distances, or to count sand, or seed,
or any sort or minute objects."27

Gresseteste's work in optics will be
continued by his student Roger Bacon.28


In "De Luce" Grosseteste reveals his
awareness of atomic theory writing:
"It
is my opinion that this was the meaning
of the theory of those philosophers who
held that everything is composed of
atoms, and said that bodies are
composed of surfaces, and surfaces of
lines, and lines of points."29

Grossetest introduces Aristotle to
Europe.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
3. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
4. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
5. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
6. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
7. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
8. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
9. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
10. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
11. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
12. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
13. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
14. ^ "corporeal." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Mar.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
orporeal>.
15. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
16. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
17. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
18. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
19. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
20. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
21. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
22. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
23. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
24. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^ "Robert
Grosseteste". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gros
seteste
28. ^ "Robert Grosseteste". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gros
seteste
29. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
31. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J.
I. Catto, The Early Oxford Schools,
Volume 1, 1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1168-1253)
(c1168-1253)
33. ^ "Robert Grosseteste".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8191/Robert-Grosseteste (c1175-1253)
34. ^ "Robert
Grosseteste". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gros
seteste (c1175-1253)
35. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/bio.htm
(c1170-1253)
Lincoln, England (where de luce is
written) 
[1] Portrait of Robert Grosseteste,
Bishop of Lincoln, seated with mitre
and crozier; his right hand raised in
blessing. Produced in England - 13th
century Record Number:
c6400-05 Shelfmark: Harley
3860 Page Folio Number:
f.48 Description: [Detail] Portrait
of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln, seated with mitre and crozier;
his right hand raised in blessing. The
Articles of the Christian Faith
according to Bishop Grosseteste, in
French verse Title of Work:
- Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 13th
century Language/Script: Latin and
French / - [t notice the crossed eyes,
perhaps reputation as insane for
proscience views?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grosseteste_bishop.jpg

[2] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2
771 YBN
[1229 AD] 5 6 		1348)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.yatcom.com/neworl/lifestyle/l
anguage.html
2. ^ "University of Toulouse".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Toulouse
3. ^ "University of Toulouse".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Toulouse
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

5. ^ "University of Toulouse".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Toulouse
6. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Toulouse, France4  
[1] Toulouse, le Capitole COPYRIGHTED
FRANCE
source: http://w3.univ-tlse2.fr/pac/iclc
e.toulouse/photos/index.1.jpg
770 YBN
[1230 AD] 2 3 		1158) Pope Gregory IX authorizes the
killing of witches.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
(1200s) (1200s)
3. ^ "Pope Gregory IX".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregor
y_IX (guess based on)
Rome, Italy 
[1] Pope Gregory IX painted in glory
while excomunicating. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:B_Gregor_IX2.jpg

[2] Pope Gregory orders the Talmud to
be put on trial and burned A.D. 1239.
Panel by Berruguete, 15th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Talmudtrial.jpg
767 YBN
[1233 AD] 24 25 		1396) Albertus was the eldest son of a
wealthy German lord. After his early
schooling, he went to the University of
Padua, where he studied the liberal
arts. He joined the Dominican order at
Padua in 1223. He continued his studies
at Padua and Bologna and in Germany and
then taught theology at several
convents throughout Germany, lastly at
Cologne.13

Because of his learning, Albertus is
suspected of wizardry.14
Albertus is
called "the Bishop with the Boots" and
the "Ape of Aristotle".15
Albertus is
the bishop of Regensburg from
1260-1262.16

In the summer of 1248, Albertus will be
sent to Cologne to organize the first
Dominican studium generale ("general
house of studies") in Germany. Albertus
will preside over this house until 1254
and devote himself to a full schedule
of studying, teaching, and writing.
During this period Albertus' main
disciple will be Thomas Aquinas, who
will return to Paris in 1252. The two
men maintain a close relationship even
though doctrinal differences exist.17

In 1277 he traveled to Paris to uphold
the recently condemned good name and
writings of Thomas Aquinas, who had
died a few years before, and to defend
certain Aristotelian doctrines that
both he and Thomas held to be true.18

Albertus, like most humans in this time
have many flaws including, most likely
believing in a diety19 , believing most
of the lies of the Christian religion20
, believing astrology21 , and that
stones have occult properties (in "De
mineralibus")22 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/albertus-ma
gnus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Saint Albertus
Magnus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/albertus-ma
gnus
8. ^ "Albert Magnus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
9. ^ "Albert Magnus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
10. ^ "Albert Magnus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Albert Magnus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
13. ^ "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Saint Albertus
Magnus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
18. ^ "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ Ted Huntington
21. ^ "Albert
Magnus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
22. ^ "Albert Magnus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
23. ^ "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1193-1280)
(1193-1280)
25. ^ "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus (c1200-1280)

MORE INFO
[1] "albert great". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/albert
-great/
Paris, France23  
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg

[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
766 YBN
[1234 AD] 9 10 		1125)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
5. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
6. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
7. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
8. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
9. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/ {July 1377}
10. ^
"Movable type". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_typ
e {1234}
Korea8  
[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요
(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體
節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg
766 YBN
[1234 AD] 23 24 25 		1399) Although of German descent,
Frederick prefers to live in Sicily.15

At age fourteen Frederick marries a
twenty-five-year-old widow named
Constance, the daughter of the king of
Aragon. Both seem to have been happy
with the arrangement, and Constance
bears Frederick a son, Henry.16
Instead
of killing the Saracens of Sicily,
Frederick allows them to settle on the
mainland and build mosques. Frederick
also enlists them in his Christian army
and even into his personal bodyguards.
As Muslim soldiers, they have the
advantage of immunity from papal
excommunication. For these reasons,
among others, Frederick II will be
listed as a representative member of
the sixth region of Dante's Inferno,
The Heretics who are burned in tombs.17

Frederick writes poetry18 and is a
patron of the Sicilian School of
poetry. Frederick's royal court in
Palermo, from around 1220 to his death,
sees the first use of a literary form
of an Italo-Romance language, Sicilian.
The school and its poetry will be well
known to Dante and his peers and will
have a significant influence on the
literary form of what was eventually to
become the modern Italian language.19
Po
pe Gregory IX, excommunicates Frederick
II for failing to carry out a crusade
to Jerusalem.20 Frederick obtained
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth from
the Sultan al-Kamil of Egypt
nonviolently through negociation.21
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Frederick II, Holy
Roman Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Frederick II".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5241/Frederick-II
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Frederick II".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5241/Frederick-II
9. ^ "Frederick II". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5241/Frederick-II
10. ^ "Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
11. ^ "Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
12. ^ "Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
13. ^ "University of Naples Federico
II". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Naples_Federico_II
14. ^ "Frederick II". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5241/Frederick-II
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ "Frederick II, Holy
Roman Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
17. ^ "Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ "Frederick II, Holy
Roman Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
20. ^ "Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
21. ^ "Frederick II". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5241/Frederick-II
22. ^ "Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1194-1250)
(1194-1250)
24. ^ "Frederick II". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5241/Frederick-II (1194-1250)
25. ^ "Frederick II,
Holy Roman Emperor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I
I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor (1194-1250)
Sicily22  
[1] * Frederick II and his falcon.
* From his book De arte venandi cum
avibus (''The art of hunting with
birds). From a manuscript in Biblioteca
Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071), late 13th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg

[2] L'Islam in Italia, DeAgostini -
Rizzoli periodici An image from an old
copy of De arte venandi cum avibus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:De_Venandi_com_Avibus.jpg
760 YBN
[1240 AD] 3 4 		1349)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Siena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Siena
2. ^ "University of Siena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Siena
3. ^ "University of Siena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Siena
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Siena, Tuscany, Italy2  
[1] University of Siena COPYRIGHTED
ITALY
source: http://www.elet.polimi.it/confer
ences/siena2003/home2.html
758 YBN
[1242 AD] 7 8 9 10 		1403)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gunpowder#History and
development". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder#H
istory_and_development
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
4. ^ JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 17
(1982) 3385--3400, A short history of
gunpowder and the role of charcoal in
its manufacture, gunpowder.pdf
5. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
6. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1247) (1247)
8. ^ "Roger
Bacon". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon (how to make gunpowder
1242)
9. ^ "Gunpowder#History and
development". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder#H
istory_and_development (gunpowder 1267)
10. ^
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 17 (1982)
3385--3400, A short history of
gunpowder and the role of charcoal in
its manufacture, gunpowder.pdf (1267
cipher written) (1267 cipher written)

MORE INFO
[1] "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

Oxford, England6  
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
757 YBN
[1243 AD] 2 		1156) Jewish humans are burned at the
stake by Christian humans for "host
nailing", that is the Jewish humans are
accused of hammering nails through the
"host" or wafer given to Christian
people to eat during a Christian
service as a symbol of Jesus.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
?  
752 YBN
[1248 AD] 2 		1397)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/albertus-ma
gnus
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/albertus-ma
gnus (1248)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
[3] "Albert Magnus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
[4] "albert great". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/albert
-great/
Cologne1  
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg

[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
748 YBN
[05/15/1252 AD] 6 7 		1157) Pope Innocent IV authorizes
torture.1 "Ad exstirpanda" is the the
opening line2 designating a papal bull
(a public letter in legal form3 4 )
issued on May 15, 1252, by Pope
Innocent IV, which will be confirmed by
Pope Alexander IV in 1259, and by Pope
Clement IV in 1265. This papl bull
explicitly authorizes the use of
torture for eliciting confessions from
heretics during the Inquisition and
explicitly condones the practice of
executing relapsed heretics by burning
them alive. The bull gives to the State
a portion of the property to be
confiscated from convicted heretics.
The State in return assumes the burden
of carrying out the penalty.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999). (1252)
2. ^ "Incipit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incipit
3. ^ "Papal bull". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull
4. ^ "Letters patent". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters_pat
ent
5. ^ "1252)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_exstirpa
nda (05/15/1252)
6. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors:
An Illustrated History of Religious
Murder and Madness", (Amherst, NY:
Prometheus Books, 1999). (1252) (1252)
(1252)
7. ^ "1252)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_exstirpa
nda (05/15/1252) (05/15/1252)
(05/15/1252)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pope Innocent IV".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innoce
nt_IV
Rome, Italy  
748 YBN
[1252 AD] 31 32 33 34 35 36 		1416) The Tables of Toledo are the most
accurate compilation of
astronomical/astrological data
(ephemeris) ever seen in Europe at this
time. The Tables were partly the work
of Al-Zarqali, known to the West as
Arzachel, a mathematician and
astronomer/astrologer who flourished in
Cordoba in the 1000s.26 Gerard of
Cremona (1114â€"1187) edited the
Tables of Toledo for Latin readers.27

The tables will not be widely known
until a Latin version is prepared in
Paris in the 1320s. Copies will rapidly
spread throughout Europe, and for more
than two centuries the Alfonsine Tables
will be the best astronomical tables
available. First printed in 1483, the
Alfonsine Tables will be an important
source of information for the young
Nicolaus Copernicus before his own work
superseded them in the 1550s.28

Alfonso X commissioned or co-authored
numerous works during his reign. These
works included Cantigas d'escarnio e
maldicer, General Estoria and the Libro
de los juegos ("Book of Games").29
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Alfonso X el Sabio and
the Renaissance in Spain Robert R.
Anderson Hispania, Vol. 44, No. 3.
(Sep., 1961), pp.
448-453. alfonsox.pdf
6. ^ "Alfonsine tables". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonsine_t
ables
7. ^ "Alfonso X". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfonso-x-o
f-castile?cat=entertainment
9. ^ "Talmud". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud
10. ^ Alfonso X el Sabio and the
Renaissance in Spain Robert R.
Anderson Hispania, Vol. 44, No. 3.
(Sep., 1961), pp.
448-453. alfonsox.pdf
11. ^ "Alfonso X". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
12. ^ James Carroll, Constantine's
Sword: The Church and the Jews, Boston,
Houghton-Mifflin, 2002, pp. 327-28.
13. ^
"Alfonso X". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
14. ^ "Alfonso X". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
15. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfonso-x-o
f-castile?cat=entertainment
16. ^ "Alfonso X". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5675/Alfonso-X
17. ^ "Alfonso X". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
18. ^ "Alfonso X". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
19. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfonso-x-o
f-castile?cat=entertainment
20. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfonso-x-o
f-castile?cat=entertainment
21. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfonso-x-o
f-castile?cat=entertainment
22. ^ "Alfonso el Sabio." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 31 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfonso-el-
sabio
23. ^ "cantiga." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/93136/cantiga>.
24. ^ "Alfonso X of Castile."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 31 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfonso-x-o
f-castile
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Tables of Toledo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tables_of_T
oledo
27. ^ "Tables of Toledo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tables_of_T
oledo
28. ^ "Alfonsine Tables". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5658/Alfonsine-Tables
29. ^ "Alfonso X". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
30. ^ "Alfonso X". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5675/Alfonso-X
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1221-1284)
(1221-1284)
32. ^ "Alfonso X". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5675/Alfonso-X (1221-1284)
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1252 tables)
(1252 tables)
34. ^ "Alfonso X". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X
(1252 tables)
35. ^ "Alfonso X". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5675/Alfonso-X (1262-1272)
36. ^ "Alfonsine
Tables". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5658/Alfonsine-Tables (1252 start of
reign)

MORE INFO
[1] "History of spain".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
spain
Castile, Spain30  
[1] Español: Alfonso X el
Sabio Alfonso X el Sabio (Toledo
1221-Sevilla 1284), rey de Castilla y
de León (en la actual España)
(1252-1284). From en.wiki: *
Alfonso X of Castile from the Libro des
Juegas. Scanned from Four Gothic
Kings, Elizabeth Hallam ed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LibroDesJuegasAlfonXAndCourt.jpg

[2] Statue of Alfonso X of Castile
(1221â€''1284) at the entrance
staircase of the National Library of
Spain, in Madrid. Sculpted by José
Alcoverro y Amorós (1835â€''1910) in
1892. 2006 CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alfonso_X_el_Sabio_%28Jos%C3%A9_Alcov
erro%29_01.jpg
745 YBN
[1255 AD] 2 		1159) In England, 18 Jewish people are
tortured and hanged for sacrificing
children.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
England  
741 YBN
[1259 AD] 10 11 12 		1412)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
2. ^ "Nasir al
Din al Tusi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3899/Nasir-al-Din-al-Tusi
3. ^ "Nasir al Din al Tusi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3899/Nasir-al-Din-al-Tusi
4. ^ "Nasir al Din al Tusi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3899/Nasir-al-Din-al-Tusi
5. ^ "Nasir al-Din al-Tusi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasir_al-Di
n_al-Tusi
6. ^ "Nasir al Din al Tusi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3899/Nasir-al-Din-al-Tusi
7. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
8. ^ "Nasir
al-Din al-Tusi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasir_al-Di
n_al-Tusi
9. ^ "Nasir al Din al Tusi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3899/Nasir-al-Din-al-Tusi
10. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
(1201-1274)
11. ^ "Nasir al Din al Tusi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3899/Nasir-al-Din-al-Tusi (1201-1274)
12. ^ "Nasir
al-Din al-Tusi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasir_al-Di
n_al-Tusi (1201-1274)
in Maragheh (now in Azerbaijan)9  
[1] Stamp issued in 1956 by Iran
picturing Nasir al-Din Tusi,
astronomer Source scan of stamp 30
May 2006 Date issued 1956 Author
Iran PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nasir_al-Din_Tusi.jpg

[2] Tusi couple - 13th century CE
sketch by Nasir al-Din Tusi. Generates
a linear motion as a sum of two
circular motions. Invented for Tusi's
planetary model. Online source:
Pearson Prentice Hall Companion Website
for Astronomy Today Original source:
Library of Congress Vatican Exhibit
(Vat. Arabic ms 319, fol. 28 verso) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tusi_couple.jpg
739 YBN
[1261 AD] 5 		1842)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Yang Hui". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Hui
2. ^ Needham, Volume 3, 134-137.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and
Civilization in China: Volume 3,
Mathematics and the Sciences of the
Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves
Books, Ltd.
3. ^ "Pascal's triangle's
triangle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
4. ^ "Yang Hui". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Hui
5. ^ "Yang Hui". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Hui
(1261)
?, China4 (presumably) 
[1] Yang Hui triangle (Pascal's
triangle) using rod numerals, as
depicted in a publication of Zhu Shijie
in 1303 AD. Drawing of Pascal's
Triangle published in 1303 by Zhu
Shijie (1260-1320), in his Si Yuan Yu
Jian. It was called Yanghui Triangle by
the Chinese, after the mathematician
Yang Hui. The fourth entry from the
left in the second row from the bottom
appears to be a typo (34 instead of 35,
correctly given in the fifth entry in
the same row). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Yanghui_triangle.gif
737 YBN
[1263 AD] 		1417) Alderotti is physician to Pope
Honorius IV.6
Alderotti studies in
Bologna (which, according to Asimov has
one of the best health schools (medical
school) in western Europe) and in
lectures there in 1260.7
Dante
mentions him in The Divine Comedy as a
Hippocratist, or follower of
Hippocrates.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english/biogr/b
io2.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^
http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english/biogr/b
io2.htm
5. ^
http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english/biogr/b
io2.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Tables of Toledo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tables_of_T
oledo
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.accademiajr.it/medweb/biograf
ie.html
Bologna, Italy9  
[1] Taddeo Alderotti PD
source: http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english
/biogr/bio2.htm

[2] Biografie di medici medievali [t
Biography of medieval medicine, it
looks just like a contemporary image of
some physicians, maybe at a health
school?] PD
source: http://www.accademiajr.it/medweb
/biografie.html
735 YBN
[01/20/1265 AD] 10 		1525) Simon de Montfort and most of his
followers will be killed a few months
later on Aug. 4, 1265, by Edward I,
Kind Henry III's son and future king of
England.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "De Montfort's Parliament's
Parliament". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Montfort
%27s_Parliament
2. ^ "List of Parliaments of England".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Par
liaments_of_England
3. ^ "De Montfort's Parliament's
Parliament". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Montfort
%27s_Parliament
4. ^ "De Montfort's Parliament's
Parliament". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Montfort
%27s_Parliament
5. ^ "De Montfort's Parliament's
Parliament". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Montfort
%27s_Parliament
6. ^ "De Montfort's Parliament's
Parliament". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Montfort
%27s_Parliament
7. ^ "Parliament". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament
8. ^ "Simon de Montfort earl of
Leicester". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3537/Simon-de-Montfort-earl-of-Leicester

9. ^ "De Montfort's Parliament's
Parliament". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Montfort
%27s_Parliament
10. ^ "List of Parliaments of England".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Par
liaments_of_England (01/20/1265)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl
of Leicester". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_de_Mo
ntfort%2C_6th_Earl_of_Leicester
Rome, Italy9  
[1] Relief of Simon de Montfort, by
Gaetano Cecere (1950), in United States
House of Representatives Chamber.
Agency: Architect of the Capitol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Demontfort.jpg
735 YBN
[1265 AD] 		1418) Aquinas was sent to the
University of Naples, recently founded
by the emperor, where he first
encountered the scientific and
philosophical works that were being
translated from Greek and Arabic. In
this setting Thomas decided to join the
Friars Preachers, or Dominicans, a new
religious order founded 30 years
earlier, which departed from the
traditional paternalistic form of
government for monks to the more
democratic form of the mendicant friars
(religious orders whose poverty made it
necessary for them to beg alms) and
from the monastic life of prayer and
manual labour to a more active life of
preaching and teaching.24

In 1245 Aquinas studied at the
University of Paris, the most
prestigious and turbulent university of
the time.25 Aquinas went to Paris to
the convent of Saint-Jacques, the great
university centre of the Dominicans,
and there studied under Albertus
Magnus, a tremendous scholar with a
wide range of intellectual interests.26


The logic of Aquinas's position
regarding faith and reason requires
that the fundamental consistency of
nature be recognized. In the universe
or nature there are laws that describe
its operation. Recognizing this fact
permits the construction of a science
according to a logos (“rational
structure”).27 Opponents under
the influence of Augustine's doctrines
assert the necessity and power of grace
for a nature polluted by sin. This new
view therefore upsets them.28 This
idea that the universe is controlled by
laws of nature leaves the question of
where a diety might be located and
involved.29 For many modern people a
diety is everywhere influencing
everything either obeying or disobeying
the laws of nature, for others a diety
is only responsible for the creation of
the universe, for some there are many
dieties, and of course some people
reject the theory that any gods
exist.30

In January 1274 Thomas Aquinas is be
personally summoned by Gregory X to the
second Council of Lyons, which is an
attempt to repair the schism between
the Latin and Greek churches. On his
way Aquinas is stricken by illness; he
stops at the Cistercian abbey of
Fossanova, where he died on March 7. In
1277 the masters of Paris, the highest
theological jurisdiction in the church,
condemn a series of 219 propositions;
12 of these propositions are theses of
Aquinas. This is the most serious
condemnation possible in the Middle
Ages and its repercussions are felt in
the development of science for several
centuries.31
Thomas Aquinas will be
canonized a saint in 1323.32

Aquinas' philosophical treatistes are:
"De
ente et essentia" (before 1256; On
Being and Essence, 1949); "Contra
impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem"
(1256; An Apology for the Religious
Orders, 1902); "De regno" (De regimine
principum) "ad regem Cypri" (1266; On
Kingship, 1949); "De perfectione vitae
spiritualis" (1269â€"70); "De unitate
intellectus contra Averroistas" (1270;
The Unicity of the Intellect, 1946);
"De aeternitate mundi contra
murmurantes" (1270â€"72); "De
substantiis separatis, seu de angelorum
natura" (undated; Treatise on Separate
Substances, 1959).33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Aquinas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Saint
Thomas Aquinas". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ "Thomas Aquinas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ "Thomas Aquinas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
12. ^ "Thomas Aquinas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
13. ^ "Thomas Aquinas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "Thomas Aquinas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ "Thomas Aquinas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
21. ^ "Thomas Aquinas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
22. ^ "Thomas Aquinas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
23. ^ "Thomas Aquinas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aqui
nas
24. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
25. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
26. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
27. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
28. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
29. ^ Ted Huntington
30. ^ Ted Huntington
31. ^ "Saint Thomas
Aquinas". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
32. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
33. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
34. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8661/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
Paris, France34  
[1] Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas
from the Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo
Crivelli. [t bald head is shaved or
naturally like this?] Depiction of St.
Thomas Aquinas from The Demidoff
Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli Name:
Thomas Aquinas Birth: ca. 1225
(Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino,
Italy) Death: 7 March 1274 (Fossanova
Abbey, Lazio, Italy) School/tradition:
Scholasticism, Founder of
Thomism Main interests: Metaphysics
(incl. Theology), Logic, Mind,
Epistemology, Ethics, Politics Notable
ideas: Five Proofs for God's
Existence, Principle of double
effect Influences: Aristotle,
Albertus Magnus, Boethius, Eriugena,
Anselm, Averroes, Maimonides, St.
Augustine,Al-Ghazzali Influenced:
Giles of Rome, Godfrey of Fontaines,
Jacques Maritain, G. E. M. Anscombe,
John Locke, Dante PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg

[2] St. Thomas Aquinas, by Fra
Angelico Title: ''Saint Thomas
Aquinas'' Artist: Fra Angelico (1395
â€'' 1455) Description: During the
13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas
sought to reconcile Aristotelian
philosophy with Augustinian theology.
Aquinas employed both reason and faith
in the study of metaphysics, moral
philosophy, and religion. While Aquinas
accepted the existence of God on faith,
he offered five proofs of God’s
existence to support such a
belief. Source:
http://www.cptryon.org/prayer/special/gu
idaquin.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg
733 YBN
[1267 AD] 46 47 48 		1401) Bacon was born into a wealthy
family. His parents are employed by
King Henry III.37 Bacon was
well-versed in the classics and enjoyed
the advantages of an early training in
geometry, arithmetic, music, and
astronomy.38
Bacon studied and later
became a Master at Oxford, lecturing on
Aristotle.39
Sometime between 1237 and
1245, Bacon starts to lecture at the
University of Paris, the center of
intellectual life in Europe at this
time.40
Bacon obtains a Master of arts
degree, at the university of Paris by
1241 and resigns in 1247 to devote
himself to research.41 This new
interest in science and experiment is
probably caused by his return to Oxford
and the influence there of the great
scholar Robert Grosseteste, a leader in
introducing Greek learning to the West,
and Grosseteste's student Adam de
Marisco, and Thomas Wallensis, the
bishop of St. David's.42

Around 1256 Bacon becomes a Friar in
the Franciscan Order. As a Franciscan
Friar, Bacon no longer holds a teaching
post and after 1260, his activities are
further restricted by a Franciscan
statute forbidding Friars from
publishing books or pamphlets without
specific approval.43
Bacon circumvents
this restriction through his
acquaintance with Cardinal Guy le Gros
de Foulques, who becomes Pope Clement
IV in 1265. The new Pope issues a
mandate ordering Bacon to write him
concerning the place of philosophy
within theology. As a result Bacon
sends the Pope his "Opus maius", which
presents Bacon's views on how the
philosophy of Aristotle and the new
science can be incorporated into a new
Theology. Besides the "Opus maius"
Bacon also sends his "Opus minus", "De
multiplicatione specierum", and,
perhaps, other works on alchemy and
astrology.44
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Opus Majus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
2. ^ Roger Bacon, "Opus Majus",
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0IBKAAAAYAAJ&dq=Opus+Majus+roger+bacon&s
ource=gbs_navlinks_s
3. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
4. ^ "eyeglasses". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3484/eyeglasses
5. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Far sighted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_sighted

18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ "eyeglasses".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3484/eyeglasses
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
23. ^ "Opus Majus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
24. ^ "Opus Majus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
25. ^ "Opus Majus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
26. ^ "Opus Majus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
27. ^ "Opus Majus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
28. ^ "Opus Majus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
30. ^ Ted Huntington
31. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
32. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
34. ^
http://www.answers.com/roger%20bacon
35. ^ "Grammar". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar
36. ^ "grammar". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"grammar". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
rammar
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
38. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
39. ^ "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

40. ^ "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
42. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
43. ^ "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

44. ^ "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

45. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
46. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon (how to make gunpowder
1242)
47. ^ "Opus Majus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
(Opus Magnus 1267)
48. ^ "Gunpowder#History
and development". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder#H
istory_and_development (gunpowder 1267)
Oxford, England45  
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
732 YBN
[1268 AD] 4 		1147)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
2. ^ Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History
of Chinese Civilisation. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-49781-7.
3. ^
"Gunpowder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
4. ^ "Gunpowder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
China3  
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵
;詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
731 YBN
[08/08/1269 AD] 36 37 		1420) Peregrinus is a friend of Roger
Bacon.23
Peregrinus is an engineer in
army of Louis IX.24
Peregrinus thinks
that the compass needle points to the
celestial sphere, the outermost spheres
in Ptolemy's erroneous system.25
People
initially did not connect magnetism and
electricity, giving each word a
different suffix instead of the same:
"magnetity" or "electrism".26

Peter's magnetic experiments and
instruments in his letter apparently
date to a time period twenty years
earlier, judging by references in
several works of Bacon.27 28

The name Peregrinus ("pilgrim")
suggests that Peregrinus may have also
been a crusader.29

Peregrinus' disciple, Roger Bacon, pays
the highest tribute to Peregrinus as an
experimenter and technician in his
"Opus tertium" and other works (in
which Peter is called "Petrus de
Maharncuria Picardus"). According to
Bacon, Peregrinus is a recluse who
devotes himself to the study of nature,
is able to work metals, invents armour
and provides assistance more valuable
to Louis IX of France than the king's
entire army.30

"De magnete" will became a very popular
work from the Middle Ages onwards. In
1326, Thomas Bradwardine will quote it
in his "Tractatus de proportionibus".
Scholars at Oxford University will make
frequent use of it. The first edition
of the letter will be issued at
Augsburg, in 1558, by Achilles
Gasser.31

William Gilbert will acknowledge his
debt to Peter of Maricourt and
incorporates this 1200s scientist's
experiments on magnetism into his own
treatise, called "De magnete".32 33

Here we see the major centers for the
earliest European scientific progress
are Italy, France and England as the
transition from the Arab nations
leading in science happens.34
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Petrus
Peregrinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Peter
Peregrinus of Maricourt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Peter Peregrinus of
Maricourt". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
20. ^ "Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
21. ^ "Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
22. ^ "Petrus Peregrinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Ted Huntington
27. ^ "Petrus
Peregrinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus
28. ^ E. G. R. Taylor: “The
South-Pointing Needle”, in: Imago
Mundi, Vol. 8. (1951), p.1f. & 4
29. ^
"Petrus Peregrinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus
30. ^ "Petrus Peregrinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus
31. ^ "Petrus Peregrinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus
32. ^ "Petrus Peregrinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus
33. ^ Jean Gimpel, The Medieval
Machine: The Industrial Revolution of
the Middle Ages (New York, Penguin,
1976), 194.
34. ^ Ted Huntington
35. ^ "Peter
Peregrinus of Maricourt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
36. ^ "Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9211/Peter-Peregrinus-of-Maricourt
(08/1269 writes treatise on magnets)
37. ^
"Petrus Peregrinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Pere
grinus (08/08/1269)
Lucera, Italy35  
[1] Pivoting compass needle in a 14th
century handcopy of Peter's Epistola de
magnete (1269) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Epistola-de-magnete.jpg
730 YBN
[12/??/1270 AD] 14 		1405) This Condemnation represents a
clear and official censorship of free
speech, and free thought in addition to
the censorship of scientific and other
writings.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
2. ^ "Stephen Tempier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Tem
pier
3. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
4. ^ "Monopsychism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopsychis
m
5. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
6. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
7. ^ "Siger of Brabant". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siger_of_Br
abant
8. ^ "Averroism". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism
9. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
10. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
11. ^ "Averroism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "Condemnations of
1277". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
14. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
Paris, France13   
725 YBN
[1275 AD] 12 13 		1419) Villanova can speak Arabic and
Greek.7
Villanova is given a castle and
a professorship at the University of
Montpellier in France as a result of
treating royal people.8
Villanova is
probably of Catalan origin, and studied
chemistry, medicine, physics, and also
Arabic philosophy. After having lived
at the court of Aragon, he goes to
Paris, where he gains a considerable
reputation; but angers the
ecclesiastics and is forced to move,
which he does to Sicily.9 About 1313
he was summoned to Avignon by Pope
Clement V, who was ill, but Villanova
dies on the voyage.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Arnold of
Villanova". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_of_V
illanova
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Arnold of Villanova".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_of_V
illanova
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Arnold of Villanova".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_of_V
illanova
10. ^ "Arnold of Villanova". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_of_V
illanova
11. ^ "Arnold of Villanova". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_of_V
illanova
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1235â€"1311)
(1235â€"1311) (1235-1311)
13. ^ "Arnold of
Villanova". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_of_V
illanova (1235-1313)
Paris, France11  
[1] Arnaldus de Villanova PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arnaldus_de_Villanova.jpeg
723 YBN
[1277 AD] 3 		1398) Albertus Magnus (Albert the
great) (1193-1280) In 1277 he travels
to Paris to uphold the recently
condemned good name and writings of
Thomas Aquinas, who had died a few
years before, and to defend certain
Aristotelian doctrines that both he and
Thomas held to be true.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
2. ^ "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus
3. ^ "Saint Albertus Magnus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5452/Saint-Albertus-Magnus (1277)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Albert Magnus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Magn
us
[3] "albert great". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/albert
-great/
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/albertus-ma
gnus
Paris, France2  
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg

[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
723 YBN
[1277 AD] 5 		1404)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jerome of Ascoli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_of_A
scoli
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
5. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon (1277-1279)

MORE INFO
[1] "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

[2] "Condemnations of 1277". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
Oxford, England4  
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
723 YBN
[1277 AD] 6 		1406)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
2. ^ "Saint Thomas Aquinas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-326
60/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
3. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
4. ^ "condemnation". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"condemnation". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condem
nation/
5. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
6. ^ "Condemnations of 1277".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277

MORE INFO
[1] "Stephen Tempier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Tem
pier
[2] "Monopsychism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopsychis
m
[3] "Siger of Brabant". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siger_of_Br
abant
[4] "Averroism". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism
Paris, France5   
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 4 		5873)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p63.
2. ^
Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in
Western Culture", 2003, p63.
3. ^ Mark Evan
Bonds, "A History of Music in Western
Culture", 2003, p63.
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds,
"A History of Music in Western
Culture", 2003, p63. {c1280}
Cologne, Germany3   
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 4 		6238)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
2. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
3. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p31.
{1280}
Florence, Italy3  
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
719 YBN
[1281 AD] 7 8 9 		1413)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
2. ^ "Qutb
al-Din al-Shirazi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_al-Din
_al-Shirazi
3. ^ A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002),
"Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M.
Sharif, "A History of Muslim
Philosophy", Philosophia Islamica
4. ^ "Qutb
al-Din al-Shirazi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_al-Din
_al-Shirazi
5. ^ Kennedy, E. S. - Late Medieval
Planetary Theory, Isis, Vol. 57, No. 3.
(Autumn, 1966), pp. 365-378., The
University of Chicago Press
6. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987).
7. ^ Seyyed Hossein
Nasr, "Science and Civilization in
Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts
Society, 1987). (CE 1236â€"1311) (CE
1236â€"1311) (CE 1236-1311)
8. ^ "Qutb al-Din
al-Shirazi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_al-Din
_al-Shirazi (CE 1236â€"1311) (CE
1236-1311)
9. ^ "Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_al-Din
_al-Shirazi (completes limit of
accomplishment 1281)
Maragha, Iran6  
[1] Photo taken from medieval
manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. The
image depicts an epicyclic planetary
model. Name: Title: Birth:
1236CE death: 1311CE Maddhab:
Sufi Main interests: Mathematics,
Astronomy, medicine, science and
philosophy works: Almagest, The Royal
Present ,Pearly Crown, etc Influences:
Nasir al-Din Tusi, Ibn al-Haytham and
Suhrawardi Picture taken by Zereshk
from old manuscript of Qotbeddin
Shirazi's treatise. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghotb2.jpg
716 YBN
[1284 AD] 4 		5884) The most famous of the secular
plays "Jau de Robin et de Marion" is
written around this time by Adam de le
Halle (CE c1250-c1306), the last and
greatest of the trouveres,1 a poet,
musician and innovator of the earliest
French secular theatre. "Jeu de Robin
et de Marion" ("A game of Robin and of
Marion") is a dramatization of the
pastoral theme of a knight’s wooing
of a pretty shepherdess, with dances
and peasants’ dialogue.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Claude V.palisca, "Norton
Anthology of Western Music", v1, 2001,
p40.
2. ^ "Adam De La Halle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5027/Adam-de-la-Halle>.
3. ^
http://www.naxosdirect.com/title/8.55733
7
4. ^ Claude V.palisca, "Norton
Anthology of Western Music", v1, 2001,
p40. {1284}
Picardy, France3  
[1] Folio 1 Mariage de Robin et de
Marote Marote chante PD
source: http://toisondor.byu.edu/dscript
orium/aix166/fol1.jpg

[2] escription English: Adam de la
Halle. Miniature in musical
codex. Español: Adam de la Halle.
Miniatura en un códice musical. Date
s. XIII Source
http://picsdigger.com/image/cfd4783
c/ Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Adam_de_la_halle.jpg
715 YBN
[1285 AD] 3 		1160) In Munich, 180 Jewish people are
burned {to death} after being accused
of bleeding a Christian child to
death.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
3. ^
James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
Munich2   
710 YBN
[1290 AD] 3 4 		1350)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Coimbra".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Coimbra
2. ^ "University of Coimbra".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Coimbra
3. ^ "University of Coimbra".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Coimbra
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Coimbra, Portugal2  
[1] The tower of the University of
Coimbra (left) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coimbra_University_Tower_2.jpg
703 YBN
[1297 AD] 21 22 		1422) D'Abano studied a long time at
Paris, where he was promoted to the
degrees of Doctor in philosophy and
physics.12 D'Abano's fees as a
physician are reported to be very
high.13

D'Abano meets Marco Polo.14
D'Abano
believes in astrology and is suspected
of magical practices, in particular by
competing physicians.15
After his
death, D'Abano is found guilty and his
body is ordered to be exhumed and
burned, but a friend secretly removes
it, and the Inquisition has to content
itself with the public proclamation of
its sentence and the burning of Abano
in effigy16 as a bundle of straw
representing his person publicly burnt
at Padua.17

There is a long history of the
shockingly brutal execution by fire.
There are reports of Roman authorities
murdering Christian martyrs by burning,
and the Roman Emperor Justinian orders
death by fire as a punishment for
heresy against Christianity.18 The
burning the D'Abano in effigy is an
early report of the increased efforts
to stop the advance of freethinking
being nutured in the Universities in
Europe from the reading of ancient
Greek and Arabic texts.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
5. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
10. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
11. ^ "Aristotelianism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-331
52/Aristotelianism
12. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
13. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ "Pietro
d'Abano'Abano". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_d%27
Abano
17. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
18. ^ "Burning at the stake".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_at_
the_stake
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ "Pietro D'Abano'Abano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1257-c1315)
(1257-c1315)
22. ^ "Pietro D'Abano
(1250-1316)'Abano". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_D%27
Abano (1250-1316) (1250-1316)
Padua, Italy20  
[1] Pietro d'Abano PD
source: http://www.filosofico.net/pietro
abano.htm

[2] Pietro D'Abano A Rural
Dalliance Illustration from an
illuminated manuscript of his
Commentary on Aristotle's Problems,
1315 PD
source: http://www.androphile.org/previe
w/Museum/Europe/pietro_abano-dalliance.h
tml
702 YBN
[05/15/1298 AD] 3 		1161) In Nuremberg 628 Jewish humans
are killed (including scholar Mordecai
ben Hillel) because of a rumor of host
nailing.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
3. ^
James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
Nuremberg2   
702 YBN
[1298 AD] 4 5 		1162) The Tower Mill windmill is
invented in Europe. A Tower Mill is a
type of windmill which consists of a
brick or stone tower, on top of which
sits a roof or cap which can be turned
to bring the sails into the wind.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ "Tower mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_mill
3. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
4. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
(1300s century estimate) (1300s century
estimate)
5. ^ "Tower mill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_mill
(1600s)
Nuremberg3   
702 YBN
[1298 AD] 16 17 		1421) Although he knew little or no
Chinese, he did speak some of the many
languages then used in East Asia- most
probably Turkish (in its Coman dialect)
as spoken among the Mongols, Arabized
Persian, Uighur (Uygur), and perhaps
Mongol. He was noticed very favourably
by Kublai, who took great delight in
hearing of strange countries and
repeatedly sent him on fact-finding
missions to distant parts of the
empire.6

According to Marco's travel account,
the Polos ask several times for
permission to return to Europe but the
Khan will not agree to their
departure.7 Sometime around 1292, a
Mongol princess is to be sent to Persia
to become the consort of Arghun Khan,
and the Polos offer to accompany her.
Marco writes that Kublai had been
unwilling to let them go but finally
granted permission. They are eager to
leave, in part, because Kublai is
nearly 80, and his death (and the
consequent change in regime) might be
dangerous for a small group of isolated
foreigners. The Polos also wanted to
see their native Venice and their
families again.8

The princess, with some 600 courtiers
and sailors, and the Polos board 14
ships, which leave the port of Quanzhou
and sail southward. On the island of
Sumatra ("Lesser Giaua") Polo is
impressed by the fact that the North
Star appears to have dipped below the
horizon. The fleet follows the west
coast of India and finally anchored at
Hormuz. The expedition then proceeds to
Khorasan, handing over the princess not
to Arghun, who had died, but to his son
Mahmud Ghazan.9

The Polos then depart for Europe and
eventually returned to Venice.10 Soon
after his return to Venice, Polo is
taken prisoner by the Genoese, rivals
of the Venetians at sea, during a
battle in the Mediterranean. He was
then imprisoned in Genoa. In prison,
Marco Polo dictates his adventures to a
prisoner from Pisa, Rustichello, who
writes the story in Franco-Italian, a
composite tongue fashionable during the
1200 and 1300s.11 The original title
of the book is "Divisament dou monde"
("Description of the World"). Polo is
soon freed and returns to Venice.12

"Il milione" is an instant success, "In
a few months it spread throughout
Italy," Giovanni Battista Ramusio, the
16th-century Italian geographer will
write.13 There are around 140
different manuscript versions of the
text, in three manuscript groups, in a
dozen different languages and
dialects.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Marco Polo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Marco Polo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
7. ^ "Marco Polo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo
8. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
9. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
10. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
11. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
12. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
13. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
14. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
15. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo
16. ^ "Marco Polo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0660/Marco-Polo (1295)
17. ^ "Marco Polo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo
(1298)
Genoa, Italy15  
[1] Marco Polo in Tatar attire. The
Granger Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13534?articleTypeId=1

[2] Marco Polo leaving Venice on his
way to China (Platt 97) PD
source: http://www.susqu.edu/history/med
trav/MarcoPolo/images.htm
700 YBN
[1300 AD] 10 		1121) Earliest mechanical clock.5

Time keeping began around 3500 BC with
the invention of the gnomon and
sundial, and the hourglass.6

The first mechanical clocks in Europe
work based on a simple principle. A
weight is suspended from a cord wrapped
many times around a driving shaft. As
the weight descends the shaft turns and
the movement is transmitted to the
hands, or in many cases just a single
hour hand. To regulate the movement so
that the hands rotate at a fixed rate,
using an escapement which consists of a
pair of oscillating vanes mounted on a
vertical spindle carrying a protruding
pallet that engages with the teeth of a
crown wheel. Some regulation of the
rate of oscillation of the vanes is
possible through a series of sliding
weights on each arm. One of the oldest
surviving examples of this kind of
clock is that from Salisbury Cathedral,
which dates to 1386, but does not have
its original escapement. These are
weigh-driven clocks. Spring driven
clocks do not appear until the middle
of the 1400s.In the 1600s Christiaan
Huygens will invent the pendulum
escapement (1657) for weight-driven
clocks and the balance spring (1675)
for spring-driven clocks. Only then
will putting a minute hand on a clock
be useful.7

The first publicly known battery
electric clock is invented in 1840.
This clock is driven by a spring and
pendulum and uses an electrical impulse
to operate a number of dials. Not until
1906 is the first self-contained
battery-driven clock invented and made
public.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
7. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
8. ^ "clock." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 15 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/121951/clock>.
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987). {around 1300}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clock#Early mechanical
clocks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Early
_mechanical_clocks
[2] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (8th century) (8th century)
Europe9  
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg

[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
700 YBN
[1300 AD] 6 		5874)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francesco Landini." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francesco-l
andini
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "Francesco Landini." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francesco-l
andini
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Western music."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
6. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>. {1300-1400}
Florence, Italy5  
[1] Francesco Landini. Uncopyrighted
14th-century portrait; from the
Squarcialupi Codex PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Landini.jpg
697 YBN
[1303 AD] 5 6 		1351)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Rome La Sapienza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Rome_La_Sapienza
2. ^ "University of Rome La Sapienza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Rome_La_Sapienza
3. ^ "University of Rome La Sapienza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Rome_La_Sapienza
4. ^ "University of Rome La Sapienza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Rome_La_Sapienza
5. ^ "University of Rome La Sapienza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Rome_La_Sapienza
6. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Coimbra, Portugal4  
[1] Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza,
by Borromini, originally a chapel of
the La Sapienza see. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borromini_SantIvo.jpg

[2] The statue of Minerva in la
Sapienza University, Rome PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MinervaSapienza.JPG
692 YBN
[09/08/1308 AD] 4 5 		1352)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Perugia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Perugia
2. ^ "University of Perugia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Perugia
3. ^ "University of Perugia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Perugia
4. ^ "University of Perugia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Perugia
5. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Perugia, Italy3  
[1] Logo for U of Perudia COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unipg.gif

[2] ''Perugia is a poetic, university
city, one of the beautiful, learned
cities of old Italy.'' George Sand,
1855. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sbu.edu/images/pics_g
allery_2.jpg
690 YBN
[10/24/1310 AD] 7 		356)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://spenserians.cath.vt.edu/TextRecor
d.php?action=GET&textsid=47
5. ^
http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?doc
Id=chadwyck_ep/uvaGenText/tei/chep_1.175
6.xml;chunk.id=d29;toc.depth=1;toc.id=d2
0;brand=default;query=minde#1
6. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington. {10/24/1810 (based
on hints from people that get service
of seeing and hearing thought}
{10/24/1310 (based on William Byrd poem
and hints from direct-to-brain windows
consumers}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[3] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Dampier W C. A Shorter History of
Science. Cleveland, OH, World Pub,
1969,
101-103 http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/WOLL
ASTON_BIO.html
[6] "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1801)
London, England6  
[1] Description Deutsch: de:William
Byrd English: en:William Byrd -
c.1540-1623. Date not provided by
uploader Source
http://www.renaissancemusic.pe.kr/m
usician_p/william%20byrd.htm Author
Vandergucht (Michael van der Gucht
??) Permission (Reusing this file)
guessed, creator of the picture is
most likely dead for more than 70 years
(Byrd lived during 16th/17th
century) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/William_Byrd.jpg

[2] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
690 YBN
[10/24/1310 AD] 15 		656)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
15. ^ Ted Huntington. {10/24/1810
(based on hints from people that get
service of seeing and hearing thought}
{10/24/1310 (based on William Byrd poem
and hints from direct-to-brain windows
consumers}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[3] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Dampier W C. A Shorter History of
Science. Cleveland, OH, World Pub,
1969,
101-103 http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/WOLL
ASTON_BIO.html
[6] "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1801)
London, England14  
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
690 YBN
[10/24/1310 AD] 5 		657)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {10/24/1310 (based
on William Byrd poem and hints from
direct-to-brain windows consumers}
London, England4 (presumably)  
690 YBN
[1310 AD] 6 		357)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Record ID3592.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
{10/24/1310 (based on William Byrd poem
and hints from direct-to-brain windows
consumers}
London, England5 (presumably)  
690 YBN
[1310 AD] 9 10 		1424) False Geber probably lives in
Spain.5 (Arab person?6 ).

False-Jabir wrongly assumes that all
metals are composed of sulfur and
mercury and gives detailed descriptions
of metallic properties in those terms.
False-Jabir also explains the use of an
elixir in transmuting base metals into
gold.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
"Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
3. ^ "Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
4. ^ "Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
5. ^ "Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Pseudo-Geber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
8. ^ "Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c1300)
10. ^
"Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r (c1310)

MORE INFO
[1] "alchemy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-359
60/alchemy
Spain8   
690 YBN
[1310 AD] 9 		4540)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Record ID3592.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
{10/24/1310 (based on William Byrd poem
and hints from direct-to-brain windows
consumers}
London, England8 (presumably)  
688 YBN
[1312 AD] 5 		363)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {1312 (based on
William Byrd poem and hints from
direct-to-brain windows consumers}
London, England4 (presumably)  
688 YBN
[1312 AD] 5 		4539)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {1312 (based on
William Byrd poem and hints from
direct-to-brain windows consumers}
London, England4 (presumably)  
684 YBN
[1316 AD] 21 		1428) De' Luzzi registered at the
College of Medicine of the University
of Bologna in 1290 and also is known to
have studied in the College of
Philosophy.15
De' Luzzi lectures while
actively practicing health and
surgery16 .

De' Luzzi studies at the health
(medical) school in Bologna under
Alderotti, graduates in 1290 and starts
teaching there in 1306.17

The first such recorded anatomical
exploration occurred for legal reasons
at Bologna in 1302, but it is generally
believed that academic dissections had
been performed previously. In any
event, Mondino reports that in January
1315 he conducted such a procedure on
the body of a woman, giving him the
opportunity to examine and study human
uterine anatomy.18

Asimov writes that the 1300s are a
turning point between a focus on
religion and the afterlife to an
interest in humans and the earth, which
is called "humanism" and is the
beginning of the Renaissance.19
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
2. ^ "Mondino De
Luzzi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3333/Mondino-De-Luzzi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). }
5. ^ "Mondino De
Luzzi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3333/Mondino-De-Luzzi
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
7. ^ "Mondino De
Luzzi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3333/Mondino-De-Luzzi
8. ^ "Mondino De Luzzi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3333/Mondino-De-Luzzi
9. ^ "Mondino De Luzzi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3333/Mondino-De-Luzzi
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/mondino-de-
luzzi
12. ^ "Mondino De' Luzzi' Luzzi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mondino_De%
27_Luzzi
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ "Mondino De' Luzzi'
Luzzi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mondino_De%
27_Luzzi
15. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/mondino-de-
luzzi
16. ^ "Mondino De Luzzi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3333/Mondino-De-Luzzi
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
18. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/mondino-de-
luzzi
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). }
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). } (1316 writes book)
(1316 writes book)
Bologna, Italy20  
[1] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm

[2] Autopsy with prosector and
physician Anathomia, Mondino da
Luzzi, 1495 engraving National
Library of Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap3.htm
683 YBN
[1317 AD] 		1427) Ockham is opposed to Thomas
Acquinas' view that logic and religion
can coexist, arguing that religion is a
matter of faith.14
Ockham studies at
Oxford and lectures there from
1315-1319.15
Ockham was young when he
entered the Franciscan order.16
At the
University of Oxford Ockham apparently
between 1317 and 1319 lectures on the
Sentences of Peter Lombard, a 1100s
theologian whose work was the official
textbook of theology in the
universities until the 1500s. Ockham's
lectures are also set down in written
commentaries, of which the commentary
on Book I of the Sentences (a
commentary known as "Ordinatio") was
actually written by Ockham himself.17
Oc
kham's opinions aroused strong
opposition from members of the
theological faculty of Oxford and
Ockham left the university without
obtaining his master's degree in
theology. Ockham therefore remains,
academically speaking, an
undergraduate, known as an "inceptor"
("beginner") in Oxonian language or, to
use a Parisian equivalent, a
"baccalaureus formatus".18
In 1327 The
Franciscan General Michael of Cesena is
summoned to Avignon to answer charges
of heresy, and asks Ockham to review
arguments surrounding Apostolic
poverty. The Franciscan order believed
that Jesus and his apostles owned no
personal property, and survived by
begging and accepting the gifts of
others. This clashes directly with the
beliefs of Pope John XXII.19
On May 26,
1328, the Franciscan General Michael of
Cesena flees from Avignon accompanied
by Bonagratia and William Ockham. The
three Franciscans stay in Pisa under
the protection of Emperor Louis IV the
Bavarian, who had been excommunicated
in 1324 and proclaimed by John XXII to
have forfeited all rights to the
empire.20 Because of this Ockham is
excommunicated.21

In Munich in 1330 and thereafter Ockham
writes fervently against the papacy in
defense of the strict Franciscan notion
of poverty.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Ted Huntinton
4. ^ "William of
Ockham". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
5. ^ "William of Occam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_
Occam
6. ^ "Conciliarism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conciliaris
m
7. ^ Ted Huntinton
8. ^ "Papal Infallibility".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_Infal
libility
9. ^ "First Vatican Council".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Vatic
an_Council
10. ^ "Conciliarism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conciliaris
m
11. ^ Ted Huntinton
12. ^ "Ockham's Razor's
Razor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ockham%27s_
Razor
13. ^ "Ockhams razor". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6716/Ockhams-razor
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ "William of
Ockham". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
17. ^ "William of Ockham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
18. ^ "William of Ockham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
19. ^ "William of Occam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_
Occam
20. ^ "William of Ockham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
21. ^ "William of Ockham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
22. ^ "William of Ockham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
23. ^ "William of Ockham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6715/William-of-Ockham
Oxford, England23  
[1] William of Ockham (also Occam or
any of several other spellings) (ca.
1285â€''1349) was an English
Franciscan friar and philosopher, from
Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near
East Horsley. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Occam.jpg

[2] Sketch labelled 'frater Occham
iste', from a manuscipt of Ockham's
'Summa Logicae', 1341 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_of_Ockham_-_Logica_-_1341.jpg

680 YBN
[1320 AD] 4 		5870)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philippe de Vitry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631338/Philippe-de-Vitry>.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p72.
3. ^
"Philippe de Vitry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631338/Philippe-de-Vitry>.
4. ^ "Philippe de Vitry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631338/Philippe-de-Vitry>. {c1320}
(Royal Court) Paris, France3
(verify) 
[1] Philippe de Vitry Vitriaco ;
Vittriaco ; Philippus
Vitriacus 1291-1361 Chapitre XVI,
La mesure : Ainsi pour indiquer un
temps parfait, on met un petit cercle,
parce que la forme ronde est parfaite;
il arrive aussi, selon certains, qu'on
mette trois petits traits obliques,
cela revient au même : le temps est
parfait puisqu'essentiellement divisé
en trois parties égales. Tableau de
solmisation M s. Barb. lat. 307, Roma,
Biblioteca Vaticana UNKNOWN
source: http://www.musicologie.org/Biogr
aphies/p/vitry_c.gif
675 YBN
[1325 AD] 4 		5887)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p90.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p90.
3. ^
http://www.aboutrobertsbridge.org.uk/Rob
ertsbridge%20Abbey.htm
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p90. {1325}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/MMDB/Mss/L
OR.htm
(Abbey of) Robertsbridge, Sussex, UK3
 
[1] Description Fol. 44r from
''Robertsbridge Codex'' with
transcription of the beginning of
''Tribum, quem non abhorruit'' Date
Ms.: Appendix with this Folio
written about 1350, Transsription:
2006 Source British Museum Ms.
add. 28550, Transscription by
Wetwassermann Author Ms.:
unknown, Transcription:
Wetwassermann Permission (Reusing
this file) PD (Ms.) and GFDL
(Transcription) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Robertsbridgecodex_fo
l44r.jpg
673 YBN
[1327 AD] 8 		1164) Wallingford studies at Oxford
University for 6 years and becomes a
monk at St Albans Abbey in
Hertfordshire before 9 years further
study at Oxford. In 1326, he becomes
the abbot of St Albans.2
Wallingford's
design of an astronomical clock is
described in "Tractatus Horologii
Astronomici", in 1327.3 The clock will
be completed in 1356 about 20 years
after his death by William of Walsham,
but will be apparently destroyed during
Henry VIII's reformation and
dissolution of St Albans Abbey in
1539.4
Richard also designs and
constructs a calculation device known
as an equatorium, which he calls an
Albion. This can be used for
astronomical calculations such as
lunar, solar and planetary longitudes
and can predict eclipses. This is
described in "Tractatus Albionis". He
publishes other works on trigonometry,
celestial coordinates, astrology and
various religious works.5

He suffers from what is then thought to
be leprosy (though it may be syphilis,
scrofula or tuberculosis) apparently
contracted when he goes to have his
position confirmed by the Pope at
Avignon. He dies at St Albans.6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
2. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
3. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
4. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
5. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
6. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
7. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
8. ^ "Richard of Wallingford".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_of_
Wallingford
Hertfordshire, England7  
[1] Miniature of Richard of
Wallingford, Abbot of St. Albans,
mathematician and inventor of a
mechanical astronomical clock. He is
shown seated at his desk measuring with
a pair of compasses. * Title of
the book: History of the abbots of St
Albans. * Author: Thomas of
Walsingham * Date: 14th century
* Language: Latin The first version
is a lossless adaptation from:
http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlib
rary/controller/textsearch?text=richard+
wallingford&y=0&x=0&&idx=1&startid=3173
The current version was digitally
changed for better visualization. From
The British Library; Record Number -
c3919-08; Shelfmark - Cotton Claudius
E. IV; Page Folio Number - f.201. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg

[2] The miniature represents Richard
of Wallingford, Abbot of St Albans. He
is pointing to a clock, referring to
his gift to the abbey, and his face is
disfigured by leprosy * Title of
Work: Golden Book of St Albans *
Author: Walsingham, Thomas; Wylum,
William de, scribe * Illustrator:
Strayler, Alan * Production:
England [St Albans]; 1380 *
Language: Latin Losslessly adaptated
from:
http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlib
rary/controller/subjectidsearch?id=8403&
&idx=1&startid=11211 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbot_Richard_Wallingford.jpg
673 YBN
[1327 AD] 4 5 		1353)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Sankore".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Sankore
2. ^ "University of Sankore".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Sankore
3. ^ "University of Sankore".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Sankore
4. ^ "University of Sankore".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Sankore
5. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Timbuktu, Mali, West Africa3  
[1] Doors of the Sankore Madrash WIKI
COMMONS (GNU)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Medersa_Sankore.jpg
665 YBN
[1335 AD] 4 5 		1354) Nobel Prize winner Santiago
Ramón y Cajal, often considered to be
the Father of Neurosciences, will be
taught at the University of Zaragosa.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Zaragoza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Zaragoza
2. ^ "University of Zaragoza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Zaragoza
3. ^ "University of Zaragoza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Zaragoza
4. ^ "University of Zaragoza".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Zaragoza
5. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Zaragosa, Spain3  
[1] The building of the Ancient Faculty
of Medicine and Sciences in Zaragoza,
now called Paraninfo. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zaragoza_-_Antigua_Facultad_de_Medici
na_-_Fachada.JPG

[2] Coat of arms of the University of
Zaragoza COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unizar.gif
665 YBN
[1335 AD] 20 21 22 		1425) After studies in philosophy at
the University of Paris under William
of Ockham, Buridan is appointed
professor of philosophy there. Buridan
serves as university rector in 1328 and
in 1340, the year in which he condemns
Ockham's views, an act that is
sometimes called the first seed of
theological skepticism. Buridan's own
works will be condemned and placed on
the Index of Forbidden Books from 1474
to 1481 by partisans of Ockham.16

In addition to commentaries on
Aristotle's "Organon", "Physics", "De
anima", "Metaphysics", and "Economics",
Buridan's works include "Summula de
dialecta" (1487) and "Consequentie"
(1493).17

Buridan remains a secular cleric,
rather than joining a religious
order.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philoponus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Inertia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
7. ^ "Index Librorum Prohibitorum".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Libro
rum_Prohibitorum
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Jean Buridan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Jean Buridan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan
12. ^ "Index Librorum Prohibitorum".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Libro
rum_Prohibitorum
13. ^ "Index Librorum Prohibitorum".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Libro
rum_Prohibitorum
14. ^ "Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
15. ^ "Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
16. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan
17. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan
18. ^ "Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
19. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1295-c1358)
(c1295-c1358)
21. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan (1300-1358)
22. ^ "Inertia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
(1300-1358)
Paris, France19  
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg

[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) “O
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humana”. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
664 YBN
[1336 AD] 3 4 		1355)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Camerino".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Camerino
2. ^ "University of Camerino".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Camerino
3. ^ "University of Camerino".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Camerino
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Camerino, Italy2  
[1] aerial image of U of
Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/camerino-01.bmp

[2] U of Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/dove.htm
657 YBN
[09/03/1343 AD] 5 6 		1356) Galileo Galilei, will be born and
study in Pisa, becoming professor of
Mathematics at the Pisan Studium in
1589.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Pisa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pisa
2. ^ "University of Pisa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pisa
3. ^ "University of Pisa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pisa
4. ^ "University of Pisa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pisa
5. ^ "University of Pisa". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pisa
6. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Pisa, Italy4  
[1] The Tower of Pisa. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
ning_Tower_of_Pisa

[2] Miracoli? COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://krasnow.gmu.edu/L-Neuron/
ascoli/miracoli.jpg
652 YBN
[04/07/1348 AD] 6 7 		1357)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles University of Prague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Uni
versity_of_Prague
2. ^ "Charles University of Prague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Uni
versity_of_Prague
3. ^ "Charles University of Prague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Uni
versity_of_Prague
4. ^ "Charles University of Prague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Uni
versity_of_Prague
5. ^ "Charles University of Prague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Uni
versity_of_Prague
6. ^ "Charles University of Prague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Uni
versity_of_Prague
7. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Prague, Czech Republic (EU)5  
[1] Seal of the Charles University of
Prague. Source:
http://www.evropa.wz.cz/Czech_rep/pages/
mesta/imagescr/pecet.u.karlovy.jpg COPY
RIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Seal_of_Charles_University_of_Prague.
png

[2] Monument to the founder of the
university, Emperor Charles IV GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_IV._2003-12-24.jpg
652 YBN
[1348 AD] 4 		1169) Christian people, unaware of the
true cause of the bubonic plague,
accuse Jewish people of poisoning the
wells, and thousands of innocent Jewish
people are killed. For example, in
Speyer, Germany Jewish bodies are piled
into huge wine casks and sent floating
down the Rhine. In Basal, Switzerland,
600 Jewish people are burned for well
poisoning.1

Bubonic plague is caused by the
enterobacteria Yersinia pestis.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ "Bubonic plague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_pla
gue
3. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
4. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
Speyer, Germany and Basal, Switzerland3
 		 
650 YBN
[1350 AD] 5 		1165) Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio
builds an astronomical clock in Padua.1
2
Dondi's clock is a seven-sided
construction showing the positions of
the known planets as well. Both these
clocks, and others like them, are
probably less accurate than their
designers wanted: the gear ratios may
be exquisitely calculated, but the
realities of friction and limitations
of manufacture would prevent them from
being accurate and reliable.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Astronomical clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomica
l_clock
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Astronomical clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomica
l_clock
4. ^ "Astronomical clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomica
l_clock
5. ^ "Astronomical clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomica
l_clock (1350s decade estimate)
Padua, Italy4   
650 YBN
[1350 AD] 3 		1168)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (1300s century estimate) (1300s
century estimate)
Mediterranean2  
[1] The Santa Maria at anchor by
Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. 1628
shows the famous carrack of Christopher
Columbus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eertvelt%2C_Santa_Maria.jpg

[2] A Portuguese ''Nanban'' carrack in
Nagasaki, Japan, 17th century. [t: I
think these are Portuguese people
trading with China, as drawn by Chinese
people] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NanbanCarrack.jpg
650 YBN
[1350 AD] 4 		5886)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p82.
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p82.
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A
History of Music in Western Culture",
3rd edition, 2010, p82. {by) 1350}
France3   
648 YBN
[1352 AD] 2 3 		1402)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eyeglasses". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3484/eyeglasses
2. ^ "eyeglasses". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3484/eyeglasses (1352)
3. ^
"Spectacles#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectacles#
History (1352)
Italy 
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
645 YBN
[1355 AD] 5 6 		1980)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
2. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
3. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
4. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
5. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html (1355)
6. ^ "Nicholas
Oresme". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme (c1360)

MORE INFO
[1] The Mechanical Universe,
episode 2, The Law of Falling Bodies
[2]
"Nicole Oresme". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Ores
me
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Nicole%20oresme
Paris, France4  
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
640 YBN
[1360 AD] 14 		1977) The fact that Oresme attends the
royally sponsored and subsidized
College of Navarre, an institution for
students too poor to pay their expenses
while studying at the University of
Paris, makes it probable that Oresme
comes from a peasant family.10

Oresme studies arts in Paris (before
1342), together with Jean Buridan (the
so-called founder of the French school
of natural philosophy), Albert of
Saxony and perhaps Marsilius of Inghen,
and there receives the Magister Artium.
A recently discovered papal letter of
provision granting Oresme an
expectation of a benefice establishes
that he was already a regent master in
arts by 1342. This early dating of
Oresme's arts degree places him at
Paris during the crisis over William of
Ockham's natural philosophy.11

Oresme is a determined opponent of
astrology, which he criticizes on
religious and scientific grounds.12
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ The Mechanical Universe, episode
2, The Law of Falling Bodies, :30.
2. ^
"Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
3. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
4. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
5. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
6. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
7. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
8. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
9. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
10. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
11. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
12. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
13. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
14. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html (1350-1360)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicole Oresme". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Ores
me
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nicole%20oresme
Paris, France13 (presumably) 
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
639 YBN
[1361 AD] 5 6 		1358)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Pavia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pavia
2. ^ "University of Pavia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pavia
3. ^ "University of Pavia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pavia
4. ^ "University of Pavia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pavia
5. ^ "University of Pavia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Pavia
6. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Pavia, Itlay4  
[1] Box 1
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n10/slideshow/nrm1001-776a_bx1.html

636 YBN
[1364 AD] 7 8 		1359) Nicolaus Copernicus will attend
this university.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jagiellonian University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonia
n_University
2. ^ "Jagiellonian University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonia
n_University
3. ^ "Jagiellonian University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonia
n_University
4. ^ "Jagiellonian University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonia
n_University
5. ^ "Jagiellonian University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonia
n_University
6. ^ "Jagiellonian University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonia
n_University
7. ^ "Jagiellonian University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonia
n_University
8. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

6  
[1] Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus
next to the Jagiellonian University's
Collegium Novum (New College) in
Kraków CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kopernikus_nikolaus_krakau.jpg

[2] The Jagiellonian University in
the south of Poland is a modern
university. The city of Crakow
attracts many young people, especially
the main square is a popular meeting
place COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.phlinz.at/typo3/filea
dmin/paedak_upload/technik/Crakow.jpg
636 YBN
[1364 AD] 4 		5885) Guillaume de Machaut (CE
c1300-1377), one of the leading French
composers of the Ars Nova musical style
of the 1300s, composes "La Messe De
Notre Dame", one of the earliest
masses, and best known composition of
the age.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nvcc.edu/home/jwulff/machaut/
machaut.htm
2. ^ "Guillaume de Machaut."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/354543/Guillaume-de-Machaut>.
3. ^
http://www.nvcc.edu/home/jwulff/machaut/
machaut.htm
4. ^
http://www.nvcc.edu/home/jwulff/machaut/
machaut.htm {probably composed in)
1364}
(Gothic cathedral) Rheims, France3
 
[1] Guillaume de Machaut as shown in a
French miniature of the fourteenth
century, ''An allegorical scene in
which Nature offers Machaut three of
her children - Sense, Rhetoric, and
Music.'' Quoted description from
http://www.nvcc.edu/home/jwulff/machaut/
M2.JPG, image itself from
http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/machaut_p
ic.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Machaut_1.jpg
635 YBN
[03/12/1365 AD] 5 6 		1360)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Vienna".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Vienna
2. ^ "University of Vienna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Vienna
3. ^ "University of Vienna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Vienna
4. ^ "University of Vienna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Vienna
5. ^ "University of Vienna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Vienna
6. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Vienna, Austria4  
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg

[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
633 YBN
[03/12/1367 AD] 4 5 		1361)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Pécs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_P%C3%A9cs
2. ^ "University of Pécs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_P%C3%A9cs
3. ^ "University of Pécs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_P%C3%A9cs
4. ^ "University of Pécs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_P%C3%A9cs
5. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Pécs, Hungary3  
[1] Humanities building at University
of P�cs COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.fredonia.edu/departme
nt/communication/schwalbe/hungary.htm
630 YBN
[1370 AD] 7 		1978)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
2. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
3. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
4. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
5. ^ "Nicole oresme". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicole%20oresme
6. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
7. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme (1370)

MORE INFO
[1] The Mechanical Universe,
episode 2, The Law of Falling Bodies
[2]
"Nicole Oresme". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Ores
me
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
623 YBN
[1377 AD] 9 		1213) The Bethlem Royal Hospital of
London, which was built in 1247
originally as a priory (or monastary1 )
for those in the "order of the Star of
Bethlehem", starts imprisoning people
thought to be mentally ill this year in
1377, and is the earth's first
psychiatric hospital. The word "bedlam"
meaning a scene of uproar or confusion,
will derive from Bethlem.2
In some way
this begins the separation of the legal
and the psychiatric prison systems.3
This duality will result in those
jailed in psychiatric hospitals being
subjected to physical restraint,
torture, violent and nonviolent people
being mixed together indiscriminately,
unprotected by the writ of habeus
corpus, the right to trial, to finite
sentence and other legal guarantees
granted to people jailed in the legal
prison system.4 The origin of this
dual system is from the belief in
unusual (even many times lawful)
behavior requiring treatment, belief in
many of the abstract erroneous theories
of psychology, in addition to the power
of tradition behind the belief in the
punishment those with unorthodox views
or behavior (even as is many times the
case, when those unorthodox views, for
example belief in the heliocentric
system or atheism, are the more
accurate and healthy although
unpopular). In addition, psychiatric
hospitals will come to serve as a
primative (albeit brutal and
unconsensual) social program, where a
bed and food are provided for people
without a room of their own (so called
"homeless people").5

This hospital-prison will become
infamous for it's brutal treatment of
those imprisoned there. In the 1700s
people will pay a penny to see the
inmates and are permitted to bring long
sticks to poke the inmates with.6

Prisoners are "treated" with bleedings,
and nausia inducing substances (like
mercury) because the pain replaces the
focus of the "insane" thoughts. Mustard
powders are put on the shaved head of
prisoners causing blisters to cause
pain and discomfort, and also fear in
the prisoners.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Priory". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priory
2. ^ "Bethlem Royal Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Roy
al_Hospital
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^
"Bethlem Royal Hospital". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Roy
al_Hospital
7. ^ "Bethlem Royal Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Roy
al_Hospital
8. ^ "Bethlem Royal Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Roy
al_Hospital
9. ^ "Bethlem Royal Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Roy
al_Hospital
London, England8  
[1] Bethlem Hospital in St George's
Fields by Thomas Shepherd (c.1830). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bethlem_Hospital_in_St_George%27s_Fie
lds_by_Thomas_Shepherd.jpg

[2] Scene of Bethlem Hospital from the
final plate of William Hogarth's A
Rake's Progress. ''The Interior of
Bedlam,'' from A Rake's Progress by
William Hogarth, 1763. (McCormick
Library, Northwestern
University). Retrieved from
http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/exhibits/
quest/treatment/1840.asp. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:The_Rake%27s_Progress_8.jpg
623 YBN
[1377 AD] 5 		1979)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Nicholas Oresme".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
4. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
5. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme (1377)

MORE INFO
[1] The Mechanical Universe,
episode 2, The Law of Falling Bodies
[2]
"Nicole Oresme". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Ores
me
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Nicole%20oresme
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
621 YBN
[1379 AD] 10 11 		1414) Khaldun writes an autobiography.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun

2. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1923/Ibn-Khaldun
3. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun

4. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun

5. ^ wiki footnote: It should be noted
that recently there has been a tendency
to modify this view. Ibn Khaldun relied
not just on his own research, but for
the history of the Berber tribes
utilized a large number of written
sources including many of poor quality
(e.g. the Rawd al-Qirtas). He has been
criticised for often presenting only a
synthesis of multiple (sometimes
contradictory) sources where a more
careful historian such as ar-Raqiq or
al-Maliki would always give the
original texts before pronouncing an
opinion. See articles by Modéran and
Benabbès in Identités et Cultures
dans l'Algérie Antique, University of
Rouen, 2005 (ISBN 2-87775-391-3). This
criticism applies only to his factual
work, not to the theoretical parts like
the Muqaddimah
6. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science
and Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge:
The Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
7. ^ "Ibn
Khaldun". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1923/Ibn-Khaldun
8. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1923/Ibn-Khaldun
9. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1923/Ibn-Khaldun
10. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987). (CE
1332-1406) (CE 1332-1406)
11. ^ "Ibn Khaldun".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1923/Ibn-Khaldun (CE 1332-1406) (CE
1332-'1406)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sociology". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology
the castle Qal'at ibn Salamah, near
what is now the town of Frenda,
Algeria9  
[1] Ibn Khaldun on a Tunisian postage
stamp Name: Ibn Khaldun Birth: 27
May, 1332/732 AH Death: 19 March
1406/808 AH School/tradition: Main
interests: History, Historiography,
Demography, Economics, Philosophy of
History, Sociology Notable ideas:
Asabiyah Influences: Influenced:
Al-Maqrizi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khaldun.jpg

[2] Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in
Tunis 2004 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg
614 YBN
[1386 AD] 4 5 		1362)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ruprecht Karls University of
Heidelberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruprecht_Ka
rls_University_of_Heidelberg
2. ^ "Ruprecht Karls University of
Heidelberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruprecht_Ka
rls_University_of_Heidelberg
3. ^ "Ruprecht Karls University of
Heidelberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruprecht_Ka
rls_University_of_Heidelberg
4. ^ "Ruprecht Karls University of
Heidelberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruprecht_Ka
rls_University_of_Heidelberg
5. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Heidelberg, Germany3  
[1] University of Heidelberg Institute
for Physics COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523892158/in/set-72157600292990
475/

[2] University of Heidelberg
University Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523890448/in/set-72157600292990
475/
609 YBN
[03/04/1391 AD] 3 4 		1363)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Ferrara".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Ferrara
2. ^ "University of Ferrara".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Ferrara
3. ^ "University of Ferrara".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Ferrara
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Ferrara, Italy2  
[1] COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unife.it/ateneo/unife
_si_presenta
603 YBN
[1397 AD] 3 		5897)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p82.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p82.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p82. {1397}

MORE INFO
[1] "History of the harpsichord".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_harpsichord
Padua, Italy2  
[1] Description English: Harpsichord
in the Flemish style with the
inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(Latin ''without knowledge, skill is
nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png
602 YBN
[03/04/1398 AD] 3 4 		1364)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sungkyunkwan University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungkyunkwa
n_University
2. ^ "Sungkyunkwan University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungkyunkwa
n_University
3. ^ "Sungkyunkwan University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungkyunkwa
n_University
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

(Myeongnyun-dong, Jongno-gu in central)
Seoul and Suwon, South Korea2  
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg

[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
600 YBN
[1400 AD] 4 		1024)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p185.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
600 YBN
[1400 AD] 8 9 		1170) Although the carrack represents
the state of the art in later medieval
shipbuilding, there were purposes for
which it is not appropriate. Initially
carracks are used for exploration by
the Portuguese venturing out along the
west African coast and into the
Atlantic Ocean. But large, full-rigged
ships can not always be sailed with the
precision necessary for inshore
surveying in unknown waters. The
explorers soon come to prefer smaller
carracks of around 100 tons, or the
light three-masted Mediterranean
lateen-rigged vessels known as
caravels.3

Because of its smaller size the caravel
is able to explore up river in shallow
coastal waters. With the lateen sails
(triangular sails4 ) affixed it is able
to go speedily over shallow water and
take deep wind, while with the square
Atlantic-type sails attached, the
caravel is very fast. Its economy,
speed, agility, and power makes the
caravel esteemed as the best sailing
vessel of this time. It generally
carried two or three masts with lateen
sails, while later types will have four
masts.5

Christopher Columbus will set out on
his famous expedition in 1492 with the
Santa Maria, a small carrack which will
serve as the mother ship, and the Pinta
and the Niña which are caravels.6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Caravel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravel
3. ^ "Caravel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravel
4. ^ "Lateen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateen
5. ^ "Caravel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravel
6. ^ "Caravel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravel
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (1400s century estimate) (1400s
century estimate)
9. ^ "Caravel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravel
(early 1400s)
Speyer, Germany and Basal, Switzerland7
 
[1] Caravela Latina / Latin
Caravel Description Caravel Boa
Esperança of Portugal Source photo
taken by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg

[2] Description Caravel Espírito
Santo of Brazil Source photo taken
by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Espirito_Santo_Brazil.jpg
600 YBN
[1400 AD] 3 4 		5878)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010, 3rd
edition, p37.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A
History of Music in Western Culture",
2010, 3rd edition, p37.
3. ^
http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/P
reviewPage.aspx?id=1226199&licenseType=R
M&from=search&back=1226199 {c1400-1420}
4. ^ Mark
Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in
Western Culture", 2010, 3rd edition,
p37. {15th century}
(St. Jerome) England2 (verify) 
[1] from:
http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/P
reviewPage.aspx?id=1226199&licenseType=R
M&from=search&back=1226199 Benedictine
(or Dominican) nuns in a choir,
c1400-1420. From the Psalter of Henry
VI. (France, c1400-1420). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.historyfish.net/image
s/monastics/eight_2_100.jpg

[2] Dominican nuns in a choir,
c1400-1420. From the Psalter of Henry
VI. (France, c1400-1420). (other
source has Benedictine Nuns in
Choir.) UNKNOWN
source: http://photos3.fotosearch.com/bt
humb/IST/IST528/1222553.jpg
600 YBN
[1400 AD] 3 		5891) Johannes Ciconia (CE c1370-1412)
composes music.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p79.
2. ^
Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in
Western Culture", 2003, p79.
3. ^ Mark Evan
Bonds, "A History of Music in Western
Culture", 2003, p79. {c1400 (guess}
Padua, Italy2 (guess) 
[1] unknown work on same page
as: Johannes Ciconia (c. 1335 -
1411) UNKNOWN
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTGyzDBh9k8WKd_4nCZGvw9gU6BYZj9x
stwCjgDft0HyC-opS7fZw&t=1
590 YBN
[1410 AD] 3 		1365)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of St. Andrews".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_St._Andrews
2. ^ "University of St. Andrews".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_St._Andrews
3. ^ "University of St. Andrews".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_St._Andrews

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

St. Andrews, Scotland2  
[1] St Salvator's Chapel, by Malcolm
McFadyen GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Salvator%27s_Chapel.JPG
583 YBN
[1417 AD] 4 		1172) A single manuscript with a poem,
"De Rerum Natura" (On the Nature of
Things), by Lucretius (c94 BCE- c49
BCE1 ) is found.2 This is the only
surviving copy so far from from
Lucretius' writings.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lucretius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p35.
3. ^ "Lucretius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
?  
580 YBN
[1420 AD] 26 		1429) Henry is the younger son of King
John I of Portugal, and great grandson
of Edward III of England.12
Henry's
designed a strategy where Christian
Europe would outflank Islam by
establishing contact with Africa south
of the Sahara and with Asia. This
strategy will not be brought to
fulfillment until after his death.13

In 1420, at the age of 26, Henry is
made grand master of the Order of
Christ, the supreme order sponsored by
the pope, which had replaced the
crusading order of the Templars in
Portugal. While this did not oblige him
to take religious vows, it did oblige
him to dedicate himself to a chaste and
ascetic life. Henry did not always
refrain from worldly pleasures; as a
young man he had fathered a daughter
without marriage (so-called
illegitimate). The funds made available
through the order largely finance
Henry's enterprise of discovery, which
also seeks to convert Pagans to
Christianity, and for this reason all
of Henry's ships have a red cross on
their sails.14

From Italy Henry's older brother Prince
Pedro brings home to Portugal, in 1428,
a copy of Marco Polo's travels that he
had translated for Prince Henry's
benefit.15

The voyages were made in very small
ships, mostly the caravel, a light and
maneuverable vessel that used the
lateen sail of the Arabs. Most of the
voyages sent out by Henry consisted of
one or two ships that navigated by
following the coast, stopping at night
to tie up along some shore.16
One of
his immediate aims was to find an
African gold supply to strengthen the
Portuguese economy and to make the
voyages pay for themselves.17
Nuno
Tristão and Antão Gonçalves reach
Cape Blanco in 1441. The Portuguese
sight the Bay of Arguin in 1443 and
build an important fort there around
the year 1448. Dinis Dias soon comes
across the Senegal River and rounds the
peninsula of Cap-Vert in 1444. By this
stage the explorers have passed the
southern boundary of the desert, and
from then on Henry had one of his
wishes fulfilled: the Portuguese had
circumvented the Muslim land-based
trade routes across the western Sahara
Desert, and slaves and gold begin
arriving in Portugal. By 1452, the
influx of gold permits the minting of
Portugal's first gold cruzado coins. A
cruzado is equal to 400 reis at the
time. From 1444 to 1446, as many as
forty vessels sail from Lagos on
Henry's behalf, and the first private
mercantile expeditions begin.18

This return of slaves and gold silences
the growing criticism that Henry was
wasting money on a profitless
enterprise.19 Afonso V, the King of
Protugal, gives Henry the sole right to
send ships to visit and trade with the
Guinea coast of Africa.20

Henry's investment in exploration was
so large that, despite his great
revenues, Henry will die heavily in
debt.21
Henry remains single to the end
of his life.22

The surname Navigator will be applied
to the Prince by the English, though
seldom by Portuguese writers. Henry
himself never embarks on voyages of
discovery, but funded navigators, and
for this Henry is regarded as the
initiator of the great age of discovery
and the European thrust towards world
domination.23 Henry the Navigator is
one of the first few humans to have the
actual day of their birth and death
recorded and therefore remembered.24
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
7. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
8. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
9. ^ "Prince Henry the Navigator".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Henr
y_the_Navigator
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ "Henry the
Navigator". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
14. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
15. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
16. ^ "Prince Henry the Navigator".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Henr
y_the_Navigator
17. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
18. ^ "Prince Henry the Navigator".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Henr
y_the_Navigator
19. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
20. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
21. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
22. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
23. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
24. ^ Ted Huntington
25. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator
26. ^ "Henry the Navigator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0051/Henry-the-Navigator (1420 start of
expeditions)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Henry%20the%20Nav
igator%7C
Lagos, Portugal25  
[1] Prince Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/
resources/Private/Faculty/Fac_To1877Chap
terDocFiles/ChapterImages/Ch2PrinceHenry
theNavigator.jpg

[2] Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/995/0
00094713/
580 YBN
[1420 AD] 11 		1430) Ulugh Beg is the grandson of the
Mongol warrier Tamerlane, the last of
the barbarian conquerers, succeeds to
throne (of?5 ) in 1447
Beg is the only
important scientist of the Mongol
people.6
Beg is killed by his son in
1449, and Ulugh's observatory will be
destroyed by 1500, its remains will be
found in 1908.7
The name "Ulugh Beg" is
a nick-name loosely translated as
"Great Ruler".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.khwarzimic.org/takveen/ulugh/

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Ulugh Beg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
4. ^ "Ulugh Beg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Ulugh Beg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Samarkand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1420 founds
university) (1420 founds university)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ulugh Beg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4183/Ulugh-Beg
Samarkand9 , Uzbekistan10  
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg

[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
580 YBN
[1420 AD] 3 		5888) John Dunstable (CE 1385-1453)
composes music that represents the
transition between late medieval and
early Renaissance music. Dunstable’s
influence on European music is seen in
his flowing, gently asymmetrical
rhythms and, above all, in his
harmonies. Dunstable represents a
culmination of the English tradition of
full, sonorous harmonies based on the
third and sixth that persists through
the 1300s alongside the more stark and
dissonant style of music on the
European continent.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dunstable." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173864/John-Dunstable>.
2. ^ "John Dunstable." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
06 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dunsta
ble
3. ^ "John Dunstable." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
06 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dunsta
ble {c1420}
England (and possibly France)2  
[1] John Dunstable [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://t.artist.youmix.co.uk/130
01.jpg
576 YBN
[1424 AD] 4 		1431)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Samarkand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1424 builds
observatory) (1424 builds observatory)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ulugh Beg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4183/Ulugh-Beg
[2] "Ulugh Beg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
[3]
http://www.khwarzimic.org/takveen/ulugh/

[4] "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
[5] "Timeline of astronomical maps,
catalogs, and surveys". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_astronomical_maps%2C_catalogs%2C_and_su
rveys
Samarkand2 , Uzbekistan3  
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg

[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
575 YBN
[1425 AD] 3 4 		1366)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Catholic University of Leuven".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Un
iversity_of_Leuven
2. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

3. ^ "Catholic University of Leuven".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Un
iversity_of_Leuven
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Leuven, Belgium2  
[1] Castle Arenberg, part of the
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castle_Arenberg%2C_Katholieke_Univers
iteit_Leuven_adj.jpg
574 YBN
[1426 AD] 3 		1173) A copy of the medical part of the
8 books of an encyclopedia describing
past Greek learning written in Latin by
Celsus (25 BCE - 50 CE1 ) is found.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aulus Cornelius Celsus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Corne
lius_Celsus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
?  
570 YBN
[1430 AD] 3 		5889) Guillaume Dufay (CE c1400—1474)
French composer, creates church and
secular music at this time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guillaume Dufay." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173107/Guillaume-Dufay>.
2. ^ "Guillaume Dufay." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173107/Guillaume-Dufay>.
3. ^ "Guillaume Dufay." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173107/Guillaume-Dufay>. {c1430}
{c1430 (guess}
(Cambrai cathedral) Cambrai, France2
(guess) 
[1] Guillaume Dufay (left) and Gilles
Binchois (right), Martin le Franc,
''Champion des Dames'', Arras 1451 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/DufayBinchois.jpg
570 YBN
[1430 AD] 3 		5890) Gilles Binchois (CE c1400—1460)
French composer, creates church and
secular music at this time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gilles Binchois." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/65599/Gilles-Binchois>.
2. ^ "Gilles Binchois." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/65599/Gilles-Binchois>.
3. ^ "Gilles Binchois." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/65599/Gilles-Binchois>. {c1430
(guess}
(Chapel of Philip III the Good)
Burgundy, France2 (guess) 
[1] Guillaume Dufay (left) and Gilles
Binchois (right), Martin le Franc,
''Champion des Dames'', Arras 1451 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/DufayBinchois.jpg
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 24 25 26 27 		1435) Gutenberg will die in debt and
unmarried.9
When younger Guttenberg had
acquired skill in metalwork.10
Exiled
from Mainz in the course of a bitter
struggle between the guilds of that
city and the patricians, Gutenberg
moves to Strassburg (now Strasbourg,
France) probably between 1428 and 1430.
Records put his presence there from
1434 to 1444. Gutenberg is involved in
such crafts as gem cutting, and also
teaches crafts to a number of pupils.11


In March 1434, a letter by him
indicates that Guttenberg was living in
Strasbourg, where he had some relatives
on his mother's side. He also appears
to have been a goldsmith member
enrolled in the Strasbourg militia. In
1437, there is evidence that he was
instructing a wealthy tradesman on
polishing gems, but where he had
acquired this knowledge is unknown. In
1436/37 Gutenberg's name also comes up
in court in connection with a broken
promise of marriage to a woman from
Strasbourg, Ennelin.12 Whether the
marriage actually took place is not
recorded.13

In 1438 a five-year contract is drawn
up between Gutenberg and three other
men: Hans Riffe, Andreas Dritzehn, and
Andreas Heilmann.14 When Andreas
Dritzehn dies at Christmas 1438, his
heirs, trying to circumvent the terms
of the contract, began a lawsuit
against Gutenberg in which they
demanded to be made partners. They lose
the suit, but the trial reveals that
Gutenberg is working on a new
invention. Witnesses testify that a
carpenter named Conrad Saspach had
advanced sums to Andreas Dritzehn for
the building of a wooden press, and
Hans Dünne, a goldsmith, declared that
he had sold to Gutenberg, as early as
1436, 100 guilders' worth of printing
materials. Gutenberg, apparently well
along the way to completing his
invention, wants to keep secret the
nature of the enterprise.15

In October 1448 Gutenberg is back in
Mainz to borrow more money, which he
receives from a relative. By 1450
Gutenberg's printing experiments must
have reached a considerable degree of
refinement, because Gutenberg is able
to persuade Johann Fust, a wealthy
financier, to lend him 800 guilders, a
very large amount for which the tools
and equipment for printing are to act
as securities. Two years later Fust
makes another investment of 800
guilders for a partnership in the
enterprise. Fust and Gutenberg have a
disagreement, Fust, apparently, wants a
safe and quick return on his
investment, while Gutenberg wants
perfection instead of a quick return.16


On November 6. 1455, the
Helmaspergersches Notariatsinstrument
(the Helmasperger notarial instrument)
records that Fust won a suit against
Guttenberg. This record is now in the
library of the University of
Göttingen. Gutenberg was ordered to
pay Fust the total sum of the two loans
and compound interest (probably
totaling 2,020 guilders). The
traditional belief is that this
settlement ruined Gutenberg, but more
recent examination suggests that the
decision favored Gutenberg, allowing
him to operate a printing shop through
the 1450s and maybe into the 1460s.17

The record of trial refers to the
printing of books (werck der bucher),
that probably refer to the
Forty-two-Line Bible That Gutenberg
had probably already printed by then.
The sale of the Forty-two-Line Bible
alone is estimated to have produced
many times over the sum owed Fust by
Gutenberg, and there is no other
explanation as to why the books are not
counted among Gutenberg's property at
the trial18 , except that Gutenberg
sold the books.19

After winning his suit, Fust gains
control of the type (each page is kept
together with the blocks?20 ) for the
Bible and for Gutenberg's second
masterpiece, a Psalter (Psalms), and at
least some of Gutenberg's other
printing equipment. Fust continues to
print, using Gutenberg's materials,
with the assistance of Peter Schöffer,
Fust's son-in-law, who had been
Gutenberg's most skilled employee and a
witness against Gutenberg in the 1455
trial. The first printed book in Europe
to bear the name of its printer is a
very nicely designed "Psalter"
completed in Mainz on August 14, 1457,
which lists Johann Fust and Peter
Schöffer.21

In January 1465 the archbishop of Mainz
will pension Gutenberg, giving
Gutenberg an annual measure of grain,
wine, and clothing and exempting
Gutenberg from certain taxes, so in his
last years, Gutenberg was probably not
destitute.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
8. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
11. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
12. ^ Gutenberg und seine Zeit in Daten
(Gutenberg and his times; Timeline).
Gutenberg Museum, Mainz. Retrieved on
2006-11-24
13. ^ "Johann Gutenberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gute
nberg
14. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
15. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
16. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
17. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
18. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
19. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
22. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
23. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1398-c1468)
(c1398-c1468)
25. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (14th c.-1468)
26. ^
"Johann Gutenberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gute
nberg (c1400-1468)
27. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1438 law suit)
Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France)23
 
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1

[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden
zum Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 24 25 26 27 		1440) Alberti is a musician and
organist, writes trajedies in Latin,
and is a mathematician.12
Alberti
designs some notable churches in Mantua
and Romini.13
Alberti is educated in
law at the University of Bologna.14

Alberti writes in both Latin and the
vernacular.15
In Florence Alberti is
friends with the sculptor Donatello,
cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli and the
architect Brunelleschi.16

Some time between 1435 and 144417 .
Alberti writes "Libri della famiglia"
("Book on the Family")-which discusses
education, marriage, household
management, and money-in the Tuscan
dialect. The work is not printed until
1843. Like Erasmus decades later,
Alberti stresses the need for a reform
in education. He notes that "the care
of very young children is women's work,
for nurses or the mother," and that at
the earliest possible age children
should be taught the alphabet. With
great hopes, he gave the work to his
family to read, but in his
autobiography Alberti confesses that
"he could hardly avoid feeling rage,
when he saw some of his relatives
openly ridiculing the work."18

Alberti writes a short autobiography
around 1438 in Latin and in the third
person, (many but not all scholars
consider this work to be an
autobiography) in which he makes
unlikely claims such as being capable
of "standing with his feet together,
and springing over a man's head." The
autobiography survives thanks to a
1700s transcription by Antonio
Muratori. Alberti also claims that he
"excelled in all bodily exercises;
could, with feet tied, leap over a
standing man; could in the great
cathedral, throw a coin far up to ring
against the vault; amused himself by
taming wild horses and climbing
mountains." This may be explained in
part because many in the Renaissance
promote themselves in various ways.19

Alberti writes "Momus", between 1443
and 1450, which is a misogynist
(anti-women20 ) comedy about the
Olympian gods. Jupiter has been
identified in some sources as Pope
Eugenius IV and Pope Nicholas V.
Alberti borrows many of its characters
from Lucian, one of his favorite Greek
writers. The name of its hero, Momus,
refers to the Greek word for blame or
criticism. After being expelled from
heaven, Momus, the god of mockery, is
eventually castrated. Jupiter and the
other gods come down to earth also, but
they return to heaven after Jupiter
breaks his nose in a great storm.21

Towards the end of his life, Alberti
writes "De iciarchia" ("On the Man of
Excellence and Ruler of His Family")
which represents in full flower the
public-spirited Humanism"22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
2. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^
http://www.noteaccess.com/Texts/Alberti/

5. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Leon Battista
Alberti". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Leon
Battista Alberti". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
11. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ "Leon Battista
Alberti". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
16. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
17. ^ "Leone Battista Alberti".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti
18. ^ "Leone Battista Alberti".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti
19. ^ "Leone Battista Alberti".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti
20. ^ Ted Huntington
21. ^ "Leone Battista
Alberti". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti
22. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
23. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1434) (1434)
25. ^ "Leon
Battista Alberti". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti (1435)
26. ^ "Leone
Battista Alberti". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti (1435)
27. ^
http://www.noteaccess.com/Texts/Alberti/
 (1435)
Florence, Italy23  
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg

[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
563 YBN
[1437 AD] 7 		1432)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Zij-i-Sultani". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zij-i-Sulta
ni
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Zij-i-Sultani".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zij-i-Sulta
ni
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Samarkand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand
7. ^ "Zij-i-Sultani". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zij-i-Sulta
ni (1437)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ulugh Beg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4183/Ulugh-Beg
[2] "Ulugh Beg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
[3]
http://www.khwarzimic.org/takveen/ulugh/

[4] "Hipparchus (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_
%28astronomer%29
[5] "Timeline of astronomical maps,
catalogs, and surveys". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_astronomical_maps%2C_catalogs%2C_and_su
rveys
Samarkand5 , Uzbekistan6  
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg

[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
560 YBN
[02/12/1440 AD] 26 27 28 29 		1437) Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas Krebs)
(CE 1401-1464) describes space as
infinite in size and that other stars
may be inhabited.11 12 13

The relevant translated text from "De
Docta Ignorantia" Book 2 is:
"And so, {the
universe is} unbounded; for it is not
the case that anything actually greater
than it, in relation to which it would
be bounded, is positable."14

Cusa suggests that stars may be distant
Suns when he states that the Earth
would look like a star from a distance.
Cusa writes: "Hence, if someone were
outside the region of fire, then
through the medium of the fire our
earth, which is on the circumference of
{this} region, would appear to be a
bright star-just as to us, who are on
the circumference of the region of the
sun, the sun appears to be very
bright."15

On life of other stars:
"Therefore, the
inhabitants of other stars-of whatever
sort these inhabitants might be-bear no
comparative relationship to the
inhabitants of the Earth."16

On the
motion of the earth Cusa writes:
"It has
already become evident to us that the
earth is indeed moved, even though we
do not perceive this to be the case.
For we apprehend motion only through a
certain comparison with something
fixed. For example, if someone did not
know that a body of water was flowing
and did not see the shore while he was
on a ship in the middle of the water,
how would he recognize that the ship
was being moved?...".17

On the Sun being larger than the
Earth:
"And although the Earth is smaller than
the Sun-as we know from the Earth's
shadow and from eclipses-we do not know
to what extent the region of the Sun is
larger or smaller than the region of
the Earth"18

Cusa also compares planets to stars (a
good case can be made that planets are
very dim stars), and that the planets
move writting:
"Therefore, consider carefully the
fact that just as in the eighth sphere
the stars are {moved} around
conjectural poles, so the earth, the
moon, and the planets-as stars-are
moved at a distance and with a
difference around a pole {which} we
conjecture to be where the center is
believed to be. Hence, although the
earth-as star-is nearer to the central
pole, nevertheless it is moved and, in
its motion, does not describe a minimum
circle, as was indicated."19

Instead of Cusa getting in trouble, he
is appointed cardinal in 1448, Giordano
Bruno will be murdered for sharing many
of these same views in only 152
years.20

Cusa builds spectacles (glasses) with
concave lenses where earlier glasses
used the easier to make convex lenses
that served only the far-sighted21
(those who cannot see close objects),
these glasses serve the near-sighted
(who cannot see far objects)22 .

Cusa advocates the counting of pulse as
a diagnostic aid in healing.23
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
4. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
7. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
8. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
9. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
10. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
13. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
14. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
15. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
16. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
19. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
22. ^ "farsighted." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/farsighted
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ "De Docta Ignorantia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia
25. ^ "Bernkastel-Kues". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkastel-
Kues
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1401-1464)
(1401-1464)
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1440 book) (1440
book)
28. ^ "Nicholas Of Cusa". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5730/Nicholas-Of-Cusa (1440 book)
29. ^ "De
Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia (02/12/1440)
Cusa, Germany24 25  
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg

[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
557 YBN
[1443 AD] 12 13 		1438) Bessarion writes a treatise
directed against George of Trebizond, a
vigorous Aristotelian who had written a
polemic against Plato, which was
entitled "In Calumniatorem Platonis"
("Against the Slanderer of Plato").
Bessarion, though a Platonist, is not
so thoroughgoing in his admiration of
Plato as Gemistus Pletho is, and
strives instead to reconcile the two
philosophies.9
Pope Eugenius IV makes
Bessarion a cardinal in 1439.10
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Bessarion".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8930/Bessarion
3. ^ "John Bessarion". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bessar
ion
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "John Bessarion".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bessar
ion
6. ^ "Bessarion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8930/Bessarion
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "John Bessarion".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bessar
ion
9. ^ "John Bessarion". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bessar
ion
10. ^ "Bessarion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8930/Bessarion
11. ^ "John Bessarion". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bessar
ion
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1403-1472)
1403+40) (CE 1403-1472)
13. ^ "Bessarion".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8930/Bessarion 1403+40) (CE 1403-1472)
1403+40 1403+40)
Rome, Italy11  
[1] Basilius Bessarion Source
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bi
lder/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Basilius_Bessarion.JPG
550 YBN
[1450 AD] 4 5 		1171)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Clock". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock
3. ^ "Clock". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (1400s century estimate) (1400s
century estimate)
5. ^ "Clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock
(early 1400s)
?  
550 YBN
[1450 AD] 3 		1798)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "clock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4419/clock
2. ^ "clock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4419/clock
3. ^ "clock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4419/clock (c1450)
southern Germany, or northern Italy2
 		 
548 YBN
[1452 AD] 5 6 		1441)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Leon Battista
Alberti". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
4. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
5. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti (1452)
6. ^ "Leone
Battista Alberti". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti (1452)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.noteaccess.com/Texts/Alberti/

Florence, Italy4  
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg

[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
547 YBN
[05/29/1453 AD] 4 5 		1439)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Fall of
Constantinople". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Con
stantinople
3. ^ "Fall of Constantinople".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Con
stantinople
4. ^ "1453". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1453 (May
29, 1453)
5. ^ "Fall of Constantinople".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Con
stantinople (May 29, 1453)

MORE INFO
[1] "1453". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1453
Constantanople3  
[1] The Siege of Constantinople.
Painted in
1499. http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/f
all.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_of_Constantinople.jpg

[2] Siege of Constantinople, by Jean
Chartier Source Bibliothèque
nationale de France Manuscript
Français 2691 folio CCXLVI v
[1] http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualise
ur?Destination=Mandragore&O=07841452&E=1
&I=42603&M=imageseule Date 3rd
quarter of the 15th century Author
jean Chartier, Chronique
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg
546 YBN
[1454 AD] 11 12 		1436) The Guttenberg Bible is sometimes
referred to as the Mazarin Bible
because the first copy described by
bibliographers was located in the Paris
library of Cardinal Mazarin.9
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Gutenberg Bible".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8593/Gutenberg-Bible
3. ^ "Gutenberg Bible". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8593/Gutenberg-Bible
4. ^ "Gutenberg Bible". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8593/Gutenberg-Bible
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Gutenberg Bible".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8593/Gutenberg-Bible
10. ^ "Gutenberg Bible". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8593/Gutenberg-Bible
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1454) (1454)
12. ^
"Johannes Gutenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1455 at the
latest)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Gutenberg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gute
nberg
Mainz, Germany10  
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1

[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum
Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
540 YBN
[1460 AD] 3 4 		1367)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Basel University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel_Unive
rsity
2. ^ "Basel University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel_Unive
rsity
3. ^ "Basel University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel_Unive
rsity (1459)
4. ^ "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation
 (1460)
Basel, Switzerland2  
[1] The Astronomical Institute of the
University of Basel was founded in
1894. Since 1995 it is part of the
Department of Physics and Astronomy,
together with the Institute of Physics
of the University of Basel COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://www.astro.unibas.ch/infos
/AIUB_semifront_small.jpg

[2] Opening Pageant of the University
of Basel, Basel Minster, 4 April
1460. Title miniature of the Rector''s
register, Basel University
Library. PD
source: http://www.unibas.ch/index.cfm?u
uid=911241CC0F0BC853812D75DEECDB0824&&IR
ACER_AUTOLINK&&&o_lang_id=2
538 YBN
[1462 AD] 31 		1443) Königsberg means "King's
Mountain," which is what the Latinized
version of his name, Joannes de Regio
monte or Regiomontanus, also means.21

In 1475 Regiomontanus is summoned to
Rome by Pope Sixtus IV to help reform
the Julian calendar, but Regiomontanus
dies in Rome of the plague before
completing the project, and it will
wait another century to be corrected.
Regiomontanus
is admitted to the University of
Leipzig at age 11, has a Bachelor's
Degree at 145222 23 , but university
regulations force him to wait until he
turns 21 to receive his master's
degree24 . Regiomontanus is teaching in
1457.25
Regiomontanus lectures on
Virgil and Cicero.26
Regiomontanus
eventually collaborates with his
teacher, the mathematician-astronomer
Georg von Peuerbach, on various
astronomical and astrological projects,
including observations of eclipses and
comets, the manufacture of astronomical
instruments, and the casting of
horoscopes for the court of the Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick III.27
Regiomont
anus is conservative in outlook and
writes at length arguing how earth
cannot move, citing how birds would be
blown away, clouds left behind,
building would tumble.28
Regiomontanus
strongly believes in astrology, and
publishes a book in astrology.29
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
3. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
11. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
12. ^ "Regiomontanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
13. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
17. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
18. ^ "Regiomontanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
19. ^ "Regiomontanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
20. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
21. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
23. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
24. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
30. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
31. ^ "Regiomontanus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus (1462)
Rome, Italy30  
[1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German
mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer. Quelle: *
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg
530 YBN
[1470 AD] 4 		5899)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Buxheimer Orgelbuch." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/buxheimer-o
rgelbuch
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^
"search?q=%22Buxheimer+Orgelbuch%22&hl=e
n&biw=864&bih=538&prmd=ivns".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://translate.google.com/translate?hl
=en&sl=de&u=http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Buxheimer_Orgelbuch&ei=ZNzyTfLGKYP2tgPR
w_i7Cw&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnu
m=6&ved=0CFcQ7gEwBQ&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%
2522Buxheimer%2BOrgelbuch%2522%26hl%3Den
%26biw%3D864%26bih%3D538%26prmd%3Divns
4. ^ "Buxheimer Orgelbuch." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/buxheimer-o
rgelbuch {c1470}
(thought to be:) southern Germany3
(verify) 
[1] Beschreibung Français :
Buxheimer Orgelbuch conservé à
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,
Cim. 352b, folio 169 recto. Datum
1470 Quelle
http://www.bsb-muenchen.de/index.ph
p?id=625&uid=3302&picid=1&page_id=Musikh
andschriften.1728+M5e34df5a01a.0.html U
rheber Conrad
Paumann Genehmigung (Weiternutzung
dieser Datei) Siehe unten PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/Buxheimer_Orgelbuch_%
28f%C2%B0169r%29.jpg
528 YBN
[1472 AD] 22 23 		1442) Peurbach studies art at the
University of Vienna, moves to Italy,
which Asimov describes as an
intellectual center at this time and
there studies under Nicholas of Cusa
before becoming professor of
mathematics and astronomy at the
University of Vienna in 145318 .19

Peurbach is appointed astrologer to
King Ladislas V of Hungary and later to
Emperor Frederick III.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Georg von Peurbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_von_P
eurbach
6. ^ "Duodecimal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duodecimal
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Georg von Peurbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_von_P
eurbach
9. ^
http://www.answers.com/Georg+von+Peurbac
h?cat=technology
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/Georg+von+Peurbac
h?cat=technology
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/Georg+von+Peurbac
h?cat=technology
12. ^ "Alfonsine tables". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonsine_t
ables
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^
http://www.answers.com/Georg+von+Peurbac
h?cat=technology
17. ^ "Georg von Peurbach". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_von_P
eurbach
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ "Alfonsine tables".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonsine_t
ables
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ "Alfonsine tables".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonsine_t
ables
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1423-1461) (CE
1423-1461)
23. ^ "Duodecimal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duodecimal
(1472 Theoricae)
Vienna, Austria21  
[1] Georg von Peuerbach: Theoricarum
novarum planetarum testus, Paris
1515 PD
source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil
d:Peuerbach-Theoricarum-1515.png

[2] Georg von Peuerbach PD
source: http://www.astronomie.at/burgenl
and/archiv/peuerbach/start.htm
528 YBN
[1472 AD] 5 		1444)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Regiomontanus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3056/Regiomontanus
3. ^ "Regiomontanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
4. ^ "Regiomontanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us
5. ^ "Regiomontanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiomontan
us (1472)
Nuremberg, (Franconia, now) Germany4
 
[1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German
mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer. Quelle: *
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg
528 YBN
[1472 AD] 30 		1461) Leonardo's parents were unmarried
at the time of his birth.15
Leonardo
grows up on his father's family's
estate, where he was treated as a
"legitimate" son and receives the usual
elementary education of that day:
reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Leonardo does not seriously study
Latin, the key language of traditional
learning, until much later, when he
acquires a working knowledge of it on
his own. He also does not apply himself
to higher mathematics-advanced geometry
and arithmetic-until he is 30 years
old, when he begins to study it with
diligent tenacity.16
Leonardo's
artistic inclinations must have
appeared early. When Leonardo is about
15, his father, apprentices Leonardo to
artist Andrea del Verrocchio. In
Verrocchio's renowned workshop Leonardo
receives a multifaceted training that
includes painting, sculpture and
technical-mechanical arts. Leonardo
also works in the next-door workshop of
artist Antonio Pollaiuolo. In 1472
Leonardo is accepted into the painters'
guild of Florence, but he remains in
his teacher's workshop for five more
years, after which time he works
independently in Florence until 1481.
Many of the surviving pen and pencil
drawings from this period, including
many technical sketches (for example of
pumps, military weapons, etc) are
evidence of Leonardo's interest in and
knowledge of technical matters very
early in his career.17
In 1482 Leonardo
moved to Milan to work in the service
of Duke Ludovico Sforza rejecting two
projects offered to him in Florence.18

Leonardo spends 17 years in Milan,
until Ludovico's fall from power in
1499. Leonardo is listed in the
register of the royal household as
"pictor et ingeniarius ducalis"
("painter and engineer of the duke").19

Da Vinci is highly esteemed and is
constantly kept busy as a painter and
sculptor and as a designer of court
festivals. Da Vince is also frequently
consulted as a technical adviser in the
fields of architecture, fortifications,
and military matters, and he serves as
a hydraulic and mechanical engineer.20


Leonardo keeps a series of journals in
which he writes almost daily, as well
as separate notes and sheets of
observations, comments and plans which
were left to various pupils and were
later bound. Many of the journals have
survived to illustrate Leonardo's
studies, discoveries and inventions.21
Da Vinci write backwards in
mirror-script in voluminous notebooks,
which can be easily read with a mirror
as his contemporaries testify22 .23
Leonardo is left handed so writing
backwards is more easily done.24
Leonardo's notebooks add up to
thousands of closely written pages
abundantly illustrated with
sketches-the most voluminous literary
legacy any painter has ever left
behind.25

Da Vinci paints famous
realistic-appearing paintings such as
"Mona Lisa", and "The Last Supper".26
Da
Vinci knows neither Greek or Latin.27

The funders of Da Vinci include Cesare
Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, Louis
XII of France, Giulio de Medici,
brother of Pope Leo X, and Francis I of
France.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap11.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Leonardo da Vinci - scientist and
inventor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci_-_scientist_and_inventor
14. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci - scientist
and inventor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci_-_scientist_and_inventor
15. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
16. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
17. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
18. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
19. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
20. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
21. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci - scientist
and inventor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci_-_scientist_and_inventor
22. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
25. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
29. ^ "Leonardo da
Vinci". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1452-1519)1472 to
be before all other Da Vinci records
starting at id1462 in 1473 CE.) (CE
1452-1519)1472 to be before all other
Da Vinci records starting at id1462 in
1473 CE.)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "elevator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371/elevator
[4] "Elevator#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator#Hi
story
[5] "Submarines#History of submarines".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines#
History_of_submarines
[6] "submarine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0183/submarine
Florence, Italy29  
[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_self.jpg

[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Verrocchio_David.jpg
527 YBN
[1473 AD] 5 		1462) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE
1452-1519) draws a study of a Tuscan
landscape.1 This is Da Vinci's
earliest dated drawing.2 The drawing
is of the valley of the Arno River,
where Da Vinci lives.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Image:Study of a Tuscan
Landscape". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Study
_of_a_Tuscan_Landscape
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci - scientist and
inventor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci_-_scientist_and_inventor
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci - scientist and
inventor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci_-_scientist_and_inventor
4. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
5. ^ "Image:Study of a Tuscan
Landscape". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Study
_of_a_Tuscan_Landscape (1473)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Florence, Italy4  
[1] Study of a Tuscan Landscape (c.
1473) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Study_of_a_Tuscan_Landscape.jpg
527 YBN
[1473 AD] 3 4 		5894) Johannes Tinctoris (CE
1436–1511), publishes "Terminorum
musicae diffinitorium" ("Dictionary of
Musical Terms, Naples, 1473), which is
the earliest printed dictionary of
musical terms.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010, p143.
3. ^
Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in
Western Culture", 2010, p143. {1473}
4. ^
"Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>. {c1475}
Naples, Italy2 (presumably)  
526 YBN
[1474 AD] 9 10 		1433) Toscanelli observes comets and
painstakingly calculates their orbits.
Among these will be Halley's comet in
1456.5
Toscanelli is the son of the
physician Dominic Toscanelli. Educated
in mathematics at the University of
Padua, Toscanelli leaves in 1424 with
the title of a doctor of medicine.6
Tosc
anelli is a friend of Nicholaus of
Cusa.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Paolo Toscanelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Tosca
nelli
4. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14786a.h
tm
5. ^ "Paolo Toscanelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Tosca
nelli
6. ^ "Paolo Toscanelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Tosca
nelli
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^
http://www.cosmovisions.com/Toscanelli.h
tm (1474)
10. ^
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos30/cr
istobal-colon/cristobal-colon.shtml
(1474)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations
/comets.html
Florence, Italy8  
[1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10
May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.):
History of the World. New York,
1901. Copied from University of Texas
Portrait
Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo
draw/portraits/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hw-columbus.jpg

[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html
526 YBN
[1474 AD] 4 5 		1434)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paolo Toscanelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Tosca
nelli
2. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14786a.h
tm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^
http://www.cosmovisions.com/Toscanelli.h
tm (1474)
5. ^
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos30/cr
istobal-colon/cristobal-colon.shtml
(1474)
Florence, Italy3  
[1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10
May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.):
History of the World. New York,
1901. Copied from University of Texas
Portrait
Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo
draw/portraits/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hw-columbus.jpg

[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html
525 YBN
[1475 AD] 3 		1174) Jewish humans in parts of Europe
have to wear pointed hats as an
identifying badge. The humans in the
Catholic church force all Jewish humans
to wear these pointed hats, as shown in
an image carved into wood (a German
woodcut) {get image}. These Jewish
people were burned, charged with
sacrificing Christian children.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
3. ^
James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
Europe2   
523 YBN
[1477 AD] 4 5 		1368) Carl Linnaeus, and Anders Celsius
will be professors at Uppsala.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Uppsala University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_Uni
versity
2. ^ "Uppsala University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_Uni
versity
3. ^ "Uppsala University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_Uni
versity
4. ^ "Uppsala University". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_Uni
versity
5. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Uppsala, Sweden3  
[1] 18th century engraving of
Riddartorget in Uppsala, with the later
demolished Academia Carolina (the old
chapter house) to the left (by the
Cathedral which is just outside the
picture). To the right is the
Oxenstierna Palace, the former
residence of w:Bengt Gabrielsson
Oxenstierna. The latter was then used
for the ''Royal Academy [=University]
Hospital'' (''Kgl Academi Sjukhus''),
and is now the main building for the
Faculty of Law. In the middle one can
see a part of the Skytteanum, where the
Professor Skytteanus has his residence
and office and parts of the Department
of Government are still
located. Engraving by F. Akrelius in:
J. B. Busser, Beskrifning om Upsala
(1769). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Academia_Carolina_Uppsala.jpg

[2] Engraving by Fredrik Akrel
(Akrelius). Source: From: Johan
Benedict Busser, Utkast till
beskrifning om Upsala. Upsala, tryckt
hos Joh. Edman, kongl. acad. boktr.
1-2. 1769-73. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Exercise_yard_-_from_Busser%2C_Om_Ups
ala_Stad_etc.jpg
522 YBN
[1478 AD] 7 		1175) Pope Sixtus IV (Pope 1471 to
1484) authorizes Ferdinandand Isabella
to revive the Inquisition to hunt
"secret Jews" and Muslim people (at
least 2000 humans are eventually killed
by the Inquisition).1 2

Sixtus IV issues a bull this year that
established an Inquisitor in Seville,
under political pressure from Ferdinand
of Aragon, who threatened to withhold
military support from his kingdom of
Sicily if he did not.(verify3 )4

He founds the Sistine Chapel where the
team of artists he brings together
introduce the Early Renaissance to Rome
with the first masterpiece of the
city's new artistic age (Michelangelo's
frescoes will be added in a later
phase).5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ "Pope Sixtus IV".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sixtus
_IV
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Pope Sixtus IV".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sixtus
_IV
5. ^ "Pope Sixtus IV". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sixtus
_IV
6. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
7. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
Spain6  
[1] Pope Sixtus IV PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sixtus_IV.PNG

[2] Pope Sixtus IV appoints Platina
as Prefect of the Library, by Melozzo
da Forlì PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Melozzo_da_Forl%C3%AC_001.jpg
521 YBN
[1479 AD] 5 6 		1369) Almost all educational institutes
in Denmark are free for citizens to
attend.2
Major contributors to science
that will graduate from the University
of Coperhagen include: Tycho Brahe, Ole
Rømer, Hans Christian Ørsted, and
Niels Bohr among others.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Copenhagen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Copenhagen
2. ^ "University of Copenhagen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Copenhagen
3. ^ "University of Copenhagen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Copenhagen
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

5. ^ "University of Copenhagen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Copenhagen
6. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Copenhagen, Denmark4  
[1] The University of Copenhagen old
building in the inner city. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KU_inner_city_1.jpg

[2] The Rundetårn (round tower) was
used in the 17th century as an
observatory by Ole Rømer CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copenhagen_Rundet%C3%A5rn_street_left
.jpg
520 YBN
[1480 AD] 3 		1463)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinve
ntors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-DaVinci/
Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinve
ntors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-DaVinci/
Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm (1480)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Florence, Italy2  
[1] Machine for Storming Walls a 1480
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci for a ware
machine PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm
520 YBN
[1480 AD] 6 		5892) Josquin des Prez (CE c1450-1521)1
 composes music. Des Prez makes use of
the technique of "pervading imitation",
in which a series of musical ideas are
stated imitatively in all voices
throughout an entire work, or section
of a work.2 The first music printer,
Ottaviano Petrucci, devoted an entire
volume to Josquin's works, an honor
given to no other composer.3 According
to the Oxford Grove Music Encyclopedia
Josquin is the greatest composer of the
high Renaissance.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Josquin des Prez." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 06 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josquin-des
-prez
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p79.
3. ^
"Josquin des Prez." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 06 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josquin-des
-prez
4. ^ "Josquin des Prez." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 06 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josquin-des
-prez
5. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p79.
6. ^
Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in
Western Culture", 2003, p79.
{1470-1485}
(cathedral of) Milan, Italy5
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: a facsimile
copy of the famous woodcut from Petrus
Opmeer's Opvs chronographicvm orbis
vniversi a mvndi exordio vsqve ad annvm
M.DC.XI. (Antwerp, 1611). Date 22
July 2003 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Clattuc at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-ART PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/DESPREZ.jpg
520 YBN
[1480 AD] 8 		5893) Jean de Ockeghem (CE c1410-1497)
composes sacred and secular music, and
is one of the great masters of the
Franco-Flemish style that dominates
European music of the Renaissance.1
Ockeghem makes use of the musical
"canon" and "counterpoint" techniques.2
 Canon is in the strict sense,
technique in which polyphony is derived
from a single line that is imitated at
fixed or (less often) variable
intervals of pitch and time, for
example in the song "Three Blind Mice"
and "Frère Jacques". Starting with the
1500s, the term "canon" is used for the
work itself.3 4 Counterpoint in music
is defined as melodic material that is
added above or below an existing
melody, and the technique of combining
two or more melodic lines in such a way
that they establish a harmonic
relationship while retaining their
linear individuality and also the use
of contrasting elements in a work of
art.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean de Ockeghem." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/424680/Jean-de-Ockeghem>.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p79.
3. ^
"canon." The Concise Grove Dictionary
of Music. Oxford University Press,
Inc., 1994. Answers.com 06 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/canon-music

4. ^ "canon." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 06 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/canon-music

5. ^ "counterpoint." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/counterpoin
t
6. ^ "Jean de Ockeghem." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/424680/Jean-de-Ockeghem>.
7. ^"Charles d'Orléans." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 07 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-d-o
rl-ans-1
8. ^ "Jean de Ockeghem." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/424680/Jean-de-Ockeghem>. {1454
(guess}

MORE INFO
[1] "Josquin des Prez." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 06 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josquin-des
-prez
(chapel of Charles VII) Blois, France6
7 (guess) 
[1] Description Codex Chigi Date
2008 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Chigi_codex.jpg Author
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:M
icrotonal PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Chigi_codex.jpg

[2] Johannes Ockeghem wearing
eyeglasses (not new but still fairly
rare at the time), leads his choristers
in singing from a large choir book. The
practice of singing from a single
source reflects the expense of
preparing menuscripts by hand. (c.1410
- 1497) PD
source: http://www.hoasm.org/IIID/Ockegh
em.jpg
516 YBN
[05/01/1484 AD] 12 		1449) Columbus is the eldest son of
Domenico Colombo, a Genoese wool worker
and merchant, and Susanna Fontanarossa,
his wife. His career as a seaman begins
effectively in the Portuguese merchant
marine. After surviving a shipwreck off
Cape St. Vincent at the southwestern
point of Portugal in 1476, he bases
himself in Lisbon, together with his
brother Bartholomew. Both are employed
as chart makers, but Columbus is
principally a seagoing entrepreneur. In
1477 he sails to Iceland and Ireland
with the merchant marine, and in 1478
he buys sugar in Madeira as an agent
for the Genoese firm of Centurioni. In
1479 he meets and married Felipa
Perestrello e Moniz, a member of an
impoverished noble Portuguese family.
Their son, Diego, is born in 1480.
Between 1482 and 1485 Columbus trades
along the Guinea and Gold coasts of
tropical West Africa and made at least
one voyage to the Portuguese fortress
of São Jorge da Mina there, gaining
knowledge of Portuguese navigation and
the Atlantic wind systems along the
way. Felipa dies in 1485, and Columbus
takes as his mistress Beatriz Enríquez
de Harana of Córdoba, by whom he has
his second son, Ferdinand.9
Columbus
always writes in Spanish, or
Spanish-influenced Latin.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
2. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Christopher
Columbus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Christopher
columbus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
12. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus (1484)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
Portugal11  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
515 YBN
[1485 AD] 3 		1464)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinve
ntors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-DaVinci
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinve
ntors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-DaVinci
(1485)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Milan, Italy2  
[1] Designs for a Boat is part of a
series of (1485 - 1487) drawings by
Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Designs-for-a-Boat-.htm

[2] Drawing of giant crossbow by
Leonardo da Vinci circa 1485 to
1487. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Giant-Crossbow.htm
515 YBN
[1485 AD] 3 		1471) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE
1452-1519), draws the "Virtuvian Man".1


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci#59781.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-597
81/Leonardo-da-Vinci#59781.toc
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^ "Image:Vitruvian.jpg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vitru
vian.jpg (1485-1490)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Milan, Italy2  
[1] Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da
Vinci (1485-1490, Venise, Galleria
dell' Accademia) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vitruvian.jpg
513 YBN
[1487 AD] 4 		1465)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinve
ntors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-DaVinci
(1487)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Milan, Italy3  
[1] Armoured Car a pen drawing dated
1487 by Leonardo Da Vinci PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Armoured-Car.htm
513 YBN
[1487 AD] 3 		1466)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinve
ntors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-DaVinci
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinve
ntors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-DaVinci
(1487)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[4] "Cannon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon
Milan, Italy2  
[1] An Artillery Park is a 1487 drawing
by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Artillery-Park.htm
513 YBN
[1487 AD] 3 4 		1468)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Helicopter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^ "Helicopter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter
(1493)
4. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci (1487)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Milan, Italy2  
[1] The Ornithopter Flying Machine
Designed and Drawn by Leonardo da
Vinci The ornithopter flying machine
was never actually created. It was a
design that Leonardo DaVinci made to
show how man could fly. Some experts
say that the modern day helicopter was
inspired by this design. [t this is
not an ornithopter because it has no
flapping wings] PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Ornithopter-Flying-Machine.htm
512 YBN
[1488 AD] 5 		1467)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ornithopter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter

2. ^ "Ornithopter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter

3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
5. ^ "Ornithopter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter
 (1488)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Milan, Italy4  
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m

[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
510 YBN
[1490 AD] 3 4 		5895) Bartolomeo Tromboncino (CE
c1470-c1535) and Marchetto Cara
(C1470-1525) compose music in the style
called "frottola". For most of the
1400s, French chanson dominates the
music performed in Italy until around
1480 when native composers set their
texts into their own language again, in
a style known as "frottola". Frottola
poetry tends to be more lighthearted
than the courtly love of chanson texts.
Musically, frottola avoids imitation
and counterpoint in contrast to
contemporary chansons. Frottole are
characterized by chordal textures and
lively, dance-like rhythms. Frottole
can be performed entirely by
instruments, or by any combination of
voices and instruments. Frottole are
arranged for solo voice and lute, or
for keyboard alone and are in popular
demand at the time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010,
p139-142.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010,
p139-142.
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010,
p139-142. {starting in) 1480s}
{starting in) 1480s (1490 puts
composers at age 20}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
{starting in) 1480s (1490 puts
composers at age 20}
Mantua, Italy2  
[1] painting by Lorenzo Costa of a
frottola - [t note that this is not a
portrait of Tromboncino or Cara] dates
from 1485-1495 The logo of IACMA
represent a famous painting (Concerto)
of Lorenzo Costa (Ferrara, 1460 -
Mantua, 1535), an Italian painter who
operated mainly in Bologna. The
painting (now conserved at National
Gallery, London) represents a typical
performance in an Italian city. At that
time, Lorenzo Costa was active in
different Countries in Italy and in
Europe, and he worked a lot in towns
that nowadays are in the Emilia-Romagna
region. If you wish to see a larger
image of the painting, click on the
picture on the left, or in the corner
in the top. PD
source: http://www.iacma.it/bologn1.jpg
510 YBN
[1490 AD] 4 		5901) Arnolt Schlick (CE c1460-c1521),
German organist and composer, composes
instrumental music for lute. Schlick's
"Spiegel der Orgelmacher und
Organisten" (1511) is the first German
treatise on organ building and organ
playing. Some of Schlick's organ pieces
are published in his "Tabulaturen
etlicher lobgesang" (1512), the first
printed German organ tablatures.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Arnolt Schlick." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnolt-schl
ick
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "Arnolt Schlick." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnolt-schl
ick
4. ^ "Arnolt Schlick." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnolt-schl
ick {c1490 (based on age 30}
Germany3  
[1] Description Arnolt Schlick,
Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten,
1511, Titelholzschnitt Date 12
January 2008 Source Spiegel der
Orgelmacher und Organisten PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Schlick_spiegel.jpg
509 YBN
[1491 AD] 3 		1176) In Spain Jewish humans tortured
by the Holy Inquisition were made to
"confess" to killing a child in a town
called "La Guardia".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
3. ^
James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
Spain2   
509 YBN
[1491 AD] 9 		1484) In 1486, planning to defend 900
theses he had drawn from diverse Greek,
Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin writers, Pico
invites scholars from all of Europe to
Rome for a public disputation. For the
occasion he composes his celebrated
"Oration on the Dignity of Man" (1486)4
. A papal commission, however,
denounces 13 of the theses as
heretical, and the assembly is
prohibited by Pope Innocent VIII.
Despite his ensuing "Apologia" for the
theses, Pico thinks it prudent to flee
to France but is arrested there. After
a brief imprisonment he settles in
Florence, where he became associated
with the Platonic Academy, under the
protection of the Florentine prince
Lorenzo de' Medici. Except for short
trips to Ferrara, Pico spends the rest
of his life there. Pico is absolved
from the charge of heresy by Pope
Alexander VI in 1492.5

"Disputations..." will not be published
until after Mirandola's death.6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
3. ^ "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
count di Concordia". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9934/Giovanni-Pico-della-Mirandola-count
-di-Concordia
4. ^ "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pi
co_della_Mirandola
5. ^ "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
count di Concordia". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9934/Giovanni-Pico-della-Mirandola-count
-di-Concordia
6. ^ "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pi
co_della_Mirandola
7. ^ "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pi
co_della_Mirandola
8. ^ "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pi
co_della_Mirandola
9. ^ "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pi
co_della_Mirandola (c1491)
(written:) Fiesole, Italy7
;(published:) Bologna, Italy8  
[1] Pico della Mirandola. Portrait by
an unknown artist, in the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pico_della_mirandola.jpg
508 YBN
[01/??/1492 AD] 11 12 13 		1451) The emperor of Cathay, whom
Europeans referred to as the Great Khan
of the Golden Horde-was himself held to
be interested in Christianity, and
Columbus carefully carries a letter of
friendship addressed to him by the
Spanish monarchs.9

In the letter that prefaces his journal
of the first voyage, Columbus explains
his excitement about his journey, and
reveals a racist and vicious religious
fervor (in a war against the
"infidels", basically all those not in
the cult of Jesus) typical of people in
this time:
"...and Your Highnesses, as
Catholic Christians…took thought to
send me, Christopher Columbus, to the
said parts of India, to see those
princes and peoples and lands…and the
manner which should be used to bring
about their conversion to our holy
faith, and ordained that I should not
go by land to the eastward, by which
way it was the custom to go, but by way
of the west, by which down to this day
we do not know certainly that anyone
has passed; therefore, having driven
out all the Jews from your realms and
lordships in the same month of January,
Your Highnesses commanded me that, with
a sufficient fleet, I should go to the
said parts of India, and for this
accorded me great rewards and ennobled
me so that from that time henceforth I
might style myself "Don" and be high
admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy
and perpetual Governor of the islands
and continent which I should
discover…and that my eldest son should
succeed to the same position, and so on
from generation to generation
forever."10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Christopher columbus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
3. ^ "Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
4. ^ "Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Christopher columbus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
7. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
8. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
9. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
10. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1492) (1492)
12. ^
"Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus (1492)
13. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus (01/1492)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
 
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
508 YBN
[08/03/1492 AD] 3 4 		1452)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Christopher columbus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (08/03/1492)
(08/03/1492)
4. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus (08/03/1492)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
Palos, Spain2  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
508 YBN
[09/13/1492 AD] 3 		1453)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (09/13/1492)
(09/13/1492)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
[2] "Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
[3]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
Atlantic Ocean2  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
508 YBN
[10/12/1492 AD] 18 		1450) Humans from Europe reach the
Americas by crossing the Atlantic
Ocean.8

Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506)
lands on a small island (probably San
Salvador9 ) in America.10

In America Columbus explores, finds a
new race of people, new plants, and
many other new phenomena.11

Vikings such as Leif Eriksson had
visited North America five centuries
earlier.12

In the next 10 years Columbus will
makes 3 journeys to the "Indies".13

Because of this mistaken belief that
Columbus had reached India, the
Carribean will be called the West
Indies even up to the present time.14
That Native American people are
sometimes still referred to as
"Indians" shows that this mistaken view
of America being India is still
uncorrected.15

Beyond planting the royal banner,
Columbus spends little time on San
Salvador, being anxious to press on to
what he thinks will be Cipango
(Japan).16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Christopher
Columbus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Ted
Huntington
16. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
17. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (10/12/1492)
(10/12/1492)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
(probably) San Salvador17  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
508 YBN
[10/28/1492 AD] 5 6 		1454)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
2. ^ "Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
3. ^ "Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
4. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
5. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus (10/28/1492)
6. ^
"Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus (10/28/1492)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
 
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
508 YBN
[12/05/1492 AD] 5 		1455)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
2. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
5. ^ "Christopher columbus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus (12/05/1492)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
[3]
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a
/100.html
Haiti4  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
508 YBN
[1492 AD] 3 		1177) Jewish people are expelled from
Spain for "racial purification".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
3. ^
James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
Spain2   
507 YBN
[01/16/1493 AD] 6 		1456)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
2. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
4. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
5. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
6. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus (01/16/1493)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Christopher columbus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
[3]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
Haiti5  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
507 YBN
[02/26/1493 AD] 7 		1457)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
2. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
6. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology (02/26/1493)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Christopher columbus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
[3]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
[4] "Azores". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azores
[5] "Archipelago". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago

Azores6  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
507 YBN
[02/26/1493 AD] 4 		1458)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
2. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
3. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology (03/04/1493)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Christopher columbus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
[3]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
[4] "Azores". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azores
[5] "Archipelago". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago

Azores3  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
507 YBN
[03/15/1493 AD] 10 		1459) On his fourth and final voyage to
America, Columbus, stranded with his
crew on the island of Jamaica,
correctly predicts an eclipse of the
Moon from his astronomical tables,
which frightens and tricks the local
peoples into providing food for them.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology
5. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
9. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/1493?cat=te
chnology (03/15/1493)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christopher columbus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_columbus
[2]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
[3] "Azores". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azores
[4] "Archipelago". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago

Palos, Spain9  
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
506 YBN
[06/07/1494 AD] 5 6 		1460)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-254
49/Christopher-Columbus
2. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-254
49/Christopher-Columbus
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Treaty of tordesillas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_t
ordesillas
5. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-254
49/Christopher-Columbus (06/07/1494)
6. ^ "Treaty of
tordesillas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_t
ordesillas (06/07/1494)

MORE INFO
[1] "Treaty of Tordesillas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2929/Treaty-of-Tordesillas
Tordesillas (now in Valladolid
province, Spain)4  
[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. In public domain due to the
image's age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg
506 YBN
[1494 AD] 11 		1445) Pacioli becomes a Franciscan
Friar around 1470.7
Pacioli teaches
math at universities at Perugia, Naples
and Rome.8
Pacioli meets Leonardo da
Vinci at the court of the Duke of
Milan, Ludovico Sforza. In exchange for
lessons in math, Leonardo illustrates
one of Pacioli's books.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Double-entry
accounting system". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-entr
y_accounting_system
4. ^ "Trial balance". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_balan
ce
5. ^ "Cost accounting". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_accoun
ting
6. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Luca Pacioli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1494) (1494)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Luca+Pacioli+?cat
=biz-fin
Venice, Italy10  
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg

[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
505 YBN
[1495 AD] 3 		1470) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE
1452-1519), paints "the Last Supper".1


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci#59781.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-597
81/Leonardo-da-Vinci#59781.toc
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci (1495-1498)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Milan, Italy2  
[1] Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The
Last Supper (1495-1498) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_T
he_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg
504 YBN
[1496 AD] 3 		1446)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
2. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
3. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i (between 1496 and 1508)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Luca+Pacioli+?cat
=biz-fin
[3] "Double-entry accounting system".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-entr
y_accounting_system
[4] "Trial balance". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_balan
ce
[5] "Cost accounting". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_accoun
ting
Bologna, Italy2  
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg

[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
504 YBN
[1496 AD] 4 		1448) Two versions of the original
manuscript have survived, one in the
Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the
other in the Bibliothèque Publique et
Universitaire in Geneva.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
2. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
3. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
4. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i (1496-98)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Luca+Pacioli+?cat
=biz-fin
[3] "Double-entry accounting system".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-entr
y_accounting_system
[4] "Trial balance". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_balan
ce
[5] "Cost accounting". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_accoun
ting
Milan, Italy3  
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg

[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
500 YBN
[1500 AD] 4 		1480) Albrecht Dürer, age 28, paints
his self portrait.1 This strikingly
realistic painting is an early
representation of the realism that will
evolve in Renaissance era paintings.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.artchive.com/artchive/D/durer
/self28.jpg.html
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Albrecht Duerer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Du
erer
4. ^ "Albrecht Durer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-194
9/Albrecht-Durer

MORE INFO
[1] "Image:Durer self portarit
28.jpg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Durer
_self_portarit_28.jpg
Nuremberg, Germany3  
[1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer
- Self-Portrait at 28 * Image
copiée sur le site WebMuseum *
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai
t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on
board, Alte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg
498 YBN
[1502 AD] 2 		1493)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Treaty of Tordesillas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
2. ^ "Treaty of Tordesillas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas (1502)
 
[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg
497 YBN
[1503 AD] 3 		1469) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE
1452-1519), paints the Mona Lisa.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Image:Mona Lisa.jpeg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mona_
Lisa.jpeg
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci (1503-1507)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
Milan, Italy2  
[1] Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) -
Mona Lisa (1503-1507) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mona_Lisa.jpeg
496 YBN
[1504 AD] 5 		1474) Vespucci meets Columbus towards
the end of Columbus' life and the two
are friendly to each other.3
Perhaps
had Columbus recognized that he had
landed on a new continent America would
be called "Columbia", or "North and
South Christica".4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/amerigo%20vespucc
i
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1504) (1504)

MORE INFO
[1] "Amerigo Vespucci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5177/Amerigo-Vespucci
[2] "Vespuci". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespuci
 
[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg

[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg
493 YBN
[1507 AD] 3 		1473)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
3. ^ "Image:The Principle Organs and
Vascular and Urino-Genital Systems of a
Woman.jpg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:The_P
rinciple_Organs_and_Vascular_and_Urino-G
enital_Systems_of_a_Woman.jpg (c1507)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "elevator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371/elevator
[4] "Elevator#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator#Hi
story
[5] "Submarines#History of submarines".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines#
History_of_submarines
[6] "submarine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0183/submarine
[7] "Leonardo da Vinci - scientist and
inventor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci_-_scientist_and_inventor
Milan, Italy2  
[1] The Principle Organs and Vascular
and Urino-Genital Systems of a Woman
(c. 1507) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:The_Principle_Organs_and_Vascular_and
_Urino-Genital_Systems_of_a_Woman.jpg
493 YBN
[1507 AD] 11 12 		1476) The wall map will be lost for a
long time, but a copy is found in a
castle at Wolfegg in southern Germany
by Joseph Fischer in 1901.6 This is
the only known copy of the map.7

Some hold that the "Cosmographiae" was
written by Matthias Ringmann instead,
or that it was a joint effort.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Martin Waldseemuller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5924/Martin-Waldseemuller
3. ^ "Martin Waldseemuller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Wald
seemuller
4. ^ "Amerigo Vespucci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214
369/Amerigo-Vespucci
5. ^ "Martin Waldseemuller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Wald
seemuller
6. ^ "Martin Waldseemuller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Wald
seemuller
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Martin Waldseemuller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Wald
seemuller
9. ^ "Amerigo Vespucci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214
369/Amerigo-Vespucci
10. ^ "Saint-Dié". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Di%C3
%A9
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1507) (1507)
12. ^ "Martin
Waldseemuller". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5924/Martin-Waldseemuller (1507)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007
-04-24-america-turns-500_N.htm?csp=34
Saint-Dié, Lorraine9 , France10  
[1] Le cartographe allemand Martin
Waldseemüller (portrait peint par
Gaston Save pour décorer l'ancien
théâtre de Saint-Dié-des-Vosges,
aujourd'hui disparu) Source Catalogue
de l'exposition ''America, L'Amérique
est née à Saint-Dié-des Vosges en
1507'' (1992) Date 19ème
siècle Author Gaston Save
(1844-1901) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MartinWaldseem%C3%BCller.jpg

[2] Gerlinde Brandenburger-Eisele
holds the oldest map showing
''America'' in the Ritterhausmuseum
(Museum of the Knight) in Offenburg,
southern Germany. The map was drawn in
1507 by cartographer Martin
Waldseemueller. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nat
ion/2007-04-24-america-turns-500_N.htm?c
sp=34
491 YBN
[1509 AD] 4 		1447)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Luca Pacioli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i
4. ^ "Luca Pacioli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Paciol
i (1509)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Luca+Pacioli+?cat
=biz-fin
[2] "Double-entry accounting system".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-entr
y_accounting_system
[3] "Trial balance". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_balan
ce
[4] "Cost accounting". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_accoun
ting
Bologna?,Italy3  
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg

[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
491 YBN
[1509 AD] 4 		5903) Hans Sachs (CE 1494-1576), German
poet and Meistersinger, composes music
and plays around this time. Wagner
makes Sachs a leading character in his
opera "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg"
(1868) uses Sachs.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hans Sachs." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-sachs
2. ^ "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg."
The Oxford Companion to German
Literature. Oxford University Press,
1976, 1986, 1997, 2005. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/die-meister
singer-von-n-rnberg-2
3. ^ "Hans Sachs." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-sachs
4. ^ "Hans Sachs." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-sachs
{c1509 (joined the Meistersinger guild}
Germany3   
490 YBN
[1510 AD] 3 		1472)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
3. ^ "Image:Studies of the Arm showing
the Movements made by the Biceps.jpg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Studi
es_of_the_Arm_showing_the_Movements_made
_by_the_Biceps.jpg (c1510)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "elevator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371/elevator
[4] "Elevator#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator#Hi
story
[5] "Submarines#History of submarines".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines#
History_of_submarines
[6] "submarine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0183/submarine
[7] "Leonardo da Vinci - scientist and
inventor". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci_-_scientist_and_inventor
Milan, Italy2  
[1] Studies of Embryos by Leonardo da
Vinci * Date: circa 1510-1513
* Technique: Pen over red chalk *
Dimensions: 12 x 8'' (30.5 × 20 cm)
* Location: Royal Library, Windsor
Castle Source:
http://www.theartgallery.com.au/ArtEduca
tion/greatartists/DaVinci/14_Studies_of_
Embryos/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Studies_of_Embryos.
jpg

[2] Studies of the Arm showing the
Movements made by Biceps (c. 1510) is a
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Studies_of_the_Arm_showing_the_Moveme
nts_made_by_the_Biceps.jpg
489 YBN
[1511 AD] 14 15 16 		1513) In 1516 Erasmus will have "Novum
instrumentum" printed in Basel, which
is a heavily annotated edition of the
New Testament placing texts in Greek
and revised Latin side by side.7
Erasmus is therefore, the first editor
of the New Testament.8
Erasmus
dedicates "In Praise of Folly" to his
friend, Thomas More, author of the
famous and controversial book
"Utopia".9
This work will influence the
French satirist Rabelais.10
Erasmus
studies at the University of Paris and
teaches for some time at Cambridge
University.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.answers.com/erasmus
2. ^ "Humanism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism
3. ^ "Desiderius Erasmus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-592
30/Desiderius-Erasmus
4. ^ http://www.answers.com/erasmus
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^
http://www.answers.com/erasmus
7. ^ http://www.answers.com/erasmus
8. ^ "Desiderius Erasmus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-592
30/Desiderius-Erasmus
9. ^ "Thomas More". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_More

10. ^ http://www.answers.com/erasmus
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/erasmus
12. ^ "Sir Thomas More". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3689/Sir-Thomas-More
13. ^ "Rotterdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam
14. ^ "The Praise of Folly". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Praise_
of_Folly (written: 1509)
15. ^ "Desiderius
Erasmus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-592
30/Desiderius-Erasmus (publish: 1511)
16. ^
http://www.answers.com/erasmus
(publish: 1511)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus
[2]
http://www.answers.com/thomas%20more
written: London12 , Netherlands13
 
[1] The Dutch philosopher Desiderius
Erasmus. By Hans Holbein the
younger. Source:
http://www.wga.hu/art/h/holbein/hans_y/1
525/08erasmu.jpg Creator/Artist Name
Holbein d. J., Hans Date of
birth/death 1497/98
1543-11-29 Location of birth/death
Deutsch: Augsburg Deutsch:
London Work location Deutsch:
Basel, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Holbein-erasmus.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Porträt des Erasmus von
Rotterdam am Schreibpult Artist
Holbein d. J., Hans Year
1523 Technique Deutsch: Tempera
auf Holz Dimensions Deutsch: 43 ×
33 cm Current location Deutsch:
Musée du Louvre Deutsch:
Paris Source The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._047.jpg
488 YBN
[1512 AD] 21 22 23 24 25 26 		1481) Copernicus studies math and
painting at Cracow (Asimov writes that
Cracow is the intellectual center of
Poland at this time and will be for
many years after).14
Copernicus studies
health (medicine) and canon law in
Italy for 10 years.15
After reading
Regiomontanus Copernicus becomes
interested in Astronomy.16
In 1497
Copernicus' uncle is ordained Bishop of
Warmia, and Copernicus is named a canon
at Frombork Cathedral.17
In 1505
Copernicus returns to Poland where he
serves as canon under his uncle at the
cathedral at Frombork (Frauenberg, in
German), but never becomes a priest and
never marries.18
Copernicus serves as
his uncle's doctor.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus
3. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Nicolaus
Copernicus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ "De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_revoluti
onibus_orbium_coelestium
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1507) (1507)
22. ^
"Nicolaus Copernicus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus (1512)
23. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (sometime
between 1508 and 1514)
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1473-1543)
(1473-1543)
25. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (1473-1543)
26. ^
"Nicolaus Copernicus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus (1473-1543)

MORE INFO
[1] "Commentariolus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentario
lus
Frombork, Poland20  
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
487 YBN
[09/25/1513 AD] 19 		1485) In 1500, Balboa, sails to South
America.8 9
Balboa settles in
Hispaniola in 1502, where he resides
for several years as a planter and pig
farmer. In 1509, wanting to escape his
creditors in Santo Domingo, Balboa sets
sail as a stowaway.10

In December 1511 King Ferdinand II
sends orders that name Balboa interim
governor and captain general of
Darién.11

The Spaniards are told by Native
Americans that to the south lay a sea
and a province infinitely rich in gold,
a reference to the Pacific and perhaps
to the Inca Empire. The Native people
tell the Spainards that the conquest of
that land would require 1,000 men.
Balboa quickly sends messengers to
Spain to request reinforcements. The
news creates much excitement in Spain,
and a large expedition is promptly
organized. But Balboa is not given
command because charges brought against
Balboa by his enemies had turned King
Ferdinand II against him, and, as
commander of the armada and governor of
Darién, the King sends out the
elderly, powerful nobleman Pedro Arias
Dávila (usually called Pedrarias). The
expedition, numbering 2,000 persons,
leaves Spain in April 1514.12

In his own explorations Balboa manages
to collect a great deal of gold, much
of it from the ornaments worn by the
native women, and the rest obtained by
violence.13

At the end of 1512 and the first months
of 1513, Balboa arrives in a region
dominated by the cacique Careta, whom
he easily defeats and then befriends.
Careta is baptized and becomes one of
Balboa's chief allies; Careta ensures
the survival of the settlers by
promising to supply the Spaniards with
food. Balboa then proceeds on his
journey, arriving in the lands of
Careta's neighbour and rival, cacique
Ponca, who flees to the mountains with
his people, leaving his village open to
the plundering of the Spaniards and
Careta's men. Days later, the
expedition arrives in the lands of
cacique Comagre, fertile but reportedly
dangerous terrain. However, Balboa is
received peacefully and even invited to
a feast in his honor; Comagre, like
Careta, is then baptized.14

It is in Comagre's lands that Balboa
first hears of "the other sea". It
starts with a squabble among the
Spaniards, unsatisfied by the meagre
amounts of gold they are being
allotted. Comagre's eldest son,
Panquiaco, angered by the Spaniards'
avarice, knocks over the scales used to
measure gold and exclaims: "If you are
so hungry for gold that you leave your
lands to cause strife in those of
others, I shall show you a province
where you can quell this hunger".
Panquiaco tells them about a kingdom to
the south, where people are so rich
that they eat and drink from plates and
goblets made of gold, but that the
conquerors will need at least a
thousand men to defeat the tribes
living inland and those on the coast of
"the other sea".15 How the native
speaking people and Spanish speaking
people communicate is a very
interesting puzzle, since neither had
any experience at all with the others
language. Individual people must have
had to spend months translating and
learning nouns and verbs before any
detailed talk can happen.16

The announcement of balboa finding the
"South Sea," restores Balboa to royal
favor and Balboa is named "adelantado"
(governor) of the Mar del Sur and of
the provinces of Panamá and Coiba.17

Pedrarias, the head of the Spanish
expedition summons Balboa home on the
pretext that Pedrarias wishes to
discuss matters of common concern. Upon
returning Balboa is seized and charged
with rebellion, high treason, and
mistreatment of Indians, among other
misdeeds. After a farcical trial
presided over by Gaspar de Espinosa,
Pedrarias' chief justice, Balboa is
found guilty, condemned to death, and
beheaded with four alleged accomplices
in January 1519.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Vasco Nunez de
Balboa". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_Nunez
_de_Balboa
3. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_Nunez
_de_Balboa
4. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_Nunez
_de_Balboa
5. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
6. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
7. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Vasco Nunez de
Balboa". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
10. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_Nunez
_de_Balboa
11. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
12. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
13. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_Nunez
_de_Balboa
14. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_Nunez
_de_Balboa
15. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_Nunez
_de_Balboa
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "Vasco Nunez de
Balboa". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
18. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa
19. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa (09/25/1513
(or 09/27/1513)
a peak in Darién, Panama 
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg

[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
486 YBN
[1514 AD] 4 		1178) Anthony Fitzherbert (1470 -
1538), an English judge, writes the
first systematic attempt to provide a
summary of English law, known as La
Graunde Abridgement in 1514, and among
others "The Boke of Husbandire", a book
on agriculture.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ "Anthony Fitzherbert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fit
zherbert
3. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
4. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
England3  
[1] La Graunde Abridgement was a
collection of cases compiled out of the
Year Books and published by Sir Anthony
Fitzherbert; this edition was printed
in 1577. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Graunde-abridgement.jpg
485 YBN
[1515 AD] 10 		1486) Schöner is ordained a Roman
Catholic priest, but later abandons
priesthood and becomes a Lutheran.4
Sch
ner is a professor of mathematics at
the University of Nuremberg.5
In 1540,
Rheticus will dedicate the first report
"Narratio prima" (an introduction to
Copernicus' "De Revolutionibus"6 ) to
Schöner.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Schöner globe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner_globe
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Johannes Schöner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Narratio prima".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narratio_pr
ima
7. ^ "Johannes Schöner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner
8. ^ "Johannes Schöner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner
9. ^ "Bamberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1515) (1515)
Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany8 9  
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg

[2] Cranach, Lucas Portrait des
Magdeburger Theologen Dr. Johannes
Schoener Renaissance Diese
Bilder-Vorlage Portrait des Magdeburger
Theologen Dr. Johannes Schoener Von
Cranach, Lucas als hochwertiges,
handgemaltes Gem�lde. Wir malen
Ihr �lgem�lde nach Ihrer
Vorlage. PD
source: http://www.oel-bild.de/bilder/67
92M.jpg
485 YBN
[1515 AD] 3 		3222)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "wheel lock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6751>.
2. ^ "wheel lock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6751>.
3. ^ "wheel lock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6751>. (1515)
  
484 YBN
[1516 AD] 7 8 		1515) Thomas More may get the idea for
"Utopia" when he and Erasmus jointly
translate some of Lucian's works from
Greek into Latin. Among these
dialogues, is the story of Menippus,
the Greek playwright, descending into
the underworld and describing what he
finds there. The other significant
influence is Plato's "Republic", which
is a far more politically motivated
work about imaginary lands and is
referred to several times in "Utopia".4


More will be beheaded in 1535 for
refusing to accept King Henry VIII as
head of the Church of England.5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Sir Thomas More". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3689/Sir-Thomas-More
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/thomas%20more
3. ^ "Sir Thomas More". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3689/Sir-Thomas-More
4. ^ "Utopia (book)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia_%28b
ook%29
5. ^ "Sir Thomas More". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3689/Sir-Thomas-More
6. ^
http://www.answers.com/thomas%20more
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/thomas%20more
(1516)
8. ^ "Sir Thomas More". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3689/Sir-Thomas-More (1516)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas More". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_More

London, England6  
[1] Deutsch: Porträt des Thomas
Morus Artist Holbein d. J.,
Hans Year 1527 Technique Deutsch:
Tempera auf Holz Dimensions
Deutsch: 74,2 × 59 cm Current
location Deutsch: Frick
Collection Deutsch: New York Source
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke
der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._065.jpg

[2] English: Woodcut by Ambrosius
Holbein for the 1518 edition of Thomas
More's Utopia Deutsch: Holzschnitt von
Ambrosius Holbein für die Ausgabe von
1518 von Thomas Morus' Buch
Utopia Source
http://www.accd.edu/sac/english/baile
y/utopia.htm Date 1518 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Utopia.jpg
483 YBN
[10/20/1517 AD] 7 		1492)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
3. ^ "Moluccas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moluccas
4. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
5. ^ "Rui Faleiro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rui_Faleiro

6. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (10/20/1517)
(10/20/1517)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinand Magellan".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
 
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
483 YBN
[10/31/1517 AD] 6 		1389)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
2. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Reformation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
5. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
6. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
Wittenberg, Germany5  
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
481 YBN
[08/10/1519 AD] 5 6 7 		1498)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
2. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
3. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
4. ^ "Sanlúcar de Barrameda".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (08/10/1519)
(08/10/1519)
6. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan (08/10/1519)
7. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (08/10/1519)

MORE INFO
[1] "Treaty of Tordesillas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[2] http://www.answers.com/magellan
Sanlúcar de Barrameda2 3 , Spain4
 
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
481 YBN
[09/20/1519 AD] 11 12 13 		1491) Ferdinand Magellan (moJeLoN)
(c1480-15214 5 ), Portuguese explorer,
sets sail to circumnavigate the earth.6

Magellan leaves for America with 5
ships in order to find a way to the
Spice Islands of Indonesia. This is the
voyage to circumnavigate the earth that
Columbus had intended.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
9. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
10. ^ "Sanlúcar de Barrameda".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(09/20/1519)
12. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan (09/20/1519)
13. ^
"Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (09/20/1519)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/magellan
Sanlúcar de Barrameda8 9 , Spain10
 
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
480 YBN
[04/08/1520 AD] 9 10 11 		1494)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
2. ^ "Puerto San Julian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_San_
Julian
3. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
4. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
5. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
6. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
7. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM:
Ferdinand Magellan - URL retrieved
January 14, 2007
8. ^ "Puerto San Julian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_San_
Julian
9. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan (04/08/1520)
10. ^
http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/zel-1886.h
tm (04/08/1520)
11. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
050/01a00110/4?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
dc7b@uci.edu/01cce4405e00501c292d2&dpi=3
&config=jstor (04/08/1520)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Sanlúcar de
Barrameda". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
[3] "Treaty of Tordesillas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[4] http://www.answers.com/magellan
Puerto San Julian, Argentina8  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
480 YBN
[10/21/1520 AD] 10 11 		1496) Asimov claims that the Pacific
Ocean is not actually more passive than
the Atlantic Ocean.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
2. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
5. ^ Szpytman, John. Ferdinand
Magellan. Catholic Encyclopedia.
Retrieved on 2006-03-14
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
9. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
10. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan (10/21/1520)
11. ^
"Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (10/21/1520)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sanlúcar de Barrameda".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
[2] "Treaty of Tordesillas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[3] http://www.answers.com/magellan
[4]
http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/zel-1886.h
tm
[5]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
050/01a00110/4?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
dc7b@uci.edu/01cce4405e00501c292d2&dpi=3
&config=jstor
[6] Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM:
Ferdinand Magellan - URL retrieved
January 14, 2007
[7] "Puerto San Julian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_San_
Julian
Straight of Magellan8 9  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
480 YBN
[12/13/1520 AD] 6 		1495)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonio Pigafetta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Pig
afetta
2. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
3. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
4. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
5. ^ "Rio de Janeiro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Jane
iro
6. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (12/13/1520)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
[3] "Sanlúcar de Barrameda".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
[4] "Treaty of Tordesillas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[5] http://www.answers.com/magellan
[6]
http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/zel-1886.h
tm
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
050/01a00110/4?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
dc7b@uci.edu/01cce4405e00501c292d2&dpi=3
&config=jstor
[8] Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM:
Ferdinand Magellan - URL retrieved
January 14, 2007
Rio de Janeiro4 , Brazil5  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
480 YBN
[1520 AD] 4 		1487)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Johannes Schöner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner
3. ^ "Bamberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1515) (1515)

MORE INFO
[1] "Narratio prima". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narratio_pr
ima
[2] "Johannes Schöner globe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner_globe
Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany2 3  
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg

[2] Johannes Schöner globe, made in
1520. Shows the Americas, Antarctica
before (european) official discovery.
Based on other older maps and globes.
Original picture was obtained from this
site, then it was scaled down to a
lower resolution. Globe maker died more
than 200 hundred years ago. This image
is to be used in Johannes Schöner
globe article under fair use as : This
photo is only being used for
informational purposes. This photo
helps only to show the globe. As this
picture is also (commonly) used in
other sites, it helps to recognize the
globe quickly. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1520_m01.
jpg
479 YBN
[03/06/1521 AD] 10 11 12 		1497) After entering the Pacific Ocean,
the ships sail near the Chilean coast
until Decemeber 18 when Magellan takes
a course northwestward. Not until
January 24, 1521, is land sighted,
probably Pukapuka in the Tuamotu
Archipelago.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^
"Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
7. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
8. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
9. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (03/06/1521)
(03/06/1521)
11. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan (03/06/1521)
12. ^
"Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (03/06/1521)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sanlúcar de Barrameda".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
[2] "Treaty of Tordesillas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[3] http://www.answers.com/magellan
[4]
http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/zel-1886.h
tm
[5]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
050/01a00110/4?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
dc7b@uci.edu/01cce4405e00501c292d2&dpi=3
&config=jstor
[6] Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM:
Ferdinand Magellan - URL retrieved
January 14, 2007
[7] "Puerto San Julian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_San_
Julian
[8] Szpytman, John. Ferdinand Magellan.
Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved on
2006-03-14
Guam8 9  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
479 YBN
[03/16/1521 AD] 11 12 		1499) At Massava Magellan secures the
first alliance in the Pacific for
Spain.

Antonio Pigafetta, a wealthy tourist
who paid to be on the Magellan voyage,
provides the only extant eyewitness
account of the events culminating in
Magellan's death, as follows:
"When morning
came, forty-nine of us leaped into the
water up to our thighs, and walked
through water for more than two
cross-bow flights before we could reach
the shore. The boats could not approach
nearer because of certain rocks in the
water. The other eleven men remained
behind to guard the boats. When we
reached land, {the natives} had formed
in three divisions to the number of
more than one thousand five hundred
people. When they saw us, they charged
down upon us with exceeding loud
cries... The musketeers and
crossbow-men shot from a distance for
about a half-hour, but uselessly...
Recognising the captain, so many turned
upon him that they knocked his helmet
off his head twice... A native hurled a
bamboo spear into the captain's face,
but the latter immediately killed him
with his lance, which he left in the
native's body. Then, trying to lay hand
on sword, he could draw it out but
halfway, because he had been wounded in
the arm with a bamboo spear. When the
natives saw that, they all hurled
themselves upon him. One of them
wounded him on the left leg with a
large cutlass, which resembles a
scimitar, only being larger. That
caused the captain to fall face
downward, when immediately they rushed
upon him with iron and bamboo spears
and with their cutlasses, until they
killed our mirror, our light, our
comfort, and our true guide. When they
wounded him, he turned back many times
to see whether we were all in the
boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead,
we, wounded, retreated, as best we
could, to the boats, which were already
pulling off."7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homonhon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonhon
2. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
3. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
4. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
5. ^ http://www.answers.com/magellan
6. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
7. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
8. ^ The Death of Magellan, 1521,
EyeWitness to History (2001). URL
accessed on March 9,
2006. http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.co
m/magellan.htm
9. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
10. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
11. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan (03/16/1521)
12. ^
"Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (03/16/1521)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Sanlúcar de
Barrameda". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
[3] "Treaty of Tordesillas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[4]
http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/zel-1886.h
tm
[5]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
050/01a00110/4?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
dc7b@uci.edu/01cce4405e00501c292d2&dpi=3
&config=jstor
[6] Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM:
Ferdinand Magellan - URL retrieved
January 14, 2007
[7] "Puerto San Julian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_San_
Julian
[8] Szpytman, John. Ferdinand Magellan.
Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved on
2006-03-14
[9] "Phillipines". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillipines

[10] "Battle of Mactan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_M
actan
Philippines9 10  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
479 YBN
[11/06/1521 AD] 7 		1500) The remaining two ships of
Magellan's now under the leadership of
Cano, reach the Maluku Islands (the
Spice Islands) with 115 men left. They
manage to trade with the Sultan of
Tidore, a rival of the Sultan of
Ternate, who is the ally of the
Portuguese.1

The two remaining ships, laden with
valuable spices, attempt to return to
Spain by sailing west. As they leave
the Moluccas, however, Trinidad is
found to be taking on water. The crew
tries to discover and repair the leak,
but fails. They conclude that Trinidad
will need to spend considerable time
being overhauled. The small Victoria
was not large enough to accommodate all
the surviving crew. As a result,
Victoria with some of the crew sails
west through the Indian Ocean2 for
Spain. Several weeks later, Trinidad
left the Moluccas to attempt to return
to Spain via the Pacific route. This
attempt fails; the ship is captured by
the Portuguese, and is eventually
wrecked in a storm while at anchor
under Portuguese control.3

Four crewmen of the original fifty-five
on the Trinidad will finally returned
to Spain in 1525. Fifty-one of them had
died in war or from disease.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
4. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
5. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
6. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
7. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (11/06/1521)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sanlúcar de Barrameda".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
[2] "Treaty of Tordesillas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[3] http://www.answers.com/magellan
[4]
http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/zel-1886.h
tm
[5]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
050/01a00110/4?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
dc7b@uci.edu/01cce4405e00501c292d2&dpi=3
&config=jstor
[6] Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM:
Ferdinand Magellan - URL retrieved
January 14, 2007
[7] "Puerto San Julian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_San_
Julian
[8] Szpytman, John. Ferdinand Magellan.
Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved on
2006-03-14
[9] The Death of Magellan, 1521,
EyeWitness to History (2001). URL
accessed on March 9,
2006. http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.co
m/magellan.htm
[10] "Phillipines". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillipines

[11] "Homonhon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonhon
[12] "Battle of Mactan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_M
actan
Philippines5 6  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
478 YBN
[05/06/1522 AD] 3 		1501) By May 6, 1522, the Victoria,
commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano,
rounds the Cape of Good Hope, with only
rice for rations. Twenty crewmen die of
starvation before Elcano reaches the
Cape Verde Islands, a Portuguese
holding, where he abandons 13 more
crewmembers on July 9 in fear of losing
his cargo of 26 tons of spices (cloves
and cinnamon).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
2. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan
3. ^ "Ferdinand Magellan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_M
agellan (05/06/1522)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Ferdinand Magellan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9979/Ferdinand-Magellan
[3] "Sanlúcar de Barrameda".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAc
ar_de_Barrameda
[4] "Treaty of Tordesillas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_T
ordesillas
[5] http://www.answers.com/magellan
[6]
http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/zel-1886.h
tm
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
050/01a00110/4?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
dc7b@uci.edu/01cce4405e00501c292d2&dpi=3
&config=jstor
[8] Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM:
Ferdinand Magellan - URL retrieved
January 14, 2007
[9] "Puerto San Julian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_San_
Julian
[10] Szpytman, John. Ferdinand
Magellan. Catholic Encyclopedia.
Retrieved on 2006-03-14
[11] The Death of
Magellan, 1521, EyeWitness to History
(2001). URL accessed on March 9,
2006. http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.co
m/magellan.htm
[12] "Phillipines". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillipines

[13] "Homonhon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonhon
[14] "Battle of Mactan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_M
actan
Cape of Good Hope2  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
478 YBN
[09/08/1522 AD] 13 14 15 		1475) Magellen's crew is the first to
circumnavigate the earth.7 8 .

Juan Sebastian del Cano (KonO)
(c1460-1525), Spanish Navigator,
returns in a single remaining ship
originally lead by Magellan to Seville,
Spain9 with a crew that is the first
to circumnavigate the earth.10

This voyage lasts 3 years and cost 4
ships, but the spices and other
merchendice brought back more than
compensate for the loss. This voyage
proves that Eratosthenes estimate of
the size of the Earth is correct, and
that of Poseidoinius and Ptolemy wrong,
and that a single ocean covers the
earth.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
9. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano
10. ^ "Juan Sebastian de Elcano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano
13. ^ "Juan Sebastián Elcano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Sebast
i%C3%A1n_Elcano (09/08/1522)
14. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
336/Ferdinand-Magellan (09/08/1522)
15. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano (09/06/1522)
Seville, Spain12  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
477 YBN
[1523 AD] 4 		1488)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Schöner globe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner_globe
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Narratio prima".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narratio_pr
ima
4. ^ "Johannes Schöner globe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner_globe (1523)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Schöner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner
[2] "Bamberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg
[3]
http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ren/Ren1
/348.html
Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany2 3
(presumably) 
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg

[2] Facsimile globe gores of Johannes
Schöner's Globe of 1523 [t is not
actual map?] PD
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ren/Ren1/348.html
477 YBN
[1523 AD] 6 		5914) Marco Antonio Cavazzoni
(c1490-c1570), Italian composer,
publishes "Recerchari, motetti,
canzoni, Libro I" (Venice, 1523), the
first set of independently composed
keyboard music ever published.2 Much
of these compositions are astonishingly
mature for the time, featuring parallel
5ths and octaves and harsh dissonance,
demonstrating a clear independence from
vocal music.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p177.
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p177.
3. ^ "Marco Antonio
Cavazzoni." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marco-anton
io-cavazzoni-music
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p177.
5. ^ "Marco Antonio Cavazzoni."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marco-anton
io-cavazzoni-music
6. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p177. {1523}
(Saint Mark's Cathedral) Venice, Italy4
5  		 
476 YBN
[1524 AD] 5 6 		1386)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
4. ^ "Hospital de Jesús Nazareno".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_de
_Jes%C3%BAs_Nazareno
5. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
6. ^ "Hospital de Jesús Nazareno".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_de
_Jes%C3%BAs_Nazareno
Mexico City, Mexico3 4  
[1] This is the first and longest
serving hospital constructed on the
American continent, which has been
serving the needs of the sick and
ailing since 1524. Originally called
the Hospital de la Purísima
Concepción de Nuestra Señora
(Hospital of Our Lady of the Purest
Conception), it was built with the
economic support of conquistador Hernan
Cortes, so as to serve the needs of
poor Spanish soldiers and Native
Americans. New installations were added
in the mid-twentieth century, of a
different architectural appearance, but
using the same materials as the
original construction. It is worth
visiting for its sixteenth century
stone arches and the mural by Orozco
that depicts the encounter between the
Spaniards and Native
Americans. Information by
Wcities COPYRIGHTED
source: http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travel
guide-2739035-hospital_de_jesus_nazareno
_hershey-i
476 YBN
[1524 AD] 8 9 		1510) Peter Apian is latinized from
Peter Bienewitz or Bennewitz
(pā'tər
bē'nəvĭts,
bĕn'əvĭts).2
Apian is a
professor of mathematics at the
University of Ingolstadt.3

In 1527, Peter Apian is called to the
University of Ingolstadt as a
mathematician and printer. His print
shop starts small. Among the first
books he prints are the writings of
Johann Eck, Martin Luther's
antagonist.4 Later, Apian's print shop
will become well-known for its
high-quality editions of geographic and
cartographic works.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.answers.com/Peter%20Apian%20
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/Peter%20Apian%20
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Peter Apian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Apian

5. ^ "Peter Apian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Apian

6. ^ "Peter Apian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Apian

7. ^ "Landshut". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landshut
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/Peter%20Apian%20
(1524)
9. ^ "Peter Apian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Apian
 (1524)
Landshut6 , Bavaria, Germany7  
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png

[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
475 YBN
[07/??/1525 AD] 21 		2776) William Tyndale (TinDeL1 ) (CE
c1494-1536) translates and prints the
New Testament and Pentateuch into
English.2

After church authorities in England
prevent Tyndale from translating the
Bible there, Tyndale goes to Germany in
1524, receiving financial support from
wealthy London merchants. Tyndale's New
Testament translation is completed in
July 1525 and printed at Cologne.3
Interrupted by an injunction, Tyndale
has the edition completed at Worms.4
By April 1526 an octavo edition is
being sold in London.5 When copies
enter England, they are denounced by
the bishops and suppressed (1526);
Cardinal Wolsey orders Tyndale seized
at Worms.6 In November all available
copies are burned at St. Paul's Cross.7
 (To me this shows clearly an interest
in keeping the public uninformed and
uneducated, that information about the
actual substance of the religion is to
be kept only for an elite few. In
addition, possibly to obscure and keep
abstract the facts surrounding the
religion, since people cannot criticize
what they know nothing of. A similar
occurrence has happened in science with
the truth about Michael Pupin, the
theory of time dilation, and much of
the history of science. Apparently, the
less the public knows, the less they
can criticize and uncover dishonesty
and error.8 )

In 1535 while revising his
translations, Tyndale is seized in
Antwerp and confined in Vilvoorde
Castle, near Brussels. Tyndale's trial
ends in condemnation for heresy, and
Tyndale is strangled at the stake
before his body is burned.9

Tyndale's Bible is the first English
translation to draw directly from
Hebrew and Greek texts, and the first
to take advantage of the new medium of
print, which allows for its wide
distribution.10
Tyndale is educated at
the University of Oxford and becomes an
instructor at the University of
Cambridge.11
In 1521, while at
Cambridge, Tyndale is friends with a
group of humanist scholars meeting at
the White Horse Inn.12
Tyndale becomes
convinced that the Bible alone should
determine the practices and doctrines
of the church and that every believer
should be able to read the Bible in
their own language.13

In 1528 Tyndale publishes the "The
Obedience of a Christian Man" (152814
), which replaces papal authority by
royal authority and is heartily
approved by King Henry VIII and "The
Parable of the Wicked Mammon" (152815 )
dealing with Luther's teaching
concerning justification by faith.16
Both these works are denounced by Sir
Thomas More.17 The Practice of
Prelates (1530), condemning the divorce
of Henry VIII (with Catherine of
Aragon18 ), draws the wrath of the
king.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "william tyndale". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
2. ^ "Tyndale". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Tyndale".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Tyndale
3. ^ "William Tyndale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyn
dale
4. ^ "william tyndale". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
5. ^ "william tyndale". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
6. ^ "william tyndale". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
7. ^ "william tyndale". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "william tyndale". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
10. ^ "William Tyndale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyn
dale
11. ^ "William Tyndale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyn
dale
12. ^ "William Tyndale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyn
dale
13. ^ "William Tyndale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyn
dale
14. ^ "william tyndale". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
15. ^ "william tyndale". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
16. ^ "william tyndale". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
17. ^ "william tyndale". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
18. ^ "william tyndale". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
19. ^ "william tyndale". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tyn
dale
20. ^ "William Tyndale". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3991/William-Tyndale
21. ^ "William Tyndale". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3991/William-Tyndale (07/1525)
Cologne, Germany20  
[1] From:Foxe's Book of
Martyrs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fo
xe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Tyndale.jpg

[2] William Tyndale is burnt at the
stake in Belgium; he cries, ''Lord ope
the king of England's eies.'' From an
Elizabethan edition of Foxe's
Martyrs. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tyndale-martyrdom.png
475 YBN
[1525 AD] 13 		1477) Durer's father is a goldsmith6
Dur
er is court painter to emperor
Maximillian I and successor Charles V.7

It is clear from his writings that
Dürer is highly sympathetic to Martin
Luther, and he may be influential in
the City Council declaring for Luther
in 1525. However, Durer dies before
religious divisions had hardened into
different churches, and may well have
regarded himself as a reform-minded
Catholic to the end.8
The most striking
painting illustrating Dürer's growth
toward the Renaissance spirit is a
self-portrait, painted in 1498 (Prado,
Madrid).9
Dürer achieves an
international reputation as an artist
by 1515, when he exchanges works with
the illustrious High Renaissance
painter Raphael.10
Druerer's work on
fortification is published in 1527, and
his work on human proportion is brought
out in four volumes shortly after his
death at the age of fifty-six, in
1528.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Albrect Durer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrect_Dur
er
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Old master print".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_master_
print
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Albrect Durer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrect_Dur
er
9. ^ "Albrecht Durer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1569/Albrecht-Durer
10. ^ "Albrecht Durer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1569/Albrecht-Durer
11. ^ "Albrect Durer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrect_Dur
er
12. ^ "Albrect Durer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrect_Dur
er
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1525) (1525)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/pd/a/albr
echt_d%C3%BCrer,_landscape_with.aspx
Nürnberg, Germany12  
[1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer
- Self-Portrait at 28 * Image
copiée sur le site WebMuseum *
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai
t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on
board, Alte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg

[2] The earliest painted Self-Portrait
(1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil,
originally on vellum Louvre, Paris La
bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:lt. La
originala priskribo estas: Albrech
Dürer, Selbstportät mit Blume,
1493 Autoportretas su
gėlėmis, tapyta apiejumi ant
drobės, 57 x 45 cm, laikoma Luvre,
Paryžiuje. Šaltinis:
http://www.louvre.fr/img/photos/collec/p
eint/grande/rf2382.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht-self.jpg
474 YBN
[1526 AD] 4 		1505)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
2. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
3. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
4. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
(1526)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/paracelsus?cat=he
alth
[3] "Iatrochemistry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrochemis
try
[4] "University of Basel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Basel
Basil, Switzerland3  
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg

[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
470 YBN
[1530 AD] 49 		1503) As a young man, Hohenheim attends
the Bergschule, founded by the wealthy
Fugger family of merchant bankers of
Augsburg, where his father teaches
chemical theory and practice. Young
people are trained at the Bergschule as
overseers and analysts for mining
operations in gold, tin, and mercury,
as well as iron, alum, and
copper-sulfate ores.21
The young
Paracelsus learns about minerals22
from miners talking about metals that
"grow" in the earth.23
Hohenheim enters
at University of Basil in 151024 ,
later moving to the University of
Vienna25 .26

Paracelsus is said to have graduated
from the University of Vienna with the
baccalaureate in medicine in 1510, when
he was 17.27
At Ferrara Hohenheim is
free to express his rejection of the
prevailing view that the stars and
planets control all the parts of the
human body. Hohenheim is thought to
have begun using the name "para-Celsus"
(above or beyond Celsus) around this
time, regarding himself as even greater
than Celsus, the renowned 1st-century
Roman physician28 known for his tract
on health and medicine29 .
Paracelsus
travels widely seeking out alchemists
and physicians to learn from.30 31
Parac
elsus is appointed town physician and
lecturer in medicine at the University
of Basel. Students from all parts of
Europe begin to flock into the city.
Paracelsus pins a program of his
upcoming lectures to the notice board
of the university on June 5, 1527,
inviting not only students but
everybody.32
Three weeks later, on June
24, 1527, surrounded by a crowd of
cheering students, Paracelsus burns the
books of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), the Arab
"Prince of Physicians," and those of
the Greek physician Galen, in front of
the university. Luther, just six and a
half years before at the Elster Gate of
Wittenberg on Dec. 10, 1520, had burned
a papal bull that threatened
excommunication. Paracelsus seemingly
remains a Catholic to his death,
although it has been said that his
books were placed on the Index
Expurgatorius.33
Paracelsus denounces
the theory of humors.34

Like Luther, Paracelsus lectures and
writes in German rather than Latin.35
Pa
racelsus' lecture hall is always
crowded to overflowing. He stresses the
healing power of nature and rages
against those methods of treating
wounds, such as padding with moss or
dried dung, that prevent natural
draining. The wounds must drain, he
insists, saying "If you prevent
infection, Nature will heal the wound
all by herself." Paracelsus attacks
many other medical frauds of his time
including worthless pills, salves,
infusions, balsams, electuaries,
fumigants, and drenches.36
In the
spring of 1528, in fear Paracelsus
flees Basel in the middle of the
night.37
Shortly before the flight from
Basel, Paracelsus completes the most
important of his earlier works, "Nine
Books of Archidoxus", a reference
manual on secret remedies. Between 1530
and 1534 Paracelsus writes his
bestknown works, the "Paragranum" and
the "Paramirum", both dealing with
cosmology. Paracelsus returns to
medical writing with the "Books of the
Greater Surgery" in editions of 1536
and 1537; this is Paracelsus' only work
that is a publishing success. The
"Astronomia magna", done between 1537
and 1539, is said to38 show his most
mature thinking about nature and
humans.39

Paracelsus uses mercury and antimony
even after practice had shown them to
be toxic.40
Paracelsus believes in the
4 element theory of the Greek people
and the 3 principles of the Arab people
(mercury, sulfur and salt).41 During
all his travels, Paracelsus spreads the
anti-Aristotelian position that the
four elements (earth, air, fire, and
water) are composed of primary
principles: a fireproducing principle
(sulfur), a principle of liquidity
(mercury), and a principle of solidity
(salt).42
Paracelsus rejects the magic
theories of Agrippa and Flamel.
Paracelsus does not think of himself as
a magician and scorns those who do,
though he is a practicing astrologer,
as were are, if not all of the
university-trained physicians working
at this time in Europe.43 So
Paracelsus wrongly44 believes in
astrology and the influence of the
stars on disease.45

Kind of a funny story is that
Paracelsus is said to have cured many
people in the plague-stricken town of
Stertzing in the summer of 1534 by
administering orally a pill made of
bread containing a minute amount of the
patient's excreta he had removed on a
needle point.46 Probably not an
effective cure, and very dangerous
because of bacterial (in particular E
Coli) infection.47
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Paracelsus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
4. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
5. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^
"Iatrochemistry". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrochemis
try
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^
"Paracelsus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^
"Paracelsus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^
"Paracelsus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
21. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^ "Paracelsus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
25. ^
"Paracelsus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^
"Paracelsus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
28. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
29. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
30. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
31. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
32. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
33. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
35. ^
"Paracelsus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
36. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
37. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
38. ^ Ted Huntington
39. ^
http://www.answers.com/paracelsus?cat=he
alth
40. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
41. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
42. ^
http://www.answers.com/paracelsus?cat=he
alth
43. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
44. ^ Ted Huntington
45. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
46. ^
"Paracelsus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
47. ^ Ted Huntington
48. ^ Ted Huntington
49. ^ "Paracelsus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus (1530)

MORE INFO
[1] "University of Basel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Basel

[2] (Edwardes, p.47) (also in:
Holmyard, Eric John. Alchemy. p. 170)

[3] "Hydrogen#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#Hi
story
Basel?, Switzerland?48  
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg

[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
470 YBN
[1530 AD] 8 9 		3058) At the University of Padua
Fracastoro is a colleague of the
astronomer Copernicus.5
As a
physician, Fracastoro maintains a
private practice in Verona.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p325.
2. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
3. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
4. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 05 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
5. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
6. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
7. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
8. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro (p3:1530)
9. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>. (1530)

MORE INFO
[1] "Girolamo Fracastoro".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Fr
acastoro
Verona, Italy7 (and possibly mountain
villa at Incaffi) 
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
470 YBN
[1530 AD] 4 		5900) Luis de Milán (CE c1500-c1561),
Spanish musician, composes instrumental
music for lute.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luis de Milán." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luis-de-mil
-n-2
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "Luis de Milán." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luis-de-mil
-n-2
4. ^ "Luis de Milán." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luis-de-mil
-n-2 {c1530 (based on age 30}
(a Ducal court) Valencia, Spain3   
469 YBN
[1531 AD] 9 10 		1546) Servetus defends the botanical
view of his friend Fuchs.4
Servetus
believes and lectures on astrology.5
Thi
s is during the Protestant reformation,
and Servetus has the view of a
Unitarian (the belief that Jesus was
not God, that God is only one thing not
a trinity which includes Jesus and the
so-called Holy Spirit6 ).
Servetus studies
medicine in Paris and meets John
Calvin, one of the early and most
powerful Protestants there.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Servetus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ser
vetus
2. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
3. ^ "Michael Servetus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ser
vetus
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Unitarian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Michael Servetus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
9. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1531)
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1531)
Toulouse, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
467 YBN
[1533 AD] 6 		1489)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ren/Ren1
/348.html
2. ^ "Image:Johannes Schöner globe
1533 f m02.png". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Johan
nes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1533_f_m02.png
3. ^ "European exploration".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
61/European-exploration
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Narratio prima".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narratio_pr
ima
6. ^ "Johannes Schöner globe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner_globe (1533)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Schöner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sc
h%C3%B6ner
[2] "Bamberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg
Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany4 5
(presumably) 
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg

[2] Johannes Schöner Weimer Globe
(1533). Made in 1533. Who died more
than 200 years ago. This modified
picture is used here for informational
purposes only, thus constitute a fair
use also. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1533_f_m0
2.png
467 YBN
[1533 AD] 3 		1542)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us
2. ^ "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us
3. ^ "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us (1553)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Triangulation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulati
on
Friesland (present day Netherlands)2
 
[1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg

[2] Triangulation can be used to find
the coordinates and sometimes distance
from the shore to the ship. The
observer at A measures the angle α
between the shore and the ship, and the
observer at B does likewise for β
. If the length l or the coordinates of
A and B are known, then the law of
sines can be applied to find the
coordinates of the ship at C and the
distance d Determination of a distance
using triangle properties. Source
Own work, based on PNG version by
Regis Lachaume GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Distance_by_triangulation.svg
466 YBN
[1534 AD] 10 		1514) Although this break of allegiance
to traditional Christianity is a
progressive step towards atheism, Henry
the VIII is a brutal person who orders
the execution of many nonviolent people
such as those who refuse to take an
oath of loyalty such as humanist author
of the book "Utopia", Thomas More.
Henry VIII has his own his second wife,
Anne Boleyn (c1501/1507-1536)
executed.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry VIII". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII
2. ^ "Henry VIII". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII
3. ^ "Catherine of Aragon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1812/Catherine-of-Aragon
4. ^ "Henry VIII". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII
5. ^ "Henry VIII". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-312
6/Henry-VIII
6. ^ "Henry VIII". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII
7. ^ "Henry VIII". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Henry VIII". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII
10. ^ "Henry VIII". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII
(1534)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anne Boleyn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Boleyn

London (presumably8 ), England9  
[1] Portrait of Henry VIII by Hans
Holbein the Younger. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry-VIII-kingofengland_1491-1547.jp
g

[2] An official portrait of Catherine
of Aragon whilst Queen consort, painted
from life around 1525 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catherine_aragon.jpg
464 YBN
[1536 AD] 5 		1504) This book restores, and even
extends, the excellent reputation
Paracelsus had earned at Basel in his
prime. Paracelsus becomes wealthy and
is sought after by royalty.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paracelsus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus
2. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
3. ^ "Paracelsus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Paracelsus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8368/Paracelsus (1530)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/paracelsus?cat=he
alth
[3] "Iatrochemistry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrochemis
try
Basel?, Switzerland?4  
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg

[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
463 YBN
[1537 AD] 17 18 		1536) Fontana (Tartaglia) came from
poverty and was largely self
educated.12
Fontana was nicknamed
"Tartaglia", which means "studderer"13
, because during the French sack of
Brescia in 1512, Fontana's face was
slashed by a French soldier, leaving
him with a speech defect. Tartgalia
chose to adopt the name.14
Fontana
teaches mathematics in various
universities in northern Italy, and
settles in Venice in 1534 to teach
mathematics.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1334/Niccolo-Fontana-Tartaglia
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Ars Magna (Gerolamo
Cardano)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Magna_%
28Gerolamo_Cardano%29
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Girolamo Cardano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ "Scipione del Ferro".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipione_de
l_Ferro
10. ^ "Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B
2_Fontana_Tartaglia
11. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Niccolo Fontana
Tartaglia". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1334/Niccolo-Fontana-Tartaglia
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ "Niccolo Fontana
Tartaglia". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1334/Niccolo-Fontana-Tartaglia
17. ^ "Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1334/Niccolo-Fontana-Tartaglia (1537)
18. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1537) (1537)
Venice, Italy16 (presumably) 
[1] Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia.jpg

[2] (Tartaglia's formula) for the
volume of a tetrahedron (incl. any
irregular tetrahedra) presumed GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic
col%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia
462 YBN
[10/28/1538 AD] 4 		1371)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Universidad Autonoma de Santo
Domingo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidad
_Autonoma_de_Santo_Domingo
2. ^ "Universidad Autonoma de Santo
Domingo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidad
_Autonoma_de_Santo_Domingo
3. ^ "Universidad Autonoma de Santo
Domingo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidad
_Autonoma_de_Santo_Domingo
4. ^ "Universidad Autonoma de Santo
Domingo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidad
_Autonoma_de_Santo_Domingo

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic3
 
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
462 YBN
[1538 AD] 		1554)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Andreas Vesalius". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Andreas+Vesalius+
?cat=health
2. ^ "Andreas Vesalius". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Andreas+Vesalius+
?cat=health

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Andreas Vesalius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
[3] "Andreas Vesalius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Ves
alius
Padua, Italy{4 ans} (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg

[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg
462 YBN
[1538 AD] 7 		3059)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p325.
2. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
3. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
4. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro", The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Inc (1983),
p262. ISBN:085229400X
http://books.google.com/books?id=yDI8AAA
AMAAJ&q=Girolamo+Fracastoro+Homocentrici
ty+spherical+central+point&dq=Girolamo+F
racastoro+Homocentricity+spherical+centr
al+point&pgis=1
5. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
6. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
7. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro (1538)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
[2] "Girolamo Fracastoro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Fr
acastoro
[3] "Girolamo Fracastoro." Encyclopedia
of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
Verona, Italy6 (and possibly mountain
villa at Incaffi) 
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
460 YBN
[1540 AD] 7 		1483)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Frombork". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frombork
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
3. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Frombork". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frombork
6. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
7. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (1540)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus
Frauenburg (Frombork, Poland5 )6  
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
460 YBN
[1540 AD] 5 6 		1509)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Apian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Apian

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^
http://www.ethbib.ethz.ch/exhibit/eth-bi
bliophil/bibliophil7.html
4. ^ "Ingolstadt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingolstadt
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1540) (1540)
6. ^ "Peter
Apian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Apian
 (1540)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Peter%20Apian%20
Ingolstadt3 , Bavaria, Germany4  
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png

[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
459 YBN
[1541 AD] 4 		1557)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
2. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
3. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
4. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner (1541)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Konrad von Gesner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_von_
Gesner
Zurich, Swizerland3 (presumably) 
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
458 YBN
[1542 AD] 26 27 28 		1511) The word "pathology", is somewhat
abstract, one dictionary defines
pathology as "the science or the study
of the origin, nature, and course of
diseases"18 which might just as easily
be covered by the science of "health".
"Pathology" relates to the path or
course a disease routinely takes.19
The word "physiology", also somewhat
abstract, is defined by one dictionary
as "the branch of biology dealing with
the functions and activities of living
organisms and their parts, including
all physical and chemical processes"20
. Physiology deals with the actual
physical processes of any part of a
living body.21
Fernel rejects astrology
as being relevant to healing
(medicine).22 How the word "medicine"
became associated with "healing" I do
not know, however, in my opinion, the
word "health" more accurately covers
what a physician does. Perhaps a
distinction between the fraudulent
religious "healers" and formally
educated "healers" needed to be clearly
expressed.23

Frenel graduates from the University of
Paris 1519, gets a medical degree in
1530, and in 1534 is a professor of
"medicine" at University of Paris.24
Fre
nel is the physician to Henry II of
France.25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/jean%20fernel
3. ^ "Jean Fernel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fernel

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html
11. ^ "Jean Fernel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fernel

12. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html
13. ^ "Jean Fernel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fernel

14. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html
15. ^ "Jean Fernel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fernel

16. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html
17. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html
18. ^ dictionary.com
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ dictionary.com
21. ^ Ted
Huntington
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
23. ^ Ted Huntington
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1542) (1542)
27. ^
http://www.answers.com/jean%20fernel
(1542)
28. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html (1542)
 
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
458 YBN
[1542 AD] 12 		1540) A genus of flower is named after
Fuchs, and the name Fuchs is also the
origin or the word for the color
"Fuscia" (a bluish red).7
Fuchs
receives a medical (physician) degree
at the University of Ingolstadt in
1524.8
In 1535 Fuchs is professor of
medicine (health) at the University of
Tübingen.9
Fuchs is an active
supporter of Vesalius.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leonhard Fuchs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5551/Leonhard-Fuchs
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Leonhard Fuchs".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5551/Leonhard-Fuchs
4. ^ "Leonhard Fuchs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5551/Leonhard-Fuchs
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Leonhard Fuchs".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Fu
chs
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1542) (1542)
Basel, Switzerland11  
[1] Leonhart Fuchs, German botanist and
author, 16th century Portrait,
unbekannter Künstler, o.D. source:
http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/bio/bot/fu
chsien/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhart.fuchs.farbig.jpg

[2] Description Leonard Fuchs Source
L C Miall. The History of Biology.
Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C
Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LeonardFuchsMiall.png
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 2 		1025)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p189.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
  
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 12 13 		1482) The Sun centered theory is
revived. Copernicus' (1473-1543) book
supporting a sun centered theory is
published.5 6

A few hundred copies of Nicolaus
Copernicus' (1473-1543) book, "De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri
vi" ("Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs")7 ,
are printed (200 copies still exist).
The original hand written draft exists
and shows that Copernicus crossed out
an original reference to Aristarchos.8


Rheticus gives the manuscript to
Andreas Osiander (1498–1552), a
theologian and strong follower of
Luther, who ads an unsigned “letter
to the reader” directly after the
title page, which states that the
hypotheses contained within made no
pretense to truth and that, in any
case, astronomy is incapable of finding
the causes of heavenly phenomena. In
addition, the title of the work is
changed from the manuscript’s "On the
Revolutions of the Orbs of the World"
to "Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs", a
change that appears to lessen the
book's claim to describe the real
universe. These changes by Osiander are
not known until Kepler reveals this in
his "Astronomia Nova" (New Astronomy)
in 1609.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
7. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/136591/Nicolaus-Copernicus/8437/
Publication-of-De-revolutionibus>.
10. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/136591/Nicolaus-Copernicus/8437/
Publication-of-De-revolutionibus>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)
12. ^ "Nicolaus
Copernicus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (1543)
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus
[2] "Heliocentric theory". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
c_theory
(presumably) written in (Frauenburg,
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland10 ;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany11  
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 35 		1553) Vesalius' father is the court
pharmacist to Emperor Charles V.14
Vesal
ius is from long line of physicians15
and pharmacists16 in Wesel, and this
is where the name Vesalius comes
from.17
Vesalius studies in Louvain
(now Belgium)18 (1529-1533), and
medical (health) school of the
University of Paris (1533-153619 ) both
conservative centers supporting Galen,
and so even as late as 1538 Vesalius
publishes material largely based on
Galen.20 At the University of Paris,
Vesalius learned to dissect animals,
has the opportunity to dissect human
cadavers, and devotes much of his time
to a study of human bones, at that time
easily available in the Paris
cemeteries.21

In 1536 Vesalius returns to his native
Brabant to spend another year at the
University of Louvain, where the
influence of Arab medicine (health
science22 ) is still dominant. At
Louvain, Vesalius writes his graduate
dissertation on the 900s Arab physician
al-Razi (Rhazes).23

In 153724 , Vesalius then goes to the
University of Padua, a progressive
university with a strong tradition of
anatomical dissection. On receiving the
M.D. degree the same year, he is
appointed a lecturer in surgery with
the responsibility of giving anatomical
demonstrations. Since Vesalius dissects
many cadavers, and insisted on doing
them himself, instead of relying on
untrained assistants.25
Vesalius
teaches anatomy at various universities
in Italy.26
After publishing this book,
Vesalius quits research and becomes the
court physician to Charles V, and his
son the Spanish king Phillip II.27
When
Henry II is fatally wounded at a
tournament (jousting?28 ) in 1559
Vesalius attends to him taking
precedence over Paré.29
Asimov claims
that Vesalius is accused of heresy,
body snatching, and dissection, and is
apparently charged but his royal
connections help him, and his sentence
is a trip to the Holy land30 , but
other sources say that Vesalius made a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem.31 32
On the
way back the ship he is on is battered
by storms, but does reach Zante where
Vesalius dies.33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Andreas
Vesalius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
11. ^ "Andreas Vesalius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
12. ^ "Andreas Vesalius". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Andreas+Vesalius+
?cat=health
13. ^ "Andreas Vesalius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^
"Andreas Vesalius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^
"Andreas Vesalius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ "Andreas
Vesalius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
25. ^
"Andreas Vesalius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
30. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
31. ^
"Andreas Vesalius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
32. ^ "Andreas Vesalius". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Andreas+Vesalius+
?cat=health
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
34. ^ "Andreas
Vesalius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius
35. ^ "Andreas Vesalius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5167/Andreas-Vesalius (1543)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andreas Vesalius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Ves
alius
Basel, Switzerland34  
[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg

[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg
456 YBN
[01/24/1544 AD] 6 		3346)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

3. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

4. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CAMERA_OBSCUR
A.html
5. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

6. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm
 {01/24/1544}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us (1553)
Louvain, Belgium5  
[1] Reinerus Gemma-Frisius's
illustration (left) of the solar
eclipse he observed in Louvain on
January 24, 1544. PD/Corel
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CAM_O
BS_LOUVAIN_1544.GIF

[2] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
456 YBN
[1544 AD] 2 		1179) The writings of Archimedes are
translated in to Latin.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
?  
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 19 		1537) Cardano's father was a friend of
Leonardo da Vinci.13
Cardano becomes
professor of medicine at the University
of Pavia in 1546.14
Cardano believes in
astrology.15
Cardano is jailed for some
time for casting the horoscope of
Jesus.16
In 1539 Tartaglia showed
Cardano a method of solving cubic
equations six years after Cardano
promised to keep the solution a
secret.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Magna_%
28Gerolamo_Cardano%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Girolamo Cardano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
4. ^ "Imaginary number#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_n
umber#History
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Girolamo Cardano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Gerolamo
Cardano". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Ca
rdano
12. ^ "Scipione del Ferro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipione_de
l_Ferro
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ "Gerolamo
Cardano". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Ca
rdano
19. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano (1545)
?, Italy18 (presumably) 
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 21 22 		1543) Pare writes his findings in
French instead of Latin because he had
no formal education, and is looked down
upon by the arrogant educated
establishment for this.14
In 1565 Pare
proves that the Bezoar Stone does not
cure all poisonings.15
At this time and
for 200 more years surgery is viewed as
menial labor and done by barbers,
{shockingly and illogically} people who
cut hair also perform operations.16
In
1536, Pare attains the rank of master
barber-surgeon.17
Pare works as a
barber-surgeon in the French army.18
Par
e is the surgeon to a series of four
kings, Henry II and his 3 sons.19
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
2. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Obstetrics".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrics
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Ambroise Pare".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Hemorrhaging".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhagin
g
12. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
13. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ "Ambroise Paré".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambroise_Pa
r%C3%A9
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ "Ambroise Pare".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
21. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare (1545)
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1545) (1545)
Paris, France20  
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 10 11 12 		1507)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
2. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Georgius Agricola".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
5. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
6. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
7. ^ "Chemnitz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemnitz
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
9. ^ "Basel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel
10. ^
http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/agricol
a_textbook_of_mineralogy/page_001
(published: 1546 in Basel) (published:
1546)
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel) (published: 1546 in Basel in
Basel)
12. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Georgius Agricola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Ag
ricola
written: Chemnitz6 , Saxony, Germany7 |
published: Basel8 , Switzerland9  
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 6 7 		1508)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
2. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
3. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Ag
ricola
4. ^ "Chemnitz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemnitz
5. ^ "Basel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel
6. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola (1546)
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (1546)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
written: Chemnitz3 , Saxony, Germany4
| published: Basel, Switzerland 5
 
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 11 12 		3057)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p325.
2. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
5. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
6. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Fr
acastoro
7. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p325.
8. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
9. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 05 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
10. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
11. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>. (1546)
12. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p325. (1546)
Verona, Italy10  
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
451 YBN
[1549 AD] 8 		1555)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Konrad von Gesner".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Konrad von Gesner".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner (1549)

MORE INFO
[1] "Konrad von Gesner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_von_
Gesner
 
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
450 YBN
[1550 AD] 5 		1184) The process begins with wrought
iron and charcoal. It uses one or more
long stone pots inside a furnace. Iron
bars and charcoal are packed in
alternating layers, with a top layer of
charcoal and then refractory matter to
make the pot or 'coffin' air tight.
Some manufacturers used a mix of
powdered charcoal, soot and mineral
salts, called cement powder, which gave
the process its name. The pots are then
heated from below for a week or more.
Bars are regularly examined and when
the correct condition is reached the
heat is withdrawn and the pots are left
until cool, usually around fourteen
days. The iron gains a little over 1%
in mass from the carbon in the
charcoal, and becomes hetrogenous bars
of blister steel. The bars are then
shortened, bound, heated and hammered,
pressed or rolled to become shear
steel.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bohemia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia
2. ^ "Blister steel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister_ste
el
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Blister steel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister_ste
el
5. ^ "Blister steel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister_ste
el (16th century)

MORE INFO
[1] "Cementation process".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementation
_process
Bohamia, Czech Republic  
450 YBN
[1550 AD] 2 		1185)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Visby lenses". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visby_lense
s
2. ^ "Visby lenses". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visby_lense
s (10th century)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gotland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotland
[2] "Telescope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope
[3] "History of telescopes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
telescopes
[4]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7024
78.stm
[5]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query
.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1
0498003&dopt=Abstract
Gotland, Sweden 
[1] Wednesday, 5 April, 2000, 12:24 GMT
13:24 UK Did the Vikings make a
telescope? Dr Olaf Schmidt The lenses
must have been made by trial and
error. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/702478.stm

[2] Visby'' lenses were initially
thought to be ornaments COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/702478.stm
450 YBN
[1550 AD] 20 21 22 23 24 		1506) From 1514 to 1518 Bauer studies
classics, philosophy, and philology at
the University of Leipzig, which had
recently been exposed to the humanist
revival. Following the custom of the
times, he Latinizes his name to
Georgius Agricola12 (Bauer meaning
"farmer"13 ). After teaching Latin and
Greek from 1518 to 1522 in a school in
Zwickau, Agricola returns to Leipzig to
begin the study of medicine but finds
the university in disarray because of
theological quarrels. A lifelong
Catholic, he leaves in 1523 for more
comfortable surroundings in Italy. He
studies medicine, natural science, and
philosophy in Bologna and Padua,
finishing with clinical studies in
Venice.14
For two years Agricola works
at the Aldine Press in Venice,
principally in preparing an edition of
Galen's works on medicine (which will
be published in 1525).15
From 1527 to
1533 Agricola is town physician in
Joachimsthal, a mining town in the
richest metal-mining district of
Europe. Partly in the hope of finding
new drugs among the ores and minerals
Agricola visits mines and smelting
plants, talking to the better-educated
miners, and reading Classical authors
on mining. These years provide the
material for most of his books,
beginning with "Bermannus; sive, de re
metallica" (1530), a treatise on the
Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge) mining
district.16

In 1533 Agricola is appointed the town
physician of Chemnitz where he remains
for the rest of his life.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Georgius Agricola".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Georgius Agricola".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
6. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
7. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
8. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
9. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p146.
12. ^ "Georgius
Agricola". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
13. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Ag
ricola
14. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
15. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
16. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
17. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
18. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
19. ^ "Chemnitz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemnitz
20. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Ag
ricola (written 1550)
21. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (written 1550)
22. ^
"Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola (published 1556
in Basil) (published 1556)
23. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published 1556 in
Basil) (published 1556 in Basil in
Basil)
24. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published 1556 in
Basil)
Chemnitz18 , Saxony, Germany19  
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
449 YBN
[1551 AD] 9 10 		1549) Reinhold studies and teaches
mathematics at the University of
Wittenberg8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Erasmus Reinhold". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Reinhold+
?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Erasmus Reinhold". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Reinhold+
?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1551) (1551)
10. ^
"Erasmus Reinhold". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Reinhold+
?cat=technology (1551)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Reinhold".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Rei
nhold
[2]
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.
php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
 
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg

[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
449 YBN
[1551 AD] 11 		1560) Belon gets a medical
(physician/health7 ) degree from the
University of Paris.8 King Frances I
is one of the patrons of Belon.9 Belon
is killed by robbers in Paris while
picking herbs.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pierre Belon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5314/Pierre-Belon
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p88.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p88.
5. ^ "Pierre
Belon". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5314/Pierre-Belon
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p88.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p88.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p88.
11. ^ "Pierre
Belon". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5314/Pierre-Belon (1551)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Belon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Belo
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Belon+?cat
=technology
France? 
[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg

[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg
449 YBN
[1551 AD] 4 		5910) Philippe de Monte (CE 1521-1603)
composes music in the form of
madrigals, chansons, masses and
motets.1 The madrigal of this time,
the name borrowed from the 1300s form,
has no resemblance in poetic or musical
structure to the 1300 madrigal.
Compared to the frottola, the earliest
Renaissance madrigals, dating from
about 1530, are characterized by quiet
and restrained expression, usually
written for three or four voices,
mostly homophonic (melody supported by
chords) with occasional bits of
imitation.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philippe de Monte." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philippe-de
-monte
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "Philippe de Monte." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philippe-de
-monte
4. ^ "Philippe de Monte." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philippe-de
-monte {c1551 (age 30}
(Pinelli family) Naples, Italy3  
[1] Philippe de Monte PD
source: http://www.musicacontexta.com/ph
ilippe_monte.jpg-for-web.jpg
448 YBN
[1552 AD] 13 14 		1545) Eustacio is professor of medicine
(health science) in the Collogio della
Sapienza in Rome (later the University
of Rome8 ) until his death.9
The fact
that his book became a bestseller more
than a century after his death shows
the extent of the religious
restrictions on anatomists all through
the Renaissance.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bartolomeo Eustachi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_
Eustachi
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Bartolomeo Eustachi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_
Eustachi
6. ^ "Bartolomeo Eustachi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_
Eustachi
7. ^ "Bartolomeo Eustachi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_
Eustachi
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/Bartolomeo%20Eust
achi
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Bartolomeo Eustachi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_
Eustachi
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^
http://www.answers.com/Bartolomeo%20Eust
achi
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1552) (1552)
14. ^
"Bartolomeo Eustachi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_
Eustachi (1552)
Rome, Italy11 12  
[1] Description Portrait of
Bartolomeus Eustachius, the
anatomist. Source Plate from A
History of dentistry from the most
ancient times until the end of the
eighteenth century, by Vincenzo
Guerini. Scanned by Google Book
Search. Date Plate published 1909;
possibly much earlier. Author Unknown
(not specified); possibly from one of
Eustachius' books. Permission Public
domain due to age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bartolomeus_Eustachius.jpg

[2] Portrait of Eustachius Eustachi,
Bartholomeo (d. 1574) - Tabulae
anatomicae. Tabulae anatomicae (Rome,
1783) Title page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eustachi01.jpg
447 YBN
[10/27/1553 AD] 9 10 11 		1548) According to the Encyclopedia
Brittanica, the execution of Michael
Servetus will produce a Protestant
controversy on imposing the death
penalty for heresy, draws severe
criticism upon John Calvin, and
influences Laelius Socinus, a founder
of modern unitarian views.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Michael
Servetus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
6. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
7. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
8. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1553)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1553)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Servetus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ser
vetus
[2] "Unitarian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
[3] "Champel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champel
Geneva, Switzerland8  
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
447 YBN
[1553 AD] 10 		1541) Frisius has a medical
(health/physician/doctor) degree from
Louvain.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Gemma Frisius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us
6. ^ "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us
7. ^ "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Gemma Frisius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us
10. ^ "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us (1553)
Friesland (present day Netherlands)9
 
[1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
447 YBN
[1553 AD] 5 6 7 		1547)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
2. ^ "Michael Servetus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ser
vetus
3. ^ "Michael Servetus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ser
vetus
4. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
5. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1553)

MORE INFO
[1] "Unitarian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
Toulouse, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
447 YBN
[1553 AD] 4 		5911) Thomas Tallis (CE c1505-1585),
English composer, composes music.1

(Note how similar the Latin word
"Gaude" (rejoice) is to the word "God"
Determine when the transition from
"Deus" to "God" happened in England and
Germany.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Tallis." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-tall
is
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Thomas Tallis." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-tall
is
4. ^ "Thomas Tallis." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-tall
is {c1553}
(Chapel Royal) London, England3  
[1] Thomas Tallis PD
source: http://www.personal.psu.edu/mrp5
074/Thomas%20Tallis.jpg
445 YBN
[1555 AD] 5 		1558)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Konrad von Gesner".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
5. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner (1555)

MORE INFO
[1] "Konrad von Gesner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_von_
Gesner
Zurich, Swizerland4 (presumably) 
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
445 YBN
[1555 AD] 3 		1559)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
2. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
3. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner (1555)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Konrad von Gesner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_von_
Gesner
Zurich, Swizerland2 (presumably) 
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
445 YBN
[1555 AD] 3 		1561)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Pierre Belon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5314/Pierre-Belon
3. ^ "Pierre Belon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5314/Pierre-Belon (1555)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Belon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Belo
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Belon+?cat
=technology
France? 
[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg

[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg
445 YBN
[1555 AD] 5 		1773)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hoasm.org/IVO/Vicentino.html
2. ^ "Nicola Vicentino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Vice
ntino
3. ^ "Nicola Vicentino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Vice
ntino
4. ^ "Nicola Vicentino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Vice
ntino
5. ^ "Nicola Vicentino". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Vice
ntino (1555)

MORE INFO
[1] "31 equal temperament".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31_equal_te
mperament
Siena?, Italy4  
[1] Nicola Vicentino (1511 -
1576) PD
source: http://www.hoasm.org/IVO/Vicenti
no.html
442 YBN
[1558 AD] 7 8 		1556)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Konrad von Gesner".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
5. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
6. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_von_
Gesner
7. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner (1558)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1558) (1558)
Zurich, Swizerland6 (presumably) 
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
441 YBN
[1559 AD] 15 		1544) Colombo gets his medical
(physician) degree in 1541 from the
University of Padua.8
Columbo replaces
Vesalius as anatomy professor.9
Columbo
goes to Rome to ask Michelangelo to
illustrate a book of anatomy that will
surpass Vesalius, but Michelangelo is
in his 70s and refuses the job.10
Columb
o is the papal surgeon in Rome until
his death.11
Columbo is a critic of the
new anatomy of Vesalius.12
"De re
anatomica" is Colombo's only formal
written work.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Ambroise Pare".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
3. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
4. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Ambroise Pare".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ "Ambroise Pare".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
14. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
15. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare (1559)
Rome, Italy14 (presumably) 
[1] Matteo colombo, anatomista del
s.XVI. Óleo de autor anónimo. Matteo
Realdo Colombo. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Matteocolombo.jpg
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 4 		1538)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
2. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Ca
rdano
3. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
4. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Ca
rdano (1560s)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Ars Magna (Gerolamo
Cardano)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Magna_%
28Gerolamo_Cardano%29
Italy3  
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 9 		1563) Della Porta publishes a work on
magic, and wrongly believes that magic
is a real phenomenon.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Giambattista della
Porta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattist
a_della_Porta
5. ^ "Giambattista della Porta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattist
a_della_Porta
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1560) (1560)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giambattista della Porta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0950/Giambattista-della-Porta
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giambattista%20de
lla%20Porta
 
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 3 		5906) Orlande de Lassus (CE c1530-1594)
Franco-Flemish composer, composes music
around this time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Orlande de Lassus." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orlande-de-
lassus
2. ^ "Orlande de Lassus." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orlande-de-
lassus
3. ^ "Orlande de Lassus." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orlande-de-
lassus {c1560 (age 30}
(court chapel of Duke Albrecht V of
Bavaria) Munich, Bavaria (now Germany)2
 
[1] English: Orlando di Lasso
(1530/1532-1594), Public Domain Walon:
Orland d' Lassus (1532-1594), on rlomé
compôzeu walon del Rinexhance
(poitrait da di Lassus so on vî vî
eplaidaedje d' amon l' veve Balârd -
17inme sieke) Source: modified
from
http://www.lasso.badw.de/lleben.htm PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Orlando_di_Lasso.png

[2] cropped version from
http://www.alamire-prints.com/images_inh
alte/miniatures/s20_13_413x550.jpg of
Orlando de Lassus directing a chamber
ensemble by Hans Mielich
(1516-1573) Hans Muelich (1516–1573)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Orlando_de_Lassus2.jp
g
439 YBN
[1561 AD] 9 		1562) Fallopius served as canon of the
cathedral of Modena and then turned to
the study of medicine (health science5
) at the University of Ferrara, where
he becomes a teacher of anatomy.
Fallopius then holds positions at the
University of Pisa (1548-51) and at
Padua (1551-62).6
Fallopius dies of
tuberculosis before age 40.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3648/Gabriel-Fallopius
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3648/Gabriel-Fallopius
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3648/Gabriel-Fallopius
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fal
lopius
9. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fal
lopius (1561)
Venice, Italy8  
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg

[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
439 YBN
[1561 AD] 6 		5904) Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
(CE 1525/1526-1594) composes music in
the Renaissance era.1 His most famous
mass, "Missa Papae Marcelli" ("Mass of
Pope Marcellus") is composed around
this time (c1561).2 3

(It's interesting to know that this is
the music that surrounded the time and
life of Galileo, Descartes and other
people making significant contributions
to science.4 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-pi
erluigi-da-palestrina
2. ^ "Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-pi
erluigi-da-palestrina
3. ^ "Missa Papae Marcelli." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/missa-papae
-marcelli-1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-pi
erluigi-da-palestrina
6. ^ "Missa Papae Marcelli." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/missa-papae
-marcelli-1 {c1561}
(Saint Maria Maggiore Church) Rome,
Italy5  
[1] Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina Source:
http://xoomer.virgilio.it/senesino/Dei/P
alestrina.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da
_Palestrina.jpg
437 YBN
[1563 AD] 4 		5928) Vincenzo Galilei (CE c1520-1591),
father of Galileo Galilei (CE
1564-1642)1 , composes music for Lute
around this time.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Vincenzo Galilei." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vincenzo-ga
lilei
3. ^ "Vincenzo Galilei." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vincenzo-ga
lilei
4. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDPENbKPS
nQ {1563 (verify}
Padua, Italy3 (verify)  
433 YBN
[1567 AD] 9 		1512)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/jean%20fernel
3. ^ "Peristalsis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristalsis

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html
6. ^ "Systole (medicine)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systole_%28
medicine%29
7. ^ "Diastole". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diastole
8. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html
9. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html (1567)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Fernel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fernel

[2] dictionary.com
 
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 18 		1550) The word Mercator translates to
"merchant".8
Mercator's actual name is
Gerhard Kremer, but he Latinizes his
name as is 1500s fad.9
Mercator gets a
Masters degree from the University of
Louvain in 1532 (at age 20).10
Mercator
makes instruments for Emperor Charles
V.11
In 1544 Mercator is arrested and
imprisoned on a charge of heresy. His
inclination to Protestantism, and
frequent absences from Louvain to
gather information for his maps, had
aroused suspicions. Mercator is one of
43 citizens charged. But the university
authorities stand behind Mercator, and
he is released after seven months and
resumes his former way of life.
Mercator obtains a privilege to print
and publish books continues his
scientific studies.12
Mercator studies
under Gemma Frisius (the person that
recognized that an accurate time piece
is needed to know longitude).13

By age 24, Mercator is a skillful
engraver, calligrapher,
scientific-instrument maker. In 1535-36
Mercator works with Gaspar à Myrica,
(an engraver and goldsmith) and Frisius
in constructing a terrestrial globe and
in 1537 a celestial globe.14
In 1552
Mercator moves permanently to Duisburg
in the Duchy of Cleve and becomes
well-known. Mercator assists the duke
in establishing a grammar school by
helping to design its curriculum. After
establishing a cartographic workshop
and employing engravers, Mercator
returns to his main interest.15
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Gerardus Mercator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Gerardus
Mercator". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Gerardus Mercator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
15. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
16. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
17. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Me
rcator
18. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator (1569)
Duchy of Cleves, Germany16 17
(presumably) 
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg

[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 4 		1551)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
2. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
3. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Me
rcator
4. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator (1569)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Duchy of Cleves, Germany2 3
(presumably) 
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg

[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 13 		1992) Mathematics historian David Smith
describes this wok as the most
teachable and systematic treatment of
algebra that appears in Italy up to
this time.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Bombelli.html
2. ^ "Rafael Bombelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Bomb
elli
3. ^ "Rafael Bombelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Bomb
elli
4. ^, p38.
http://storage.lib.uchicago.edu/pres/200
5/pres2005-188.pdf (book 3 and 4 only)
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Bombelli.html
6. ^ "Rafael Bombelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Bomb
elli
7. ^
http://storage.lib.uchicago.edu/pres/200
5/pres2005-188.pdf (book 3 and 4 only)
8. ^
"Rafael Bombelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Bomb
elli
9. ^ "Rafael Bombelli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Bomb
elli
10. ^, p38.
http://storage.lib.uchicago.edu/pres/200
5/pres2005-188.pdf (book 3 and 4 only)
11. ^
History of Mathematics vol 1, D. E.
Smith
12. ^
http://storage.lib.uchicago.edu/pres/200
5/pres2005-188.pdf (book 3 and 4 only)
13. ^
http://storage.lib.uchicago.edu/pres/200
5/pres2005-188.pdf (book 3 and 4 only)
(1569) (1569)

MORE INFO
[1] "Imaginary numbers".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_n
umbers
Bologna, Italy12  
[1] Rafael Bombelli Source
unknown contemporary? PD?
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Bombelli.html
430 YBN
[1570 AD] 3 		1186) A theodolite is an instrument for
measuring both horizontal and vertical
angles, as used in triangulation
networks. It is a key tool in surveying
and engineering work, but theodolites
have been adapted for other specialized
purposes in fields like meteorology and
rocket launch technology.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leonard Digges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Dig
ges
2. ^ "Theodolite". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodolite
3. ^ "Telescope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope
(1570s)
English 
[1] An optical theodolite, manufactured
in the Soviet Union in 1958 and used
for topographic surveying. Soviet
Union theodolite manufactured in 1958.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SovietTheodolite.jpg

[2] The axes and circles of a
theodolite. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Theodolite_vermeer.png
430 YBN
[1570 AD] 2 		1539)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
2. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Ca
rdano (1570)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Ars Magna (Gerolamo
Cardano)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Magna_%
28Gerolamo_Cardano%29
 
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
428 YBN
[11/11/1572 AD] 36 37 		1573) The name "Tycho" is the Latin
version of the Danish "Tyge".13
Brahe's
wealthy and childless uncle abducted
Tycho at a very early age and raised
him at his castle in Tostrup, Scania,
also financing Tycho's education.14
Brah
e enters the University of Copenhagen
at age 13 and studies law and
philosophy.15
When Brahe observes the
predicted eclipse of the sun on August
21, 1560, he changes his mind from
politics to astronomy and
mathematics.16 17
Brahe believes
astrology and casts horoscopes, Asimov
comments that astrology is far more
lucrative than astronomy in this
time.18
In 1565 at age 19, Brahe gets
in a dual over a point of mathematics
and his nose is cut off, so Tycho wears
a false nose of metal for the rest of
his life.19
In August 1563, when Brahe
makes his first recorded observation, a
conjunction, or overlapping, of Jupiter
and Saturn, he finds that the existing
almanacs and ephemerides, which record
stellar and planetary positions, are
very inaccurate. The Copernican tables
are several days off in predicting this
event. At that point in his youth,
Tycho decides to devote his life to the
accumulation of accurate observations
of stars (the so-called heavens)20 ,
and buys instruments21 in order to
make his own tables in order to correct
the existing tables.22
The is a rumor
of Brahe making astronomical
observations in court dress.23
In
157324 , Brahe marries a peasant girl
whom he loves and spends his life
with.25
In 1588 Frederick II dies, and
his successor Christian IV ends funding
for Tycho.26
In 1597 Tycho accepts the
invitation of Emperor Rudolf II and
goes to Germany.27

In his new headquarters in Prague,
Brahe finds Johann Kepler as an
assistant.28
Brahe corresponds with
Galileo.29
On his death bed, perhaps
from a ruptured bladder, Tycho moans
"Oh, that it may not appear I have
lived in vain".30
Tycho gives Kepler
his observation data and Kepler
prepares the tables of planetary
motions. Sagan explains that Tycho
delays giving Kepler all of his data.31
 Maybe there is some relation between
Tycho's realization that the comet had
an non-circular orbit and Kepler
recognizing the true orbit (at least in
two dimensions) of a ellipse for
planets.32
Brahe is the last naked eye
astronomer.33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp92-95.
2. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe

3. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
22. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
24. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
30. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
31. ^ Carl Sagan,
"Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET
Los Angeles, (1980) .
32. ^ Ted
Huntington
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
34. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
35. ^ "Scania". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scania
36. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe (11/11/1572)
37. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (11/11/1572)
(11/11/1572)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
Scania, Denmark34 (now Sweden35
) 
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG

[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
427 YBN
[1573 AD] 22 		1574) Tycho establishes a printing shop
to produce and bind his manuscripts,
imports Augsburg craftsmen to construct
the finest astronomical instruments,
gets Italian and Dutch artists and
architects to design and decorate his
observatory, and invents a pressure
system to provide the then uncommon
convenience of lavatory facilities.17

But Frederick II will die in 1588, and
under his son, Christian IV, most of
Tycho's income will be stopped, partly
because of the increasing needs of the
state for money.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp92-95.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe

4. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
18. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
19. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe
20. ^ "SN 1572". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1572
21. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe

22. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe (1573)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980) .
Herrevad Abbey, an abbey near
Ljungbyhed, Scania, Denmark19 (now
Sweden20 )21  
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG

[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
427 YBN
[1573 AD] 16 		1575) Brahe's "Astronomiae instauratae
mechanica" published in 1598 contains
his autobiography and a description of
his instruments.11

Tycho will leave Denmark in 1587 and
move to Prague, carrying along the
records of his observations and most of
his instruments. In 1600 Johannes
Kepler will join him as his assistant.
After Tycho's death in 1601, Kepler
will prepare Tycho's astronomical
studies for publication in "Astronomiae
instauratae progymnasmata"
(1602-1603).12 Kepler is then free to
use the valuable data to create his own
system, (where the planets have
elliptical orbits13 ) which will lay
the foundations for Newton's
gravitational astronomy.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp92-95.
2. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Tycho Brahe". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
12. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
15. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
16. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe (1573)

MORE INFO
[1] "Tycho Brahe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe

[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980) .
[3
] "Hven". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hven
Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden)15
 
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG

[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
426 YBN
[1574 AD] 5 		5908) John Bull (CE c1562-1628),
English composer, and one of the
leading keyboard virtuosos of this time
composes music. Bull graduates from
Cambridge (1589) and Oxford (1592).1

(Is it correct to say that the
harpsichord finds popularity in England
before Germany and Italy?2 )

(John Bull is an example of a somewhat
radical change to a much more technical
and faster playing style that Vivaldi
will also display. This style is
extremely different from the Gregorian
chants and may represent a radical
change in technology and education - in
particular the possible birth of neuron
reading.3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Bull." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 13 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bull
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "John Bull." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bull
5. ^ "John Bull." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 13 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bull
{c1574 (starts at Chapel Royal}
(Chapel Royal) London, England4  
[1] Description John Bull (1563
– 1626). UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/Johnbullcomposer.jpg
421 YBN
[1579 AD] 8 		1567) Vieta, is very good at
deciphering codes.2 A Huguenot
sympathizer, Vieta deciphers a complex
cipher of more than 500 characters used
by King Philip II of Spain in his war
to defend Roman Catholicism from the
Huguenots. When Philip, assuming that
the cipher could not be broken,
discovered that the French were aware
of his military plans, he complained to
the pope that black magic was being
employed against his country.3

Vieta occupies a high administrative
office under Henry IV.4
Vieta is the
father of modern algebra.5
Vieta
prefers the word "analysis" to
"algebra".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Francois Viete
seigneur de la Bigotiere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Francois Viete
seigneur de la Bigotiere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
8. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere (1579)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Vieta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Vieta
[2] "Viète's formulas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A8te%
27s_formulas
?, France7  
[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
420 YBN
[1580 AD] 16 17 18 		3221)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "flintlock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4591>.
2. ^ "flintlock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4591>.
3. ^ "snaphaunce." The Oxford Companion
to Military History. Oxford University
Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/snaphaunce
4. ^ "snaphaunce." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
02 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
naphaunce>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "military technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-576
30>.
7. ^ "tinder>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"tinder." WordNet® 3.0. Princeton
University. 02 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
inder>.
8. ^ "tinder>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"tinder." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
inder>.
9. ^ "military technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-576
30>.
10. ^ "flintlock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4591>.
11. ^ "military technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-576
30>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "flintlock."
The Oxford Companion to Military
History. Oxford University Press, 2001,
2004. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/flintlock
15. ^ "snaphaunce." The Oxford
Companion to Military History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/snaphaunce
16. ^ "snaphaunce." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
02 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
naphaunce>. (1580-1590 (origin of word)
17. ^
"snaphaunce." The Oxford Companion to
Military History. Oxford University
Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/snaphaunce
(mid 1500s)
18. ^ "flintlock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4591>. (early 1500s)

MORE INFO
[1] "Flintlock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flintlock
Netherlands15  
[1] External view, showing the cock and
frizzen rotated back. Description
English: A snaphance lock, cocked,
showing the outside of the
mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.
png

[2] Internal view, showing the flash
pan cover closed and the lateral sear
engaged. Description English: A
snaphance lock, cocked, showing the
internal mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.
png
419 YBN
[1581 AD] 7 8 9 		1588)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Robert Norman".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Norm
an
3. ^ "Robert Norman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Norm
an
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Robert Norman".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Norm
an
6. ^ "Robert Norman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Norm
an (1581)
7. ^
http://istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthmag/upto1
600.htm (1581)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1576) (1581)
9. ^ "Prospero
Alpini". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5902/Prospero-Alpini (1576)
London, England6   
419 YBN
[1581 AD] 26 		1597) Galileo is the oldest son of
Vincenzo Galilei, a musician who made
important contributions to the theory
and practice of music and who may
perform some experiments with Galileo
in 1588-89 on the relationship between
pitch and the tension of strings.6
A
Tuscan tradition is that the oldest son
gets a variation of the family last
name for first name, and this is why
Galileo received his first name.7

Galileo studies to be a physician at
the University of Pisa, but after
reading Archimedes, whom Galileo
greatly admires, Galileo talks his
reluctant father from allowing Galileo
to go into mathematics and science.8
In
1585 Galileo leaves the university
without obtaining a degree, and for
several years he gives private lessons
in the mathematical subjects in
Florence and Siena.9
Ironically,
Galileo recognizes that inaccurate time
keeping is a major problem, and Huygens
will later use the principle of the
pendulum found by Galileo to regulate a
clock solving the problem of accurate
time keeping that Galileo has.10
(square
-cube law I am doubting and am going to
ignore for now11 )
Galileo's work makes
him unpopular in Pisa and he moves to
Padua (in Venetian territory, which
according to Asimov is a region of
considerable intellectual freedom at
this time), his new job pays 3 times
his previous salary, although Asimov
paints Galileo as always in debt from
living gaily and generously, always in
trouble, and unpopular with influential
people.12
Galileo does not wear
academic robes, although this costs him
several fines.13
Galileo is a popular
lecturer and students flock to hear
him, coming in numbers as high as 2000
(although this may be from an
exaggerated report).14
Galileo's
studies of the sun damage his eyes, and
he goes blind in his old age.15
After
the telescope, both Venice and Florence
offer him lucrative positions. To the
annoyance of the Venetians Galileo
choses to move to Florence.16
1611
Galileo visits Rome where he is greeted
with honor and delight.17
Galileo is
refused burial in consecrated (blessed
by religious human?/church property?18
) ground.19
Galileo's "Dialogue" is not
removed from the the Roman Catholic
Index of prohibited books until 1825.20

In 1965 Pope Paul VI will speak highly
of Galileo.21
Galileo will not be
officially forgiven until the
1960s...um...a little late.22

Galileo (wrote23 ) "By denying
scientific principles, one may maintain
any paradox.".24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
2. ^
"Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p123.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
22. ^ Ted
Huntington
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Exploring the Cosmos,
5th edition, Berman, Evans, p36.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
26. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(1581)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei

[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology

Pisa, Italy25  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
418 YBN
[1582 AD] 3 		1180) Richard Butt Hakluyt (c.1552 -
November 23, 1616), a writer in
England, writes a book "Voyages..."
that describes America.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Hakluyt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakluyt
3. ^ "Hakluyt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakluyt
England  
418 YBN
[1582 AD] 		1566) In 1565, Clavius lectures at the
Collegio Romano in Rome and stays there
for the rest of his life.5
Clavius is
the last diehard opponent of the
sun-centered theory revived by
Copernicus.6
Many Protestant nations
and people object to the calendar
reform.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Gregorian calendar".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_c
alendar
3. ^ "Gregorian calendar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_c
alendar
4. ^ "Gregorian calendar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_c
alendar
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Christoph Clavius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_C
lavius
Rome, Italy8  
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
417 YBN
[1583 AD] 11 		1569) Scaliger studies at Bordeaux6 ,
and in 1559 moves to Paris to study
Greek and Latin and then begins to
teach himself Hebrew, Arabic, Syrian,
Persian, and the principal modern
languages.7
In 1562 Scaliger converts
to Protestantism.
Scaliger leaves France for Geneva in
1572 just before St Bartholomew's Day
massacre of Protestant people.8
In 1593
Scaliger teaches at Univeristy of
Leiden (a Protestant university).9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p90.
2. ^ "Joseph Justus
Scaliger". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Joseph Justus
Scaliger". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Joseph Justus
Scaliger". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Joseph Justus
Scaliger". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger
11. ^ "Joseph Justus Scaliger".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger (1583)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Justus Scaliger".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Just
us_Scaliger
?, France10  
[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG

[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1
416 YBN
[1584 AD] 4 		1576) Giordano Bruno (CE 1548-1600)1 ,
Italian philosopher, writes 6 Italian
Dialogs in which he explains his belief
in the infinity of space, that the
Earth goes around the sun (heliocentric
theory), and the atom theory.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p95.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Giordano Bruno".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
4. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno (1584)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giordano Bruno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Br
uno
Oxford, England3  
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
415 YBN
[1585 AD] 23 		1581) Somewhere people actually took
note that Stevinus was from so-called
illegitimate birth, from parents who
were not married.17
Stevinus marries at
64 and has 4 children.18
Stevin is also
known as Stevinus, the Latinized form
of his name.19 20
Stevin helps to
popularize the practice of writing
scientific works in modern languages
(in his case Dutch) rather than Latin,
which for so long had been the
traditional European language of
learning.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp95-96.
2. ^ "Simon
Stevinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
3. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
4. ^ "Simon Stevin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
5. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
6. ^ "Simon Stevin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Simon Stevin". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
9. ^ "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Ted
Huntington
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ "Simon Stevin".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ "Simon Stevin". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
22. ^ "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
23. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin (1585)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fraction (mathematics)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction_%2
8mathematics%29
Netherlands22 (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg

[2] Image made by user:Branko. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stevin-decimal_notation.png
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 8 9 		1415) Al-Amili becomes a famous
religious scholar as the "shaikh
al-islam", the chief relgious authority
in the country of Isfahan, the Safavid
capital.5 Al-Amili's tomb, like that
of Nasir al-Din is visited by people
who flock regularly to the Shiite
shrine cities, such as Meshed and
Kazimain.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
2. ^ "Baha ad
din Muhammad ibn Husayn al Amili".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7178/Baha-ad-din-Muhammad-ibn-Husayn-al-
Amili
3. ^ "Baha ad din Muhammad ibn Husayn
al Amili". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7178/Baha-ad-din-Muhammad-ibn-Husayn-al-
Amili
4. ^ "Baha ad din Muhammad ibn Husayn
al Amili". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7178/Baha-ad-din-Muhammad-ibn-Husayn-al-
Amili
5. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p57.
6. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p57.
7. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
8. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987). (1546-1621)
(1546-1621)
9. ^ "Baha ad din Muhammad ibn Husayn
al Amili". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7178/Baha-ad-din-Muhammad-ibn-Husayn-al-
Amili (1546-1622)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isfahan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan
Isfahan, Iran7   
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 9 		1582)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp95-96.
2. ^ "Simon Stevin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Simon Stevin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
5. ^ "statics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9478/statics
6. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
7. ^ "Simon Stevin." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-stevi
n
8. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
9. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin (1586)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
(possibly Antwerp or Nassau7 ),
Netherlands8  
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 12 13 		1583)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "De Beghinselen des Waterwichts",
1586,
p66. http://books.google.com/books?id=r
288AAAAcAAJ
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp95-96.
http://books.google.co
m/books?id=I9Y0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA757 3. ^
Sherwood Taylor, "Science Past and
Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
4. ^ Edward James McShane, "Exterior
ballistics", University of Denver
Press, 1953, p757.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp95-96.
6. ^ "Simon
Stevin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Simon Stevin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
9. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=NwWe00t
IY1YC&pg=PA193
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 10. ^ Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
11. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
12. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin (1586)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1586) (1586)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
[3] "statics". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9478/statics
Netherlands11 (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 8 		1598)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
2. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
5. ^ "Galileo
Galilei". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
7. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1586{4 cam}) (1586{4
cam})

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
Florence or Sienna, Italy7  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
412 YBN
[1588 AD] 5 		1579) This text is set against
contemporary mathematicians and
philosophers. At Helmstedt, Germany, in
January 1589 Bruno will be he was
excommunicated by the local Lutheran
Church.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p95.
2. ^ "Giordano
Bruno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
3. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
4. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
5. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno (1588)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giordano Bruno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Br
uno
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giordano+Bruno?ca
t=technology
?, Germany4  
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
411 YBN
[1589 AD] 7 8 		1182) Two hundred years will pass
before the water closet is
popularized.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Ha
rrington
3. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Ha
rrington
4. ^ "Flushing toilet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet
5. ^ "Alexander Cummings". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_C
ummings
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Ha
rrington (based on (presented ajax to
Queen in 1592)
8. ^ "Flushing toilet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet (=1596)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Harington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Haring
ton
Somerset, England6  
[1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirjharrington.gif

[2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet.
[t: says Cummings Closet..is really
Harington's?]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CummingsCloset.gif
411 YBN
[1589 AD] 8 		5905)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Byrd." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-byr
d-music
2. ^ "William Byrd." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-byr
d-music
3. ^
http://spenserians.cath.vt.edu/TextRecor
d.php?action=GET&textsid=47
4. ^
http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?doc
Id=chadwyck_ep/uvaGenText/tei/chep_1.175
6.xml;chunk.id=d29;toc.depth=1;toc.id=d2
0;brand=default;query=minde#1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "William Byrd."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-byr
d-music
8. ^ "William Byrd." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-byr
d-music {1589 (date Songs of Sundrie
Natures is published}
London, England7  
[1] Description Deutsch: de:William
Byrd English: en:William Byrd -
c.1540-1623. Date not provided by
uploader Source
http://www.renaissancemusic.pe.kr/m
usician_p/william%20byrd.htm Author
Vandergucht (Michael van der Gucht
??) Permission (Reusing this file)
guessed, creator of the picture is
most likely dead for more than 70 years
(Byrd lived during 16th/17th
century) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/William_Byrd.jpg
411 YBN
[1589 AD] 4 		5913) Dancing becomes popular during
the Renaissance. One of the most
comprehensive and popular dance manuals
of the Renaissance is Thoinot Arbeau's
"Orchesographie" (1589). In this work
Arbeau explains the social necessity of
dance to his student Capriol
(translated from French):
"Capriol: I much
enjoyed fencing and tennis, and this
placed me upon friendly terms with
ypoung men. But, without knowledge of
dancing, I could not please the
damsels, upon whom, it seems to me, the
entire reputation of an eligible young
man depends.
Arbeau: You are quite right, as
naturally the male and female seek one
another, and nothing does more to
stimulate a man to acts of courtesy,
honor, and generosity than love. And if
you desire to marry you must realize
that a mistress is won by the good
temper and grace displayed while
dancing, because ladies do not like to
be present at fencing or tennis, lest a
splintered sword or a blow from a
tennis ball cause them injury...".1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p176.
2. ^ Thoinot Arbeau,
Orchesography (1589), trans. Mary
Stewart Evans (New York: Dover, 1967),
p12.
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p176.
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p176. {1589}
Europe3   
410 YBN
[1590 AD] 5 		1580)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p95.
2. ^ "Giordano
Bruno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
3. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
4. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
5. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno (1590)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giordano Bruno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Br
uno
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giordano+Bruno?ca
t=technology
Frankfurt am Main, Germany4  
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 10 11 		1568) Vieta, is very good at
deciphering codes.4 A Huguenot
sympathizer, Vieta deciphers a complex
cipher of more than 500 characters used
by King Philip II of Spain in his war
to defend Roman Catholicism from the
Huguenots. When Philip, assuming that
the cipher could not be broken,
discovered that the French were aware
of his military plans, he complained to
the pope that black magic was being
employed against his country.5

Vieta occupies a high administrative
office under Henry IV.6
Vieta is the
father of modern algebra.7
Vieta
prefers the word "analysis" to
"algebra".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Francois Viete
seigneur de la Bigotiere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Francois Viete
seigneur de la Bigotiere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
10. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere (1591)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1591) (1591)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Vieta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Vieta
[2] "Viète's formulas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A8te%
27s_formulas
?, France9  
[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 13 		1587) Alpini gets a Medical (Health)
degree from the University of Padua,
and is a professor of Botany there in
1593.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p97.
2. ^ "Prospero
Alpini". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5902/Prospero-Alpini
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Prospero Alpini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospero_Al
pini
5. ^ "Prospero Alpini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospero_Al
pini
6. ^ "Prospero Alpini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospero_Al
pini
7. ^ "Prospero Alpini". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5902/Prospero-Alpini
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Prospero Alpini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5902/Prospero-Alpini
10. ^ "Prospero Alpini". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5902/Prospero-Alpini
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Prospero Alpini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospero_Al
pini
13. ^ "Prospero Alpini". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5902/Prospero-Alpini (1592)
Venice, Italy12  
[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg

[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 13 		1613) Earliest thermometer.6

The invention of the thermometer is
generally credited to the Italian
mathematician-physicist Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642). Galilei calls this
device a thermoscope.7

In Galilei's thermometer, the changing
temperature of an inverted glass vessel
produces an expansion or contraction of
the air within it, which in turn
changed the level of the liquid with
which the vessel's long, open-mouthed
neck is partially filled.8

This device is very inaccurate (because
of the changing air pressure on earth9
) and Amontons 100 years later will
improve the design.10

This general principle will be
perfected in succeeding years by
experimenting with liquids such as
mercury and by providing a scale to
measure the expansion and contraction
brought about in such liquids by rising
and falling temperatures.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
2. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
3. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105,163.
5. ^ "thermometer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
6. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105,163.
8. ^ "thermometer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105,163.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105,163.
11. ^
"thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
12. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
13. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>. {1592}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
[2]
http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth
/Thermometer.html
[3] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei (1593)
Padua, Italy12  
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS

[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 4 		5917) Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (CE
1562-1621), Netherlands composer.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-pieters
zoon-sweelinck
2. ^ "Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Pieters
zoon_Sweelinck
3. ^ "Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-pieters
zoon-sweelinck
4. ^ "Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-pieters
zoon-sweelinck {1592 (age 30}
(Oude Kerk {old church2 }) Amsterdam,
Netherlands3  
[1] Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck One of
the two surviving portraits of
Sweelinck, this one dates from 1606. It
is attributed to Gerrit Pietersz
Sweelink, the composer's
brother. http://www.orgelkunst.be/tijds
chrift/tijdschrift.Dirksen.Sweeli.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Jan_Pieterszoon_Sweel
inck.png
405 YBN
[1595 AD] 9 10 		1586)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier
2. ^ "John Napier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Napier?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "John Napier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Napier?cat=t
echnology
5. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier
6. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier
7. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier
8. ^ "John Napier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Napier?cat=t
echnology (1595 (estimate based on )
9. ^
"John Napier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier (1595 (estimate based
on)
10. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier (1595 (estimate based
on )

MORE INFO
[1] "John Napier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier

Scotland8 (presumably) 
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg

[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
404 YBN
[08/??/1596 AD] 12 		1616) Fabricius is a friend of Tycho
Brahe, and Kepler.8
Fabricius is
murdered by one of his parisheners, who
Fabricius had threatened to expose for
theft.9 Another story relates that
after denouncing a local goose thief
from the pulpit, the accused man struck
David Fabricius in the head with a
shovel and killed him.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
3. ^ "David
Fabricius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
4. ^
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/fabricius.ht
ml
5. ^ "Johannes Fabricius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3528/Johannes-Fabricius
6. ^ "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
7. ^ "variable star". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4847/variable-star
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
10. ^ "David
Fabricius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
11. ^ "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
12. ^ "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius (08/??/1596)
Esens, Frisia (now northwest Germany
and northeast Netherlands)11
(guess) 
[1] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
404 YBN
[1596 AD] 4 		1183) John Harrington, the inventor of
the first flush toilet, writes a book
called "A New Discourse upon a Stale
Subject: The Metamorphosis of Ajax"
about his invention. He publishes the
book under the pseudonym of Misacmos.
The book makes political allusions to
the Earl of Leicester that anger Queen
Elizabeth I, and he will be again
banished from the court. The Queen's
mixed feelings for him may be the only
thing that saves Harrington from being
tried at Star Chamber.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Ha
rrington
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Ha
rrington
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] "John Harington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Haring
ton
Somerset, England2 3  
[1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirjharrington.gif

[2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet.
[t: says Cummings Closet..is really
Harington's?]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CummingsCloset.gif
404 YBN
[1596 AD] 16 		1552) The father of Rheticus was a
physician who was beheaded for sorcery
when Rheticus was age 14.9
Rheticus
studies at Zürich where he meets
Paracelsus, and Gesner is a
schoolmate.10
Rheticus gets a masters
degree and teaches Mathematics at the
University of Wittenberg.11 12
Asimov
describes Rheticus as "Copernicus'
first disciple".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georg Joachim Rheticus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3416/Georg-Joachim-Rheticus
2. ^ "Georg Joachim Rheticus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Joach
im_Rheticus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Dennis Danielson
(2006). The First Copernican: Georg
Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the
Copernican Revolution. Walker &
Company, New York, pp140-141. ISBN
0-8027-1530-3
5. ^ * Dennis Danielson (2006). The
First Copernican: Georg Joachim
Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican
Revolution. Walker & Company, New York,
pp194-201. ISBN 0-8027-1530-3
6. ^ "Georg Joachim
Rheticus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3416/Georg-Joachim-Rheticus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Georg Joachim
Rheticus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3416/Georg-Joachim-Rheticus
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (states book not
complete at death)
15. ^ "Georg Joachim
Rheticus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3416/Georg-Joachim-Rheticus (states
died in Kassa, Hungary)
16. ^ "Georg Joachim
Rheticus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3416/Georg-Joachim-Rheticus (1596)
Kassa, Hungary14 15   
404 YBN
[1596 AD] 19 		1621) After failing to find a unique
arrangement of polygons that fits known
astronomical observations (even with
extra planets added to the system),
Kepler begins experimenting with
3-dimensional polyhedra. He finds that
each of the five Platonic solids can be
uniquely inscribed and circumscribed by
spherical orbs; nesting these solids,
each encased in a sphere, within one
another would produce six layers,
corresponding to the six known
planets-Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the
solids correctly-octahedron,
icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron,
cube-Kepler finds that the spheres can
be placed at intervals corresponding
(within the accuracy limits of
available astronomical observations) to
the relative sizes of each planet"s
path, assuming the planets circle the
Sun. Kepler also finds a formula
relating the size of each planet"s orb
to the length of its orbital period:
from inner to outer planets, the ratio
of increase in orbital period is twice
the difference in orb radius. However,
Kepler later rejected this formula,
because it is not precise enough.14 15


As Kepler indicates in the title, he
thinks that he has revealed God"s
geometrical plan for the universe. Much
of Kepler"s enthusiasm for the
Copernican system stems from his
theological convictions about the
connection between the physical and the
spiritual; the universe itself is an
image of God, with the Sun
corresponding to the Father, the
stellar sphere to the Son, and the
intervening space between to the Holy
Spirit. His first manuscript of
Mysterium contains an extensive chapter
reconciling heliocentrism with biblical
passages that seem to support
geocentrism.16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp 60-65; see
also: Barker and Goldstein,
"Theological Foundations of Kepler's
Astronomy."
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
6. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
7. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp 60-65; see
also: Barker and Goldstein,
"Theological Foundations of Kepler's
Astronomy."
8. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
9. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
10. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
11. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp 65-71
12. ^
"Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
13. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, Fifth
Edition, Berman and Evans, 1986
14. ^
Caspar, Kepler, pp 60-65; see also:
Barker and Goldstein, "Theological
Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy."
15. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
16. ^ Barker and Goldstein,
"Theological Foundations of Kepler's
Astronomy," pp 99-103, 112-113
17. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
18. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
19. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1596)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Quotation from Koestler, The
Sleepwalkers, p 234, translated from
Kepler's family horoscope
Graz, Austria18  
[1] model of the Solar system from
Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). from
http://phoenixandturtle.net/images/keple
r.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-1.png

[2] Kepler's Platonic solid model of
the Solar system from Mysterium
Cosmographicum (1596). From:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/figs/kepler-spheres-2.jpg included
in the page:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/kepler.html (scroll to the
bottom) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-2.png
403 YBN
[1597 AD] 3 		1601)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1597) (1597)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
[2] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Padua, Italy2  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
403 YBN
[1597 AD] 4 		5902) John Dowland (CE c1563-1626),
English composer, composes music for
voice and lute. Downland graduated from
Oxford (1588). In the best of his 84
ayres for voice and lute (published
mainly in 4 vols., 1597, 1600, 1603,
1612), Dowland raises the level of
English song, matching perfectly in
music the mood and emotion of the
verse.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dowland." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dowlan
d
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "John Dowland." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dowlan
d
4. ^ "John Dowland." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dowlan
d {c1597 (based on first published
ayres for voice and lute}
London, England3  
[1] John Dowland PD
source: http://www.classical-composers.o
rg/img/dowland.jpg
403 YBN
[1597 AD] 4 		5907) Giovanni Gabrieli (CE
c1553-1612), Italian composer, composes
music around this time and represents
the highest point of the High
Renaissance Venetian school.1 This
work "In Ecclesiis" is a good example
of the "grand concerto", a genre that
combines vocal soloists with choral and
instrumental ensembles.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Gabrieli." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ga
brieli
2. ^ Claude V. Palisca, "Norton
Anthology of Western Music", fourth
edition, 2001, p330-355.
3. ^ "Giovanni
Gabrieli." The Concise Grove Dictionary
of Music. Oxford University Press,
Inc., 1994. Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ga
brieli
4. ^ "Giovanni Gabrieli." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ga
brieli {c1597 (Symphoniae sacrae}
(St Mark's Cathedral) Venice, Italy3
 
[1] Giovanni Gabrieli (1556-1612) PD
source: http://www.hoasm.org/IVN/Gabriel
iGiovanni.jpg
400 YBN
[02/17/1600 AD] 19 		1578) Giordano Bruno (CE 1548-1600)6 ,
Italian philosopher, is burned alive at
the stake after a seven year trial.7

Bruno might have lived had he recanted
as Galileo will, but Bruno chooses not
to.8

On Feb. 8, 1600, when the death
sentence is formally read to Bruno, he
addresses his judges, saying: "Perhaps
your fear in passing judgment on me is
greater than mine in receiving it."
Bruno is brought to the Campo de'
Fiori9 , his tongue in a gag, and
burned alive.10

One witness, Friar Celestino reports
that Bruno stated that (translated)
"That there are many worlds, and all
the stars are worlds, and believing
that this is the only world is supreme
ignorance.". The sentence states that
Bruno said that it is "...a great
blasphemy to say that bread
transubstantiates into flesh". Eight of
Bruno's heresies are identified,
although this document has not been
found, but if drawn from the original
accusation then they probably included
the claim of belief in multiple
worlds.11

Bruno refuses to accept the cross held
out to him at the last moment.12

Some victims, such as a Scottish
person, in 1595 are burned in a shirt
of pitch which is put over their naked
body so that they will not die as
quickly, and so the burning before
death can be as painful as possible.13


Imagine what a painful, tortuous,
cruel, and terrible death, being burned
alive must be. Only the most
criminally, vicious, violent and
sadistic human could support inflicting
that on a fellow human or any species,
in particular a nonviolent human, no
matter how bad they might be.14

This punishment may influence Galileo's
actions before the Inquisition.15

All of Giordano Bruno's works are
placed on the "Index Librorum
Prohibitorum" in 1603.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p95.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p95.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p95.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "Giordano Bruno".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
10. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
11. ^ Rowland, "Giordano Bruno", 2008,
p254-259, Appendix.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Rowland, "Giordano
Bruno", 2008, p11.
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "Giordano
Bruno". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giordano+Bruno?ca
t=technology
16. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Br
uno
17. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6790/Giordano-Bruno
18. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Br
uno
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (02/17/1600)
(02/17/1600)
Rome, Italy17 18  
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
400 YBN
[1600 AD] 13 		1564) In 1612 Fabricius does exhaustive
study of chick(en5 ) embyro.6
In 1559,
Fabricius gets a medical (physician7 )
at Padua.8
In 1565, Fabricius is a
professor at Padua.9
Fabricius is a
pupil of Fallopius.10
The English
anatomist William Harvey is Fabricius'
pupil.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hieronymus Fabricius ab
Aquapendente". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e
2. ^ "Hieronymus Fabricius ab
Aquapendente". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Hieronymus
Fabricius ab Aquapendente".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e
12. ^ "Hieronymus Fabricius ab
Aquapendente". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e
13. ^ "Hieronymus Fabricius ab
Aquapendente". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e (1600)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hieronymus Fabricius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_
Fabricius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Hieronymus+Fabric
ius?cat=technology
Padua, Italy12 (presumably) 
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g

[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
400 YBN
[1600 AD] 23 24 		1571) Gilbert gets a medical (health)
degree from Cambridge in 1569.18
Gilbert
is the president of the college of
physicians in London in 1600.19
In 1601
Gilbert is appointed court physician to
Queen Elizabeth I at 100 pounds/year.20

Gilbert follows the work of Peter
Peregrinus.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p91.
2. ^ "William
Gilbert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
3. ^ "William Gilbert". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Gilbert?c
at=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "William Gilbert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
7. ^ "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "William Gilbert".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Gilbert?c
at=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "William Gilbert". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Gilbert?c
at=technology
14. ^ "William Gilbert". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Gilbert?c
at=technology
15. ^ "William Gilbert". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Gilbert?c
at=technology
16. ^ "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
17. ^ "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
22. ^ "William Gilbert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1600) (1600)
24. ^ "William
Gilbert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert (1600)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Gilbert". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gil
bert
[2]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
London, England22 (presumably) 
[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg

[2] Drawing in Gilbert's book showing
the downward slant of the magnetic
force. PD
source: http://istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthm
ag/upto1600.htm
398 YBN
[1602 AD] 12 		1594) Sanctorius, is the Latin name of
Santorio.6
Sanctorius earns a medical
Degree from the University of Padua in
1582.7
Sanctorius is the physician to
King Sigismund III of Poland for 14
years8
In 1611 Sanctorius teaches at
the University of Padua.9
(thought
about 80,000 different possible
diseases?)10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p100.
2. ^ "Santorio
Santorio". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Santorio Santorio".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Sanctorius".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Sanctorius?cat=he
alth
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Santorio
Santorio". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio
12. ^ "Santorio Santorio". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio (1602)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sanctorius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctorius
[2]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez
?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=370523
&dopt=AbstractPlus
Padua, Italy11 (presumably) 
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg

[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
398 YBN
[1602 AD] 3 		5915) Giulio Caccini (CE 1545-1618)
Italian composer and singer composes
operas.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giulio Caccini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giulio-cacc
ini
2. ^ "Giulio Caccini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giulio-cacc
ini
3. ^ "Giulio Caccini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giulio-cacc
ini {opera Euridice performed} {1602
(Le nuove musiche is published- opera
Euridice performed}
(Medici court) Florence, Italy2  
[1] Description Caccini - le nuove
musiche PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Caccini_-_le_nuove_mu
siche.jpg
398 YBN
[1602 AD] 6 		5916)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. G. Sonneck, ""Dafne", the
First Opera. A Chronological Study",
Sammelbände der Internationalen
Musikgesellschaft, 15. Jahrg., H. 1.
(Oct. - Dec., 1913), pp.
102-110 http://www.jstor.org/stable/929
391
2. ^ "Jacopo Peri." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 12 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacopo-peri

3. ^ "Jacopo Peri." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 12 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacopo-peri

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ O. G. Sonneck, ""Dafne",
the First Opera. A Chronological
Study", Sammelbände der
Internationalen Musikgesellschaft, 15.
Jahrg., H. 1. (Oct. - Dec., 1913), pp.
102-110 http://www.jstor.org/stable/929
391
6. ^ "Jacopo Peri." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 12 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacopo-peri
 {1598}
(Medici court) Florence, Italy5   
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 6 		1193) Sir Henry Platt in England
suggested that coal might be charred in
a manner analogous to the way charcoal
is produced from wood. This will
eventually lead to the use of coke in a
less costly production of steel that
does not depend on wood.1 Coke is a
solid carbonaceous residue derived from
low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal.2
Bituminous coal is a relatively hard
coal containing a tar-like substance
called bitumen. Bituminous coal is an
organic sedimentary rock formed by
diagenetic and submetamorphic
compression of peat bog material.3
In
order to be used for industrial
processes, bituminous coal must first
be "coked" to remove volatile
components. Coking is achieved by
heating the coal in the absence of
oxygen, which drives off volatile
hydrocarbons such as propane, benzene
and other aromatic hydrocarbons, and
some sulfur gases. This also drives off
a considerable amount of the water
contained in the bituminous coal.
Coking coal will be blended with
uncoked coal for power generation. The
primary use for coking coal will be in
the manufacture of steel, where carbon
must be as volatile and ash free as
possible.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Coke (fuel)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fue
l%29
2. ^ "Coke (fuel)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fue
l%29
3. ^ "Bituminous coal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bituminous_
coal
4. ^ "Bituminous coal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bituminous_
coal
5. ^ "Coke (fuel)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fue
l%29
6. ^ "Coke (fuel)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fue
l%29
England5   
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 4 		1565)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Hieronymus Fabricius
ab Aquapendente". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e
3. ^ "Hieronymus Fabricius ab
Aquapendente". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e
4. ^ "Hieronymus Fabricius ab
Aquapendente". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3529/Hieronymus-Fabricius-ab-Aquapendent
e (1603)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hieronymus Fabricius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_
Fabricius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Hieronymus+Fabric
ius?cat=technology
Padua, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g

[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 9 10 		1636) Bayer is a lawyer by profession.4

Bayer unsuccessfully tries to impose
names from Old and New Testament onto
constellation names.5 That is good
news, and I think it indicates that the
majority of people in astronomy and
science generally form the opposite end
of the spectrum from those who strongly
support religion, which is only logical
because most of the stories of
religions are obvious lies and those
involved in science tend to be less
easily fooled and smarter.6
Later Roman
numerals will be added to the system.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp108-109.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp108-109.
3. ^ "Johann
Bayer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3868/Johann-Bayer
4. ^ "Johann Bayer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Bayer+?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp108-109.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp108-109.
8. ^ "Johann Bayer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3868/Johann-Bayer
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp108-109. (1603)
(1603)
10. ^ "Johann Bayer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3868/Johann-Bayer (1603)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Bayer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Baye
r
Augsburg, Germany8  
[1] The constellation of Hydrus was
first published in Johann Bayer's
Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria
opened a new age in the history of
celestial cartography, and was praised
for the careful placement of star
positions and brightnesses and for its
attractive plates. Click on the above
image for an enlarged view. Image
credit: U.S. Naval Observatory
Library PD
source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye
r.jpg

[2] A print of the copperplate
engraving for Johann Bayer's
Uranometria showing the constellation
Orion. This image is courtesy of the
United States Naval Observatory
Library, who gives explicit permission
to use it so long as the attribution is
attached. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 5 		1641) Scheiner teaches Hebrew and
mathematics, first at Freiburg, then at
Ingolstadt.2
Scheiner publishes his
last work "Prodromus", a pamphlet
against the heliocentric theory which
was published posthumously in 1651.3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Christoph Scheiner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner
4. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner
5. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner (1603)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Schei
ner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
Dillingen, Germany4  
[1] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif

[2] Pantograph, from Book
Pantographice seu ars delineandi, Page
29 Source
http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewe
r/bid=000000920801 Date 1631 Author
Christoph Scheiner PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantograph_by_Christoph_Scheiner.jpg
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 26 27 28 29 30 		3678)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>.
2. ^ F. Licetus, Litheosphorus, sive de
lapide Bononiensi lucem in se conceptam
ab ambiente claro mox in tenebris mire
conservante, Utini, ex typ. N.
Schiratti, 1640. See
http://www.chem.leeds.ac.uk/delights/tex
ts/Demonstration_21.htm
3. ^
http://www.chem.leeds.ac.uk/delights/tex
ts/Demonstration_21.htm
4. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p94-95.
5. ^ "luminescence."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>.
6. ^ "Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
7. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p94-95.
8. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p306-307.
9. ^
"luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>.
10. ^ "Phosphorus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus
11. ^ "Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
12. ^ "Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
13. ^ "luminescence." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
14. ^ "phosphor." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphor
15. ^ Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Phosphorescence".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p94-95.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ "luminescence." Science of
Everyday Things. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 13 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Phosphorescence".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
24. ^ "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>.
25. ^ Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
26. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p94-95. {1603}
27. ^ Raymond
Kane, Raymond Kane and Heinz Sell,
"Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50
Years of Progress", The Fairmont Press,
Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I {1602}
28. ^
"Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence {1602}
29. ^ "luminescence."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>. {1603}
30. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p306-307. {1602-1604}

MORE INFO
[1] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulf
ide
Bologna, Italy23 24 25   
396 YBN
[01/01/1604 AD] 12 		1622)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
4. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington
8. ^ "microscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-895
8/microscope
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
11. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
12. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (01/01/1604)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)11
(presumably) 
[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
396 YBN
[10/??/1604 AD] 9 		1623) Kepler used the occasion both to
render practical predictions (for
example Kepler predicts the collapse of
Islam and the return of Jesus to earth)
and to speculate theoretically about
the universe, for example, that the
star was not the result of chance
combinations of atoms and that stars
are not suns.5 Clearly, all major
religions will collapse eventually, in
my estimation around 2800 CE, however,
there may always be small groups of
humans that still worship certain
ancient humans as gods.6 It is
interesting that Kepler could not grasp
the truth that stars are other suns as
Nicholas Krebs of Cusa had correctly
understood and publicly recorded
earlier.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
3. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
5. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
9. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (10/??/1604)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)8
(presumably) 
[1] Remnants of Kepler's Supernova
(en:SN 1604). This image has been
constructed of images from NASA's
en:Spitzer space telescope, Hubble
Space Telescope, and en:Chandra X-ray
Observatory. http://www.nasa.gov/multim
edia/imagegallery/image_feature_219.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Keplers_supernova.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
396 YBN
[1604 AD] 3 		1600)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1604) (1604)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
[2] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
? 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
396 YBN
[1604 AD] 5 		1635)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1604)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
[3] Caspar,
Kepler, pp 198-202
[4] Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp
1-78
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)4
(presumably) 
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
395 YBN
[1605 AD] 20 21 		1590) Francis Bacon is not related to
Roger Bacon 350 years before.8
Bacon
studies law at Cambridge.9
In 1584
Bacon enters Parliament.10
Bacon is the
confidential aide to the earl of
Essex.11
After Essex' abortive attempt
of 1601 to seize the Queen and force
her dismissal of his rivals, Bacon,
views Essex as a traitor12 , tries and
convicts Essex for treason, and Essex
is executed.13
In 1621 Bacon is
accused of taking bribes as judge, and
evidence is overwhelming.14
Some claim
Bacon wrote Shakespeare's plays because
Bacon was educated and Shakespeare was
not, and Bacon writes in Latin, (where
Shakespeare apparently does not?).15
Bac
on accepts astrology.16
Bacon rejects
the sun-centered theory.17
Harvey
describes Bacon as writing about
science "like a lord chancellor".18
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp98-99.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Francis Bacon".
The New Dictionary of Cultural
Literacy, Third Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Bacon?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Francis Bacon". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Bacon?cat
=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ "Francis Bacon
Viscount Saint Alban". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8408/Francis-Bacon-Viscount-Saint-Alban
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ "Francis Bacon
Viscount Saint Alban". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8408/Francis-Bacon-Viscount-Saint-Alban
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1605) (1605)
21. ^ "Francis
Bacon Viscount Saint Alban".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8408/Francis-Bacon-Viscount-Saint-Alban
(1605)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bac
on
London, England19 (presumably) 
[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg

[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1
395 YBN
[1605 AD] 4 		1630)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1605)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from
Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp
302-304
[3] Wolf, A History of Science,
Technology and Philosophy, pp 140-141;
Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p
252
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)3  
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
394 YBN
[1606 AD] 8 9 10 		1570)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p90.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Joseph Justus
Scaliger". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Justus%2
0Scaliger%20
4. ^ "Joseph Justus Scaliger".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Joseph Justus
Scaliger". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1606) (1606)
9. ^ "Joseph
Justus Scaliger". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Justus%2
0Scaliger%20 (1606)
10. ^ "Joseph Justus
Scaliger". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6015/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger (1609)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Justus Scaliger".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Just
us_Scaliger
Leiden, Netherlands7
(presumably) 
[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG

[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1
394 YBN
[1606 AD] 17 		1589) Libavius is the Latinized
"Libau".12
Libavius gets a Medical
(Health Science/Physician) Degree at
the University of Jena in 1581.13
Libavi
us is professor of history and poetry
at the University of Jena from 1586 to
1591 and then becomes town physician
and inspector of the Gymnasium at
Rothenburg.14

Libavius founds a school (the Gymnasium
Casimirianum15 ) in Coburg in 1605.16
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp97-98.
2. ^ "Andreas
Libavius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Lib
avius
3. ^ "Andreas Libavius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "Andreas Libavius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius
8. ^ "Andreas Libavius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius
9. ^ "Andreas Libavius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Andreas
Libavius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius
15. ^ "Andreas Libavius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
17. ^ "Andreas Libavius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius (1606)
  
394 YBN
[1606 AD] 3 		2099)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "australia continent". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australia-c
ontinent?cat=health
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/new-zealand
-oceania?cat=travel
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/australia-c
ontinent?cat=health (1606)
Australia2   
393 YBN
[1607 AD] 7 		5912)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claudio Monteverdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claudio-mon
teverdi
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 3rd edition,
2010, p93,186-189.
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p194.
4. ^ "continuo." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/continuo
5. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
6. ^ "Claudio Monteverdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claudio-mon
teverdi
7. ^ "Claudio Monteverdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claudio-mon
teverdi {1607}
Mantua, Italy6  
[1] Description Claudio Monteverdi
(1567-1643), composer - (Image of full
painting) - Date circa 1620
- Source Galleria Accademia,
Venice - Author artist: Domenico
Fetti (1589-1623) - PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Claudio_Monteverdi_5.
jpg
392 YBN
[1608 AD] 18 		1618) Telescope and microscope.11

Hans Lippershey (LiPRsE) (CE
1570-1619), spectacle maker from the
United Netherlands, is traditionally
credited with inventing the telescope
(1608).12

Lippershey places a double convex lens
(the "object glass") at the farther end
of a tube, and a double concave lens
(the "eyepiece") at the nearer end.13

This is a refracting telescope, which
spreads light out using two transparent
lens.14

Lippershey applies to the States
General of the Netherlands for a
30-year patent for his instrument,
which he called a kijker ("looker"), or
else an annual pension, in exchange for
which Lippershey offers not to sell
telescopes to foreign kings. Two other
claimants to the invention come
forward, Jacob Metius and Sacharias
Jansen. The States General rules that
no patent should be granted because so
many people know about the device and
that it is so easy to copy. However,
the States General grants Lippershey
900 florins for the instrument but
required its modification into a
binocular device.15

An interesting truth is that a
telescope and microscope are the same
thing in that they take light from a
small area and spread it out into a
larger area. One difference is that a
telescope draws from a larger area.
There is not as much interest in humans
taking light from a large space and
compacting it together into a small
area.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
7. ^ "Hans
Lippershey". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/342926/Hans-Lippershey>.
8. ^
http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/optics3.h
tm
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Hans Lippershey".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/342926/Hans-Lippershey>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
12. ^ "Hans
Lippershey". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/342926/Hans-Lippershey>.
13. ^
http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/optics3.h
tm
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "Hans Lippershey".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/342926/Hans-Lippershey>.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Hans Lippershey".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8449/Hans-Lippershey
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?c
at=technology
Netherlands17  
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg

[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg
391 YBN
[08/??/1609 AD] 9 		1603)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
5. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
7. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
8. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
9. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (08/1609)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Venice, Italy8  
[1] Two of Galileo's first telescopes;
in the Institute and Museum of the
History of Science,
Florence. Scala/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2916/Two-of-Galileos-first-telescopes-i
n-the-Institute-and-Museum?articleTypeId
=1

[2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in
crayon by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
391 YBN
[12/??/1609 AD] 3 		1604)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (12/1609)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Galileo Galilei".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Venice, Italy2  
[1] Galileo's sepia wash studies of the
Moon, 1609; in the Biblioteca
Nazionale, Florence. Scala/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2915/Galileos-sepia-wash-studies-of-the
-Moon-1609-in-the?articleTypeId=1

[2] Two of Galileo's first telescopes;
in the Institute and Museum of the
History of Science,
Florence. Scala/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2916/Two-of-Galileos-first-telescopes-i
n-the-Institute-and-Museum?articleTypeId
=1
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 		355)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
2. ^
"Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
http://books.google
.com/books?id=I9Y0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA757 5.
^ Sherwood Taylor, "Science Past and
Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
6. ^ Edward James McShane, "Exterior
ballistics", University of Denver
Press, 1953, p757.
7. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
8. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
[2] The Mechnical Universe, episode 2,
The Law of Falling Bodies, p23:30.
[3]
"Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1609)
(University of Pisa) Pisa, Italy10
 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 35 		1599)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
2. ^
"Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ The Mechnical Universe, episode 2,
The Law of Falling Bodies
5. ^ The Mechnical
Universe, episode 2, The Law of Falling
Bodies
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Galileo Galilei".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
10. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Ted
Huntington
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp100-105.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
21. ^ Ted
Huntington
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
23. ^ Ted
Huntington
24. ^ "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
25. ^ The Mechnical Universe, episode
2, The Law of Falling Bodies
26. ^ The
Mechnical Universe, episode 2, The Law
of Falling Bodies
27. ^ The Mechnical
Universe, episode 2, The Law of Falling
Bodies
28. ^ The Mechnical Universe, episode
2, The Law of Falling Bodies
29. ^ The
Mechnical Universe, episode 2, The Law
of Falling Bodies
30. ^ The Mechnical
Universe, episode 2, The Law of Falling
Bodies
31. ^ The Mechnical Universe, episode
2, The Law of Falling Bodies
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ The Mechnical Universe, episode
2, The Law of Falling Bodies, p23:30.
34. ^
"Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
35. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1609)
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy34
 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 10 		1602)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
5. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1609) (1609)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
?, Italy9  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 18 		1619) German astronomer, Johannes
Kepler (CE 1571-1630) shows that
planets move in elliptical orbits with
the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.9

After the astronomer Tycho Brahe
(1546–1601) dies, although there is a
political struggle with Tycho’s
heirs, Kepler is ultimately able to
work with Tycho's astronomical data
which is accurate to within 2′ of
arc. With this precise data Kepler is
able to discover his "first law"
(1605), that Mars moves in an
elliptical orbit.10

Kepler discovers three major laws of
planetary motion: (1) the planets move
in elliptical orbits with the Sun at
one focus; (2) A line connecting a
planet and the Sun will sweep over
equal areas in equal times11 (the
“area law”)- this means the closer
a planet is to the Sun, the faster the
planet will move according to a fixed
and calculable rule12 ; and (3) there
is an exact relationship between the
squares of the planets’ periodic
times and the cubes of the radii of
their orbits (the “harmonic
law”).13

Kepler does not publish his discoveries
until 1609 in the "Astronomia Nova"
(New Astronomy).14 15

In 1618 Kepler's mother, who dabbles in
the occult, is arrested as a witch, and
although not tortured, does not survive
long after her release, which is
obtained through the long-term efforts
of Johan.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
2. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
8. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
9. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
10. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
13. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
14. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
15. ^ "Johannes Kepler." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ke
pler
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
17. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108. (1609)
(1609)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Weil der Stadt (now part of the
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)17  
[1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an
unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral,
Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 5 		1620)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ Quotation from Koestler, The
Sleepwalkers, p 234, translated from
Kepler's family horoscope
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108. (1609)
(1609)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Weil der Stadt (now part of the
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)4  
[1] The Great Comet of 1577 Woodcut by
Jiri Daschitzsky, Von einem
Schrecklichen und Wunderbahrlichen
Cometen so sich den Dienstag nach
Martini M. D. Lxxvij. Jahrs am Himmel
erzeiget hat (Prague (?): Petrus
Codicillus a Tulechova, 1577). source:
http://www.os.is/~ah/comet/hali8.htm Se
e also:
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations
/comets.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Great_Comet_of_1577.gif

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
390 YBN
[01/??/1610 AD] 16 		1605) Moons of Jupiter seen and their
period determined by Galileo Galilei.7


Galileo finds that planet Jupiter has
four moons, visible only by telescope,
that circle Jupiter with regular
motions. Within a few weeks Galileo
determines the periods of each moon. In
addition, Galileo is the first to see
that planet Venus has phases like the
moon.8

Galileo also finds many more stars can
be seen with the telescope than with
the naked eye.9

Galileo describes these earth-shaking
finds in a little book, "Sidereus
Nuncius" ("The Sidereal Messenger").10


Kepler will call these moons
"satellites" and they are known as the
"Galilean satellites".11 These moons
are Io, Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto.12

Jupiter and it's moons is an example of
small bodies orbiting a large body and
this is evidence in support of the
sun-centered theory, and is definite
proof that not all bodies orbit the
Earth.13

Galileo is first to see that the
planets appear as globes, but the stars
appears as points, and concludes that
the stars must be very far away, and
that the universe may be infinitely
large.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
7. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
9. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
10. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
15. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
16. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (01/1610)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Venice, Italy15  
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
390 YBN
[1610 AD] 7 		1624) In this work Kepler speculates,
among other things, that the distances
of the newly discovered Jovian moons
might agree with the ratios of the
rhombic dodecahedron, triacontahedron,
and cube.4 (Of course the theory of
perfect solids is wrong.5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Johannes Kepler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
7. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1610)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)6
(presumably) 
[1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an
unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral,
Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg
390 YBN
[1610 AD] 7 		1626)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
5. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
6. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
7. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1610)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)6  
[1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an
unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral,
Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg
389 YBN
[06/??/1611 AD] 10 		1617) Dutch astronomer, Johannes
Fabricius (FoBrisEuS) (CE 1587-1615),
is the first to show that the Sun has
spots and rotates around its own axis.4


Johannes (1587-1615) returns from a
university in the Netherlands with
telescopes that he and his father David
use (in addition to a camera obscura5 )
to observe the Sun.6

Seeing sunspots on the eastern edge of
the disk, steadily move to the western
edge, disappear, then reappear at the
east again suggests that the Sun
rotates on its axis, which had been
postulated before but never backed up
with evidence.7

Fabricius (FoBrisEuS) publishes this
discovery in "Narratio de maculis in
sole observatis et apparente earum cum
sole conversione" ("Account of Spots
Observed on the Sun and of Their
Apparent Rotation with the Sun",
1611).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
2. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
3. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
4. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
5. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
6. ^ "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
7. ^ "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
8. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
9. ^ "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
10. ^ "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius (06/??/1611)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/fabricius.ht
ml
Esens, Frisia (now northwest Germany
and northeast Netherlands)9
(guess) 
[1] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
389 YBN
[1611 AD] 7 		1625)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp 198-202
6. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
7. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1611)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[3] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)6  
[1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an
unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral,
Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg
389 YBN
[1611 AD] 6 		1627)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
3. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
4. ^ Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp 1-78
5. ^
"Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
6. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1611)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[3] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
[4] Caspar,
Kepler, pp 198-202
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)5  
[1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD
source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im
age/somnium.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
389 YBN
[1611 AD] 5 		1628)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1611)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[3] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
[4] Caspar,
Kepler, pp 198-202
[5] Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp
1-78
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)4  
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
389 YBN
[1611 AD] 14 		1629)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from
Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp
302-304
6. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
7. ^ Wolf, A History of Science,
Technology and Philosophy, pp 140-141;
Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p
252
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
9. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
10. ^ Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes"
from Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, pp 302-304
11. ^ "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
12. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
13. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
14. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1611)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)13  
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
389 YBN
[1611 AD] 7 		1637)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p109.
2. ^ "Simon Marius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0995/Simon-Marius
3. ^ "Simon Marius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Mariu
s
4. ^ "Simon Marius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0995/Simon-Marius
5. ^ "Simon Marius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0995/Simon-Marius
6. ^ "Simon Marius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0995/Simon-Marius
7. ^ "Simon Marius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0995/Simon-Marius (1611)
??, Germany6  
[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg
388 YBN
[01/12/1612 AD] 8 		1642) This book is responsible for an
unpleasant argument between Scheiner
and Galileo Galilei.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), ~110.
2. ^
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/scheiner.htm
l
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), ~110.
4. ^ "Christoph
Scheiner." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/christoph-s
cheiner
5. ^
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/scheiner.htm
l
6. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner
7. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner
8. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner (01/12/1612)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Schei
ner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
[3]
http://journal.utarts.com/articles.php?i
d=3&type=paper
[4] http://www.christoph-scheiner.com/
Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany7
(presumably) 
[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif

[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
388 YBN
[1612 AD] 4 		1595)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p100.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Santorio
Santorio". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio
4. ^ "Santorio Santorio". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio (1612)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sanctorius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctorius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Sanctorius?cat=he
alth
[3]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez
?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=370523
&dopt=AbstractPlus
Padua, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg

[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
388 YBN
[1612 AD] 4 		3680)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p306-307.
2. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p306-307.
3. ^ E.
Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence
From the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p306-307.
4. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p306-307. {1612}

MORE INFO
[1] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulf
ide
[2] "Phosphorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus
[3] "luminescence." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
[4] "phosphor." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphor
[5] "luminescence." Science of Everyday
Things. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 13 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
[6] Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
[7] "Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
[8] "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>.
[9] E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p94-95.
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy3   
387 YBN
[1613 AD] 6 		1607)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
2. ^ "David
Fabricius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1613)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Florence, Italy5  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 9 		1584) Scottish mathematician, John
Napier (nAPER) invents exponential
notation and logarithms.4

Napier describes his invention in his
book "Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis
Descriptio" ("Description of the
Marvelous Canon of Logarithms").5

Napier invents exponential notation (in
1594), finding that all numbers can be
expressed in exponential form. That is,
4 can be written as 22, while 8 can be
written as 23, and 5, 6, and 7 can be
written as 2 to some fractional power
between 2 and 3. Napier finds that once
numbers can be written in such
exponential form, multiplication can be
done by adding exponents, and division
can be done by subtracting exponents.
In this way, multiplication and
division are as simple as addition and
subtraction.6

Napier's tables of logarithms are very
popular.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
2. ^ "John
Napier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
3. ^ "John
Napier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
4. ^ "John
Napier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "John Napier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier
8. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier (1614)
9. ^ "Simon Stevinus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus (1614)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Napier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier

Scotland8 (presumably) 
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg

[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 7 		1596)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p100.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^
"Santorio Santorio". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio
4. ^ "Sanctorius". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Sanctorius?cat=he
alth
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Santorio Santorio".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio
7. ^ "Santorio Santorio". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5653/Santorio-Santorio (1614)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sanctorius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctorius
[2]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez
?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=370523
&dopt=AbstractPlus
Padua, Italy6 (presumably) 
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg

[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 16 		1638) Marius is "Mayer" latinized.9
Mari
us studies astronomy under Tycho
Brahe.10
Marius studies medicine in
Italy.11
Marius publishes one of
Galileo's books under a different
author's name.12 (purpose?13 )
Marius
claims to have seen the Jupiter moons
in 1609 before Galileo.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p109.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p109.
3. ^ "Simon
Marius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Mariu
s
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p109.
5. ^ "Simon Marius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Mariu
s
6. ^ "Simon Marius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Mariu
s
7. ^ "Simon Marius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Mariu
s
8. ^ "Simon Marius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Mariu
s
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p109.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p109.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p109.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p109.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p109.
15. ^ "Simon Marius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0995/Simon-Marius
16. ^ "Simon Marius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Mariu
s (1614)
??, Germany15  
[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 4 5 6 		5898)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010, p148.
2. ^
Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Michael Praetorius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/michael-pra
etorius
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010, p148.
{1614}
5. ^ "Michael Praetorius." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/michael-pra
etorius {1614-1620}
6. ^ "Michael Praetorius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/michael-pra
etorius {1615-1920}
(Magdeburg, Kassel, Halle, Dresden)
Germany3  
[1] Description Syntagma Musicum
Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Date
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Source
Syntagma Musicum Author
Michael Praetorius PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Syntagma06.png

[2] Description Syntagma Musicum
Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Date
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Source
Syntagma Musicum Author
Michael Praetorius PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Syntagma12.png
385 YBN
[1615 AD] 3 		5909) Orlando Gibbons (CE 1583-1625),
English composer, composes music.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Orlando Gibbons." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orlando-gib
bons
2. ^ "Orlando Gibbons." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orlando-gib
bons
3. ^ "Orlando Gibbons." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orlando-gib
bons {c1615 (organist at Chapel Royal}
(Chapel Royal) London, England2  
[1] Orlando Gibbons (1583 - 1625) PD
source: http://www.classical.net/music/i
mages/composer/g/gibbons.jpg
385 YBN
[1615 AD] 3 		5920) Heinrich Schütz (CE 1585-1672),
German composer, composes mostly sacred
vocal music at this time. Schütz is
the greatest German composer of the
1600s and the first recognized
internationally. His output is almost
exclusively sacred. Schütz sets mainly
biblical texts and composes the first
German opera "Dafne" (1627).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Heinrich Schütz." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-sc
h-tz
2. ^ "Heinrich Schütz." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-sc
h-tz
3. ^ "Heinrich Schütz." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-sc
h-tz {1615 (30 years old}
(electoral court) Dresden, Germany2
 
[1] Heinrich Schütz by Christoph
Spetner, Leipzig, around
1650/1660. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/28/Schutz.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 18 19 		1608) Psalm 93:1, Psalm 96:10, and 1
Chronicles 16:30 incorrectly12 state
that "the world is firmly established,
it cannot be moved." Psalm 104:5 says,
"the Lord set the earth on its
foundations; it can never be moved."
Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "the sun
rises and the sun sets, and hurries
back to where it rises."13

Before this, in 1613 Galileo wrote a
letter to his student Benedetto
Castelli (1528-1643) in Pisa about the
problem of squaring the Copernican
theory with certain biblical passages.
Inaccurate copies of this letter were
sent by Galileo's enemies to the
Inquisition in Rome, and Galileo had to
retrieve the letter and send an
accurate copy.14

Also earlier, several Dominican fathers
in Florence lodged complaints against
Galileo in Rome, and Galileo went to
Rome to defend the Copernican cause and
his good name. Before leaving, he
finished an expanded version of the
letter to Castelli, now addressed to
the grand duke's mother and good friend
of Galileo, the dowager Christina. In
his Letter to the Grand Duchess
Christina, Galileo discussed the
problem of interpreting biblical
passages with regard to scientific
discoveries but, except for one
example, did not actually interpret the
Bible.15

The people appointed pope always take
an alias, perhaps to cover their tracks
when they routinely dispense injustice
and idiocy. but probably more likely to
make them appear to be transformed, not
a regular human anymore.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p104.
2. ^ "Paul V".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8766/Paul-V
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Roman Inquisition". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Inqui
sition
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
7. ^ "Roman Inquisition". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Inqui
sition
8. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
11. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "Galileo affair".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_aff
air
14. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
15. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1616) (1616)
19. ^ "Galileo
Galilei". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology (1616)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2] "Pope Paul V". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_V

Rome, Italy17  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 28 29 		1644) English Physician, William Harvey
(CE 1578-1657), understands the
circulatory system; that the heart is a
muscle that contracts to push blood
out, that blood can only move in one
direction in blood vessels (not back
and forth as Galen had believed), and
that blood moves in a circle from the
heart to the arteries, from the
arteries to the veins, and through the
veins back to the heart.3
5
Harvey is the first to propose that the
heart is a muscle that propels blood
out on a circular course through the
body, leaving through arteries and
returning to the heart through veins.4
From dissection Harvey understands that
the valves separating the two upper
chambers (auricles) from the two lower
chambers (ventricles) are one way
valves. Blood can move from auricle to
ventricle but not the other way.
Fabricius had recognized that there are
one-way values in the veins too, blood
in the veins can only travel toward the
heart and not away from it. When Harvey
ties an artery, it is the side toward
the heart that bulges with blood. When
he ties off a vein, the side away from
the heart bulges. Harvey is the first
to recognize that blood moves in one
direction only, not back and forth in
the vessels (arteries and veins) as
Galen had believed.5 Harvey also notes
that blood spurts from a cut artery at
the same time as muscular contractions
of the heart.6

In this year at St. Bartholomew's
Hospital, in London, Harvey gives the
first of his Lumleian Lectures before
the Royal College of Physicians, the
manuscript notes of which contain the
first account of blood circulation.7

Some consider Harvey the founder of
modern physiology.8

The functioning of the heart and the
circulation had remained almost at a
standstill ever since the time of the
Greco-Roman physician Galen, 1,400
years earlier. Harvey's courage,
penetrating intelligence, and precise
methods are to set the pattern for
research in biology and other sciences
for succeeding generations. William
Harvey and William Gilbert, the
investigator of the magnet are credited
with initiating accurate experimental
research in this early modern period.9

-------
6
William, is the oldest of nine
children.10
Harvey gets a degree from
Cambridge in 1597 at age 19.11
Harvey
takes medical (health science12 )
courses at the University of Padua
(simov claims that since Mondino 300
years before, the University of Padua
remained as best medical (physician13 )
school on earth), where Harvey studies
with Fabricius ab Aquapendente and
others.14
Harvey gets a Medical degree
in 1602.15
Harvey then returns to
England, marries, and creates a
successful practice.16
Harvey makes
news by examining and exonerating
several suspected witches and by
performing a postmortem examination on
Thomas Parr, who is reputed to have
lived 152 years.17
Harvey is a staunch
royalist.18
Harvey is court physician
to James I, and Charles I until Charles
I is beheaded in 1649.19
Harvey is the
doctor of Francis Bacon.20
By 1616,
Harvey has dissected 80 different
species of animal.21
Harvey survives
the English Civil War, although
revolutionaries do break into his home
and destroy some notes and specimens.22
Descartes supports Harvey's theory of
blood circulation.23
In 1653 appears
the first English edition of De motu
cordis, and Harvey's genius is fully
recognized. Harvey gives buildings and
a library to the Royal College of
Physicians.24 This library is in use
for less than 14 years, being destroyed
in the Great Fire of London in 1666, so
that very few of Harvey's books have
survived to the present day.25
In 1654,
Harvey is elected president of the
College of Physicians, but declines the
privilege, preferring to spend his last
years in peace.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
4. ^ "William
Harvey". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
6. ^ "William
Harvey". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
7. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
8. ^ "William Harvey". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
9. ^ "William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
10. ^ "William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
17. ^ "William
Harvey". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
18. ^ "William Harvey". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
24. ^ "William
Harvey". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
25. ^ "William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
27. ^ "William
Harvey". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
28. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health (1616)
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112. (1616)
(1616)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Harvey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Har
vey
London, England27  
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source University
of Texas Libraries, The University of
Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 8 		1654) Baffin thinks that no such path
exists.3
Asimov claims that only for
special ice breaking ships is it
possible (to move directly over the top
of the earth by ship4 ).5 Is there
some short path from Europe to India
over the north pole? Is there water
under the north pole?6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp113-114.
2. ^ "William
Baffin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1729/William-Baffin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp113-114.
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp113-114.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^
"William Baffin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1729/William-Baffin
8. ^ "William Baffin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1729/William-Baffin (1616)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Baffin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Baf
fin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/William%20Baffin
Baffin Bay7  
[1] William Baffin, arctic
explorer Source
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/mag/pages/mnuExplo
re/PaintingDetail.cfm?letter=n&ID=BHC313
2 Date 1624 Author Hendrick van der
Borcht PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Baffin_%28Arctic_explorer%29.
jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 15 16 		1831) Niccolò Zucchi (CE 1586-1670)
builds the earliest known reflecting
telescope.7

This telescope is before the telescopes
of James Gregory and Isaac Newton.8

A reflecting telescope focuses light
reflected off a parabolic shaped
(concave9 ) mirror instead of through a
lens. These telescopes remove the
problem of "chromatic aberration",
found in the glass lens refracting
telescopes. Chromatic aberration is the
way light is separated into it's
component colors when refracted, this
causes objects to appear to be blurred
and have colored edges. The reflecting
telescope has the two advantages of no
light being absorbed by the glass lens
(or reflected back away from the
viewer10 ), and eliminates the
chromatic aberration effect.11

With this telescope Zucchi discovers
the (cloud12 ) belts of the planet
Jupiter (1630) and examines the spots
on Mars (1640).13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
2. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
3. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
4. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
7. ^ "Niccolo
Zucchi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
8. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
14. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1616) (1616)
16. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html (1616)
Rome, Italy14  
[1] Nicolas Zucchi (1586-1670) PD
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/zucchi.html
383 YBN
[1617 AD] 12 		1592) Briggs gets a Masters at
Cambridge in 1585, and lectures in
1592.9
In 1596 Briggs is a professor of
geometry at Greshman College in
London.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp99-100.
2. ^ "Henry
Briggs". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs
3. ^ "Henry Briggs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs
4. ^ "Henry Briggs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^
"Henry Briggs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs
12. ^ "Henry Briggs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs (1617)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Briggs
(mathematician)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Brigg
s_%28mathematician%29

[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-brigg
s-mathematician

[3]
http://research.microsoft.com/~gbell/Cyb
erMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/books.htm

London, England11 (preumably) 
[1] Briggs, Henry (Vlacq,
A.) Arithmetica
Logarithmica London 1624 disbound ID
#: B277.82 LOC: CHM PD
source: http://research.microsoft.com/~g
bell/CyberMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/b
ooks.htm
383 YBN
[1617 AD] 3 		1653)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p113.
2. ^ "Willebrord
Snell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p113. (1617) (1617)

MORE INFO
[1] "Snells law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8375/Snells-law
Leiden, Netherlands2
(presumably) 
[1] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg
383 YBN
[1617 AD] 4 		1852)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Olaus Roemer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaus_Roeme
r
2. ^ "Olaus Roemer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaus_Roeme
r
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Olaus Roemer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaus_Roeme
r (1616/1617)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Galileo Galilei".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Venice, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
381 YBN
[1619 AD] 13 		1632)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
5. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
6. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
8. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
9. ^ Westfall, Never at Rest, pp 143,
152, 402-3; Toulmin and Goodfield, The
Fabric of the Heavens, p 248; De Gandt,
'Force and Geometry in Newton's
Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, History of
Science, Technology and Philosophy, p
150; Westfall, The Construction of
Modern Science, chapters 7 and 8
10. ^
"Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
11. ^ Koyré, The Astronomical
Revolution, p 502
12. ^ "Johannes Kepler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
13. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1619)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from
Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp
302-304
[3] Wolf, A History of Science,
Technology and Philosophy, pp 140-141;
Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p
252
[4] Exploring the Cosmos, 5th Edition,
Berman, Evans, 1986
Linz, Austria12  
[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
381 YBN
[1619 AD] 3 		1643)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), ~110.
2. ^ "Christoph
Scheiner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner
3. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner (1619)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Schei
ner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
Innsbruck, Austria2  
[1] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif

[2] Pantograph, from Book
Pantographice seu ars delineandi, Page
29 Source
http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewe
r/bid=000000920801 Date 1631 Author
Christoph Scheiner PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantograph_by_Christoph_Scheiner.jpg
381 YBN
[1619 AD] 12 		1656) Cysat is a pupil of Scheiner,
enters Jesuit order in 1604 and becomes
a priest.8
Cysat is professor of
mathematics at the Jesiut college of
Ingolstadt in Bavaria.9
In 1611 Cysat
is an early user of the telescope.10
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
2. ^ "Johann Cysat".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Cysa
t
3. ^ "Johann Cysat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Cysa
t
4. ^ "Johann Cysat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Cysa
t
5. ^ "Johann Cysat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Cysa
t
6. ^
http://www.companysj.com/v222/rightoffth
eshelf.htm
7. ^ "Johann Cysat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Cysa
t
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p114.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
11. ^ "Johann Cysat".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Cysa
t
12. ^ "Johann Cysat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Cysa
t (1619)
Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany11  
[1] From
http://www.ingolstadt.de/stadtmuseum/sch
euerer/personen/cysat-01.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cysatus.jpg
380 YBN
[08/??/1620 AD] 6 		1631)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
4. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp 240-264;
Connor, Kepler's Witch, chapters I,
XI-XIII; Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp 21-39
5. ^
"Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
6. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (08/1620)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Linz, Austria5  
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
380 YBN
[1620 AD] 5 		1591)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp98-99.
2. ^ "Francis Bacon".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Bacon?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Francis Bacon". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Bacon?cat
=technology
4. ^ "Francis Bacon Viscount Saint
Alban". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8408/Francis-Bacon-Viscount-Saint-Alban
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1620) (1620)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bac
on
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg

[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1
379 YBN
[1621 AD] 18 		1651) Dutch mathematician, Willebrord
von Roijen Snell (CE 1580-1626),
identifies the law of refraction.3

Snell proves that the angle of light
passing from one material into a
material of different density is not
related to the angle of the light with
the surface as Ptolemy thought, but is
related to the sine of the angle. This
law is called Snell's law.4

Snell's law was first described in a
formal manuscript in a 984 CE writing
by Ibn Sahl,5 6 who used it to work
out the shapes of lenses that focus
light with no geometric aberrations,
known as anaclastic lenses.7

It was described again by Thomas
Harriot in 1602,8 who did not publish
his work.9

Snell produces a new method for
calculating π, the first such
improvement since ancient times.10

The index of refraction of some
substance varies depending on the
wavelength of the light, in other words
the amount a beam of light is bent in
some substance varies depending on the
wavelength of the light.11
In many
media, wave velocity changes with
frequency or wavelength of the wave
moving through it. This is called
dispersion. The result is that the
angles determined by Snell's law also
depend on frequency or wavelength, so
that a ray of mixed wavelengths, such
as white light, will spread or
disperse. Such dispersion of light in
glass or water underlies the origin of
rainbows, and also is the basis of
glass prisms (or else all the beams of
white light would pass through the
prism unseparated)12 , since different
wavelengths appear as different
colors.13 14

In optical instruments, dispersion
leads to chromatic aberration, a
color-dependent blurring that sometimes
is the resolution-limiting effect. This
was especially true in refracting
telescopes, before the invention of
achromatic objective lenses.15 16
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
2. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
3. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p113.
5. ^ Wolf, K. B.
(1995), "Geometry and dynamics in
refracting systems", European Journal
of Physics 16: 14-20.
6. ^ Rashed, Roshdi
(1990). "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn
Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses".
Isis 81: 464-491. DOI:10.1086/355456.
7. ^ "Snell's law's
law". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell%27s_l
aw
8. ^ Kwan, A., Dudley, J., and Lantz,
E. (2002). "Who really discovered
Snell's law?". Physics World 15 (4):
64.
9. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
10. ^ "Snells law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8375/Snells-law
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Wolf, K. B. (1995),
"Geometry and dynamics in refracting
systems", European Journal of Physics
16: 14-20.
13. ^ "Snell's law's law".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell%27s_l
aw
14. ^ "Dispersion (optics)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_
%28optics%29
15. ^ "Snell's law's law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell%27s_l
aw
16. ^ "Dispersion (optics)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_
%28optics%29
17. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
18. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell (1621)
Leiden, Netherlands17
(presumably) 
[1] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg

[2] Snell's law equation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sne
ll%27s_law#_ref-4
379 YBN
[1621 AD] 16 		1662) In 1616 Gassendi gets a docterate
in theology.7
Gassendi's work will
affect Boyle.8
Gassendi vigorously
opposes Descartes' view, and Harvey's
theory of blood circulation.9
Gassendi
is friends with the French playwright
Moliére.10
In 1645 Gassendi is a
professor of Mathematics at the
Collége Royale at Paris.11

Even though the Paris parliament
declares in 1624 that on penalty of
death "no person should either hold or
teach any doctrine opposed to
Aristotle," Gassendi publishes in the
same year his
"Excertitationes...adversus
Aristoteleos" ("Dissertations...against
Aristotle"), the first of his many
works attacking both medieval
Scholasticism and Aristotelianism.12
Because Marin Mersenne and the Pierre
Gassendi (1592-1655) are Catholic
priests they do not suffer persecution,
for their published attacks on
Aristotle, but those judged to be
heretics continue to be burned, and
laymen lack church protection.

Adopting the hedonistic ethics of
Epicurus, which sought to maximize
pleasure and minimize pain, Gassendi
reinterpreted the concept of pleasure
in a distinctly Christian way. Gassendi
believes that God endowed humans with
free will and an innate desire for
pleasure. Therefore by experiencing
pleasure13 they are participating in
God's divine plans for the creation.14

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
6. ^ "Pierre
Gassendi". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
12. ^ "Pierre
Gassendi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
13. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-433
52/Rene-Descartes
14. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
15. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1621) (1621)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Gassendi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6159/Pierre-Gassendi
Paris, France15 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
378 YBN
[1622 AD] 7 		1639) Oughtred was educated at Eton
College and at King's College,
Cambridge, where he received his
bachelor's degree (1596) and master's
degree (1600).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp109-110.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp109-110.
3. ^ "William
Oughtred". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7717/William-Oughtred
4. ^ "William Oughtred". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oug
htred
5. ^ "William Oughtred". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7717/William-Oughtred
6. ^ "William Oughtred". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oug
htred
7. ^ "William Oughtred". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oug
htred (1622)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/William+Oughtred+
?cat=technology
Albury, Surrey, England6
(presumably) 
[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg
377 YBN
[1623 AD] 5 		1609)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1623)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Galileo Galilei".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Florence, Italy4 (presumably) 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
377 YBN
[1623 AD] 5 		1633)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^
"Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1623)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[3] Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from
Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp
302-304
[4] Wolf, A History of Science,
Technology and Philosophy, pp 140-141;
Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p
252
[5] Westfall, Never at Rest, pp 143,
152, 402-3; Toulmin and Goodfield, The
Fabric of the Heavens, p 248; De Gandt,
'Force and Geometry in Newton's
Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, History of
Science, Technology and Philosophy, p
150; Westfall, The Construction of
Modern Science, chapters 7 and 8
[6]
Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, p
502
Linz, Austria4  
[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 5 		1593)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp99-100.
2. ^ "Henry Briggs".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs
3. ^ "Henry Briggs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs
4. ^
http://research.microsoft.com/~gbell/Cyb
erMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/books.htm

5. ^ "Henry Briggs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6449/Henry-Briggs (1624)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Briggs
(mathematician)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Brigg
s_%28mathematician%29
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-brigg
s-mathematician
London, England4  
[1] Briggs, Henry (Vlacq,
A.) Arithmetica
Logarithmica London 1624 disbound ID
#: B277.82 LOC: CHM PD
source: http://research.microsoft.com/~g
bell/CyberMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/b
ooks.htm
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 5 		1610)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1624)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Galileo Galilei".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Rome, Italy4  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 3 		1667)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
2. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
3. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1624)
Paris, France2   
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 8 		6241) Submarine.5

Cornelis Drebbel (1572-1633), a Dutch
inventor, is usually credited with
building the first submarine. Between
1620 and 1624 he successfully maneuvers
his craft at depths of from 4 to 5
meters beneath the surface during
repeated trials in the Thames River, in
England. King James I is said to have
gone aboard the craft for a short ride.
Drebbel's submarine resembles that
proposed earlier by William Bourne in
1578, in that its outer hull consists
of greased leather over a wooden frame;
oars extend through the sides and,
sealed with tight-fitting leather
flaps, providing a means of propulsion
both on the surface and underwater.
Drebbel's first craft is followed by
two larger ones built on the same
principle.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
2. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
3. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
4. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
5. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
6. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
7. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
8. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>. {1624}
Thames River, England7  
[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg

[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg
373 YBN
[1627 AD] 2 		1188)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mining". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining
2. ^ "Mining". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining
Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia  
373 YBN
[1627 AD] 10 11 		1634)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
4. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp 308-328
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
9. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
10. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1627)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108. (1627)
(1627)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Ulm, Germany9  
[1] from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-2966/Fr
ontispiece-from-Tabulae-Rudolphinae-by-J
ohannes-Kepler?articleTypeId=1 Frontisp
iece from Tabulae Rudolphinae (1627;
''Rudolphine Tables'') by Johannes
Kepler. This is one of the most famous
and richly symbolic images in the
history of science. The figures, from
left to right, are the astronomers
Hipparchus, Nicolaus Copernicus, an
anonymous ancient observer, Tycho
Brahe, and Ptolemy, each surrounded by
symbols of their work. The pillars in
the background are made of wood; those
in the foreground are made of brick and
marble, symbolizing the progress of
astronomy. Astronomical instruments
serve as decorations. The figures on
the cornice symbolize mathematical
sciences; Kepler's patron, the Holy
Roman emperor Rudolph II, is
represented by the eagle. On the base,
from left to right, are Kepler in his
study, a map of Tycho Brahe's island of
Ven, and a printing press. The writing
at the bottom is Kepler's; this copy
was given by him to a friend, Benjamin
Ursinus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0310.jpg

[2] World map in: ''Tabulae
Rudolphinae : quibus astronomicae
....'' by Johannes Kepler, 1627.
Source: NOAA
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-world.jpg
372 YBN
[1628 AD] 13 14 		1645) Harvey's book makes him famous
throughout Europe, though the overthrow
of so many traditional beliefs attracts
virulent attacks and abuse from lesser
minds. Harvey refuses to indulge in
controversy and makes no reply until
1649, when he publishes a small book
answering the criticisms of a French
anatomist, Jean Riolan.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
2. ^ "William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^
"William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
11. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
12. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
13. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health (1628)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112. (1628)
(1628)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Harvey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Har
vey
London, England11 printed in:
Frankfurt, Germany12  
[1] Woodcut depicting William Harvey's
theory of the circulation of blood,
from his Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu
Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus
(1628). The Granger Collection, New
York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15453/Woodcut-depicting-William-Harveys
-theory-of-the-circulation-of-blood?arti
cleTypeId=1

[2] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
371 YBN
[1629 AD] 14 		1672) Cavalieri joins the Jesuit order
in 1615.10
In 1629, Cavalieri is
appointed professor of mathematics of
the University of Bologna11
Cavaliei
meets Galileo, corresponds with and
considers himself a disciple of
Galileo.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
3. ^ "Bonaventura
Cavalieri". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bonaventura+Caval
ieri?cat=technology
4. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaventura
_Cavalieri
7. ^ Needham, Volume 3, 143.
8. ^
"Bonaventura Cavalieri". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
9. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
11. ^ "Bonaventura
Cavalieri". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
13. ^ "Bonaventura
Cavalieri". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
14. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri (1629)
written: Bologna, Italy13  
[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm

[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg
370 YBN
[1630 AD] 5 		1649) Wendelin is also known by the
Latin name Vendelinus.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp112-113.
2. ^ "Godefroy
Wendelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godefroy_We
ndelin
3. ^ "Godefroy Wendelin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godefroy_We
ndelin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Godefroy Wendelin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godefroy_We
ndelin (1630)
Belgium4 (presumably)  
370 YBN
[1630 AD] 4 		3347)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), ~110.
2. ^
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/scheiner.htm
l
3. ^
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/scheiner.htm
l
4. ^
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/scheiner.htm
l {1630}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Schei
ner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
[3]
http://journal.utarts.com/articles.php?i
d=3&type=paper
[4] "Christoph Scheiner." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/christoph-s
cheiner
[5] "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner (01/12/1612)
[6]
http://www.christoph-scheiner.com/
Rome, Italy3  
[1] Sunspots (Rosa Ursina,
1630) PD/Corel
source: http://galileo.rice.edu/images/t
hings/scheiner_rosa_ursina3-l.gif

[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 5 		1640)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp109-110.
2. ^ "William
Oughtred". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7717/William-Oughtred
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp109-110.
4. ^ "William
Oughtred". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oug
htred
5. ^ "William Oughtred". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oug
htred (1631)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/William+Oughtred+
?cat=technology
Arundel, West Sussex, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 14 		1655)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
2. ^ "Pierre
Vernier". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Vernier?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "Pierre Vernier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5131/Pierre-Vernier
4. ^ "Pierre Vernier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Vernier?ca
t=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted
Huntington
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
11. ^ "Pierre
Vernier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5131/Pierre-Vernier
12. ^ "Pierre Vernier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5131/Pierre-Vernier
13. ^ "Pierre Vernier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Vernier?ca
t=technology
14. ^ "Pierre Vernier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Vernier?ca
t=technology (1631)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Vernier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Vern
ier
Ornans, France12 13 (presumably: birth
and death location) 
[1] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif

[2] Zoom-in on ''Messschieber.jpg''
from commons made by danish user
Ultraman. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Close_up_of_vernier_scale.jpg
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 8 		1663) Gassendi is the first person to
see the transit of a planet across the
face of the Sun.4 This transit is
predicted by Kepler, and arrives within
5 hours of Kepler's estimated time.5
One reason for these variable times are
the incalculable affects, such as the
movement of liquids such as water, and
metals that planets and stars are
composed of, in addition to the many
asteroids which exert small
gravitational affects. A perfect system
of planetary and star prediction
appears to be impossible, and because
the affects of uncountable atoms and
molecules can not be accurately
calculated, estimates of position for
all larger composite pieces of matter
must be constantly updated.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
3. ^ "transit."
Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transit
4. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6159/Pierre-Gassendi
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "Pierre
Gassendi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 14 		1664) Gassendi is the first person to
measure the velocity of sound, and
shows that the velocity of sound is
independent of its pitch. Aristotle had
claimed that high notes travel faster
than low notes.9

Gassendi measures the time difference
between spotting the flash of a gun and
hearing it the sound over a long
distance on a still day. In the 1650s,
Italian physicists Giovanni Alfonso
Borelli and Vincenzo Viviani obtained
the much better value of 350 metres per
second using the same technique.10]

Gassendi obtains the too high figure of
about 478 meters per second (1,570 feet
per second).10 (actual units11 ) The
current estimate for the speed of sound
in for dry air at 0 degrees C is 331.29
meters per second (1,086 feet per
second 742 mph).12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
5. ^ "acoustics".
Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/4044/acoustics/64048/Measuring-t
he-speed-of-sound>.
6. ^ "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "table?tocId=9116240".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId
=9116240
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
10. ^ "acoustics".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "table?tocId=9116240".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId
=9116240
13. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Gassendi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6159/Pierre-Gassendi
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
Paris, France13 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
368 YBN
[1632 AD] 10 		1606)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
2. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
4. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
9. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1632) (1632)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Venice, Italy9  
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
367 YBN
[06/22/1633 AD] 5 6 		1611)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
4. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (06/22/1633)
(06/22/1633)
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (06/22/1633)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Rome, Italy4  
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
367 YBN
[1633 AD] 25 26 		1666) French Philosopher and
mathematician, René Descartes (CE
1596-1650) (DAKoRT)11 describes the
law of inertia (a body preserves its
motion12 )13 and compares light to a
ball.14

Descartes book "Le Monde ou Traité de
la lumière"15 ("The World or Treatise
on Light"16 ) includes the earliest
clear statement of the principle of
inertia17 , that a body will preserve
its state of motion or rest18 .

Also in this book, Descartes compares
reflection of light to reflection of a
ball against the wall of a tennis
court19 , but does not explicitly state
that light is made of particles20 .
Newton will use the example of a tennis
ball in being the first to publish the
clearly stated theory of light being
made of globular bodies in 1672.21 22

Descartes supressed both "Traite de
l'homme" and "Traite de lumiere" after
the condemnation of Galileo in 1633.23

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science . Oxford University
Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 11
Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
2. ^ Richard J. Blackwell, "Descartes'
Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
3. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light",
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
5. ^ "inertia." The
Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science .
Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006,
2007. Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
6. ^ Richard J. Blackwell, "Descartes'
Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
7. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light",
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
9. ^ Richard J.
Blackwell, "Descartes' Laws of Motion",
Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2 (Summer, 1966),
pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
10. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light",
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
12. ^ "inertia." The
Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science .
Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006,
2007. Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
13. ^ Richard J. Blackwell, "Descartes'
Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
14. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light",
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm
15. ^ "Descartes, Rene Du Perron",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp244-246.
16. ^
http://translate.google.com/?hl=en#auto
17. ^ Richard J. Blackwell, "Descartes'
Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
18. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science . Oxford University
Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 11
Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
19. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light",
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ A Letter of Mr. Isaac
Newton ... containing his New Theory
about Light and Colors by Isaac
Newton Source: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/texts/viewtext.php?id=NATP0000
6&mode=normalized
22. ^ Record ID1829. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Descartes"< Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography", 2000, p246.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes

MORE INFO
[1] "The World (Descartes)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
[2]
http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Des
cartes/extraits/le_monde/le_monde.doc
[3] "Rene Descartes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes (1633)
[4] "Rene
Descartes". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes>
Netherlands (presumably)24  
[1] The balls of the ''second element''
which I think is a theory of particles
similar to an aether that fill empty
space, but its not clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif

[2] Drawing of star systems together
from Le Monde[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/world2.gif
366 YBN
[1634 AD] 5 		1659)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
2. ^ "Marin
Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
4. ^ "Marin
Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
5. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1634)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Merse
nne
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
366 YBN
[1634 AD] 5 		3344)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://vision.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/vision
Docs?url=http://nausikaa2.mpiwg-berlin.m
pg.de/digitallibrary/servlet/Texter?fn=/
permanent/vision/elib/Bate_Mysteries_3_1
634/index.meta&mode=texttool
2. ^
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/mon
th/nov2003.html
3. ^
http://www.riley-smith.com/hamish/docume
nt_view.php?cat=1&doc=89
4. ^
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/mon
th/nov2003.html
5. ^
http://vision.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/vision
Docs?url=http://nausikaa2.mpiwg-berlin.m
pg.de/digitallibrary/servlet/Texter?fn=/
permanent/vision/elib/Bate_Mysteries_3_1
634/index.meta&mode=texttool

MORE INFO
[1] "The Mysteries of Nature and
Art". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mysteri
es_of_Nature_and_Art
[2]
http://eebo.chadwyck.com/search/full_rec
?SOURCE=pgimages.cfg&ACTION=ByID&ID=V211
09 {scan of book}
[3]
http://eebo.chadwyck.com/search/full_rec
?SOURCE=pgthumbs.cfg&ACTION=ByID&ID=9983
6884&FILE=../session/1214429096_15152&SE
ARCHSCREEN=CITATIONS&SEARCHCONFIG=var_sp
ell.cfg&DISPLAY=AUTHOR
London, England4  
[1] title-page of book 2Title page of
second edition PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/ima
ges/exhibitions/month/Aib53/Aib53_maintp
wf.jpg

[2] The beginning of the section on
fireworks boasts its own title-page.
This is illustrated with a woodcut
depicting a 'green man' wielding a fire
club. With obscure and mythical
origins, 'green men' dressed in foliage
and garlands traditionally led
processions of fireworkers from
medieval times. PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/ima
ges/exhibitions/month/Aib53/Aib53_00tp2w
f.jpg
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 11 		1657) Mersenne is a schoolmate of
Descarte, but goes on to enter the
church, joining the Minim Friars in
1611.7
Mersenne suggests to Huygens the
idea of timing rolling bodies down a
plane by use of a pendulum, which
inspires Huygens to invent the first
pendulum clock.8
Mersenne's house is an
important meeting-place for
philosophers and scientists: the young
Pascal met Descartes there in 1647.
Gassendi is one of his close friends.
Mersenne is associated with the origins
of mechanistic philosophy.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
2. ^ "Marin
Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
3. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
9. ^ "Marin
Mersenne". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
10. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
11. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1635)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Merse
nne
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 16 		1660) Frequencies of sounds measured.7


Marin Mersenne (mRSeN) (CE 1588-1648),
French Mathematician8 , publishes the
multipart "Harmonie universelle"
(1636-37)9 , which discusses mechanics,
as well as music theory and musical
instruments10 , and includes the first
recorded measurement of frequency of
sound (84 cycles per second)11 .

Mersenne writes: "If one compares two
or more strings fixed by the two ends,
one can say that the longest one
vibrates a longer time than the
shortest, and that the length of time
follows that of the strings; and
because the longest make fewer returns
{ULSF: oscillations} than the shortest
in the same time, it appears that all
the strings which are different only in
length each make as many retyrns as the
others, and consequently that the
duration of the returns of the longest
makes up for the speed of those of the
shortest, which amass in little time
what the longest makes in more. It is
very easy to know the number of beats
or oscillations of all the strings of
whatever instrument one wishes, if one
has understood what I have said of
these tremblings...the string which is
in unison with a four-foot, open organ
pipe makes 48 vibrations in ..a second,
which is the duration of a heart
beat... Secondly, that the vibrations
of a strings are multiplied in the same
proportion as the sounds become higher
in pitch; and consequently when one
knows the number of vibrations of a
string, the pitch of which one knows,
one knows as well the number of
vibrations of all sorts of strings, the
pitches of which one recognizes.".12

Usually A above middle C is taken as a
reference pitch. The frequency used for
A, since 1939 440 vibrations per second
(440 Hertz), has changed many times
over the years. Marsenne describes this
A at 480 vibrations per second13 , but
it has been as low as 415 vibrations
per second.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
2. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
4. ^ "Pitch (music)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_%28mu
sic%29
5. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
6. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
7. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
9. ^ Marin Marsenne,
tr: R. E. Chapman, "Harmonie
Universelle", 1635, 1957, p64,
p193-195.
10. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
11. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Merse
nne
12. ^ Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p64, p193-195.
13. ^ Marin Marsenne, tr: R.
E. Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle",
1635, 1957, p64, p194.
14. ^ "pitch".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/719057/pitch>.
15. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
16. ^ Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
[2] "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1637)
Paris, France15 (presumably) 
[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.

[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 7 		1669) In 1623 Gellibrand gets his
Masters at Oxford.2
Gellibrand is a
Professor of astronomy at Gresham
College in 1627.3
Gellibrand is a
friend of Briggs.4
In 1631 Gellibrand
gets in trouble for puritan views with
Anglican people but is acquitted.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ asimov, p118.
2. ^ asimov, p118.
3. ^ asimov,
p118.
4. ^ asimov, p118.
5. ^ asimov, p118.
6. ^ asimov,
p118.
7. ^ asimov, p118. (1635)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terre
strial-luminaries/timeline.html
?, England6  
[1] Henry Gellibrand Discovered the
secular (change over years) variation
of magnetic declination. (Gellibrand,
H., Epitome of Navigation, London,
Printed by Andr. Clark for William
Fisher, 1674 - published many decades
after his death). PD
source: http://www.geophys.tu-bs.de/gesc
hichte/gellibrand.htm
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 4 		1673)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
2. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
3. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
4. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri (1635)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaventura
_Cavalieri
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Bonaventura+Caval
ieri?cat=technology
written: Bologna, Italy3
(presumably) 
[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm

[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 5 		3345)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://vision.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/vision
Docs?url=http://nausikaa2.mpiwg-berlin.m
pg.de/digitallibrary/servlet/Texter?fn=/
permanent/vision/elib/Bate_Mysteries_3_1
634/index.meta&mode=texttool
2. ^
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/resul
ts.asp?image=10329122&wwwflag=2&imagepos
=8
3. ^ Bate, John, "The mysteries of
nature and art Date", 1635,
p30. http://eebo.chadwyck.com/search/fu
ll_rec?SOURCE=pgimages.cfg&ACTION=ByID&I
D=99836884&FILE=../session/1214429096_15
152&SEARCHSCREEN=CITATIONS&VID=1176&PAGE
NO=21&ZOOM=FIT&VIEWPORT=&SEARCHCONFIG=va
r_spell.cfg&DISPLAY=AUTHOR&HIGHLIGHT_KEY
WORD=
4. ^
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/mon
th/nov2003.html
5. ^
http://eebo.chadwyck.com/search/full_rec
?SOURCE=pgthumbs.cfg&ACTION=ByID&ID=9983
6884&FILE=../session/1214429096_15152&SE
ARCHSCREEN=CITATIONS&SEARCHCONFIG=var_sp
ell.cfg&DISPLAY=AUTHOR {1635}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Mysteries of Nature and
Art". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mysteri
es_of_Nature_and_Art
[2]
http://eebo.chadwyck.com/search/full_rec
?SOURCE=pgimages.cfg&ACTION=ByID&ID=V211
09 {scan of book}
[3]
http://www.riley-smith.com/hamish/docume
nt_view.php?cat=1&doc=89
[4] "zoetrope." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/z
oetrope>.
London, England4  
[1] [t image and description of early
zoetrope 1635] PD/Corel
source: http://eebo.chadwyck.com/fetchim
age?vid=1176&page=21&width=629

[2] title-page of book 2Title page of
second edition PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/ima
ges/exhibitions/month/Aib53/Aib53_maintp
wf.jpg
364 YBN
[1636 AD] 4 		1219) Havard College is now the
undergraduate section and oldest school
of Harvard University.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges
2. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008, p105.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges
3. ^ "Harvard College". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Col
lege
4. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges

MORE INFO
[1] "Harvard University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Uni
versity
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg
364 YBN
[1636 AD] 16 		1697) Gascoigne dies in the English
Civil War as a royalist for King
Charles I.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "Micrometer#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometer#
History
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
4. ^
"Micrometer#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometer#
History
5. ^ "Micrometer#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometer#
History
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp125-126.
7. ^ "William
Gascoigne". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gas
coigne_(scientist)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp125-126.
9. ^
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap43.html
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Ted
Huntington
13. ^
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap43.html
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp125-126.
16. ^
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap43.html (1636)
 
[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm

[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 4 		1615)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
3. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105. (1637)
(1637)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Florence, Italy3  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 13 		1668) René Descartes (CE 1596-1650)
(DAKoRT) describes the Cartesian
coordinate system, where points are
plotted on at two dimensional graph, in
"La Géométrie" ("Geometry") which is
published as an appendix to "Discours
de la méthode" ("Discourse on
Method").8 9 10

The Cartesian coordinate system is the
familiar two dimensional graph where
points on a plane can be drawn, x along
a horizontal line, and y along a
vertical line, in order to plot curves.
Descartes is the first to recognize
that every point in a plane can be
represented by two numbers, for example
(-2,3), which can represent two units
left and three units up. This makes a
new way to visualize mathematical
functions such as y=2x+3. This connects
algebra and geometry.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Discourse on the Method
("Discours de la Methode"). An
introduction to Dioptrique, Des
Météores and La Géométrie. Original
in French, because intended for a wider
public., 1637 English: tr: John
Veitch, "Discourse on the Method of
Rightly Conducting the Reason, and
Seeking Truth in the Sciences",
1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
2. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
3. ^ Discourse on the Method ("Discours
de la Methode"). An introduction to
Dioptrique, Des Météores and La
Géométrie. Original in French,
because intended for a wider public.,
1637 English: tr: John Veitch,
"Discourse on the Method of Rightly
Conducting the Reason, and Seeking
Truth in the Sciences", 1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
4. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
5. ^ Discourse on the Method ("Discours
de la Methode"). An introduction to
Dioptrique, Des Météores and La
Géométrie. Original in French,
because intended for a wider public.,
1637 English: tr: John Veitch,
"Discourse on the Method of Rightly
Conducting the Reason, and Seeking
Truth in the Sciences", 1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
6. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
8. ^ Discourse on the
Method ("Discours de la Methode"). An
introduction to Dioptrique, Des
Météores and La Géométrie. Original
in French, because intended for a wider
public., 1637 English: tr: John
Veitch, "Discourse on the Method of
Rightly Conducting the Reason, and
Seeking Truth in the Sciences",
1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
9. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
12. ^
"Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118. (1637)
(1637)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
Netherlands (presumably)12  
[1] Portrait of René Descartes by
Frans Hals (1648) Description René
Descartes, french philosopher (Oil on
canvas, 68 x 77, Owned by the Musée du
Louvre Paris) Source No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1648 Author Frans Hals PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Descartes.jpg

[2] Scientist: Descartes, René (1596
- 1650) Discipline(s): Physics ;
Mathematics Print Artist: William
Holl Medium: Engraving Original
Artist: Franz Hals, ca.1582-1666
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 25.5 x 17.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 4 		1706)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
2. ^ "Imaginary
number#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_n
umber#History
3. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
4. ^ "Imaginary number#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_n
umber#History (1637)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Descartes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
[3] "The World (Descartes)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
Netherlands (presumably)3  
[1] Portrait of René Descartes by
Frans Hals (1648) Description René
Descartes, french philosopher (Oil on
canvas, 68 x 77, Owned by the Musée du
Louvre Paris) Source No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1648 Author Frans Hals PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Descartes.jpg

[2] Scientist: Descartes, René (1596
- 1650) Discipline(s): Physics ;
Mathematics Print Artist: William
Holl Medium: Engraving Original
Artist: Franz Hals, ca.1582-1666
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 25.5 x 17.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
362 YBN
[1638 AD] 14 		1612)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p155.
2. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ William Tobin, "The Life
and Science of Léon Foucault",
Cambridge University Press, 2003, p118.
6. ^
Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences,
(Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974)
p. 50.
7. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p118.
8. ^ "Galileo
Galilei". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
9. ^ I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the
First Determination of the Velocity of
Light (1676)," Isis, 31 (1940):
327-379, see pp. 332-333
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
12. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
13. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
14. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1638)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Leiden, Netherlands and Florence,
Italy13  
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
362 YBN
[1638 AD] 7 		1701)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francis Godwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_God
win
2. ^ "Francis Godwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_God
win
3. ^ "Francis Godwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_God
win
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
5. ^ "Francis
Godwin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_God
win
6. ^ "Francis Godwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_God
win
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126. (1638) (1638)
England6  
[1] Figure 1: [Francis Godwin], The Man
in the Moone; or, A Discourse of a
Voyage Thither; by F.G., B. of H.; to
which is added Nuncius inanimatus,
written in Latin by the same author,
and now Englished by a person of worth
(London, 1657), frontispiece and title
page. Huntington Library rare book
145245. Reproduced with permission. PD

source: http://www.historycooperative.or
g/journals/ahr/111.4/cressy.html

[2] Godwin, Francis (1562-1633) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/G/Godwin.html
361 YBN
[1639 AD] 6 7 		1387)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
4. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
5. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
6. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
7. ^ "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story

MORE INFO
[1] "Hôtel-Dieu de Québec".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu_de_Qu%C3%A9bec
Quebec, New France (modern Canada)4 5
 
[1] L'hôtel Dieu de Québec Copyright
© 2002-04 (Créations Chez
Magy) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ph-ludwigsburg.de/htm
l/2b-frnz-s-01/overmann/baf4/quebec/inde
x.html
361 YBN
[1639 AD] 4 		1661)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
3. ^ "Marin
Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
4. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1639)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Merse
nne
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
361 YBN
[1639 AD] 24 25 		1708) Jeremiah Horrocks (CE 1618-1641),
is the first human to observe the
transit of Venus.9 10

Horrocks suggests that (by recording
the time11 ) of the Venus transit from
various observatories around the earth,
the parallax of Venus can be measured.
This parallax can then be used to
understand the scale of the star
system. This eventually will be done.12

Horrocks is first to show that the moon
moves around the earth in an ellipse
with the earth at one focus, which
Kepler did not understand.13

From Kepler's recently published
Rudolphine Tables (1627), Horrocks
works out that a transit of Venus is
due on November 24th, 1639 at 3 p.m.14


Horrocks will record an account of this
day in his "Venus in Sole Visa" ("Venus
in the Face of the Sun"), printed
posthumously by Hevelius15 in 1662.16
The day is cloudy but at 3.15, "as if
by divine interposition" the clouds
disperse. Horrocks notes a spot of
unusual size on the solar disc and
begins to trace its path. Horrocks then
writes, "she was not visible to me
longer than half an hour, on account of
the Sun quickly setting."17

Horrocks corrects the Rudolphine tables
of Kepler's in regard to the transit of
Venus.18

Horrocks also attempts to determine the
solar parallax calculating 15",
compared with a modern value of 8".8.19
 Horrocks estimates the distance of the
Sun from the Earth more correctly than
anyone else had done before.20

Horrocks is the first astronomer to
accept Kepler's elliptical orbits
fully.21

Horrocks is the first of record to
understand that the irregularities in
the orbit of the Moon might be the
result of the Sun, and that Jupiter and
Saturn might exert an influence on each
other. This is a preview of the theory
of universal gravitation that will be
first understood by Newton.22
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
2. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
4. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
6. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
7. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jeremiah+Horrocks
?cat=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p128.
10. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p128.
14. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jeremiah+Horrocks
?cat=technology
15. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jeremiah+Horrocks
?cat=technology
16. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jeremiah+Horrocks
?cat=technology
17. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jeremiah+Horrocks
?cat=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
19. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jeremiah+Horrocks
?cat=technology
20. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jeremiah+Horrocks
?cat=technology
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p128.
23. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
24. ^ Ted Huntington. (11/24/1639 (Old
Style (Julian?)
25. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks (11/24/1639 (Old
Style (Julian?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Ho
rrocks
Hoole, Lancashire, England23
(presumably) 
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg

[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 4 		1665)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Pierre Gassendi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
4. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology (1640)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre Gassendi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6159/Pierre-Gassendi
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 16 		1700) In 1627 Wilkens enters Oxford at
age 13.8
In 1634 Wilkens earns a
masters degree at age 20, and is
ordained a priest9 few years later.10

Wilkens marries the sister of Oliver
Cromwell.11 12
Wilkens is the only
person to have headed a college at both
the University of Oxford and the
University of Cambridge.13
Wilkens
serves as Bishop of Chester from 1668
until his death.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
4. ^ "John Wilkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkin
s
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
6. ^ "John Wilkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkin
s
7. ^ Metric system 'was British' - from
the BBC video news,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/player/nol/newsid_
6890000/newsid_6898200/6898274.stm?bw=nb
&mp=wm&news=1&ms3=10
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
12. ^ "John
Wilkins". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkin
s
13. ^ "John Wilkins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkin
s
14. ^ "John Wilkins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkin
s
15. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126. (1640) (1640)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wilkins+?cat
=technology
England15  
[1] John Wilkins PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wilkins.jpg

[2] The Discovery of a World in the
Moone: or, A Discourse Tending To Prove
that 'tis probable there may be another
habitable World in that Planet. PD
source: http://www.uh.edu/engines/Invent
ingtimespace/wilkinsbook.gif
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 25 		1718) Pascal is an infant prodigy4 in
math5 and science6 .
In 1648 Pascal will
adopt Jansenism (a Roman Catholic sect
founded by Cornelius Jansen,
emphasizing original sin, that is that
all humans are born sinful, and without
divine help a human can never become
good.7 Jansenism is marked by strong
anti-Jesuit feeling8 , Jesuits are a
Roman Catholic religious order founded
by Saint Ignatius of Loyola, whose
members are sometimes refered to as the
"soliers of Christ" and the "foot
soldiers of the Pope"9 ), and turns to
religious writing, including "Pensées"
("thoughts"10 ) (published
posthumously)11 . In "Pensées" Pascal
states his belief in the inadequacy of
reason to solve man's difficulties or
to satisfy his hopes and preaches
instead the necessity of mystic faith
for true understanding of the universe
and its meaning to man.12 In his last
years Pascal declares reason an
insufficient tool to understanding the
universe and Asimov says he had thus
retreated beyond Thales.13

Pascal writes 18 Lettres provinciales
(Provincial Letters14 )(January
1656-March 1657) against the Jesuits
using the pseudonym Louis de Montalte
and angers Louis XIV. The king orders
that the book be shredded and burnt in
1660.15 The first ten letters
constitute a dialog between a naïve
enquirer (presented as the writer of
the letters), a friendly Jansenist, and
some Jesuit priests.16 The letters are
popular, and will be placed on the
Catholic Church's Index of Prohibited
Books in 1657.17

Pascal's sister Gilberte tells of his
asceticism, of his dislike of seeing
her caress her children, and of his
apparent revulsion from talk of
feminine beauty.18

One of Pascal's famous quotes is
Pascal's wager: "Belief is a wise
wager. Granted that faith cannot be
proved, what harm will come to you if
you gamble on its truth and it proves
false? If you gain, you gain all; if
you lose, you lose nothing. Wager,
then, without hesitation, that He
exists."19 In my own view, it is
idiocy and delusion to support the idea
of a god, because it is such an easily
concept to disprove, being that humans
only recently evolved language, and
created numerous gods...it's like
living for the teapot that might be
orbiting Mars...it's idiocy, and all
the evidence is against any kind of
divine punishment for not conforming to
popular religious myths and claims.
This shows clearly that Pascal, like so
many in history, lacked the wisdom and
education to see beyond the claims of
religions. The arrogance of those who
claim to know what a god is and wants
is almost as bad as the myth of gods
itself. I am glad to be one of the few
humans in this time, who will be
recognized as not being duped by
religions including the all-popular and
powerful Godism.20

Pascal suffers increasingly after 1658
from head pains, and dies on in 1662 at
age 3921 .22
18 months before Pascal's
death, he devises a system of cheap
public transport for Paris, the
so-called ‘carrosses à cinq sols".23

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
5. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008.
Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
6. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Jansenism". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jansenism
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
9. ^ "Jesuits".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuits
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
12. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
14. ^ "Blaise
Pascal". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
15. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
16. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
17. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
18. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
19. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Quotations.
Quotations Book, 2008. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
20. ^ Ted Huntington
21. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
22. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
23. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
24. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
25. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology (1640)
Paris, France24 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
359 YBN
[1641 AD] 7 		1698) Sylvius gets his Medical (health
science/physician3 ) degree from Basel,
Switzerland.4
In 1658, Sylvius is a
professor of medicine at the University
of Leiden.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
2. ^
"Franciscus Sylvius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p126.
6. ^ "Franciscus Sylvius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius
7. ^ "Franciscus Sylvius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius (1641)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Sylvius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Sylvius
Leiden, Netherlands6
(presumably) 
[1] Franciscus Sylvius, detail of an
engraving. BBC Hulton Picture Library
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14633/Franciscus-Sylvius-detail-of-an-e
ngraving

[2] Franciscus Sylvius Pildiallkiri:
Franciscus Deleboe Sylvius, Medicinæ,
practicæ in academia Lugduno-Batava
professor. Allikas:
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/sylvius
f.jpg PD
source: http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil
t:Sylviusf.jpg
359 YBN
[1641 AD] 15 		1699)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
2. ^ "Franciscus
Sylvius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Sylvius
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
4. ^ "Franciscus
Sylvius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Sylvius
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
9. ^ "Franciscus
Sylvius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
11. ^ "Franciscus
Sylvius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius
12. ^ "Franciscus Sylvius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
14. ^ "Franciscus
Sylvius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius
15. ^ "Franciscus Sylvius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0713/Franciscus-Sylvius (1641)
Leiden, Netherlands14
(presumably) 
[1] Franciscus Sylvius, detail of an
engraving. BBC Hulton Picture Library
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14633/Franciscus-Sylvius-detail-of-an-e
ngraving

[2] Franciscus Sylvius Pildiallkiri:
Franciscus Deleboe Sylvius, Medicinæ,
practicæ in academia Lugduno-Batava
professor. Allikas:
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/sylvius
f.jpg PD
source: http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil
t:Sylviusf.jpg
359 YBN
[1641 AD] 14 15 16 17 		6244) Repeating gun.8 9

A repeating rifle is a firearm designed
for use with a magazine of cartridges,
each of which is fed into the chamber
or breech by lever, bolt action, or
some other method. Before the invention
of the cartridge that contains powder,
ball, and primer, a repeater has to
have separate magazines for powder and
ball. Alternative arrangements are
multiple barrels, multiple breeches,
and the loading of several shots into
one barrel and igniting the outermost
charge, which would eject its ball and
ignite the next charge. The first
effective breech-loading and repeating
flintlock firearms are developed in the
early 1600s.10

In this year, 1641, Peter Kalthoff is
granted a monopoly on magazine guns in
the Netherlands.11

(At some time, the light particle as
ammunition, and microscopic remote
controlled gun became the most
effective and dominant weapon on Earth,
surpassing the hand-held automatic
ballistic gun.12 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
2. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
3. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
4. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
5. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
6. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
7. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
8. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
9. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
10. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
11. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353&
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The new weapons of the
world encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353&
14. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353& {1641}
15. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html {1641}
16. ^ "repeating rifle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>. {early
1600s}
17. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p49. {1836}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeff Kinard, "Pistols: an
illustrated history of their impact",
2004, p37-38.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVnuHX_
6bG0C&pg=PA37
Netherlands13  
[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png

[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png
358 YBN
[1642 AD] 9 		1719)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008.
Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
4. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
6. ^ "Blaise Pascal". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
8. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132. (1642)
(1642)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
Rouen, France8 (presumably) 
[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

358 YBN
[1642 AD] 3 		2098)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/abel-tasman

2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/new-zealand
-oceania?cat=travel
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/abel-tasman
 (1642)
New Zealand2  
[1] Description Noika Source
http://www.nndb.com Date
3426 Author J. M. Donalds PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Abeltasman1903.jpg

[2] Drawing of the scene in
''Murderer's Bay'' (now Golden Bay)
when Abel Tasman's ships anchored there
in 1642. The first European impression
of Māori people. Source
http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealandIn
Brief/History/2/ENZ-Resources/Standard/1
/en [1], accessed 27 May 2006 Date
1642 Author Isaac
Gilsemans PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Murderers%27_Bay.jpg
357 YBN
[1643 AD] 3 		1190) Traditionally George Fox has been
credited as the founder or the most
important early figure.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993),
pp17-18.
2. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993). (publication of
second work on Egypt) (publication of
second work on Egypt)
Rome, Italy1 2   
357 YBN
[1643 AD] 3 		1650)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Godefroy Wendelin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godefroy_We
ndelin
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Godefroy Wendelin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godefroy_We
ndelin (1643)
Belgium2 (presumably)  
357 YBN
[1643 AD] 28 		1692) Earliest vacuum.19

Italian physicist, Evangelista
Torricelli (TORriceLlE) (CE
1608-1647),20 is the first human to
create a sustained vacuum21 .

Galileo observed that a hollow22
cylinder with a piston in a pool of
water does not pull water up completely
in the cylinder as is expected, but can
only draw water up into the cylinder
10m (30 feet) above the water level,
further pumping has no effect, the
weight of the air pushes the water no
higher.23 Torricelli investigates this
and tries a heavier fluid,24 filling a
4 foot glass tube closed at one end
with mercury (a liquid at room
temperature with a density 13.5 times
water), and closes the other end with a
stopper. Torricelli then turns the tube
over and puts it into a pool of
Mercury. When the stopper is removed,
the mercury pours out of the tube, but
30 inches of mercury remain in the
tube, supported by the pressure of the
air outside the tube pushing down on
the dish of liquid mercury. The weight
of the air is presumed to be the reason
the column of Mercury appears to defy
gravity. Above the column of mercury in
the tube is a vacuum of empty space
(except for small quantities of Mercury
vapor). This is the first human made
vacuum. Torricelli notices that the
height of the Mercury in the glass tube
changes slightly from day to day, and
he correctly attributes this to a
change in pressure of the atmosphere.
(The pressure exerted by one millimeter
of mercury is called a Torricelli in
his honor). That air has a finite
weight means that it has a finite
height, and that the atmosphere does
not extend indefinitely up. In
addition, this hints that the depths of
space must be empty space (a vacuum).25


This device is also the first
barometer, a measure of pressure
exerted by air.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
2. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
3. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
4. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
6. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
7. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
11. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
13. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
19. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
21. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
24. ^ "Evangelista
Torricelli". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Evangelista+Torri
celli+?cat=technology
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp123-124.
27. ^
"Evangelista Torricelli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
28. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli (1643)

MORE INFO
[1] "Evangelista Torricelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista
_Torricelli
Florence, Italy27  
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg

[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
357 YBN
[1643 AD] 3 		6322) Claudio (Giovanni Antonio)
Monteverdi (CE 1567-1643), Italian
composer, composes the Opera
"Incoronazione di Poppea" ("The
Coronation of Poppea").1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claudio Monteverdi." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claudio-mon
teverdi
2. ^ "Claudio Monteverdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claudio-mon
teverdi
3. ^ "Claudio Monteverdi." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claudio-mon
teverdi

MORE INFO
[1] Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p93,186-189.
[2] Mark Evan Bonds, "A
History of Music in Western Culture",
3rd edition, 2010, p194.
[3] "continuo." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/continuo
[4] "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
[5] "Claudio Monteverdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claudio-mon
teverdi
Venice, Italy2  
[1] Description Claudio Monteverdi
(1567-1643), composer - (Image of full
painting) - Date circa 1620
- Source Galleria Accademia,
Venice - Author artist: Domenico
Fetti (1589-1623) - PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Claudio_Monteverdi_5.
jpg
356 YBN
[1644 AD] 7 		1658) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
2. ^ "Marin
Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp114-115.
4. ^ "Marin
Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
5. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
6. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
7. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1644)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Merse
nne
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
356 YBN
[1644 AD] 10 		1694) A member of a noble family of
Gdansk, Hevelius is a city councilor
and a brewer. After studying at the
University of Leiden in the
Netherlands, Hevelius returns to Gdansk
and builds his observatory atop his
house.8

Hevelius' surname appears in various
spellings, among them Hevel, Hewel,
Hewelcke, and Höwelcke.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
3. ^ "Johannes
Hevelius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
5. ^ "Johannes
Hevelius". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Hevelius
+?cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
7. ^ "Johannes
Hevelius". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Hevelius
+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius
9. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Hevelius
+?cat=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125. (1644)
(1644)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Hevelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius
 
[1] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg

[2] llustration from ''Geschichte der
Astron. Messwerkzeuge, 1907, Autor J.A.
Repsold † 1919'' German subtitle says
(Peter) Crüger's large azimuthal
quadrant, completed by Hevel, according
to Hevel's Machina coelestis (taken
from German Wikipedia) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius-Quadrant.jpg
356 YBN
[1644 AD] 30 		2618)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
2. ^ Rene Descartes,
"Principles of Philosophy", in "The
Philosophical Works of Descartes",
trans. E. S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross
(New York: Dover, 1955).
3. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
4. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, fifth
edition. Berman and Evans, p46.
5. ^ Richard
J. Blackwell, "Descartes' Laws of
Motion", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2 (Summer,
1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
6. ^
http://ls.poly.edu/~jbain/mms/handouts/m
msdescarteslaws.htm
7. ^
http://ls.poly.edu/~jbain/mms/handouts/m
msdescarteslaws.htm
8. ^ Richard J. Blackwell, "Descartes'
Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
9. ^
http://ls.poly.edu/~jbain/mms/handouts/m
msdescarteslaws.htm
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Richard J. Blackwell,
"Descartes' Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol.
57, No. 2 (Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Richard J. Blackwell,
"Descartes' Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol.
57, No. 2 (Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
14. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
15. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
16. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Richard J.
Blackwell, "Descartes' Laws of Motion",
Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2 (Summer, 1966),
pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Richard J. Blackwell, "Descartes'
Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Richard J. Blackwell,
"Descartes' Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol.
57, No. 2 (Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Richard J. Blackwell,
"Descartes' Laws of Motion", Isis, Vol.
57, No. 2 (Summer, 1966), pp.
220-234. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(196622)57%3A2%3C220%3ADLOM%3E
2.0.CO%3B2-Y
{Descartes_Laws_of_Motion_Isis_1966_22
7961.pdf}
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
30. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, fifth
edition. Berman and Evans, p46. (1644)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Descartes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
[3] "The World (Descartes)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
[4] "Momentum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum
[5] 1. ^ A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā
and Buridan on the Motion of the
Projectile", Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p.
477-482: "Thus he considered
impetus as proportional to weight times
velocity. In other words, his
conception of impetus comes very close
to the concept of momentum of Newtonian
mechanics."
[6] Rene Descartes, translated by John
Veitch, "Selections from the Principles
of Philosophy of Rene Descartes
(1596-1650)". http://www.classicallibra
ry.org/descartes/principles/index.htm
[7] "Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
Netherlands (presumably)29  
[1] Portrait of René Descartes by
Frans Hals (1648) Description René
Descartes, french philosopher (Oil on
canvas, 68 x 77, Owned by the Musée du
Louvre Paris) Source No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1648 Author Frans Hals PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Descartes.jpg

[2] Scientist: Descartes, René (1596
- 1650) Discipline(s): Physics ;
Mathematics Print Artist: William
Holl Medium: Engraving Original
Artist: Franz Hals, ca.1582-1666
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 25.5 x 17.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
355 YBN
[1645 AD] 16 17 		1844) French astronomer, librarian and
mathematician, Ismaël Bullialdus (CE
1605-1694) recognizes that the strength
that the Sun holds the planets with
decreases by the distance squared.9 10


Bullialdus writes: "As for the power by
which the Sun seizes or holds11 the
planets, and which, being corporeal,
functions in the manner of hands, it is
emitted in straight lines throughout
the whole extent of the world, and like
the species of the Sun, it turns with
the body of the Sun. Now, given that it
is corporeal, it becomes weaker, and
attenuates at a greater distance and12
interval, and the ratio of its decrease
in strength is the same as in the case
of light, namely, the duplicate
proportion of the distance13 , but
inversely. Kepler does not deny this,
yet he claims the motive power
decreases only in direct proportion to
the distance. Furthermore, Kepler
claims this attenuation in the motive
power produces a weakening of the power
only in longitude, because local motion
impressed by the Sun on the planets
(which motion similarly animates the
corporeal parts of the Sun itself)
occurs only in longitude, not in
latitude. In response to this Kepler
offsets the inadequacy of this analogy
by increasing the quantity matter in
the slower planets."14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
2. ^, p333.
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
3. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
4. ^, p333.
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
5. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
6. ^ Ismaelis Bvllialdi, Astronomia
Philolaica, Sumptibus Simeonis Piget,
Parisiis, 1645,p13 (microprint copy by
the University of Oklahoma)
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^
http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/rhatch/pag
es/11-ResearchProjects/boulliau/conical-
hypothesis/06rp-b-planet4.htm
9. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
10. ^, p333.
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
11. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
12. ^ Ismaelis Bvllialdi, Astronomia
Philolaica, Sumptibus Simeonis Piget,
Parisiis, 1645,p13 (microprint copy by
the University of Oklahoma)
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^
http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/rhatch/pag
es/11-ResearchProjects/boulliau/conical-
hypothesis/06rp-b-planet4.htm
15. ^
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
16. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus (1645)
17. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1 (1645)
Paris, France15  
[1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg

[2] Ismaelis Bvllialdi Astronomia
Philolaica : title page Photo:
COPYRIGHTED Book: PD
source: http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir
=drucke/2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
354 YBN
[1646 AD] 6 		1684)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1600.htm

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Athanasius Kircher".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
4. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p210.
5. ^ "Athanasius
Kircher". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5596/Athanasius-Kircher
6. ^ "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher (1646)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Athanasius+Kirche
r?cat=entertainment
Rome, Italy5 (presumably) 
[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg

[2] non-expressive scan of out of
copyright (1636) image from Athanasius
Kircher's Prodromus Coptus, p. 283.
from
http://kircher.stanford.edu/gallery/ PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kirchercopticalpha.jpg
354 YBN
[1646 AD] 4 		1687)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
2. ^ "Johann Rudolf
Glauber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Rudo
lf_Glauber
3. ^ "Johann Rudolf Glauber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Rudo
lf_Glauber
4. ^ "Johann Rudolf Glauber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Rudo
lf_Glauber (1646)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Rudolf Glauber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7001/Johann-Rudolf-Glauber
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johann%20Rudolf%2
0Glauber
Amsterdam, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] Glauber, engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg

[2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici :
sive Description artis destillatoriae
novae, 1651 PD
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_
hoefer_2.html
353 YBN
[1647 AD] 3 		1674)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
2. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri
3. ^ "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1898/Bonaventura-Cavalieri (1647)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Bonaventura Cavalieri".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaventura
_Cavalieri
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Bonaventura+Caval
ieri?cat=technology
written: Bologna, Italy2
(presumably) 
[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm

[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg
353 YBN
[1647 AD] 6 		1695)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Hevelius
+?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
3. ^ "Johannes
Hevelius". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Hevelius
+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius
5. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125. (1647)
(1647)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Hevelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius
 
[1] Subject : map of the moon
(Selenographia) Author : Johannes
Hevelius Date : 1647 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius_Map_of_the_Moon_1647.jpg

[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
352 YBN
[09/19/1648 AD] 14 		1721)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
13. ^ "Blaise
Pascal". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
(09/19/1648) (09/19/1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
Rouen, France13 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 1 2 		1189) Traditionally George Fox has been
credited as the founder or the most
important early figure.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Quakers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers
2. ^ "George Fox". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fox
(=1648)
England  
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 20 		1648) In 1634 Helmont is called before
the Inquisition for claiming saintly
relics exhibit their effects through
magnetic influence.17 Ecclesiastical
court proceedings of one sort or
another were pending against Helmont
for more than 20 years.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p112.
2. ^ "Jan Baptista
van Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p112.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p112.
6. ^ "Jan Baptista
van Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
7. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
8. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Jan Baptista van
Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ "Jan Baptista van
Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ "Jan Baptista van
Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ "Jan Baptista van
Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p112.
18. ^ "Jan Baptista
van Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
19. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
20. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont (1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Baptist
a_van_Helmont
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Baptista+van+
Helmont?cat=technology
Vilvoorde, Belgium19  
[1] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Etching of Joan Baptista
Van Helmont (1579-1644) and his son
Franciscus Mercurius Van Helmont
(1614-1699), from J.B. Van Helmont,
Ortus medicinae (Amsterdam: Elsevier,
1648) (Oesper Collection). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont.jpg
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 19 		1686) Glauber sells many products
(including sodium sulfate) as
"cure-alls".13
In 1648 Glauber moves to
Amsterdam and into the house last owned
by an alchemist.14
Glauber greatly
admires Paracelsus.15
Glauber believes
in some of the mystical belief
associated with alchemy in being a firm
believer in the so-called
"philosophers' stone" and "elixir of
life".16
Glauber possibly died as
result of working with harmful
chemicals.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
2. ^ "Johann Rudolf
Glauber". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7001/Johann-Rudolf-Glauber
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
5. ^ "Johann Rudolf
Glauber". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7001/Johann-Rudolf-Glauber
6. ^ "Johann Rudolf Glauber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Rudo
lf_Glauber
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
10. ^ "Johann Rudolf
Glauber". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7001/Johann-Rudolf-Glauber
11. ^ "Johann Rudolf Glauber".
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann%20Rudolf%2
0Glauber
12. ^ "Johann Rudolf Glauber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Rudo
lf_Glauber
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
16. ^ "Johann Rudolf
Glauber". Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann%20Rudolf%2
0Glauber
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp121-122.
18. ^ "Johann Rudolf
Glauber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Rudo
lf_Glauber
19. ^ "Johann Rudolf Glauber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Rudo
lf_Glauber (1648)
Amsterdam, Netherlands18
(presumably) 
[1] Glauber, engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg

[2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici :
sive Description artis destillatoriae
novae, 1651 PD
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_
hoefer_2.html
351 YBN
[05/19/1649 AD] 4 		1526)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "English Civil War". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civ
il_War
2. ^ "English Civil War". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civ
il_War
3. ^ "English Civil War". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civ
il_War
4. ^ "Commonwealth of England".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealt
h_of_England (05/19/1649)
England 
[1] Image from University of Texas
Libraries
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portrai
ts/cromwell.jpg in the public domain.
Original source for this picture:
Hundred Greatest Men, The. New York: D.
Appleton & Company, 1885. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oliver_CromwellUT.jpg

[2] Description: Unfinished portrait
miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel
Cooper. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cooper%2C_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 15 		1670) Riccioli is an Italian astronomer
and Jesuit priest who publicly rejects
the sun-centered theory.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Riccioli
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp118-119.
4. ^ "Giovanni
Battista Riccioli". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp118-119.
9. ^ "Mizar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3081/Mizar
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Giovanni
Battista Riccioli". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
13. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Riccioli
14. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
15. ^ "Mizar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3081/Mizar (1650)
Bologna, Italy14 (presumably)  
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 13 		1675) Kircher receives a Jesuit
education, and is ordained a priest in
1628.7
Kircher leaves the fighting in
Germany (part of the Thirty Years' War)
and, after various academic positions
at Avignon, France, settles in 1634 in
Rome.8
Kircher writes against the
Copernican model in his "Magnes"
(supporting instead the model of Tycho
Brahe), but in his later "Itinerarium
extaticum" (1656, revised 1671) Kircher
presented several systems, including
the Copernican, as alternative
possibilities.9

Kircher assembles one of the first
natural history collections, that will
forms the nucleus10 of the museum that
bears his name, the "Museo Kircheriano"
at Rome.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p119.
3. ^ "Athanasius
Kircher". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
5. ^ "Athanasius
Kircher". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5596/Athanasius-Kircher
6. ^ "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
8. ^ "Athanasius
Kircher". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5596/Athanasius-Kircher
9. ^ "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
10. ^ "Athanasius Kircher". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Athanasius+Kirche
r?cat=entertainment
11. ^ "Athanasius Kircher".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5596/Athanasius-Kircher
12. ^ "Athanasius Kircher".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5596/Athanasius-Kircher
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119. (1650) (1650)
Rome, Italy12 (presumably) 
[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg

[2] non-expressive scan of out of
copyright (1636) image from Athanasius
Kircher's Prodromus Coptus, p. 283.
from
http://kircher.stanford.edu/gallery/ PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kirchercopticalpha.jpg
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 14 15 16 		1683) German physicist, Otto von
Guericke (GAriKu) (CE 1602-1686)
constructs the first air pump6 and
uses it to produce a vacuum chamber in
which he examines the role of air in
combustion and respiration.7

This air pump is like a waterpump but
airtight and powered by pumping by
hand. Guericke uses the pump to create
evacuated containers and shows that a
ringing bell inside the vessel can not
be heard, that candles will not burn,
and that animals cannot live in a
vacuum. Lavoisier 100 years later will
determine the components of air on
Earth.8 Guericke shows that the
pressure of a vacuum pulling on a
piston cannot by stopped by 50 people
pulling on a rope attached to the
piston. In 1654, before Emperor
Ferdinand III at Regensburg, Guericke
shows that two teams of horses cannot
pull apart to semispheres connected
together with a vacuum inside, and then
how adding air into the two semispheres
allows them to fall apart
effortlessly.9

There are two kinds of air pumps in
use, mechanical and mercurial.10

Guericke believes that comets are
normal members of the solar system and
make periodic returns.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
4. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
7. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
10. ^ Daniel Coit
Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank
Moore Colby, "The New International
Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
12. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
13. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121. (1650)
(1650)
15. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke (1650)
16. ^ Daniel
Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank
Moore Colby, "The New International
Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
Magdeburg, Germany13
(presumably) 
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1

[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 9 		1722)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
5. ^
"Syringe#Historical Timeline".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe#His
torical_Timeline
6. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
7. ^ "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
8. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
9. ^ "Syringe#Historical Timeline".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe#His
torical_Timeline (1650 (needs better
estimate)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pascals principle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8620/Pascals-principle
[2] "Pascal's law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
law
Rouen, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 12 		1753) In 1653 Malpighi gets his medical
degree from the University of Bologna,
and lectures mainly there and other
universities in Italy.7
In 1667, the
Royal Society asks Malpighi to send his
scientific communications.8
In 1684
Malpighi's villa is burned (as a result
of opposition to his views), his
apparatus and microscopes shattered,
and his papers, books, and manuscripts
are destroyed.9
In 1691, Malpighi
retires to Rome to be physician to Pope
Innocent XII.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/033/000095745
/
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
5. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
9. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
11. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138. (1650)
(1650)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
Bologna, Italy11 (presumably) 
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 9 		2017) Francis Glisson (CE 1597-1677),
publishes a report "De rachitide"
(1650; On Rickets), that gives a clear
description of the disease Rickets.1

Rickets is a vitamin deficiency disease
and will require the discovery of
vitamins by Casimir Funk in 1912.2

Glisson is a member of the group that,
beginning in 1645, meets regularly in
London and out of which the Royal
Society will later emerge. From this
"Invisible College" as it was later
known, comes one of the earliest
examples of cooperative research.3

A committee of nine is created in 1645
to investigate rickets but because
Glisson's contribution far exceeds that
of any other contributor, it is agreed
that Glisson should publish the
report.4

Like his colleague William Harvey,
Glisson is a Cambridge-trained
physician.5

Both are dedicated to scientific
experimentation and careful observation
and description.6
Glisson is a
professor of physics at Cambridge for
40 years, however makes his
professional home in London.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
2. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Albrecht von Haller". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
5. ^
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/glisson.html
6. ^
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/glisson.html
7. ^
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/glisson.html
8. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
9. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology (1650)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Glisson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gli
sson
London, England8  
[1] Francis Glisson PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Glisson.jpg
349 YBN
[1651 AD] 11 12 		1572)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Gilbert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "William Gilbert".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Gilbert?c
at=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "William Gilbert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "William Gilbert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1651) (1651)
12. ^ "William
Gilbert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert (1651)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Gilbert". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gil
bert
London, England10 (presumably) 
[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
349 YBN
[1651 AD] 8 		1646)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Harvey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "William Harvey".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
4. ^
http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/ca
talogue.asp?isbn=9780521840774&ss=exc
5. ^ William Harvey, On the Generation
of Animals, in The Works of William
Harvey, trans. R. Willis (London:
Sydenham Society, 1847), p321.
6. ^
"Francesco Redi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2979/Francesco-Redi
7. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
8. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health (1651)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).

[2] "William Harvey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Har
vey

London, England7 (presumably) 
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
349 YBN
[1651 AD] 3 		1647)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
2. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
3. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health (1651)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "William Harvey".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6277/William-Harvey
[3] "William Harvey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Har
vey
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
349 YBN
[1651 AD] 8 		1671)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Riccioli
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp118-119.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp118-119.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington
6. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
7. ^
http://www.astrofilitrentini.it/mat/luna
/p7.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp118-119. (1651)
(1651)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mizar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3081/Mizar
[2]
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/ins
ide_out/vu1/Galileo/Things/moon.html
Bologna, Italy7  
[1] Riccioli, Almagestum novum (1651).
Lunar map. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/17thCentury/Riccioli/1651/R
iccioli-1651-Moon.jpg

[2] G.B. Riccioli, Almagestum Novum
(1651). The image portrays Urania, the
muse of astronomy, weighing up the
rival systems of Copernicus, in which
the earth moves round the sun, and
Riccioli himself, in which the earth
remains stationary at the center of the
universe. The older system of Ptolemy
has already been discarded and lies on
the ground alongside. PD
source: http://microcosmos.uchicago.edu/
ptolemy/almagestum_novum_detail.html
348 YBN
[1652 AD] 15 		1775) Rudbeck builds up a botanical
garden.10
Rudbeck teaches at the
medical school of the University of
Uppsala, Sweden.11
Rudbeck is
chancellor at age 31.12
Rudbeck
believes Plato's fictional tale of
Atlantis, and writes several volumes
trying to prove that Atlantis is really
Scandinavia and that Sweden was the
source of human civilization.13
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
4. ^ "Olof Rudbeck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Rudbec
k
5. ^ Eriksson, G. (2004). Svensk
medicinhistorisk tidskrift,
2004;8(1):39-44. In Swedish. English
abstract at Olaus Rudbeck as scientist
and professor of medicine, U.S.
National Library of Medicine. Retrieved
1 June 2007. abstract:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query
.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=Abstra
ctPlus&list_uids=16025602&query_hl=1&ito
ol=pubmed_docsum
6. ^ "Thomas Bartholin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bart
holin
7. ^ Detmar, Michael and Mihaela Skobe.
"Structure, Function, and Molecular
Control of the Skin Lymphatic System".
Journal of Investigative Dermatology
Symposium Proceedings (2000) 5, 14-19.
Retrieved 22 February
2007. http://www.nature.com/jidsp/journ
al/v5/n1/full/5640004a.html
8. ^ "Thomas Bartholin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bart
holin
9. ^ Eriksson, G. (2004). Svensk
medicinhistorisk tidskrift,
2004;8(1):39-44. In Swedish. English
abstract at Olaus Rudbeck as scientist
and professor of medicine, U.S.
National Library of Medicine. Retrieved
22 February
2007. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entre
z/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt
=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16025602&query_h
l=1&itool=pubmed_docsum
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
14. ^ "Olof
Rudbeck". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Rudbec
k
15. ^ "Olof Rudbeck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Rudbec
k (Spring, 1652)
Uppsala, Sweden14  
[1] Portrait of the Swedish physician
and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also
known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus
Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702).
Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of
the discoverers of the lymphic vessels
in 1651-52 (discovered independently by
the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the
same time), and was long professor of
Medicine at Uppsala University. He also
founded the earliest botanical garden
in Uppsala (later named after Carolus
Linnaeus) and initiated a major
botanical work with detailed
copperplate engravings, some of which
were printed but many of which were
destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702
before publication. He is also known as
an engineer and architect, who, among
other things, designed the anatomical
theatre in the Gustavianum building in
Uppsala, and as a speculative
historical writer who tried to prove
that Sweden was in fact the lost
Atlantis. Source First version:
This photograph was first uploaded as
Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin
Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish
Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by
sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and
then had the size 340x360 (11 386
bytes). Second version: less
cropped, fetched from [1] Date
1696 Author Martin Mijtens the
Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish
painter. A detail of this painting in
black and white is used to illustrate
the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt
biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643.
It is discussed in the article on
Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_
Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg

[2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck
(1630 - 1702) reveals his
„Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon,
Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus,
Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and
Orpheus the „Truth'' about Atlantis.
From „Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89.
PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg
346 YBN
[1654 AD] 5 		1693) Ferdinand II funds Steno and
Galileo.2
In 1657 Ferdinand II helps
support the foundation of the Accademia
del Cimento.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p124.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p124.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124. (1654) (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinando II de' Medici,
Grand Duke of Tuscany". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_
II_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany

Tuscany, Italy4 (presumably) 
[1] Double Portrait of the Grand Duke
Ferdinand II of Tuscany and his Wife
Vittoria della Rovere probably
1660s SUSTERMANS, Justus 1597 -
1681 NG89. Bought with the J.J.
Angerstein collection, 1824. Ferdinand
II de' Medici (1610 - 1670), who wears
a commander's sash and the military
order of San Stefano, and carries a
commander's baton, succeeded his father
as Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1621,
assuming power in 1627. In 1634 he
married Vittoria della Rovere (1621 -
1694). The poses of the two figures
correspond with two single portraits of
them by Sustermans (Florence, Uffizi).
It is possible that earlier drawings
were used forthis double portrait and
that it was not painted directly from
life. Oil on canvas 161 x 147
cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nationalgallery.org.u
k/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPubli
sher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG89
346 YBN
[1654 AD] 7 		1720)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
4. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
6. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
[2] "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
346 YBN
[1654 AD] 9 		2018) This work is based on Glisson's
own dissections contributes to the
understanding of the structure and
functioning of the liver.4
This work
includes the most advanced
physiological description of the
digestive system to date.5

The prevailing mechanical philosophy
promotes a view of matter as completely
passive and inert, and Glisson's theory
of "irritability" runs counter to this.
Because the passivity of matter is used
to ensure a role for a God, Glisson's
active matter is seen as a support for
atheism and for that reason Glisson's
works are attacked by the Cambridge
Platonists Henry More (1586-1661) and
Ralph Cudworth (1617-1688).6 The idea
of irritability will be picked up by
Albrecht von Haller in the following
century and will find a permanent place
in physiology.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
2. ^
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/glisson.html
3. ^ "Francis Glisson". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
4. ^
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/glisson.html
5. ^
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/glisson.html
6. ^ "Francis Glisson". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
8. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology
9. ^ "Francis Glisson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Glisson?c
at=technology (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Glisson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gli
sson
London, England8  
[1] Francis Glisson PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Glisson.jpg

[2] Francis Glisson,…Anatomia
hepatica…. PD
source: http://historical.hsl.virginia.e
du/treasures/images/QM351_G56_1665_title
_big.jpg
345 YBN
[03/25/1655 AD] 17 18 19 		1763) Dutch physicist and astronomer,
Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) identifies the first known
moon of Saturn, Titan.5 6

In this same year Huygens identifies
the ring of Saturn.7
Huygens had
initially been attracted to Saturn by
its apparently anomalous shape,
described by Galileo as "three spheres
which almost touch each other, which
never change their relative positions,
and are arranged in a row along the
zodiac so that the middle sphere is
three times as large as the others."
Intrigued by this peculiar shape,
Huygens realized that its resolution
would depend on constructing improved
telescopes, less subject to various
aberrations and more capable of
producing detailed images.8

Huygens announces his finding in a
cipher to protect his priority while
verifying his finding further.9

Titan is the largest moon of Saturn10
and as large as any moon of Jupiter11 ,
and will be shown to be the only moon
in this star system with a dense
atmosphere12 13 .

With six planets and six moons Huygens
erroneously declares that there are no
more planets or moons to be found, and
is proven wrong in his lifetime by
Cassini who finds 4 more moons of
Saturn.14

Huygens understands that Saturn will be
in the same orientation as the earth
and so the rings will not be visible
every 14 years.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
4. ^ "Titan".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/597100/Titan>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
6. ^ "Titan".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/597100/Titan>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
8. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
10. ^ "Titan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2639/Titan
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
12. ^ "Titan (moon)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_%28mo
on%29
13. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features
/saturn-story/moons.cfm NASA:
News-Features-The Story of Saturn. Jet
Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved on
2007-01-08.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
16. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
17. ^
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html
(3/25/1655)
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1656)
(1656)
19. ^ "Titan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2639/Titan (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2] "Orion nebula#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_nebul
a#History
The Hague, Netherlands16
(presumably) 
[1] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg

[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
345 YBN
[1655 AD] 14 		1702) This book promptly brings fame to
Wallis, who is then recognized as one
of the leading mathematicians in
England.7

Wallis deciphers a number of cryptic
messages from Royalist partisans that
had fallen into the hands of the
Parliamentarians.8

In the English civil war, Wallis
supports the Parliamentarians against
Charles I.9
In 1649, Wallis is
appointed to teach at Oxford under the
Parliamentary regime.10
Wallis is
nationalistic and fights against the
Gregorian system in England (which
Wallis views as implying subservience
to Rome) and delays this decision by
half a century.11

In London, in 1647 Wallis' serious
interest in mathematics begins when he
reads William Oughtred's "Clavis
Mathematicae" ("The Keys to
Mathematics").12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
3. ^ "John
Wallis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
6. ^ "John
Wallis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
7. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
8. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
12. ^ "John Wallis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
13. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
14. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England13  
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
345 YBN
[1655 AD] 27 		1762) Huygens' father is an important
official in the Dutch government.12
Huyg
ens is educated at the University of
Leiden.13
Huygens is friends with
Descartes.14
From an early age, Huygens
shows a marked mechanical bent and a
talent for drawing and mathematics.
Some of his early efforts in geometry
impress Descartes, who was an
occasional visitor to the Huygens'
household.15
Huygens's first published
work, on the quadrature of various
mathematical curves, appeared in
1651.16
In 1663 Huygens is elected a
charter member of the Royal Society.17

In 1666 Louis XIV lures Huygens to
France in line with his policy of
collecting scholars for the glory of
his regime.18
Apart from occasional
visits to Holland, Huygens lives in
Paris from 1666 to 1681.19
In France
Huygens helps found the French Academy
of Sciences.20
In 1681 Huygens returns
to the Netherlands (Asimov suggests
because he is protestant and Louis XIV
is moving in direction of intolerance
of protestants).21
The death in 1683 of
Huygens' patron, Jean-Baptiste Colbert,
who had been Louis XIV's chief adviser,
and Louis's increasingly reactionary
policy, which culminates in the
revocation (1685) of the Edict of
Nantes, which had granted certain
liberties to Protestants, rules against
Huygens ever returning to Paris.22
Huyge
ns visits London in 1689, meets Sir
Isaac Newton and lectures on his own
theory of gravitation before the Royal
Society.23
He never marries.24
Unlike
many men of science in the 1600s,
Huygens never occupies himself to any
significant extent with either
philosophy or theology, devoting his
efforts entirely to the pursuit of
science.25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
4. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
5. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
6. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
7. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
8. ^ Cosmos, Carl Sagan
9. ^
http://www.richardbell.net/huygens.html
10. ^
http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/christia
an_huygens
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
15. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
16. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
19. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
22. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
23. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
24. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
25. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
26. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1655)
(1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "31 equal temperament".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31_equal_te
mperament
The Hague, Netherlands26
(presumably) 
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
345 YBN
[1655 AD] 4 		1843)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
2. ^ "Pascal's triangle's triangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle
3. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
4. ^ "Pascal's triangle (1655)'s
triangle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
triangle (1655) (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Blaise Pascal".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
[3] "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] The first five rows of Pascal's
triangle GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas
cal%27s_triangle

[2] explanation of Pascal's triangle.
Notice that the triangle has only the
coefficients in front of the
variables. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas
cal%27s_triangle
344 YBN
[03/25/1656 AD] 11 		1769)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
3. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
4. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
5. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
11. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology (1656)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
The Hague, Netherlands10
(presumably) 
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx http://www.an
swers.com/Christiaan+Huygens?cat=technol
ogy
344 YBN
[1656 AD] 10 		1716) Athanasius Kircher (KiRKR) (CE
1601-1680)4 is the first to explicitly
print that stars are other Suns with
planets around them, which he prints in
his book "Itinerarium extaticum"
(Ecstatic journey).5 6

Huygens refers to this work of
Kircher's in his 1698 "Cosmotheoros"
when reaffirming that other stars and
more distant Suns with planets but
correcting Kircher by supporting the
Copernican Sun-centered model.7

Kircher is sometimes called the last
Renaissance man, important for the
large quantity of knowledge he
disseminates.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Athanasius Kircher".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/319046/Athanasius-Kircher>.
2. ^ Athanasius Kircher, "Itinerarium
exstaticum quo mundi opificium... nova
hypothesi exponitur... interlocutoribus
Cosmiele et Theodidacto",
1656 http://books.google.com/books?id=D
JOPTBBvLScC
3. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762),
p79. {Huygens_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
4. ^ "Athanasius Kircher".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/319046/Athanasius-Kircher>.
5. ^ Athanasius Kircher, "Itinerarium
exstaticum quo mundi opificium... nova
hypothesi exponitur... interlocutoribus
Cosmiele et Theodidacto",
1656 http://books.google.com/books?id=D
JOPTBBvLScC
6. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762),
p79. {Huygens_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
7. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762),
p79. {Huygens_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
8. ^ "Athanasius Kircher".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/319046/Athanasius-Kircher>.
9. ^ "Athanasius Kircher." Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com 27 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/athanasius-
kircher
10. ^ Athanasius Kircher, "Itinerarium
exstaticum quo mundi opificium... nova
hypothesi exponitur... interlocutoribus
Cosmiele et Theodidacto",
1656 http://books.google.com/books?id=D
JOPTBBvLScC

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Athanasius+Kirche
r?cat=entertainment
[3] "Oedipus Aegyptiacus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus_Aeg
yptiacus
[4] "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher (1664)
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy9
(presumably) 
[1] Iter Exstaticum Frontispiece to
Kircher’s Iter Exstaticum depicting
Kircher acoompanied by the angel
Cosmiel on a journey through the
cosmos. PD
source: http://www.stanford.edu/group/ki
rcher/cgi-bin/site/?attachment_id=579

[2] Athanasius Kircher, ''Itinerarium
exstaticum quo mundi opificium... nova
hypothesi exponitur... interlocutoribus
Cosmiele et Theodidacto'',
1656 http://books.google.com/books?id=D
JOPTBBvLScC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DJOPTBBvLScC
344 YBN
[1656 AD] 22 		1764) Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) invents the first pendulum
{PeNJUluM or PeNDUluM8 } clock.9

This first pendulum clock is described
and illustrated by Huygens in his book,
'Horologium' in 1658.10

Galileo had suggested the use of a
pendulum to count the time.11 Galileo
had drawn a design of a clock which
connected a pendulum to gears in his
old age, and Huygens built his pendulum
clock over ten years after Galileo's
death.12 Huygen's design, where the
dial and hands of a clock are
controlled by a pendulum, is the first
truly practical pendulum clock.13
Huygens attaches a pendulum to the
gears of a clock. The regular swing of
the pendulum allows the clock to
achieve greater accuracy, as the hands
are turned by the falling weight, which
releases the same amount of energy with
each tick.14

Huygens shows that a pendulum does not
swing in exactly equal times unless it
swings through an arc that is not quite
circular15 but cycloid16 . He builds
attachments to the pendulum's fulcrum
(pivot point at top17 ) that make it
swing in the proper arc and attaches
this to the works of the clock, using
falling weights to transfer just enough
energy to the pendulum to keep it from
coming to a halt through friction and
air resistance. Huygens presents his
clock to the Dutch governing body. This
begins the era of accurate timekeeping.
Asimov indicates that it is unlikely
physics could progress without such a
device.18

Although the pendulum clock is the most
accurate such device then available,
its motion is easily disturbed by the
movement of the ship at sea.19

Although Huygens publishes his idea for
a precision pendulum in a small booklet
titled "Horologium" in 1658, he will
not produce the full theory of the
pendulum for the scientific world until
the 1673 publication, "Horologium
oscillatorium sive de moto
pendulorum".20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "pendulum." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pendulum
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
3. ^ "pendulum." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pendulum
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
5. ^ "pendulum." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pendulum
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
7. ^
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I
010/10239953.aspx
8. ^ "pendulum." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pendulum
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
10. ^
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I
010/10239953.aspx
11. ^
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I
010/10239953.aspx
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
13. ^
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I
010/10239953.aspx
14. ^
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I
010/10239953.aspx
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
16. ^ "pendulum".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9060/pendulum
17. ^ "Fulcrum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulcrum
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
19. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
20. ^
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/clck/hd
_clck.htm
21. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1656)
(1656)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2] "clock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4419/clock
The Hague, Netherlands21
(presumably) 
[1] Reconstruction of the pioneer
pendulum clock designed by the Dutch
scientist, Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1693), in 1656. Huygens
commissioned the clockmaker Salomon
Coster of the Hague to make the clock
and a patent was issued in Coster's
name in 1657. It was described and
illustrated by Huygen in his book,
'Horologium' in 1658. Although Galileo
had suggested the use of a pendulum to
count the time, Huygen's design, where
the dial and hands of a clock were
controlled by a pendulum, was the first
truly practical pendulum clock. Huygens
attached a pendulum to the gears of a
clock. The regular swing of the
pendulum allowed the clock to achieve
greater accuracy, as the hands are
turned by the falling weight, which
releases the same amount of energy with
each tick. Side view. Image
number: 10239953 Credit:
Science Museum/Science & Society
Picture Library Date taken: 12
January 2004 13:57 Image rights:
Science Museum
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I010/10239953.aspx

[2] Buy the rights or a
print COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx
343 YBN
[1657 AD] 8 9 		1703)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
7. ^ "John Wallis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

8. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis (1657)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126. (1656)
(1656)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
London, England7 (presumably) 
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
343 YBN
[1657 AD] 6 		1717) The academy is discontinued after
ten years.3

The Accademia del Cimento (Academy of
Experiment), an early scientific
society, is founded in Florence.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Accademia del Cimento".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_d
el_Cimento
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p130.
3. ^ "Vincenzo
Viviani". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincenzo_Vi
viani
4. ^ "Accademia del Cimento".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_d
el_Cimento
5. ^ "Accademia del Cimento".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_d
el_Cimento
6. ^ "Accademia del Cimento".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_d
el_Cimento (1657)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Vincenzo+Viviani+
?cat=technology
[2] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
Florence, Italy5  
[1] Vincenzo Viviani aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Viviani.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vincenzo_Viviani.jpeg
343 YBN
[1657 AD] 3 		1765)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1657)
(1657)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
The Hague, Netherlands2
(presumably) 
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
343 YBN
[1657 AD] 39 		1794) Hooke is the son of a
clergyman.25
Hooke is an infant prodigy
in mechanics.26
Hooke is accepted to
Oxford in 1653 (at age 1827 ).28
Hooke
is supports himself by waiting on
tables.29
In 1662, with the help of
Boyle, Hooke secures the job as Curator
of Experiments for the Royal Society,
which he holds from (1662-1677) at
£30/year plus the privilege of lodging
at Gresham College. Hooke's task is to
report on and/or demonstrate three to
four major experiments to the Royal
Society each week.30 This is the only
paid position in the Royal Society.31
In
1663, Hooke is elected a member of the
Royal Society.32
From 1677 to 1683
Hooke is secretary of the Royal
Society.33

Hooke has priority and proper credit
disputes with Huygens and most famously
with Newton.34 35

After the London fires of 1666 Hooke is
involved in rebuilding projects and
never revisits the microscope.36
Hooke
designs many buildings including
Montague House, the Royal College of
Physicians, Bedlam and Bethlehem
Hospital.37
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
2. ^
"Robert Hooke". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
3. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
4. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp144-145.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp144-145.
16. ^ "asterism". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
sterism
17. ^ "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
18. ^ "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp144-145.
21. ^
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
22. ^ "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
23. ^
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
24. ^ Ted Huntington
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp144-145.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
29. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp144-145.
30. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
32. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp144-145.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
34. ^
"Robert Hooke". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
36. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp144-145.
37. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
38. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
39. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1657)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/

Oxford, England (presumably)38  
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
342 YBN
[1658 AD] 7 		1677)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
2. ^ "Athanasius
Kircher". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
3. ^ "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
4. ^ "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p119.
6. ^ "Athanasius
Kircher". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5596/Athanasius-Kircher
7. ^ "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher (1658)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Athanasius+Kirche
r?cat=entertainment
Rome, Italy6 (presumably) 
[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg
342 YBN
[1658 AD] 4 		1767)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
3. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1658)
(1658)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
The Hague, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
342 YBN
[1658 AD] 19 20 		1804) Swammerdam is the son of an
apothecary (a historical name for a
medical practitioner who formulates and
dispenses health materials to
physicians, surgeons and patients, a
role now served by a pharmacist7 ).8
Sw
ammerdam studies medicine at Leiden
university, where Steno and Graaf are
fellow students.9
In 1667 Swammerdam
earns his medical degree from Leiden10
university.11
Much to Jan's father's
displeasure, Swammerdam does not
practice medicine but continues his
microdissections of insects.12
At some
point Jan's father stop funding Jan.13
14
In 1673 Swammerdam meets Flemish
mystic Antoinette Bourignon, and later
subjects himself to the tutelage of
Bourignon and, for the most part,
renounces scientific study.15

Swammerdam's work is largely neglected
until Hermann Boerhaave revisits and
publishes it 50 years later16 in 1737
in two volumes called "Biblia naturae"
(Bible of Nature).17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
3. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
5. ^
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
6. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Apothecary". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p145.
10. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
12. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
13. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
15. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
17. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
18. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
19. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1658)
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p145. (1658)
(1658)
Amsterdam, Netherlands18
(presumably) 		 
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 27 		1681) Fermat is educated at home, and
gets a law degree in 1631 from the
University of Orleans.23
Fermat is a
councilor for the Toulouse Parliament
and devotes his spare time to
mathematics.24
Fermat scribbles notes
in margins as opposed to publishing or
writing about findings to friends.25
Fe
rmat's son publishes his notes five
years after Fermat's death.26
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
3. ^ "Pierre de
Fermat". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
6. ^ "Pierre de
Fermat". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
9. ^ "Pierre de
Fermat". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
10. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Pierre de Fermat".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
13. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
14. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
15. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
16. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
17. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ "Pierre de
Fermat". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
21. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
22. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp119-120.
27. ^ "Pierre de
Fermat". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat (1659 (De
Linearum paper)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre de Fermat".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_de_F
ermat
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+de+Fermat+
?cat=technology
Toulouse, France (presumably) 
[1] Fermat, portrait by Roland
Lefèvre; in the Narbonne City Museums,
France Courtesy of the Musees de la
Ville de Narbonne, France PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10637/Fermat-portrait-by-Roland-Lefevre
-in-the-Narbonne-City-Museums?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] A portrait of Pierre de Fermat,
French lawyer and
mathematician. Source
http://www.mathe.tu-freiberg.de/~hebisc
h/cafe/fermat.html Date 17th century
A.D. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_de_Fermat.jpg
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 10 		1741) Ray is the son of a blacksmith.2

Ray receives his early education at the
Braintree grammar school.3
In 1644,
with the aid of a fund that had been
left in trust to support needy scholars
at the University of Cambridge, Ray
matriculates at St. Catherine's Hall
College.4
In 1651 Ray earns his masters
from Cambridge, and stays on as
lecturer.5
In 1662 Ray leaves Cambridge
refusing to take an oath to the
restored king.6
In 16717 Ray is
elected as a member in the Royal
Society.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
3. ^ "John Ray".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
4. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
7. ^ "John Ray".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
9. ^ "John Ray".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
10. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th (1659)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
Cambridge, England9 (presumably) 
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 5 		1755)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
4. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141. (1659) (1659)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy4  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 4 		1766)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
3. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1659)
(1659)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
The Hague, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] Sketch of Mars by Christiaan
Huygens This sketch, made in 1659, is
the first known recording of markings
on the surface of Mars. As is
traditional for sketches drawn based on
the view through a telescope, it is
inverted, with south at the top. PD
source: http://www.planetary.org/explore
/topics/timelines/timeline_to_1698.html

[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 7 		1771) Huygens is not the first to
identify the Orion Nebula, as it was
already known earlier (by an Arabic
astronomer3 ,) by Nicolas-Claude Fabri
de Peiresc in 1610, and Johann Cysat in
16194 .5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
2. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Orion nebula#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_nebul
a#History
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
7. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology (1659)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Titan (moon)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_%28mo
on%29
[3]
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features
/saturn-story/moons.cfm NASA:
News-Features-The Story of Saturn. Jet
Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved on
2007-01-08.
[4]
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html
[5] "Titan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2639/Titan
The Hague, Netherlands6
(presumably) 
[1] Author: Huygens, Christiaan,
1629-1695. Title: Christiani Hvgenii
... Systema Satvrnivm; sive, De causis
mirandorum Satvrni phænomenôn, et
comite ejus planeta nova Imprint:
Hagæ-Comitis, ex typographia A.
Vlacq, 1659. Description: 6 p.l., 84
p. illus., fold. plate. 20 cm. [See
''Introduction'' for full
collation] Added Title: Systema
Satvrnivm. De causis mirandorum
Saturni phaenomenon. Systema
Saturnium. Christiani Hugenii ...
Systema Saturnium. Notes: Gift of the
Burndy Library (founded by Bern
Dibner) Signatures: Collation: ( )4
piB2 A-K4 L2. Call Number: QB671 .H98
Dibner Library of the History of
Science and Technology PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCol
lections/HST/Huygens/huygens-toc.htm

[2] Images from Christiaan Huygens'
Systema Saturnium, drawn from
1610-1650. PD
source: http://www.californiasciencecent
er.org/Exhibits/AirAndSpace/MissionToThe
Planets/Cassini/CassiniUpdates/Archive/C
history.php
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 3 		5918) Barabara Strozzi (CE 1619-1663),
Italian composer and singer, composes
music.1 Strozzi is one of the most
successful women composers of the
seventeenth century, and is the most
prolific composer of printed secular
vocal music in Venice around the middle
of the century, with seven different
publications, along with one of sacred
music, issued between 1644 and 1664.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Barbara Strozzi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strozzi-ber
nardo
2. ^ Glixon, Beth L. "New light on the
life and career of Barbara Strozzi",
The Musical Quarterly, 81, no.2 (summer
1997):
311-335. http://mq.oxfordjournals.org/c
ontent/81/2/311.full.pdf+html
3. ^ "Barbara Strozzi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strozzi-ber
nardo {1659 (composes Lagrime mie}
 
[1] Artist Bernardo Strozzi
(1581–1644) Link back to Creator
infobox template Title Deutsch:
»Gambenspielerin«, Bildnis von
Komponistin Barbara Strozzi
(1581-1644), vonBernardo Strozzi
gemalt. English: ''The Viola da Gamba
Player'' (German: »Gambenspielerin«),
portrait of composer Barbara Strozzi
(1581-1644), painted by Bernardo
Strozzi. Date Deutsch: um
1630-1640 English: ca.
1630-1640 English: c.
1630-1640 Medium Deutsch:
Leinwand English: Oil on
canvas Dimensions Deutsch: 125 ×
99 cm Current location Deutsch:
Gemäldegalerie Deutsch: Dresden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Barbara_Strozzi_1.jpg

340 YBN
[11/28/1660 AD] 5 		1704)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
2. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp128-129.
4. ^ "Royal Society".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
5. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society (11/28/1660)
London, England4  
[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html

[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 2 		1682)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat
2. ^ "Pierre de Fermat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4048/Pierre-de-Fermat (1660)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre de Fermat".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_de_F
ermat
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+de+Fermat+
?cat=technology
Toulouse, France (presumably) 
[1] Fermat, portrait by Roland
Lefèvre; in the Narbonne City Museums,
France Courtesy of the Musees de la
Ville de Narbonne, France PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10637/Fermat-portrait-by-Roland-Lefevre
-in-the-Narbonne-City-Museums?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] A portrait of Pierre de Fermat,
French lawyer and
mathematician. Source
http://www.mathe.tu-freiberg.de/~hebisc
h/cafe/fermat.html Date 17th century
A.D. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_de_Fermat.jpg
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 3 		1691)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
2. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121. (1660)
(1660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
Magdeburg, Germany2 (presumably) 
[1] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png

[2] Hubert-François Gravelot: Die
Elektrisierte, um 1750. Public Domain
de:Bild:Elektrisiermaschine.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elektrisiermaschine.jpg
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 28 		1737) Boyle was born in Ireland12 into
one of the wealthiest families in
Britain.13
Boyle is an infant
prodigy.14
Boyle goes to Eaton at 8 and
is speaking Greek and Latin.15
At 14,
Boyle lives in Italy studying works of
Galileo.16
Boyle never marries17 but
like most people probably did get sex
at least once and no doubt masturbated
regularly for much of his life18 .
In
1654 Boyle is invited to Oxford, and
lives at the university from c. 1656
until 1668.19
The Dutch-Jewish
philosopher Spinoza tries to convince
Boyle that reason is superior to
experiment.20
In 1660 Boyle helps
found the Royal Society of London21
whose motto is "Nullius in verba"
("Nothing by mere authority").22
Boyle
believes in transmutation of gold
(through chemistry23 ) and in 1689
convinces the British government to
repeal the law forbidding the
manufacture of gold (that sounds like
kind of a unusual law and shows the
gullibility of people at this time].24

Sadly Boyle's interest in religion
grows as he ages. Boyle learns Hebrew
and Aramaic for his biblical studies.
In his will he founds the Boyle
Lectures, not on science, but on the
defense of Christianity25 , which
continue to this day26 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Robert
Boyle". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted
Huntington
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
9. ^ "Robert
Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
10. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ "Robert Boyle". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
13. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington
19. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
21. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
23. ^ Ted Huntington
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
26. ^ "Robert
Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
27. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
28. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
Oxford, England27 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627
- 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 6 		3142)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ P. A. Redhead,
The ultimate vacuum, VacuumVolume 53,
Issues 1-2, , May 1999, Pages
137-149. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TW4-3WC41PF-13/1/124b4
08e41b05b5d704ff7f49318d0d9) {Vacuum_19
99_sdarticle.pdf} (nice work with many
figures)
3. ^ Boyle R. New Experiments,
physico-mechanical, touching
the spring of the air and its e¤ects.
London, 1660.
4. ^ P. A. Redhead, The
ultimate vacuum, VacuumVolume 53,
Issues 1-2, , May 1999, Pages
137-149. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TW4-3WC41PF-13/1/124b4
08e41b05b5d704ff7f49318d0d9) {Vacuum_19
99_sdarticle.pdf} (nice work with many
figures)
5. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
6. ^ P. A. Redhead, The ultimate
vacuum, VacuumVolume 53, Issues 1-2, ,
May 1999, Pages
137-149. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TW4-3WC41PF-13/1/124b4
08e41b05b5d704ff7f49318d0d9) {Vacuum_19
99_sdarticle.pdf} (nice work with many
figures) (1660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[2] "Robert Boyle". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
[3] "Robert Boyle". Who2? Biographies.
Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
[4] "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1660)
Oxford, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Fig. 2. The first measurement of a
sub-atmospheric pressure by
Robert Boyle c.1660. A beaker of
mercury with a manometer tube more
than 32 in long was sealed in a bell
jar and evacuated by the pump in Fig.
1. PD/Corel
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf

[2] Fig. 1. Piston pump constructed by
Robert Hook and used by Robert Boyle in
the Þrst measurement of a vacuum in
about 1660. PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 14 15 		1738) Halley is clearly a person who
mathematically analyzed orbits
translating earth-based observations
into two dimensional curves.12
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
6. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
7. ^ "Robert Boyle". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
11. ^ "Robert Boyle". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
14. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1661)
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1661)
(1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
Oxford, England13 (presumably) 
[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 13 		1754) This is a second piece of
evidence in support of the circulation
theory of Harvey who died a few years
too soon to know. Rudbeck adding the
final piece to the circulatory system
with the lymphatic system.8
Malphigi
sends these findings in two letters to
Borelli in Pisa who publishes them as
"De pulmonibus observationes
anatomicae" ("On the lungs"; Bologna,
16619 ).10
In this work Malphigi also
gives a detailed account of the
vesicular structure of the human
lung.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
4. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
9. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
10. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
11. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
12. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
13. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi (1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy12  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 17 		1810) Steno is the son of a goldsmith.
8 9
Steno is brought up Lutheran.10
In
1664 Steno earns his medical degree
from Leiden University.11
Steno is
court physician to Grand Duke Ferdinand
II of Tuscany.12
In 1667, Steno
converts to Catholicism and abandons
science for religion13 , (like Pascal
and Swammerdam)14 .
In 1677 Steno rises
to the position of bishop.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
4. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
6. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
9. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
13. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
16. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
17. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology (1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Steno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_St
eno
Amsterdam, Netherlands16  
[1] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Steno STAnO [t
accurate?] PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/070/0
00097776/
338 YBN
[1662 AD] 10 		1710) Graunt influences, and is
influenced by, his friend, the
physician Sir William Petty (CE
1623-1687), author of "Political
Arithmetic" and other works that
analyze available facts in a number of
areas, including life expectancy and
earning capacity, emphasizing their
economic and fiscal implications.8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "John Graunt". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Graunt?cat=h
ealth
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
3. ^ "John Graunt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7778/John-Graunt
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
5. ^ "John Graunt".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Graunt?cat=h
ealth
6. ^ "John Graunt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7778/John-Graunt
7. ^ "John Graunt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7778/John-Graunt
8. ^ "John Graunt". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Graunt?cat=h
ealth
9. ^ "John Graunt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7778/John-Graunt
10. ^ "John Graunt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7778/John-Graunt (1662)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Graunt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Graunt

London, England9  
[1] GRAUNT, John 1620-1674 PD
source: http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/math
s/histstat/people/
338 YBN
[1662 AD] 10 11 		1739) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691)
explains that the pressure and volume
of a gas are inversely related (Boyle's
Law).5

Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) with Robert
Hooke find that the pressure and volume
of a gas are inversely related (this is
called Boyle's Law).6

Boyle finds this when using a 17 foot
J-shaped tube to trap air using
mercury. Boyle recognizes that when he
adds twice the amount of mercury, he is
adding twice the pressure on the air
trapped in the end of the tube. When
Boyle does this the air volume is
reduced by a half, and in reverse, if
pressure is lowered by removing half of
the mercury, the volume of the air
expands by two times.7

This inverse relationship of a gases
volume to it's pressure is called
Boyle's law (in France it is credited
to Mariotte).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
9. ^ "Robert
Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
10. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1662)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1662)
(1662)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
Oxford, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
337 YBN
[1663 AD] 5 		1814) James Gregory (1638-16751 )
publishes an early design of a
reflecting telescope.2

Niccolò Zucchi (CE 1586-1670) builds
the earliest known reflecting telescope
in 1616.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p146.
3. ^ "Niccolo
Zucchi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
4. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
5. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory (1663)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Gregory (astronomer
and mathematician)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Grego
ry_%28astronomer_and_mathematician%29
London, England4  
[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg

[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php
337 YBN
[1663 AD] 8 		2247) Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE
1602-1686) builds the first static
electricity generator by rotating a
sulfur globe against a cloth.5

Guericke makes the first friction
electric machine, by mechanizing the
act of rubbing sulfur. Guericke makes a
sphere of sulfur that can be rotated on
a crank-turned shaft, that when stroked
with the hand as it rotates accumulates
a large amount of static electricity.
Guericke produces sizable electric
sparks from his charged globe, which he
reports to Leibniz in a letter in
1672.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
2. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
3. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
5. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
7. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
8. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology (1663)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC
Magdeburg, Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Otto Guericke electrical device.
Footage is claimed to be PD old.
Picture was obtained from
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biograp
hies/GuerickeBio.htm PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/gue
ricke-electricaldevice-png

[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png
336 YBN
[07/??/1664 AD] 10 11 		2328)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.roberthooke.com/robert_hooke_
biography_001.htm
2. ^
http://blog.plover.com/physics/flies-2.h
tml
3. ^ Works of Dr. Robert Hooke, 1705,
Waller
4. ^ Record ID1660. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Pitch
(music)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_%28mu
sic%29
6. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
7. ^
http://www.roberthooke.com/robert_hooke_
biography_001.htm
8. ^
http://www.roberthooke.com/robert_hooke_
biography_001.htm
9. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
10. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/chladni.html (07/1664)
11. ^
http://www.roberthooke.com/robert_hooke_
biography_001.htm (07/1664)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Hooke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[3] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[5]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[6] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[7]
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[8]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[9] "semaphore". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6703/semaphore
[10] "Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni
[11] "pitch". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0203/pitch
[12] "Marin mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_merse
nne
London, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
336 YBN
[11/23/1664 AD] 11 12 13 		1799) Hooke describes a transverse wave
theory of light with a transparent
medium:
"And first for Light it seems very
manifest, that there is no luminous
Body but has the parts of it in motion
more or less.

First, That all kind of fiery burning
Bodies have their parts in motion, I
think, will be very easily granted me.
That the spark struck from a Flint and
Steel is in a rapid agitation, I have
elsewhere made probable. And that the
Parts of rotten Wood, rotten Fish and
the like, are also in motion, I think,
will as easily be conceded by those,
who consider, that those parts never
begin to shine till the Bodies be in a
state of putrefaction; and that is now
generally granted by all, to be caused
by the motion of the parts of
putrifying bodies. That the Bononian
stone shines no longer then it is
either warmed by the Sun-beams, or by
the flame of a Fire or of a Candle, is
the general report of those that write
of it, and of others that have seen it.
And that heat argues a motion of the
internal parts is (as I said before)
generally granted.

But there is one Instance more, which
was first shewn to the Royal Society by
Mr. Clayton a worthy Member thereof,
which does make this Assertion more
evident then all the rest: And that is,
That a Diamond being rub'd, struck or
heated in the dark, shines for a pretty
while after, so long as that motion,
which is imparted by any of those
Agents, remains (in the same manner as
a Glass, rubb'd, struck, or (by a means
which I shall elsewhere mention)
heated, yields a sound which lasts as
long as the vibrating motion of that
sonorous body) several Experiments made
on which Stone, are since published in
a Discourse of Colours, by the truly
honourable Mr. Boyle. What may be said
of those Ignes fatui that appear in the
night, I cannot so well affirm, having
never had the opportunity to examine
them my self, nor to be inform'd by any
others that had observ'd them: And the
relations of them in Authors are so
imperfect, that nothing can be built on
them. But I hope I shall be able in
another place to make it at least very
probable, that there is even in those
also a Motion which causes this effect.
That the shining of Sea-water proceeds
from the same cause, may be argued from
this, That it shines not till either it
be beaten against a Rock, or be some
other wayes broken or agitated by
Storms, or Oars, or other percussing
bodies. And that the Animal Energyes or
Spirituous agil parts are very active
in Cats eyes when they shine, seems
evident enough, because their eyes
never shine but when they look very
intensly either to find their prey, or
being hunted in a dark room, when they
seek after their adversary, or to find
a way to escape. And the like may be
said of the shining Bellies of
Gloworms; since 'tis evident they can
at pleasure either increase or
extinguish that Radiation.

It would be somewhat too long a work
for this place Zetetically to examine,
and positively to prove, what
particular kind of motion it is that
must be the efficient of Light; for
though it be a motion, yet 'tis not
every motion that produces it, since we
find there are many bodies very
violently mov'd, which yet afford not
such an effect; and there are other
bodies, which to our other senses, seem
not mov'd so much, which yet shine.
Thus Water and quick-silver, and most
other liquors heated, shine not; and
several hard bodies, as Iron, Silver,
Brass, Copper, Wood, &c. though very
often struck with a hammer, shine not
presently, though they will all of them
grow exceeding hot; whereas rotten
Wood, rotten Fish, Sea water, Gloworms,
&c. have nothing of tangible heat in
them, and yet (where there is no
stronger light to affect the Sensory)
they shine some of them so Vividly,
that one may make a shift to read by
them.

It would be too long, I say, here to
insert the discursive progress by which
I inquir'd after the proprieties of the
motion of Light, and therefore I shall
only add the result.

And, First, I found it ought to be
exceeding quick, such as those motions
of fermentation and putrefaction,
whereby, certainly, the parts are
exceeding nimbly and violently mov'd;
and that, because we find those motions
are able more minutely to shatter and
divide the body, then the most violent
heats menstruums we yet know. And that
fire is nothing else but such a
dissolution of the Burning body, made
by the most universal menstruum of all
sulphureous bodies, namely, the Air, we
shall in an other place of this
Tractate endeavour to make probable.
And that, in all extreamly hot shining
bodies, there is a very quick motion
that causes Light, as well as a more
robust that causes Heat, may be argued
from the celerity wherewith the bodyes
are dissolv'd.

Next, it must be a Vibrative motion.
And for this the newly mention'd
Diamond affords us a good argument;
since if the motion of the parts did
not return, the Diamond must after many
rubbings decay and be wasted: but we
have no reason to suspect the latter,
especially if we consider the exceeding
difficulty that is found in cutting or
wearing away a Diamond. And a Circular
motion of the parts is much more
improbable, since, if that were
granted, and they be suppos'd irregular
and Angular parts, I see not how the
parts of the Diamond should hold so
firmly together, or remain in the same
sensible dimensions, which yet they do.
Next, if they be Globular, and mov'd
only with a turbinated motion, I know
not any cause that can impress that
motion upon the pellucid medium, which
yet is done. Thirdly, any other
irregular motion of the parts one
amongst another, must necessarily make
the body of a fluid consistence, from
which it is far enough. It must
therefore be a Vibrating motion.

And Thirdly, That it is a very
short-vibrating motion, I think the
instances drawn from the shining of
Diamonds will also make probable. For a
Diamond being the hardest body we yet
know in the World, and consequently the
least apt to yield or bend, must
consequently also have its vibrations
exceeding short.

And these, I think, are the three
principal proprieties of a motion,
requisite to produce the effect call'd
Light in the Object.

The next thing we are to consider, is
the way or manner of the trajection of
this motion through the interpos'd
pellucid body to the eye: And here it
will be easily granted,

First, That it must be a body
susceptible and impartible of this
motion that will deserve the name of a
Transparent. And next, that the parts
of such a body must be Homogeneous, or
of the same kind. Thirdly, that the
constitution and motion of the parts
must be such, that the appulse of the
luminous body may be communicated or
propagated through it to the greatest
imaginable distance in the least
imaginable time, though I see no reason
to affirm, that it must be in an
instant: For I know not any one
Experiment or observation that does
prove it. And, whereas it may be
objected, That we see the Sun risen at
the very instant when it is above the
sensible Horizon, and that we see a
Star hidden by the body of the Moon at
the same instant, when the Star, the
Moon, and our Eye are all in the same
line; and the like Observations, or
rather suppositions, may be urg'd. I
have this to answer, That I can as
easily deny as they affirm; for I would
fain know by what means any one can be
assured any more of the Affirmative,
then I of the Negative. If indeed the
propagation were very slow, 'tis
possible something might be discovered
by Eclypses of the Moon; but though we
should grant the progress of the light
from the Earth to the Moon, and from
the Moon back to the Earth again to be
full two Minutes in performing, I know
not any possible means to discover it;
nay, there may be some instances
perhaps of Horizontal Eclypses that may
seem very much to favour this
supposition of the slower progression
of Light then most imagine. And the
like may be said of the Eclypses of the
Sun, &c. But of this only by the by.
Fourthly, That the motion is propagated
every way through an Homogeneous medium
by direct or straight lines extended
every way like Rays from the center of
a Sphere. Fifthly, in an Homogeneous
medium this motion is propagated every
way with equal velocity, whence
necessarily every pulse or vitration of
the luminous body will generate a
Sphere, which will continually
increase, and grow bigger, just after
the same manner (though indefinitely
swifter) as the waves or rings on the
surface of the water do swell into
bigger and bigger circles about a point
of it, where, by the sinking of a Stone
the motion was begun, whence it
necessarily follows, that all the parts
of these Spheres undulated through an
Homogeneous medium cut the Rays at
right angles.

But because all transparent mediums are
not Homogeneous to one another,
therefore we will next examine how this
pulse or motion will be propagated
through differingly transparent
mediums. And here, according to the
most acute and excellent Philosopher
Des Cartes, I suppose the sign of the
angle of inclination in the first
medium to be to the sign of refraction
in the second, As the density of the
first, to the density of the second. By
density, I mean not the density in
respect of gravity (with which the
refractions or transparency of mediums
hold no proportion) but in respect
onely to the trajection of the Rays of
light, in which respect they only
differ in this; that the one propagates
the pulse more easily and weakly, the
other more slowly, but more strongly.
But as for the pulses themselves, they
will by the refraction acquire another
propriety, which we shall now endeavour
to explicate.
(see image) We will suppose
therefore in the first Figure ACFD to
be a physical Ray, or ABC and DEF to be
two Mathematical Rays, trajected from a
very remote point of a luminous body
through an Homogeneous transparent
medium LLL, and DA, EB, FC, to be small
portions of the orbicular impulses
which must therefore cut the Rays at
right angles; these Rays meeting with
the plain surface NO of a medium that
yields an easier transitus to the
propagation of light, and falling
obliquely on it, they will in the
medium MMM be refracted towards the
perpendicular of the surface. And
because this medium is more easily
trajected then the former by a third,
therefore the point C of the orbicular
pulse FC will be mov'd to H four spaces
in the same time that F the other end
of it is mov'd to G three spaces,
therefore the whole refracted pulse GH
shall be oblique to the refracted Rays
CHK and GI; and the angle GHC shall be
an acute, and so much the more acute by
how much the greater the refraction be,
then which nothing is more evident, for
the sign of the inclination is to the
sign of refraction as GF to TC the
distance between the point C and the
perpendicular from G on CK, which being
as four to three, HC being longer then
GF is longer also then TC, therefore
the angle GHC is less than GTC. So that
henceforth the parts of the pulses GH
and IK are mov'd ascew, or cut the Rays
at oblique angles.

It is not my business in this place to
set down the reasons why this or that
body should impede the Rays more,
others less: as why Water should
transmit the Rays more easily, though
more weakly than air. Onely thus much
in general I shall hint, that I suppose
the medium MMM to have less of the
transparent undulating subtile matter,
and that matter to be less implicated
by it, whereas LLL I suppose to contain
a greater quantity of the fluid
undulating substance, and this to be
more implicated with the particles of
that medium.

But to proceed, the same kind of
obliquity of the Pulses and Rays will
happen also when the refraction is made
out of a more easie into a more
difficult mediū; as by the
calculations of GQ & CSR which are
refracted from the perpendicular. In
both which calculations 'tis obvious to
observe, that always that part of the
Ray towards which the refraction is
made has the end of the orbicular pulse
precedent to that of the other side.
And always, the oftner the refraction
is made the same way, Or the greater
the single refraction is, the more is
this unequal progress. So that having
found this odd propriety to be an
inseparable concomitant of a refracted
Ray, not streightned by a contrary
refraction, we will next examine the
refractions of the Sun-beams, as they
are suffer'd onely to pass through a
small passage, obliquely out of a more
difficult, into a more easie medium."9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
3. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_
hooke.htm
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
8. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
9. ^
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15491
(Free Gutenberg online edition)
10. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
11. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_
hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
12. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_
hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
13. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1665)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
London, England10  
[1] The title page of Hooke's famous
'Micrographia', published in 1665. PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Suber cells and mimosa leaves.
Robert Hooke, Micrographia,
1665.[3] Robert Hooke's drawings of
the cellular structure of cork and a
sprig of sensitive plant from
Micrographia (1665). Oxford Science
Library/Heritage-Images [2] PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:RobertHookeMicrographia1665.jpg
336 YBN
[1664 AD] 30 		1714) As a student at Oxford, Thomas
Willis joins the Royalist garrison
during the Civil War.24
In the
Restoration, Willis gains professional
preferment, becoming Professor of
Natural Philosophy at Oxford in
(1660-167525 ).26 Willis is one of the
founding members of the Royal Society
and moves to London just after the
Great Fire, establishing a very large
practice in St Martin's Lane.27
In 1542
Willis earns a masters degree at Oxford
at age 21.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
2. ^ "Thomas Willis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
11. ^ "Thomas
Willis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
13. ^ "Thomas
Willis". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Willis?cat
=health
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "Thomas Willis". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Willis?cat
=health
16. ^ "Thomas Willis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
18. ^ "Thomas
Willis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
24. ^
http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries
/rare/medicine/willis.html
25. ^ "Thomas Willis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
26. ^
http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries
/rare/medicine/willis.html
27. ^
http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries
/rare/medicine/willis.html
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
29. ^ "Thomas
Willis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
30. ^ "Thomas Willis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis (1664)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Willis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Will
is
[2] "Iatrochemist". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrochemis
t
Oxford, England29 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w

[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1

336 YBN
[1664 AD] 4 		1800)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
3. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145. (1664)
(1664)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
London, England (presumably)3  
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
336 YBN
[1664 AD] 5 		1801)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
2. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
3. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
4. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145. (1664)
(1664)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
London, England (presumably)4  
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 14 		1688) Borelli is friends with
Malpighi.8
Borelli is influenced by the
mechanistic view of Descartes.9
Borelli
is appointed professor of mathematics
at Messina in 1649 and at Pisa in
1656.10
During his career, Borelli
enjoys the protection of Queen
Christina of Sweden, which shelters him
from the attacks from the Italian
authorities suffered by Galileo.11 12
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp122-123.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp122-123.
6. ^
"Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp122-123.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp122-123.
10. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
11. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Al
fonso_Borelli
12. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
13. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
14. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology (1665)
Pisa, Italy13 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 37 38 		1707) Grimaldi is the son of silk
merchant.32
Grimaldi enters the Jesuit
order at 15.33
In 1647, Grimaldi earns
his doctorate degree and becomes
professor at University of Bologna.34
Gr
imaldi is an assistant to Ricchioli.35

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
2. ^ P. Francesco
Maria Grimaldo, "Physico-mathesis de
lumine, coloribus, et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}
3. ^ P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo,
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted
Huntington
7. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology
8. ^ Record ID1799. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Ted
Huntington
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ "light". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258
401/light
18. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington
25. ^
"Diffraction". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction

26. ^ Ted Huntington
27. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_G
rimaldi
28. ^ Guglielmo Libri, Histoire des
sciences mathematiques en Italie (1840)
29. ^
Ted Huntington.
30. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_G
rimaldi
31. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_G
rimaldi
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
34. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
36. ^ "Francesco
Grimaldi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology
37. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology (1665)
38. ^ P. Francesco
Maria Grimaldo, "Physico-mathesis de
lumine, coloribus, et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biog
raphies/G/Grimaldi/1/html
Bologna, Italy36 (presumably) 
[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9

[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 5 6 		1726) Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko
SEnE) (CE 1625-1712) measures the
period of a Mars day as 24 hours and 40
minutes.3

Cassini identifies a number of double
stars including the bright star Castor.
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
4. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp 132-133.
(1665,1666)
6. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini (1666)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Bologna, Italy4  
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 11 		1756)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
5. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
6. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
7. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
8. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
9. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
10. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141. (1665) (1665)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy10  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 13 		1776) In 1665, Lower gets his bachelor
from Oxford.9
In 1667, Lower is elected
to the Royal Society.10
In London Lower
carries out research, some in
partnership with Robert Hooke.11
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p141.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p141.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
8. ^ "Richard Lower".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Low
er
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p141.
11. ^ "Richard
Lower". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Low
er
12. ^ "Richard Lower". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Low
er
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141. (1665) (1665)
London?, England12  
[1] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg

[2] Richard Lower. PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 		1812)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
2. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Steno".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
[2] "Nicolaus Steno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_St
eno
Paris, France3  
[1] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Steno STAnO [t
accurate?] PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/070/0
00097776/
334 YBN
[12/22/1666 AD] 7 		1712)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Academy of Sciences".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6291/Academy-of-Sciences
2. ^ "French Academy of Sciences".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Acad
emy_of_Sciences
3. ^ "French Academy of Sciences".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Acad
emy_of_Sciences
4. ^ "French Academy of Sciences".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Acad
emy_of_Sciences
5. ^ "Academy of Sciences".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6291/Academy-of-Sciences
6. ^ "French Academy of Sciences".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Acad
emy_of_Sciences
7. ^ "French Academy of Sciences".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Acad
emy_of_Sciences (12/22/1666)
Paris, France5 6  
[1] A celebratory engraving of the
activities of the Académie des
Sciences from 1698. Source:
http://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Jpegs/A
cademie.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg

[2] Louis XIV visiting the Académie
in 1671 An engraving by Sebastien Le
Clerc from Mémoires pour servir a
l'Histoire Naturelle des Animause
(Paris, 1671), depicting King Louis XIV
visting the Académie des
Sciences. Source:
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/images/ac
ademie_royale_paris.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1671.jpg
334 YBN
[1666 AD] 4 		1689)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp122-123.
3. ^ "Giovanni
Alfonso Borelli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
4. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology (1666)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Al
fonso_Borelli
Pisa, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
334 YBN
[1666 AD] 29 		1723) Sydenham takes the side of the
Parliamentarians.17 All five Sydenham
brothers (Thomas was the youngest) and
their father served as officers in
Cromwell's rebel army. Thomas was
wounded, two of his brothers were
killed, their mother was murdered by
Royalist troops, and the eldest
brother, William, became a leading
figure in Cromwell's protectorate.18

Because of the fighting Sydenham does
not get his bachelor's19 degree until
1648 age 24.20

Sydenham is friends with Robert Boyle
and John Locke.21

Sydenham revives the Hippocratic
methods of observations and
experience.22
Sydenham is recognized as
a founder of clinical medicine and
epidemiology (study of factors
affecting the health and illness of
populations23 ).24 Sydenham emphasizes
detailed observations of patients and
maintains accurate records.25
Sydenham
is called "the English Hippocrates"
before his death.26 27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
11. ^ "Thomas
Sydenham". Encyclopedia of Public
Health. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health
12. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
"Thomas Sydenham". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health
16. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
18. ^ "Thomas
Sydenham". Encyclopedia of Public
Health. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health
19. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Syde
nham
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
21. ^ "Thomas
Sydenham". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Syde
nham
22. ^
http://www.sydenham.org.uk/thomas_sydenh
am.html
23. ^ "Epidemiology". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiolog
y
24. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
25. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
27. ^ "Thomas
Sydenham". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
28. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
29. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health (1666)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anemia#Treatments for
anemia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemia#Trea
tments_for_anemia
[2]
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?artid=1369015
London, England28 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am

[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas
334 YBN
[1666 AD] 16 		1757)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
4. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
5. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
6. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
7. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
8. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
9. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
11. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/033/000095745
/
15. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
16. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health (1666)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy15  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
334 YBN
[1666 AD] 8 		1758)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
4. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
5. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
6. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
7. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
8. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health (1666)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy7  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
334 YBN
[1666 AD] 5 		1803) Hooke is inspired by his optical
theories to develop the idea that
planetary motions can be explained in
terms of a single attractive force from
the sun bending the straight-line
motion of a planet into an elliptical
orbit. In addition, Hooke theorizes
that this force would vary in inverse
proportion to the square of the
distance between the sun and the
planet.2

When Newton proves this relationship
(in addition to adding a gravitational
constant and object mass), at the
request of Edmund Halley in 1684,
Newton will not correct Halley's
assumption that Newton had reached the
idea himself. This proof, of course, is
the centerpiece of Newton's "Principia
Mathematica", which Halley will
persuade Newton to write. Hooke is
outraged when he hears that his
original idea is not acknowledged in
the "Principia".3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
2. ^ "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
3. ^ "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
4. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
5. ^ "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology (1666)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Hooke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[3] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
London, England (presumably)4  
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
334 YBN
[1666 AD] 47 48 		1853) Leibniz is born into a Lutheran
family near the end of the Thirty
Years' War, which has laid Germany in
ruins.14
Leibniz is the son of a
professor of philosophy who dies when
Gottfried is 6.15
Leibniz is a child
prodigy.16
Leibniz learns Latin at
eight, Greek at 14 (although I have to
wonder how well, it is easy to claim
but to be fluent language takes years
of learning all of the idioms for
example, in addition to simply the
thousands of nouns and verbs17 )18
Leibn
iz earns a degree in law from the
University of Leipzig19 in 1665.20
Amon
g the great philosophers of this time,
Leibniz is the only one who has to earn
a living. As a result, Leibniz serves
in a variety of positions for people of
royalty.21
Leibniz proposes that
education be made more practical, and
that academies be founded.22
Leibniz
sees as one of his tasks to bring about
a reconciliation between the religious
divisions in the Western half of the
religion based on Jesus23 .24
Leibniz
works on hydraulic presses, windmills,
lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide
variety of mechanical devices.25
Leibniz
devises a means of perfecting
carriages and experiments with
phosphorus.26
While in the mines of the
Harz Mountains, Leibniz hypothesizes
that the Earth was at first molten.27
Le
ibniz is an atomist.28
Leibniz meets
Huygens.29
In 1673 Leibniz is elected
to the Royal Society.30
Leibniz
develops a water pump run by windmills,
which serves the mines of the Harz
Mountains, where Leibniz often works as
an engineer from 1680 to 1685.31
After
the king of France, Louis XIV takes
Strasbourg and lays claim to 10 cities
in Alsace in 1681, Leibniz suggests to
his prince a method of increasing the
production of linen and a process for
the desalinization of water.32
Leibniz
formed a goal of writing a history of
the Earth, which includes such matters
as geological events and descriptions
of fossils, but never writes it.
Leibniz searches monuments and
linguistics for the origins and
migrations of peoples, in addition to
the birth and progress of the
sciences.33
In 1691 Leibniz is named
librarian at Wolfenbüttel and
propagates his ideas through articles
in scientific journals. All of these
writings oppose Cartesianism, which is
judged to be damaging to faith.34
In
1697, Leibniz publishes "De Rerum
Originatione" ("On the Ultimate Origin
of Things") which tries to prove that
the ultimate origin of things can be
nothing other than a God.35
In 1700
Leibniz and Newton are the first
foreign members to be elected into the
Parisian Academy of Sciences.36
Leibniz
is an advisor to Louis XIV and Peter
the Great, Czar of Russia, who Leibniz
meets for the first time in October
171137 .38
Leibniz turns down an offer
to take charge of the Vatican
Library.39
Leibniz never marries (yes,
but no doubt...ok you understand40 )41

Leibniz is a universal letter writer
with more than 600 correspondents to
both educated men and women42 .43
Only
Leibniz's secretary attends his
funeral.44
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
3. ^ Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, "Die
philosophischen Schriften von Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz",
1880. http://books.google.com/books?id=
1FH6PHOi1kQC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=Dissert
atio+de+arte+combinatoria&source=web&ots
=s00Emffk6x&sig=nzF5UB2mHTDLbpEba56chMtj
lFc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&c
t=result#PPA27,M1
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
6. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
9. ^ G. W. Leibniz, "A Study in Logical
Calculus" (>1690); "English translation
in Philosophical Papers and Letters",
translated: L. E. Loemker, (1976),
pp.371-382. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&d
q=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibn
iz&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA43
5,M1 {Leibniz_Logic001.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
14. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
19. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
21. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
22. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
23. ^ Ted Huntington
24. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
25. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
26. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
27. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
30. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
31. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
32. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
33. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
34. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
35. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
36. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
37. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
38. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
39. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
42. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
43. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
44. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
45. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
46. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
47. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology (1666)
48. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156. (1667)
(1667)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
Leipzig, Germany45 46
(presumably) 
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
333 YBN
[06/15/1667 AD] 		1815) Denis (also Denys) is the
personal physician to King Louis XIV.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp146-147.
2. ^
http://www.anes.uab.edu/june.htm
3. ^ http://www.anes.uab.edu/june.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp146-147.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp146-147.
8. ^ "Jean-Baptiste
Denys". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptis
te_Denys
9. ^ http://www.anes.uab.edu/june.htm
?, France9  
[1] Jean-Baptiste Denis PD
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/lich
su/lichsutruyenmau.htm

[2] Starr's book opens with an account
of this early transfusion, illustrated
in a 1692 German medical textbook. The
physician, Jean-Baptiste Denis,
believed the lamb's blood -- rich in
gentle ''humors'' -- would pacify the
madman Antoine Mauroy. PD
source: http://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive
/1998/09-18/features7.html
333 YBN
[1667 AD] 		1813)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
2. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Steno".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
[2] "Nicolaus Steno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_St
eno
Florence, Italy 4 (presumably) 
[1] Steno's shark teeth from
Elementorum myologiæ specimen, seu
musculi descriptio geometrica : cui
accedunt Canis Carchariæ dissectum
caput, et dissectus piscis ex Canum
genere Source
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/im
ages/stenoshark.jpg Date 1667 Author
Niels Stensen (Steno) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stenoshark.jpg

[2] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm
333 YBN
[1667 AD] 10 		1816)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p146.
3. ^ "James Gregory".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
4. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
5. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
6. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p146.
8. ^ "". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com. Ted Huntington
9. ^ "James Gregory".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
10. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory (1667)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Gregory (astronomer
and mathematician)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Grego
ry_%28astronomer_and_mathematician%29
Padua?, Italy9  
[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg

[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php
333 YBN
[1667 AD] 3 		5922) Dieterich Buxtehude (CE
c1637-1707), Danish (or German)
composer composes music around this
time. Most of Buxtehude's instrumental
music is for the organ: about half
consists of freely composed music.
Buxtehude represents the climax of the
1600s north German school, and he
significantly influences Johann
Sebastian Bach.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dietrich Buxtehude." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dietrich-bu
xtehude
2. ^ "Dietrich Buxtehude." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dietrich-bu
xtehude
3. ^ "Dietrich Buxtehude." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dietrich-bu
xtehude {1667 (age 30}
(Marienkirche {Saint Mary's church})
Lübeck, Germany2  
[1] Description English: The only
known likeness of Dieterich Buxtehude.
1674, Johannes Voorhout (detail). Date
March 26, 2007 (20 March 2009
(first version); 26 March 2008 (last
version)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be
made by User:מתניה. (Original
text : www.schnitgerorgel.de) Author
Johannes (Jan) Voorhout
(1647-1723). Original uploader was Cor
anglais 16 at en.wikipedia. Later
version(s) were uploaded by TheVOC at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Dieterich_Buxtehude.j
pg
332 YBN
[11/26/1668 AD] 7 		3257)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=712eb21
bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0 {Wallis_
John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_Motion_166
8.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
3. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
4. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=712eb21
bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0 {Wallis_
John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_Motion_166
8.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

7. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=712eb21
bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0 {Wallis_
John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_Motion_166
8.pdf} (11/26/1668)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[4] "Christopher Wren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Wren
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Wre
n
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126
[7] "John Wallis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis
 (1685)
[8] "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 11 		1727) Gian Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) establishes Jupiter's period
of rotation as nine hours fifty-six
minutes,5 by observing the movement of
spots of Jupiter's clouds.6

Cassini is the first to observe the
shadows of Jupiter's moons as they pass
between Jupiter and the Sun.7


Cassini issues a table of the motions
of Jupiter's moons, which will later
serve the Danish astronomer Ole Rømer
(Roemer) in his measuring the velocity
of light and proving that this velocity
is finite in 16758 .9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
3. ^ "Gian
Domenico Cassini". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/98187/Gian-Domenico-Cassini>.
4. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/98187/Gian-Domenico-Cassini>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
6. ^ "Gian Domenico
Cassini". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/98187/Gian-Domenico-Cassini>.
7. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/98187/Gian-Domenico-Cassini>.
8. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
10. ^ "Cassini, Gian
Domenico", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, 2000, p171.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1668)
(1668)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
[2] "Giovanni Domenico Cassini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
(Observatory at) Panzano (near
Bologna), Italy10  
[1] Description: Gemälde Giovanni
Domenico Cassini Source::
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Cassini.html
Painter: Durangel 1879, nach einer
alten Radierung, welche wiederum nach
einem alten Bild von Madame Milon de
a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Giovanni_Cassini.jpg

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 18 		1736) Redi is known as a poet mainly
for his Bacco in Toscana (1685;
"Bacchus in Tuscany").12
In 1647, Redi
receives his medical degree from the
University of Pisa.13 14
He taught in
the Studio at Florence in 1666.15
Redi
is employed as personal physician to
Ferdinand II and Cosimo III, both grand
dukes of Tuscany.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p134.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p134.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p134.
4. ^ "Francesco
Redi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2979/Francesco-Redi
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p134.
6. ^ "Francesco
Redi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Redi+?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Francesco Redi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2979/Francesco-Redi
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ "Francesco Redi". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Redi+?c
at=technology
10. ^ "Francesco Redi". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Redi+?c
at=technology
11. ^
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/redi.htm
12. ^ "Francesco Redi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2979/Francesco-Redi
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p134.
14. ^ "Francesco
Redi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Redi+?c
at=technology
15. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12687b.h
tm
16. ^ "Francesco Redi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Redi+?c
at=technology
17. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12687b.h
tm
18. ^ "Francesco Redi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2979/Francesco-Redi (1668)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francesco Redi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_R
edi
Florence, Italy17 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 -
1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print
Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm /
Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine

[2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno
alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da
Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in
vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor
Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna
della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p.
illus., plates (part fold.) 24
cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 5 		1817)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
2. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
3. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
4. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory
5. ^ "James Gregory". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8046/James-Gregory (1668)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "James Gregory
(astronomer and mathematician)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Grego
ry_%28astronomer_and_mathematician%29
Padua?, Italy4  
[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg

[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 7 		1818) De Graaf earns his undergraduate
degree from the University of Leiden
where he is a student of Sylvius.2
In
1665 De Graaf earns a medical degree
from University of Angers, France.3
De
Graaf is the first to appreciate the
work of Leeuwenhoek, and introduces
Leeuwenhoek's work to the Royal
Society.4
De Graaf dies in 1673, at age
32.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p147.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p147.
5. ^ "Regnier de
Graaf". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnier_de_
Graaf
6. ^ "Reinier de Graaf". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7566/Reinier-de-Graaf
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147. (1668) (1668)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ivf.nl/Reinier_de_Graaf_UK.ht
m
Delft, Netherlands6 (presumably) 
[1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch
anatomist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg

[2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian
follicles and female ejaculation, PD
source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog
y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 10 11 		1830)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p148.
2. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
3. ^
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
4. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
9. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154. (1668)
(1668)
11. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (1668)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[3] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[4] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[5]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[6]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[9]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
Cambridge, England9  
[1] Presumably Newton's first
reflecting telescope COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newt
on.html

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
331 YBN
[03/08/1669 AD] 12 		3258)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
3. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
12. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref (03/08/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
The Hague, Netherlands11
(presumably) 
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx http://www.an
swers.com/Christiaan+Huygens?cat=technol
ogy
331 YBN
[07/??/1669 AD] 23 24 		1827)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
4. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
7. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ "differential equation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0412/differential-equation
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
12. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
13. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
14. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
16. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
17. ^ "Isaac Newton". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
18. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
19. ^ "Isaac Newton". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
20. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
21. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
22. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
23. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html (07/1669)
24. ^ "Sir
Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (07/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6] Abe Mizrahi and Michael Sullivan,
"Calculus and Analytic Geometry",
Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, (1986), pp107-181
(Derivative), pp278-323 (Integral) {For
a basic explanation of differentiation
and integration, or any modern calculus
textbook}
Cambridge, England22  
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
331 YBN
[07/??/1669 AD] 5 6 		1828)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
2. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
3. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
4. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html (07/1669)
6. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (07/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[3] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[4] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
Cambridge, England4  
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 14 		1735) Erasmus Bartholin (BoRTUliN) (CE
1625-1698), Danish physician, is the
first to record the "double refraction"
phenomenon of calcite (Iceland
feldspar).4

Bartholin receives a transparent
crystal from Iceland (now called
Iceland spar) and notes that objects
viewed through the crystal are seen
double. Bartholin presumes that light
traveling through the crystal is
refracted at two angles, so that two
rays of light emerge where one had
entered. This phenomenon is therefore
called "double refraction" (and
Birefringence5 ). In addition,
Bartholin recognizes that when the
crystal is rotated, one image remains
fixed while the other rotates around
it. The ray giving rise to the fixed
image Bartholin calls the ordinary ray,
and the other the extraordinary ray.6

Newton explains so-called "double
refraction" in "Opticks" 7 as the
result of rays of light having four
sides, two that are responsible for the
"unusual" (extraordinary) refraction,
the other two sides responsible for the
usual refraction.8 Thomas Young will
explain double-refraction 150 years in
terms of a wave-theory of light.9

Calcite is the most common form of
natural calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a
widely distributed mineral known for
the beautiful development and great
variety of its crystals. Calcite is
polymorphous (same chemical formula but
different crystal structure) with the
minerals aragonite and vaterite and
with several forms that apparently
exist only under somewhat extreme
experimental conditions.10


Bartholin publishes this phenomenon in
"Experimenta crystalli islandici
disdiaclastici quibus mira & insolita
refractio detegitur". (Hafniæ 1669)
("Experiments with the double
refracting Iceland crystal which led to
the discovery of a marvelous and
strange refraction", 1959).11

I view all refraction phenomena as most
likely light particle collision
(reflection) phenomena.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp133-134.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp133-134.
5. ^ "Double refraction". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_refr
action
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
7. ^
Opticks, Newton, Dover 1979, p354 (Qu.
25,26).
8. ^ Opticks, Newton, Dover 1979,p360
(Qu. 26).
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
10. ^
"calcite". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9693/calcite
11. ^ "Erasmus Bartholin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Bar
tholin
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Erasmus Bartholin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3525/Erasmus-Bartholin
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
(1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "double refraction".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1617/double-refraction
Copenhagen, Denmark13  
[1] 1693-1698 Bartholin, Rasmus (1625-
4/11 1698) Universitetsprofessor,
læge, matematiker, fysiker, Valgt
25/1 1693 som den ældste Senium in
Academia Læs om ham i Dansk
Biografisk Lexicon PD
source: http://kilder.rundetaarn.dk/biog
rafisketavler/bibliotekarer.htm

[2] 1625 Rasmus
Bartholin PD
source: http://www.roskildehistorie.dk/1
600/billeder/personer/Bartholin/Bartholi
n.htm
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 11 12 		1774) The motivation for Brand's find
is a search for the philosopher's stone
in urine.8

Brand no doubt refines his production
method over time; the version published
later by Leibniz is

* Boil urine to reduce it to a
thick syrup.
* Heat until a red oil
distills up from it, and draw that
off.
* Allow the remainder to cool,
where it consists of a black spongy
upper part and a salty lower part.
*
Discard the salt, mix the red oil back
into the black material.
* Heat that mixture
strongly for 16 hours.
* First white fumes
come off, then an oil, then
phosphorus.
* The phosphorus may be passed into
cold water to solidify.

The chemical reaction Brand stumbles on
is as follows. Urine contains
phosphates PO43-, as sodium phosphate
(ie. with Na+), and various
carbon-based molecules. Under strong
heat the oxygens from the phosphate
react with carbon to produce carbon
monoxide CO, leaving elemental
phosphorus P, which comes off as a gas.
Phosphorus condenses to a liquid below
about 280°C and then solidifies (to
the white phosphorus allotrope) below
about 44°C (depending on purity). This
same essential reaction is still used
today (but with mined phosphate ores,
coke for carbon, and electric
furnaces).9

The phosphorus Brand's process yielded
was far less than it could have been.
The salt part he discarded contained
most of the phosphate. He used about
5,500 litres of urine to produce just
120 grams of phosphorus. If he'd ground
up the entire residue he could have got
10 times or 100 times more (1 litre of
adult human urine contains about 1.4g
phosphorus).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hennig Brand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennig_Bran
d
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
3. ^ "Hennig Brand".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6207/Hennig-Brand
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
6. ^ "Hennig Brand".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6207/Hennig-Brand
7. ^ "Hennig Brand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennig_Bran
d
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
9. ^ "Hennig Brand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennig_Bran
d
10. ^ "Hennig Brand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennig_Bran
d
11. ^ "Hennig Brand". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6207/Hennig-Brand (about 1669)
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (between 1669 and
1675) (between 1669 and 1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "Retort". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retort
Hamburg, Germany10 (presumably) 
[1] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg

[2] A retort. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:My_retort.jpg
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 20 21 		1793) Becher is the son of Luthuran
minister.17
Becher, as economic advisor
to Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I,
suggests a Rhine-Danube canal to
facilitate trade between Austria and
the Netherlands.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp143-144.
2. ^
"Johann Joachim Becher". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
4027/Johann-Joachim-Becher
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Phlogiston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlogiston
5. ^ "Johann Joachim Becher".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
4027/Johann-Joachim-Becher
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp143-144.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp143-144.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Morris, Richard (2003). The last
sorcerers: The path from alchemy to the
periodic table (Hardback), Washington,
D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN
0309089050.
12. ^ "Phlogiston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlogiston
13. ^ Becher, Physica Subterranea p.
256 et seq.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k84
226t
15. ^ "Phlogiston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlogiston
16. ^ Becher, Physica Subterranea p.
256 et seq.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k84
226t
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp143-144.
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp143-144.
19. ^ "Johann Joachim Becher".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
4027/Johann-Joachim-Becher
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp143-144.
(1669)
21. ^ "Phlogiston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlogiston
(1667)


?, Germany19  
[1] Johann Joachim Becher. Stich von P.
Kilian. PD
source: http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeio
u.encyclop.data.image.b/b221398a.jpg

[2] Johann Joachim Becher, detail
from an engraving Historia-Photo PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8793/Johann-Joachim-Becher-detail-from-
an-engraving?articleTypeId=1
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 28 29 		1805)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
3. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
4. ^
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
9. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
10. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
11. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
12. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
13. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
14. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
15. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
20. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
21. ^ Ted Huntington
22. ^ "Jan Swammerdam".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
23. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
24. ^
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
25. ^
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
26. ^
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
27. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
28. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology (1669)
29. ^
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml (1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Apothecary". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
Amsterdam, Netherlands27
(presumably) 
[1] Jan Swammerdam Historia insectorum
generalis, ofte, Algemeene verhandeling
van de bloedeloose dierkens : waar in,
de waaragtige gronden van haare
langsaame aangroeingen in leedemaaten,
klaarelijk werden voorgestelt :
kragtiglijk, van de gemeene dwaaling
der vervorming, anders metamorphosis
genoemt, gesuyvert : ende beknoptelijk,
in vier onderscheide orderen van
veranderingen, ofte natuurelijke
uytbottingen in leeden,
begreepen t'Utrrecht : By Meinardus
van Dreunen ..., 1669. [28], 168, 48
p., XIII, [1] leaves of plates (some
folded) : ill. (engravings) ; 21 cm.
(4to) Call no.: QL463.S8 1669 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/29.jpg

[2] The SCUA copy of Historia
insectorum generalis includes a scarce
additional plate depicting a mosquito
as seen under magnification. title
page metamorphosis of insects ''The
manner in which worms and caterpillars
change into pupae.'' scorpion
Scorpion mosquito Additional plate
depicting a mosquito PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/28.jpg
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 11 		1811)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
2. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
4. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
6. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolaus+Steno+?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
8. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146.
10. ^ "Nicolaus
Steno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno
11. ^ "Nicolaus Steno". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9578/Nicolaus-Steno (1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Steno". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_St
eno
Amsterdam, Netherlands10  
[1] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm

[2] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg
330 YBN
[1670 AD] 5 6 7 		1742)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
3. ^ "John Ray".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
4. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
5. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray (1670)
6. ^ "John Ray".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th (1670)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137. (1667)
(1667)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
Cambridge?, England4  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
330 YBN
[1670 AD] 22 		1908) Spinoza is born in Amsterdam,
where his family had settled after
fleeing religious persecution in
Portugal.12
In 1656 Spinoza is banned
from his synagogue13 on charges of
atheism.14 The edict asks for God to
curse him and warns "that none may
speak with him by word of mouth, nor by
writing, nor show any favor to him, nor
be under one roof with him.". Spinoza
then Christianizes his name to
Benedict.15

Spinoza conducts a large correspondence
with various scientists and
philosophers. Two of the most important
were Henry Oldenburg, the first
secretary of the British Royal Society,
and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, who
visits Spinoza in 1676.16

Spinoza is offered the chair of
philosophy at the University of
Heidelberg but declines it, seeking to
preserve his independence.17

Spinoza died in The Hague in 167718 ,
at age 4419 , of consumption aggravated
by inhaling dust while polishing
lenses.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spin
oza
2. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
3. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
4. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
5. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
6. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
7. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spin
oza
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
9. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ "Baruch
Spinoza". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
13. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
14. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
15. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
16. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
17. ^ "". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com. Ted
Huntington
18. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^ "Baruch Spinoza".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
21. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
22. ^ "Baruch Spinoza". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Baruch%20Spinoza
(1670)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benedict de Spinoza".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9149/Benedict-de-Spinoza
The Hague, Netherlands21  
[1] Benedictus de Spinoza PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spinoza.jpg
330 YBN
[1670 AD] 4 		5921) Jean-Baptiste Lully (CE
1632-1687), French composer of Italian
birth, collaborates with Molière on a
series of comédies-ballets which
culminate in "Le bourgeois gentilhomme"
(1670).1

(Is this the earliest evidence of
ballet?2 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean-Baptiste Lully." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-lully
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean-Baptiste Lully."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-lully
4. ^ "Jean-Baptiste Lully." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-lully {1670}
(Court of King Louis XIV) Paris,
France3  
[1] Artist Français : Jean-Louis
Roullet (1645-1699) ; d'après Mignard
Nicolas (1606-1668) Title Français
: Jean-Baptiste Lully, secretaire du
roy et surintendant de sa musique
(1633-1687) Date Français : 17e
siècle Medium Français :
Eau-forte et burin Dimensions
56.2 × 40.3 cm (22.13 × 15.87
in) Current location Musée
national du Château et des
Trianons Versailles Source/Photograp
her
http://www.muzeocollection.com/fr/o
euvre/o390633-jean-baptiste-lully-surint
endant-musique-roi-1633-1687-roullet-jea
n-louis.html?PHPSESSID=hvt0gfdsho4h1oo8a
afjtjpu74 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Jean-Baptiste_Lully_1
.jpeg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 26 		1713) Picard is a Roman Catholic
priest.21
Picard studies astronomy
under Gassendi.22
In 1655, Picard
succeeds Gassendi as professor of
Astronomy at the Collège de France.23

Picard is one of the charter members of
the French Academy of Sciences.24
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington
4. ^
http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles
/picard.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Jean Picard". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Picard+?cat=
technology
7. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12073b.h
tm
8. ^ "Jean Picard". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Picard+?cat=
technology
9. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12073b.h
tm
10. ^ "Jean Picard". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Picard+?cat=
technology
11. ^ "Jean Picard". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Picard+?cat=
technology
12. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12073b.h
tm
13. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12073b.h
tm
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p129.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p129.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p129.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p129.
23. ^ "Jean
Picard". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9898/Jean-Picard
24. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Picard_Jean.html (1671)
25. ^
"Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
26. ^ Ted Huntington. (1671)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Picard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Picard

Paris, France25 (presumably) 
[1] Jean Picard. 17th century
engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Picard.gif
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 4 		1715)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp129-130.
2. ^ "Thomas Willis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
3. ^ "Thomas Willis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis
4. ^ "Thomas Willis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7096/Thomas-Willis (1671)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Willis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Will
is
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Willis?cat
=health
[3] "Iatrochemist". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrochemis
t
Oxford, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w

[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1

329 YBN
[1671 AD] 6 		1729) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies the moon of
Saturn, Iapetus (IoPeTuS).3

Cassini uses a telescope over 100 feet
long.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
5. ^ "Cassini,
Gian Domeninco (Jean-Dominique)
(Cassini I)", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, 2000, p171.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1671)
(1671)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
[3] "Giovanni Domenico Cassini."
Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-do
menico-cassini
(Paris Observatory) Paris, France5
 
[1] Approximately natural color mosaic
of Iapetus taken on December 31, 2004
at a distance of about 173 000 km and
phase angle of 52 degrees. The mosaic
consists of two footprints which were
the only ones where multispectral
coverage exists at this point in the
flyby. The missing portions for
full-disk coverage were filled in with
three clear filter frames which were
colorized. The view is dominated by
the dark Cassini Regio. Brighter
terrain is visible high on Iapetus'
northern latitudes. Hints of much
brighter terrain can also be seen at
the limb at approx. 7 o'clock position
where slight camera saturation
occured. Two huge and ancient impact
basins are visible as well as a
mysterious mountain range running
precisely along the equator. North pole
is approximately at 1 o'clock position
and is in darkness here. Credit: NASA
/ JPL / SSI / Gordan Ugarkovic [t
looks very like a terrestrial with
meteor impacts, might this have been
orbiting the Sun? or absorbs impacts
around Saturn? If around the Sun and
then fell back to Saturn that might be
important. It's a classic question of
moon form around planets or only around
stars.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Iapetus_mosaic_color.jpg

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 5 		1796)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

3. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

4. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

5. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm
 (1671)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Athanasius Kircher".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5596/Athanasius-Kircher
[3] "Athanasius Kircher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_
Kircher
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Athanasius+Kirche
r?cat=entertainment
Amsterdam, Netherlands4  
[1] 1671 ATHANASIUS KIRCHER (1602 -
1680) Kircher published his second,
and expanded edition of 'Ars Magna' and
gives two illustrations of his lantern.
On pages 768 and 769 Kircher names
Walgensten as having a fine lantern,
but still claims the magic lantern as
his own. He also described a revolving
disk similar to the rotating wheel of
his 1646 edition. He referred to this
as a 'Smicroscopin'. The story of
Christ's death, burial and resurrection
are depicted in eight separate slides,
or scenes. His illustration of the
magic lantern in this edition
(Amsterdam) clearly show the direction
of his thinking, when we see the
possibility of movement using
successive slides. Kircher's revised
Ars Magna of 1671 provides a wonderful
cut-out illustration (above left) of
his magic lantern. The drawing clearly
shows the lens, mirror, light source
(lamp), slides and image on the wall.
Kircher claimed he was the inventor.
The slides are offered in the inverted
position in order to provide an upright
presentation. Notice the reflecting
mirror for greater illumination. PD?
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
1650.htm

[2] Sketch of Athanasius Kircher's
portable camera obscura from the
second edition of Ars Magna Lucis
Umbrae , 1671. Courtesy of the
Gernsheim Collection, Harry Ransom
Humanities Research Center, University
of Texas at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00001.gif
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 6 		1832)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
2. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
3. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
5. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
6. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15 (1671)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[3] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[4] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[5]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[6]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[9] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[10]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
Cambridge, England5  
[1] Presumably Newton's first
reflecting telescope COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newt
on.html

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 3 		1834)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
2. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
3. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15 (1671)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Isaac Newton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[4] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[5] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[6]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[7]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[9]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[10]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[11] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[12]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
Cambridge, England2  
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 6 		1854)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
4. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
5. ^ "Gottfried Leibniz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156. (1671)
(1671)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
Mainz, Germany5  
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 8 9 		2119)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Hydrogen# ref-8".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#_r
ef-8
3. ^
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/e
lements/text/H/hist.html
4. ^
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/e
lements/text/H/hist.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/e
lements/text/H/hist.html
7. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
8. ^ "Hydrogen# ref-8". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#_r
ef-8 (1671)
9. ^
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/e
lements/text/H/hist.html (1671)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Robert Boyle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
Oxford, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
328 YBN
[02/19/1672 AD] 44 45 46 47 		1829) The theory that light is a
particle is revived. Color determined
to be a property of light, not of
objects. Glass prism in use. White
light separated into and recreated from
primary colors. Light of different
colors shown to refract at different
angles.19 20 21

Isaac Newton (CE 1643-172722 )
theorizes that light may be
"...globular bodies...". Newton shows
that white light can be separated into
and recreated from primary colors.
Newton also shows that color is a
property of light, not a property of
objects light is reflected off of,
explaining that objects illuminated
with one color appear as that color and
that there are no colors in the dark.23
24 25

This is Newton's first published paper.
This letter recounts the experiments
Newton had conducted six years
earlier.26 27 28

Both Robert Hooke and Christiaan
Huygens support a wave theory and lead
the opposition to Newton's new
corpuscular theory of light.29 30

This paper divides scientists into two
groups, those who support the
corpuscular interpretation of light
(light as a particle), and those who
view light as being like sound, a wave
where particles of a medium, thought to
be ether, move a signal.31 32 These
two sides continue to this day,
although the wave interpretation has
changed from being made of particles of
an aether, to a non-material
electromagnetic translational wave,
however currently a large group of
people accept a compromise that light
is both a particle and a wave.33

This light as a particle, or
corpuscular, theory will dominate for
100 years34 , but will fall to the
theory of light as a wave in the 1800s
with the rise in popularity of Thomas
Young's interpretation of light rays
canceling each other out, and using
Newton's rings to correctly determine
the various wavelengths of different
colors of light.35 However, the light
as a particle theory will emerge again
in the 1900s36 , Maxwell Planck will
view light as made of quanta as a
result of his analysis of the
black-body phenomenon37 .

In 1633 Descartes had described light
as being like a "ball".38

Newton addresses objections and
questions about his corpuscular theory
for light in a November letter. For
example, describing the sensation of
color: "...as Modes of Sensation,
excited in the mind by various motions,
figures, or sizes of the corpuscles of
Light ...".39

Note that while supporting a
corpuscular theory for light, Newton
also supports the theory that an aether
fills the universe, writing in
November: "... assuming the Rays of
Light to be small bodies, emitted every
way from Shining substances, those,
when they impinge on any Refracting or
Reflecting superficies, must as
necessarily excite Vibrations in the
æther, as Stones do in water when
thrown into it. ...".40

Note too that Newton does not
explicitly recognize the idea that all
matter is made of light, first
theorized (although not explicitly
light in the form of particles) by
Robert Grosseteste in 1208.41

My own view is that light is a material
particle and the fundamental particle
of all matter, that light beams have no
amplitude and do not move in sine wave
shapes but move in straight lines, that
light particles can collide with each
other, that light waves do not "cancel"
each other out as Thomas Young thought,
and that wavelength is perhaps more
accurately called "particle interval".
I think reflection explains the
spreading out of light in so-called
diffraction and interference and the
phenomenon of polarization. But these
questions need to be examined more and
more experiments performed to
understand fully what the true nature
of light and the universe is.42
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
2. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
5. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
7. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
8. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
9. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
10. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
11. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
12. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
13. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
14. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
15. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
16. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
17. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
18. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
19. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
20. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
21. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
22. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
23. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
24. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
25. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
26. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
27. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
28. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
29. ^ "Isaac Newton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
30. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
31. ^ Documenta Ophthalmologica, Spring
Netherlands, Subject: Medicine, Volume
96, Numbers 1-3, July 1999
http://www.springerlink.com/content/uv
m41780twah/ http://www.springerlink.com
/content/n57210216334v842/fulltext.pdf
32. ^ Ted Huntington
33. ^ Ted Huntington
34. ^ Ted
Huntington
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
36. ^ Ted Huntington
37. ^ Ted
Huntington
38. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light",
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm
39. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
40. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
41. ^ Ted Huntington
42. ^ Ted Huntington
43. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (02/19/1672)
44. ^ Isaac
Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory Concerning
Light and Colors"', Feb 6, 1671/2, in
English, c. 5,137 words, 14pp.
Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3, ff.460-466
Location: Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
45. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
46. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
47. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p148
[7] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
(02/19/1672)
Cambridge, England43  
[1] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 7 8 9 		1191) Perhaps Willis is referring to
violence in self defense, but this is
doubtful since unusual and terrible
tortures (using various devices) and
painful dangerous procedures are
inflicted on people thought to have a
mental disorder. But on the issue of
violence as relates to so-called mental
disorder, for some reason, many people
tolerate violence such as assault and
murder, by using the excuse that the
so-called violenter (the doer of the
violence) has a psychiatric disorder,
instead of jailing people who use first
strike violence on nonviolent people,
no matter what the reason. Violent and
nonviolent people are all thrown
together in psychiatric hospitals, and
classified according to abstract
theoretical diseases with no diagnostic
evidence. Violence done by people in
psychiatric hospitals by either
patients or staff is generally not made
public nor prosecuted.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in
America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and
the Enduring Mistreatment of the
Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus
Publishing, 2001).
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^
http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries
/rare/medicine/willis.html
6. ^ "Thomas Willis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Will
is
7. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001). (1684) (1684)
8. ^ "Thomas Willis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Will
is (1672)
9. ^
http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries
/rare/medicine/willis.html (1672)
London5 , England6  
[1] Willis, Thomas, 1621-1675 De anima
brutorum quae hominis vitalis ac
sentitiva est : exercitationes duae /
studio Thomae Willis M.D.
Publisher Londini : Typis E.F.
impensis Ric. Davis, Oxon, 1672. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/medicine/WillisAnima1672.j
pg

[2] Thomas Willis British Anatomist
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Willis.jpg
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 4 5 		1685)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
2. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
3. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke (1672)
5. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology (1672)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
Magdeburg, Germany3 (presumably) 
[1] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 5 		1730) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies a moon of Saturn,
Rhea {rEo} (Ancient Greek: Ῥέᾱ).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
4. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1672)
(1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France4  
[1] 2005-12-06 Rhea
mission:Cassini Imaging Science
Subsystem - Narrow
Angle 4500x4500x1 Rhea: Full Moon
PIA07763: Full Resolution: TIFF
(20.29 MB) JPEG (2.354 MB) PD
source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov
/target/Rhea?start=50

[2] Ancient Craters on Saturn's
Rhea Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
Saturn's ragged moon Rhea has one of
the oldest surfaces known. Estimated as
changing little in the past billion
years, Rhea shows craters so old they
no longer appear round - their edges
have become compromised by more recent
cratering. Like Earth's Moon, Rhea's
rotation is locked on Saturn, and the
above image shows part of Rhea's
surface that always faces Saturn.
Rhea's leading surface is more highly
cratered than its trailing surface.
Rhea is composed mostly of water-ice
but is thought to have a small rocky
core. The above image was taken by the
robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting
Saturn. Cassini swooped past Rhea two
months ago and captured the above image
from about 100,000 kilometers away.
Rhea spans 1,500 kilometers making it
Saturn's second largest moon after
Titan. Several surface features on Rhea
remain unexplained including large
light patches. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0605
30.html
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 20 		1731) The scale of our star system is
determined from the parallax of Mars.7


(Italian:) Giovanni Domenico Cassini
(Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean Dominique
Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE 1625-1712)
measures the parallax of planet Mars
from his own measurements in Paris and
Jean Richer's (rEsA) (CE 1630-1696)
simultaneous measurements in French
Guiana.8 The relative distances of the
planets were known since the time of
Kepler, so only one distance is needed
to know the rest. This provides a scale
to the star system, allowing the
distance to all the other planets to be
calculated.9

Aristarchus of Samos had concluded that
the Sun is 19 times more distant than
the moon. Around 1620, Johannes Kepler,
using observations of Mars from Tycho
Brahe estimates the distance to the Sun
to be at least 1800 times the diameter
of Earth. This distance to Mars can be
measured by comparing the position of
Mars to the bright star ψ Aquarii
which Mars appears very close to on
October 1, 1672. From observations made
by Richer in Cayenne and by Picard and
Romer in France, Cassini makes the
first approximation of a true
determination of the scale of the solar
system and therefore, the distance to
the Sun from planet Earth. Cassini
concludes that this distance must be 86
million miles.10

From the measurement of the distance
from earth to Mars (state actual
units11 ), Cassini calculates that the
Sun is 87 million miles from the earth,
a value confirmed by Flamsteed in this
same year. While being too low by 7%,
this is the (most accurate measurement
and larger than all earlier estimates:
Aristarchos had the sun 5 million
miles, Poseidonius 40 million miles,
Kepler guessed 15 million miles12 ).13


Richer finds that a pendulum clock
moves more slowly in Cayenne than in
Paris by two and a half minutes a day.
The conclusion is that the force of
gravity is weaker in Cayenne because it
is farther from the center of the earth
than Paris.14 Perhaps Richer noticed
the difference in the clock because of
the clock being slower than the 24 hour
day.15 This will lead Newton (and
Huygens16 ) to conclude that the earth
is larger near the equator. This would
make the earth an oblate spheroid,
which it is, the surface of earth at
the equator is 13 miles {km} farther
from the center of the earth than the
surface at the poles.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
2. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
3. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
6. ^ Isobel Black
Gill, David Gill, "Six Months in
Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
7. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
10. ^ Isobel
Black Gill, David Gill, "Six Months in
Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ "Jean
Richer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3585/Jean-Richer
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
18. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1672)
(1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France18 ;Guiana, South
America19  
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 9 		1759)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
4. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
5. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
6. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
8. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
9. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health (1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy8  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 3 		1778)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/
timelines/timeline_to_1698.html
2. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
3. ^
http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/
timelines/timeline_to_1698.html (1672)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Sketch of Mars by Christiaan
Huygens This sketch, drawn in 1672, is
the first known recording of a polar
cap on Mars. As is traditional for
sketches drawn based on the view
through a telescope, it is inverted,
with south at the top. PD
source: http://www.planetary.org/explore
/topics/timelines/timeline_to_1698.html

[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 5 		1806)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
3. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
4. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
5. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam (1672)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
[2]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[3] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[4]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands4
(presumably) 		 
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 6 		1807)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
3. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
4. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
5. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
6. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam (1672)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
[2]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[3] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[4]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands5
(presumably) 		 
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 5 		1809)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
3. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
4. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
5. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
[3]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[4] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[5]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands4
(presumably) 		 
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 12 		1820) Along with the Italian
microscopist Marcello Malpighi, Grew is
considered to be among the founders of
the science of plant anatomy.4
Grew is
the only son of a clergyman.5
Grew's
father was on the side of the
Parliament in the English Civil War.6
In
1671 Grew earned his medical degree
from the University of Leiden,
Netherlands.7
Grew is an early member
of the Royal Society, and in 1677 is
secretary with Hooke8 .9
In 1676, Grew
is the first to use the term
"comparative anatomy" in a lecture
before the Royal Society.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
2. ^ "Nehemiah Grew".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
3. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
4. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p147.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p147.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
10. ^ "Nehemiah
Grew". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
11. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew (1672)
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp145-146. (1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nehemiah Grew". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehemiah_Gr
ew
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nehemiah%20Grew%2
0
presented: London, England11  
[1] Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) British
botanist Artist : Robert White,
1645-1703 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nehemiah-Grew-1641-1712.jpg

[2] Grew, detail from an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture Library
original image PD, photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-38471/Grew-detail-from-an-engraving?art
icleTypeId=1
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 6 7 		1709)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
2. ^ "Johannes
Hevelius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Johannes Hevelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius
5. ^
http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/research
/collections/transit-of-venus/index.shtm
l
6. ^
http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/research
/collections/transit-of-venus/index.shtm
l (1673)
7. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius (1673)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Hevelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Hevelius
+?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/Stjernebil
leder/atlasser/hevelius/indhold.html
Gdansk, Poland5  
[1] Machina coelestis, volume
1 Gdansk, 1673 QB 85 .H4
1673 Johannes Hevelius Before the
development of solar filters that
enabled direct observation of the Sun,
astronomers used indirect means to
safely view transits of Venus,
sunspots, and eclipses. This apparatus,
by the eminent Polish astronomer
Hevelius, shows how the image of the
Sun can be projected through a
telescope on to a sheet of paper. An
astronomer could then draw what he saw
from life, as you see an astronomer
doing in this illustration. Observers
today can still use this viable option
for viewing transits and other solar
phenomena. PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/in
dex.shtml

[2] Figur A: Ursa Minor - Lille
Bjørn PD
source: http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/St
jernebilleder/atlasser/hevelius/index.ht
ml
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 6 		1770)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
2. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz
and the Vis Viva Controversy", Isis,
Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp.
21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
5. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
6. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology (1673)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[3]
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I
010/10239953.aspx
[4] "pendulum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9060/pendulum
[5] "Fulcrum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulcrum
[6]
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/clck/hd
_clck.htm
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Huygens, Horologium oscillatorium,
1673. PD
source: http://kinematic.library.cornell
.edu:8190/kmoddl/toc_huygens1.html

[2]
http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/dawn/167301
.html Huygens, Christiaan.
(1629-1695). Horologium
Oscillatorium,,,. Parisiis, 1673,
First edition. PD
source: http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/daw
n/photo/167301.jpg
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 9 		1819)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Reinier de Graaf". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7566/Reinier-de-Graaf
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p147.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
5. ^ "Reinier de
Graaf". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7566/Reinier-de-Graaf
6. ^
http://www.ivf.nl/Reinier_de_Graaf_UK.ht
m
7. ^ "Hydrosalpinx". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrosalpin
x
8. ^ "Reinier de Graaf". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7566/Reinier-de-Graaf
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147. (1673) (1673)

MORE INFO
[1] "Regnier de Graaf".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnier_de_
Graaf
Delft, Netherlands8 (presumably) 
[1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch
anatomist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg

[2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian
follicles and female ejaculation, PD
source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog
y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 6 		1833)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
2. ^ "Reflecting
telescope#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_
telescope#History
3. ^ "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
4. ^ "Reflecting telescope#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_
telescope#History
5. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
6. ^ "Reflecting telescope#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_
telescope#History (1673)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[3]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[4] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[5]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[6] "asterism". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
sterism
Oxford, England (presumably)5  
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 9 		3377)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/exhibi
tions/energie/power-engines/combustion-e
ngines/
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
9. ^
http://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/exhibi
tions/energie/power-engines/combustion-e
ngines/ {1673}

MORE INFO
[1] Cosmos, Carl Sagan
[2]
http://www.richardbell.net/huygens.html
[3]
http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/christia
an_huygens
[4]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
[5]
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scient
ific-american/484/00.htm#3
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Powder machine, Chr. Huygens 1673,
drawing by Huygens PD/Corel
source: http://www.deutsches-museum.de/t
ypo3temp/pics/d2f04f7a88.jpg

[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
326 YBN
[09/07/1674 AD] 21 		1781) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe
protists (single-cell organisms with
one or more nucleus that are the
ancestor of all multicellular
organisms11 ).12 13 14

Leeuwenhoek examines cloudy water from
a nearby lake and discovers that it is
filled with tiny "animalcules," which
modern people recognize as protists.15


Leeuwenhoek looks at many things
including teeth scrapings, and ditch
water.16
Leeuwenhoek notes the fine
structure of muscle, skin, hair, ivory,
and insects.17
Leeuwenhoek finds tiny
creatures parasitic on fleas which will
inspire Jonathan Swift to write his
famous quatrain
"So naturalists
observe, a flea
Has smaller fleas that on
his prey;
And these have smaller still to
bite 'em;
And so proceed ad infinitum."18

The microscopes made by Robert Hooke
(1635-1703) and other contemporaries
are compound microscopes, with both an
objective lens and an eyepiece, but
Leeuwenhoek uses simple microscopes,
with a single bead-like lens mounted
between two small thin metal sheets,
usually brass. The object to be viewed
is mounted on a pin on one side of the
lens, and the eye is placed, almost
touching the lens, on the other. The
microscopes are successful because the
tiny spherical lenses are exquisitely
ground, or, in a few cases, blown.19
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
3. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
4. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
6. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
10. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ "Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
14. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
15. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
19. ^ "Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
20. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
21. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (09/07/1674 (letter to Royal
Society)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[2]
http://www.answers.com/parthenogenesis
Delft, Netherlands20  
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
326 YBN
[1674 AD] 4 		1749)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
2. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
3. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
4. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th (1674)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
[3] "John Ray". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
?, England3  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
326 YBN
[1674 AD] 3 		1783)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
2. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (1674)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[4] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands2  
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
326 YBN
[1674 AD] 19 		1825) Mayow earns his Bachelor's degree
from Oxford in 1665.15
In 1670, Mayow
earns his doctorate in civil law.16
Mayo
w dies around age 36.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp147-148.
2. ^ "John Mayow".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1617/John-Mayow
3. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp147-148.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp147-148.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Ted
Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ "John Mayow".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "John
Mayow". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_May
ow
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "John Mayow". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology
14. ^ "John Mayow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayow
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp147-148.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp147-148.
17. ^ "John
Mayow". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"John Mayow". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_May
ow
18. ^ "John Mayow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayow
19. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology (1674)
Oxford, England18  
[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg

[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg

326 YBN
[1674 AD] 6 		2410)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978, p180.
2. ^ Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ The History and Present
State of Discoveries Relating to
Vision, Light and Colours, Joseph
Priestley, 1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p180.
5. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Dechales.html
6. ^ The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978, p180. (1674)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles
/dechales.html
Lyons, France5   
325 YBN
[12/07/1675 AD] 4 		1838)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
2. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
3. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
4. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960 (12/07/1675)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Isaac Newton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[4] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[5] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[6]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[7]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[9]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[10]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[11] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[12]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[13]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
325 YBN
[1675 AD] 7 		1732) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies the "Cassini
division", the dark gap between the
rings A and B of Saturn.3

Cassini thinks that the ring might be
made of many tiny objects, but most
astronomers including Herschel view the
ring as solid and Cassini's division as
only dark markings on it.4
James
Maxwell will provide mathematical
evidence to support Cassini's theory
150 years later.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
3. ^ "Gian
Domenico Cassini". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
6. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1675)
(1675)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France6  
[1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb
to progressively higher elevations
reveals the ''negative'' side of
Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines
through the rings, they take on the
appearance of a photonegative: the
dense B ring (at the center) blocks
much of the incoming light, while the
less dense regions scatter and transmit
light. Close inspection reveals not
one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas
(397 kilometers, or 247 miles across)
is easily visible near the upper right,
but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102
kilometers, or 63 miles across) can
also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot
against the far side of the thin,
bright F ring. Most of Prometheus'
sunlit side is turned away from Cassini
in this view. The image was taken in
visible light with the Cassini
spacecraft wide-angle camera on April
15, 2005, at a distance of
approximately 570,000 kilometers
(350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image
scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For
additional images visit the Cassini
imaging team homepage
http://ciclops.org . Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
325 YBN
[1675 AD] 6 		1760)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
4. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
5. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
6. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health (1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy4 5  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
325 YBN
[1675 AD] 16 		1780) In 16533 Wren earns a masters
degree from Oxford.4
In 1657 Wren is
professor of astronomy at Gresham
College.5
Wren designs St Paul's
Cathedral in London after the fire of
1666.6
Wren is a royalist.7
Wren is a
charter member of Royal Society, and
president in 1681.8
Wren wants to
redesign London to be more logical, but
the land owners stop it.9
On a nearby
wall Wren's son later places a
dedication: "Lector, si monumentum
requiris, circumspice" ("Reader, if you
seek a monument, look about you").10

Wren's scientific work is highly
regarded by Sir Isaac Newton and Blaise
Pascal.11
Wren's speculations on the
nature of gravity lay the groundwork
for Newton.12

Wren is the leader of the English
Baroque (architectural13 ) school and
remains the most famous architect in
English history.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
2. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
3. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp141-142.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp141-142.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp141-142.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp141-142.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp141-142.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp141-142.
10. ^ "Sir
Christopher Wren". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
11. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp141-142.
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^
"Christopher Wren". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Wre
n
15. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
16. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren (1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christopher Wren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Wren
London, England15  
[1] Sir Christopher Wren by Godfrey
Kneller, 1711, NPG 113. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Wren_by_Godfrey_Kneller_1
711.jpg

[2] Taken from the gallery of the Tate
Modern. That's the Millennium
Footbridge stretching over the Thames
at the bottom right. The old cathedral
is quite difficult to see from ground
level, because the postwar construction
on this valuable land obstructs the
vista and hems in the grand building on
every side. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Pauls_From_the_South.JPG
325 YBN
[1675 AD] 6 		1835)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
2. ^ "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
6. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15 (1675)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Isaac Newton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[4] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[5]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[6]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[9]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[10] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[11]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
Cambridge, England5  
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
325 YBN
[1675 AD] 7 		1836)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
2. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
3. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
4. ^
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
7. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (1675)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Isaac Newton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[4] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[5] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[6]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[7]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[9]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[10]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[11] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[12]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
Cambridge, England6  
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
325 YBN
[1675 AD] 17 		1859) Flamsteed is acquainted with
Newton and enters Cambridge.9
Flamsteed
starts his scientific career under the
patronage of William Brouncker, the
first president of the Royal Society,
having impressed Brouncker by computing
an almanac of celestial events for
1670.10
Flamsteed is forced to become a
priest to the parish of Burstow, Surrey
for a source of income from 1684 until
his death.11
In 1677 Flamsteed becomes
a member of the Royal Society.12
Flamste
ed is forced to take private pupils to
augment his income. A small inheritance
from his father, who dies in 1688,
provides the money to construct a mural
arc, a wall-mounted instrument for
measuring the altitudes of stars as
they pass the meridian.13
Newton
expects Flamsteed to provide his
observations, but Flamsteed refuses
until he will be finished, and they
become angry with each other. Finally
in 1708 Halley publishes a number of
Flamsteed's observations with George of
Denmark funding the cost of printing.
Flamsteed become furious, and burns at
least 300 copies of the work.14 (wins
court case15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
4. ^ "John
Flamsteed". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
6. ^ "John
Flamsteed". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
7. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
8. ^ "John Flamsteed". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
10. ^ "John
Flamsteed". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
11. ^ "John Flamsteed". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
12. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
13. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "John
Flamsteed". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
17. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed (1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Flamsteed". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Flamst
eed
Greenwich, England16  
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
325 YBN
[1675 AD] 6 		2875)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
2. ^ The Discovery of
X-Rays W. C. Rontgen; George
Sarton Isis, Vol. 26, No. 2.
(Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369, p345.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.pdf

3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Jean Picard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9898/Jean-Picard
6. ^ The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369,
p345.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.pdf
(1675) (1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Picard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Picard

[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Picard+?cat=
technology
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Picard_Jean.html
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12073b.h
tm
[5]
http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles
/picard.html
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Jean Picard. 17th century
engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Picard.gif
324 YBN
[06/13/1676 AD] 5 		1837)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
2. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
3. ^ "binomial theorem".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
4. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
5. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960 (06/14/1676)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
[2] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[4] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[5]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[6]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[9]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[10] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[11]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[12]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
Cambridge, England4  
[1] In mathematics, the binomial
theorem is an important formula giving
the expansion of powers of sums. Its
simplest version says GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bin
omial_theorem

[2] Binomial theorem examples GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bin
omial_theorem http://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-168
9.jpg
324 YBN
[10/09/1676 AD] 16 17 		1782) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe
bacteria (prokaryotes, single-cell
organisms without a nucleus).10 11 12

This is Leeuwenhoek's most famous
letter (dated October 9, 1676). This
letter communicates the results of a
series of experiments on water filled
with pepper. Leeuwenhoek begins by
examining some snow-water that he has
kept sealed for three years. He sees no
creatures. Leeuwenhoek then added some
peppercorns to the solution, and, after
three weeks, observes the sudden
appearance of a tremendous number of
"very little animals." Judging by his
calculations of their number and size,
historians have concluded that
Leeuwenhoek was the first person to see
bacteria. Colleagues reproduce
Leuwenhoek's experiments in the months
that follow. Leeuwenhoek does not
connect the microscopic organisms with
disease, but his observations lay the
foundation for further
investigations.13

The organisms Leeuwenhoek sees are so
small that, in his words, a million
would not occupy the space of a grain
of sand. Leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria
but does not recognize them as a
radically different form of life from
protists.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
3. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
4. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
6. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
7. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
9. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
10. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp142-143.
12. ^ "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
13. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
14. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
15. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
16. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)
17. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[2] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands15  
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 17 		1711) Mariottee is a Roman Catholic
priest.14
Mariotte is one of the
founding members of the Academy of
Sciences in Paris in 1666.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
2. ^ "Edme Mariotte".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
4. ^ "Edme Mariotte".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
5. ^ "Edme Mariotte". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
6. ^ "Edme Mariotte". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
7. ^ "Edmé Mariotte". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Edm%C3%A9+Mariott
e+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Edmé Mariotte". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Edm%C3%A9+Mariott
e+?cat=technology
9. ^ "Edme Mariotte". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
10. ^ "Edme Mariotte". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edme_Mariot
te
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
12. ^
http://home.snafu.de/pedasy/ascapap.htm
13. ^ "Edme Mariotte". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p129.
15. ^ "Edme
Mariotte". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
16. ^ "Edme Mariotte". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte
17. ^ "Edme Mariotte". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0974/Edme-Mariotte (1676)
Paris, France16 (presumably) 
[1] Edme Mariotte PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/112/0
00095824/
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 6 7 		1725)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
2. ^ "Thomas
Sydenham". Encyclopedia of Public
Health. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health
3. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p132.
5. ^ "Thomas
Sydenham". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
6. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health (1676)
7. ^ "Thomas Sydenham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham (1676)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Sydenham". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Syde
nham
[2] "Epidemiology". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiolog
y
[3] "Anemia#Treatments for anemia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemia#Trea
tments_for_anemia
[4]
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?artid=1369015
[5]
http://www.sydenham.org.uk/thomas_sydenh
am.html
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am

[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 5 		1746)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
2. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
3. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
4. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
5. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th (1676)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
[3] "John Ray". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
?, England4  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 4 		1747)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
2. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
3. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
4. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th (1676)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
[3] "John Ray". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
?, England3  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 6 		1748)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
2. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
4. ^ "John Ray".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
5. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
6. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th (1676)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
?, England5  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 47 48 		1851) Humans measure the speed of
light.23 24 25 26

The Danish astronomer, Ole (or Olaus)
Rømer (ROEmR) (CE 1644-1710)27 , shows
that the speed of light is finite, and
calculates the speed of light as (in
modern units) 225,000 km per second
(too small according to the modern
estimate: 299,792 km per second28 ).29
30

Aristotle and Descartes has supposed
the velocity of light to be infinite.31
 Galileo had documented an attempt to
measure the speed of light in 1638.32
33 In the time before portable
accurate chronometers, the eclipses of
Jupiter's moons are thought to be
provide accurate time measurements to
determine longitude. Galileo had
suggested this in 1612. By 1668 Cassini
had published a table of the motions of
the moons of Jupiter. In September
1676, Rømer presents the Paris Academy
with a prediction that the egress, or
end, of the eclipse of the innermost
moon of Jupiter expected on November 9
will occur ten minutes late compared to
the time expected from averaging all
eclipses. Observations confirm this
prediction, and soon afterwards, Rømer
presents memoirs in which he explains
the delay as being due to the time
light takes to travel across the space
between Jupiter and Earth. Rømer
explains that ingresses, when a Moon
disappears into the shadow of Jupiter
only occur (or can only be seen34 )
when the Earth is approaching Jupiter,
and egresses, (when a moon of Jupiter
moves out of the shadow of Jupiter35 )
only occur (or can be seen36 ) when the
Earth is moving away from Jupiter. In
addition, Rømer explains that the
intervals between ingresses are shorter
than the average value, but egresses
are separated by intervals that are
longer than the average value. Rømer
recognizes that the changing eclipse
intervals are because of the finite
speed of light and the varying distance
that light must cover between Jupiter
and the Earth, which is always
decreasing for ingresses and increasing
for egresses. From the observed
timings, Rømer calculates that light
takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter
of the Earth's orbit. Cassini opposes
Rømer's explanation, but Huygens,
Newton and others accept it.37

Rømer observes that forty orbits of
Io, each 42.5 hours, observed as the
Earth moves towards Jupiter are in
total 22 minutes shorter than forty
orbits of Io observed as the Earth
moves away from Jupiter, and Rømer
concludes from this that light will
travel the distance which the Earth
travels during eighty orbits of Io in
22 minutes.38

Roemer announces the calculation of the
speed of light at the French Academy of
Sciences in Paris.39 40
An article
"Demonstration touchant le mouvement de
la lumiere trouvé par M. Römer de l'
Academie Royale des Sciences" will be
published in the "Journal des
sçavans."41 on December 7, 1676 which
describes Roemer's finding.42 43 44
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
2. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
3. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
4. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
5. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
6. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
7. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
8. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
9. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
10. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
11. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
12. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155.
14. ^ "Olaus Roemer".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
15. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
16. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
17. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
18. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
19. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155.
21. ^ "Olaus Roemer".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
22. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
23. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
24. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
25. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
26. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155.
28. ^ "Ole Romer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
29. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
30. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155.
32. ^ William Tobin,
"The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p118.
33. ^ Record ID1612. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p118.
38. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
39. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155.
40. ^ "Olaus Roemer".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
41. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
42. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
43. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
44. ^
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem
-History/Roemer-1677/Roemer-1677.html
45. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p118.
46. ^ "Olaus
Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
47. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology (1676)
48. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155. (1676)
(1676)
(Paris Observatory45 ) Paris, France46
 
[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484

[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 21 		1870) The island of St. Helena is the
future exiled home of Napoleon
Bonaparte.4

Halley's father is a wealthy business
(owner?5 ).6
Halley publishes a work on
Kepler's laws when he is 19.7
Halley is
called the "southern Tycho".8
Halley is
awarded a master's degree from Oxford.9

Halley is elected to the Royal
Society.10
In 1684 Halley encourages
Newton and funds the printing of the
Principia.11
Halley's father is
murdered.12
Halley dines with Peter the
Great on the czar's visit to England.13

In 1704, despite the objections of
Flamsteed, Halley is made a professor
of geometry at Oxford.14 15
Halley's
comet appeared in 1986 and should
return around 2061].16
Halley repeats
the suggestion of Kepler that the
transit of Venus be used to determine
the distance of Venus through parallax
and therefore the scale of the solar
system.17
Halley travels widely and
measures magnetic variations.18
In 1720
Halley replaces Flamsteed as astronomer
royal. Halley spends 20 years doing
careful observations of the moon.19
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
14. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
(1676)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[3] "St. Helena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
Saint Helena20  
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
323 YBN
[1677 AD] 6 		1784)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
2. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
3. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
6. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (1677)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
Delft, Netherlands5  
[1] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
322 YBN
[06/25/1678 AD] 9 10 		3862)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
4. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
5. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
6. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
7. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
8. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
9. ^
http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/
piscopia.htm {06/25/1678}
10. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html {1678}
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy8
 
[1] Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia [t
Verify is authentic] PD
source: http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddl
e/women/piscopia.gif
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 13 14 15 		1768)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Christian
Huygens, "Traité de la lumière",
1690 trans: S. P. Thompson, "Treatise
on Light", (New York: Dover,
1912). http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/
14725
3. ^
http://polarization.com/history/history.
html
4. ^
http://www.wiley-vch.de/templates/pdf/35
27404295_c01.pdf
history_optics_3527404295_c01.pdf
5. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
13. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology (presented to Royal
Academy in 1678)
14. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology (Published 1690)
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (Published
1690) (Published 1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 7 8 		1802)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
4. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
5. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145. (1678)
7. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1678)
8. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1678)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
London, England (presumably)6  
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 11 12 		1871) This book establishes Halley's
reputation as an astronomer.8
In 1678
Halley is elected a fellow of the Royal
Society and the King intercedes so that
Halley is granted an M.A. degree from
Oxford University.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
3. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
4. ^ "Edmund Halley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
5. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
8. ^ "Edmond
Halley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
9. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
10. ^ "Edmund Halley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160. (1678)
(1678)
12. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley (late 1678)

MORE INFO
[1] "St. Helena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
London, England10 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 7 8 		3379) Hautefeuille is born of poor
parents, raised by the Duchess of
Bouillon, and eventually takes holy
orders and becomes an abbé.
Hautefeuille spends all his time in
mechanical pursuits, publishing works
on acoustics, optics, tidal phenomena,
and watch mechanisms.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
2. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
3. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
4. ^ "Jean de Hautefeuille."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257202/Jean-de-Hautefeuille>.
5. ^ "Jean de Hautefeuille."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257202/Jean-de-Hautefeuille>.
6. ^ "Jean de Hautefeuille."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257202/Jean-de-Hautefeuille>.
7. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html {1678}
8. ^ William
Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A
Practical Treatise on the Internal
Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1678}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean de Hautefeuille".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Hau
tefeuille
Orléans, France6   
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 19 		3592) Swammerdam shows this to the
Grand Duke of Tuscany.12 13

Swammerdam describes this experiment in
his "Biblia Naturae", volume 2, p.
839:-
"Let there be a cylindrical glass tube,
in the interior of which is placed a
muscle, whence proceeds a nerve that
has been enveloped in its course with a
small silver wire, so as to give us the
power of raising it without pressing it
too much, or wounding it. This wire is
made to pass through a ring bored in
the extremity of a small copper support
and soldered to a sort of piston, or
partition; but the little silver wire
is so arranged that, on passing between
the glass and the piston, the nerve may
be drawn by the hand and so touch the
copper. The muscle is immediately seen
to contract.". Du Verney in 1700 makes
a similar observation.14

Floriano Caldani (1756) and
Giambattista Beccaria (1758) will
demonstrate electrical excitability in
the muscles of dead frogs, and Luigi
Galvani will demonstrate this clearly
(1791).15 Galvani is most remembered
for the connection of electricity and
muscle contraction.16

From this will spring the science of
reading from and writing to neuron
cells, which enables the remote sending
of images and sounds to be seen and
hear directly in the brain.17
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
6. ^ The Journal of science, and annals
of astronomy, biology, geology ...,
Volume 20,
1883 http://books.google.com/books?id=1
VE7AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA51
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ John
Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ The Journal of science,
and annals of astronomy, biology,
geology ..., Volume 20,
1883 http://books.google.com/books?id=1
VE7AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA51
13. ^ The Telegraphic Journal and The
Electrical review, Volume 12, Jan 6-Jun
39, 1883,
p348. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i-pQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA348
14. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
15. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Jan Swammerdam".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
19. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1678}"

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
[3]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[4] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[5]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
[6] "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1672)
[7] "Electricity
and Magnetism" Amédée Guillemin,
translated by Silvanus P. Thompson,
B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S. Macmillan and
Co., London, 1891.
http://books.google.com/books?id=iHg9A
QAAIAAJ
[8]
http://www.telephonecollecting.org/feeli
ng.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands18
(presumably) 
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
321 YBN
[03/??/1679 AD] 6 		1858)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
5. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
6. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
(03/??/1679)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
Hannover, Germany5  
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
321 YBN
[05/27/1679 AD] 5 		1527)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ 'Charles II, 1679: An Act for the
better secureing the Liberty of the
Subject and for Prevention of
Imprisonments beyond the Seas.',
Statutes of the Realm: volume 5:
1628-80 (1819), pp. 935-38. URL:
http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.
asp?compid=47484. Date accessed: 06
March 2007.
2. ^ "Habeas Corpus Act 1679".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habeas_Corp
us_Act_1679
3. ^ "habeas corpus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8694/habeas-corpus
4. ^ "1679". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1679
5. ^ "1679". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1679
(05/27/1679)

MORE INFO
[1] "Habeas corpus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habeas_corp
us
(presumably) London, England4   
321 YBN
[1679 AD] 3 		1734)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
2. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
3. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini (1679
(presumably)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Giovanni Domenico
Cassini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France2  
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
321 YBN
[1679 AD] 13 14 		1761)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
6. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
7. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
8. ^ "Gall". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gall
9. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
10. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
11. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
12. ^
http://www.sil.si.edu/Exhibitions/Scienc
e-and-the-Artists-Book/biol.htm
13. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health1675) (vol 1:)1675)
14. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health1679) (vol 2:)1679)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy10 11 ;(p 2: published
London, England)12  
[1] Anatome plantarum y De ovo incubato
PD
source: http://www.unav.es/biblioteca/im
agenes/hufa-anatome-plantarum.jpg

[2] Malpighi, Anatomia plantarum,
1675, fol. PD
source: http://gbamici.sns.it/img/ednaz/
malpighi.jpg
321 YBN
[1679 AD] 21 		1863) In 1669 Papin earns a medical
degree at Angers.8
Papin is an
assistant to Huygens9 in Paris10 and
helps with his air pump experiments.11


Papin helps improve Boyle's air pump.12

Papin corresponds with Leibniz.13
In
1675 Papin goes to England to be
Boyle's assistant.14
In 1680 the steam
digester earns Papin membership in the
Royal Society, and he cooks a meal for
the Society in his digester, in
addition to one for King Charles II.15

Papin is a Huguenot (French
Protestant16 ) and is greatly affected
by the increasing restrictions placed
on Protestants by Louis XIV of France
and the King's ultimate revocation of
the Edict of Nantes in 1685. In Germany
Papin is able to live with fellow
Huguenot exiles from France.17
Papin is
professor of mathematics at the
University of Marburg from 1687 to
1696.18
In 1707 Papin returns to London
where he lives in obscurity and poverty
until his death.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
2. ^ "Denis Papin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
6. ^ "Denis Papin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
7. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p158.
10. ^ "Denis
Papin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

11. ^ "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p158.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p158.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington
17. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

18. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
19. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Papin.html
20. ^ "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158. (1679) (1679)
London, England20  
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
320 YBN
[01/06/1680 AD] 		1848)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hooke's Gravitation Theory and
Its Influence on Newton. II: The
Insufficiency of the Traditional
Estimate Louise Diehl Patterson
Isis, Vol. 41, No. 1. (Mar.,
1950), pp. 32-45. Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-17
53%28195003%2941%3A1%3C32%3AHGTAII%3E2.0
.CO%3B2-X
hooke_gravitation_theory.pdf
2. ^ Hooke's Gravitation Theory and Its
Influence on Newton. II: The
Insufficiency of the Traditional
Estimate Louise Diehl Patterson
Isis, Vol. 41, No. 1. (Mar.,
1950), pp. 32-45. Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-17
53%28195003%2941%3A1%3C32%3AHGTAII%3E2.0
.CO%3B2-X
hooke_gravitation_theory.pdf
3. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Isaac Newton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[4] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[5] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[6]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[7]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[9]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[10]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[11] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[12]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[13]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[14]
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
[15] "Ismael Bullialdus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[16]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
[17]
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
320 YBN
[06/04/1680 AD] 3 		1787)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
2. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
3. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (06/04/1680)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[4] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands2  
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
320 YBN
[07/08/1680 AD] 10 		2326)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/chladni.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp248-249.
7. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/chladni.html
8. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni
9. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
10. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/chladni.html
(07/08/1680)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[7]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[8] "semaphore". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6703/semaphore
London, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
320 YBN
[1680 AD] 10 11 12 		1690)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
2. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
3. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp122-123.
5. ^ "Giovanni
Alfonso Borelli". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Giovanni
Alfonso Borelli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
9. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
10. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology (1680)
11. ^ "Giovanni
Alfonso Borelli". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology (1679)
12. ^ "Giovanni
Alfonso Borelli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
(1680-1681)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Al
fonso_Borelli
Rome, Italy9 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
320 YBN
[1680 AD] 11 		1740) In this year Boyle is offered the
presidency of the Royal Society (in
1680) and the episcopacy but declines
both.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p37.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p37.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
9. ^ "Robert Boyle". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
10. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1680)
(1680)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blmatch.htm
London, England10 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
320 YBN
[1680 AD] 3 		1865)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

2. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

3. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin
 (1680)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Denis Papin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
320 YBN
[1680 AD] 14 		3378)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Dugald
Clerk, "The Gas Engine", Scientific
American Supplement (Vol. 19, #484:
April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
5. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
6. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
7. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
8. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
9. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
10. ^ Record ID3379. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
13. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
14. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3 {1680}

MORE INFO
[1] Cosmos, Carl Sagan
[2]
http://www.richardbell.net/huygens.html
[3]
http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/christia
an_huygens
[4] "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
Paris, France12 13  
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
319 YBN
[11/04/1681 AD] 8 		1786)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
2. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
5. ^
6. ^
http://esapubs.org/bulletin/backissues/0
87-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
7. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
8. ^ (11/04/1681)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[4] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands7  
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
319 YBN
[1681 AD] 6 7 		1824)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
2. ^ "Nehemiah Grew".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nehemiah
_Grew
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
4. ^
http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries
/rare/modernity/grew.html
5. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147. (1681) (1681)
7. ^
"Nehemiah Grew (1681)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Nehemiah Grew".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nehemiah
_Grew (1681) (1681)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nehemiah Grew". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehemiah_Gr
ew
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nehemiah%20Grew%2
0
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] The clergyman and microanatomist
Nehemiah Grew assembled this catalogue
during his tenure as Secretary of the
Royal Society. The collection contains
many specimens from travellers to
distant lands. This was a particularly
productive time for Grew as seen in the
appended work of comparative
anatomy. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/modernity/grew.html

[2] Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) British
botanist Artist : Robert White,
1645-1703 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nehemiah-Grew-1641-1712.jpg
318 YBN
[03/03/1682 AD] 5 		1788)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
2. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
3. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
4. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
5. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (03/03/1682)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[4] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands4  
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
318 YBN
[1682 AD] 9 		1821)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p147.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p147.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
6. ^ "Nehemiah Grew".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
7. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
8. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
9. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew (1682)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nehemiah Grew". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehemiah_Gr
ew
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nehemiah%20Grew%2
0
[3] "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nehemiah
_Grew
presented: London, England8  
[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg

[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg
317 YBN
[09/12/1683 AD] 7 		1785)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
2. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
3. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
4. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
5. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
6. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
7. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (09/12/1683)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[3] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands6  
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
317 YBN
[1683 AD] 3 		1724)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health
2. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0686/Thomas-Sydenham
3. ^ "Thomas Sydenham". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Sydenham?c
at=health (1683)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Thomas Sydenham".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Syde
nham
[3] "Epidemiology". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiolog
y
[4] "Anemia#Treatments for anemia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemia#Trea
tments_for_anemia
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am

[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas
317 YBN
[1683 AD] 7 		1728)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
3. ^ "Gian Domenico
Cassini". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1668)
(1668)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
[2] "Zodiacal light". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiacal_li
ght
[3] "Nicolas Fatio de Duillier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Fat
io_de_Duillier
Paris, France6  
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
317 YBN
[1683 AD] 3 		3594)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Duverney, Joseph-Guichard",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p270
2. ^
"Duverney, Joseph-Guichard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p270
3. ^ "Duverney,
Joseph-Guichard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p270
{1683}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year
1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p175-176. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
#PPA176,M1
[2] "Joseph-Guichard Du Verney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph-Guic
hard_Du_Verney
[3]
http://www.speedylook.com/Joseph-Guichar
d_Of_Verney.html
Paris, France2 (presumably)  
317 YBN
[1683 AD] 5 		5925) Arcangelo Corelli (CE 1653-1713),
Italian violinist and composer,
composes music around this time.1
Corelli is the first composer whose
fame is based exclusively on his
nonvocal music. Corelli's reputation is
based mainly on his sonatas and his 12
Concerti Grossi, which establish the
concerto grosso form. Corelli writes
four sets of 12 trio sonatas each
(1681-95), a set of 12 solo sonatas
(1700), and the concerti grossi
(1714).2

(Notice how all 3 songs have a similar
sound to Pachelbel's Canon - perhaps
this is a traditional sound of the
baroque period- a kind of slow string
chromatic and 1-4 2-5 3-6 etc descent
pattern.3 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Arcangelo Corelli." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 2007. Answers.com 12
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arcangelo-c
orelli-1
2. ^ "Arcangelo Corelli." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arcangelo-c
orelli
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Arcangelo Corelli." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arcangelo-c
orelli-1
5. ^ "Arcangelo Corelli." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 2007. Answers.com 12
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arcangelo-c
orelli-1 {1683 (age 30}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arcangelo Corelli."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arcangelo-c
orelli
Rome, Italy4  
[1] Arcangelo Corelli
(1653-1713) source :
http://web.tiscali.it/simonebartolini/co
ntalbum.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/05/Arcangelo_corelli.jpg

316 YBN
[10/??/1684 AD] 26 27 28 		1855) The idiotic21 conflict over who
developed differential and integral
calculus between Newton and Leibniz
(mainly by Newton22 ) has serious and
far-reaching effects on the development
of science. For example, this conflict
results in the cutting off of free
communication of ideas between the
English scientists and those of Europe.
Leibniz's notation is more efficient
than Newton's and is most popular form
of calculus used today.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
6. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
9. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ The Mechanical Universe
(video) episode 7 time, :45.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ The Mechanical Universe (video)
episode 7 time, :00.
14. ^ The Mechanical
Universe (video) episode 7 time, :00.
15. ^
The Mechanical Universe (video) episode
7 time, :00.
16. ^ The Mechanical Universe
(video) episode 7 time, :30.
17. ^ The
Mechanical Universe (video) episode 7
time, :00.
18. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
19. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
20. ^ The Mechanical Universe (video)
episode 7 time, :00.
21. ^ Ted Huntington
22. ^ Ted
Huntington
23. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
24. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
25. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
26. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology (develops in
Paris 1672-76)
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156. (1684)
(1684)
28. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology (10/??/1684)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
[2] Abe Mizrahi and Michael Sullivan,
"Calculus and Analytic Geometry",
Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, (1986), pp107-181
(Derivative), pp278-323 (Integral)
(develops in) Paris, France24 ;
(publishes in) Hannover, Germany25
 
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
316 YBN
[11/??/1684 AD] 8 		1847) In August 1684, the British
astronomer Edmond Halley visited
Newton4 in Cambridge to ask him if he
could provide a mathematical
explanation for the elliptical orbits
of planets.5
Upon learning that Newton
had solved the problem, Halley asks
Newton's to send the demonstration.
Three months later Halley receives the
short tract entitled "De Moto".6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
2. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
3. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
4. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
5. ^ "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
7. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
8. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (11/??/1684)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Isaac Newton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[4] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[5]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[6]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[9]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[10] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[11]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[12]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[13]
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
[14] "Ismael Bullialdus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[15]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
[16]
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
Cambridge, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Manuscrito de De Motu Corporum PD
source: http://platea.pntic.mec.es/apere
z4/html/newton/newton2.html

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
316 YBN
[1684 AD] 14 		1733) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies the moons of
Saturn: Dione (DIOnE) (Greek
Διώνη9 ) and Tethys (TEtuS) (Greek
Τηθύς10 ).11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dione (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione_%28mo
on%29
2. ^ "Tethys (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_%28m
oon%29
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
4. ^ "Gian Domenico
Cassini". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May. 2012
5. ^ "Dione (moon)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione_%28mo
on%29
6. ^ "Tethys (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_%28m
oon%29
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
8. ^ "Gian Domenico
Cassini". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May. 2012
9. ^ "Dione (moon)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione_%28mo
on%29
10. ^ "Tethys (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_%28m
oon%29
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
12. ^ "Gian Domenico
Cassini". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May. 2012
13. ^ "Cassini, Gian
Domeninco (Jean-Dominique) (Cassini
I)", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, 2000, p171.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1684)
(1684)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
[3] "Giovanni Domenico Cassini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
(Paris Observatory) Paris, France13
 
[1] Bright Cliffs Across Saturn's Moon
Dione Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What causes the bright streaks on
Dione? Recent images of this unusual
moon by the robot Cassini spacecraft
now orbiting Saturn are helping to
crack the mystery. Close inspection of
Dione's trailing hemisphere, pictured
above, indicates that the white wisps
are composed of deep ice cliffs
dropping hundreds of meters. The cliffs
may indicate that Dione has undergone
some sort of tectonic surface
displacements in its past. The bright
ice-cliffs run across some of Dione's
many craters, indicating that the
process that created them occurred
later than the impacts that created
those craters. Dione is made of mostly
water ice but its relatively high
density indicates that it contains much
rock inside. Giovanni Cassini
discovered Dione in 1684. The above
image was taken at the end of July from
a distance of about 263,000 kilometers.
Other high resolution images of Dione
were taken by the passing Voyager
spacecraft in 1980. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0609
05.html

[2] 4,500 Kilometers Above
Dione Credit : Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What does the surface of Saturn's moon
Dione look like? To find out, the robot
Cassini spacecraft currently orbiting
Saturn flew right past the fourth
largest moon of the giant planet
earlier this month. Pictured above is
an image taken about 4,500 kilometers
above Dione's icy surface, spanning
about 23 kilometers. Fractures,
grooves, and craters in Dione's ice and
rock are visible. In many cases,
surface features are caused by unknown
processes and can only be described.
Many of the craters have bright walls
but dark floors, indicating that
fresher ice is brighter. Nearly
parallel grooves run from the upper
right to the lower left. Fractures
sometimes across the bottom of craters,
indicating a relatively recent
formation. The lip of a 60-kilometer
wide crater runs from the middle left
to the upper center of the image, while
the crater's center is visible on the
lower right. Images like this will
continue to be studied to better
understand Dione as well as Saturn's
complex system of rings and moons. PD

source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0510
26.html
316 YBN
[1684 AD] 4 		1822)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehemiah_Gr
ew
2. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Nehemiah Grew".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nehemiah
_Grew
3. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
4. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew (1684)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nehemiah%20Grew%2
0
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg

[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg
315 YBN
[1685 AD] 4 		1705)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
3. ^ "John Wallis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

4. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis
 (1685)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
315 YBN
[1685 AD] 4 		3348)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=
ft296nb16b&chunk.id=0&doc.view=print
2. ^ http://www.johann-zahn.com/
3. ^ http://www.johann-zahn.com/
4. ^
http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=
ft296nb16b&chunk.id=0&doc.view=print
{1685}
(Würzburg praemonstrantensian
monastery)Würzburg, Germany3  
[1] Johann Zahn, camera obscura
portabilis (reflex box camera obscura),
1685. Courtesy of the Gernsheim
Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center, University of Texas
at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00000.gif
314 YBN
[03/??/1686 AD] 40 		3259)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ Carolyn Iltis,
"Leibniz and the Vis Viva Controversy",
Isis, Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971),
pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
3. ^ Gottfried Leibniz, translated by
Leroy E. Loemker, "A Brief
Demonstration of a Notable Error of
Descartes and Others Concerning a
Natural Law, According to Which God Is
Said Always to Conserve the Same
Quantity of Motion; a Law Which They
Also Misuse in Mechanics",
Philosophical Papers and Letters,
Dordrecht, 1970, 2nd edition,
pp296-304. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibni
z&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg {Leib
niz_Descartes_1686.pdf}
4. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Carolyn Iltis,
"Leibniz and the Vis Viva Controversy",
Isis, Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971),
pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
8. ^ Gottfried Leibniz, translated by
Leroy E. Loemker, "A Brief
Demonstration of a Notable Error of
Descartes and Others Concerning a
Natural Law, According to Which God Is
Said Always to Conserve the Same
Quantity of Motion; a Law Which They
Also Misuse in Mechanics",
Philosophical Papers and Letters,
Dordrecht, 1970, 2nd edition,
pp296-304. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibni
z&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg {Leib
niz_Descartes_1686.pdf}
9. ^ Michael R. Matthews, "Science
Teaching: The Role of History and
Philosophy of Science", Routledge,
1994. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qnwzRqh5jFMC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=%22fi
ve+common+machines%22&source=web&ots=3qR
VtAdUae&sig=-b9HE_JXCz1oX_3l5g74MI2uxx4&
hl=en
10. ^ "windlass." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
12 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/w
indlass>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Abbé Catalan, "Courte
Remarque de M. l'Abbé D. C. ou l'on
montre a M. G. G. Leibnits le
paralogisme contenu dans l'objection
précédente", Nouvelles de la
république des lettres, Sept. 1686,
8:1000-1005.
13. ^ Denis Papin, "De Gravitatis causa
et proprietatibus observationes", Acta
Eruditorum, April 1689, pp183-188.
14. ^ Denis
Papin, "Mechanicorum de viribus
motricibus sententia, asserta adversus
cl. GGL. objectiones", Acta Eruditorum,
Jan. 1691, pp6-13.
15. ^ Gottfried Leibniz,
translated by Leroy E. Loemker, "A
Brief Demonstration of a Notable Error
of Descartes and Others Concerning a
Natural Law, According to Which God Is
Said Always to Conserve the Same
Quantity of Motion; a Law Which They
Also Misuse in Mechanics",
Philosophical Papers and Letters,
Dordrecht, 1970, 2nd edition,
pp296-304. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibni
z&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg {Leib
niz_Descartes_1686.pdf}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
17. ^ Carolyn Iltis,
"Leibniz and the Vis Viva Controversy",
Isis, Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971),
pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz
and the Vis Viva Controversy", Isis,
Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp.
21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
20. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
21. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
22. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
23. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz
and the Vis Viva Controversy", Isis,
Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp.
21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
26. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
27. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Gottfried Leibniz,
translated by Leroy E. Loemker, "A
Brief Demonstration of a Notable Error
of Descartes and Others Concerning a
Natural Law, According to Which God Is
Said Always to Conserve the Same
Quantity of Motion; a Law Which They
Also Misuse in Mechanics",
Philosophical Papers and Letters,
Dordrecht, 1970, 2nd edition,
pp296-304. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibni
z&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg {Leib
niz_Descartes_1686.pdf}
37. ^ Gottfried Leibniz, translated by
Leroy E. Loemker, "A Brief
Demonstration of a Notable Error of
Descartes and Others Concerning a
Natural Law, According to Which God Is
Said Always to Conserve the Same
Quantity of Motion; a Law Which They
Also Misuse in Mechanics",
Philosophical Papers and Letters,
Dordrecht, 1970, 2nd edition,
pp296-304. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibni
z&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg {Leib
niz_Descartes_1686.pdf}
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
40. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf} (03/??/1686)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
[3] "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
(03/??/1679)
[4]
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
[5] G. W. Leibniz, Acta Eruditorum
(1686), p. 161; English translation in
Philosophical Papers and Letters, L. E.
Loemker, trans. and ed., Reidel,
Dordrecht, the Netherlands (1969), p.
296
Hannover, Germany39 (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from Acta Eruditorum March
1686 [t Body B is 4 times the mass of
body A] ''The same force is necessary
to raise body A of 1 pount (libra) to a
height of 4 years (ulnae) as is
necessary to raise body B of 4 pounds
to a height of 1 yard.'' PC/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/228997.pdf

[2] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
314 YBN
[09/??/1686 AD] 6 		3262)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz
and the Vis Viva Controversy", Isis,
Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp.
21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
3. ^ Abbé Catalan, "Courte Remarque de
M. l'Abbé D. C. ou l'on montre a M. G.
G. Leibnits le paralogisme contenu dans
l'objection précédente", Nouvelles de
la république des lettres, Sept. 1686,
8:1000-1005.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz
and the Vis Viva Controversy", Isis,
Vol. 62, No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp.
21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
6. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf} (09/1686)
Paris?, France5 (guess)  
314 YBN
[1686 AD] 3 		1874)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
3. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley (1686)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Edmund Halley".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[4] "St. Helena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
314 YBN
[1686 AD] 10 		1879) In 1691 Fontenelle is elected to
the French Academy of Sciences, and in
1697 is the secretary.4
Fontenelle
writes "Histoire de l'Académie des
Sciences", an annual summary of the
work of the Academy starting in 1702.5

Fontenelle lives to one month short of
100.6
Fontenelle is a close friend of
Montesquieu and well known to Voltaire,
who will make light of Fontenelle in
his Micromégas (1752), a dissertation
on the smallness of man in relation to
the cosmos.7
Although Fontenelle is
generally a modernist, he fails to see
the truth of Newtonian physics.8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p160.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^
"Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard%20le%20Bo
vier%20de%20Fontenelle%20
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p160.
5. ^ "Bernard le
Bovier de Fontenelle". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard%20le%20Bo
vier%20de%20Fontenelle%20
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p160.
7. ^ "Bernard Le
Bovier sieur de Fontenelle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4786/Bernard-Le-Bovier-sieur-de-Fontenel
le
8. ^ "Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard%20le%20Bo
vier%20de%20Fontenelle%20
9. ^ "Bernard Le Bovier sieur de
Fontenelle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4786/Bernard-Le-Bovier-sieur-de-Fontenel
le
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p160. (1686) (1686)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard le Bovier de
Fontenelle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_le_
Bovier_de_Fontenelle
Paris, France9 (presumably) 
[1] Louis Galloche (1670-1761),
Portrait de Fontenelle Source: scanned
myself Musée national du Château de
Versailles PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fontenelle_2.jpg

[2] BERNARD LE BOVIER DE FONTENELLE
(1657-1757) par Galloche (
Joconde) PD
source: http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/
image/joconde/0017/m502004_93de1208_p.jp
g
314 YBN
[1686 AD] 4 		1880) French science writer, Bernard le
Bovier de Fontenelle (FonTneL) (CE
1657-1757) publishes "Histoire des
oracles" (1687; "History of the
Oracles"), based on a Latin treatise by
the Dutch writer Anton van Dale (1683),
in which Fontenelle subjects pagan
religions to criticisms that the reader
may inevitably see as applicable to
Christianity as well.1

The same antireligious bias is seen in
Fontenelle's amusing satire "Relation
de l'île de Bornéo" (1686; "Account
of the Island of Borneo"), in which a
civil war in Borneo is used to
symbolize the conflicts between
Catholics (Rome) and Calvinists
(Geneva).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bernard Le Bovier sieur de
Fontenelle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4786/Bernard-Le-Bovier-sieur-de-Fontenel
le
2. ^ "Bernard Le Bovier sieur de
Fontenelle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4786/Bernard-Le-Bovier-sieur-de-Fontenel
le
3. ^ "Bernard Le Bovier sieur de
Fontenelle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4786/Bernard-Le-Bovier-sieur-de-Fontenel
le
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p160. (1686) (1686)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard le Bovier de
Fontenelle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_le_
Bovier_de_Fontenelle
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Bernard%20le%20Bo
vier%20de%20Fontenelle%20
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Louis Galloche (1670-1761),
Portrait de Fontenelle Source: scanned
myself Musée national du Château de
Versailles PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fontenelle_2.jpg

[2] BERNARD LE BOVIER DE FONTENELLE
(1657-1757) par Galloche (
Joconde) PD
source: http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/
image/joconde/0017/m502004_93de1208_p.jp
g
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 36 		1845) Law of gravitation. Isaac Newton
(CE 1642-172721 ) describes the
universal law of gravitation, that all
matter attracts other matter with a
force that is the product of their
masses, and the inverse of their
distance squared.22

In his book "Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica" (Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
1687), referred to as "Principia",
Newton codifies three laws of motion.
The first is the principle of inertia:
a body at rest remains at rest and a
body in motion remains in motion at a
constant velocity as long as outside
forces are not involved. This confirms
Buridan's suggestion 300 years before
and ends the theory that angels or
spirits constantly push the planets.
Planets move because nothing exists in
the space they move to stop them after
the initial impulse. The second law of
motion defines a force in terms of mass
and acceleration (force = mass x
acceleration) and this is the first
clear distinction between the mass of a
body (representing its resistance to
acceleration; or in other words the
quantity of inertia it possesses), and
its weight (representing the amount of
gravitational force between itself and
another body). The third law of motion
states that for every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction.23

The famous equation Newton publishes
is: F=Gm1m2/d^2 where m1 and m2 are the
masses of two objects (for example, the
earth and moon), d is the distance
between their centers, G is the
gravitational constant, and F is the
force of gravitational attraction
between them. Newton holds that this
law is true for any two objects in the
universe. So this laws comes to be
called the law of "universal
gravitation".24

Newton's second law describes the
equation F=ma25 , that the force used
to move an object, and likewise the
force a moving object has26 , is
proportional to the object's mass and
acceleration. Substituting a=F/m in the
F=Gm1m2/d^2 equation, the force of
acceleration on any mass from another
mass can be calculated as a2=Gm1/r^2.27


Newton is the first to estimate the
mass or amount of matter contained in a
planet.28

That the Sun holds planets with a
strength that decreases with distance
squared shown from Ismaël Bullialdus
in 1645.29 30 Robert Hooke had
explained this inverse distance squared
relation to Newton in his letter of
1679.31

In his book "Optics" in 1704, Newton
suggests that light particles are bent
by gravity writing: " Do not Bodies act
upon Light at a distance, and by their
action bend its rays, and is not this
action (cæteris paribus) strongest at
the least distance?"32 , but never
suggests a mass for light particles.33


I think that it cannot be ruled out
that the observed phenomenon of
gravitation may be the result, strictly
of many particle collisions, or even
perhaps the result of some more complex
phenomenon involving living objects at
various scales in space (similar to the
way living objects at our scale,
persumably shape globular galaxies).34

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Sir
Isaac Newton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
11. ^ "Newton's law
of universal gravitation's law of
universal gravitation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_
law_of_universal_gravitation
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "Newton's law of
universal gravitation's law of
universal gravitation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_
law_of_universal_gravitation
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
16. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
17. ^
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1ℑ=00005
18. ^ Record ID1803. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton>.
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
25. ^ "Newton's
law of universal gravitation's law of
universal gravitation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_
law_of_universal_gravitation
26. ^ Ted Huntington
27. ^ "Newton's law of
universal gravitation's law of
universal gravitation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_
law_of_universal_gravitation
28. ^ Ted Huntington
29. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
30. ^
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1ℑ=00005
31. ^ Record ID1803. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Isaac
Newton, "Opticks: Or, A treatise of the
Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions
and Colours of Light. Also Two
treatises of the Species and Magnitude
of Curvilinear Figures", First Edition,
(London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
36. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960 (publishes: 1687)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[10]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
Cambridge, England35
(presumably) 
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 6 7 		1890) Admontons goes deaf while still
young, but like Edison considers it a
blessing because he can focus on his
work.2
Amontons also demonstrates an
optical telegraph and proposes the use
of his clepsydra3 (water clock) for
keeping time on a ship at sea.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p163.
3. ^ Amontons, G.
(1695) Remarques et expériences
physiques sur la construction d'une
nouvelle clepsydre, Paris.
4. ^ "Guillaume
Amontons". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_A
montons
5. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
6. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology (1687)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p163. (1687)
(1687)

MORE INFO
[1] "Guillaume Amontons".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7220/Guillaume-Amontons
Paris, France5   
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 9 10 		3895)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
{08/1850}
2. ^ "Bonomo, Giovan Cosimo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p118.
3. ^ The Philadelphia Journal
of the Medical and Physical
Sciences edited by John Davidson
Godman, Isaac Hays Published by M.
Carey and Son, 1821 Item notes: v.
3 http://books.google.com/books?id=M28p
MxeMAD4C&pg=PA26&dq=bonomo+cestoni&as_br
r=1&ei=1KO_SfruN5XSlQSL8dVQ
4. ^ Redi, F. Osservazioni intorno a
pellicelli del corpo umano fatte dal
Dottor Gio: Cosimo Bonomo e da lui com
altre osservazioni scritte in una
lettera all'illustriss. Sig. Francesco
Redi. Florence: Piero Matini. 1687.
5. ^
"Cestoni, Giacinto", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p179.
6. ^
The Philadelphia Journal of the Medical
and Physical Sciences edited by John
Davidson Godman, Isaac Hays Published
by M. Carey and Son, 1821 Item notes:
v.
3 http://books.google.com/books?id=M28p
MxeMAD4C&pg=PA26&dq=bonomo+cestoni&as_br
r=1&ei=1KO_SfruN5XSlQSL8dVQ
7. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
{08/1850}
8. ^ Marcia Ramos-e-Silva , "Giovan
Cosimo Bonomo (1663–1696): discoverer
of the etiology of scabies",
International Journal of
Dermatology, Volume 37, Issue 8, Pages
625-630. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/HTMLSTAR
T
9. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
{08/1850} {1687}
10. ^ "Bonomo, Giovan
Cosimo", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p118.
{1687}

MORE INFO
[1] "Casimir Davaine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Dav
aine
[2] "Pierre François Olive Rayer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Fran
%C3%A7ois_Olive_Rayer
[3] "Davaine, Casimir Joseph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p233.
[4] "Koch, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
[5] Joseph A. Witkowski, Lawrence
Charles Parish, The story of anthrax
from antiquity to the present: a
biological weapon of nature and humans,
Clinics in Dermatology, Volume 20,
Issue 4, July-August 2002, Pages
336-342, ISSN 0738-081X, DOI:
10.1016/S0738-081X(02)00250-X. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
T5G-46MBF63-4/2/8d6754fb70b3b214872fb2cd
8fe4bca9)
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=weyQKyh
tTGMC&pg=PA742&dq=bonomo+cestoni&as_brr=
1&ei=1KO_SfruN5XSlQSL8dVQ
[7] Dr Bonomo and Richard Mead, "An
Abstract of Part of a Letter from Dr
Bonomo to Sigmor Redi, Containing Some
Observations concerni... more",
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 23, (1702 - 1703), pp.
1296-1299. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
102886
Livorno, Italy8  
[1] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1
311 YBN
[1689 AD] 7 		5926) Henry Purcell (CE 1659-1695),
English composer, composes music around
this time.1

In time Purcell becomes increasingly in
demand as a composer, and his theater
music in particular makes his name
familiar to many who know nothing of
his church music or the odes and
welcome songs he wrote for the court.
Much of the theatre music consists of
songs and instrumental pieces for
spoken plays, but during the last five
years of his life Purcell collaborates
on five "semi-operas" in which the
music is a large part, with
"divertissements", songs, choral
numbers and dances.2

Purcell's only true opera (i.e. with
music throughout) is Dido and Aeneas,
written for a girls school at Chelsea,
a suburb of London, and first performed
by the pupils in 1689 although a few
outsiders are probably brought in to
play the men's parts.3

The Oxford Groove Encyclopedia states
that "Purcell was one of the greatest
composers of the Baroque period and one
of the greatest of all English
composers."4

(Baroque music, with the characteristic
bold horns sounds so triumphal.5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Purcell." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-purce
ll
2. ^ "Henry Purcell." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 12 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-purce
ll
3. ^ Claude V. Palisca, "Norton
Anthology of Western Music", fourth
edition, 2001, p419.
4. ^ "Henry Purcell."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-purce
ll
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Henry Purcell." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-purce
ll
7. ^ "Henry Purcell." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 12 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-purce
ll {1689 (age 30}
(Chapel Royal) London, England6  
[1] Description Henry Purcell, by
John Closterman (died 1711). See source
website for additional
information. This set of images was
gathered by User:Dcoetzee from the
National Portrait Gallery, London
website using a special tool. All
images in this batch have been
confirmed as author died before 1939
according to the official death date
listed by the NPG. Date Unknown,
but author died in 1711 Source
National Portrait Gallery, London:
NPG 2150 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Henry_Purcell_by_John
_Closterman.jpg
310 YBN
[12/??/1690 AD] 4 		1862)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
2. ^ "John
Flamsteed". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Flamst
eed
3. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
4. ^ "John Flamsteed". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Flamst
eed (12/??/1690)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
Greenwich, England3  
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 15 		1200) Polhem's father dies when
Christopher is only 10 years old.7
Polhe
m lives with his uncle in Stockholm and
in Stockholm attends a German school
until the age of 12 when his uncle dies
leaving Polhem, once again without the
possibility of education.8
Polhem works
as a farmhand on Vansta, a property in
Södertörn, Stockholm for 10 years.9

Hungering for knowledge within his
fields of interest, mathematics and
mechanics, Plhem soon realizes that he
will get no further without learning
Latin. Self-studies are attempted, but
given up; Polhem realizes he needs a
tutor. In exchange for constructing a
complex clock, Polhem is given Latin
lessons by a local vicar.10

Word of Polhem's mechanical skill
spreads quickly and a member of the
clergy writes the professor of
mathematics at Uppsala University,
Anders Spole to recommend Polhem. Spole
presents two broken clocks to Polhem
and offers to let him study under him
if Polhem can repair them, Polhem
repairs the clocks with no difficulty
and begins recovering years of lost
education in 1687, at the age of 26.11

In 1687 Polhem enters the University of
Uppsala.12
In gratitude for his
services the Swedish government
ennobles Polhem in 1716.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162.
2. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ Ted
Huntington
4. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
5. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
6. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p162.
8. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
9. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
10. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
11. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p162.
13. ^ "". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com. Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
15. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
Sweden14  
[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 5 6 		1696)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
2. ^ "Johannes
Hevelius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius
3. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius
4. ^
http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/Stjernebil
leder/atlasser/hevelius/indhold.html
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125. (1690)
(1690)
6. ^ "Johannes Hevelius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0320/Johannes-Hevelius (1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Hevelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Hevelius
+?cat=technology
Gdansk, Poland4  
[1] Figur A: Ursa Minor - Lille
Bjørn PD
source: http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/St
jernebilleder/atlasser/hevelius/index.ht
ml

[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 4 		1849)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
2. ^ "Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
4. ^ "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology (publishes: 1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[8]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[9] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[10]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[11]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[12]
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
[13] "Ismael Bullialdus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
[15]
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
[16] "Newton's law of universal
gravitation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_
law_of_universal_gravitation
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 18 		1864) From the time of Papin's
settlement in Germany he carries on an
active correspondence with Huygens and
Leibniz, which is still preserved, and
in one of his letters to Leibniz, in
1698, Papin mentions that he is engaged
on a machine for raising water to a
great height by the force of fire.14
In
a later communication Papin speaks also
of a little carriage he has constructed
to be propelled by this force. Again in
1702 Papin writes about a steam
"ballista", which he anticipates would
"promptly compel France to make an
enduring peace." (perhaps a steam
powered metal projectile gun?15 ) In
1705 Leibniz sends Papin a sketch of
Thomas Savery's engine for raising
water, and this stimulates Papin to
further exertions.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scient
ific-american/484/00.htm#3
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
3. ^ "Denis Papin".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
4. ^ Record ID3378. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scient
ific-american/484/00.htm#3
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scient
ific-american/484/00.htm#3
8. ^
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scient
ific-american/484/00.htm#3
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
10. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Papin.html
11. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Papin.html
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/558/000096270
/
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/558/000096270
/
17. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

18. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
(1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
[2]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
Leipzig, Germany17  
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 3 		1867)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
2. ^ "Denis Papin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

3. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
(1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
[2]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Papin.html
Leipzig, Germany2  
[1] Second Papin steam engine (1707).
19th century encyclopedia. Steam
engine designed by Denis Papin B -
Boiler with pressure safety valve D -
Manual valve to permit steam to enter
cylinder H - Piston , which bears
directly on to the water in the
cyinder. F - Pressure safety valve on
cylinder G - Manual valve for
exausting steam from cylinder when
piston is returning to top. C - Water
in the cylinder waiting to be pumped K
- Non return valve through which water
enters higher level reservoir when
being pumped. L - Low level reservoir
used to refil the cylinder after a
power stroke, with non return valve to
seal it during power stroke. I -
Pressure chamber designed to maintain a
steady pressure on the output pipe so
that flow is continuous rather than in
spurts. M - Output pipe with drain
valve. Mode of operation * The
boiler is heated with valve D closed
until a pressure is achieved. *
Valve D is opened and Valve G is closed
allowing the pressure to bear on the
piston, H. * Water in cylinder is
pushed down by the piston forcing it
though valve K into upper pressure
reservoir. (the water cannot flow into
the lower reservoir because the valve
at L is one way flow the other way.
* Once piston has completed its stroke
then valve D is closed and valve G is
opened. * Steam in cylinder is now
exhausted through valve G with the
valve from the boiler closed. *
This refills the cylinder with water
entering from the lower reservoir L
through its non return valve. *
The cycle is then repeated. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine2.jpg

[2] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 7 		1873) The earliest applications of
diving bells were probably for
commercial sponge fishing. A diving
bell was used to salvage a cannon from
the Swedish warship Vasa in the period
immediately following its sinking in
1628.3

In a demonstration, Halley and five
companions dive to 60 feet in the River
Thames, and remained there for over one
and a half hours. Halley's bell is of
little use for practical salvage work,
as it was very heavy, but he does make
improvements to it over time, later
extending his underwater exposure time
to over 4 hours.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
2. ^ "Diving
bell#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell
#History
3. ^ "Diving bell#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell
#History
4. ^ "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
5. ^ London Diving Chamber (history)
accessed on 6th Dec 2006
http://www.londondivingchamber.co.uk/ind
ex.php?id=history&page=4
6. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
7. ^ "Diving bell#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell
#History (1690)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[2] "comet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
[3] "Comet Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halle
y
[4] Arthur J. Bachrach, "History of the
Diving Bell", Historical Diving Times,
Iss. 21 (Spring 1998)
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg

[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 4 		1888)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
2. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
3. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
4. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem (1690)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Pol
hem
?, Sweden3  
[1] sv Christopher Polhem porträtterad
av Johan Henrik Scheffel, 1741 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stora_st%C3%B6ten.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem, Swedish
engineer and scientist. Copperplate
engraving by Bergquist. From: Emil
Hildebrand et al., Sveriges historia
intill tjugonde seklet, vol 7 (1903), p
95. [t what is the deal on these two
images, they appear to be the same. In
addition, does it not look like Polhem
is holding his crotch in one hand and
making a scissors sign with his other
hand? Perhaps implying: isn't it idiocy
to hate genitals?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 8 		3263)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p158.
3. ^ "Denis
Papin". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
5. ^ "Denis Papin".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

8. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
(1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
[2] Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the Vis
Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62, No.
1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
[3] Denis Papin, "De Gravitatis causa
et proprietatibus observationes", Acta
Eruditorum, April 1689, pp183-188.
Leipzig, Germany7  
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
309 YBN
[1691 AD] 4 		1744)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
3. ^ "John Ray".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137. (1691)
(1691)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
Cambridge?, England3  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
309 YBN
[1691 AD] 7 8 		1869) Havers is the son of a rector
(the head of a school).3
In 1668 Havers
enters Cambridge but does not
graduate.4
In 1687 Havers gets a
medical license after graduating from
University of Utrecht in the
Netherlands.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp158-159.
2. ^
http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/rhatch/pag
es/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/resource-ref-
read/major-minor-ind/westfall-dsb/SAM-H.
htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp158-159.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp158-159.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp158-159.
6. ^
http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/rhatch/pag
es/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/resource-ref-
read/major-minor-ind/westfall-dsb/SAM-H.
htm
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp158-159. (1691)
(1691)
8. ^
http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/rhatch/pag
es/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/resource-ref-
read/major-minor-ind/westfall-dsb/SAM-H.
htm (1691)

MORE INFO
[1] "osteon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7598/osteon
[2] "Clopton Havers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clopton_Hav
ers
[3] "Rector". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] English: Compact bone & spongy
bone Source U.S. National Cancer
Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology
and End Results (SEER) Program
(http://training.seer.cancer.gov/index.h
tml) Exact adress:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit3_2_bone_tissue.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg

[2] Transverse section of body of
human fibula, decalcified. X
250. Gray's subject #18
89 Dorlands/Elsevier
o_08/12601039 http://education.yahoo.c
om/reference/gray/subjects/subject?id=18
#p89 http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/c
ns/cns_hl_dorlands.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocsz
SzuszSzcommonzSzdorlandszSzdorlandzSzdmd
_o_08zPzhtm#12601039
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray77.png
307 YBN
[1693 AD] 4 		1745)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
3. ^ "John Ray".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137. (1693)
(1693)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
Cambridge?, England3  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
307 YBN
[1693 AD] 6 		1750)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
2. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
3. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
4. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
5. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
6. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray (1693)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
?, England5  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
307 YBN
[1693 AD] 7 		1856) The Encyclopedia Britannica,
states that, in criticizing the
Cartesian formulation of the laws of
motion, known as mechanics, Leibniz
becomes, in 1676, the founder of a new
formulation, known as dynamics, which
substitutes kinetic energy for the
conservation of movement.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
6. ^ "Gottfried Leibniz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156. (1693)
(1693)
Hannover, Germany6  
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
307 YBN
[1693 AD] 8 		1878) Edmond Halley (CE 1656-1742)1
prepares detailed mortality tables for
the city of Breslau2 , a Polish-German
town known for keeping meticulous
records3 . This is one of the first
attempts to relate mortality and age in
a population4 , which leads to modern
insurance practices5 which are based
on the idea of earning income from life
insurance using the probability of
death in an average person, while
providing the service of allowing
people to financially help their family
in the event of (in particular an
unexpected) death6 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
2. ^ "Edmond Halley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
3. ^ "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
4. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
6. ^ "comet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
7. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
8. ^ "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey (1693)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
London, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg

[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png
306 YBN
[03/03/1694 AD] 4 		1789)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
2. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
4. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (1694)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[4] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands3  
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
306 YBN
[10/23/1694 AD] 3 4 		5923)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Pachelbel." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-pach
elbel
2. ^ "Johann Pachelbel." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-pach
elbel
3. ^ Schulze, Hans-Joachim. Johann
Christoph Bach (1671–1721) "Organist
and Schul Collega in Ohrdruf", Johann
Sebastian Bachs erster Lehrer, in Bach
Jahrbuch 71 (1985): 70 and footnote 79.
{10/23/1694 (hypothesis of historian)
(verify}
4. ^ "Pachelbel's Canon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachelbel%2
7s_Canon {10/23/1694 (hypothesis of
historian) (verify}
(Stuttgart and/or) Gotha, Germany2
(verify) 
[1] Johann Pachelbel (1653 - 1706) PD
source: http://www.pianosociety.com/cms/
pics/pachelbel.jpg
306 YBN
[1694 AD] 4 5 		1388)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "university". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4363/university
2. ^ "university". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4363/university
3. ^ "University of Halle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Halle
4. ^ "university". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4363/university
5. ^ "University of Halle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Halle
Halle, Saxony-Anhalt3  
[1] Faculty of Theology. This page
provides a closer look at the Faculty
of Theology at the University of
Halle-Wittenberg. Click on the images
to enlarge. The Faculty of Theology is
located in the Francke Foundations.
This is the Main House of the
Foundations, a regular site of
exhibits, concerts and other events. To
its right is the entrance to the
Foundations and the home of their
founder, August Hermann Francke. At the
extreme right of the picture you may
catch a glimpse of the Faculty's main
building. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.theologie.uni-halle.d
e/81_207025/?lang=en

[2] University Library building in
Halle (Saale).GNU
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Halle_(Saale)_University_Library
_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg
306 YBN
[1694 AD] 6 		1797)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
2. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

3. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

4. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

5. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
6. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm
 (1694)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
London, England (presumably)5  
[1] The illustration shows a man with
his head inserted in the device. PD?
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
1650.htm

[2] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
306 YBN
[1694 AD] 3 		5957) Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la
Guerre (CE 1666-1729), French composer,
composes the opera "Cephale et
Procris".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Élisabeth Jacquet de La
Guerre." The Concise Grove Dictionary
of Music. Oxford University Press,
Inc., 1994. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lisabeth-ja
cquet-de-la-guerre-2
2. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010, p250.
3. ^
"Élisabeth Jacquet de La Guerre." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lisabeth-ja
cquet-de-la-guerre-2 {1694}
Paris, France (performed)2  
[1] Description Portrait of
Elisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre
(1665-1729), French 17th century
composer, by François de Troy Date
Late 17th or early 18th
century Source
http://www.earlywomenmasters.net/midi
/images/jacquet_full.jpg Author
François de Troy (1645–1730) Link
back to Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Elisabeth_Jacque_de_L
a_Guerre-full.jpg
305 YBN
[06/10/1695 AD] 5 		1792)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
2. ^ "Parthenogenesis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogen
esis
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
4. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
5. ^
http://esapubs.org/bulletin/backissues/0
87-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm (06/10/1695)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[4] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands4  
[1] Fig. 10. Leeuwenhoek''s Fig. 1 is a
''green louse'' (aphid) natural size;
his Fig. 2 is an aphid shell seen under
a microscope, from which a fly had
emerged at the bottom; his Fig. 3 is a
parasitic fly that emerged from an
aphid (26 October 1700, Royal Society
of London Philosophical Transactions
22:facing p. 655). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
305 YBN
[1695 AD] 6 		1883)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/gregory_david.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p161.
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/gregory_david.htm
6. ^
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/gregory_david.htm (1695)

MORE INFO
[1] "David Gregory
(mathematician)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Grego
ry_%28mathematician%29
[2]
http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history
/Mathematicians/Gregory_David.html
Oxford, England5  
[1] David Gregory COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/PictDisplay/Gregory_David.html
305 YBN
[1695 AD] 4 		1891)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p163.
2. ^ Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
4. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology (1695)
Paris, France3 (presumably)  
305 YBN
[1695 AD] 21 		3260) Leibniz begins: "Since we first
mentioned a new science of dynamics,
which was still to be founded, many
prominent men in various places have
asked for a fuller explanation of its
teachings. but as we have not yet found
leisure to write a book, we shall here
set down some things which may cast
some light on it - light which will be
returned to us with interest if we
succeed in eliciting the opinions of
men who combine force of insight with
distinction of style. We confess that
their judgment will be most welcome and
we hope, useful in advancing the
perfection of the work.
We have suggested
elsewhere that there is something
besides extension in corporeal things;
indeed, that there is something prior
to extension, namely, a natural force
everywhere implanted by the Author of
nature - a force which does not consist
merely in a simple faculty such as that
with which the Scholastics seem to have
contented themselves but which is
provided besides with a striving or
effort (conatus seu nisus) which has
its full effect unless impeded by a
contrary striving. This nisus sometimes
appears to the senses, and is in my
opinion to be understood on rational
grounds, as present everywhere in
matter, even where it does not appear
to sense. but if we cannot ascribe it
to God by some miracle, it is certainly
necessary that this force be produced
by him within bodies themselves.
Indeed, it must constitute the inmost
nature of the body, since it is the
character of substance to act, and
extension means only the continuation
or diffusion of an already presupposed
acting and resisting substance. So far
is extension itself from comprising
substance!
It is beside the point here that all
corporeal action arises from motion and
that motion itself comes only from
other motion already existing in the
body or impressed upon it from without.
For like time, motion taken in an exact
sense never exists, because a whole
does not exist if it has no coexisting
parts. Thus there is nothing real in
motion itself except that momentaneous
state which must consist of a force
striving toward change. Whatever there
is in corporeal nature besides the
object of geometry, or extension, must
be reduced to this force. This
reasoning does justice, at last, both
to truth and to the teachings of the
ancients. Our age has already saved
from contempt the corpuscles of
Democritus, the ideas of Plato, and the
tranquility of the Stoics which arises
from the best possible connection
(nexus) of all things; now we shall
reduce the Peripatetic tradition of
forms or entelechies, which has rightly
seemed enigmatic and scarcely
understood by its authors themselves,
to intelligible concepts. Thus we
believe that this philosophy, accepted
for so many centuries, must not be
discarded but be explained in a way
that makes it consistent within itself
(where this is possible) and clarifies
and amplifies it with new truths."14

Leibniz writes "Active force, which may
well be called power, as it is by some,
is of two kinds. The first is primitive
force, which is in all corporeal
substance as such, since I believe that
a body entirely at rest is contrary to
the nature of things. The second is
derivative force, which is exercised in
various ways through a limitation of
primitive force resulting from the
conflict of bodies with each other.
Primitive force, which is nothing but
the first entelechy (note: entelechy
eNTeLeKE is an actuality as opposed to
a potentiality and in vitalist
philosophy, a vital agent or force
directing growth and life15 ),
corresponds to the soul or substantial
form, but for this very reason it
relates only to general causes which
cannot suffice to explain phenomena.
Therefore I agree with those who deny
that forms are to be used in
investigating the specific and special
causes of sensible things. This I must
emphasize to make it clear that in
restoring to the forms their proper
function of revealing the sources of
things to us, I am not trying to return
to the word battles of the more popular
Scholastics. A knowledge of forms is
necessary, meanwhile, for
philosophizing rightly, and no one can
claim to have grasped the nature of
body adequately unless he has paid some
attention to such things and has come
to understand that the crude concept of
a corporeal substance which depends
only on sensory imagery and has
recently been carelessly introduced by
an abuse of the corpuscular philosophy
(which is excellent and more true in
itself) is imperfect, not to say false.
This can also be shown by considering
that such a concept of body does not
exclude cessation or rest from matter
and cannot provide reasons for the laws
of nature which apply to derivative
force.
Passive force is likewise of two
kinds - primitive and derivative. The
primitive force of suffering or of
resisting constitutes the very thing
which the Scholastics call materia
prima, if rightly interpreted. It
brings it about, namely, that one body
is not penetrated by another but
opposes an obstacle to it and is at the
same time possessed of a kind of
laziness, so to speak, or a repugnance
to motion, and so does not allow itself
to be set in motion without somewhat
breaking the force of the body acting
upon it. Hence the derivative force of
suffering thereafter shows itself in
various way in secondary matter. But
setting aside these general and primary
considerations, and having established
the fact that every body acts by virtue
of its form and suffers or resists by
virtue of its matter, we must now
proceed to the doctrine of derivative
forces and resistances and discuss the
question of how bodies prevail over or
resist each other in various way by
their varied impulses. For to these
derivative forces apply the laws of
action, which are not only known by
reason but also verified by sense
itself through phenomena.
Here, therefore, we
understand by derivative force, or the
force by which bodies actually act and
are acted upon by each other, only that
force which is connected with motion
(local motion, that is) and which in
turn tends to produce further local
motion. For we admit that all other
material phenomena can be explained
through local motion. Motion is the
continuous change of place and thus
requires time. But as the moving body
has its motion in time, so it has a
velocity at every moment of time, a
velocity which is the greater in the
degree that more space is passed
through in less expenditure of time.
This velocity along with direction is
called conatus. Impetus, however,
consists in the product of the mass
(molis) of the body by its velocity,
and so its quantity is that which
Cartesians usually call the quantity of
motion, that is, the momentaneous
quantity, although speaking more
accurately, the quantity of motion,
having an existence in time, is an
integral of the impetuses (whether
equal or unequal) existing in the
moving body multplied by the
corresponding intervals of time. In our
debate with the Cartesians, however, we
have followed their way of speaking.
yet in the scientific use of terms, as
we may conveniently distinguish an
increase which has already taken place,
or one still to come, from one which is
now occurring, designating this latter
as the increment or element of the
increase; so we can distinguish the
falling of a body at the present moment
from the fall which has already taken
place which it increases. So we can
also distinguish the present or
instantaneous element of motion from
the motion extended through time and
call it 'motion'. Then what is
popularly called motion would be called
quantity of motion. But although we can
readily comply with any accepted
terminology after its meaning is
established, we must be careful about
terms until this is done, in order not
to be misled by their ambiguity.
Further
more, just as the calculation of motion
carried out through time is integrated
from an infinite number of impetuses,
so in turn the impetus itself (even
though it is a momentaneous thing)
arises from a succession of an infinite
number of impacts on the same moving
body; so it too contains a certain
element from which it can arise only
through infinite repetitions. Assume a
tube AC rotating about a fixed center C
with a definite uniform velocity and in
the horizontal plane of this page
(Figure 29). Assume a ball B moving
within the tube without any chain or
impediment and hence beginning to move
by centrifugal force. It is obvious
that the beginning of the conatus of
receding from the center (the conatus,
namely, by which the ball D tends
toward the end of the tube is
infinitely small with respect to the
impetus which it already has from the
rotation or that by which the ball B
tends from D to D along with the tube
itself, while retaining its distance
from the center. But if the centrifugal
impulsion proceeding from the rotation
is continued for some time, there must
arise in the ball, from its own
progression, a certain complete
centrifugal impetus D'B' comparable to
the impetus of rotation DD'. Hence the
nisus is obviously twofold, an
elementary or infinitely small one
which I also call a solicitation and
one formed by the continuation or
repetition of these elementary
impulsions, that is, the impetus
itself. but I do not mean that these
mathematical entities are really found
in nature as such but merely that they
are means of making accurate
calculations of an abstract mental
kind.
Hence force is also of two kinds: the
one elementary, which I also call dead
force, because motion does not yet
exist in it but only a solicitation to
motion, such as that of the ball in the
tube or a stone in a sling even while
it is still held by the string' the
other is ordinary force combined with
actual motion, which I call living
force (vis viva). An example of dead
force is centrifugal force, and
likewise the force of gravity or
centripetal force; also the force with
which a stretched elastic body begins
to restore itself. But in impact,
whether this arises from a heavy body
which has been falling for some time,
or from a bow which has been restoring
itself for some time, or from some
similar cause, the force is living and
arises from an infinite number of
continuous impressions of dead force.
This is what Galileo meant when in an
enigmatic way, he called the force of
impact infinite as compared with the
simple impulsion of gravity. But even
though impetus is always combined with
living force, the two are nonetheless
different, as we shall show below.
Livin
g force in any aggregate of bodies can
further be understood in two senses -
namely, as total and partial. Partial
force in turn is either relative or
directive, that is, either proper to
the parts themselves or common to all.
Respective or proper force is that by
which the bodies included in an
aggregate can interact upon each other;
directive or common force is that by
which the aggregate can itself also act
externally. I call this 'directive'
because the integral force of total
direction is conserved in this partial
force. Moreover, if it were assumed
that the aggregate should suddenly
become rigid by the cessation of the
motion of the parts relative to each
other, this alone would be left. Thus
absolute total force is composed of
relative and directive force taken
together. but this can be understood
better from the rules to be treated
below.
So far as we know, the ancients had a
knowledge of dead force only, and it is
this which is commonly called
mechanics, which deals with the level,
the pulley, the inclined plane
(applicable to the wedge and screw),
the equilibrium of liquids, and similar
matters concerned only with the primary
conatus of bodies in itself, before
they take on an impetus through action.
Although the laws of dead force can be
carried over, in a certain way, to
living force, yet great caution is
necessary, for it is at this point that
those who confused in general with the
quantity resulting from the product of
mass by velocity were misled because
they saw that dead force is
proportional to these factors. As we
pointed out long ago, this happens for
a special reason, namely, that when for
example, different heavy bodies fall,
the descent itself of the quantities of
space passed through in the descent
are, at the very beginning of motion
while they remain infinitely small or
elementary, proportional to the
velocities or to the conatuses of
descent. But when some progress has
been made and living force has
developed, the acquired velocities are
no longer proportional to the spaces
alreadyh passed through in the descent
but only to their elements. Yet we have
already shown, and will show more
fully, that the force must be
calculated in terms of these spaces
themselves. Though he used another
name, and indeed, another concept,
Galileo began the treatment of living
force and was the first to explain how
motion arises from the acceleration of
heavy falling bodies. Descartes rightly
distinguished between velocity and
direction and also saw that in the
collision of bodies that state results
which least changes the prior
conditions. but he did not rightly
estimate this minimum change, since he
changes wither the direction alone or
the velocity alone, while the whole
change must be determined by the joint
effect of both together. He failed to
see how this was possible, however,
because two such heterogeneous things
did not seem to him to be capable of
comparison or of simultaneous treatment
- he being concerned with modalities
rather than with realities in this
connection; not to speak of his other
errors in his teachings on this
problem.
Honoratius Fabri, Marcus Marci, John
Alph. Borelli, Ignatius Baptista
Pardies, Claude Deschales, and other
most acute men have given us things
that are not to be despised in the
doctrine of motion, yet they have not
avoided these capital errors. So far as
I know, Huygens, whose brilliant
discoveries have enlightened our age,
was also the first to arrive at the
pure and transparent truth in this
matter, and to free this doctrine from
fallacies, by formulating certain rules
which were published long ago. Almost
the same rules were obtained by Wren,
Wallis, and Mariotte, all excellent men
in this field, though in differing
measure. but there is no unity of
opinion about the causes; hence men who
are outstanding in these studies do not
always accept the same conclusions. It
would seem, indeed, that the true
foundations of this science have not
yet been revealed. Not everyone has
accepted the proposition which seems
certain to me - that rebound or
reflection results only from elastic
force, that is, from the resistance
offered by an internal motion. nor has
anyone before me explained the concept
of forces itself, a matter which has
always disturbed the Cartesians and
others who could not undetsand that the
sum of motion or of impetuses, which
they take for the quantity of forces,
can be different after collision than
it was before, because they believed
that such a change would change the
quantity of forces as well.
..."16

Use of the concept of entelechy and
vis-viva both imply belief in the
erroneous theory of vitalism17 , the
doctrine that phenomena are only partly
controlled by mechanical forces and in
biology, a doctrine that ascribes the
functions of a living organism to a
vital principle distinct from chemical
and physical forces.18

The phenomenon of "partial force" being
either relative or directive, relating
to individual parts or common to all,
may be similar to the important idea of
collective movement versus individual
movement - my argument is that the
electric effect may be a composite
effect of many particles from gravity
only - and I want to model these
phenomena - where a collective movement
appears from a distance to be an
unusual individual movement, for
example, larger than the force of
gravity, but as the result of many
particles grouped together. I would
call these "composite" (combined) or
"individual". But it may be that
Leibniz is describing something else.19

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
3. ^ Record ID2407. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ G. W. Leibniz, "Specimen
Dynamicum" (1695); "English translation
in Philosophical Papers and Letters",
translated: L. E. Loemker, (1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&d
q=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibn
iz&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA43
5,M1 {Leibniz_specimen_1695.pdf}
7. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
8. ^ G. W. Leibniz, "Specimen
Dynamicum" (1695); "English translation
in Philosophical Papers and Letters",
translated: L. E. Loemker, (1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&d
q=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibn
iz&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA43
5,M1 {Leibniz_specimen_1695.pdf}
9. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
10. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
11. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ G. W.
Leibniz, "Specimen Dynamicum" (1695);
"English translation in Philosophical
Papers and Letters", translated: L. E.
Loemker, (1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&d
q=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibn
iz&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA43
5,M1 {Leibniz_specimen_1695.pdf}
15. ^ "entelechy." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
12 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
ntelechy>.
16. ^ G. W. Leibniz, "Specimen
Dynamicum" (1695); "English translation
in Philosophical Papers and Letters",
translated: L. E. Loemker, (1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&d
q=philosophical+papers+and+letters+leibn
iz&sig=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA43
5,M1 {Leibniz_specimen_1695.pdf}
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "vitalism."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 12 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/v
italism>.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
21. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html (1695)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
[3] "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
(03/??/1679)
[4] G. W. Leibniz, Acta Eruditorum
(1686), p. 161; English translation in
Philosophical Papers and Letters, L. E.
Loemker, trans. and ed., Reidel,
Dordrecht, the Netherlands (1969), p.
296
Hannover, Germany20 (presumably) 
[1] [t Diagram from Leibniz's Specimen
Dynamicum] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
losophical+papers+and+letters+leibniz&si
g=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA435,M1

[2] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
303 YBN
[1697 AD] 5 		1823)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehemiah_Gr
ew
2. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Nehemiah Grew".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nehemiah
_Grew
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p147.
4. ^ "Nehemiah Grew".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew
5. ^ "Nehemiah Grew". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8079/Nehemiah-Grew (1697)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Nehemiah%20Grew%2
0
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg

[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg
303 YBN
[1697 AD] 4 		1887)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
2. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
3. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
4. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem (1697)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Pol
hem
Stockholm, Sweden3  
[1] sv Christopher Polhem porträtterad
av Johan Henrik Scheffel, 1741 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem, Swedish
engineer and scientist. Copperplate
engraving by Bergquist. From: Emil
Hildebrand et al., Sveriges historia
intill tjugonde seklet, vol 7 (1903), p
95. [t what is the deal on these two
images, they appear to be the same. In
addition, does it not look like Polhem
is holding his crotch in one hand and
making a scissors sign with his other
hand? Perhaps implying: isn't it idiocy
to hate genitals?]
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Christopher_Polhem_from_Hildebra
nd.jpg
302 YBN
[07/02/1698 AD] 16 17 		1868) On this day, Savery patents his
steam engine.13
Savery is a military
engineer, rising to the rank of captain
by 1702.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p158.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington
4. ^ "Thomas Savery". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5931/Thomas-Savery
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^
http://www.egr.msu.edu/~lira/supp/steam/
savery.htm
10. ^ "Thomas Savery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Save
ry
11. ^ "Thomas Savery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Save
ry
12. ^ L. T. C. Rolt and J. S. Allen,
The Steam Engine of Thomas Newcomen
(Landmark Publishing, Ashbourne 1997).
13. ^
"Thomas Savery". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Save
ry
14. ^ "Thomas Savery". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas%20Savery%2
0
15. ^ "Thomas Savery". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5931/Thomas-Savery
16. ^ "Thomas Savery". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5931/Thomas-Savery (1698)
17. ^ "Thomas
Savery". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Save
ry 07/02/1698) (patent:) 07/02/1698)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.mgsteam.btinternet.co.uk/engd
ev.htm
[2]
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/s
avery/
?, England15  
[1]
URL:http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/H
T-history.html Description: Savery
Steam Engine [1698] PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/sav
ery-engine-jpg

[2]
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/t
hurston/1878/Chapter1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Savery.gif
302 YBN
[1698 AD] 26 		1777) The size and distance of other
stars is measured.13 14 15

Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) makes the first specific
estimate of the distance and size of
the stars by comparing the size of
Sirius to a fractional portion of the
Sun.16 17 18

Huygens reports in his "Cosmotheoros"
(1699)19 , his experiment of drilling a
series of holes in a brass plate,
holding the plate up to the Sun, and
comparing the holes to his memory of
the appearance of the star Sirius. The
hole that matches is effectively
1/27,664 the apparent size of the Sun.
So Huygens concludes that Sirius, must
be 27,664 times farther from us than
the Sun, or about half a light-year
away. According to Carl Sagan, had
Huygens known that Sirius is
intrinsically brighter than the Sun, he
would have almost calculated the modern
estimate of 8.8 light-years away.20 21
22

Huygens accepts like Nicolas of Cusa
that stars are uniformly distributed
through out space and each star has a
number of planets.23

Huygens also reaffirms the view of
Athanasius Kircher (KiRKR) (CE
1601-1680) that the fixed stars are
other suns with planets going around
them, but supports the Copernican
Sun-centered theory over the Earth
centered-theories of Tycho Brahe that
Kircher supported.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
2. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
3. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
4. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
5. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
6. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
7. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
8. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
9. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
11. ^ Thomas Dick,
"The sidereal heavens and other
subjects connected with astronomy: as
...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
12. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
13. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
14. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal
heavens and other subjects connected
with astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
15. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
17. ^ Thomas Dick,
"The sidereal heavens and other
subjects connected with astronomy: as
...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
18. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
19. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
20. ^
http://e-course.widyadharma.ac.id/agus/E
book/Magazine/Random/Carl%20Sagan%20-%20
Cosmos/html/Carl%20Sagan%20-%20Cosmos_11
9.html
21. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal
heavens and other subjects connected
with astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
22. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
24. ^ Huygens,
"Cosmotheoros, Or Conjectures
Concerning the Planetary Worlds and
Their Inhabitants", 1699. Huygens,
Christiaan. Cosmotheoros: or,
conjectures concerning the inhabitants
of the planets. Translated from the
Latin of Christian Huygens. A new
edition, corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii
(1762). Eighteenth Century Collections
Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012,
Book 2, p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
25. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1698)
(1698)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ntZwxtt
ZF-sC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=huygens+distan
ce+stars+sirius&source=web&ots=LS3xk1VXz
b&sig=dggeaF1_TGO8d12SB7CC9-t0Wxg
The Hague, Netherlands25
(presumably) 
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm

[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 13 14 		1886) Built in 1699 in Stjärnsund, the
factory produces a number of products,
deriving from the idea that Sweden
should export fewer raw materials and
process them within their own borders
instead. The factory is a failure; it
meets large resistance among workers
who fear they will be replaced by
machinery. Eventually most of the
factory is destroyed in a fire in 1734,
leaving only the part of the factory
that produces clocks left. The factory
continues producing clocks, known for
their high quality and low price.
Although the popularity of the clocks
is less during the beginning of the
1800s, clock-making continues to this
day at Stjärnsund, still producing
around twenty clocks of the Polhem
design per year.9

Economically, the factory is
unfeasible, but the king at the time,
Charles XII, is supportive and gives
Polhem freedom from taxes to encourage
his efforts.10

The factory of Stjärnsund is visited
by Carolus Linnaeus, who writes about
the factory in his diaries as "Nothing
is more optimistic than Stjärnsund"
("Intet är spekulativare än
Stjärnsund").11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p162.
3. ^ "Christopher
Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
4. ^ "Christopher Polhem". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Pol
hem
5. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
6. ^ "Christopher Polhem". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Pol
hem
7. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
8. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
9. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
10. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
11. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
12. ^ "Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162. (1700) (1700)
14. ^
"Christopher Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem (1699)
Stjärnsund, Sweden12  
[1] sv Christopher Polhem porträtterad
av Johan Henrik Scheffel, 1741 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem, Swedish
engineer and scientist. Copperplate
engraving by Bergquist. From: Emil
Hildebrand et al., Sveriges historia
intill tjugonde seklet, vol 7 (1903), p
95. [t what is the deal on these two
images, they appear to be the same. In
addition, does it not look like Polhem
is holding his crotch in one hand and
making a scissors sign with his other
hand? Perhaps implying: isn't it idiocy
to hate genitals?]
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Christopher_Polhem_from_Hildebra
nd.jpg
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 8 9 		1893)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
3. ^ "Guillaume
Amontons". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_A
montons
4. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
6. ^ "Guillaume
Amontons". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_A
montons
7. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
8. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology (1699)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p163. (1699)
(1699)

MORE INFO
[1] "Guillaume Amontons".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7220/Guillaume-Amontons
[2] (1699) "Method of substituting the
force of fire for horse and man power
to move machines", Histoire et
Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des
Sciences, p.112
[3] (1699) Histoire de
l'Académie Royale des Sciences avec
les Mémoires de Mathématique et de
Physique, p.206
Paris, France7 (presumably)  
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 7 		1896)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (1699) Histoire de l'Académie
Royale des Sciences avec les Mémoires
de Mathématique et de Physique, p.206
2. ^
Bowden, F.P. & Tabor, D. (1950) The
Friction and Lubrication of Solids pp1,
87-89
3. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_A
montons
4. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
5. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7220/Guillaume-Amontons
6. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
7. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_A
montons (1699)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] (1699) "Method of
substituting the force of fire for
horse and man power to move machines",
Histoire et Mémoires de l'Académie
Royale des Sciences, p.112
Paris, France6 (presumably)  
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 12 13 		2008) Malebranche explains his medium
theory of light in a lecture given to
the Paris academy devoted to the
subject of light and colors.6
Malebranche is guided by the analogy of
pitch in sound7 to color in light.8
Acc
ording to Malebranche white has the
greatest frequency, followed by yellow,
red and blue, with black having
frequency zero.9

In 1712 Malebranche will publish an
amended and extended version of his
ideas in which Malebranche adopts
Newton's idea of 7 homogenious colors,
which he distinguishes according to
their frequency10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Optics in the age of Euler,
Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p75.
2. ^ "Nicolas
Malebranche". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0315/Nicolas-Malebranche
3. ^ The History and Present State of
Discoveries relating to vision, light
and colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
1978 Kraus Reprint Co, p401.
4. ^ Opticks,
Newton, Cohen, 1979, p372.
5. ^ Optics in the
age of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995,
p75.
6. ^ Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, pp56-57.
7. ^ "Malebranche".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malebranche

8. ^ Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p57.
9. ^ Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p57.
10. ^
Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p58.
11. ^ Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p57.
12. ^
Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p56. (1699)
13. ^
"Malebranche". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malebranche
 (1699)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/nicolas-mal
ebranche
[2] light_color_malebranche_Newton.pdf
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n572
10216334v842/ VI From Newton to
Young Journal Documenta
Ophthalmologica Publisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0012-4486 (Print)
1573-2622 (Online) Issue Volume 96,
Numbers 1-3 / July,
1999 DOI 10.1023/A:1017248722519 Pages
88-111 Subject
Collection Medicine SpringerLink
Date Monday, October 25, 2004
Paris, France11  
[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm
300 YBN
[01/02/1700 AD] 4 		1790)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

2. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
4. ^
http://esapubs.org/bulletin/backissues/0
87-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm (01/02/1700)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
Delft, Netherlands3  
[1] Fig. 6. Now called Volvox,
illustrating Leeuwenhoek''s letter of 2
January 1700 (Royal Society of London
Philosophical Transactions 22:facing p.
483). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
300 YBN
[07/11/1700 AD] 8 9 		1857)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
2. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
3. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
5. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
7. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
8. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
(07/11/1700)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156. (1700)
(1700)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
Berlin, Germany6 7  
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 30 31 		1885) Stahl is born into a wealthy and
privileged family.22
Stahl earns a
medical degree at Jena in 1684.23
Stahl
is the son of a minister.24
Stahl
marries 4 times.
Asimov comments "(Stahl) had
rational views on mental disease".25
To me this shows, possibly some
arrogance or ignorance in Asimov, by
his acceptance of the shockingly brutal
and mostly pseudoscience theories and,
hello, unconsensual surgeries of
psychology.26
In 1694 Stahl becomes
professor of theoretical medicine at
the newly founded Prussian University
in Halle.27
Stahl moves to Berlin in
1715 to serve as the first royal
physician and court counselor to
Frederick William I of Prussia, a post
that he holds until his death in 1734.
From 1715 Stahl also presides over
Berlin's Medical Board, which becomes
the Higher Medical Board for all of
Prussia in 1725. Stahl is instrumental
in the founding of the Berlin
Medical-Surgical College in 1723.28
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
2. ^ "Georg Ernst
Stahl". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Ernst+Stahl
?cat=technology
3. ^ Morris, Richard (2003). The last
sorcerers: The path from alchemy to the
periodic table (Hardback), Washington,
D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN
0309089050.
4. ^ "Phlogiston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlogiston
5. ^ Becher, Physica Subterranea p. 256
et seq.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k84
226t
6. ^ Brock, William Hodson (1993). The
Norton history of chemistry (Hardback),
1st American, New York: W. W. Norton.
ISBN 0393035360.
7. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Ernst+Stahl
?cat=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
9. ^ "Georg Ernst
Stahl". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Ernst+Stahl
?cat=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
15. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
16. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
17. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Ernst
_Stahl
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
19. ^ Ted Huntington
20. ^
"Georg Ernst Stahl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
21. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Ernst+Stahl
?cat=technology
22. ^
http://www.alchemywebsite.com/bookshop/h
rs15.html
23. ^
http://www.alchemywebsite.com/bookshop/h
rs15.html
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington
27. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
28. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
29. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162. (1700)
(1700)
31. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Ernst
_Stahl (1697)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/phlogiston?cat=te
chnology
[2] "phlogiston". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9739/phlogiston
Halle, Germany29  
[1] English: Georg Ernst Stahl
(1660-1734), German chemist, physician
and metallurgist Source
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/exhibit
/large/01_19.gif Date 18th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Ernst_Stahl.png
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 6 		3593)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Duverney, Joseph-Guichard",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p270
2. ^ John
Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon,
1884,p175-176. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
#PPA176,M1
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p175-176. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
#PPA176,M1
4. ^ Record ID3592. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Duverney,
Joseph-Guichard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p270
6. ^
John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p175-176. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
#PPA176,M1 {1700}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph-Guichard Du Verney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph-Guic
hard_Du_Verney
[2]
http://www.speedylook.com/Joseph-Guichar
d_Of_Verney.html
Paris, France5 (presumably)  
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 5 		5924) Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni (CE
1671-1751), Italian composer, composes
around this time. Albinoni is
remembered mainly for his instrumental
music.1

(Tell story of the famous "Adagio".2 )

(Notice the similar impressive fast
scales/arpeggios on violin style
similar to Vivaldi in this work.3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/13006/Tomaso-Giovanni-Albinoni>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Tomaso Giovanni
Albinoni." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/13006/Tomaso-Giovanni-Albinoni>.
5. ^ "Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/13006/Tomaso-Giovanni-Albinoni>.
{1700}
Venice, Italy4  
[1] Tomaso Albinoni
(1671-1751) Source:
http://xoomer.alice.it/senesino/Dei/Albi
noni.jpg
(http://xoomer.alice.it/senesino/deities
.html) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Albinoni.jpg
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 6 		6251)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p91.
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/forte
3. ^ "piano." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piano
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p33.
5. ^
Mary Remnant, "Musical Instruments",
1989, p91.
6. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p91. {1700}
Florence, Italy5  
[1] [t Note Remnant describes
apparently the same piao as ''The
oldest surviving piano, by Bartolomeo
Cristofori, Florence, 1720. New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby
Brown Collection''] Description
English: Piano forte by Bartolomeo
Cristofori manufactured in 1722, Museo
Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali di
Roma Date 28 January 2010 Source
Own work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Piano_forte_Cristofor
i_1722.JPG
299 YBN
[1701 AD] 5 		1195) The seed drill is invented by
Jethro Tull.1 2 The seed drill allows
farmers to sow seeds in well-spaced
rows at specific depths. Prior to this
farmers simply cast seeds on the ground
by hand, to grow where they landed
(broadcasting). Some of the broadcast
seeds are cast on unprepared ground
where they never germinate, germinate
prematurely only to be killed by frost
or die from lack of access to water and
nutrients.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Seed drill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_drill
3. ^ "Seed drill". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_drill
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
England4   
299 YBN
[1701 AD] 5 		1875) To obtain these readings, under
instructions from the Admiralty, Halley
commands the war sloop "Paramour Pink"
in 1698-1700 on the first sea voyage
undertaken for purely scientific
purposes, this one to observe
variations in compass readings in the
South Atlantic and to determine
accurate latitudes and longitudes of
various ports.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
2. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
3. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
4. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
5. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley (1701)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[3] "St. Helena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
298 YBN
[12/25/1702 AD] 3 		1791)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
2. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
3. ^
http://esapubs.org/bulletin/backissues/0
87-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm (12/25/1702)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[4] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands2  
[1] Fig. 8. Duckweed from a Delft canal
with associated animalcules, from
Leeuwenhoek''s letter of 25 December
1702. The long structure in his Fig. 8
is part of a duckweed root, as seen
under the microscope, with animalcules
(rotifers, hydra, vorticellids)
attached. For identifications, see
Dobell 1932:277-278, Leeuwenhoek
1939-1999, XIV:Plate IX, or Ford 1982
(from Royal Society of London
Philosophical Transactions 23:facing p.
1291). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
298 YBN
[1702 AD] 10 11 		1882) Gregory is the only one in the
part of the country he lives in who has
a barometer, which he uses to gather
knowledge about the weather. Gregory
incurs the suspicion of the ignorant
and superstitious as a dealer in the
"black art", and narrowly escapes being
formally tried by the presbytery of the
bounds for witchcraft or conjuration.3


David Gregory is the nephew of James
Gregory (who designed a reflecting
telescope before Newton).4
In 1683
David Gregory is hired as professor of
mathematics at the University of
Edinburgh at the recommendation of
Newton and Flamsteed.5
David Gregory
claims to be first to give public
lectures on Newtonian theory.6
David
Gregory is hired as professor of
astronomy at Oxford.7
David Gregory is
a friend of Newton's.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p161.
2. ^
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/gregory_david.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p161.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p161.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p161.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p161.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p161.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p161.
9. ^
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/gregory_david.htm
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p161. (1702) (1702)
11. ^
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/gregory_david.htm (1702)

MORE INFO
[1] "David Gregory
(mathematician)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Grego
ry_%28mathematician%29
[2]
http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history
/Mathematicians/Gregory_David.html
Oxford, England9 (presumably) 
[1] David Gregory COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/PictDisplay/Gregory_David.html
298 YBN
[1702 AD] 5 		1892)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guillaume Amontons".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7220/Guillaume-Amontons
2. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
4. ^ "Guillaume
Amontons". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
5. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology (1702)

MORE INFO
[1] "Guillaume Amontons".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_A
montons
Paris, France4 (presumably)  
297 YBN
[1703 AD] 3 		3261)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf}
2. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
3. ^ Carolyn Iltis, "Leibniz and the
Vis Viva Controversy", Isis, Vol. 62,
No. 1, (Spring, 1971), pp. 21-35.
{Leibniz_Vis_Viva_Isis_Iltis_1971_2289
97.pdf} (1703)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[3]
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I
010/10239953.aspx
[4] "pendulum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9060/pendulum
[5] "Fulcrum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulcrum
[6]
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/clck/hd
_clck.htm
[7] "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology (1673)
(written in 1656) Paris, France2
(presumably) 
[1] Huygens, Horologium oscillatorium,
1673. PD
source: http://kinematic.library.cornell
.edu:8190/kmoddl/toc_huygens1.html

[2]
http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/dawn/167301
.html Huygens, Christiaan.
(1629-1695). Horologium
Oscillatorium,,,. Parisiis, 1673,
First edition. PD
source: http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/daw
n/photo/167301.jpg
297 YBN
[1703 AD] 8 		5932) Antonio (Lucio) Vivaldi (CE
1678-1741), Italian composer, composes
trio Sonatas.1

In 1703 Vivaldi is ordained a priest
(and later becomes known as the "Red
Priest" for his red hair). He spent
most of his career teaching violin and
leading the orchestra at a Venetian
girls' orphanage. Vivaldi popularizes
effects such as pizzicato (Played by
plucking rather than bowing the
strings2 ) and muting (to soften or
muffle the sound of an instrument3 ).4


(Vivaldi is an example of the dramatic
change that occurred perhaps around
1600 to a very technical high speed
playing which is very far from the
Gregorian chants. This clearly must
reflect a change in the collective mind
and education of society - to a
radically more technical and skillful
level. John Bull is an earlier example
of this. It may relate to the radical
neuron reading being discovered.
Identify the first "technical"
composers. I would look to the keyboard
and violin works, like tocattas.5 )

(Notice Vivaldi wears a wig - an
apparently early indication of this
fashion.6 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-viv
aldi
2. ^ "pizzicato." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 13
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pizzicato
3. ^ "mute." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 13 Jun.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/mute
4. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-viv
aldi
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Antonio
Vivaldi." The Concise Grove Dictionary
of Music. Oxford University Press,
Inc., 1994. Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-viv
aldi
8. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-viv
aldi {1703-1705}
(Ospedale della Pietá Girls' ophanage)
Venice, Italy7  
[1] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://www.baroquemusic.org/CGVi
valdi.jpg

[2] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/C1qnOkgmuDS._SL600_.jpg
297 YBN
[1703 AD] 4 		5942) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist1 , composes his first Violin
Sonata (BWV 1001).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^ "Sonatas and partitas for solo
violin (Bach)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonatas_and
_partitas_for_solo_violin_%28Bach%29
3. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
4. ^ "Sonatas and partitas for solo
violin (Bach)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonatas_and
_partitas_for_solo_violin_%28Bach%29
{c1703 (started writing) (verify}
(the ducal court) Weimar, Germany3
 
[1] Johann Sebastian Bach Sonata 1ma
á Violino Solo senza Baßo di
JSBach Adagio 1720 Autograph PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/BWV1001.jpg

[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg
296 YBN
[1704 AD] 4 		1743)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137.
2. ^ "John Ray".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
3. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp136-137. (1704)
(1704)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
Cambridge?, England3  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
296 YBN
[1704 AD] 6 		1826) Newton suggests that light
particles are affected by gravity.3

In the first edition of his "Opticks",
Newton writes: "Do not Bodies act upon
Light at a distance, and by their
action bend its rays, and is not this
action (cæteris paribus) strongest at
the least distance?".4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
2. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
5. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12257/Wa
rden-of-the-mint>.
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/vi
ew/texts/normalized/NATP00004
[7] Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996), p72. (1666)
[8] "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[9] "Isaac Newton". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[10] "Isaac Newton". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[11], p50.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00359149/ap020
085/02a00010/0
newton_embroiled_letter_to_flamsteed.pdf

[12] "Isaac Newton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology (1666)
(mint) London, England5
(presumably) 
[1] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
296 YBN
[1704 AD] 9 		5927) Alessandro Scarlatti (CE
1660-1725), Italian composer,1
composes the opera "Humanità e
Lucifero" ("Humanity and Lucifer")
which is about the victory of Humanity
over Satan.2

Scarlatti is important in the
development of opera and is considered
the founder of the so‐called
"Neapolitan school" of opera.3 4 His
115 operas include only one comic
opera, "Il trionfo dell'onore" (Naples
1718). Sixty‐four survive, wholly or
in part.5

(Lucifer is represented by the tenor.6
)

(Notice a similarity to melody of
Beethoven's 5th symphony. It's
apparently basically the same 4 notes
and time but the last note is
ascending. There is also the similar
repeating the appegio on higher notes.7
)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti
2. ^
http://www.classical.net/music/recs/revi
ews/n/nai20013a.php
3. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti
4. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
5. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXaAN9EVN
qw
9. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXaAN9EVN
qw {1704 (verify}
(Teatro Pratolino) Florence, Italy8
(verify) 
[1] The italian composer Alessandro
Scarlatti UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/Alessandro_Scarlatti.
jpg
295 YBN
[1705 AD] 12 		1872)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Edmond
Halley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Edmond Halley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
7. ^ "Edmond Halley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
9. ^ "comet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
10. ^ "Comet Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halle
y
11. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160. (1705)
(1705)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
London, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
295 YBN
[1705 AD] 9 		1876)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
2. ^ "Edmund Halley".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "Edmund Halley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
7. ^ "Edmund
Halley". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
8. ^ "Edmund Halley". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160. (1705)
(1705)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
[2] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[3] "comet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
[4] "Comet Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halle
y
 
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
294 YBN
[1706 AD] 16 		1897) Hauksbee is the son of a draper
(merchant in cloth or dry goods10 ).11

Hauksbee is an instrument maker.12
Hauks
bee is a pupil of Boyle's.13
In 1705
Hauksbee is elected to the Royal
Society.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^, p22.
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC
2. ^ "Francis Hauksbee the Elder".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9536/Francis-Hauksbee-the-Elder
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
4. ^ "Francis
Hauksbee". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Hauksbee?
cat=technology
5. ^ "Francis Hauksbee". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Hau
ksbee
6. ^ "Francis Hauksbee the Elder".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9536/Francis-Hauksbee-the-Elder
7. ^ "Francis Hauksbee". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Hauksbee?
cat=technology
8. ^ "Francis Hauksbee the Elder".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9536/Francis-Hauksbee-the-Elder
9. ^ "Francis Hauksbee". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Hauksbee?
cat=technology
10. ^ "Draper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draper
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p163.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p163.
15. ^ "Francis
Hauksbee the Elder". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9536/Francis-Hauksbee-the-Elder
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163. (1706) (1706)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION_HIST
.HTM
London, England15 (presumably) 
[1] Generator built by Francis
Hauksbee. Plate VII, Physico-Mechanical
Experiments, 2nd Ed., London 1719 The
Burndy Library, Dibner Institute for
the History of Science & Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts (from
http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fe
llows/bob_morse_04/01_Franklin_Lab_Part_
I_Intr.pdf) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hauksbee_Generator.JPG
294 YBN
[1706 AD] 6 		1916) Giovanni Battista Morgagni
(MoRGonYE) (CE 1682-1771), Italian
anatomist1 , publishes the first
volume2 of "Adversaria Anatomica"
(1706-19) which establishes his
reputation as an accurate anatomist.3

"Adversaria Anatomica" is a collection
of medical essays communicated to the
Academia Inquietorum which establishes
Morgagni in the scientific community.4


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p166.
2. ^ "giovanni
battista morgagni". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-morgagni
3. ^ "Giovanni Battista Morgagni".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3716/Giovanni-Battista-Morgagni
4. ^ "giovanni battista morgagni".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-morgagni
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p166.
6. ^ "giovanni
battista morgagni". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-morgagni (1706)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Battista Morgagni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Morgagni
[2] "Pathological anatomy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologica
l_anatomy
Padua, Italy5  
[1]
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/morgagni.html Giambattista
Morgagni, De sedibus….
Frontispiece. original image PD
source: http://historical.hsl.virginia.e
du/treasures/images/RB24_M68_1765_fronti
spiece_big.jpg

[2] * GIOVANNI BATTISTA
MORGAGNI, 1682-1771 Io. Bapt.
Morgagnus Primar. Anatom. Patav.
Line engraving; 23.3 x 16.8 cm.
Reynier Blokhuyzen, engraved by N.
Francia. Bologna, 1719.
Frontis to his Adversia Anatomica,
1719. Call No: None (In
book). PD
source: http://ar.utmb.edu/areas/informr
esources/collections/blocker/portraits/b
ios/morgagni.asp
293 YBN
[01/05/1707 AD] 3 4 		5930) Alessandro Scarlatti (CE
1660-1725), Italian composer, composes
the opera "Mitridate Eupatore" (1707).1


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti
2. ^ "List of operas by Alessandro
Scarlatti". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ope
ras_by_Alessandro_Scarlatti
3. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti {1707}
4. ^ "List of operas by
Alessandro Scarlatti". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ope
ras_by_Alessandro_Scarlatti {01/05/1707
(verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Western music."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>
(Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo)
Venice, Italy2 (verify) 
[1] The italian composer Alessandro
Scarlatti UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/Alessandro_Scarlatti.
jpg
293 YBN
[1707 AD] 5 		1866)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
2. ^ "Denis Papin".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
3. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Papin.html
4. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Papin.html
5. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
(1707)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
[2] "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

Hesse-Kassel?, Germany4  
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
293 YBN
[1707 AD] 9 10 		3256)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Arithmetica
Universalis: Sive de Compositione Et
Resolutione Arithmetica ...",
1707. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EQUOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22A
rithmetica+universalis%22
2. ^ Isaac Newton, Edmond Halley, Cunn
(Samuel), "Universal Arithmetick, Or, A
Treatise of Arithmetical Composition
and ...", 1720.
http://books.google.com/books?id=oAg3A
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Universal
+Arithmetick#PPA208,M1
3. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
4. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
7. ^ Isaac Newton, Edmond Halley, Cunn
(Samuel), "Universal Arithmetick, Or, A
Treatise of Arithmetical Composition
and ...", 1720,
pp192-193. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=oAg3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=Universal+Arithmetick#PPA208,M1
8. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
9. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html (1707)
10. ^ Isaac Newton,
"Arithmetica Universalis: Sive de
Compositione Et Resolutione Arithmetica
...",
1707. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EQUOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22A
rithmetica+universalis%22

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[3]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[4] "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154
[6] "Arithmetica
Universalis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetica
_Universalis
Cambridge, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Image from Newton's Arithmetica
Universalis PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=EQUOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22
Arithmetica+universalis%22#PPA176,M1

[2] Title of Newton's Arithmetica
Universalis (published 1707) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Arithmetica.jpg
292 YBN
[02/04/1708 AD] 7 		5938)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata71.html
3. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
4. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata71.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata71.html
7. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata71.html {02/04/1708}
(Saint Blasius’s church) Mühlhausen,
Germany6  
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
292 YBN
[1708 AD] 3 		1196) Meissen porcelain, the first
European porcelain is successfully
produced in a trial firing by
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Meissen porcelain". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissen_por
celain
2. ^ "Meissen porcelain". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissen_por
celain
3. ^ "Meissen porcelain". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissen_por
celain
Saxony, Germany2  
[1] Ehrenfried Walther von
Tschirnhaus Stich von M. Bernigeroth,
Kupferstichkabinett Dresden PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tschirnhaus.jpg

[2] # Description: Meissen porcelain
museum. Grand table. # Photographer:
Ingersoll, photo taken myself,
18.08.2005 # Note: I asked the staff
in the porcelain museum for the
permission to take photos, which they
permitted me. I took this photo and put
it under public domain -licence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Meissen-Porcelain-Table.JPG
292 YBN
[1708 AD] 31 		1902) Boerhaave is the son of a
clergyman.17
In 1689 Boerhaave received
a Doctor of Philosophy18 (PhD) from
the University of Leiden.19
In 1693
Boerhaave earns a medical degree at
Harderwyck.20
Boerhaave spends all of
his professional life at the University
of Leiden, serving as professor of
botany (1709 21 ), and of medicine,
rector of the university, professor of
practical medicine, and professor of
chemistry.22
Students come from all
over Europe to study under Boerhaave.23
24
Peter the Great visits Boerhaave.25

Boerhaave is sometimes known as the
Dutch Hippocrates.26
Boerhaave is
regarded as the founder of the clinical
teaching and of the modern academic
hospital.27
Boerhaave's reputation as
one of the greatest physicians of the
1700s lays partly in his attempts to
collect, arrange, and systematize the
mass of medical information that has
accumulated up to his time.28
Boerhaave
dies extremely wealthy.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
2. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
7. ^ Robert Whitaker,
"Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad
Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment
of the Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA:
Perseus Publishing, 2001).
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^
"Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
11. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
12. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
13. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
14. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
15. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
16. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
18. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
21. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
22. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
24. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
27. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Boe
rhaave
28. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
30. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165. (1708)
(1708)
Leiden, Netherlands30
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Biology
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 17.3 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 31.7
x 22.8 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boerha
ave

[2] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Botany ; Chemistry Print Artist:
James Heath, 1757-1834 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Noel
Pruneau, 1751-ca. 1800 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14 x 8.8 cm /
Sheet: 30 x24 cm PD
source: %20Hermann
292 YBN
[1708 AD] 6 		4481)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homberg, Wilhelm or Guillaume."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 477-478. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902039&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
3. ^ Histoire de l'Académie royale des
sciences,
1708 http://books.google.com/books?id=t
N0EAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e {verify this link - I can't find the
specific text}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Joseph
Priestley, "The History and Present
State of Discoveries Relating to
Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
{1708}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyc
lop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Homberg,_Wilhelm

Paris, France5   
291 YBN
[1709 AD] 8 		1194) Other ironmasters following
Darby's lead, find that the process is
not so easy to adapt. It is later
learned that Darby's coal supply, from
Cumbria, just happens to have a lower
than normal sulfur content, which is
necessary in order to producing quality
iron. Ironmasters will slowly adapt the
blast furnace process with the
introduction of various types of flux
that cleans out the impurities in the
coal, and by the mid-1700s iron
production will increase.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Coke (fuel)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fue
l%29
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Abraham Darby I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Dar
by_I
4. ^ "Abraham Darby I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Dar
by_I
5. ^ "Abraham Darby I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Dar
by_I
6. ^ "Abraham Darby I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Dar
by_I
7. ^ "Coke (fuel)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fue
l%29
8. ^ "Coke (fuel)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_%28fue
l%29
England7   
291 YBN
[1709 AD] 4 		1898)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francis Hauksbee the Elder".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9536/Francis-Hauksbee-the-Elder
2. ^ "Francis Hauksbee". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francis+Hauksbee?
cat=technology
3. ^ "Francis Hauksbee the Elder".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9536/Francis-Hauksbee-the-Elder
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163. (1709) (1709)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Hauksbee".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Hau
ksbee
[2] "Draper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draper
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Generator built by Francis
Hauksbee. Plate VII, Physico-Mechanical
Experiments, 2nd Ed., London 1719 The
Burndy Library, Dibner Institute for
the History of Science & Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts (from
http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fe
llows/bob_morse_04/01_Franklin_Lab_Part_
I_Intr.pdf) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hauksbee_Generator.JPG
291 YBN
[1709 AD] 4 		1904)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
2. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
3. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
4. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave (1709)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Boerhaave".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Boe
rhaave
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=QHAFAAA
AQAAJ&pg=PA1
Leiden, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Biology
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 17.3 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 31.7
x 22.8 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boerha
ave

[2] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Botany ; Chemistry Print Artist:
James Heath, 1757-1834 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Noel
Pruneau, 1751-ca. 1800 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14 x 8.8 cm /
Sheet: 30 x24 cm PD
source: %20Hermann
291 YBN
[1709 AD] 3 		1926)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3562/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit
2. ^ "Gabriel Fahrenheit". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3562/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit (1709)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fah
renheit
Amsterdam, Netherlands2
(presumably) 
[1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -
1736) PD
source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz
ig-online/sl.html

[2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai
1686 in Danzig, † 16. September 1736
in Den Haag) PD
source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e
rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php
290 YBN
[1710 AD] 5 		1752)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
2. ^ "John Ray". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
3. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
4. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
5. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray (1710)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
?, England4  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
290 YBN
[1710 AD] 21 22 		3773) Berkeley writes essays against
the freethinkers, for Richard Steele an
essayist.17

In politics Berkeley is a Hanoverian
Tory.18

In his "Treatise Concerning the
Principles of Human Knowledge, Part I"
(1710), Berkeley puts all objects of
sense, including tangibles, within the
mind; rejects material substance,
material causes, and abstract general
ideas; while affirming spiritual
substance.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Berkeley, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>.
2. ^ George Berkeley, Thomas Joseph
McCormack, A Treatise Concerning the
Principles of Human Knowledge, Open
Court Pub. Co.,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mWVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=auth
or:berkeley&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=8qNbSfClJo_I
M8mO4BY#PPR4,M1 1710
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=mmMIOwAACAAJ&dq=author:berkeley+date:
1710-1710&ei=17tbSaRQkagzyaC43wE
3. ^ W. A. Suchting, "Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and Motion
Berkeley's Criticism of Newton on Space
and Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2
(Summer, 1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf}
4. ^ "Berkeley, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>.
5. ^ W. A. Suchting, "Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and Motion
Berkeley's Criticism of Newton on Space
and Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2
(Summer, 1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf}
6. ^ Ronald Newburgh, "Did Berkeley
foreshadow Mach?", Am. J. Phys. 76, 189
(2008), DOI:10.1119/1.2800357
7. ^ Popper, Karl. 1953. “A
Note on Berkeley as Precursor of Mach
and Einstein.” In Conjectures and
Refutations. New York:
Harper. http://www.questia.com/read/781
46549?title=Conjectures%20and%20Refutati
ons%3a%20The%20Growth%20of%20Scientific%
20Knowledge
8. ^ George Berkeley, "De Moto",
1721. from: George Berkeley, "The
Works of George Berkeley" By
http://books.google.com/books?id=3dIQA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=de+moto+author:berkel
ey&ei=47BbSdXIII2YMsKwybAH#PPA73,M1
9. ^ W. A. Suchting, "Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and Motion
Berkeley's Criticism of Newton on Space
and Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2
(Summer, 1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf}
10. ^ George Berkeley, Thomas Joseph
McCormack, A Treatise Concerning the
Principles of Human Knowledge, Open
Court Pub. Co.,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mWVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=auth
or:berkeley&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=8qNbSfClJo_I
M8mO4BY#PPR4,M1 1710
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=mmMIOwAACAAJ&dq=author:berkeley+date:
1710-1710&ei=17tbSaRQkagzyaC43wE
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ "Berkeley, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>.
18. ^ "Berkeley, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>.
19. ^ "Berkeley, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>.
20. ^ George Berkeley, "De Moto",
1721. from: George Berkeley, "The
Works of George Berkeley" By
http://books.google.com/books?id=3dIQA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=de+moto+author:berkel
ey&ei=47BbSdXIII2YMsKwybAH#PPA73,M1
21. ^ W. A. Suchting, "Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and Motion
Berkeley's Criticism of Newton on Space
and Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2
(Summer, 1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf} {1710}
22. ^ "Berkeley,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>. {1710}
(Trinity College) Dublin, Ireland20
 
[1] George Berkeley PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/584/0
00087323/berkeley-3.jpg
289 YBN
[1711 AD] 3 		1779)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
2. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
3. ^ "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren (1711)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Christopher Wren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Wren
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Wre
n
London, England2  
[1] Sir Christopher Wren by Godfrey
Kneller, 1711, NPG 113. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Wren_by_Godfrey_Kneller_1
711.jpg

[2] Taken from the gallery of the Tate
Modern. That's the Millennium
Footbridge stretching over the Thames
at the bottom right. The old cathedral
is quite difficult to see from ground
level, because the postwar construction
on this valuable land obstructs the
vista and hems in the grand building on
every side. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Pauls_From_the_South.JPG
289 YBN
[1711 AD] 5 6 		2329)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Hooke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
2. ^ "Robert Hooke". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/tuning+fork?cat=t
echnology
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/tuning+fork?cat=t
echnology
5. ^ "Robert Hooke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology (1711)
6. ^ "Robert Hooke". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology (1711)

MORE INFO
[1] "tuning fork". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3785/tuning-fork
[2] "Tuning fork". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuning_fork

England4 (presumably) 
[1] Tuning fork by John Walker showing
note (E) and frequency in hertz (659);
picture taken by me and released into
the public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:TuningFork659Hz.jpg
288 YBN
[1712 AD] 7 		1860) Flamsteed was obliged to turn his
data over to the Royal Society, of
which Newton was president.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
2. ^ "John
Flamsteed". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
3. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
4. ^ "John Flamsteed". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
5. ^ "John Flamsteed". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
6. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
7. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed (1712)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Flamsteed". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Flamst
eed
Greenwich, England6  
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
288 YBN
[1712 AD] 21 		1889) Newcomen is a blacksmith.17
Newcom
en may have consulted with Hooke on the
operation of vacuums.18
In 1698
Newcomen goes into partnership with
Savory who had already built the first
steam engine and held comprehensive
patents.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162.
2. ^ "Thomas
Newcomen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5578/Thomas-Newcomen
3. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5578/Thomas-Newcomen
4. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas%20Newcomen

5. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas%20Newcomen

6. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5578/Thomas-Newcomen
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Thomas Newcomen".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas%20Newcomen

9. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas%20Newcomen

10. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas%20Newcomen

11. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5578/Thomas-Newcomen
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162.
13. ^ "Thomas
Newcomen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newc
omen
14. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newc
omen
15. ^ "Thomas Newcomen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newc
omen
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p162.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162.
20. ^ "Thomas
Newcomen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5578/Thomas-Newcomen
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p162. (1712) (1712)

MORE INFO
[1] "Newcomen steam engine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcomen_st
eam_engine
Dudley Castle, Staffordshire, England20
 
[1] Il disegno rappresenta il principio
di funzionamento della macchina
realizzata da Newcomen nel 1712 PD
source: http://www.racine.ra.it/ungarett
i/SeT/macvapor/wattbiog.htm

[2] Newcomen engine from Practical
physics for secondary schools.
Fundamental principles and applications
to daily life, publ. 1913 by Macmillan
and Company, p. 219 A full version of
the book can be found at
http://www.archive.org/details/practical
physics00blacrich, including
high-resultion colour scans (300 dpi)
of every page
(ftp://ia310940.us.archive.org/1/items/p
racticalphysics00blacrich). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Newcomen6325.png
287 YBN
[1713 AD] 3 		1751)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
2. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray
3. ^ "John Ray". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2815/John-Ray (1713)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John Ray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray
[3]
http://www.answers.com/John+Ray?cat=heal
th
?, England2  
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
287 YBN
[1713 AD] 4 		1850) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727)1
publishes a second edition of
"Principia" in which he fires volleys
at the philosophies of Leibniz and
Descartes in the "General Scholium" he
adds to the second edition.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
2. ^ "Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
4. ^ "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology (1713)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[8]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[9] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[10]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[11]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[12]
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
[13] "Ismael Bullialdus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
[15]
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
[16] "Newton's law of universal
gravitation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_
law_of_universal_gravitation
[17]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7wkAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA141&lpg=RA1-PA141&dq=aris
totle+gravity+levity&source=web&ots=uMyd
iEAeSU&sig=7Jj8rcY4QjtyJC6olR_uyAt2KAE#P
RA1-PA141,M1
[18]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7wkAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA136&dq=aristotle+physics+
gravity+levity&as_brr=1
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
286 YBN
[1714 AD] 25 		1925) Fahrenheit is the son of a
wealthy merchant.18
Fahrenheit moves to
Amsterdam from his native Danzig (now
Gdańsk in Poland) to become a
glass blower and instrument maker.19
Alc
ohol alone boils at too low a
temperature to allow high temperatures
to be measured.20
Alcohol and water
change volume with changing temperature
too unevenly.21
In 1724 Fahrenheit's
report on his thermometer earns him
election to the Royal Society.22

Galileo had invented the thermometer in
about 1600, using changes in air volume
as an indicator. Since the volume of
air also varies considerably with
changes in atmospheric pressure,
liquids of various kinds were quickly
substituted. Using mercury Fahrenheit
fixes his zero point by using the
freezing point of a mixture of ice and
salt as this gives him the lowest
temperature he can reach. Fahrenheit's
other fixed point is taken from the
temperature of the human body, which he
puts at 96°. Given these two fixed
points the freezing and boiling points
of water then work out at the familiar
32° and 212°.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Daniel
Gabriel Fahrenheit". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3562/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
6. ^ "Daniel
Gabriel Fahrenheit". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3562/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
8. ^ "Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3562/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
13. ^ "Gabriel
Fahrenheit". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
14. ^ "Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
15. ^ "Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
19. ^ "Gabriel
Fahrenheit". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
23. ^ "Gabriel
Fahrenheit". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
24. ^ "Gabriel Fahrenheit". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168. (1714)
(1714)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fah
renheit
Amsterdam, Netherlands24
(presumably) 
[1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -
1736) PD
source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz
ig-online/sl.html

[2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai
1686 in Danzig, † 16. September 1736
in Den Haag) PD
source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e
rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php
285 YBN
[1715 AD] 5 		5941) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist1 , composes "Suite in E minor
for Lautenwerk", (BWV 996).2

The Lautenwerk (also called
Lautenclavecin, Lauten-Clavicymbel, and
Lautenclavier) is the German term for a
lute-harpsichord. This is a keyboard
instrument with gut, rather than steel,
strings, which are plucked by a quill.
Bach owned two harpsichords at the time
of his death, according to an inventory
of his belongings, though neither has
survived. The Lautenwerk was played
like the harpsichord, though with a
softer sound because of the gut
strings. The instrument was also known
in France (‘clavecin-luth’) and
Italy (‘arpicordo leutato’), but
most popular in Germany. Even so, the
instrument was relatively rare, even in
the Baroque, compared to the standard
harpsichord.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/lautenwerk.html
3. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/lautenwerk.html
4. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
5. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/lautenwerk.html {c1715}
(the ducal court) Weimar, Germany4
 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
284 YBN
[1716 AD] 4 		5931) François Couperin (CE
1668-1733), French composer publishes
"L′art de toucher le clavecin" ("The
Art of Playing the Harpsichord", 1716)
which is the most valuable instrumental
treatise of its time. Couperin starts
composing for harpsichord starting in
1713.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "François Couperin." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-co
uperin
2. ^ "François Couperin." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-co
uperin
3. ^ "François Couperin." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-co
uperin
4. ^ "François Couperin." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-co
uperin {1716}
(Saint Gervais Cathedral) Paris,
France3 (presumably) 
[1] Description François Couperin
(1668-1733), composer Date 18th
Century (c. 1730) Source Château
de Versailles Author Oil on
Canvas, Anonymous
artist Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain Other versions
Image:Fcouperin.jpg - source:
http://www.editions-classique.com/
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Francois_Couperin_2.j
pg
284 YBN
[1716 AD] 5 		5939)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata147.html
3. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata147.html
4. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata147.html
5. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/cantatas/can
tata147.html {1716}
Weimar, Germany4  
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
284 YBN
[1716 AD] 5 		5940)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^ Peter Williams, "BWV565: A toccata
in D minor for Organ by J.S.Bach?",
Early Music (1981) 9(3): 330-337
doi:10.1093/earlyj/9.3.330
http://em.oxfordjournals.org/citmgr?gc
a=earlyj;9/3/330 {William_Peter_1981xxx
x.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
5. ^ Peter Williams, "BWV565: A toccata
in D minor for Organ by J.S.Bach?",
Early Music (1981) 9(3): 330-337
doi:10.1093/earlyj/9.3.330
http://em.oxfordjournals.org/citmgr?gc
a=earlyj;9/3/330 {William_Peter_1981xxx
x.pdf} {1716}
(the ducal court) Weimar, Germany4
 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
283 YBN
[1717 AD] 24 		1944) François Marie Arouet
(Voltaire), (CE 1694-1778) 1 is at
first exiled and then imprisoned in the
Bastille for writing offensive verses.2


Voltaire has a mistress named Émilie
Du Châtelet.3
Voltaire maintains a
long correspondence with Crown Prince
Frederick of Prussia (later Frederick
II)4 and exchanged letters with
Catherine II of Russia.5
Over the
course of his life Voltaire writes 28
tragedies on a variety of subjects.6
Vol
taire is a prolific writer, and
produces works in almost every literary
form, authoring plays, poetry, novels,
essays, historical and scientific
works, over 20,000 letters and over two
thousand books and pamphlets.7
Voltaire
became wealthy through wise
investment.8
In 1758, Voltaire buys a
property on the Swiss border in order
to safeguard himself against attacks by
police from either country.9

A Voltaire quote is "Divorce is
probably of nearly the same date as
marriage. I believe, however, that
marriage is some weeks the more
ancient."10

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote to his
father the year of Voltaire's death,
saying, "The arch-scoundrel Voltaire
has finally kicked the bucket....".11
12

At his estate at Ferney, Voltaire
renovates the church and has "Deo
erexit Voltaire" ("Voltaire erected
this to God") carved on the facade.13

Voltaire uses the word "l'infâme" (the
infamous thing14 ) to designate the
church, especially when the church is
identified with intolerance.15

Voltaire never ceased to acknowledge a
degree of genius in Shakespeare, yet
spoke of Shakespeare as "a drunken
savage."16

According to the Columbia Encyclopedia
Voltaire opposes the atheism and
materialism of Helvétius and Holbach,
and states "If God did not exist, he
would have to be invented," (which in
my opinion is wrong, there is no need
for the existence of any dieties17 ).18


Voltaire writes between fifty and sixty
plays, including a few unfinished
ones.19
Voltaire writes numerous
histories:
* History of Charles XII, King of
Sweden (1731)
* The Age of Louis XIV
(1752)
* The Age of Louis XV (1746 -
1752)
* Annals of the Empire -
Charlemagne, A.D. 742 - Henry VII 1313,
Vol. I (1754)
* Annals of the Empire -
Louis of Bavaria, 1315 to Ferdinand II
1631 Vol. II (1754)20
* Essai sur
l'histoire générale et sur les mœurs
et l'esprit des nations (7 vol., 1756;
tr. 1759)21
* History of the
Russian Empire Under Peter the Great
(Vol. I 1759; Vol. II 1763)22

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp172-173.
2. ^ "Voltaire".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
3. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
4. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
5. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
6. ^ "Voltaire". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
7. ^ "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
8. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
9. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
10. ^ "Voltaire". Quotations.
Quotations Book, 2008. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
11. ^ "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
12. ^ Keffe, Simon P. (2003). The
Cambridge Companion to Mozart.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0521001927.
13. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
14. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
15. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
16. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Voltaire". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
19. ^ "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
20. ^ "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
21. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
22. ^ "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
23. ^ "Voltaire". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
24. ^ "Voltaire". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire (1717)
Paris, France23  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
283 YBN
[1717 AD] 4 		5946) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist1 , composes "Cello Suite No. 1
in G major" (BWV 1007).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^ "Cello Suites (Bach)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_Suite
s_(Bach)
3. ^ "Cello Suites (Bach)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_Suite
s_(Bach)
4. ^ "Cello Suites (Bach)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_Suite
s_(Bach) {c1717 (verify}
Cöthen, Germany3 (verify) 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
283 YBN
[1717 AD] 4 		5951)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "George Frideric Handel." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-frid
eric-handel
2. ^ "George Frideric Handel." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-frid
eric-handel
3. ^ "George Frideric Handel." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-frid
eric-handel
4. ^ "George Frideric Handel." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-frid
eric-handel {1717}
(River Thames) London, England3  
[1] Georg Friedrich Händel. Gemälde
von Thomas Hudson (1749) Source:
http://xoomer.virgilio.it/senesino/Dei/H
andel_wow.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%
A4ndel.jpg

[2] Description Retrato de
GFHandel Date ? Source
http://www.handelhouse.org/handel2009
/handel2009images/Handel%20Mercier%20cro
pped%20web.jpg Author Mercier
(?1689 / 1691 - 18 July 1760) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Retrato_de_Handel.jpg

282 YBN
[1718 AD] 12 		1846) Theory that Universe is mostly
made of empty space and that light
moves in a straight line.3

These new views are added as extra
Queries in the last part of the second
edition of Newton's "Opticks".4

Isaac Newton rejects the theory of
light as a motion through a medium in
favor of a universe mostly made of
empty space5 and supports the theory
that light moves in a straight line6 .

Rejecting the idea that light is a
motion Newton writes: "Are not all
Hypotheses erroneous, in which Light is
supposed to consist in Pression or
Motion, propagated through a fluid
Medium?". In support of the Universe
being mostly empty space Newton
writes:
"Mr. Boyle has shew'd that Air may be
rarified above ten thousand times in
Vessels of Glass; and the Heavens are
much emptier of Air than any Vacuum we
can make below.". Newton expresses
doubts about the existance of an aether
in writing: "And for rejecting such a
Medium, we have the Authority of those
the oldest and most celebrated
Philosophers of Greece and Phoenicia,
who made a Vacuum, and Atoms, and the
Gravity of Atoms, the first Principles
of their Philosophy". Newton supports
the theory that light moves in a
straight line writing "...if it {Light}
consisted in Pression or Motion,
propagated either in an instant or in
time, it would bend into the Shadow.
For Pression or Motion cannot be
propagated in a Fluid in right
Lines...but will bend and spread every
way into the ...medium which lies
beyond the Obstacle....The Waves,
Pulses or Vibrations of the Air,
wherein Sounds consist bend...For a
bell or a Cannon may be heard beyond a
Hill which intercepts the sight of the
sounding Body...But Light is never
known to ...bend into the Shadow.".7



Query 4 implies that reflection,
refraction and inflection (diffraction)
are all controlled by one principle.8

Query 5 reveals that Newton accepts the
view of heat as motion.

Newton does not recognize that all
matter may be made of particles of
light, but does theorize in Query 30
that bodies and Light may be
convertible into one another9 .10
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
2. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
5. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
7. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
8. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
9. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
Treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light.", The Second Edition, with
Additions (London:
1718). http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
12. ^ Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[8]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[9] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[10]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[11]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[12]
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
[13] "Ismael Bullialdus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
[15]
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
[16] Home, R.W. (1988). "Leonhard
Euler's 'Anti-Newtonian' Theory of
Light". Annals of Science 45 (5):
521-533.
(euler_antiNewton_light_1988_annals_of_s
cience.pdf)
[17] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
(publishes: 1704) (publishes: 1704)
[18] "Sir
Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (publishes: 1704)
Cambridge, England11
(presumably) 
[1] The first, 1704, edition of Opticks
or a treatise of the reflections,
refractions, inflections and colours of
light PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Opticks.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
282 YBN
[1718 AD] 13 		1899) De Moivre is the son of a
surgeon.4
A French Huguenot, de Moivre
is jailed as a Protestant upon the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes by
Louis XIV5 in 1685.6 When de Moivre
is released shortly thereafter, he
flees to England.7
De Moivre is one of
the people France loses to other more
tolerant nations.8
In London, De Moivre
becomes close friends with Halley and
Newton.9
In 1697 De Moivre is elected
to the Royal Society.10
(De Moivre
founds analytical trigonometry, just as
Descartes converts geometry to
algebraic formulas, so does De Moivres
for trigonometry. t: i don't
understand, he graphically displays
trigonmetry?]11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp163-164.
2. ^ "Abraham de
Moivre". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
3. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp163-164.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp163-164.
6. ^ "Abraham de
Moivre". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
7. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp163-164.
9. ^ "Abraham de
Moivre". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp163-164.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp163-164.
12. ^ "Abraham de
Moivre". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
13. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre (1718)

MORE INFO
[1] "Abraham De Moivre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_De_
Moivre
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+De+Moivre
?cat=technology
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Abraham de Moivre from
fr:Wikipedia24 jul 2004 à 19:41 . .
Kelson (40834 octets) source:
http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histst
at/people/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_de_moivre.jpg
281 YBN
[1719 AD] 4 		5948)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/brandenberg_intro.html
3. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/brandenberg_intro.html
4. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/brandenberg_intro.html {c1719
(collected}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
(court of Prince Leopold) Cöthen,
Germany and (church of St. Thomas)
Leipzig, Germany3  
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
280 YBN
[1720 AD] 10 11 		1917) Réaumur is commissioned by Louis
XIV (1710) to compile a report on the
industry and arts of France, which is
published as the "Description des arts
et métiers" ("Description of the Arts
and Skilled Trades").7
In 1708 Réaumur
is admitted to the French Academy of
Sciences.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
2. ^ "René Antoine
Ferchault de Réaumur". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
3. ^ "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupola?cat=
health
5. ^ "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
7. ^ "René Antoine
Ferchault de Réaumur". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
8. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
9. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
10. ^ "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
(1720)
11. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y (1720)

MORE INFO
[1] "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_A
ntoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur
Paris, France9  
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg

[2] An early type of cupola The
molten iron is usually produced in a
cupola furnace. This is a vertical
cylindrical steel shell with a ''well''
at the bottom to collect the molten
metal. The inside can be made of
fire bricks, but is normally
constructed of steel, with a water
jacket for cooling and lined with clay.
The well at the bottom is lined with
sand and the furnace is charged through
a door at the top with pig iron or
scrap iron, coke and
limestone. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv
.ac.uk/Museum/OtherTrades/CraneFoundry/M
oulding.htm
280 YBN
[1720 AD] 14 		1958) Maclaurin is the son of a
minister.4
Maclaurin is raised by an
uncle, also a minister, after his
parents both die.5
Maclaurin is a child
prodigy and enters the University of
Glasgow at age 11.6
In 1715 Maclaurin
masters in mathematics (at age 17).7
In
1717 Maclaurin is a professor of
mathematics at Mariscal College,
Aberdeen (at age 19).8
In 1719
Maclaurin is elected to the Royal
Academy (at age 21) and meets Newton in
London.9
In 1742 Maclaurin writes in
defense of Newton's priority in forming
calculus against philosopher George
Berkeley.10
In 1745, when Jacobites
(supporters of the Stuart king James II
and his descendants) march on
Edinburgh, Maclaurin takes a prominent
part in preparing trenches and
barricades for the city's defense, but
when the Jacobites take Edinburgh,
Maclaurin flees to England.11



Colin Maclaurin
Encyclopædia Britannica Article

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born February 1698,
Kilmodan, Argyllshire, Scotland
died June 14,
1746, Edinburgh

Photograph:Maclaurin, engraving by S.
Freeman; in the British Museum
Maclaurin,
engraving by S. Freeman; in the British
Museum
Courtesy of the trustees of the British
Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.
Scottish mathematician who developed
and extended Sir Isaac Newton's work in
calculus, geometry, and gravitation.

A child prodigy, he entered the
University of Glasgow at age 11. At the
age of 19 he was elected a professor of
mathematics at Marischal College,
Aberdeen, and two years later he became
a fellow of the Royal Society of
London. At this time he became
acquainted with Newton. In his first
work, Geometrica Organica; Sive
Descriptio Linearum Curvarum
Universalis (1720; "Organic Geometry,
with the Description of the Universal
Linear Curves"), Maclaurin developed
several theorems similar to some in
Newton's Principia, introduced the
method of generating conic sections
(the circle, ellipse, hyperbola, and
parabola) that bears his name, and
showed that certain types of curves (of
the third and fourth degree) can be
described by the intersection of two
movable angles.

On the recommendation of Newton, he was
made a professor of mathematics at the
University of Edinburgh in 1725. In
1740 he shared, with the Swiss
mathematicians Leonhard Euler and
Daniel Bernoulli, the prize offered by
the French Academy of Sciences for an
essay on tides.

His two-volume Treatise of Fluxions
(1742), a defense of the Newtonian
method, was written in reply to
criticisms by Bishop George Berkeley of
England that Newton's calculus was
based on faulty reasoning. Apart from
providing a geometric framework for
Newton's method of fluxions, the
treatise is notable on several counts.
It contains solutions to a number of
geometric problems, shows that stable
figures for a homogeneous rotating
fluid mass are the ellipsoids of
revolution, and gives for the first
time the correct theory for
distinguishing between maxima and
minima in general (see calculus of
variations), pointing out the
importance of the distinction in the
theory of the multiple points of
curves. It also contains a detailed
discussion of infinite series,
including the special case of Taylor
series now named in his honour.

In 1745, when Jacobites (supporters of
the Stuart king James II and his
descendants) were marching on
Edinburgh, Maclaurin took a prominent
part in preparing trenches and
barricades for the city's defense. As
soon as the rebel army captured
Edinburgh, Maclaurin fled to England
until it was safe to return. The ordeal
of his escape ruined his health, and he
died at age 48.

Maclaurin's "Account of Sir Isaac
Newton's Philosophical Discoveries"
will be published posthumously, as will
be his "Treatise of Algebra" (1748).12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
2. ^ "Colin
Maclaurin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin
3. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
11. ^ "Colin
Maclaurin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin
12. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin
13. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Colin+Maclaurin?c
at=technology
14. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin (1720)

MORE INFO
[1] "Colin Maclaurin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Macla
urin
Aberdeen, Scotland13
(presumably) 
[1] Colin Maclaurin Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Colin_maclaurin.jpg

[2] Colin Maclaurin PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates67/opciones/sabia
s/Maclaurin/MacLaurin.htm
280 YBN
[1720 AD] 4 		5945) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist1 , composes "Partita No. 3"
(BWV 1006).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^ "Sonatas and partitas for solo
violin (Bach)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonatas_and
_partitas_for_solo_violin_%28Bach%29
3. ^ "Sonatas and partitas for solo
violin (Bach)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonatas_and
_partitas_for_solo_violin_%28Bach%29
4. ^ "Sonatas and partitas for solo
violin (Bach)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonatas_and
_partitas_for_solo_violin_%28Bach%29
{c1720 (verify}
(the ducal court) Weimar, Germany3
 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
279 YBN
[1721 AD] 3 		1223) Johann Sebastian Bach (March 21,
1685 - July 28, 1750) a prolific German
composer and organist, presents six
concertos, the "Brandenburg concertos"
(BWV 1046-1051) in 1721 but these are
probably composed earlier, and will
become very popular.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bach". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bach
2. ^ "Bach". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bach
3. ^ "Bach". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bach

MORE INFO
[1] "Brandenburg concertos".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburg
_concertos
Germany2  
[1] Young Johann Sebastian Bach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young_Bach2.jpg
279 YBN
[1721 AD] 3 		5929) Alessandro Scarlatti (CE
1660-1725), Italian composer, composes
the opera "La Griselda".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti
2. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti
3. ^ "Alessandro Scarlatti." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
scarlatti {1721}

MORE INFO
[1] "Western music."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
(Viceroy of Naples Court) Naples,
Italy2  
[1] The italian composer Alessandro
Scarlatti UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/Alessandro_Scarlatti.
jpg
279 YBN
[1721 AD] 4 		5947) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist1 , composes "Violin Concerto
No. 1 In A Minor" (BWV 1041).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.naxosdirect.com/title/8.55019
4
3. ^
http://www.naxosdirect.com/title/8.55019
4
4. ^
http://www.naxosdirect.com/title/8.55019
4 {c1721 (verify}
Cöthen, Germany3 (verify) 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
279 YBN
[1721 AD] 3 		5955)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.naxosdirect.com/title/8.55019
4
3. ^
http://www.naxosdirect.com/title/8.55019
4 {c1721 (verify}
Cöthen, Germany2 (verify) 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
278 YBN
[1722 AD] 3 		1934)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
2. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology (1722)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "James Bradley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
[3] "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey
[4] "Aberration of light". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_
of_light
Kew, England2  
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
278 YBN
[1722 AD] 5 		5944)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/clavier.html
3. ^ "clavier." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clavier
4. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/clavier.html
5. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/clavier.html {1722}
(the ducal court) Weimar, Germany4
 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
278 YBN
[1722 AD] 4 		5949)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/orch_suite_b_min.html
3. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
4. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach {c1722}
(church of St. Thomas) Leipzig,
Germany3  
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
278 YBN
[1722 AD] 4 		5950)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^
http://www.bach.org/bach101/instrumental
/3rd_suite_orch_bwv1068.html
3. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
4. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach {c1722}
(church of St. Thomas) Leipzig,
Germany3  
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
277 YBN
[1723 AD] 5 		3322) Maraldi is born in
Perinaldo/Nica, Italy, as a nephew of
G.D. Cassini.3
Jacques Philippe (or
Giacomo Filippo) Maraldi comes to Paris
in 1687 to assist his uncle at the
Paris Observatory and in geodesic
work.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/ma
raldi1.html
2. ^ Maraldi, G.F.: 1723, ‘Diverses
expériences d’optique,’ Histoires
de l’Academie des Sciences avec les
Mémoires de Mathématique et de
Physique, Paris, Amsterdam, 1730, pp.
157–200. {The pages appear different,
relevant text is p142-143. Kind of
bizarre - because its 1723 but not 1730
for 1723 is
pp111-143.} {Maraldi_Giacomo_Filippo_p1
11_143_vol3587m.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/ma
raldi1.html
4. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/ma
raldi1.html
5. ^ Maraldi, G.F.: 1723, ‘Diverses
expériences d’optique,’ Histoires
de l’Academie des Sciences avec les
Mémoires de Mathématique et de
Physique, Paris, Amsterdam, 1730, pp.
157–200. {The pages appear different,
relevant text is p142-143. Kind of
bizarre - because its 1723 but not 1730
for 1723 is
pp111-143.} {Maraldi_Giacomo_Filippo_p1
11_143_vol3587m.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Giacomo F. Maraldi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_F._
Maraldi
 
[1] Figures from Maraldi's
experiments PD/Corel
source: http://www.academie-sciences.fr/
archives/doc_anciens/hmvol3587_pdf/p111_
143_vol3587m.pdf

[2] Giacomo Filippo Maraldi
(1665-1729). PD/Corel
source: http://www.astroperinaldo.it/per
inaldo/GFMaraldi.jpg
276 YBN
[1724 AD] 3 		1881) Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle
(FonTneL) (CE 1657-1757) publishes "De
l'origine des fables" (1724; "Of the
Origin of Fables"), in which Fontenelle
supports the theory that similar fables
arise independently in several cultures
and also lightly addresses comparative
religion.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bernard Le Bovier sieur de
Fontenelle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4786/Bernard-Le-Bovier-sieur-de-Fontenel
le
2. ^ "Bernard Le Bovier sieur de
Fontenelle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4786/Bernard-Le-Bovier-sieur-de-Fontenel
le
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p160. (1724) (1724)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard le Bovier de
Fontenelle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_le_
Bovier_de_Fontenelle
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Bernard%20le%20Bo
vier%20de%20Fontenelle%20
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Louis Galloche (1670-1761),
Portrait de Fontenelle Source: scanned
myself Musée national du Château de
Versailles PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fontenelle_2.jpg

[2] BERNARD LE BOVIER DE FONTENELLE
(1657-1757) par Galloche (
Joconde) PD
source: http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/
image/joconde/0017/m502004_93de1208_p.jp
g
276 YBN
[1724 AD] 5 		1903)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
2. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
4. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165. (1724)
(1724)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Boerhaave".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Boe
rhaave
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
Leiden, Netherlands4
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Biology
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 17.3 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 31.7
x 22.8 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boerha
ave

[2] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Botany ; Chemistry Print Artist:
James Heath, 1757-1834 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Noel
Pruneau, 1751-ca. 1800 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14 x 8.8 cm /
Sheet: 30 x24 cm PD
source: %20Hermann
276 YBN
[1724 AD] 6 		1970) Daniel Bernoulli (BRnULE) (CE
1700-1782), Swiss mathematician 1
writes "Exercitationes quaedam
Mathematicae" on differential equations
and the physics of flowing water.2
This
book will win him a position at the
influential Academy of Sciences in St.
Petersburg, Russia.3

Daniel Bernoulli is the second son of
Johann Bernoulli, who first teaches him
mathematics.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp175-176.
2. ^ "Daniel
Bernoulli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
3. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
4. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
5. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Bernoulli?
cat=technology
6. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli (1723-1724)

MORE INFO
[1] "Daniel Bernoulli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bern
oulli
Italy?5  
[1] Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782) [Portrait by anonymous
painter, in Historisches Museum
Basel; from the frontispiece of Die
Werke von Daniel Bernoulli, Band 1,
Birkhaeuser Verlag] PD
source: http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/phi
sci/Gallery/D.bernoulli.html

[2] Daniel Bernoulli PD
source: http://www.benomics.org/about/21
/daniel-bernoulli-what-economics-owes-hi
m
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 21 		1861)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
2. ^ "John
Flamsteed". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp156-157.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington
7. ^ "John Flamsteed". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
8. ^ "John Flamsteed". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
9. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
10. ^ "Right ascension". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_ascen
sion
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/equatorial-
coordinate-system
12. ^ "John Flamsteed". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Flamsteed?ca
t=technology
13. ^ "Right ascension". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_ascen
sion
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "Equatorial coordinate
system". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_
coordinate_system
16. ^ "galactic coordinate".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5833/galactic-coordinate
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ "Right
ascension". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_ascen
sion
20. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed
21. ^ "John Flamsteed". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4483/John-Flamsteed (1725)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Flamsteed". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Flamst
eed
London, England20 (presumably) 
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 5 		3604)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
2. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ W. Maigne, "Dictionnaire
classique des origines, inventions &
découvertes dans les arts, les
sciences, et les lettres, présentant
une exposition dommaire des grandes
conquétes du génie de l'homme:
ouvrage destiné aux gens du monde et
aux élèves des écoles", Larousse et
Boyer, 1864,
p614. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DOgIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA614&dq=basile+bouchon+
lyon&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KjLZSP_RKYXWsgOKouS
ZDg
5. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>. {1725}

MORE INFO
[1] "Basile Bouchon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basile_Bouc
hon
[2]
http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac.at/inde
x.php?id=315
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=vf8tAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA444&dq=basile+bouchon&as_brr=
1&ei=JjHZSLTaMYjutAP99KHeDg#PPA444,M1
Lyon, France4  
[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 3 		5933) Antonio (Lucio) Vivaldi (CE
1678-1741), Italian composer, composes
Mandolin Concerto (RV425).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-viv
aldi
2. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 12 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631387/Antonio-Vivaldi>.
3. ^ "Mandolin Concerto, RV425".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandolin_Co
ncerto,_RV425 {1725 (verify}
Venice, Italy2  
[1] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://www.baroquemusic.org/CGVi
valdi.jpg

[2] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/C1qnOkgmuDS._SL600_.jpg
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 4 		5934) The simplicity of Vivaldi's
funeral on July 28, 1741, suggests that
he dies in considerable poverty.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-viv
aldi
2. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 12 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631387/Antonio-Vivaldi>.
3. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 12 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631387/Antonio-Vivaldi>.
4. ^ "Antonio Vivaldi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-viv
aldi {c1725}

MORE INFO
[1] "Mandolin Concerto, RV425".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandolin_Co
ncerto,_RV425
Venice, Italy3  
[1] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://www.baroquemusic.org/CGVi
valdi.jpg

[2] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/C1qnOkgmuDS._SL600_.jpg
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 5 		5943)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
2. ^ Bach-Jahrbuch 1978, p. 54.
3. ^
"Minuet in G major (BWV Anh. 114)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minuet_in_G
_major_(BWV_Anh._114)
4. ^ "Johann Sebastian Bach." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-seba
stian-bach
5. ^ "Minuet in G major (BWV Anh.
114)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minuet_in_G
_major_(BWV_Anh._114) {c1725 (age of
notebook) (verify}
(Saint Thomas Church) Leipzig, Germany4
 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg
274 YBN
[1726 AD] 5 		1945) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) is
assaulted by people hired by, a young
nobleman, the chevalier de Rohan, who
resented witty writings made at Rohan's
expense by Voltaire. Far from obtaining
justice, Voltaire is then imprisoned in
the Bastille through the influence of
the powerful Rohan family, and is
released only upon his promise to go to
England.1
During the more than two
years (1726-28) in England, Voltaire
meet many literary people of the period
through his friend Lord Bolingbroke.2
Voltaire is impressed by the greater
freedom of thought in England and is
deeply influenced by Newton and Locke.3


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
2. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
3. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
4. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
5. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire (1726)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
[3] "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
Paris, France4  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
274 YBN
[1726 AD] 7 		3381) In 1703 Hales earns a masters
degree in theology from Cambridge.4
In
1753 Hales is elected a foreign member
of French Academy.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
2. ^ William
Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A
Practical Treatise on the Internal
Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
3. ^ "coal gas." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
02 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
oal gas>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p165.
6. ^ "Stephen
Hales". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
7. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1726}

MORE INFO
[1] "Stephen Hales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hal
es
[2]
http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/r
arebooks/title.asp?relation=QK711H341727
 (Vegtable Staticks)
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165. (1727) (1727)
[4]
"Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales (1727)
Teddington, England6
(presumably) 
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
273 YBN
[1727 AD] 19 20 		1909) This work will be republished in
1733 as volume 1 of Hales' "Statical
Essays".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
2. ^ "Stephen Hales".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
3. ^ "Stephen Hales". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
5. ^ "Stephen Hales".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
6. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Stephen Hales". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
10. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
11. ^ "Stephen Hales". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p165.
15. ^ "Stephen
Hales". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
17. ^ "Stephen
Hales". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
18. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165. (1727) (1727)
20. ^
"Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales (1727)

MORE INFO
[1] "Stephen Hales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hal
es
[2]
http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/r
arebooks/title.asp?relation=QK711H341727
 (Vegtable Staticks)
Cambridge, England18  
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
273 YBN
[1727 AD] 28 		1991) (Over the course of his
lifetime:8 )

1768 Euler publishes a very successful
popularization of science (science
history?9 ).10
Euler publishes no less
than 856 separate works.11
Euler's
collected works are more than seventy
volumes.12
Euler began replacing
geometric proofs with algebraic
proofs.13
Euler is one of the first to
develop the methods of the calculus on
a wide scale.14
Euler is credited with
being the first to use the Greek letter
Sigma for summation.15
In 1739 Euler
writes the "Tentamen novae theoriae
musicae", hoping to eventually
integrate musical theory as part of
mathematics.16
In 1741 Euler accepts
the invitation of Frederick II of
Prussia to join the newly reorganized
Berlin Academy of Sciences. Euler
spends twenty-five years in Berlin,
during which time Euler is closely
associated with the academy's
president, Pierre-Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis (1698-1759).17
During this
time in the "Republic of Letters",
Euler participates in several
controversies including a dispute on
the monads of Leibniz, which Euler
vehemently opposes and a controversy
about Maupertuis's "Principle of Least
Action," in which Euler supports his
colleague Maupertuis against Johann
Samuel König and Voltaire.18
Maupertuis
's dies in 1759 and Euler becomes the
de facto leader and administrator of
the Berlin Academy, but without the
official title of president.19
Euler's
strained relations with Frederick II
lead Euler to accept an invitation from
Catherine the Great to rejoin the In
"Rettung der Göttlichen Offenbahrung
Gegen die Einwürfe der Freygeister"
("Defense of the Divine Revelation
against the Objections of the
Freethinkers") is primarily an argument
for the divine inspiration of
scripture, which presents Euler as a
staunch Christian and a biblical
literalist.20 21
De Morgan relates a
story about Czarina (Elizabeth22 )
being displeased with the antireligious
views of Denis Diderot, and persuading
Euler to help her in suppressing
Diderot. Diderot is informed that a
learned mathematician has an algebraic
demonstration of the existence of a
deity and would like to give this proof
to Diderot before the Court, to which
Diderot agrees. Euler advanced towards
Diderot and states "Monsier, a+bn/n=x,
donc Dieu existe; respondez!", De
Morgan writes that Diderot does not
understand algebra, and is embarrassed
while laughter arises on all sides.
According to De Morgan Diderot then
asks permission to return to France
which is granted.23 However amusing
the anecdote may be, it is almost
certainly false, given that Diderot was
actually a capable mathematician who
had published mathematical treatises.24
 (I find this story to be very biased
in favor of belief in a Deity. In
addition, no math equation proves the
existence of a Deity. It is amazing
that there appears to be a universe
that may have no end in size,
magnification or microfication, but
that does not equal evidence of a
Deity, simply that there is an awesome
and incomprehensible universe, there is
no need or evidence for a Deity. We can
be in deep respect and awe of the
universe without any Deities, and in
particular in the form of a human,
knowing the history of the traditional
beliefs of Deities who lived in the
clouds of an earth-centered universe,
and then monotheism, etc.25 )
St.
Petersburg Academy which Euler does in
1766 remaining there until his death in
1783.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
3. ^ "E
(mathematical constant)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
4. ^ "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
5. ^ ^ O'Connor, J.J., and Roberson,
E.F.; The MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive: "The number e";
University of St Andrews Scotland
(2001)
6. ^ "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
7. ^ "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
11. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
12. ^ "Leonhard Euler". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
14. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
15. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
16. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
17. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
18. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
19. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
20. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
21. ^ "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ History of Mathematics,
D. E. Smith, pp522-523.
24. ^ "Leonhard Euler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Leonhard Euler".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
27. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
28. ^ "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29 (1727) (1727)

MORE INFO
[1] "Contributions of Leonhard
Euler to mathematics". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributio
ns_of_Leonhard_Euler_to_mathematics
[2] Home, R.W. (1988). "Leonhard
Euler's 'Anti-Newtonian' Theory of
Light". Annals of Science 45 (5):
521-533.
(euler_antiNewton_light_1988_annals_of_s
cience.pdf)
Saint Petersburg, Russia27
(presumably) 
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
273 YBN
[1727 AD] 10 		2620)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^, p390.
http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02
608259&id=N0QOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR9#PPR10,M1
2. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, Berman and
Evans, 1986, p43.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Alexander Pope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0837/Alexander-Pope
10. ^
http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/le
cture7a.html (1727)
London, England9 (presumably)  
272 YBN
[08/??/1728 AD] 15 		1913) In 17244 , Bering is appointed by
Peter I (the Great)5 , Tsar of Russia,
to determine whether Asia and North
America are connected by land.6 Peter
the Great, who is modernizing Russia,
wants Russia's vast new holdings in
Siberia mapped.7 The Russian leaders
are interested in both colonial
expansion in North America and in
finding a northeast passage, that is a
sea route to China around Siberia.8
In
1648 a Russian, Semyon Dezhnyov, had
sailed through the Bering Strait, but
his report went unnoticed until 1736.9


Bering leads the expedition over 6,000
miles of wilderness and reaches Okhotsk
on the Pacific coast on September 30,
1726, nineteen months after leaving St.
Petersburg. The group then builds ships
and sails to the Kamchatka Peninsula.
The ship Gabriel is built (on the
Kamchatka Peninsula10 ), and on July
14, 1728, Bering begins his first
exploration. The Gabriel sails
northward, rounding East Cape on August
14. Since the Asiatic coast trends
westward and no land appears to the
north, Bering decides that he has
fulfilled his mission11 , correctly
concluding that Siberia and America are
not joined12 ; Bering then turns back
at latitude 67° 18' to avoid wintering
on a desolate and unknown shore. The
expedition spends the winter at
Kamchatka, where Bering sees numerous
signs indicating land to the east. But
bad weather during the following summer
frustrates his attempts to locate this
land, and the expedition returns to St.
Petersburg in March 1730.13

The Bering Strait and Bering Sea are
named after Vitus Bering.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp165-166.
2. ^ "Vitus Jonassen
Bering". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp165-166.
4. ^ "Vitus Bering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8773/Vitus-Bering
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp165-166.
6. ^ "Vitus Bering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8773/Vitus-Bering
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp165-166.
8. ^ "Vitus Bering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8773/Vitus-Bering
9. ^ "Vitus Bering". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8773/Vitus-Bering
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Vitus Jonassen
Bering". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering
12. ^ "Vitus Bering". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8773/Vitus-Bering
13. ^ "Vitus Jonassen Bering".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp165-166.
15. ^ "Vitus Bering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8773/Vitus-Bering (August 1728 (passes
through Straight)

MORE INFO
[1] "Vitus Jonassen Bering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitus_Jonas
sen_Bering
[2] "Bering Strait". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Stra
it
[3] "Great Northern Expedition".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_North
ern_Expedition
Bering Straight 
[1] Ölgemälde eines unbekannten
Meisters, Mitte 18. Jahrhundert. Das
Bild wurde lange Zeit für ein Portrait
des dänischen Marineoffiziers und
Entdeckers in russischen Diensten Vitus
Jonassen Bering (1680-1741) gehalten.
Nach einer Exhumierung Berings im Jahr
1991 und einer anschließenden
forensischen Untersuchung wird dies
heute angezweifelt. Wahrscheinlicher
ist, daß es sich bei dem Dargestellten
um den dänischen Schriftsteller Vitus
Pedersen Bering († 1675), einen Onkel
des Entdeckers, handelt. Literatur:
Svend E. Albrethsen, Vitus Bering's
second Kamchatka expedition - the
journey to America and archaeological
excavations on Bering Island, in: N.
Kingo Jacobsen (Hrsg.), Vitus Bering
1741-1991, København 1993, ISBN
87-7421-807-7, S. 66-96. * Größe
des Originals: 35 x 30 cm *
Derzeitiger Standort: St. Petersburg,
Marinemuseum PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Vitus_Bering.jpg

[2] English: Bering strait, image
taken by MISR sattelite. With the
Seward Peninsula of Alaska to the east,
and Chukotskiy Poluostrovof Siberia to
the west, the Bering Strait separates
the United States and the Russian
Federation by only 90 kilometers. It is
named for Danish explorer Vitus Bering,
who spotted the Alaskan mainland in
1741 while leading anexpedition of
Russian sailors. This view of the
region was captured by MISR's
vertical-viewing (nadir) camera on
August 18, 2000 during Terra orbit
3562. The boundary between the US
and Russia lies between Big and Little
Diomede Islands, which are visible in
the middle of the Bering Strait. The
Artic Circle, at 66.5 degrees north
latitude, runs through the Arctic Ocean
in the top part of this image. This
circle marks the southernmost latitude
for which the Sun does not rise above
the horizon on the day of the winter
solstice. At the bottom of this image
is St. Lawrence Island. Situated in the
Bering Sea, it is part of Alaska and
home to Yupik Eskimos. MISR was
built and is managed by NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA,
for NASA's Office of Earth Science,
Washington, DC. The Terra satellite is
managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight
Center, Greenbelt, MD. JPL is a
division of the California Institute of
Technology. For more information:
http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov Español:
Estrecho de Bering Source *
PIA02638.tif from
http://www.visibleearth.nasa.gov/cgi-bin
/viewrecord?7049 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bering_Strait.jpeg
272 YBN
[1728 AD] 2 		1202) Daniel Defoe writes "Is it not
enough to make any one mad to be
suddenly clap'd up, stripp'd, whipp'd,
ill fed, and worse us'd?" against
"treatments" given with no consent in
psychitric hospitals.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
  
271 YBN
[01/??/1729 AD] 31 32 33 34 		1931) In 1717 Bradley earns his Masters
degree from Oxford.25
Bradley is
friends with Newton and Halley.26
In
1718 Bradley is elected to the Royal
Society.27
In 1742 on the death of
Halley, Bradley is appointed third
astronomer royal.28

Bradley announces this finding in
(Phil. Trans. xxxv. 637).29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Bradley, "A Letter from the
Reverend Mr. James Bradley Savilian
Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, and
F.R.S. to Dr.Edmond Halley Astronom.
Reg. &c. Giving an Account of a New
Discovered Motion of the Fix'd Stars.",
Phil. Trans. 1727 35:637-661;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1727.0064 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/35/39
9-406/637.full.pdf+html free: http://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ&pg
=PA262&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte
r%22#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.%20B%20considered
%20this%20matter%22&f=false
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
4. ^ "James
Bradley". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "James Bradley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
8. ^ "James Bradley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
9. ^ "James Bradley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "James Bradley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
12. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
13. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
14. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
16. ^ "James
Bradley". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
17. ^ James Bradley, "A Letter from the
Reverend Mr. James Bradley Savilian
Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, and
F.R.S. to Dr.Edmond Halley Astronom.
Reg. &c. Giving an Account of a New
Discovered Motion of the Fix'd Stars.",
Phil. Trans. 1727 35:637-661;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1727.0064 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/35/39
9-406/637.full.pdf+html free: http://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ&pg
=PA262&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte
r%22#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.%20B%20considered
%20this%20matter%22&f=false
18. ^ Swenson, "The Ethereal Aether",
1972, p23-24.
19. ^ George Stokes, "On the
Aberration of Light", Phil Mag, s3,
v27, July 1845,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=LVEwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:LCCN19004495&lr=#v=onepage&q=stoke
s&f=false and Stokes, "Mathematical
and Physical Papers", I , p134.
20. ^ George
Stokes, "On the Constitution of the
Luminiferous Aether Viewed with
Reference to the Phaenomenon of the
Aberration of Light", Phil Mag, s3,
v29, July 1846, p9-10.
21. ^ George Stokes,
"On the Constitution of the
Luminiferous Ether", Phil Mag, s3, v32,
May 1848,
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=5VYwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN19004495&lr=#v=onepage&q=st
okes&f=false
22. ^ Albert A. Michelson and Edward W.
Morley, "On the Relative Motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous Ether",
American Journal of Science, s3, v34,
Num 203,
11/1887. http://books.google.com/books?
id=0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=one
page&q=michelson&f=false
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
28. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
29. ^ "James
Bradley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey
30. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
31. ^ "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey (01/1729)
32. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology (1729)
33. ^ "James Bradley". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology (1728)
34. ^ James Bradley,
Edmond Halley, George Sarton,
"Discovery of the Aberration of Light",
Isis, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Nov., 1931), pp.
233-265 https://vpn.nacs.uci.edu/+CSCO+
dh756767633A2F2F6A6A6A2E77666762652E6265
74++/stable/224710?&Search=yes&term=aber
ration&term=light&list=hide&searchUri=%2
Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Daberra
tion%2Bof%2Blight%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=132&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle {Aberration_of_Light
_Sarton_ISIS_1931.pdf} {1729}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aberration of light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_
of_light
[2] K. D. Froome and L. Essen, "The
Velocity of Light and Radio Waves",
1969
Kew, England30  
[1] Figure from Bradley's paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?pg
=PA260&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte
r%22&id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.%
20B%20considered%20this%20matter%22&f=fa
lse

[2] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
271 YBN
[1729 AD] 13 		1884)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chester Moor Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8910/Chester-Moor-Hall
2. ^
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John Dollond".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Dollond?cat=
technology
9. ^ "Chester Moor Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8910/Chester-Moor-Hall
10. ^ "Chester Moor Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8910/Chester-Moor-Hall
11. ^, pp179-180.
12. ^ "Chester Moor Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8910/Chester-Moor-Hall
13. ^ "Chester Moor Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8910/Chester-Moor-Hall (1729)

MORE INFO
[1] "Chester Moore Hall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Moo
re_Hall
[2]
http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/sphaera/index.ht
m?issue8/articl5
[3] "Achromatic lens". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achromatic_
lens
?, England12  
[1] Diagram of an achromatic lens
(doublet). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Achromat_doublet_en.s
vg
271 YBN
[1729 AD] 11 12 		1957) Gray is the son of a dyer.6
In
London Gray assists Dr John
Desaguliers, one of the Royal Society'
demonstrators, who gives lectures
around the country (and on the
Continent) about new scientific
discoveries.7

In this position Gray is probably not
paid, but provided with a place to live
only.8 Gray falls into poverty and
through the efforts of John Flamsteed
and Sir Hans Sloane (later President of
the Royal Society) obtains a pensioned
position at the Charterhouse in London
(a home for destitute gentlemen who had
served their country). During this time
Gray begins experimenting again with
static electricity, using a glass-tube
as a friction generator.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p173.
2. ^
"electromagnetism#152023.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
98/electromagnetism#152023.hook
3. ^ "electromagnetism#152023.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
98/electromagnetism#152023.hook
4. ^ "Stephen Gray (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gra
y_%28scientist%29
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p173.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p173.
7. ^ "Stephen
Gray (scientist)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gra
y_%28scientist%29
8. ^ "Stephen Gray (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gra
y_%28scientist%29
9. ^ "Stephen Gray (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gra
y_%28scientist%29
10. ^ "Stephen Gray (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gra
y_%28scientist%29
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p173. (1729) (1729)
12. ^
"electromagnetism#152023.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
98/electromagnetism#152023.hook (1729)
London, England10  
[1] Picture of the month - Flying
boy Stephen Gray FRS Flying boy The
above image depicts the famous ''flying
boy'' experiment carried out by Stephen
Gray in the early 18th century. The
experiment was used to demonstrate
electrical polarity in suspended
objects. The boy was suspended on silk
cords and charged with electricity,
which attracted paper and other light
objects to his hands. Gray's work was
very important in the understanding of
the role played by conductors and
insulators in electricity for which he
was awarded the Society's first Copley
Medal in 1731. PD
source: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.a
sp?id=6276

[2] Stephen Gray découvre la
conduction (Les Merveilles de la
Science, Louis Figuier) PD
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/parcou
rspedagogique/agora/spip.php?article18
271 YBN
[1729 AD] 5 		1962)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer
2. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Bouguer+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Bouguer+?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer
5. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer (1729)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre Bouguer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Boug
uer
[3] "Heliometer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliometer
??, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Bouguer Born:
16-Feb-1698 Birthplace: Le Croisic,
France Died: 15-Aug-1758 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/065/0
00100762/
271 YBN
[1729 AD] 4 		5936)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean-Joseph Mouret." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-joseph
-mouret
2. ^ "Jean-Joseph Mouret." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-joseph
-mouret
3. ^
http://www.allmusic.com/artist/jean-jose
ph-mouret-q4371/biography
4. ^ "Jean-Joseph Mouret." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-joseph
-mouret {1729}
(New Italian Theatre) Paris, France2 3
(presumably) 
[1] Claimed to be Jean-Joseph Mouret
but not by established historical
source (verify accuracy).[t]
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/_/49319753/JeanJoseph+Mouret.jpg
270 YBN
[1730 AD] 7 		1205)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Sextant". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant
3. ^ "Sextant". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant
4. ^ "Sextant". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant
5. ^ "Sextant". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant
6. ^ "Sextant". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant
7. ^ "Sextant". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant
England6  
[1] Black-and-white image of a sextant.
Not detailed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sextant.gif

[2] Grand Turk, a replica of a
three-masted 6th rate frigate from
Nelson's days - sextant and logbook.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grand_Turk%2835%29.jpg
270 YBN
[1730 AD] 10 		1900)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
2. ^ "popup?va=integrand". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=i
ntegrand
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "popup?va=quadratic".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=q
uadratic
5. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
6. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
7. ^ "trigonometry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8709/trigonometry
8. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
9. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre
10. ^ "Abraham de Moivre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3210/Abraham-de-Moivre (1730)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Abraham De Moivre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_De_
Moivre
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+De+Moivre
?cat=technology
London, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Abraham de Moivre from
fr:Wikipedia24 jul 2004 à 19:41 . .
Kelson (40834 octets) source:
http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histst
at/people/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_de_moivre.jpg

[2] probability integral in which the
integrand is the exponential of a
negative quadratic, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9053210/Abraham-de-Moivre
270 YBN
[1730 AD] 22 23 24 25 		1941) Brandt is the son of an
apothecary.7
Brandt studies medicine
and chemistry under Boerhaave.8
In 1726
Brandt earns a medical degree but does
not practice.9
In 1727 Brandt is in
charge of Bureau of Mines at
Stockholm.10
In 1730 Brandt is made
assay master11 (warden) of the
Stockholm mint12 .
German miners named a
blue metal Kobold after an earth spirit
(roots in polytheism?13 ) they believed
had bewitched what they thought was
(also blue) copper ore.14
Brandt is
hired as professor of chemistry at the
University of Uppsala.15
Kolbolt had
been used to make a blue dye for a few
centuries.16
Brandt is one of the first
chemist to speak out against alchemical
fraud, dedicating his last years to
exposing fraudulent alchemical
processes for producing gold,17 such
as the trick of dissolving gold in
nitric acid and then precipitating the
gold out when the acid is cooled and
shaken.18 Asimov describes Brandy as
the first chemist to be completely free
of alchemical taint.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p172.
3. ^ "Georg
Brandt". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6222/Georg-Brandt
4. ^ "Georg Brandt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Georg Brandt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
6. ^ "Georg Brandt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6222/Georg-Brandt
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p172.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p172.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
12. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
15. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
17. ^ "Georg Brandt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6222/Georg-Brandt
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p172.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
21. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172. (1730) (1730)
23. ^
"Georg Brandt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6222/Georg-Brandt (1730)
24. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology (1735)
25. ^ "Georg Brandt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Brand
t (c1735)
Stockholm, Sweden20 21  
[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg

[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png
269 YBN
[1731 AD] 4 		1920)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
2. ^ "René Antoine
Ferchault de Réaumur". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
3. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
4. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y (1731)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
[2] "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_A
ntoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupola?cat=
health
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
269 YBN
[1731 AD] 9 		2035) Alexis Claude Clairaut (KlArO)
(CE 1713-1765), French mathematician 1
publishes "Recherches sur les courbes
à double courbes" at age 18.2

Clairaut is the son of a mathematics
teacher.3
By age ten Clairaut studies
L'Hôpital's work on conic sections and
two years later reads a paper to the
French Académie des sciences. 4

Clairaut collaborates with the Marquise
du Châtelet in her French translation
of Newton's "Principia".5

Clairaut is noted for his work on
differential equations and on curves
and for formulating Clairaut's theorem
dealing with geodesic lines on the
surface of an ellipsoid.6

Clairaut helps the development of
three-dimensional analytic geometry
around 1730, when Clairaut, and the
Swiss mathematicians Leonhard Euler and
Jakob Hermann produce general equations
for cylinders, cones, and surfaces of
revolution.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Alexis Claude
Clairaut". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
3. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
4. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
5. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
6. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
7. ^ "analytic geometry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235
547/analytic-geometry
8. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
9. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology (1731)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut
Paris, France8  
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
269 YBN
[1731 AD] 4 		2956)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p173.
2. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
3. ^ "Stephen Gray (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gra
y_%28scientist%29
4. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM (1731)

MORE INFO
[1]
"electromagnetism#152023.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
98/electromagnetism#152023.hook
London, England3  
[1] Picture of the month - Flying
boy Stephen Gray FRS Flying boy The
above image depicts the famous ''flying
boy'' experiment carried out by Stephen
Gray in the early 18th century. The
experiment was used to demonstrate
electrical polarity in suspended
objects. The boy was suspended on silk
cords and charged with electricity,
which attracted paper and other light
objects to his hands. Gray's work was
very important in the understanding of
the role played by conductors and
insulators in electricity for which he
was awarded the Society's first Copley
Medal in 1731. PD
source: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.a
sp?id=6276

[2] Stephen Gray d�couvre la
conduction (Les Merveilles de la
Science, Louis Figuier) PD
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/parcou
rspedagogique/agora/spip.php?article18
268 YBN
[06/27/1732 AD] 8 		2105) Interesting that the oldest
university in Europe2 3 would be the
first to hire a female professor.4
This shows a strong belief in gender
equality in Italy at an early time
relative to other nations.5
Bassi has
eight to twelve children.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Laura Bassi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Laura%20Bassi
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/university%20of%2
0bologna
3. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Laura Bassi".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Laura%20Bassi
7. ^ "Laura Bassi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Laura%20Bassi
8. ^ "Laura Bassi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Laura%20Bassi
(06/27/1732)
Bologna, Italy7  
[1] Laura Bassi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laura_bassi.jpg
268 YBN
[1732 AD] 4 5 		3595)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ Alexander Stuart, "Experiments to
Prove the Existence of a Fluid in the
Nerves.", Philosophical Transactions
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/34110j0h352537qk/?p=e33ac113f4d946618
3df8d9a0285f476π=56(1683-1775), v37,
1731/1732,
p327-331. {Stuart_Alexander_Nerves_17
32.pdf}
3. ^ Alexander Stuart, "Experiments to
Prove the Existence of a Fluid in the
Nerves.", Philosophical Transactions
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/34110j0h352537qk/?p=e33ac113f4d946618
3df8d9a0285f476π=56(1683-1775), v37,
1731/1732,
p327-331. {Stuart_Alexander_Nerves_17
32.pdf}
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1732}
5. ^
Alexander Stuart, "Experiments to Prove
the Existence of a Fluid in the
Nerves.", Philosophical Transactions
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/34110j0h352537qk/?p=e33ac113f4d946618
3df8d9a0285f476π=56(1683-1775), v37,
1731/1732,
p327-331. {Stuart_Alexander_Nerves_17
32.pdf}
London, England3 (presumably)  
267 YBN
[12/??/1733 AD] 17 		1965) Du Fay is the superintendent of
gardens for King Louis XV.13
Du Fay
never marries.14
Du Fay dies of
smallpox at age 40.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
2. ^ "Charles
François de Cisternay Du Fay". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A
7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
4. ^ "thermionic
power converter#45893.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050/thermionic-power-converter#45893.to
c
5. ^ "Charles François de Cisternay Du
Fay". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A
7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
6. ^
http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/07_timel
ine_world_1675_1780.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Charles François de
Cisternay Du Fay". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A
7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "thermionic power
converter#45893.toc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050/thermionic-power-converter#45893.to
c
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
16. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HT
M
17. ^ "C. F. du Fay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._du_Fa
y (12/1733)
Paris, France16  
[1] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 6 		1197)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "John Kay (flying shuttle)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kay_%2
8flying_shuttle%29
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blflyingshuttle.htm
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blflyingshuttle.htm
5. ^ "John Kay (flying shuttle)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kay_%2
8flying_shuttle%29
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blflyingshuttle.htm
England5  
[1] Flying shuttles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://inventors.about.com/libra
ry/inventors/blflyingshuttle.htm
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 21 		1901) In 1694 Saccheri is ordained a
priest.17
In 1697 Saccheri teaches
mathematics at the Jesuit College of
Pavia until death.18
Other books by
Saccheri are: Quaesita geometrica
(1693), Logica demonstrativa (1697),
and Neo-statica (1708).19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "geometry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
502/geometry
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p164.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p164.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ "Girolamo Saccheri". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Sa
ccheri
6. ^ "Girolamo Saccheri". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Sa
ccheri
7. ^ "geometry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
502/geometry
8. ^ "geometry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
502/geometry
9. ^ "Girolamo Saccheri". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Sa
ccheri
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ "Girolamo Saccheri".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Sa
ccheri
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "Girolamo Saccheri".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Sa
ccheri
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ "Girolamo
Saccheri". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Sa
ccheri
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p164.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p164.
19. ^ "Girolamo
Saccheri". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Sa
ccheri
20. ^ "geometry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
502/geometry
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p164. (1733) (1733)
Pavia, Italy20  
[1] Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri PD
source: http://www.science.unitn.it/~and
reatt/Confgeononeucl/Conferenza9.html

[2] Quadrilateral of Omar Khayyam PD
source: Ted Huntington based on
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
502/geometry image
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 13 		1910)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
2. ^ "Stephen Hales".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
5. ^ "Stephen Hales".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
6. ^ "Stephen Hales". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
8. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
9. ^ "Stephen Hales". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
10. ^ "Stephen Hales". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
11. ^ "Stephen Hales". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
12. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
13. ^ "Stephen Hales". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology (1733)

MORE INFO
[1] "Stephen Hales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hal
es
[2]
http://www.archive.org/details/philosoph
icalexp00halerich
Cambridge, England12  
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 3 		1933)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
2. ^ "James Bradley".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171. (1733)
(1733)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Bradley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
[2] "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey
[3] "Aberration of light". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_
of_light
Kew, England2  
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 6 		1943)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
2. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Georg Brandt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
5. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
6. ^ "Georg Brandt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology (1733)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Brandt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6222/Georg-Brandt
[2] "Georg Brandt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Brand
t
Stockholm, Sweden4 5
(presumably) 
[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg

[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 9 		1988) Dolland uses two different kinds
of glass which refract the various
colors of light (by different angles5
), and combines them so that the action
of one glass is counterbalanced by the
action of the other (needs to be more
specific6 ). This invention allows
larger refracting telescopes
(achromatic telescopes) to be usable.
These lens are also used in achromatic
microscopes. 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp179-180.
2. ^ "John Dollond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0836/John-Dollond
3. ^ Record ID1884. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "John
Dollond". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0836/John-Dollond
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp179-180.
8. ^ "John
Dollond". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0836/John-Dollond
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp179-180. (1733)
(1733)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dollond". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dollon
d
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Dollond?cat=
technology
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Dollond, John (1706 -
1761) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Posselwhite, 1798-1884
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.6 x 10.1 cm /
Sheet: 26.3 x 17.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 5 		5935) Georg Philipp Telemann (CE
1681-1767), German composer, composes
his "Musique de table" (1733).1

Telemann is by far the most famous
composer in Germany; in a contemporary
dictionary he is assigned four times as
much space as J. S. Bach.2 (Perhaps
the close-sounding association with
"Telephone"-man helped his popularity.3
)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georg Philipp Telemann." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-phili
pp-telemann
2. ^ "Georg Philipp Telemann." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-phili
pp-telemann
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Georg Philipp Telemann."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-phili
pp-telemann
5. ^ "Georg Philipp Telemann." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-phili
pp-telemann {1733}
(Hamburg Opera) Hamburg, Germany4
 
[1] Description Georg Philipp
Telemann (1681-1767), coloured aquatint
by Valentin Daniel Preisler after a
lost painting by Louis Michael
Schneider Date 1750 Source
Unknown collection Author
Valentin
Daniel Permission (Reusing this file)
Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Telemann_4.jpg
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 3 		5937) Jean-Philippe Rameau (CE
1683-1764), French composer and
theorist, composes his first opera
"Hippolyte et Aricie".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean-Philippe Rameau." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-philip
pe-rameau
2. ^ "Jean-Philippe Rameau." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-philip
pe-rameau
3. ^ "Jean-Philippe Rameau." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-philip
pe-rameau {1733}
(the Opéra) Paris, France2
(presumably) 
[1] Artist [show]Attributed to
Jacques Aved (1702–1766) Link back to
Creator infobox template Title
Français : Portrait de
Jean-Philippe
Rameau (1683–1764) Date
Français : 2e quart 18e
siècle ; Français : 3e quart 18e
siècle Medium Oil on
canvas Dimensions 117 × 83 cm
(46.06 × 32.68 in) Current location
Musée des Beaux-Arts de
Dijon Dijon http://www.haendel.it/
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Jean-Philippe_Rameau.
jpg
266 YBN
[1734 AD] 4 		1919)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
2. ^ "René Antoine
Ferchault de Réaumur". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
3. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
4. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y (1734)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
[2] "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_A
ntoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupola?cat=
health
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
266 YBN
[1734 AD] 5 		2073)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Emanuel Swedenborg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-702
1/Emanuel-Swedenborg
2. ^ "Emanuel Swedenborg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-702
1/Emanuel-Swedenborg
3. ^ "Emanuel Swedenborg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-702
1/Emanuel-Swedenborg
4. ^ "Emanuel Swedenborg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-702
1/Emanuel-Swedenborg
5. ^ "Emanuel Swedenborg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-702
1/Emanuel-Swedenborg (1734)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Emanuel%20Swedenb
org
[2] "Emanuel Swedenborg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel_Swe
denborg
Sweden4 (presumably) 
[1] * Emanuel Swedenborg at the age of
75, holding the soon to be published
manuscript of Apocalypsis Revelata
(1766). * Painting by Per Kraft.
Currently located at the Government
collection of paintings, w:Gripsholm,
Sweden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emanuel_Swedenborg_full_portrait.jpg
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 26 27 		1936) Harrison is a Yorkshire
mechanic.15
After 5 months at sea one
of Harrison's clock is off by less than
a minute.16
Harrison is the son of
carpenter.17
Harrison's fifth clock is
no bigger than a large watch.18
In 1598
Phillip II of Spain offered a similar
prize that went unclaimed.19
In 1707 a
British fleet miscalculates its
position and crashes into rocks off
Cornwall, so in 1713 the British
government offers a reward of £20,000
for an accurate ship's chronometer.20
Ha
rrison first became interested in the
problem of an accurate clock in 1728.21
22
In 1765 Harrison finally receives
£20,000 reward for an accurate ship's
chronometer.23
Harrison's chronometer
will be used in 1776 by James Cook on
his voyage to Australia and New
Zealand.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
4. ^ "John Harrison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
5. ^ "John Harrison". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
6. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
8. ^ "John Harrison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
10. ^ "John
Harrison". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
14. ^
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
21. ^ "John
Harrison". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
22. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
24. ^ "John
Harrison". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
25. ^ "John Harrison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harris
on
26. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison (1735)
27. ^ "John
Harrison". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology (1735)
London, England25  
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903

[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 10 11 12 		1973) Charles Marie de La Condamine
(loKoNDuMEN) (CE 1701-1774), French
geographer 1 is sent by the Académie
des Sciences to Peru to make
astronomical observations2 which will
determine the length of a degree of the
meridian near the Equator.3
La
Condamine accomplishes the first
scientific exploration of the Amazon
River.4
La Condamine returns to Europe
from South America with rubber tree sap
and curare (used as a muscle
relaxant).5
La Condamine supports a
standard system of measure.6
La
Condamine speculates on the idea of
inoculation against smallpox 22 years
before Jenner.7
La Condamine confirms
that the force of gravity at the
equator is greater than that in Europe,
proving that the earth is wider at the
equator and is an oblate spheroid (as
opposed to a prolate spheroid as
claimed by Cassini and his son).8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp176-177.
2. ^ "Charles Marie
de La Condamine". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles%20Marie%2
0de%20La%20Condamine%20
3. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6607/Charles-Marie-de-La-Condamine
4. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6607/Charles-Marie-de-La-Condamine
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp176-177.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp176-177.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp176-177.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp176-177.
9. ^ "Charles
Marie de La Condamine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6607/Charles-Marie-de-La-Condamine
10. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6607/Charles-Marie-de-La-Condamine
(1735)
11. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles%20Marie%2
0de%20La%20Condamine%20 (1735)
12. ^ "Charles
Marie de La Condamine". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles%20Marie%2
0de%20La%20Condamine%20 (1736)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Marie de La
Condamine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mar
ie_de_La_Condamine
Peru, South America9  
[1] Charles-Marie de La Condamine,
French astronomer and explorer
(engraving). PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Marie_de_La_Condamine.jp
g

[2] Charles-Marie de La Condamine PD
source: http://www.gourcez.com/pages/qoe
let-images.htm
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 25 26 27 		1996) Swedish botanist, Carolus
Linnaeus (lin Aus or lin EuS13 14 ) (CE
1707-1778)15 creates a uniform system
for categorizing living objects of
earth, including the human species
(overshadowing the earlier work of Ray)
and is considered the founder of
taxonomy.16

In his book "Systema Naturae" (1735),
Linnaeus (linAus]) establishes the
classification of living things in a
methodical way (overshadowing the
earlier work of Ray). For this Linnaeus
is considered the founder of taxonomy.
Linnaeus popularizes a binomial
nomenclature where each living object
is given a generic name and then a
specific name, and points out exactly
how each species differs.
This book is
first published in 1117 pages, but
will have 2,500 pages by the tenth
edition.18 This book presents a
classification of three kingdoms of
nature.19 Linnaeus groups species into
genus, class, order, (later Cuvier will
group orders in phyla). Linnaeus
daringly even includes humans in his
categorization calling them "homo
sapiens" (man, wise). Linnaeus includes
the orangutan in the same genus as
humans naming them "homo troglodytes"
("man, cave-dwelling" but this name
will not endure).20

Linnaeus is the first to use the male
and female symbols.21

Linnaeus also includes minerals in his
classification system.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=linnae
us&submit=Submit
4. ^ "Carl Linnaeus." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
5. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=linnae
us&submit=Submit
8. ^ "Carl Linnaeus." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p182.
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=linnae
us&submit=Submit
14. ^ "Carl Linnaeus." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183.
17. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
19. ^
"carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183.
22. ^ "carolus linnaeus". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
23. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
24. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
25. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus (1735)
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183. (1735)
27. ^ "carolus linnaeus".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1735)
Netherlands23 24  
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
264 YBN
[1736 AD] 14 		1923) In 16946 , Desaguliers' family
fled to England as Protestants to
escape persecution by Louis XIV.7
Desagu
liers is educated at Oxford.8
In 1710
Desaguliers is made a deacon.9
The word
"insulator" is Latin for "Island",
since nonconductors can contain the
electric fluid as the sea contains an
island.10
Desaguliers at one time
assists Sir Isaac Newton in Newton's
experiments and through his speakings
and writings was among Newton's staunch
advocates.11

Between 1729 and 1736, Stephen Gray and
Jean Desaguliers who are friends,
perform a series of experiments which
show that a cork and other objects can
be electrified as far away as 800 or
900 feet away by connecting them to a
rubbed glass tube with materials such
as metal wires or string made of hemp.
Gray and Desaguliers find that other
materials, such as silk, do not allow
the distant objects to be electrified.
Gray and Desaguliers find that the
distant object will not become
electrified if the transmission line
makes contact with the earth, but only
if the object and earth are separated
or insulated by suspending the object
on silk threads.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p167.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p167.
3. ^ "John
Theophilus Desaguliers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Theoph
ilus_Desaguliers
4. ^
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/resul
ts.asp?image=10198873&wwwflag=&imagepos=
2
5. ^
http://www.esdjournal.com/articles/Histo
ry/2007/March/March.htm
6. ^ "John Theophilus Desaguliers".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Theoph
ilus_Desaguliers
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p167.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p167.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p167.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p167.
11. ^ "John
Theophilus Desaguliers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Theoph
ilus_Desaguliers
12. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/desaguliers.html (copy at
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/desagu
liers.html)
13. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/desaguliers.html (copy at
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/desagu
liers.html)
14. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/desaguliers.html (copy at
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/desagu
liers.html) (1736 (loosely based on )
(1736 (loosely based on )

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/gray.h
tml
[3]
http://www.roughashlar.com/members/artic
le_index/9990194831362.html
London, England13  
[1] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Artist: Hans
Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.6 x 10 cm PD

source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-02a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Tookey, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Hans Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12 x 9.6 cm /
Sheet: 17.5 x 11.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-01a.jpg
264 YBN
[1736 AD] 16 		1966) Maupertuis is from a wealthy
family.8
In 1731, Maupertuis becomes a
member of the Academy of Sciences in
Paris.9
The success of Maupertuis'
expedition gains him favor with
Frederick the Great, who calls
Maupertuis to Berlin.10
Maupertuis
becomes a member of the Berlin Academy
of Sciences in 1741 and serves as its
president from 1745 to 1753.11
Maupertu
is helps popularize Newtonian
mechanics.12
Maupertuis will write
numerous astronomical writings,
including "Discours sur la figure des
astres" (1732) and 'Discours sur la
parallaxe de la lune" (1741).13
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p175.
2. ^ "Pierre Louis
Moreau de Maupertuis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p175.
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
5. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
6. ^ "Celsius Anders". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
7. ^ "Anders Celsius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Cels
ius
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p175.
9. ^ "Pierre Louis
Moreau de Maupertuis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
10. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
11. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
12. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
13. ^ "Maupertuis". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
14. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
15. ^ "Maupertuis". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
16. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
(1736)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Louis Maupertuis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Loui
s_Maupertuis
Lapland14 15  
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
263 YBN
[1737 AD] 6 		1808)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p145.
3. ^ "Jan
Swammerdam". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
6. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam (1737)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[2] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[3]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands5
(presumably) 
[1]
http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/English/ul/exhibi
tions/web%20exhibitions/insects.aspx Ja
n Swammerdam (1637-80): Biblia naturae.
1737/38 og 1752 DVJB has the first
edition of this major scientific work
made up of three folio volumes with
Dutch and Latin text from 1737/38 and a
single-volume German edition from 1752.
PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-a.jpg

[2] same PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-b.jpg
263 YBN
[1737 AD] 6 		1905)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
2. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp164-165.
4. ^ "Hermann
Boerhaave". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health
5. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0382/Hermann-Boerhaave
6. ^ "Hermann Boerhaave". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Hermann+Boerhaave
?cat=health (1737)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Boerhaave".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Boe
rhaave
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=QHAFAAA
AQAAJ&pg=PA1
Leiden, Netherlands5
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Biology
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 17.3 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 31.7
x 22.8 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boerha
ave

[2] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Botany ; Chemistry Print Artist:
James Heath, 1757-1834 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Noel
Pruneau, 1751-ca. 1800 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14 x 8.8 cm /
Sheet: 30 x24 cm PD
source: %20Hermann
263 YBN
[1737 AD] 4 		2001)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
2. ^ "carolus linnaeus". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
3. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
4. ^ "carolus linnaeus". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1737)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carolus Linnaeus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
[3] "Carolus Linnaeus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
[4] "Systema Naturae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Nat
urae
Netherlands3 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
262 YBN
[1738 AD] 2 		1226) A valve-type flush toilet is
invented by JF Brondel.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Flushing toilet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet
2. ^ "Flushing toilet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet
  
262 YBN
[1738 AD] 3 		1928)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Nicolas Delisle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9834/Joseph-Nicolas-Delisle
2. ^ "Joseph Nicolas Delisle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9834/Joseph-Nicolas-Delisle
3. ^ "Joseph Nicolas Delisle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9834/Joseph-Nicolas-Delisle (1738)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Nicolas
Delisle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nico
las_Delisle
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Nicolas%
20Delisle%20
France (presumably)2  
[1] Delisle COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/04/10301004_T.JPG

[2] Joseph-Nicolas Delisle
(1688-1768) Astrónomo y geógrafo
francés. Trabajos en difracción de la
luz solar y observaciones de los
tránsitos de Venus y Mercurio por el
disco solar. Contrató a C. Messier
como su asistente. Luna: cráter
Delisle (Ø25km, 29.9N 34.6W); Mons
Delisle (Ø30km, 29.5N 35.8W); Rima
Delisle (Ø60km, 31.0N
32.0W) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tayabeixo.org/biografias/
abr_1q/abr_1q.htm
262 YBN
[1738 AD] 4 		1946)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
2. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
3. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
4. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire (1738)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
Cirey, France3  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
262 YBN
[1738 AD] 14 15 16 		1971)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp175-176.
2. ^ "Daniel
Bernoulli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp175-176.
4. ^ "Daniel
Bernoulli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
5. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp175-176.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Daniel
Bernoulli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp175-176.
11. ^ Henry Crew, The
Rise of Modern Physics, The Williams &
Wilkins Company, 1935, p218-223. {This
also contains a partial translation
from Latin.}
12. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
13. ^ Henry Crew, The Rise of Modern
Physics, The Williams & Wilkins
Company, 1935, p218-223. {This also
contains a partial translation from
Latin.}
14. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli (1738)
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp175-176. (1738)
(1738)
16. ^ Henry Crew, The Rise of Modern
Physics, The Williams & Wilkins
Company, 1935, p218-223. {This also
contains a partial translation from
Latin.} {1738}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daniel Bernoulli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bern
oulli
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Bernoulli?
cat=technology
[3]
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes
/252/kinetic_theory.html
Basel, Switzerland12 (presumably)|
(published in ) Strasbourg13  
[1] Bernoulli's Picture [t From 1738
book] PD/Corel
source: http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu
/classes/252/kinetic_theory_files/image0
02.jpg

[2] Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782) [Portrait by anonymous
painter, in Historisches Museum
Basel; from the frontispiece of Die
Werke von Daniel Bernoulli, Band 1,
Birkhaeuser Verlag] PD
source: http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/phi
sci/Gallery/D.bernoulli.html
262 YBN
[1738 AD] 5 		2087)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
2. ^ Criticisms of the projectile
theory of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys.
Educ. 16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/003
1-9120/16/2/314/pev16i2p112.pdf?request-
id=GEXT97iQ3BG5LVsA3Ai7Kg michell_corpu
scular_criticism_pev16i2p112.pdf
3. ^ "Robert Smith". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Smit
h_(mathematician)
4. ^
5. ^ (1738)

MORE INFO
[1] Smith R 1738 A Compleat
System of Opticks (Cambridge: C
Crownfield)
[2] "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
Cambridge, England4   
261 YBN
[1739 AD] 8 		1912)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
2. ^
http://www.archive.org/details/philosoph
icalexp00halerich
3. ^
http://ia310917.us.archive.org/1/items/p
hilosophicalexp00halerich/philosophicale
xp00halerich.pdf
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
5. ^ "Stephen Hales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hal
es
6. ^
http://ia310917.us.archive.org/1/items/p
hilosophicalexp00halerich/philosophicale
xp00halerich.pdf
7. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
8. ^
http://ia310917.us.archive.org/1/items/p
hilosophicalexp00halerich/philosophicale
xp00halerich.pdf (1739)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
Cambridge, England7  
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
261 YBN
[1739 AD] 3 		1937)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
2. ^ "John Harrison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harris
on
3. ^
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
(1739)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
London, England2  
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903

[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
261 YBN
[1739 AD] 8 9 		2088)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ Eisenstaedt,
Jean (2007) From Newton to Einstein: A
forgotten relativistic optics of moving
bodies. American Journal of Physics
75(8) http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf/s
ervlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=AJP
IAS000075000008000741000001&idtype=cvips
&prog=normal michell_newtonian_light.pd
f
3. ^ Alexis-Claude Clairaut, "Sur les
explications Cartésiennes et
Newtoniennes de la Réfraction de la
Lumière," Académie Royale des
Sciences Paris, Mémoires pour 1739,
259-275 1741.
4. ^ Eisenstaedt, Jean (2007)
From Newton to Einstein: A forgotten
relativistic optics of moving bodies.
American Journal of Physics
75(8) http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf/s
ervlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=AJP
IAS000075000008000741000001&idtype=cvips
&prog=normal michell_newtonian_light.pd
f
5. ^ Alexis-Claude Clairaut, "Sur les
explications Cartésiennes et
Newtoniennes de la Réfraction de la
Lumière," Académie Royale des
Sciences Paris, Mémoires pour 1739,
259-275 1741.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ "Alexis Claude
Clairaut". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
8. ^ Alexis-Claude Clairaut, "Sur les
explications Cartésiennes et
Newtoniennes de la Réfraction de la
Lumière," Académie Royale des
Sciences Paris, Mémoires pour 1739,
259-275 1741. (1739)
9. ^ Eisenstaedt, Jean
(2007) From Newton to Einstein: A
forgotten relativistic optics of moving
bodies. American Journal of Physics
75(8) http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf/s
ervlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=AJP
IAS000075000008000741000001&idtype=cvips
&prog=normal michell_newtonian_light.pd
f (1739) (1739)

MORE INFO
[1] "analytic geometry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235
547/analytic-geometry
[2] "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut
Paris, France7  
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 4 		1201)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Crucible steel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_st
eel
2. ^ "Crucible steel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_st
eel
3. ^ "Crucible steel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_st
eel
4. ^ "Crucible steel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_st
eel

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
Sheffield, England3   
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 4 		1918)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
2. ^ "Rene Antoine
Ferchault de Reaumur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
3. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
4. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y (1740)

MORE INFO
[1] "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_A
ntoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupola?cat=
health
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 4 		2005) Georges Louis Leclerc, comte
(count) de Buffon (BYUFoN) (CE
1707-1788), French naturalist,
translates Newton's "The Method of
Fluxions" (1740) into French.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
3. ^ "Georges Louis
Leclerc count de Buffon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7945/Georges-Louis-Leclerc-count-de-Buff
on
4. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc (1740)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Louis Leclerc".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lou
is_Leclerc
Montbard, France3  
[1] Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc,
comte de Buffon Source Musée
Buffon à Montbard Date Author
François-Hubert Drouais PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 16 		2006) When done this the "Histoire"
will contain:
Vols. 1-15. Quadrupeds, (1749-67),
written with the assistance of Louis
Daubenton who provides the anatomical
details.4
Vols. 16-24. Birds,
(1770-83), written with the assistance
of the Abbé Bexon and G. de
Montbeillard.5
Vols. 25-31.
Supplementary Volumes. These deal
mainly with the quadrupeds, but Vol. 5
(1778) contains Buffon's important
"Epochs of Nature".6
Vols. 32-36.
Minerals, (1783-88).7
The final 8
volumes, Reptiles (2 vols., 1788-89),
Fish (5 vols., 1798-1803), and Cetacea
(1804) will be prepared by E. de
Lacepede.8


Buffon is not interested in problems of
plant and animal classification in
contrast to the publications of the
Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus.9 In
Volume 1, Buffon (wrongly10 ) argues
that natural classes such as cats and
dogs are misguided and that only
individuals exist in nature.11 However
Buffon accepts that "two animals belong
to the same species as long as they can
perpetuate themselves".12 In this work
Buffon rejects the idea of a common
descent for similar animals arguing
that if the ass was derived from the
horse that there would be intermediate
forms but that none are found.13

Buffon wrongly views apes as corrupted
humans, and donkeys as corrupted horses
(Erasmus Darwin will also believe this
inaccurate theory).14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
4. ^ "Georges Louis
Leclerc". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
5. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
6. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
7. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
8. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
9. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Georges Louis
Leclerc". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
12. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
13. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
15. ^ "Georges Louis
Leclerc count de Buffon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7945/Georges-Louis-Leclerc-count-de-Buff
on
16. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc (1740)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Louis Leclerc".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lou
is_Leclerc
Montbard, France15  
[1] Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc,
comte de Buffon Source Musée
Buffon à Montbard Date Author
François-Hubert Drouais PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg

[2] Plates VI, ''L'Elephant femelle''
(left) and Plate V, ''L'Elephant male''
(right) The Indian (or Asian) and
African elephants were not recognized
as separate species during Buffon's
day. That distinction would be made by
Georges Cuvier in 1796. PD
source: http://www.ansp.org/museum/digit
al_collections/elephant/buffon.php
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 9 		2007) The Answers.com Biography of
Buffon states that "All of these
questions impinged upon religious
matters. While Buffon evidently
satisfied all the outward forms of
Christian practice, he almost certainly
was a deist in the 1730s and may very
well have become an atheist in his
later years."6

The Oxford University Press, French
Literature Companion, states that
"while avoiding direct conflict with
the Church, {Buffon's} conception of
human nature and origins was
unrepentantly heretical".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
3. ^ "Georges Louis
Leclerc". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
5. ^ "Georges Louis
Leclerc". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
6. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
7. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
8. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc count de
Buffon". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7945/Georges-Louis-Leclerc-count-de-Buff
on
9. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc (1740)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Louis Leclerc".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lou
is_Leclerc
Montbard, France8  
[1] Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc,
comte de Buffon Source Musée
Buffon à Montbard Date Author
François-Hubert Drouais PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 2 		2010)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Andreas von Segner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6597/Johann-Andreas-von-Segner
2. ^ Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p87. (1740)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Andreas von Segner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Andr
eas_von_Segner
 
[1] # Johann Andreas von Segner #
Year: unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm Sc
ientist: Segner, Johann Andreas von
(1704 - 1777) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Carl Gottlieb Rasp, 1752-1807
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Friedrich Heinrich or Wolfgang Fuger
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 27 x
19.7 cm / Sheet: 28.6 x 20.6 cm PD
source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil
d:Johann_Andreas_von_Segner.jpg
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 9 		2019) Marggraf is the director of the
chemical laboratory of the German
Academy of Sciences of Berlin (1754-60)
(appointed by Frederick II in 17536 ).7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185.
4. ^ "Andreas
Sigismund Marggraf". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
5. ^ "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
6. ^ "Marggraf". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marggraf
7. ^ "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
8. ^ "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185. (1740)
(1740)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Sig
ismund_Marggraf
Berlin, Germany8 (presumably) 
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 11 		2067) Bonnet finds that the eggs of the
spindle-tree3 aphid female can develop
without being fertilized by sperm.4
Bonn
et notes the freshwater hydra's ability
to regenerate lost body parts.5
(identify when6 )

In 1695 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
(lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) had
identified parthenogenesis in aphids.7
8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191.
2. ^ "Charles
Bonnet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
3. ^ "Charles Bonnet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Bonnet?ca
t=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
8. ^
http://esapubs.org/bulletin/backissues/0
87-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
9. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net
10. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
11. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net (1740)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/parthenogenesis
Geneva?, Switzerland9 10
(presumably) 
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 17 18 		2961) Bose conveys electricity from on
person to another using water.11
Bose
is a professor of natural philosophy at
(University of12 ) Wittenberg.13
Bose
performs public experiments with his
electrostatic machines. One of
experiment is actually a joke. A
charming young lady offers a welcoming
kiss to somebody from the audience.
However, she stands on an electrically
isolated platform and her body is
connected to a hidden charged
electrostatic generator. The kiss is
accompanied by an electrical spark. A
shock obtained by a man sometimes is
very strong. Bose describes this
"funny" experiment in his poem written
for countess Brühl.14

In 1760, during a war with Prussia,
Bose is kidnapped to Magdeburg, where
Bose dies in the following year.15
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
2. ^, p45.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp87-88.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
10. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p94.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
11. ^
Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p94.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
14. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
15. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
16. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
17. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION_HIST
.HTM (1740)
18. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Matthias Bose".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Matth
ias_Bose
[2]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
138/01a00110/0 G. M. Bose: The Prime
Mover in the Invention of the Leyden
Jar? John L. Heilbron Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 2. (Summer, 1966), pp. 264-267.
Bose_Georg.pdf
(University of Wittenberg)Wittenberg,
Germany16  
[1] kiss demonstration PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/bose.html
259 YBN
[07/16/1741 AD] 7 		1914) Bering had proposed a second
exploratory mission (his first mission
in 1728 showed that no land bridge
exists between Siberia and America),
and in 1732 Bering is given command of
what is called the "Great Northern
Expedition". This begins as a small
proposal but becomes unrealistically
inflated by the government. Bering is
to locate and map the American coast as
far as the first European settlement;
other groups, coordinated by him, are
to chart the Siberian coast and
determine once and for all whether Asia
and America are connected. Bering is in
charge of a sizable scientific party,
and also ordered to initiate economic
development in eastern Siberia.3

Bering will not survive the expedition,
however forty-five of the 77 officers
and men of the St. Peter eventually
will reach safety in 1742.4
This "Great
Northern Expedition", obtains
significant geographic and scientific
information: mapping the strait, now
named for Bering, dividing Asia and
America, the Siberian coast from the
White Sea to the Kolyma River, and the
coast of America from Prince of Wales
Island to the Komandorskie Islands.5

Bering suffers from scurvy and will die
on Bering Island, near Kamchatka.6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp165-166.
2. ^ "Vitus Jonassen
Bering". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering
3. ^ "Vitus Jonassen Bering".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering
4. ^ "Vitus Jonassen Bering".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering
5. ^ "Vitus Jonassen Bering".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering
6. ^ "Vitus Bering". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8773/Vitus-Bering
7. ^ "Vitus Jonassen Bering".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Vitus%20Jonassen%
20Bering (07/16/1741 (sights America)

MORE INFO
[1] "Vitus Jonassen Bering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitus_Jonas
sen_Bering
[2] "Bering Strait". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Stra
it
[3] "Kayak Island". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kayak_Islan
d
[4] "Second Kamchatka expedition".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Kamc
hatka_expedition
Bering Straight 
[1] Ölgemälde eines unbekannten
Meisters, Mitte 18. Jahrhundert. Das
Bild wurde lange Zeit für ein Portrait
des dänischen Marineoffiziers und
Entdeckers in russischen Diensten Vitus
Jonassen Bering (1680-1741) gehalten.
Nach einer Exhumierung Berings im Jahr
1991 und einer anschließenden
forensischen Untersuchung wird dies
heute angezweifelt. Wahrscheinlicher
ist, daß es sich bei dem Dargestellten
um den dänischen Schriftsteller Vitus
Pedersen Bering († 1675), einen Onkel
des Entdeckers, handelt. Literatur:
Svend E. Albrethsen, Vitus Bering's
second Kamchatka expedition - the
journey to America and archaeological
excavations on Bering Island, in: N.
Kingo Jacobsen (Hrsg.), Vitus Bering
1741-1991, København 1993, ISBN
87-7421-807-7, S. 66-96. * Größe
des Originals: 35 x 30 cm *
Derzeitiger Standort: St. Petersburg,
Marinemuseum PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Vitus_Bering.jpg

[2] English: Bering strait, image
taken by MISR sattelite. With the
Seward Peninsula of Alaska to the east,
and Chukotskiy Poluostrovof Siberia to
the west, the Bering Strait separates
the United States and the Russian
Federation by only 90 kilometers. It is
named for Danish explorer Vitus Bering,
who spotted the Alaskan mainland in
1741 while leading anexpedition of
Russian sailors. This view of the
region was captured by MISR's
vertical-viewing (nadir) camera on
August 18, 2000 during Terra orbit
3562. The boundary between the US
and Russia lies between Big and Little
Diomede Islands, which are visible in
the middle of the Bering Strait. The
Artic Circle, at 66.5 degrees north
latitude, runs through the Arctic Ocean
in the top part of this image. This
circle marks the southernmost latitude
for which the Sun does not rise above
the horizon on the day of the winter
solstice. At the bottom of this image
is St. Lawrence Island. Situated in the
Bering Sea, it is part of Alaska and
home to Yupik Eskimos. MISR was
built and is managed by NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA,
for NASA's Office of Earth Science,
Washington, DC. The Terra satellite is
managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight
Center, Greenbelt, MD. JPL is a
division of the California Institute of
Technology. For more information:
http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov Español:
Estrecho de Bering Source *
PIA02638.tif from
http://www.visibleearth.nasa.gov/cgi-bin
/viewrecord?7049 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bering_Strait.jpeg
259 YBN
[09/12/1741 AD] 7 8 		5952)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "George Frideric Handel." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-frid
eric-handel
2. ^ "messiah." The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/messiah-fin
e-arts
3. ^ "George Frideric Handel." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-frid
eric-handel
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Horatio Townsend (the
younger.), "An account of the visit of
Handel to Dublin",
6. ^ Horatio Townsend (the
younger.), "An account of the visit of
Handel to Dublin",
7. ^ Horatio Townsend (the
younger.), "An account of the visit of
Handel to Dublin", {composition
complete)09/12/1741}
8. ^ Horatio Townsend (the younger.),
"An account of the visit of Handel to
Dublin", {first performed)04/13/1742}
(composed) London, England5 and
(performed) Dublin, Ireland6  
[1] Georg Friedrich Händel. Gemälde
von Thomas Hudson (1749) Source:
http://xoomer.virgilio.it/senesino/Dei/H
andel_wow.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%
A4ndel.jpg

[2] Description Retrato de
GFHandel Date ? Source
http://www.handelhouse.org/handel2009
/handel2009images/Handel%20Mercier%20cro
pped%20web.jpg Author Mercier
(?1689 / 1691 - 18 July 1760) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Retrato_de_Handel.jpg

259 YBN
[1741 AD] 4 		1911)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165.
2. ^ "Stephen Hales".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
4. ^ "Stephen Hales". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Stephen+Hales?cat
=technology (1741)

MORE INFO
[1] "Stephen Hales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hal
es
[2]
http://www.archive.org/details/philosoph
icalexp00halerich
Cambridge, England3  
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 8 9 		1929) Goldbach is the son of a
minister.3
Goldbach studies medicine
and mathematics at the University of
Königsberg.4
In 1725 Goldbach is hired
as professor of mathematics at the
Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg.5
Gol
dbach is a voluminous correspondent
with mathematicians of the time.6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169.
2. ^ "Christian
Goldbach". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7221/Christian-Goldbach
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p169.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p169.
7. ^ "Christian
Goldbach". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7221/Christian-Goldbach
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169. (1742) (1742)
9. ^
"Christian Goldbach". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7221/Christian-Goldbach (1742)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Goldbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_G
oldbach
Moscow, Russia7   
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 8 		1942)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
2. ^ "Georg Brandt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6222/Georg-Brandt
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
4. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Georg Brandt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p172.
7. ^ "Georg Brandt".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology
8. ^ "Georg Brandt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Brandt+?cat
=technology (1742)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Brandt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Brand
t
Stockholm, Sweden6 7  
[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg

[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 4 5 6 		1948) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) writes
the drama1 "Mahomet, ou le fanatisme")
aka "Fanaticism, or Mahomet", a play in
5 acts, which he describes as "written
in opposition to the founder of a false
and barbarous sect to whom could I with
more propriety inscribe a satire on the
cruelty and errors of a false
prophet."2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
2. ^ "Mahomet (play)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahomet_%28
play%29
3. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
4. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire (1742)
5. ^
"Voltaire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire (1742)
6. ^ "Mahomet (play)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahomet_%28
play%29 (1741) (1741)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
Cirey, France3  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 7 		1959)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp173-174.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Colin
Maclaurin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin
4. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Colin+Maclaurin?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin
6. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin
7. ^ "Colin Maclaurin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9806/Colin-Maclaurin (1742)

MORE INFO
[1] "Colin Maclaurin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Macla
urin
Edinburgh, Scotland6  
[1] Colin Maclaurin Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Colin_maclaurin.jpg

[2] Colin Maclaurin PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates67/opciones/sabia
s/Maclaurin/MacLaurin.htm
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 7 		1963) I think it is again important to
note that a microscope and telescope
are basically the same thing,
magnifiers, they spread out light so a
small area appears to be larger.5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p174.
2. ^ "Henry Baker
(naturalist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Baker
_%28naturalist%29
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p174.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p174.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington
6. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html
7. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (1742)
Amsterdam, Netherlands6  
[1] Henry Baker (1698-1774) PD
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/baker.html

[2] A first edition of this work was
published by Henry Baker in
1742: ''The Microscope made
easy''. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 19 		1975) Celsius is a professor of
astronomy at Uppsala University from
1730 to 1744, and in 1740 he builds the
Uppsala Observatory.14
Initially
Celsius places the boiling point at 0
and the freezing point at 100, but this
is reversed in 1743.
This scale will become
the (official15 ) "Celsius scale" in
1948.16

Celsius publishes "Dissertatio de Nova
Methodo Distantiam Solis a Terra
Determinandi" (1730; "A Dissertation on
a New Method of Determining the
Distance of the Sun from the Earth")
and "De Observationibus pro Figura
Telluris Determinanda in Gallia
Habitis, Disquisitio" (1738;
"Disquisition on Observations Made in
France for Determining the Shape of the
Earth").17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p177.
2. ^ "Celsius
Anders". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p177.
4. ^ "Celsius
Anders". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p177.
6. ^ "Celsius
Anders". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
7. ^ "Anders Celsius". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Anders+Celsius+?c
at=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p177.
9. ^ "Anders
Celsius". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Anders+Celsius+?c
at=technology
10. ^ "Celsius Anders". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p177.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"Celsius Anders". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p177.
17. ^ "Celsius
Anders". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
18. ^ "Celsius Anders". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
19. ^ "Celsius Anders". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders (1742)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Celsius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Cels
ius
Uppsala, Sweden18 (presumably) 
[1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 -
1766) Uppsala University -
Astronomical Observatory PD
source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i
mages/celsius2.jpg

[2] Anders Celsius, detail from a
drawing by an unknown artist, 18th
century. Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 3 		1985) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790)
invents the "Franklin stove", a wood
burning stove1 made of iron that fits
in a fireplace, designed to give
greater warmth, more comfort, and
cleaner heating at a lower fuel cost.{7
us hist}
Designed to be used in an already
existing fireplace, the Franklin stove
does not resemble what are now called
Franklin stoves.{7 us hist}

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/franklin-st
ove (1742)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[4] "Franklin stove". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_st
ove
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania2
(presumably) 
[1] Franklin_stove.jpg (488 × 368
pixel, file size: 40 KB, MIME type:
image/jpeg) From [1],
http://www.nps.gov/inde/Franklin_Court/P
ages/franklininventor1.html a National
Park Service web page. Public domain
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franklin_stove.jpg

[2] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin
Wilson-who disagreed with Franklin''s
findings about electrical polarity-this
portrait hung in Franklin''s dining
room in Philadelphia until Captain
Andre'' stole it during the British
occupation of Philadelphia. Returned to
the U.S. in 1906, it is now in the
White House, in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 3 		2011) Albrecht von Haller (HolR) (CE
1708-1777), Swiss physiologist,
publishes "Enumeratio methodica
stirpium Helveticarum", (1742) a large
book on flora of Switzerland.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
2. ^ "Albrecht von
Haller". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
3. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller (1742)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albrecht von Haller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller
[2] "Albrecht von Haller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_vo
n_Haller
Basel, Switzerland2 (presumably) 
[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 5 6 		2068)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191.
2. ^ "Charles
Bonnet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Bonnet?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net
4. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191. (1742)
(1742)
6. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet (1742)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html
Geneva?, Switzerland3 4
(presumably) 
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 25 26 		1976) Franklin is the fifteenth child
of seventeen born to a poor
candlemaker.2
(Franklin is the first
person in America to contribute to
modern science3 ).4
Franklin has only 2
years of formal schooling.5
At 12
Franklin is apprenticed to his brother
James, a printer.6
Two other people to
try this kite experiment are killed
(presumably by lightning?7 ).8
{With a
Leyden jar a spark of light and
crackling sound could be produced by
putting a metal rod near the charged
jar}.9
Benjamin Franklin builds a
repulsive electroscope using the
electrical repulsion of two linen
threads to measure the strength of
static electricity.10 (chronology -
sometime between 1731 and 175311 )
Frankli
n is publicly a deist, writing in his
autobiography started in 1771: "Some
books against Deism fell into my hands;
they were said to be the substance of
the sermons which had been preached at
Boyle's Lectures. It happened that they
wrought an effect on me quite contrary
to what was intended by them. For the
arguments of the Deists, which were
quoted to be refuted, appeared to be
much stronger than the refutations; in
short, I soon became a thorough
Deist.".12 13
Franklin invents a glass
armonica based on the concept of the
sound a drinking glass makes when
rubbed.14 15 A person plays a melody
by touching the rim of spinning glass
bowls (each16 ) mounted on rotating
spindles.17
(In evaluating Mesmer's
method of passing hands over people,
Franklin rejects that Mesmer's method
is legitimate, but describes
psychosomatic cures, that cures might
be affected by suggestion 18 ).19
Frankl
in rejects Newton's corpuscular theory
of light in favor of the theory of
light as a wave propagated through an
all encompassing aether.20

Through the group he founded in 1727 to
debate questions of morals, politics,
and natural philosophy, the "Junto", or
Leather Apron Club, Franklin proposed a
paid city watch, or police force (for
Philadelphia21 ).22
Franklin is a
signer of both the Declaration of
Independence and the Constitution of
the United States.23
In 1900 Franklin
is chosen as one of the charter members
of the Hall of Fame for Great
Americans.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
6. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
10. ^
"Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
13. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
14. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
15. ^ "Glass armonica". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_armon
ica
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi2208.htm
, p 207.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
19. ^ Home, R.W.
(1988). "Leonhard Euler's
'Anti-Newtonian' Theory of Light".
Annals of Science 45 (5): 521-533.
(euler_antiNewton_light_1988_annals_of_s
cience.pdf)
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
22. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/578/000026500
/
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
24. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179. (1743)
(1743)
26. ^ "John Harrison". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology (1735) (1743)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[2]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity-this portrait
hung in Franklin's dining room in
Philadelphia until Captain Andre' stole
it during the British occupation of
Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S. in
1906, it is now in the White House, in
Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 11 		2023) Johann Georg Gmelin (GumAliN) (CE
1709-1755) German explorer 1 makes a
journey of scientific exploration
through Siberia (1733-1743).2

Gmelin starts to study medicine at age
14.3
Gmelin is the first person to
measure that the level of the
Astrakhan4 in Russia near the Caspian
Sea is below that of the Mediterranean
Sea (sea level5 ).6
In Eastern Siberia
Gmelin identifies ground that is
constantly frozen all summer long, this
is called permafrost.7

Gmelin's major works are "Flora
Sibirica" (4 vols., 1749-1750) and
"Reisen durch Sibirien" (4 vols.,
1753).8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p185.
2. ^ "Johann Georg
Gmelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Geor
g_Gmelin
3. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v17
5/n4463/pdf/175839b0.pdf
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p185.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p185.
6. ^ "Johann
Georg Gmelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Geor
g_Gmelin
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p185.
8. ^ "Johann Georg
Gmelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Geor
g_Gmelin
9. ^ "Astrakhan". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrakhan
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p185.
11. ^ "Johann Georg
Gmelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Geor
g_Gmelin (1733-1743)
Astrakhan, Russia9 10  
[1] Deutsch: Porträt des deutschen
Botanikers Johann Georg Gmelin
(1709-1755) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gmelin_Johann_Georg_1709-1755.jpg
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 4 		2030) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, 1 publishes "276
zametok po fizike i korpuskulyarnoy
filosofi" ("276 Notes on Corpuscular
Philosophy and Physics") which sets
forth the dominant ideas of his
scientific work.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
3. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
4. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
(1743)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
Saint Petersburg, Russia3  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 9 		2036) Clairaut accompanies Maupertuis
on an expedition to Lapland to
determine the length of 1° of a
meridian within the Arctic circle to
determine that the shape of the earth
is an oblate spheroid.3 After his
return Clairaut publishes his treatise
"Théorie de la figure de la terre"
(Theory of the Shape of the Earth,
1743)4 5 , which contains "Clairaut's
theorem".6

Clairaut shows how the shape of the
earth can be calculated by measuring
the force of gravity at different
locations through the timing of
pendulum swings.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Alexis
Clairaut". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut
3. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
4. ^ "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut
5. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
6. ^ "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
8. ^ "Alexis Claude
Clairaut". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
9. ^ "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut (1743)

MORE INFO
[1] "analytic geometry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235
547/analytic-geometry
[2]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 13 		2037)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
4. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
5. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
8. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
9. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
12. ^ "Alexis Claude Clairaut". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
13. ^ "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut (1743)

MORE INFO
[1] "analytic geometry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235
547/analytic-geometry
[2] "Moon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon
[3] Wieczorek, M.; et al. (2006). "The
constitution and structure of the lunar
interior". Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 60: 221-364.
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 11 12 		2057) D'Alembert receives a pension
from Louis XV even though D'Alembert's
articles for Diderot were of an
"anti-establishment" nature.6
D'Alembert
refuses invitations to Berlin from
Frederick II and to St Petersburg by
Catherine II.7
D'Alembert bitterly
argues with Clauraut about who is the
first to work on (the orbit of8 )
Halley's comet.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
4. ^ "Jean le Rond
D'Alembert". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert
5. ^ "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p190.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
10. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
11. ^ "Jean Le Rond d Alembert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert (1743)
12. ^
"Jean le Rond D'Alembert". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert (1743)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_le_Ron
d_D%27Alembert
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 3 		1924)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p167.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/desaguliers.html (copy at
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/desagu
liers.html)
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/desaguliers.html (copy at
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/desagu
liers.html) (1744) (1744)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Theophilus
Desaguliers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Theoph
ilus_Desaguliers
[2] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[3]
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/resul
ts.asp?image=10198873&wwwflag=&imagepos=
2
[4]
http://www.esdjournal.com/articles/Histo
ry/2007/March/March.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/gray.h
tml
[6]
http://www.roughashlar.com/members/artic
le_index/9990194831362.html
London, England2  
[1] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Artist: Hans
Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.6 x 10 cm PD

source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-02a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Tookey, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Hans Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12 x 9.6 cm /
Sheet: 17.5 x 11.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-01a.jpg
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 12 		1967) Fermat had explained Snell's law
of refraction, which describes the
movement of a ray of light at the
boundary of two media of different
densities, based on the idea that a ray
of light takes the least time possible
in moving from the first medium to the
second. Fermat's explanation implies
that light moves more slowly in a
denser medium, to which Maupertuis
objects and wants to explain Snell's
law without this principle. (As an
aside, very generally speaking, and
there are exceptions, the amount a beam
of photons changes direction in a
medium is more for a denser medium
which is consistent with the theory
that particles of light as masses
encounter more collisions and/or orbit
more other particles in a denser
material4 5 6 ). Maupertuis views this
principle of least action as the
fundamental principle of mechanics, and
expects that all other mechanical laws
should be derivable from it. As a
believer in a deity, Maupertuis
attempts to use this principle to prove
the existence of a God.7

A similar principle had previously been
formulated by Leonhard Euler as a
result of his mathematical work on the
calculus of variations, whereas
Maupertuis had been led to formulate
his version of the principle through
his work in optics.8

The German mathematician Samuel Koenig
accuses Maupertuis of having
plagiarized Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's
work in this principle. In the ensuing
controversy, Leonhard Euler supports
Maupertuis, but Voltaire, (once a
supporter of Maupertuis9 ) satirizes
the "earth flattener" so mercilessly
that Maupertuis leaves Berlin in
1753.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p175.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Pierre
Louis Moreau de Maupertuis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Image:Density-nd.GIF".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Densi
ty-nd.GIF
6. ^ "List of refractive indices".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ref
ractive_indices
7. ^ "Maupertuis". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
8. ^ "Maupertuis". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
11. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
12. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
(1744)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Louis Maupertuis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Loui
s_Maupertuis
Berlin, Germany11 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 4 		2058)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "Jean le Rond
D'Alembert". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert
3. ^ "Jean Le Rond d Alembert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
4. ^ "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert (1744)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_le_Ron
d_D%27Alembert
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 8 		2059)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
3. ^ Abe Mizrahi and Michael Sullivan,
"Calculus and Analytic Geometry",
Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, (1986), pp870-871.
4. ^ Abe Mizrahi and
Michael Sullivan, "Calculus and
Analytic Geometry", Second Edition,
Wadsworth Publishing Company, (1986),
pp870-871.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
7. ^ "Jean Le Rond d Alembert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
8. ^ "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert (1744)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_le_Ron
d_D%27Alembert
[2] "Partial differential equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_dif
ferential_equation
[3] "partial differential equation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
2198/partial-differential-equation
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 4 		2060)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
3. ^ "Jean Le Rond d Alembert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
4. ^ "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert (1744)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_le_Ron
d_D%27Alembert
[2] "partial differential equation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
2198/partial-differential-equation
[3] "Partial differential equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_dif
ferential_equation
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 2 		2121)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electricity".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
2. ^ "Electricity (1744)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electricity".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity (1744) (1744)

MORE INFO
[1] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p.
167).
  
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 4 		2962) Georg Mathias Bose (CE
1710-1761)1 , German physicist,
publishes "Die Electricität nach ihrer
Entdeckung und Fortgang, mit poetischer
Feder entworffen" where describe in
poetic form Bose's experiments with
electricity, including the
electrification of an isolated human
body.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml (1744)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION_HIST
.HTM
[2] "Georg Matthias Bose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Matth
ias_Bose
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC
[4]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
138/01a00110/0 G. M. Bose: The Prime
Mover in the Invention of the Leyden
Jar? John L. Heilbron Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 2. (Summer, 1966), pp. 264-267.
Bose_Georg.pdf
[5] Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale
Group. http://galenet.galegroup.com/ser
vlet/ECCO Gale Document Number:
CW3308601336 http://galenet.galegroup.c
om/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0
657800501&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&df=f&d2=1
25&docNum=CW3308601336&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=
BN&d6=125&d3=125&ste=10&stp=Author&d4=0.
33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T036346
(University of Wittenberg)Wittenberg,
Germany3  		 
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 15 		2964) Joseph Priestley comments that
the best rubber for the globe, as well
as the tube, is long after this, still
thought, by all electricians, to be the
human hand, dry and free from
moisture.9

In 1746 Winckler transmits electric
signal a short distance without
wires.10
At the University of Leipzig,
in 1739 Winckler is appointed Professor
of Philosophy, in 1741 as Professor of
Classical Languages, and then in 1750
as Professor of Physics.11 .

Johann Heinrich Winckler is Bach's
colleague at the St. Thomas School and
writes the traditional text of the
cantata "Froher Tag, verlangte Stunden"
(BWV Anh 18) (the music for this
cantata has been lost12 ). Winckler
contributes and is associated with
Bach: Both Johann Christoph Gottsched
and Johann Heinrich Winckler, prominent
exponents of the university, write
texts for Bach.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Lib/Winckle
r.htm
2. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p88.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION_HIST
.HTM
4. ^
http://www.thebakken.org/artifacts/Winkl
er.htm
5. ^
http://www.thebakken.org/artifacts/Winkl
er.htm
6. ^
http://www.bach-leipzig.de/index.php?id=
495&L=1
7. ^
http://www.thebakken.org/artifacts/Winkl
er.htm
8. ^ http://babelfish.altavista.com/tr
9. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The
history and present state of
electricity, with original experiments,
by Joseph Priestley, ... The third
edition, corrected and enlarged Vol. 1.
London, 1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth
Century Collections Online. Gale Group,
p88.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
10. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=GQ8EAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA240&lpg=PA240&dq=%22johann+he
inrich+winckler%22&source=web&ots=n4MNAC
DICP&sig=F8ivDU7rNVxWJdt70Wew7hXhdvI&hl=
en
11. ^
http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Lib/Winckle
r.htm
12. ^
http://www.bach-leipzig.de/index.php?id=
495&L=1
13. ^
http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Lib/Winckle
r.htm
14. ^
http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Lib/Winckle
r.htm
15. ^
http://www.thebakken.org/artifacts/Winkl
er.htm (1744)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
[2]
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tuto
rials/timeline/1700-1749.html
(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany14  
[1] This generator uses a bottle or
glass as the cylinder, with its base
set into a cone with a pivot point on
the end. It looks quite complicated -
but the main part of the generator is a
pole lathe, used by generations of
wood-turners long before electricity
was a gleam in Gilbert's eye. Winkler
merely added a few elements to an
already-existing tool. In a pole
lathe, a straight piece of wood has one
end rounded, and little depressions
made in the center of each end. The
string of the lathe is wrapped several
times about the rounded end, and the
corresponding depression put over a pin
on the side of the lathe framework. The
adjustable pin p (see Fig. 2) is then
moved until it settles into the other
depression. When the turner steps on
the treadle, the string is pulled down,
turning the workpiece one way; when he
releases the treadle the pole at top
springs back and turns the workpiece
the opposite way. For a wood-turner,
using a knife or chisel, the lathe is
only useful on the downstroke. Used to
make electricity, you want friction
against the glass - and friction works
well both ways. In earlier days the
friction would have been provided by
the user's hand against the glass; but
the friction cushion was more
convenient. It can be seen as Fig.
3. During much of the eighteenth
century, England and France were the
centers of electrical study and
innovation; but during the early 1740s,
there was a great burst of invention in
Germany. Bose' use of a suspended metal
conductor and his early experiments
with thread became the basis of the
later collector, or charge comb, of the
electrical machine. Winkler and Gordon,
the two chief claimants for the
invention of the cylinder generator,
worked in Germany. And Winkler is
probably the inventor of the friction
cushion. He made electrical machines
that worked on the back-and-forth
principle of the pole lathe, and also
machines that used Hauksbee's
multiplying wheel. PD/Corel
source: http://www.thebakken.org/artifac
ts/Winkler.htm
255 YBN
[11/04/1745 AD] 30 31 		1972) Von Kleist studied at the
University of Leyden in the 1720's and
while a student there may have
encountered the demonstrations in
experimental physics of Professor
Gravesande who was involved in
electricity at Leyden. Von Kleist
apparently acquired his interest in
science while at the University of
Leyden.24

One source states that von Kleist
discovers that electricity can be
stored in a glass bottle if both the
inner and outer surfaces of the bottle
are covered with a metallic foil, and a
metallic rod is placed in the middle of
the bottle.Von Kleist who studied law
in the Dutch university of Leiden,
informs his friends of his discovery. A
Dutch physician, Pieter van
Musschenbroek, then publishes the first
scientific paper regarding the Kleist
bottle, which is then given the name
"Leyden jar".25 (Just as a comment,
there are certainly some times when an
idea is so obvious that two or more
people will independently find it, even
around the same time, but I think the
more unique, complex or unusual the
discovery or invention, the higher the
probability of an individual discoverer
or inventor. In particular when an
invention has two or more claimed
discoverers in the same location around
the same time, as is the case for the
Leyden jar. In some cases, elements of
the invention are in place with one or
more missing pieces, in which case, the
chances of duplication are higher.26 )
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "E Georg von
Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
4. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
7. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
8. ^ "E Georg
von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
11. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
12. ^ "E Georg
von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
15. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
16. ^ "E Georg
von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
19. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
20. ^
Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-104.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
21. ^
Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p104.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
22. ^
Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p110.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kleist
.html
25. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
28. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kleist
.html
29. ^ "Pomerania". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania
30. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p102.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
(11/04/1745)
31. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Ewald Georg von
Kleist". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_Georg
_von_Kleist
Pomerania?, Prussia27 28 (coast of
Baltic Sea between Germany and Poland29
) 
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 3 		1244)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
2. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
3. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p

MORE INFO
[1] "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
[2] Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale
Group. http://galenet.galegroup.com/ser
vlet/ECCO Gale Document Number:
CW3308601351 http://galenet.galegroup.c
om/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0
657800501&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&df=f&d2=1
40&docNum=CW3308601351&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=
BN&d6=140&d3=140&ste=10&stp=Author&d4=0.
33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T036346 Priestley_Hist
ory_of_Electricity.pdf
England2  
[1] William Watson (1715-1787) *
Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Watson.jpg
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 5 		1906) De La Mettrie is a student of
Hermann Boerhaave.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
2. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
3. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
4. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
5. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julien Offroy de La
Mettrie". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6642/Julien-Offroy-de-La-Mettrie
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Julien%20Offroy%2
0de%20La%20Mettrie
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] description: Julien Offray de La
Mettrie source:
http://bpun.unine.ch/IconoNeuch/Portrait
s/A-Z/L.htm license: public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie.jpg
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 12 		1989) Émilie du Châtelet (so TlA)
(full name: Gabrielle Émikle le
Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du
Châtelet) (CE 1706-1749) translates
Newton's "Principia" from Latin into
French at the request of Voltaire.1

Chatelet publishes a book titled
"Institutions de Physique" ("Lessons in
Physics", 1740) in 1740 which is
attempts to integrate Cartesian,
Newtonian, and Leibnizian ideas. On the
philosophic side the themes she
discusses are free will, God's power
and role, and the nature of space,
matter, and force.2
Châtelet's
"Dissertation sur la nature et la
propagation du feu" ("Dissertation on
the nature and the propagation of
fire"3 , 1744)
Châtelet is one of the
few women interested in science at this
time.4
Châtelet is friends with
Voltaire and Maupertuis.5
Voltaire and
Chatelet work together on scientific
and philosophical questions in addition
to having a (sexual6 ) relationship.
When Voltaire leaves Chatelet, she
begins a 7 relationship with poet8
Saint-Lambert, and dies in pregnancy.9
In her "Discours sur le bonheur"
Chatelet places equal value on love and
intellectual endeavors.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p180.
2. ^
http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history
/Biographies/Chatelet.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p180.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p180.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Gabrielle Emilie Le
Tonnelier de Breteuil marquise du
Chatelet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2685/Gabrielle-Emilie-Le-Tonnelier-de-Br
eteuil-marquise-du-Chatelet
9. ^ "Émilie du Châtelet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89milie%20du%
20Ch%C3%A2telet
10. ^ "Émilie du Châtelet". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89milie%20du%
20Ch%C3%A2telet
11. ^ "Gabrielle Emilie Le Tonnelier de
Breteuil marquise du Chatelet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2685/Gabrielle-Emilie-Le-Tonnelier-de-Br
eteuil-marquise-du-Chatelet
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p180. (1745) (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Émilie du Châtelet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89milie
_du_Ch%C3%A2telet
Cirey, France11 (presumably) 
[1] ''Mme du Châtelet, detail of a
portrait by an unknown French artist;
in a private collection''. Obtained on
28 November 2006 from
http://moniquetdany.noosblog.fr/moniquet
dany/actualit/index.html, a report of
an exhibition relating to du Châtelet
mounted in June 2006 at 58, rue
Richelieu, 75002 Paris. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emilieduchatelet.jpg

[2] Portrait d'Émilie du Châtelet
par Marianne Loir, © Musée des
Beaux-Arts de Bordeaux IMAGE
COPYRIGHTED (PAINTING PD)
source: http://wodka.over-blog.com/artic
le-1864944.html
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 12 		2695) It seems almost that there are
two main competing sides throughout the
history of modern science, and
Boscovich seems to be supporting the
conservative side which tends to reject
atomism, also as applied to particles
of light.6

(Although7 ) Boscovich is one of the
first scientists of continental Europe
to accept Isaac Newton's gravitational
theory.8
Boscovich publishes nearly 70
papers on optics, astronomy,
gravitation, meteorology, and
trigonometry.9

(See image) This is Boscovich's
force-distance curve from his "De
viribus vivis" dissertation of 1745.
Letters identify 'limit points' where
attraction turns into repulsion and
vice versa, inflection points, maxima
and minima and so on. This dissertation
presents many of the concepts in
Boscovich's later "Philosophiae
naturalis theoria1".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
2. ^ "Roger Joseph Boscovich". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Roger%20Joseph%20
Boscovich
3. ^ "Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
4. ^ "Boscovich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boscovich
5. ^ The Conflict between Atomism and
Conservation Theory 1644 - 1860 by
Wilson L. Scott, London and New York,
1970
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Ruggero
Giuseppe Boscovich". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
9. ^ "Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
10. ^
http://www.nature.com/nmat/journal/v2/n8
/full/nmat949.html
11. ^
http://www.nature.com/nmat/journal/v2/n8
/full/nmat949.html
12. ^ "Boscovich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boscovich
(1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Roger Joseph Boscovich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Roger_Jo
seph_Boscovich
Rome11  
[1] Portrait of Rudjer Boskovic. Work
of R. Edge Pine, London, 1760
[http://knjiznica.irb.hr/hrv/rudjer.html
] [http://www.hr/darko/etf/et111.html]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rudjer_Boskovic.jpg

[2] Boscovich force-distance curve
from the dissertation De viribus
vivis22, published in 1745. Letters
identify 'limit points' where
attraction turns into repulsion and
vice versa, inflection points, maxima
and minima and so on. (The dissertation
presents many of the concepts
successively exposed in Philosophiae
naturalis theoria1). Other versions of
the Boscovich force law present more
oscillations around the horizontal
axis. In spite of the importance of his
contribution to the understanding of
intermolecular forces, Boscovich is
generally little known among materials
scientists. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nmat/journ
al/v2/n8/fig_tab/nmat949_F1.html
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 7 8 		2965)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
2. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
3. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p88.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
4. ^
Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson Published
1915 Macmillan Electricity 706
pages Original from the University of
Michigan http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en
5. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p88.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
6. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
7. ^ Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism By Silvanus
Phillips Thompson Published
1915 Macmillan Electricity 706
pages Original from the University of
Michigan, p45.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckler+leipz
ig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8vIkfDDE
&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA&hl=en
(1745 (guess based on id2964 being
before according to ) (verify by
earliest work) (1745 (guess based on
id2964 being before according to )
(verify by earliest work)
8. ^ Ted
Huntington. (1745 (guess based on
id2964 being before according to )
(verify by earliest work) (1745 (guess
based on id2964 being before according
to ) (verify by earliest work)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=andrew+gordon+
erfurt+cylinder&source=web&ots=mzOqKOHYa
g&sig=GSrtp5lg-IuWmCuWmqUiXFrPCUI&hl=en#
PPA74,M1
(University of Erfurt) Erfurt, Germany6
 		 
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 16 17 		2966)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml
2. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
3. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
4. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
5. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
6. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml
7. ^ Makers of Electricity By
Michael Francis O'Reilly, James Joseph
Walsh Published 1909 Fordham
University Press Electricity 404
ages, p74.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=andrew+gordon+
erfurt+cylinder&source=web&ots=mzOqKOHYa
g&sig=GSrtp5lg-IuWmCuWmqUiXFrPCUI&hl=en#
PPA74,M1
8. ^ Makers of Electricity By
Michael Francis O'Reilly, James Joseph
Walsh Published 1909 Fordham
University Press Electricity 404
ages, pp75-76.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=andrew+gordon+
erfurt+cylinder&source=web&ots=mzOqKOHYa
g&sig=GSrtp5lg-IuWmCuWmqUiXFrPCUI&hl=en#
PPA74,M1
9. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Makers of
Electricity By Michael Francis
O'Reilly, James Joseph Walsh Published
1909 Fordham University
Press Electricity 404 ages, p76.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=andrew+gordon+
erfurt+cylinder&source=web&ots=mzOqKOHYa
g&sig=GSrtp5lg-IuWmCuWmqUiXFrPCUI&hl=en#
PPA74,M1
12. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p90.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
13. ^ Makers
of Electricity By Michael Francis
O'Reilly, James Joseph Walsh Published
1909 Fordham University
Press Electricity 404 ages, p76.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=andrew+gordon+
erfurt+cylinder&source=web&ots=mzOqKOHYa
g&sig=GSrtp5lg-IuWmCuWmqUiXFrPCUI&hl=en#
PPA74,M1
14. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p90.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601336
15. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
16. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm (1745)
17. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml (Bells= 1742)

MORE INFO
[1] Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism By Silvanus
Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en
(University of Erfurt) Erfurt,
Germany15  
[1] a is connected to the electrified
conductor; b is the insulated clapper;
c the grounded gong. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TFLkGa4bDCIC

[2] Franklin's Bells COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arcsandsparks.com/fra
nklin.html
254 YBN
[04/20/1746 AD] 25 26 27 		1930) Musschenbroek comes from a family
of instrument makers, who at the time
of his birth are making telescopes,
microscopes and air pumps.21
In 1715
Musschenbroek earns a medical degree
from the University of Leiden and a
Ph.D. in 1719.22
Luigi Galvani will use
a Leyden jar to move muscles on frog
legs in 1780.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169.
2. ^
"electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
3. ^ "Pieter van Musschenbroek". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pieter+van+Mussch
enbroek?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Pieter van
Musschenbroek". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pieter+van+Mussch
enbroek?cat=technology (1746)
6. ^ John
Heilbron, "G. M. Bose: The Prime Mover
in the Invention of the Leyden
Jar?",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2. (Summer,
1966), p. 265.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
138/01a00110/0 Bose_Georg.pdf
7. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
8. ^ John Heilbron, "G. M. Bose: The
Prime Mover in the Invention of the
Leyden Jar?",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2.
(Summer, 1966), p. 265.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
138/01a00110/0 Bose_Georg.pdf
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Pieter van
Musschenbroek". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pieter+van+Mussch
enbroek?cat=technology
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169, p169.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169, p169.
16. ^ "Pieter
van Musschenbroek". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_van_
Musschenbroek
17. ^ "Pieter van Musschenbroek". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pieter+van+Mussch
enbroek?cat=technology
18. ^ "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
19. ^ "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p169.
23. ^
http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/C
ircuit/1858/galvanie.htm
24. ^ "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
25. ^ "Pieter van Musschenbroek". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pieter+van+Mussch
enbroek?cat=technology (04/20)
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p169. (1746) (1746)
27. ^
"Pieter van Musschenbroek". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pieter+van+Mussch
enbroek?cat=technology (1746)
Leiden, Netherlands24  
[1] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg

[2] AD 1745 E.G. Von Kliest & Pieter
van Musschenbroek PD
source: http://itp.nyu.edu/~nql3186/elec
tricity/pages/leyden.html
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 8 9 		1995) Leonhard Euler (OElR) (CE
1707-1783), Swiss mathematician,1
publishes "Nova theoria lucis et
colorum" (A new theory of light and
colors) in which Euler rejects Newton's
corpuscular theory of light in favor of
the view of light as a wave propagated
through an aetherial medium similar to
sound, and supports the theory that
color of light is based on wave-length
("particle spacing").2 3 4

In 1699, Nicolas Malebranche (CE
1638-17155 ) was the first to make
public the theory that color is based
on frequency of light.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
2. ^ Home, R.W.
(1988). "Leonhard Euler's
'Anti-Newtonian' Theory of Light".
Annals of Science 45 (5): 521-533.
(euler_antiNewton_light_1988_annals_of_s
cience.pdf)
3. ^
http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/pag
es/E088.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Optics
in the age of Euler, Casper Hakfoort,
1995, p75.
7. ^ "Leonhard Euler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
8. ^
http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/pag
es/E088.html (1746)
9. ^ Optics in the age of
Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995 (1746)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
[3] "Contributions of Leonhard Euler to
mathematics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributio
ns_of_Leonhard_Euler_to_mathematics
[4] "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
[5] ^ O'Connor, J.J., and Roberson,
E.F.; The MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive: "The number e";
University of St Andrews Scotland
(2001)
[6] History of Mathematics, D. E. Smith
[7]
http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/ca
talogue.asp?isbn=9780521035071 (Optics
in the Age of Euler), Conceptions of
the Nature of Light, 1700-1795
[8]
http://math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/
[9] "Johann Andreas von Segner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Andr
eas_von_Segner
Berlin, Germany7  
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 3 		2003)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
2. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
3. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1746)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carolus Linnaeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
[3] "Systema Naturae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Nat
urae
Uppsala, Sweden2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 3 		2022)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marggraf". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marggraf
2. ^ "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
3. ^ "Marggraf". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marggraf (1746)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Andreas Sigismund
Marggraf". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Sig
ismund_Marggraf
Berlin, Germany2 (presumably) 
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 20 21 		2953) In 1746 the abbé Jean-Antoine
Nollet, a physicist who popularizes
science in France, discharges a Leyden
jar in front of King Louis XV by
sending current through a chain of 180
Royal Guards. In another demonstration,
Nollet uses wire made of iron to
connect a row of Carthusian monks more
than a kilometre long; when a Leyden
jar is discharged, the white-robed
monks reportedly leap simultaneously
into the air.15

In addition to many memoirs Nollet
writes "Legons de physique
expdrimentale" (1743), "Essai sur
l'electricite des corps" (1747),
"Recherches sur les causes
particulieres des phenomenes
eiectriques" (1749 and 1754), "Recueil
de lettres sur l'electricite" (1753),
"L'Art de faire les chapeaux" (1764)
and "L'Art des experiences" (1770).16

It would seem that if there were two
particles combining in a spark that
some atom or other form of matter might
be formed. Perhaps all the matter is
lost to photons. If the atmosphere so
clearly felt around objects electrified
with static electricity is made of
particles, what kind of particles? How
do they differ from an electric field
from moving current such as around a
permanent magnet or wire? What happens
when these particles merge? Is all
matter released as particles of light,
or does some matter remain after?17

EX: Model particle fields and how they
collapse under gravity, forms a line,
releases particles?18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "historical chronology".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^, p77.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9XS
nFx4C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=nollet+electri
cal+mechanical&source=web&ots=soy1Mv8usj
&sig=lEG1Yk6qvpp4Img5Ga3ZGHz5r-I&hl=en#P
PA76,M1
7. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
9. ^ Record ID1965.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp124-126.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
11. ^
Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, v2
p107, plate 4.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
12. ^ Record
ID2961. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Priestley,
Joseph. The history and present state
of electricity, with original
experiments, by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged Vol. 1. London, 1775. 2 vols.
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale Group, v2 p107.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
15. ^
"electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
16. ^ "Jean Antoine Nollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Jean
Antoine Nollet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Nollet
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
20. ^ "JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/JEAN+ANTOINE+NOLL
ET?cat=technology (1746)
21. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Antoine Nollet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Nollet
[2]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11090b.h
tm
Paris, France19 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abben
ollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 8 		2968) In 1747, Watson transmits an
electric spark from his device through
a wire strung across the River Thames
at Westminster Bridge.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
2. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p113.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

3. ^ A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William,
pp713-714.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
4. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p194.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

5. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p341-342.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

6. ^ "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
7. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
8. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29 (1746) (1746)

MORE INFO
[1] A Continuation of a Paper
concerning Electricity, by William
Watson F. R. S. Printed in These Trans.
N. 477, Article I. Ending p.
501 Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0118 Wats
on_William_1746_Continuation.pdf
[2] An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor
London, England7  
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 11 		2969) William Watson (CE
1715â€"1787), English physician and
scientist,7 relates that "Upon shewing
some Experiments to Dr. Bevis, to prove
my Assertion that the Stroke was,
caeteris paribus, (other things being
equal8 ) as the Points of Contact of
Nonelectrics to the Glass, that
ingenious Gentleman has very clearly
demonstrated it likewise by the
following Experiment: He wrapped up two
large round-bellied Phials in very thin
Lead so close as to touch the Glasses
every-where, except their Necks. These
were filled with Water, and cork'd,
with a Staple of small Wire running
through each Cork into the Water. A
Piece of strong Wire about 5 Inches
long, with an Eye at each End, was
provided, and at each End of this hung
one of the Phial of Water by the small
Staple running through the Cork. A
small Wire Loop then was fasten'd into
the Lead at the Bottom of each Phial,
and into these Loops was inserted a
Piece of strong Wire like the former.
If then these Phials were hung across
the Gun-barrel and electrified, and a
Person standing upon the Floor touched
the bottom Wire with one Hand, and the
Gun barrel with the other, he received
a most violent Shock through both his
Arms, and across his Breast."9
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/bevis.
html
2. ^ "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Leyden Jar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
3. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p113.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

4. ^ A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William,
pp714-715.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "William Watson
(scientist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
8. ^
http://www1.bartleby.com/81/2799.html
9. ^ A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William,
pp713-714.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
10. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
11. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29 (1746) (1746)

MORE INFO
[1] "electromagnetism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[2] A Continuation of a Paper
concerning Electricity, by William
Watson F. R. S. Printed in These Trans.
N. 477, Article I. Ending p.
501 Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0118 Wats
on_William_1746_Continuation.pdf
London, England10  
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 3 4 		2977) In this year Jean-Antoine Nollet
(CE 1700-1770) publishes "Recherches
sur les Causes Particulieres des
Phenomenes Electriques, l'Abbe Nollet",
(1753) a detailed treatise on
electricity, and "Lettres sur l
Electricite, l'Abbe Nollet" (1753)
which counters Franklin's one-fluid
theory of electricity.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
3. ^ "JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/JEAN+ANTOINE+NOLL
ET?cat=technology (1746)
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Antoine Nollet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Nollet
[2]
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology
[3]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11090b.h
tm
[4] "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9XS
nFx4C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=nollet+electri
cal+mechanical&source=web&ots=soy1Mv8usj
&sig=lEG1Yk6qvpp4Img5Ga3ZGHz5r-I&hl=en#P
PA76,M1
[6] "Jean Antoine Nollet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Nollet
[7] Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale
Group. http://galenet.galegroup.com/ser
vlet/ECCO Gale Document Number:
CW3308601351 http://galenet.galegroup.c
om/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0
657800501&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&df=f&d2=1
40&docNum=CW3308601351&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=
BN&d6=140&d3=140&ste=10&stp=Author&d4=0.
33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T036346
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abben
ollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
253 YBN
[07/11/1747 AD] 27 28 29 		1981) Franklin writes "The
impossibility of electrising one's self
though standing on wax by rubbing the
tube, and drawing the fire from it; and
the manner of doing it, by passing the
tube near a person or thing standing on
the floor, &c., had also occurred to us
some months before Mr Watson's
ingenious Sequel came to hand, and
these were some of the new things I
intended to have communicated to you
But now I need only mention some
particulars not hinted in that piece
with our reasonings thereupon; though
perhaps the latter might well enough be
spared.
1 A person standing on wax
and rubbing the tube and another person
on wax drawing the fire they will both
of them provided they do not stand so
as to touch one another appear to be
electrised to a person standing on the
floor; that is he will perceive a spark
on approaching each of them with his
knuckle.
2 But, if the persons on
wax touch one another during the
exciting of the tube, neither of them
will appear to be electrised.
3 If
they touch one another after exciting
the tube and drawing the fire as
aforesaid, there will be a stronger
spark between them than was between
either of them and the person on the
floor.
4 After such strong spark
neither of them discover any
electricity.

These appearances we attempt to account
for thus: We suppose, as aforesaid,
that electrical fire is a common
element, of which every one of the
three persons above mentioned has his
equal share, before any operation is
begun with the tube. A, who stands on
wax and rubs the tube, collects the
electrical fire from himself into the
glass; and his communication with the
common stock being cut off by the wax,
his body is not again immediately
supply'd. B, who stands on wax likewise
passing his knuckle along near the
tube, receives the fire which was
collected by the glass from A; and his
communication with the common stock
being likewise cut off, he retains the
additional quantity received. To C,
standing on the floor, both appear to
be electrised: for he having only the
middle quantity of electrical fire,
receives a spark upon approaching B,
who has an over quantity; but gives one
to A, who has an under quantity. If A
and B approach to touch each other the
spark is stronger, because the
difference between them is greater:
After such touch there is no spark
between either of them and C, because
the electrical fire in all is reduced
to the original equality. If they touch
while electrising, the equality is
never destroy'd, the fire only
circulating. Hence have arisen some new
terms among us: we say, B, and bodies
like circumstanced is electrised
positively; A, negatively. Or rather, B
is electrised plus; A, minus. And we
daily in our experiments electrise
bodies plus or minus, as we think
proper. To electrise plus or minus no
more needs to be known than this, that
the parts of the tube or sphere that
are rubbed, do, in the instant of the
friction, attract the electrical fire,
and therefore take it from the thing
rubbing: the same parts immediately, as
the friction upon them ceases, are
disposed to give the fire they have
received, to any body that has less.
Thus you may circulate it, as Mr Watson
has shewn; you may also accumulate or
subtract it upon, or from any body, as
you connect that body with the rubber,
or with the receiver, the communication
with the common stock being cut off. We
think that ingenious gentleman was
deceived when he imagined in his Sequel
that the electrical fire came down the
wire from the deling to the gun barrel,
thence to the sphere, and so electrised
the machine and the man turning the
wheel, &c., We suppose it was driven
off, and not brought on through that
wire; and that the machine and man,
&c., were electrised minus, i.e. had
less electrical fire in them than
things in common.".21


This book will go through five English
editions, three in French, and one each
in Italian and German in the 1700s.22
As
imov says Franklin views the earth and
sky as being a large Leyden jar.23
Possi
bly electricity is caused by gravity,
combined with physical restrictions
caused by atoms occupying space (like
the Pauli exclusion principle, how only
one photon can occupy the quantity of
space a photon can occupy), in other
words, electric attraction and
repulsion may be a collective effect of
the gravity of many particles in
addition to the physical structure of
atomic lattices. Possibly electrons are
actually photons or combinations of
photons held together by gravity, since
when an electron and positron collide
and are separated into source matter in
the form of finite short duration
quantities of photons (check and more
specific, how many photons?). We should
not rule out new ideas and
interpretations, in particular, for
phenomena we cannot directly observe.24


On August 14th, 1747, Franklin sends
Peter Collinson a third letter stating
"SIR, I have lately written two long
Letters to you on the Subject of
Electricity; one by the Governor's
Vessel, the other per Mesnard. On some
further Experiments since, I have
observ'd a Phenomenon or two, that I
cannot at present account for on the
Principle laid down in those Letters,
and am therefore become a little
diffident of my Hypothesis, and asham'd
that I have express'd myself in so
positive a manner. In going on with
these Experiments, how many pretty
Systems do we build which we soon find
ourselves oblig'd to destroy! If there
is no other Use discover'd of
Electricity this however is something
considerable, that it may help to make
a vain man humble. I must now request
that you would not Expose those
Letters; or if you communicate them to
any Friends you would at least conceal
my Name. I have not Time to add but
that I am Sir,
Your obliged and most
hum Serv
B FRANKLIN"25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
3. ^ The History
and Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged. London, 1775.
542pp. (2 vols), v1 p271.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
10. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
12. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^, p77.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9XS
nFx4C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=nollet+electri
cal+mechanical&source=web&ots=soy1Mv8usj
&sig=lEG1Yk6qvpp4Img5Ga3ZGHz5r-I&hl=en#P
PA76,M1
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p194-195.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

17. ^ Record ID2953. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v2 p44.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

20. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p193.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

21. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, pp306-308.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
22. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
24. ^ Ted Huntington
25. ^ The
Writings of Benjamin Franklin By
Benjamin Franklin Published
1905 Macmillan & co., ltd. United
States, p324.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
26. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
27. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p302.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n (07/11/1747)
28. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin (1751)
29. ^ "Leyden Jar
(1747-1748)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar (1747-1748) (1747-1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[4] An Account of Mr. Benjamin
Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations
on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 -
1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin
and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http
://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64a
fe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by
shock which flies into wall as if
blind)
[5] Electrical Experiments, Made in
Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated
Decem. 3, 1753; With Explanations by
Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr.
Peter Collinson, F. R.
S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads
separate electroscope, Canton made
pithballs)
Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA
(letter to London, England26 ) 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
253 YBN
[09/01/1747 AD] 12 		2970) Franklin writes "The non electric
contain'd in the bottle differs when
electrised from a non electric
electrised out of the bottle, in this:
that the electrical fire of the latter
is accumulated on its surface, and
forms an electrical atmosphere round it
of considerable extent; but the
electrical fire is crowded into the
substance of the former, the glass
confining it. (Later Franklin observes
that the "fire" is in the glass, not
the non-electric7 )
At the same time that
the wire and the top of the bottle, &c.
is electrised positively or plus, the
botttom of the bottle is electrised
negatively or minus, in exact
proportion; i.e., whatever quantity of
electrical fire is thrown in at the top
(inside8 ), an equal quantity goes out
of the bottom (outside9 ). To
understand this, suppose the common
quantity of electricity in each part of
the bottle, before the operation
begins, is equal to 20; and at every
stroke of the tube, suppose a quantity
equal to 1 is thrown in; then, after
the first stroke, the quantity
contained in the wire and upper part of
the bottle will be 21, in the bottom
19; after the second, the upper part
will have 22, the lower 18, and so on,
till, after 20 strokes, the upper part
will have a quantity of electrical fire
equal to 40, the lower part none; and
then the operation ends; for no more
can be thrown into the upper part, when
no more can be driven out of the lower
part. If you attempt to throw more in,
it is spued back through the wire, or
flies out in loud cracks through the
sides of the bottle.".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p195.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

2. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p325.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
3. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p195.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p198-199.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

6. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p325.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ The
Writings of Benjamin Franklin By
Benjamin Franklin Published
1905 Macmillan & co., ltd. United
States, pp325-326.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
11. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
12. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p302.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n (09/01/1747)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[4]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9XS
nFx4C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=nollet+electri
cal+mechanical&source=web&ots=soy1Mv8usj
&sig=lEG1Yk6qvpp4Img5Ga3ZGHz5r-I&hl=en#P
PA76,M1
[6] An Account of Mr. Benjamin
Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations
on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 -
1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin
and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http
://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64a
fe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by
shock which flies into wall as if
blind)
[7] Electrical Experiments, Made in
Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated
Decem. 3, 1753; With Explanations by
Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr.
Peter Collinson, F. R.
S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads
separate electroscope, Canton made
pithballs)
[8] "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
Philadelphia, PA, (English Colonies)
USA(London, England11 ) 
[1] Il condensatore di Franklin
(Franklin's pane) PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/index
-1338.htm

[2] Figures from Franklin's fourth
letter of 1747[t] PD
source: The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United
States http://books.google.com/books?id
=BITTQfMLcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=fran
klin+march+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots
=cMKNLDwQT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnU
KOk&hl=en p328
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 4 		1192) The École Nationale des Ponts et
Chaussées (ENPC) ("National school of
Bridges and Roads") is formed in
Paris.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Ecole Nationale des Ponts et
Chaussées". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecole_Natio
nale_des_Ponts_et_Chauss%C3%A9es
3. ^ "Ecole Nationale des Ponts et
Chaussées". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecole_Natio
nale_des_Ponts_et_Chauss%C3%A9es
4. ^ "Ecole Nationale des Ponts et
Chaussées". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecole_Natio
nale_des_Ponts_et_Chauss%C3%A9es
Paris, France3   
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 9 		1907) De La Mettrie is a student of
Hermann Boerhaave.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/LaM
ettrie/Machine/
2. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
3. ^
http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/LaM
ettrie/Machine/
4. ^ "boerhaave". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/boerhaave?cat=hea
lth
5. ^ "". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/LaM
ettrie/Machine/
6. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
7. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
8. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie
9. ^ "Julien Offroy de La Mettrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Offr
oy_de_La_Mettrie (1747)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julien Offroy de La
Mettrie". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6642/Julien-Offroy-de-La-Mettrie
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Julien%20Offroy%2
0de%20La%20Mettrie
?, Netherlands8  
[1] description: Julien Offray de La
Mettrie source:
http://bpun.unine.ch/IconoNeuch/Portrait
s/A-Z/L.htm license: public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie.jpg
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 10 11 		1982)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION_HIST
.HTM
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION_HIST
.HTM
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"bodkin". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc. "bodkin".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
odkin
8. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p302.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
9. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
10. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p302.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n (07/11/1747)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179. (1747)
(1747)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9XS
nFx4C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=nollet+electri
cal+mechanical&source=web&ots=soy1Mv8usj
&sig=lEG1Yk6qvpp4Img5Ga3ZGHz5r-I&hl=en#P
PA76,M1
[5] The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols) http://galenet.galegroup.com/serv
let/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=06578005
01&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW33
08601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10
&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&a
e=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electric
ity.pdf
[6] An Account of Mr. Benjamin
Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations
on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 -
1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin
and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http
://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64a
fe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by
shock which flies into wall as if
blind)
[7] Electrical Experiments, Made in
Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated
Decem. 3, 1753; With Explanations by
Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr.
Peter Collinson, F. R.
S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads
separate electroscope, Canton made
pithballs)
[8] "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania9
(presumably) 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin
Wilson-who disagreed with Franklin's
findings about electrical polarity-this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 4 		2012)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
2. ^ "Albrecht von
Haller". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
3. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
4. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller (1747)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albrecht von Haller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller
[2] "Albrecht von Haller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_vo
n_Haller
Göttingen, Germany3  
[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 6 7 		2020) Today sugar is made from beets in
many countries all over the earth.4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185.
3. ^ "Andreas
Sigismund Marggraf". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
4. ^ "Marggraf". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marggraf
5. ^ "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185. (1747)
(1747)
7. ^ "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf (1747)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Sig
ismund_Marggraf
Berlin, Germany5 (presumably) 
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 4 		2031) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, 1 publishes in
Latin, "Meditationes de Caloris et
Frigoris Causa" (1747; "Cause of Heat
and Cold") in which Lomonosov expresses
anti-phlogistic views supporting the
theory of heat as a form of motion as
Rumford will do.2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p186.
3. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
4. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
(1747)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
Saint Petersburg, Russia3  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 21 22 		2055) Lind observes on a ten-week
cruise (in 1746) that 80 of the 350
semen get scurvy.18
Lind is viewed as
the father of naval hygiene.19
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
2. ^ "James Lind".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Lind?cat=he
alth
3. ^ "James Lind". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8347/James-Lind
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "James Lind".
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Lind?cat=he
alth
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
7. ^ "James Lind".
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Lind?cat=he
alth
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
9. ^ "James Lind".
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Lind?cat=he
alth
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p189.
12. ^ "James
Lind". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8347/James-Lind
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
14. ^ "James Lind".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8347/James-Lind
15. ^ "James Lind". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lind
16. ^ "James Lind". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Lind?cat=he
alth
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "James Lind". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Lind?cat=he
alth
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
20. ^ "James Lind".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8347/James-Lind
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189. (1747) (1747)
22. ^
"James Lind". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lind
(1747)
England20  
[1] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html

[2] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 3 4 		2056)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Lind". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Lind?cat=he
alth
2. ^ "James Lind". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8347/James-Lind
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189. (1747) (1747)
4. ^
"James Lind". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lind
(1747)
England2 (presumably) 
[1] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 4 		2963)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bose.h
tml
2. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
138/01a00110/0 G. M. Bose: The Prime
Mover in the Invention of the Leyden
Jar? John L. Heilbron Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 2. (Summer, 1966), pp. 264-267.
Bose_Georg.pdf
3. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
138/01a00110/0 G. M. Bose: The Prime
Mover in the Invention of the Leyden
Jar? John L. Heilbron Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 2. (Summer, 1966), pp. 264-267.
Bose_Georg.pdf
4. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
138/01a00110/0 G. M. Bose: The Prime
Mover in the Invention of the Leyden
Jar? John L. Heilbron Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 2. (Summer, 1966), pp. 264-267.
Bose_Georg.pdf (1747) (1747)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION_HIST
.HTM
[2] "Georg Matthias Bose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Matth
ias_Bose
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC
[4] Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale
Group. http://galenet.galegroup.com/ser
vlet/ECCO Gale Document Number:
CW3308601336 http://galenet.galegroup.c
om/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0
657800501&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&df=f&d2=1
25&docNum=CW3308601336&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=
BN&d6=125&d3=125&ste=10&stp=Author&d4=0.
33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T036346
(University of Wittenberg)Wittenberg,
Germany3  		 
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 6 		2986)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Antoine Nollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Jean
Antoine Nollet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Nollet
2. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p353. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
3. ^ Memoires de l'Academie des
Sciences (1747), pp102-131.
4. ^ John L. Heilbron,
"Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), p353. ISBN 0-520-03478-3
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
6. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p353. ISBN
0-520-03478-3 (1747)
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p353. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abbenollet.jp
g

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 11 		3452) George William Richman (CE
1711-1753)4 describes the effect of
evaporating fluids producing cold.5

This phenomenon is also known as
"adiabatic temperature change".6
Adiabatic is defined as: occurring
without gain or loss of heat (opposite
of diabatic7 , which is defined as
occurring with an exchange of heat8 ).
(This must refer to no external heat
being added in the case of gas
expansion and compression, since there
is a gain or loss of heat in the
expansion or compression of gases.9 )
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
2. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
3. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
4. ^ "An Account of the Death of Mr.
George William Richman, Professor of
Experimental Philosophy, a Member of
the Imperial Academy of Sciences at
Petersburg. Translated from the
High-Dutch", Philosophical
Transactions, Volume 49 - 1755/1756,
pp61-69.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/8883t794333r1117/?p=1299099a16224de6b24
48e83e277658cπ=0 Richman_death.pdf
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0260-
7085(1755%2F1756)49%3C61%3AAAOTDO%3E2.0.
CO%3B2-D
5. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
6. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
7. ^ "adiabatic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
diabatic>.
8. ^ "diabatic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
iabatic>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ William Cullen, "Of the
Cold produced by evaporating Fluids and
of some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
11. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
{1747}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
[2] "William Cullen." Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cul
len
[3] Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory
of Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol.
49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (05/01/1755)
(Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg,
Russia10  
[1] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm

[2] Description Black and white
print of a William Cullen
portrait Source Medical Portrait
Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas
Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 5 		4483)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp174-175.
2. ^ Joseph
Priestley, "The History and Present
State of Discoveries Relating to
Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
3. ^ Mémoires de l'Académie royale
des sciences, 1747, p630.
4. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HT
M
5. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
{1747}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/07_timel
ine_world_1675_1780.html
[2] "C. F. du Fay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._du_Fa
y (12/1733)
[3] "Mairan, Jean Jacques D’ortous
De." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 33-34. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902774&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
Paris, France4  
[1] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
252 YBN
[01/01/1748 AD] 10 		1960) During the 1720s Bouguer makes
some of the earliest measurements in
astronomical photometry (the
measurement of light intensity),
comparing the apparent brightness of
celestial objects to that of a standard
candle flame.5
In 1730 Bouguer is made
professor of hydrography (geographer of
waters of earth) at Le Havre (in
France6 ) succeeding his father.7
Bougue
r devotes much of his life to the study
of nautical problems such as naval
maneuvers, navigation and ship design.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p174.
2. ^ "Pierre
Bouguer". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Bouguer+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Bouguer+?c
at=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p174.
5. ^ "Pierre
Bouguer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p174.
8. ^ "Pierre
Bouguer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer
9. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer
10. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Bouguer+?c
at=technology (1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Bouguer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Boug
uer
[2] "Heliometer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliometer
??, France9 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Bouguer Born:
16-Feb-1698 Birthplace: Le Croisic,
France Died: 15-Aug-1758 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/065/0
00100762/
252 YBN
[02/14/1748 AD] 13 		1932) In 1748 Bradley is awarded the
Copley medal for his finding of
"nutation"10 .11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
2. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
4. ^ "James Bradley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
5. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
6. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
7. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
8. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
9. ^ "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey
10. ^ "James Bradley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
12. ^ "James
Bradley". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
13. ^ "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey (02/14/1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Aberration of light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_
of_light
Kew, England12  
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 4 		2032) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, 1 publishes in
Latin, "Tentamen Theoriae de vi Aëris
Elastica" (1748; "Elastic Force of
Air").2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
3. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
4. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
(1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
Saint Petersburg, Russia3  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 5 6 		2045) In 1768, Needham is the first
Roman Catholic clergyman to become a
fellow of the Royal Society of London.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mutton". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutton
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp187-188.
3. ^ "John
Turberville Needham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5165/John-Turberville-Needham
4. ^ "John Turberville Needham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5165/John-Turberville-Needham
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp187-188. (1748)
(1748)
6. ^ "John Turberville Needham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5165/John-Turberville-Needham (1750
(presents theory and attempts to
provide evidence)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Turberville Needham".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Turber
ville_Needham
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] NPG 4889 John Turberville
Needham by Jean Baptiste
Garand water- and bodycolour, oval,
1755 5 3/8 in. x 4 5/8 in. (136 mm x
118 mm) Purchased, 1972 Primary
Collection Painting PD Image
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.npg.org.uk/live/searc
h/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp06991&rNo=0&role
=art
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 7 		2954)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
3. ^
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
7. ^
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology (1748)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/JEAN+ANTOINE+NOLL
ET?cat=technology
[2] "Jean-Antoine Nollet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Nollet
[3]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11090b.h
tm
[4] "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[5] "Jean Antoine Nollet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Nollet
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 10 		2955) Nollet designs and builds
globes.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blelectroscope.htm
2. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blelectroscope.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
0775/electroscope
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
0775/electroscope
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
9. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
10. ^
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology (1748)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/JEAN+ANTOINE+NOLL
ET?cat=technology
[2] "Jean-Antoine Nollet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Nollet
[3]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11090b.h
tm
[4] "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[5] "Jean Antoine Nollet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Nollet
[6]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
[7] "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
Paris, France9 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 8 9 		4537)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
2. ^ Robert Grant,
"History of physical astronomy: from
the earliest ages to the middle of the
...", 1852,
p88. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
P_ekCK1MQgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=1758+wal
msley+jupiter&source=bl&ots=zsFdAtj7iK&s
ig=SjyleX3mZhWpM1XsXxRsD7xXE3w&hl=en&ei=
U1dDTPWnLY2-sQOb0_iCDQ&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=1758%20walmsley%20jupiter&f=fa
lse
3. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
versus Relativity" (New York, 1922)
4. ^
Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation versus
Relativity" (New York, 1922)
5. ^ Euler,
:Recherches sur le movement des corps
celestes en general", Memoires de
l'Academie des Sciences de Berlin, 3,
1747, 93-143. Opera omnia ser 2, 25,
1-44.
6. ^ Euler, "Recherches sur la question
des inegalites du mouvement de Saturne
et de Jupiter, sujet propose pour le
prix de l'annee 1748, par l'Acadmie
Royale des Sciences de Paris, 1749.
Opera omnia, ser2, 25, 45-157.
7. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
8. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
versus Relativity" (New York, 1922)
{1748}
9. ^ Robert Grant, "History of physical
astronomy: from the earliest ages to
the middle of the ...", 1852,
p88. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
P_ekCK1MQgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=1758+wal
msley+jupiter&source=bl&ots=zsFdAtj7iK&s
ig=SjyleX3mZhWpM1XsXxRsD7xXE3w&hl=en&ei=
U1dDTPWnLY2-sQOb0_iCDQ&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=1758%20walmsley%20jupiter&f=fa
lse {1748}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
[3] "Contributions of Leonhard Euler to
mathematics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributio
ns_of_Leonhard_Euler_to_mathematics
[4] "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
[5] ^ O'Connor, J.J., and Roberson,
E.F.; The MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive: "The number e";
University of St Andrews Scotland
(2001)
[6] History of Mathematics, D. E. Smith
[7]
http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/ca
talogue.asp?isbn=9780521035071 (Optics
in the Age of Euler), Conceptions of
the Nature of Light, 1700-1795
[8]
http://math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/
[9] "Johann Andreas von Segner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Andr
eas_von_Segner
[10]
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/optics/co
lour.htm
[11] Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, pp56-57.
[12] Home, R.W. (1988).
"Leonhard Euler's 'Anti-Newtonian'
Theory of Light". Annals of Science 45
(5): 521-533.
(euler_antiNewton_light_1988_annals_of_s
cience.pdf), p13.
[13] Optics in the age of
Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, pp1-2.
[14]
Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p75.
[15] Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995,
pp78-79.
[16] Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p82.
[17] Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p84.
[18]
"Johann Andreas von Segner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6597/Johann-Andreas-von-Segner
[19] Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, pp88-89.
[20] Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p102.
[21]
Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p103.
[22]
http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/pag
es/E088.html (1746)
[23] Optics in the age of
Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995 (1746)
[24]
Charles Walmesley, "Of the
Irregularities in the Motion of a
Satellite Arising from the Spheroidical
Figure of Its Primary Planet: In a
Letter to the Rev. James Bradley D. D.
Astronomer Royal, F. R. S. and Member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris;", Phil. Trans. 1757, 10/21/1758.
50:809-835;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1757.0111 http://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=S-U_AAAAYAAJ&pg=P
A295&lpg=PA295&dq=%22since+the+time+that
+astronomers+have+been+enabled%22&source
=bl&ots=03k1LyYeep&sig=Eb-Z2Mu_sAc_baKvd
SXS4TI9YIs&hl=en&ei=PVtDTLmNDZHCsAOwl-H5
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22since%2
0the%20time%20that%20astronomers%20have%
20been%20enabled%22&f=false
[25] Robert E. Bradley, Charles Edward
Sandifer, "Leonhard Euler: life, work
and legacy",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
75vJL_Y-PvsC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=euler
+1748+jupiter&source=bl&ots=RslLkxNhjB&s
ig=gmr0_82LV9HvoxrDdGYLT_f5Vys&hl=en&ei=
_l5DTOP_CpGmsQPo-oH1DA&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAw#v=
onepage&q=euler%201748%20jupiter&f=false

Berlin, Germany7  
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
251 YBN
[04/29/1749 AD] 18 		2971) In this letter Franklin describes
how they ignite alcohol from one side
to the other side of the Delaware
river, using only the water as a
conductor, which amazes many people. A
wire is connected to a spoon in alcohol
and run over the river and wrapped
around the outside of the Leyden jar,
the hook of the Leyden jar is connected
to a 3 foot metal rod driving around
the margin of the water, when the hook
is charged, the charge is sent over the
river through the water to a second 3
foot metal rod driven into the margin
of the water on the other side which
has a thick wire bent near the alcohol,
and the spark completes the circuit
igniting the alcohol.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Leyden Jar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
2. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p402.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
3. ^ "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Leyden Jar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Leyden Jar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Leyden
Jar". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
6. ^ "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Leyden Jar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
7. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, pp401-402.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ The Writings of
Benjamin Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, pp402-403.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p303.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ The Writings of
Benjamin Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p408.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p319-323.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

16. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p410.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
17. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p396.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n
18. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p396.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n (04/29/1749)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
[3] "Benjamin Franklin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[5]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9XS
nFx4C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=nollet+electri
cal+mechanical&source=web&ots=soy1Mv8usj
&sig=lEG1Yk6qvpp4Img5Ga3ZGHz5r-I&hl=en#P
PA76,M1
[7] An Account of Mr. Benjamin
Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations
on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 -
1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin
and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http
://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64a
fe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by
shock which flies into wall as if
blind)
[8] Electrical Experiments, Made in
Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated
Decem. 3, 1753; With Explanations by
Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr.
Peter Collinson, F. R.
S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads
separate electroscope, Canton made
pithballs)
[9] "Franz Ulrich Theodor Aepinus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Ul
rich_Theodor_Aepinus
[10]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Aepinus.html
Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA17 (and London,
England) 
[1] Credit: �White House
Historical Association (White House
Collection)� (981) Painted in
1759 by British artist and scientist
Benjamin Wilson�who disagreed with
Franklin�s findings about
electrical polarity�this portrait
hung in Franklin�s dining room in
Philadelphia until Captain Andre�
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
251 YBN
[1749 AD] 		1877)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
2. ^ "Edmund Halley".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[2] "comet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
[3] "Comet Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halle
y
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg

[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png
251 YBN
[1749 AD] 5 		1961)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Pierre
Bouguer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer
4. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer
5. ^ "Pierre Bouguer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5907/Pierre-Bouguer (1749)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre Bouguer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Boug
uer
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Bouguer+?c
at=technology
[4] "Heliometer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliometer
??, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Bouguer Born:
16-Feb-1698 Birthplace: Le Croisic,
France Died: 15-Aug-1758 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/065/0
00100762/
251 YBN
[1749 AD] 6 		1997)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "carolus linnaeus".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
3. ^ "carolus linnaeus". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
4. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
5. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
6. ^ "carolus linnaeus". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1749)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carolus Linnaeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
Uppsala, Sweden5 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
251 YBN
[1749 AD] 5 		2024)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p185.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p185.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p185.
5. ^ "Johann
Georg Gmelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Geor
g_Gmelin (1749)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v17
5/n4463/pdf/175839b0.pdf
Saint Petersburg, Russia4  
[1] Deutsch: Porträt des deutschen
Botanikers Johann Georg Gmelin
(1709-1755) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gmelin_Johann_Georg_1709-1755.jpg
251 YBN
[1749 AD] 10 		2046) Interesting events in the life of
Denis Didderot:

The Encyclopedia Britannica states that
Diderot "progressed relatively slowly
from Roman Catholicism to deism and
then to atheism".7

In the "Supplément au voyage de
Bougainville Diderot", by discussing
the mores people on islands in the
South Pacific, Diderot emphasizes his
vision of a free society based on
tolerance and develops his views on
sexual freedom.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
2. ^ "Denis Diderot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
4. ^ "Denis Diderot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
5. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
6. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
7. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
8. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
9. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
10. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot (1749)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Diderot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Diderot%2
0
Paris, France9 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
250 YBN
[01/01/1750 AD] 3 		2040)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p187.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p187.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p187.
(1750)
Cape of Good Hope, Africa1 2  
[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 4 		1212) William Cullen (April 15, 1710 -
February 5, 1790), a Scottish physician
and chemist, tries bleeding as a cure
for "insanity".1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
3. ^ "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
4. ^ "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len (+40)

MORE INFO
[1] "Cullen, William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8153>.
[2] "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
[3] "William Cullen." Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cul
len
Scotland, UK3  
[1] Description Black and white
print of a William Cullen
portrait Source Medical Portrait
Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas
Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg

[2] William Cullen, 1710 - 1790.
Chemist and physician about
1768 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nationalgalleries.org
/media_collection/6/PG%201479.jpg
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 4 		1245)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "Blasting cap".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
3. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
4. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania3   
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 3 		1921)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
2. ^ "René Antoine
Ferchault de Réaumur". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167. (1750)
(1750)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
[2] "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_A
ntoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupola?cat=
health
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 4 		1969) Pierre de Maupertuis (moPARTUE)
(CE 1698-1759)1 publishes "Essai de
cosmologie" (1750), which puts forward
a mechanistic view of the universe.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p175.
2. ^ "Maupertuis".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
3. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
4. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
(1750)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Louis Maupertuis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Loui
s_Maupertuis
Berlin, Germany3 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 9 		2025) Wright has a speech impediment.6

Wright's father burns his astronomy
books thinking them frivolous.7
This
idea of the Milky Way as an flat layer
of stars will be taken up and
elaborated by Immanuel Kant in his
"Universal Natural History and Theory
of Heaven".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp185-186.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp185-186.
3. ^
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/
nael/18century/topic_3/illustrations/imm
ilkyway2.htm
4. ^
http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/050714/cal
endar.shtml
5. ^ "Thomas Wright (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wrig
ht_%28astronomer%29
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp185-186.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp185-186.
8. ^ "Thomas
Wright (astronomer)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wrig
ht_%28astronomer%29
9. ^ "Thomas Wright (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wrig
ht_%28astronomer%29 (1750) (1750)
 
[1] Thomas Wright PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Wright_%28astronomer%29.jpg

[2] Wright's, Observatory / Folly :
Westerton, Spennymoor, Durham, Great
Britain The Tower is a circular
structure, in a Gothick rvival style of
the 18th century. Built as an
Observatory by Thomas Wright
(1711-1786) of nearby Byres Green. He
was a Mathematician, astronomer,
(famous for his explanation of the
Milky Way) , architect, and garden
designer. The Observatory appears in a
document of 1744, but does not appear
to have been completed until after
Wright's death in 1796. A plaque dated
1950 was erected to commemorate the
200th anniversary of his publication
''The Original Theory of the Universe''
of 1850. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:WrightsObservatoryWesterton%28HughMor
timer%29Jan2007.jpg
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 5 		2063)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "John Canton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "John Canton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
5. ^ "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton
 (1750)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
London, England4  
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 5 6 		2092) The "bluestockings", form started
by Elizabeth Vesey1 , as a group of
women who attempt to replace social
evenings spent playing cards with
something more intellectual by having
"conversations" to which they invite
men of letters and members of the
aristocracy with literary interests.
Terribly and sadly, and as an
indication of the popularity of forces
against science and women's rights2 ,
the word "bluestocking", will come to
be applied derisively to a woman who
has literary or learned interests.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bluestocking". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bluestockin
g
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Elizabeth Montagu".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3470/Elizabeth-Montagu
4. ^ "Elizabeth Montagu". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3470/Elizabeth-Montagu
5. ^ "bluestocking". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bluestockin
g (1750s)
6. ^ "Blue Stockings Society
(England)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Stocki
ngs_Society_%28England%29 (1750s)
(1750s)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bluestocking". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5782/Bluestocking
London, England4  
[1] Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827),
Breaking Up of the Blue Stocking Club.
Etching, hand-colored (London: Thomas
Tegg, 1815. NYPL, The Carl H.
Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and
His Circle) Source
http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/vic
toria/ref/ps_cps_cd3_049.html Date
1815 Author Thomas
Rowlandson [t kind of erotic, it looks
intentionally fem-to-fem erotic] PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rowlandson-Bluestockings.jpg

[2] Elizabeth Montagu, engraving by
Francesco Bartolozzi, 1792, after a
painting by Sir Joshua Reynolds The
Mansell Collection Related
Articles: To cite this page: *
MLA style: ''Montagu,
Elizabeth.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Nov. 2007 . ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30414/Elizabeth-Montagu-engraving-by-Fr
ancesco-Bartolozzi-1792-after-a-painting
?articleTypeId=1
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 4 		1211) Richard Mead (August 11, 1673 -
February 16, 1754), an English
physician,1 prints a medical text on
"insanity" in which he advocates
assault and torture against those
believed to be insane, writing that an
insane person should be "tied down and
even beat, to prevent his doing
mischief to himself or others."2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Mead". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Mea
d
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
3. ^ "Richard Mead". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Mea
d
4. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
England3  
[1] Richard Mead (1673-1754), English
physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Mead.jpg
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 4 		1949) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) publishes
the "Micromégas" (1752), which
emphasizes the littleness of man
compared to the scale of the universe1
. "Micromégas", is written in the
style of Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver's
Travels", in which an eight-league-tall
traveler from Sirius comes to inspect
the earth. The visitor from Sirius is
divided between horror at the pettiness
and cruelness of humanity and
admiration for modern science.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
2. ^ "Micromégas". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Microm%C3%A9gas
3. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00268232/ap020
342/02a00070/0
4. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00268232/ap020
342/02a00070/0 (1751)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
[3] http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
[4] "Micromegas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micromegas
[5]
http://wondersmith.com/scifi/micro.htm
(text online)
Paris, France3 (published) 
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 3 		1953) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) publishes
"Siècle de Louis XIV" (1751), a
History of King of France Louis XIV.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
2. ^ "Voltaire". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
3. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire (1751)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
[3] "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
[4] "Dictionnaire philosophique".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnair
e_philosophique
Berlin, Germany2  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 5 		1968)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p175.
2. ^ "Pierre Louis
Moreau de Maupertuis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
3. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
4. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
5. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
(1751)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Louis Maupertuis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Loui
s_Maupertuis
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
Berlin, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 6 		1974) Charles Marie de La Condamine
(loKoNDuMEN) (CE 1701-1774), French
geographer 1 publishes "Journal du
voyage fait par ordre du roi a
l'équateur" (1751; "Journal of a
Voyage to the Equator Made by Order of
the King") in addition to a scientific
account2 of his ten year exploration
of South America3 .4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp176-177.
2. ^ "Charles Marie
de La Condamine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6607/Charles-Marie-de-La-Condamine
3. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles%20Marie%2
0de%20La%20Condamine%20
4. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6607/Charles-Marie-de-La-Condamine
5. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mar
ie_de_La_Condamine
6. ^ "Charles Marie de La Condamine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6607/Charles-Marie-de-La-Condamine
(1751)
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Charles-Marie de La Condamine,
French astronomer and explorer
(engraving). PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Marie_de_La_Condamine.jp
g

[2] Charles-Marie de La Condamine PD
source: http://www.gourcez.com/pages/qoe
let-images.htm
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 3 		1984) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790),
just before his death in 1790, signs a
memorial requesting that the Congress
abolish slavery in the United States.
This memorandum provokes some
congressmen into angry defenses of
slavery, which Franklin expertly mocks
in a newspaper piece published a month
before he dies.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
2. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
3. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin (1751)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[4]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
London, England2  
[1] Engraving of Benjamin Franklin from
The Massachusetts Magazine. Library of
Congress, Washington, D.C. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-60661/Engraving-of-Benjamin-Franklin-fr
om-The-Massachusetts-Magazine?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin
Wilson-who disagreed with Franklin''s
findings about electrical polarity-this
portrait hung in Franklin''s dining
room in Philadelphia until Captain
Andre'' stole it during the British
occupation of Philadelphia. Returned to
the U.S. in 1906, it is now in the
White House, in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 4 		2002)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
2. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
3. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
4. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1751)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carolus Linnaeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
[3] "Systema Naturae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Nat
urae
Uppsala, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 12 13 		2047) In 1745 a book seller, André Le
Breton approached Diderot wanting a
French translation of Ephraim Chambers'
English4 "Cyclopaedia" (1728 5 ),
after two other translators had
withdrawn from the project. Diderot
undertook the task with the
mathematician Jean Le Rond d'Alembert
as coeditor6 , but soon changed the
nature of the publication into a bigger
and different project: to commission
the best scholars in France to write
articles on every facet of the new
learning of Newton and his followers.7


Some scholar suggest that the
encyclopedia may have inspired the
French Revolution in 1789 five years
after Diderot's death.8 9
Asimov states
that if true perhaps the French
government had been right to fear the
industrious scribbler.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
5. ^ "Denis
Diderot". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Diderot%2
0
6. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
9. ^ "Denis
Diderot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
11. ^ "Denis
Diderot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
12. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot (1751)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189. (1751)
(1751)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Diderot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
Paris, France11  
[1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg

[2] Info: ''Figurative System of
organisation of human knowledge from
the en:Encyclopédie. For an English
translation see: en:Figurative system
of human knowledge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurativ
e_system_of_human_knowledge Credit:
See en:List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 10 11 		2070)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
2. ^ "Axel Fredrik
Cronstedt". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
7976/Axel-Fredrik-Cronstedt
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
4. ^ "Axel Fredrik
Cronstedt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Fredri
k_Cronstedt
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
10. ^ "Axel Fredrik
Cronstedt". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
7976/Axel-Fredrik-Cronstedt (1751)
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192. (1751)
(1751)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Axel%20Fredrik%20
Cronstedt%20
 
[1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm

[2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste
dt.html
248 YBN
[01/03/1752 AD] 11 		2009) In a letter sent from Geneva on
February 2, 1753 to the astronomer
royal, James Bradley, Melvill suggests
that light rays of different colors
traveling at different velocities might
account for their differing refraction
through a prism, and that this can be
confirmed if the satellites of Jupiter
are seen to change slightly in color as
they occult and emerge. This letter was
read before the Royal Society on March
8 and the telescope maker James Short
is instructed to make the necessary
observations. Short reports that no
such effect could be seen. In a second
letter to Bradley, dated June 2,
Melvill (wrongly7 ) suggests that the
rate of light travel concerned in
aberration might be affected by the
humors of the eye itself. Melvill dies
in Geneva in December 1753 at the age
of twenty-seven.8 (The speed of
photons appears to be very uniform,
although possibly not always the same
as the Pound-Rebka experiment may be
evidence of. The various colors photons
produce is most likely because of the
interval of space between the photons,
the photon interval, or so-called
wavelength of a beam of light.9 )
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18
542?_fromAuth=1
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18
542?_fromAuth=1
4. ^ Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p87.
5. ^ Henry Crew, The
Rise of Modern Physics, The Williams &
Wilkins Company, 1928, p291-292.
6. ^ Journal of
the Royal Astronomical Society of
Canada, July and August, 1914. Both
papers are reprinted in full.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18
542?_fromAuth=1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18
542?_fromAuth=1
11. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18
542?_fromAuth=1 (01/03/1752)

MORE INFO
[1] A Letter from Mr. T. Melvil
to the Rev. James Bradley, D. D. F. R.
S. With a Discourse concerning the
Cause of the Different Refrangibility
of the Rays of Light Author T.
Melvil DOI 10.1098/rstl.1753.0038
melvil_thomas_1753_phil_trans.pdf
[2] Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data
System (ADS) Title: Early Papers on
Light and Color by Thomas
Melville Authors: Hess, H.
V. Journal: Publication of the Pomona
College Astronomical Society, vol. 4,
pp.22-25 1914 melville_thomas2.pdf
[3] Observations on Light and
Colours Title: Observations on
Light and Colours Authors: Melvill,
Thomas Publication: Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
Vol. 8, p.231 Publication
Date: 08/1914 Origin: ADS Biblio
graphic
Code: 1914JRASC...8..231M http://ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1914JRASC...8..231M
 melville_thomas.pdf
[4]
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes
/252/spectra.html
[5]
http://members.aol.com/WSRNet/D1/hist.ht
m
[6] Criticisms of the projectile theory
of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ.
16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/003
1-9120/16/2/314/pev16i2p112.pdf?request-
id=GEXT97iQ3BG5LVsA3Ai7Kg michell_corpu
scular_criticism_pev16i2p112.pdf
Edinburgh, Scotland10   
248 YBN
[02/20/1752 AD] 8 		2976)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
2. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 347-351.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

3. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor
4. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p354.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

5. ^ Record ID1737. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID2878. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "William Watson
(scientist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
8. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor (02/20/1752) (02/20/1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "electromagnetism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[2] A Continuation of a Paper
concerning Electricity, by William
Watson F. R. S. Printed in These Trans.
N. 477, Article I. Ending p.
501 Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0118 Wats
on_William_1746_Continuation.pdf
[3] A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
London, England7  
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 9 10 		1922)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
3. ^ "René
Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
7. ^ "René Antoine
Ferchault de Réaumur". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
8. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167. (1752)
(1752)
10. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y (1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
[2] "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_A
ntoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupola?cat=
health
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 9 		1983)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
8. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179. (1752)
(1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania8
(presumably) 
[1] A drawing of Franklin's kite
experiment CREDIT: Currier & Ives.
''Franklin's experiment, June 1752:
Demonstrating the identity of lightning
and electricty, from which he invented
the lightning rod.'' Prints and
Photographs Division of the Library of
Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
a/franklinb/aa_franklinb_electric_2_e.ht
ml

[2] Franklin with kite PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/bo
ok/apr17.html
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 		2054) Jean Étienne Guettard (GeToRD)
(CE 1715-1786), French geologist 1 ,
upsets the neptunism theories of
Abraham Werner and his followers by
identifying the Auvergne mountains of
central France to be of volcanic origin
(are they?2 ).3 4

Werner's theory states that all
volcanic activity is recent, so no
volcanoes as ancient as the Auvergne
ones should exist. Guettard publishes
this findings in his memoir, "On
Certain Mountains in France which once
have been Volcanoes" (1752).5

In addition Guettard is the first to
identify several fossil species from
the Paris area.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean
Étienne Guettard". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+%C3%89tienne
+Guettard?cat=technology
4. ^ "Jean Etienne Guettard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8385/Jean-Etienne-Guettard
5. ^ "Jean Étienne Guettard". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+%C3%89tienne
+Guettard?cat=technology
6. ^ "Jean Etienne Guettard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8385/Jean-Etienne-Guettard
7. ^ "Jean Étienne Guettard". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+%C3%89tienne
+Guettard?cat=technology

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Étienne Guettard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-%C3%89
tienne_Guettard
France7  
[1] Jean-Étienne Guettard Portrait de
Jean-Etienne Guettard par Théodore
Charpentier (Musée d'Etampes) ©
Corpus Etampois & Musée d''Étampes
2002 PAINTING: PD IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cb
e-guettard.html
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 4 		2064)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "John Canton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
3. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
4. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton (1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 4 		2987)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), pp391-392.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
2. ^ Novi commentarii Academiae
scientiarum imperialis petropolitanae,
Vol 4, (1752-1753), pp301-340.
{Richmann_George_1752.pdf and
Richmann_George_1752b.pdf}
3. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), pp391-392.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
4. ^ John L. Heilbron,
"Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), pp391-392. ISBN
0-520-03478-3 (1752-1753 (needs exact
date))
(Petersberg Academy) St Petersberg,
Russia3  
[1] Richmann's indices QPR and WTV
arranged to measure the electricity of
the coatings of a Leyden jar
('Richmann's experiment'). From
Richmann, Novi commentarii Academiae
scientiarum imperialis petropolitanae,
Vol 4, (1752-1753), pp301-340.
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p392. ISBN
0-520-03478-3

[2] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
247 YBN
[02/17/1753 AD] 17 18 		2658)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
2. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
3. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
4. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
5. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
6. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
7. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
8. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
9. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
12. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
13. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
14. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
17. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
(02/17/1753)
18. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html (1753)
Scotland, Great Britain16
(presumably) 		 
247 YBN
[07/26/1753 AD] 4 		2985)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "An Account of the Death of Mr.
George William Richman, Professor of
Experimental Philosophy, a Member of
the Imperial Academy of Sciences at
Petersburg. Translated from the
High-Dutch", Philosophical
Transactions, Volume 49 - 1755/1756,
pp61-69.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/8883t794333r1117/?p=1299099a16224de6b24
48e83e277658c&pi=0 Richman_death.pdf
2. ^ John L.
Heilbron, "Electricity in the 17th and
18th centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), p352. ISBN 0-520-03478-3
3. ^ "An
Account of the Death of Mr. George
William Richman, Professor of
Experimental Philosophy, a Member of
the Imperial Academy of Sciences at
Petersburg. Translated from the
High-Dutch", Philosophical
Transactions, Volume 49 - 1755/1756,
pp61-69.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/8883t794333r1117/?p=1299099a16224de6b24
48e83e277658c&pi=0 Richman_death.pdf
4. ^ "An Account of
the Death of Mr. George William
Richman, Professor of Experimental
Philosophy, a Member of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences at Petersburg.
Translated from the High-Dutch",
Philosophical Transactions, Volume 49 -
1755/1756, pp61-69.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/8883t794333r1117/?p=1299099a16224de6b24
48e83e277658c&pi=0 Richman_death.pdf
(07/26/1753)
St Petersberg, Russia3  
[1] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
247 YBN
[12/??/1753 AD] 10 		2972)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ The History and
Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged. London, 1775.
542pp. (2 vols), v1 p260-261.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p260-261.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

5. ^ Record ID2971. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ The History
and Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged. London, 1775.
542pp. (2 vols), v1 p260-261.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

7. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p260-261.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "John Canton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
10. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p260-261.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf
(12/1753) (12/1753)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
[3] "Electroscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscop
e
[4]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
[5] "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
[6]
http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/s
tories/enlightenment_and_measurement/05.
ST.05/?scene=6
[7] "Electrostatic induction".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostat
ic_induction
London, England9  
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

[2] C. F. de C. du Fay, J. Canton, W.
Henley and others devised the pith
ball, or double straw electroscope
(fig. I). PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electroscope
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 9 		1927) A solar eclipse in 1706 interests
Delisle in astronomy.2
Delisle works at
the Paris Observatory.3
Peter I (The
Great) invites Delisle to build an
astronomy in Russia.4
Delisle intending
to be in Russia only 4 years, but stays
for 22 and trains the first generation
of Russian astronomers.5
Delisle
returns to Paris in 1747, and is
appointed geographic astronomer to the
naval department. (In Paris6 ) Delisle
installs an observatory in the Hôtel
Cluny.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p168.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p168.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p168.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p168.
5. ^ "Joseph
Nicolas Delisle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9834/Joseph-Nicolas-Delisle
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Joseph Nicolas Delisle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9834/Joseph-Nicolas-Delisle
8. ^ "Joseph Nicolas Delisle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9834/Joseph-Nicolas-Delisle
9. ^ "Joseph Nicolas Delisle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9834/Joseph-Nicolas-Delisle (1753)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Nicolas Delisle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nico
las_Delisle
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Nicolas%
20Delisle%20
Paris, France8  
[1] Delisle COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/04/10301004_T.JPG

[2] Joseph-Nicolas Delisle
(1688-1768) Astrónomo y geógrafo
francés. Trabajos en difracción de la
luz solar y observaciones de los
tránsitos de Venus y Mercurio por el
disco solar. Contrató a C. Messier
como su asistente. Luna: cráter
Delisle (Ø25km, 29.9N 34.6W); Mons
Delisle (Ø30km, 29.5N 35.8W); Rima
Delisle (Ø60km, 31.0N
32.0W) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tayabeixo.org/biografias/
abr_1q/abr_1q.htm
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 4 		1964)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p174.
2. ^ "Henry Baker
(naturalist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Baker
_%28naturalist%29
3. ^ "Henry Baker (naturalist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Baker
_%28naturalist%29
4. ^ "Henry Baker (naturalist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Baker
_%28naturalist%29 (1753) (1753)
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Author : Henry Baker Microscope
from Employment for the microscope
(1764) PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Henry-Baker-001.jpg

[2] Plate XII, ‘Animalcules''.
Reproduced from Employment for
the Microscope by Henry Baker
(1698-1774) (London: R. Dodsley,
1753) RB MISC 3283 PD
source: http://www.nla.gov.au/pub/nlanew
s/2004/may04/article11.html
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 7 		1994)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181, pp180-181.
2. ^
"Contributions of Leonhard Euler to
mathematics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributio
ns_of_Leonhard_Euler_to_mathematics
3. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181, pp180-181.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
7. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler (1753)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
Berlin, Germany6  
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 4 		1998)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carolus linnaeus". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
2. ^ "carolus linnaeus". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
3. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
4. ^ "carolus linnaeus". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1753)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carolus Linnaeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
Uppsala, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1] Deutsch: Titelseite von Carl von
Linnés Buch Species plantarum
(1753) English: Title page of Carl von
Linnés book Species plantarum
(1753) Source bibbild.abo.fi Date
1753 PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Species_plantarum_001.jpg

[2] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 7 		2013)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
2. ^ "Albrecht von
Haller". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
3. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
4. ^ "Albrecht von Haller". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
7. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller (1753)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albrecht von Haller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller
[2] "Albrecht von Haller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_vo
n_Haller
Göttingen, Germany6
(presumably) 
[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 5 		2957)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
3. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p245.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

4. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
5. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM (1753)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
[3] "Electroscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscop
e
[4] "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
[5]
http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/s
tories/enlightenment_and_measurement/05.
ST.05/?scene=6
London, England4  
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

[2] C. F. de C. du Fay, J. Canton, W.
Henley and others devised the pith
ball, or double straw electroscope
(fig. I). PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electroscope
246 YBN
[1754 AD] 5 		2021)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185.
3. ^ "Andreas
Sigismund Marggraf". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
4. ^ "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185. (1754)
(1754)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Sig
ismund_Marggraf
[2] http://www.answers.com/Marggraf
Berlin, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
246 YBN
[1754 AD] 4 		2050) Denis Diderot (DEDrO) (CE
1713-1784), French writer 1 , publishes
"Pensées sur l'interprétation de la
nature" ("Thoughts on the
Interpretation of Nature"), a short
treatise on the new experimental
methods in science.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
2. ^ "Denis Diderot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
3. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
4. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot (1754)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Diderot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Diderot%2
0
[3] "Encyclopédie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3
%A9die
[4] http://diderot.alembert.free.fr/
(online edition)
[5]
http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/p
rojects/encyc/ (with english interface)
Paris, France3  
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
246 YBN
[1754 AD] 5 		2120)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html
2. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html
3. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html
4. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html
5. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html (1754)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Charles Bonnet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
[3] "Charles Bonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Bonnet?ca
t=technology
Geneva, Switzerland4  
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
245 YBN
[01/25/1755 AD] 5 6 		1370) Kant Russian State University is
technically the oldest university in
Russia, when Russia took possession of
Kaliningrad (Lithuanian:
Karaliaučius; German Königsberg,
Polish: Królewiec) after World War 2,
which includes the German East-Prussian
Albertina University of Königsberg
founded in 1544.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Moscow State University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Stat
e_University
2. ^ "Moscow State University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Stat
e_University
3. ^ "Kant Russian State University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant_Russia
n_State_University
4. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

5. ^ "Moscow State University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Stat
e_University
6. ^ "List of oldest universities in
continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Moscow, Russia4  
[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg

[2] Building of the Moscow State
University on the Mokhovaya Street (now
the dean's office). 18th-century
watercolour. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mgu_1798.jpg
245 YBN
[05/01/1755 AD] 8 		3249)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cullen, William." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8153>.
2. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
3. ^ Essays and Observations, Physical
and Literary, vol 2, (Edinburgh, 1770).
4. ^
James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Philosophical
Magazine, Series Series 3, May 1845.
contained in: James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp172-189.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
5. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
6. ^ "Cullen, William." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8153>.
7. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
8. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (05/01/1755)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
[2] "William Cullen." Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cul
len
[3] "adiabatic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
diabatic>
[4] "diabatic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
iabatic>
(University of Edinburgh6 ) Edinburgh,
Scotland7  
[1] Description Black and white
print of a William Cullen
portrait Source Medical Portrait
Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas
Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg

[2] William Cullen, 1710 - 1790.
Chemist and physician about
1768 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nationalgalleries.org
/media_collection/6/PG%201479.jpg
245 YBN
[11/??/1755 AD] 8 9 		1528)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Constitution".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio
n
4. ^ "Corsica". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica
5. ^ "Pasquale Paoli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasquale_Pa
oli
6. ^ "Pasquale Paoli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasquale_Pa
oli
7. ^ "Pasquale Paoli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasquale_Pa
oli
8. ^ "Pasquale Paoli". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasquale_Pa
oli (11/1755)
9. ^ "Corsica". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica
(11/1755)
Corsica 
[1] Buste of the Corsican politician
Pasquale Paoli, by John Flaxman, at
Westminster Abbey, London. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buste_Pasquale_Paoli.jpg
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 5 		1214) John Monro (1715-17911 )
superintendant of Bethlehem Asylum,
records giving one prisoner 61 vomit
inducing emetics (a medicine or object
that induces vomiting2 ) in 6 months.3


FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9410.
html
2. ^ dictionary.com
3. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in
America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and
the Enduring Mistreatment of the
Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus
Publishing, 2001).
4. ^ "Bethlem Royal
Hospital". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Roy
al_Hospital
5. ^
http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9410.
html (+40)
London, England4  
[1] Bethlem Hospital in St George's
Fields by Thomas Shepherd (c.1830). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bethlem_Hospital_in_St_George%27s_Fie
lds_by_Thomas_Shepherd.jpg

[2] Portrait of Dr John Monro, painted
in 1769. Oil on canvas. painted by
leading artist of the day Nathaniel
Dance (1735-1811) COPYRIGHTED but
clearly image is old enough to be PD
source: Undertaker of the mind
978-0-520-23151-1 2001
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 6 7 		1990)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
2. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
3. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Leonhard Euler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
6. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler (1755)
7. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20 (1755)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
[2] "Contributions of Leonhard Euler to
mathematics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributio
ns_of_Leonhard_Euler_to_mathematics
[3] Euler, Leonhard (1960). "Rettung
der Göttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die
Einwürfe der Freygeister". Leonhardi
Euleri Opera Omnia (series 3) 12.
[4]
"Function (mathematics)#Notation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_%2
8mathematics%29#Notation
Berlin, Germany5 (presumably) 
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 19 		2026) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, 1 writes a book on
Russian grammer ("Rossiyskaya
grammatika"2 ) that reforms the
language.3
Lomonosov is the first to
record the freezing of mercury (40
degree below zero (celsius?4 )) in a
very cold Russian winter.5
Lomonosov is
the first to prepare an accurate map of
Russia.6

Lomonosov is the son of a fisherman,
and moves to Moscow at age 19.7
In
1736 Lomonosov is one of sixteen
students selected to continue their
studies at the newly established
secular university at the St.
Petersburg Academy of Sciences.8
The
Academy sends Lomonosov to study in
Germany, from 1736 to 1741, first at
the University of Marburg, where he
learns the basic sciences, and later at
the famous mining academy at Freiburg.9
10
In this time German people
monopolize science in Russia and look
down on the native Russian people (such
as Lomonosov), until the 1900s.11
Lomono
sov writes poetry about science.12
Lomon
sov writes a hymn that lampoons the
theologians who stand in the way of
scientific progress.13
On one occasion,
Lomonosov is sent to jail as a result
of complaints by foreign colleagues
regarding his abusive language at
scientific sessions of the Academy.14
Lo
monosov is friends with the celebrated
German mathematician Leonhard Euler.15

A friend of Lomonosov is killed when
they try to repeat Franklin's kite
experiment.16
Lomonosov supports
atomist views.17

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p186.
7. ^ "mikhail
lomonosov". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
8. ^ "mikhail lomonosov". Encyclopedia
of Russian History. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
9. ^ "mikhail lomonosov". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
10. ^ "mikhail lomonosov". Encyclopedia
of Russian History. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
12. ^ "mikhail
lomonosov". Encyclopedia of Russian
History. The Gale Group, Inc, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
13. ^ "mikhail lomonosov". Encyclopedia
of Russian History. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
14. ^ "mikhail lomonosov". Encyclopedia
of Russian History. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
15. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p186.
18. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186. (1755) (1755)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://max.mmlc.northwestern.edu/~mdenne
r/Demo/poetpage/lomonosov.htm
(graphical timeline)
Saint Petersburg, Russia18  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg

[2] Lomonosov's map of the Arctic.
Image courtesy Ecoshelf. PD
source: http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/a
rctic/1725.html
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 15 		2072) In 1781 Kant will publishes his
popular (philosophical11 ) work
"Critique of Pure Reason".12
Kant is
funded by Frederick II of Prussia.13
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
2. ^ "Immanuel Kant".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Immanuel%20Kant%2
0
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
4. ^ "Nebular
hypothesis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebular_hyp
othesis
5. ^ Swedenborg, Emanuel. 1734,
(Principia) Latin: Opera Philosophica
et Mineralia (English: Philosophical
and Mineralogical Works), (Principia,
Volume I)
6. ^ "Emanuel Swedenborg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-702
1/Emanuel-Swedenborg
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p192.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p192.
14. ^ "Immanuel
Kant". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Immanuel%20Kant%2
0
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192. (1755) (1755)

MORE INFO
[1] "Immanuel Kant". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-271
37/Immanuel-Kant
[2] "Immanuel Kant". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Ka
nt
[3] "solar system". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-242
060/solar-system
Königsberg, Germany14  
[1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791
after a painting by Döbler Source:
[1]
http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe
rence/main.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg

[2] Kant PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kant_2.jpg
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 12 		2089) Black is professor of chemistry
at Glasgow (1756-66) and from 1766 at
Edinburgh.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
2. ^ "Joseph Black".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
4. ^ "Joseph Black".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
5. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
6. ^
http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e
/elem/e01200.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Joseph Black".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
9. ^ "Joseph Black". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Black+?cat
=technology
10. ^ "Joseph Black". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Black+?cat
=technology
11. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
12. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black (1755)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Black". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Blac
k
Edinburgh, Scotland11  
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 4 		2979)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics, 1979, John L. Heilbron,
University of California Press, p405.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Electricity in the
17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics, 1979, John L.
Heilbron, University of California
Press, p405. ISBN 0-520-03478-3
4. ^ Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics, 1979, John L.
Heilbron, University of California
Press, p405. ISBN 0-520-03478-3 (1755)
Peking, China (sent to St. Petersberg
Academy)3  		 
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 5 6 		1215) Pennsylvania Hospital, the first
hospital in what is now the United
States, is opened to care for the
sick-poor and mentally ill of
Philadelphia. This is also the first
psychiatric hospital in what will be
the USA.1

People are kept in cells watched by
other people with whips, are beat,
regularly chained, and put in
"madd-shirts" (straight jackets).2

Care of the mentally ill will be
removed to West Philadelphia in 1841
with the construction of the
Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane,
later known as The Institute of the
Pennsylvania Hospital.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pennsylvania Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvani
a_Hospital
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
3. ^ "Pennsylvania Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvani
a_Hospital
4. ^ "Bethlem Royal Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Roy
al_Hospital
5. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
6. ^ "Pennsylvania Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvani
a_Hospital
Pennsylviania, USA4   
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 5 		1954) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) publishes
"Essai sur l'histoire générale et sur
les mœurs et l'esprit des nations" (7
vol., 1756; tr. 1759), the first
attempt at writing a history of the
world as a whole.1 Voltaire lays as
much emphasis on culture and commerce
as on politics and war, and avoids
national (prejudice2 ).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
4. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
5. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire (1756)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
[3] "Voltaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
[4] "Dictionnaire philosophique".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnair
e_philosophique
Geneva, Switzerland4  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 5 		2016)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
2. ^
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/dreama
natomy/da_g_II-C-10.html
3. ^ "Albrecht von Haller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_vo
n_Haller
4. ^
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/dreama
natomy/da_g_II-C-10.html
5. ^
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/dreama
natomy/da_g_II-C-10.html (1756)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albrecht von Haller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
Gottingen, Germany4  
[1] Icones anatomicae... by Albrecht
von Haller and C.J.
Rollinus Gottingen, 1756.
Copperplate engraving. National Library
of Medicine. Albrecht von
Haller (1708-1777) [anatomist] C.J.
Rollinus [artist] Contemporaries
praised the Swiss anatomist Haller for
his finely detailed illustrations of
finely dissected subjects. This
dissection of the arteries of the face
was copied and reprinted in numerous
other works of anatomy.
''Icones anatomicae'' by C.J.
Rollinus (Artist) published by Albrecht
von Haller (Anatomist) in 1756.
Uploader:--Kuebi 15:34, 3 April 2007
(UTC) Source
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/dream
anatomy/da_g_II-C-10.html (cleaned and
transferred to b&w with contrast
enhancement) Date 1756 Author
Albrecht von Haller; Engraver: C.J.
Rollinus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller_icones_anatomicae
_head.jpg

[2] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 4 		2033) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, 1 publishes in
Latin, "Theoria Electricitatis" (1756;
"Theory of Electricity").2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
3. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
4. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
(1756)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
Saint Petersburg, Russia3  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 6 		2034) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, 1 publishes "Slovo
o proiskhozhdeni sveta" (1756; "Origin
of Light and Colours").2

Lomonosov supports a wave theory of
light as Young will do (state nature of
wave theory, aether based, sine wave,
amplitude, like sound?3 ).4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
5. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
6. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
(1756)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
Saint Petersburg, Russia5  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 4 		2061)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
3. ^ "Jean Le Rond d Alembert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
4. ^ "Jean Le Rond d Alembert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert (1756)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_le_Ron
d_D%27Alembert
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert
[3] "partial differential equation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
2198/partial-differential-equation
[4] "Partial differential equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_dif
ferential_equation
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 4 		2066)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
3. ^ "John Canton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190. (1756-1759)
(1756-1759)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 12 		2090)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
2. ^ "Joseph Black".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
3. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
4. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
5. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
10. ^ "Joseph
Black". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
11. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
12. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black (1756)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Black". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Blac
k
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Black+?cat
=technology
[3]
http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e
/elem/e01200.html
Edinburgh, Scotland11  
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
244 YBN
[1756 AD] 4 		2252)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Floriano Caldani". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floriano_Ca
ldani
2. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi.
3. ^ Luigi
Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi.
4. ^ Luigi
Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi. {1756}
Bologna, Italy3  
[1] Icones Anatomicae PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/it/8/8f/Caldani_Icones_Anatomicae.
jpg
243 YBN
[1757 AD] 11 		2039) Lacaille will use Clairaut's
calculations of perturbations to
improve his tables of Sun positions
published in 1758.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A Short History of Astronomy, By
Arthur Berry, Published 1899, Scribner,
Astronomy, 440 pages, Original from
Harvard University,
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA300,M1
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Moon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon
4. ^ Wieczorek, M.; et al. (2006). "The
constitution and structure of the lunar
interior". Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 60: 221-364.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p186
6. ^ A Short
History of Astronomy, By Arthur Berry,
Published 1899, Scribner, Astronomy,
440 pages, Original from Harvard
University,
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA300,M1
(1757)
7. ^ A Short History of Astronomy, By
Arthur Berry, Published 1899, Scribner,
Astronomy, 440 pages, Original from
Harvard University,
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA300,M1
8. ^ A Short History of Astronomy, By
Arthur Berry, Published 1899, Scribner,
Astronomy, 440 pages, Original from
Harvard University,
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA300,M1
9. ^ A Short History of Astronomy, By
Arthur Berry, Published 1899, Scribner,
Astronomy, 440 pages, Original from
Harvard University,
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA300,M1
10. ^ A Short History of Astronomy, By
Arthur Berry, Published 1899, Scribner,
Astronomy, 440 pages, Original from
Harvard University,
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA300,M1
11. ^ A Short History of Astronomy, By
Arthur Berry, Published 1899, Scribner,
Astronomy, 440 pages, Original from
Harvard University,
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA300,M1
(1757)

MORE INFO
[1] "analytic geometry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235
547/analytic-geometry
[2] "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
[4]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
Paris, France10  
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
243 YBN
[1757 AD] 6 		2041) Lacaille gives away copies of his
chart to any people who ask even though
poor.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p187.
3. ^ "Nicolas
Louis de Lacaille". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Louis%2
0de%20Lacaille%20
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187.
5. ^ "Nicolas Louis
de Lacaille". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187. (1757) (1757)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Lou
is_de_Lacaille
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg
243 YBN
[1757 AD] 13 14 15 16 17 		2697)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
Boscovich_Stigler_least_squares_615.pdf
Biometrika 1984 71(3):615-620;
doi:10.1093/biomet/71.3.615 MISCELLENEA
Studies in the history of probability
and statistics XL Boscovich, Simpson
and a 1760 manuscript note on fitting a
linear relation STEPHEN M. STIGLER
((poses question) 1757 (provides
geometric solution)1760)
4. ^ "Ruggero Giuseppe
Boscovich". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
5. ^ R. J. Boscovich's work on
probability Journal Archive for History
of Exact Sciences Publisher Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg ISSN 0003-9519
(Print) 1432-0657 (Online) Issue Volume
9, Numbers 4-5 / January, 1973 DOI
10.1007/BF00348366 Pages 306-324
Subject Collection Mathematics and
Statistics SpringerLink Date Friday,
December 10, 2004, p22.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/v460
0073j2262802/
Boscovich_stays_poem_fulltext.pdf
(1757)
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
Boscovich_Stigler_least_squares_615.pdf
Biometrika 1984 71(3):615-620;
doi:10.1093/biomet/71.3.615 MISCELLENEA
Studies in the history of probability
and statistics XL Boscovich, Simpson
and a 1760 manuscript note on fitting a
linear relation STEPHEN M. STIGLER
((poses question) 1757 (provides
geometric solution)1760)
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
Record ID2445. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Ruggero
Giuseppe Boscovich". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
13. ^ "Boscovich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boscovich
(1757)
14. ^
http://www.answers.com/Roger%20Joseph%20
Boscovich (poses question) 1757
(provides geometric solution)1760)
15. ^ The Conflict
between Atomism and Conservation Theory
1644 - 1860 by Wilson L. Scott, London
and New York, 1970 (1746)
16. ^ "Roger Joseph
Boscovich (c1780, publishes in memoirs,
needs to be verified this is correct
work)". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Roger_Jo
seph_Boscovich (c1780, publishes in
memoirs, needs to be verified this is
correct work) (published 1785
(presumably)
17. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Boscovich.html (1746,
published 1785) (c1780)
Rome?, Italy12  
[1] Portrait of Rudjer Boskovic. Work
of R. Edge Pine, London, 1760
[http://knjiznica.irb.hr/hrv/rudjer.html
]
[http://www.hr/darko/etf/et111.html]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rudjer_Boskovic.jpg
243 YBN
[1757 AD] 8 		2981)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johan Carl Wilcke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Carl_
Wilcke
2. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics, 1979, John L. Heilbron,
University of California Press,
pp438-439. ISBN 0-520-03478-3
3. ^ Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics, 1979, John L.
Heilbron, University of California
Press, p438. ISBN 0-520-03478-3
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.kva.se/KVA_Root/eng/about/his
tory/index.asp
7. ^ "Johan Carl Wilcke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Carl_
Wilcke
8. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics, 1979, John L. Heilbron,
University of California Press,
pp438-439. ISBN 0-520-03478-3 (1757)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electrophorus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophor
us
[2]
http://campus.murraystate.edu/tsm/tsm118
/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm
[3]
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tuto
rials/timeline/1750-1774.html
[4] Pancaldi, Giuliano (2003). Volta,
Science and Culture in the Age of
Enlightenment. Princeton Univ. Press.
ISBN 0691122261. , p.73
[5] Jones, Thomas B.
(July 2007). Electrophorus and
accessories. Thomas B. Jones website.
Univ. of Rochester. Retrieved on
2007-12-27.
[6] Pancaldi 2003, p.75-105
[7] Lewis, Nancy D..
Alesandro Volta, The Perpetual
Electrophorus. Electricity:A Summary of
Scientists and their Discoveries.
Retrieved on 2007-12-27.
[8] Alessandro Volta.
World Of Biography. Retrieved on
2007-12-27.
[9] "Electrophorus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrop
horus
[10] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus
Phillips Thompson Published
1915 http://books.google.com/books?id=h
Lk3AAAAMAAJ
[11] Robert Symmer and the Two
Electricities, J. L. Heilbron Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976), pp.
7-20. Symmer_Heilbron.pdf
[12] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[13] Dictionary of scientific
biography. Charles Coulston Gillispie,
editor-in-chief,New York, Scribner
c1970-c1990. 18 v. volta_DictSci.pdf
(Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
Stockholm6 , Sweden7  
[1] Portrait of Wilcke with his
Electrophorus [12 28] descirbes this
as ''Volta's Electrophorus'' find
origin of this image PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm

[2] Wilcke's Drawing, showing the
Apparatus' Use PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm
243 YBN
[1757 AD] 5 		3250)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
2. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
3. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
4. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
5. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (1757)
(University of Erlangen) Erlangen,
Germany4  		 
242 YBN
[10/21/1758 AD] 10 		4538)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15539b.h
tm
2. ^ Charles Walmesley, "Of the
Irregularities in the Motion of a
Satellite Arising from the Spheroidical
Figure of Its Primary Planet: In a
Letter to the Rev. James Bradley D. D.
Astronomer Royal, F. R. S. and Member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris;", Phil. Trans. 1757, 10/21/1758.
50:809-835;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1757.0111 {Walmesley_C
harles_1757.pdf} http://books.google.co
m/books?id=S-U_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295&lpg=PA2
95&dq=%22since+the+time+that+astronomers
+have+been+enabled%22&source=bl&ots=03k1
LyYeep&sig=Eb-Z2Mu_sAc_baKvdSXS4TI9YIs&h
l=en&ei=PVtDTLmNDZHCsAOwl-H5DA&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22since%20the%20time%
20that%20astronomers%20have%20been%20ena
bled%22&f=false
3. ^ Robert Grant, "History of physical
astronomy: from the earliest ages to
the middle of the ...", 1852,
p88. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
P_ekCK1MQgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=1758+wal
msley+jupiter&source=bl&ots=zsFdAtj7iK&s
ig=SjyleX3mZhWpM1XsXxRsD7xXE3w&hl=en&ei=
U1dDTPWnLY2-sQOb0_iCDQ&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=1758%20walmsley%20jupiter&f=fa
lse
4. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
versus Relativity" (New York, 1922).
5. ^
"Apsides." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 19
Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apsides-1
6. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
versus Relativity" (New York, 1922).
7. ^
Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation versus
Relativity" (New York, 1922).
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Charles Walmesley, "Of the
Irregularities in the Motion of a
Satellite Arising from the Spheroidical
Figure of Its Primary Planet: In a
Letter to the Rev. James Bradley D. D.
Astronomer Royal, F. R. S. and Member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris;", Phil. Trans. 1757, 10/21/1758.
50:809-835;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1757.0111 {Walmesley_C
harles_1757.pdf} http://books.google.co
m/books?id=S-U_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295&lpg=PA2
95&dq=%22since+the+time+that+astronomers
+have+been+enabled%22&source=bl&ots=03k1
LyYeep&sig=Eb-Z2Mu_sAc_baKvdSXS4TI9YIs&h
l=en&ei=PVtDTLmNDZHCsAOwl-H5DA&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22since%20the%20time%
20that%20astronomers%20have%20been%20ena
bled%22&f=false
10. ^ Charles Walmesley, "Of the
Irregularities in the Motion of a
Satellite Arising from the Spheroidical
Figure of Its Primary Planet: In a
Letter to the Rev. James Bradley D. D.
Astronomer Royal, F. R. S. and Member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris;", Phil. Trans. 1757, 10/21/1758.
50:809-835;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1757.0111 {Walmesley_C
harles_1757.pdf} http://books.google.co
m/books?id=S-U_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295&lpg=PA2
95&dq=%22since+the+time+that+astronomers
+have+been+enabled%22&source=bl&ots=03k1
LyYeep&sig=Eb-Z2Mu_sAc_baKvdSXS4TI9YIs&h
l=en&ei=PVtDTLmNDZHCsAOwl-H5DA&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22since%20the%20time%
20that%20astronomers%20have%20been%20ena
bled%22&f=false
Bath, England9   
242 YBN
[11/14/1758 AD] 6 		2038)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
5. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
6. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Clairaut.html
(11/14/1758)

MORE INFO
[1] "analytic geometry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235
547/analytic-geometry
[2] "Alexis Clairaut". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Clai
raut
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Claude+Cla
iraut?cat=technology
[4] "Moon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon
[5] Wieczorek, M.; et al. (2006). "The
constitution and structure of the lunar
interior". Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 60: 221-364.
Paris, France5  
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 7 		1203)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Highs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_High
s
2. ^ "Water Frame". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_Frame

3. ^ "Spinning frame". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_fr
ame
4. ^ "Thomas Highs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_High
s
5. ^ "Spinning jenny". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_je
nny
6. ^ "Thomas Highs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_High
s
7. ^ "Thomas Highs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_High
s (+40)
England6  
[1] An image of Thomas Highs' spinning
jenny design, taken Edward Baines's
History of the Cotton Manufacture in
Great Britain. Since Baine has been
dead for over 100 years, this image is
now in the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomashighsjenny.JPG
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 6 7 		1216) William Battie writes "A Treatise
on Madness" which describes "cures" for
"insanity".1
But "insanity" has never
been clearly defined. I think insanity
can be reduced to having inaccurate
views, or doing unusual behavior. But
many people that simply cannot get a
job, or feed themselves are labeled
insane and locked in psychiatric
hospitals which serve as a primative
social program of free room and food.2

Battie owns psychiatric hospitals, and
a truth that is rarely if ever
mentioned, is that by creating more
nonexistent and or trivial diseases,
more people may be tricked into
believing that they have a disease and
need to buy drugs and pay a doctor for
treatment, which generates more money
for those who own the psychiatric
hospitals and get money from the modern
snake-oil industry of psychology. In
addition, the widely believed myth and
fear of insanity allows an illegal
method for permanently jailing, for
example, political enemies of those in
power, without the victim being charged
with violating a law, without receiving
a trial, tortured, drugged,
experimented on, operated on, and
jailed without finite sentence.
Interestingly psychology is the only
remaining health-based fraud (with the
passing of phrenology), other frauds
such as astrology, psychics, tarot, and
religion are not health based and
generate money strictly from the
fraudulent myth.3
In its role as a
primitive social program, unwanted
relatives (many times unskilled poor
female spouses) are imprisoned in
psychiatric hospitals owned by
individual people such as Battie.
William Battie owns psychiatric
hospitals/prisons in Islington and
Clerkenwell and will die with
100,000-200,000 pounds from this
business.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Robert Whitaker,
"Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad
Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment
of the Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA:
Perseus Publishing, 2001).
5. ^
http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/mhhtim.ht
m
6. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
7. ^
http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/mhhtim.ht
m
England5   
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 7 		1999)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
2. ^ "carolus
linnaeus". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
3. ^ "Systema Naturae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Nat
urae
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
5. ^ "carolus
linnaeus". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
6. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
7. ^ "carolus linnaeus". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1758)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carolus Linnaeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
Uppsala, Sweden6 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 5 		2048)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
2. ^ "Denis Diderot". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Diderot%2
0
3. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
4. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
5. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot (1758)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Denis Diderot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
Paris, France4  
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 7 		2071) Cronstedt also makes a detailed
analysis of calcium tungstate, a
previously unknown mineral of high
relative density (specific gravity),
and studies the properties of gypsum
and a hydrous mineral Cronstedt names
zeolite.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
2. ^ "Axel Fredrik
Cronstedt". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Axel%20Fredrik%20
Cronstedt%20
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
5. ^ "Axel
Fredrik Cronstedt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
7976/Axel-Fredrik-Cronstedt
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp191-192. (1758)
(1758)

MORE INFO
[1] "Axel Fredrik Cronstedt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Fredri
k_Cronstedt
Sweden6 (presumably) 
[1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm

[2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste
dt.html
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 9 10 		2110) King Louis XV calls Messier the
comet ferret.4

Asimov relates that at this time the
true grandeur of the universe (that the
nebulae are actually other galaxies5 )
was not yet known but is only suspected
by people like Lambert and Kant.6
There is a slow and very gradual
acceptance that the estimate of the
size of the universe by the majority of
people on earth continues to increase,
until finally the majority will
probably accept that the universe is
either unknowingly, or infinitely large
in size and age and scale.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200.
2. ^ "Charles
Messier". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200.
4. ^ "Charles
Messier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2247/Charles-Messier
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^
"Charles Messier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200. (1758)
(1758)
10. ^ "Charles Messier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2247/Charles-Messier (1758)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Messier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mes
sier
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Messier 1730 - 1817 [t
Notice how the curtain appears to be
made to look like a spiral galaxy with
the earth as part of it. I doubt this
is coincidence. Interesting that the
artist felt that this needed to be
hidden. it seems unlikely to be
coincidence, because the curtain is so
important as to cover part of the
globe.] PD
source: http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise
/a101_historicalfigures.html

[2] Messier, Charles Joseph
(1730-1817) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/M/Messier.html
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 4 		2174)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Battista_Beccaria
2. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi.
3. ^
"Giambattista Beccaria." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/beccaria-gi
ambattista
4. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi. {1758}

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p. 167)
[3]
"Electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrol
ysis
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
[5]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/?k=Beccaria
[6] "biophysics#48706.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0580/biophysics#48706.toc
[7]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/
beccaria.xml
[8] The History and Present State of
Electricity, Joseph Priestley, The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), pp248-250.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

[9] Crucibles, The Lives and
Achievements of the Great Chemists,
Bernanrd Jaffe, 1930, p79.
[10] Elettricimo
artificiale, &c, p117.
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
[12] "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Beccaria
[13]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/c8x97gg743267538/fulltext.pdf (1760
(presumably)
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
(c1762)
Turin, Italy3  
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 10 11 		2696) The primary elements of matter
for Boscovich are indivisible,
non-extended points. In contrast with
Newton's hypothesis, direct contact of
these points is not allowed because for
impenetrable particles this would imply
a discontinous change in velocity at
the moment of contact. Therefore
particles actually never touch: at very
short distances the mutual force
between them is repulsive, and
increases indefinitely as the distance
is diminished. At great distances,
particles attract through the
gravitational force. Over the
intermediate range the force is
alternatively attractive and repulsive,
with one or more oscillations.
Boscovich represents his theory
graphically through a force-distance
curve (see image): forces above the
horizontal axis are repulsive, those
below it are attractive.4

His law of interaction can be
considered as the first interatomic
model.5 (interesting, Newton never
hypothesized about gravity between
atoms?6 )

It seems almost that there are two main
competing sides throughout the history
of modern science, and Boscovich seems
to be supporting the conservative side
which tends to reject atomism, also as
applied to particles of light.7 I
accept the idea of light as the basis
of all matter and as taking the form of
a particle, perhaps spherical. This
view seems logical to me in recognizing
that planets and stars are spherical
material objects, and that galaxies,
ultimately are made of these
discrete-unit or point-like objects.
However, perhaps something may be
learned from alternative
interpretations of the universe, and
people certainly should have every
freedom to theorize and to think and
believe whatever they want to.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Roger Joseph Boscovich". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Roger%20Joseph%20
Boscovich
2. ^ faraday_boscovich.pdf
Boscovich's theory and its relation to
Faraday's researches: An analytic
approach Journal Archive for History
of Exact Sciences Publisher Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg ISSN 0003-9519
(Print) 1432-0657
(Online) Issue Volume 4, Number 3 /
January,
1967 DOI 10.1007/BF00412959 Pages 184-
202 Subject Collection Mathematics and
Statistics SpringerLink Date Saturday,
December 11, 2004
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.nature.com/nmat/journal/v2/n8
/full/nmat949.html#B1
5. ^
http://www.nature.com/nmat/journal/v2/n8
/full/nmat949.html#B1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Roger
Joseph Boscovich". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Roger Joseph
Boscovich". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Roger_Jo
seph_Boscovich
10. ^ "Roger Joseph Boscovich". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Roger%20Joseph%20
Boscovich {1758}
11. ^ Boscovich, R.J.
Philosophiae naturalis theoria redacta
ad unicam legem virium in natura
existentium (Officina Libraria
Kaliwodiana, Vienna,
1758). English: ("A Theory of Natural
Philosophy Reduced to a Single Law of
the Actions Existing in
Nature") trs: J. M. Child, "A Theory
of Natural Philosophy", Open Court
Publishing, 1922. Partial also found
in: Boorse and Motz, "The World of the
Atom", 1966,
p117. {Boscovich_Roger_Joseph_1758xxxx.
pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0803/Ruggero-Giuseppe-Boscovich
[2] The Conflict between Atomism and
Conservation Theory 1644 - 1860 by
Wilson L. Scott, London and New York,
1970
[3] "Boscovich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boscovich
(1745)
Vienna9  
[1] Portrait of Rudjer Boskovic. Work
of R. Edge Pine, London, 1760
[http://knjiznica.irb.hr/hrv/rudjer.html
] [http://www.hr/darko/etf/et111.html]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rudjer_Boskovic.jpg
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 6 		3649)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color6.h
tml
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color6.h
tml
6. ^
http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color6.h
tml {1758}
(lecture at U of Göttingen)
Göttingen, Germany5  
[1] tobias mayer's trichromatic mixing
triangle (1758) PD/Corel
source: http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/
IMG/mayer.jpg
241 YBN
[02/01/1759 AD] 2 		2973)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Symmer and the Two
Electricities J. L. Heilbron
Isis, Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976), pp.
7-20.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10186/01a00020/0 Symmer_Heilbron.pdf
2. ^ New Experiments and Observations
concerning Electricity; By Robert
Symmer, Esq; F. R. S. Robert
Symmer; John Mitchell
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 51. (1759 - 1760), pp. 340-393,
p340.
http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/print
page/02607085/ap000039/00a00380/0?frame=
noframe&dpi=3&userID=80c3df69@uci.edu/01
c0a848650050110d4f&backcontext=page&back
url=/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem/02607085/ap0
00039/00a00380/0%3fframe%3dnoframe%26dpi
%3d3%26userID%3d80c3df69@uci.edu/01c0a84
8650050110d4f%26config%3d%26PAGE%3d0&act
ion=download&config=jstor Symmer_1759.p
df (02/01/1759) (02/01/1759)
London, England1 (presumably) 
[1] Symmer's socks as elucidated by
Nollet, Lettres sur l'electricitie, Vol
III (Paris, 1767) pp. 45-71,75-80, Fig
1. Each sock when separated from the
other swells owing to collisions among
the ''effluent'' jets of electrical
matter originating from its internal
surface. The light objects at P are
carried toward the sock GHKI by the
''affluent'' current from the air
required by Nollet's theory. Fig. 2.
The socks cohere under the air's
affluent; their efflents do not drive
them apart because, since they are
differently electrified, their jets
constrain one another. Compare the
extent of the jets at E and D in the
two figures. PD/Corel
source: Robert Symmer and the Two
Electricities J. L. Heilbron
Isis, Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976), pp.
7-20.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10186/01a00020/0 Symmer_Heilbron.pdf
p13
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 5 		1938)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
2. ^
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp171-172.
4. ^ "John Harrison".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harris
on
5. ^
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
(1759)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
London, England4  
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903

[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 7 		1939) In 1753 a pocket watch was made
for Harrison, to his design, by
watchmaker John Jefferys. This watch
performed so well that Harrison
realized that a longitude solution that
uses smaller watches.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
2. ^ "John Harrison". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
3. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
4. ^
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
5. ^
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
6. ^ "John Harrison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harris
on
7. ^
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
(1759)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
London, England6  
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903

[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 14 		1950) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) publishes
"Candide, ou l'Optimisme" (1759)
("Candide, Or All for the Best"1 ), a
philosophical fantasy, in which a youth
Candide, disciple of Doctor Pangloss
(himself a disciple of the
philosophical optimism of the deceased2
 Gottfried Leibniz), sees and suffers
such misfortune that Candide is unable
to believe that (earth is3 ) "the best
of all possible worlds." Having retired
with his companions to the shores of
the Propontis, Candide discovers that
the secret of happiness is "to
cultivate one's garden," a practical
philosophy excluding excessive idealism
and nebulous metaphysics.4

Through the allegory of Candide,
Voltaire pokes fun at religion and
theologians, governments and armies,
philosophies and philosophers.5 He
comprehensively, if not systematically,
enumerates all the evils of the world
to make fun of the doctrine of
Optimism, skewering various other
sacred cows along the way. He discusses
many evils, but two stand out: the 1755
Lisbon earthquake and the Seven Years'
War-both of which inspired Voltaire to
write Candide.6

Voltaire will not openly admit to
having written the controversial
"Candide" until 1768 (until then he
signed with a pseudonym: "Monsieur le
docteur Ralph", or "Doctor Ralph"7 ),
his authorship of the work is hardly
disputed. Immediately after
publication, the work and its author
are denounced by secular and religious
authorities alike.8

By the end of February 1759, The Great
Council of Geneva and the
administrators of Paris will have
"Candide" banned9 and orders all
copies to be burned.10 Candide
nevertheless succeeded in selling
20,000-30,000 copies by the end of the
year in over twenty editions, making it
a best-seller. The Duke de La Vallière
speculated near the end of January 1759
that Candide might have been the
fastest-selling book ever.11 In 1762,
Candide will be listed in the "Index
Librorum Prohibitorum", the Catholic
Church's list of prohibited books.12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.answers.com/candide
2. ^ "Candide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candide
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
5. ^ Davidson (2005), p. 54 (January
11, 2005). Voltaire in Exile. Grove
Press, 53. ISBN 0802117910.
6. ^ "Candide".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candide
7. ^ Wade, p. xiii # Wade, Ira O.
(1959b). Voltaire and Candide: A Study
in the Fusion of History, Art, and
Philosophy. Princeton University Press.
Library of Congress number 59-11085.
8. ^ Ayer,
p. 139 # Ayer, A.J. (1986). Voltaire.
Random House. ISBN 0394547985.
9. ^ Williams, p.
1-3 # Williams, David (1997). Voltaire,
Candide. Grand & Cutler Ltd. ISBN
0729303950.
10. ^ http://www.answers.com/candide
11. ^ Mason, p. 14 # Mason, Haydn
(1992). Candide: Optimism Demolished,
Twayne's Masterwork Studies. Twayne
Publishers. ISBN 0-8057-8559-0.
12. ^ Williams, p. 1-3
# Williams, David (1997). Voltaire,
Candide. Grand & Cutler Ltd. ISBN
0729303950.
13. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=1NMOAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=candide&as_brr=1#PPP5,M1

14. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire (1759)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
[3] http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
[4]
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Candide
Paris, France13  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 8 9 		2141) Catherine II invites Wolff to
Russia.5
Wolff's name is preserved in
several anatomical names in particular
the Wolffian body, an early form of of
kidney in embryonic animals preceding
the true kidney.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p206.
2. ^ "Caspar
Friedrich Wolff". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_Frie
drich_Wolff
3. ^ "Caspar Friedrich Wolff". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caspar%20Friedric
h%20Wolff
4. ^ "Caspar Friedrich Wolff". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caspar%20Friedric
h%20Wolff
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p206.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p206.
7. ^ "Caspar
Friedrich Wolff". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_Frie
drich_Wolff
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p206. (1759) (1759)
9. ^
"Caspar Friedrich Wolff". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caspar%20Friedric
h%20Wolff (1759)
Halle, Germany7  
[1] C. F. Wolff, attribution of the
portrait dubious.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cas
par_Friedrich_Wolff
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 26 		2156) Euler writes Lagrange on October
2, 1759 an enthusiastic letter about
the problem of isoperimetry which
Lagrange has in these works solved, and
which Euler had long been working on.9


Unlike the ordinary calculus, which
analyzes the point characteristics of
specific functions, the calculus of
variations deals with the extremum
characteristics of functions as a
whole. The work quickly attracts the
attention of Pierre-Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis (CE 1698â€"1759),
president of the Berlin Academy, who
uses it to support his "principle of
least action" against numerous
critics.10

Lagrange is the only child of eleven to
survive.11
In 1755 Lagrange sent Euler
a letter on the "calculus of
variations" so impressive that Euler
holds back his own work on the subject
to allow Lagrange to publish first.12

In 1758 Lagrange helps to found a
society which will later became the
Turin Academy of Sciences.13
The Paris
Academy of Sciences awards Lagrange
prizes for his essays on the libration
of the moon (1764), the satellites of
Jupiter (1766), and the three-body
problem (1772).14

On the recommendation of Euler and
D'Alembert, Frederick II appoints
Lagrange to succeed Euler as director
of mathematics at the Berlin Academy of
Sciences at age 40, saying "the
greatest king in Europe" ought to have
the "greatest mathematician in Europe"
at his court.15 16
Lagrange says
Newton is the luckiest man in the world
because the system of the universe can
only be worked out once, and Newton was
the person who did it.17 (Asimov cites
Einstein as proof that there is room
for improvement, while I don't cite
Einstein for anything other than
possibly an equivalent system of
visualizing the force of gravity in 3D
with gravity representing the y
dimension (after modifications such as
viewing photons as matter and removing
time and space dilation), I think there
is definitely space for improvement,
and I am not entirely sure Newton's
laws are the final word on all the
matter in the universe in particular in
photon models.18 )
Lagrange lives in
France through the Terror even though
he is friends with Marie Antoinette.19

In 1793 Lagrange is appointed to head a
commission that will in 1795 create the
metric system. The metric system will
come to be the universal language of
scientists, although (the majority in
the20 ) USA (and Great Britain21 )
still use the English system.22
In
1794 when the École Centrale des
Travaux Publics (later renamed the
École Polytechnique) is opened,
Lagrange becomes, with Gaspard Monge,
the school's leading professor of
mathematics.23
Napoleon makes Lagrange
a senator and a count.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ History of Mathematics, D.E.
Smith, vol 1, p483.
2. ^ "calculus of
variations". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Calculus of variations". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of
_variations
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "calculus of variations".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
9. ^ History of Mathematics, D.E.
Smith, vol 1, p483.
10. ^ "Lagrange".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
13. ^ "Lagrange".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
14. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
16. ^ "Lagrange". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
23. ^ "Joseph Louis
Lagrange comte de lEmpire".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
25. ^ History of
Mathematics, D.E. Smith, vol 1
26. ^
History of Mathematics, D.E. Smith, vol
1 (1759)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Lagrange".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
Turin, Italy25  
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 3 		2157)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ History of Mathematics, D.E.
Smith, vol 1
2. ^ History of Mathematics,
D.E. Smith, vol 1
3. ^ History of
Mathematics, D.E. Smith, vol 1 (1759)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Louis Lagrange
comte de lEmpire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
[3] "Joseph Louis Lagrange". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
[4] http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
[5] "calculus of variations".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
[6] "Calculus of variations".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of
_variations
Turin, Italy2  
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 15 		3011)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich
Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>.
2. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich
Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria
Ulrich Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>.
5. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich
Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>.
6. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, 1979, pp422-426. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
7. ^ Henry Cavendish, "An Attempt to
Explain Some of the Principal
Phaenomena of Electricity, by means of
an Elastic Fluid", Philosophical
Transactions, vol. 61, (1771), pp
584-677.
8. ^ Henry Cavendish, "An Attempt to
Explain Some of the Principal
Phaenomena of Electricity, by means of
an Elastic Fluid", Philosophical
Transactions, vol. 61, (1771), pp
584-677.
9. ^ Record ID2167. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Henry Cavendish, "An Attempt to
Explain Some of the Principal
Phaenomena of Electricity, by means of
an Elastic Fluid", Philosophical
Transactions, vol. 61, (1771), pp
584-677.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Aepinus,
Franz Maria Ulrich Theodor Hoch."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>.
15. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich
Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>. (1759)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franz Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/F
ranz_Ulrich_Theodor_Aepinus
[2] John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), pp391-392.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
St. Petersberg, Russia14  
[1] Ulrich Theodor Aepinus PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us2.jpg

[2] Charge device by Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us1.jpg
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 6 		2027)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
3. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
5. ^ "Mikhail
Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186. (1760) (1760)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
[3]
http://max.mmlc.northwestern.edu/~mdenne
r/Demo/poetpage/lomonosov.htm
(graphical timeline)
Saint Petersburg, Russia5  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 7 		2029)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ "mikhail
lomonosov". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
3. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
4. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
5. ^ "Mikhail Lomonosov". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
6. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
7. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
(1760)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://max.mmlc.northwestern.edu/~mdenne
r/Demo/poetpage/lomonosov.htm
(graphical timeline)
Saint Petersburg, Russia6  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 4 		2052) Denis Diderot (DEDrO) (CE
1713-1784), French writer 1 , writes
"La Religieuse" which is about a woman
placed in a convent against her will
which contains a sequence that deals
examines female homosexuality.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/la-religieu
se
3. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
4. ^ http://diderot.alembert.free.fr/
(online edition) (1760) (1760)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Diderot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Diderot%2
0
[3] "Encyclopédie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3
%A9die
[4]
http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/p
rojects/encyc/ (with english interface)
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 11 		2074) In this work Michell gives the
conclusions of his study of the
disastrous Lisbon earthquake of 1755.
Michell shows that the focus of that
earthquake was underneath the Atlantic
Ocean, and proposes erroneously that
the cause of earthquakes was
high-pressure steam, created when water
comes into contact with subterranean
fires.6 7
Michell is one of the
founders of seismology, the science of
earthquakes.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
2. ^ "John Michell".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
3. ^ "John Michell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
6. ^ "John Michell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
7. ^ "John Michell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
8. ^ "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
10. ^ "John Michell".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
11. ^ "John Michell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology (1760)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
Cambridge, England10   
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 11 12 		2094) In Berlin Lambert receives the
patronage of Frederick the Great.8
Lambe
rt corresponds with Immanuel Kant.9
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Johann
Heinrich Lambert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
7. ^ "Johann Heinrich
Lambert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
8. ^ "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
9. ^ "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
10. ^ "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196. (1760)
12. ^ "Johann
Heinrich Lambert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert (1760)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_Lambert
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Heinrich+L
ambert?cat=technology
Augsburg, Germany10  
[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg

[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 27 28 		2122) Water separated into hydrogen and
oxygen using electricity.16

Giovanni Beccaria (CE 1716-1781),
Italian physicist17 , passes
electricity sparks through water and
observes bubbles (of Hydrogen and
Oxygen gas) released from the water but
incorrectly supposes that the action of
the electric matter promotes the
evaporation of water18 .19 20 21

Beccaria does not recognize that the
gases produced are the components of
water.22

Beccaria's main work is the treatise
"Dell' Elettricismo Naturale ed
Artificiale" (1753,tr 1776).23

It is interesting that Beccaria
mistakes bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen
for the bubbles of water gas of boiling
water. It is interesting to me that
photons in the form of heat only create
bubbles of water vapor, where electrons
(which may be photons) separate the
water molecule into Hydrogen and
Oxygen.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
4. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, Joseph Priestley, The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), pp248-250.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

5. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
6. ^ Crucibles, The Lives and
Achievements of the Great Chemists,
Bernanrd Jaffe, 1930, p79.
7. ^ Elettricimo
artificiale, &c, p117.
8. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
11. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, Joseph Priestley, The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), pp248-250.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

12. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
13. ^ Crucibles, The Lives and
Achievements of the Great Chemists,
Bernanrd Jaffe, 1930, p79.
14. ^ Elettricimo
artificiale, &c, p117.
15. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
18. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, Joseph Priestley, The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), pp248-250.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

19. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
20. ^ Crucibles, The Lives and
Achievements of the Great Chemists,
Bernanrd Jaffe, 1930, p79.
21. ^ Elettricimo
artificiale, &c, p117.
22. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
23. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Battista_Beccaria
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
26. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Beccaria
27. ^
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/c8x97gg743267538/fulltext.pdf (1760
(presumably)
28. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
(c1762)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p. 167)
[3]
"Electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrol
ysis
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
[5]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/?k=Beccaria
[6] "biophysics#48706.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0580/biophysics#48706.toc
[7]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/
beccaria.xml
Turin, Italy25 26  
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 2 		1217) Jewish people are killed in
Nancy, France for host nailing.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Haught, "Holy Horrors: An
Illustrated History of Religious Murder
and Madness", (Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 1999).
2. ^ James Haught, "Holy
Horrors: An Illustrated History of
Religious Murder and Madness",
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1999).
  
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 4 		1221) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (January
27, 1756 - December 5, 17911 ), at the
age of 5 appears as a keyboard
performer for the first time.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mozart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozart
2. ^
http://www.abc.net.au/classic/mozart/tim
eline.htm
3. ^
http://www.abc.net.au/classic/mozart/tim
eline.htm
4. ^
http://www.abc.net.au/classic/mozart/tim
eline.htm
Salzburg, Germany3  
[1] Mozart, aged 6, in court dress
digital image may be COPYRIGHTED (but
image of painting is PD)
source: http://www.musicwithease.com/moz
art-pictures.html
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 16 		1915) Morgagni graduates from the
University of Bologna in 1701 6 .7
(At
the University of Bologna8 ), Morgagni
acts as prosector to A.M. Valsalva9
(one of the distinguished pupils of
Malpighi10 ), whom he assists in
preparing Valsalva's celebrated "De
Aure Humana" (1704; "Anatomy and
Diseases of the Ear").11
In 1712
Morgagni is professor of anatomy at the
University of Padua, at age 30, and
will continue to be employed in this
position for nearly 60 years.12
Morgagni
publishes this book at the age of
79.13

An English translation of "De Sedibus"
will be made in 1769 by Benjamin
Alexander.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p166.
2. ^ "giovanni
battista morgagni". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-morgagni
3. ^ "Giovanni Battista Morgagni".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3716/Giovanni-Battista-Morgagni
4. ^ "Pathological anatomy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologica
l_anatomy
5. ^ "giovanni battista morgagni".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-morgagni , at age 19.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p166.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Giovanni Battista Morgagni".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3716/Giovanni-Battista-Morgagni
9. ^ "Giovanni Battista Morgagni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Morgagni
10. ^ "Giovanni Battista Morgagni".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3716/Giovanni-Battista-Morgagni
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p166.
12. ^ "giovanni
battista morgagni". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-morgagni
13. ^ "giovanni battista morgagni".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-morgagni
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p166.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p166. (1761)
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165. (1761)
Padua, Italy15  
[1]
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/morgagni.html Giambattista
Morgagni, De sedibus….
Frontispiece. original image PD
source: http://historical.hsl.virginia.e
du/treasures/images/RB24_M68_1765_fronti
spiece_big.jpg

[2] Title page of Giovanni Battista
Morgagni, De sedibus et causis morborum
per anatomen indagatis (1761) Source:
http://www.b-n.nl/php/auction.php?Auctio
nNumber=318&GroupNumber=62 PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Morgagni_de_sedibus_1761.jpg
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 5 6 		2028)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p186.
3. ^ "mikhail
lomonosov". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-lom
onosov
4. ^ "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p186. (1761) (1761)
6. ^
"Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8817/Mikhail-Vasilyevich-Lomonosov
(1761)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mikhail Lomonosov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lom
onosov
[2]
http://max.mmlc.northwestern.edu/~mdenne
r/Demo/poetpage/lomonosov.htm
(graphical timeline)
Saint Petersburg, Russia4  
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 5 		2042)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p187.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187. (1761) (1761)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Lou
is_de_Lacaille
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Louis%2
0de%20Lacaille%20
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 6 		2044) Lacaille uses Clairaut's
calculations of the perturbations of
the earth to improve these tables of
the Sun.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187.
2. ^ "Nicolas Louis
de Lacaille". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Louis%2
0de%20Lacaille%20
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA301,M1
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=pXgEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=venus+claira
ut+mass&source=web&ots=Fc5D8AEzpB&sig=MK
bIs56VQGC77pr7O_etYS3DdRg#PPA301,M1
5. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187. (1761) (1761)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Lou
is_de_Lacaille
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 5 		2079) Guillaume Le Gentil (lujoNTEL)
(CE 1725-1792) French astronomer, goes
to India to observe the transit of
Venus, but because of Seven Years' War
between Great Britain and France La
Gentil must stay on his ship and misses
the observation, but decides to stay in
India to try for the 1769 transit which
he also misses because of a cloud. La
Gentil returns to France and he was
thought to be dead.1
Le Gentil writes a
2 volume book on India.2

Le Gentil finds that the duration of
the lunar eclipse of 08-30-1765 was
predicted by a Tamil astronomer, based
on the computation of the size and
extent of the earth-shadow (going back
to Aryabhata, 5th c.), and was found
short by 41 seconds, whereas the charts
of Tobias Mayer were long by 68
seconds.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp192-193.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp192-193.
3. ^ "Guillaume
Le Gentil". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_L
e_Gentil
4. ^ Ansari, S. M. R. (March 1977).
"Aryabhata I, His Life and His
Contributions". Bulletin of the
Astronomical Society of India 5 (1):
pp. 10-18. Retrieved on 2007-07-21.
http://hdl.handle.net/2248/502
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp192-193. (1761)
(1761)
  
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 5 		5958) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his first known
compositions at 5 years old (KV 1a-f).1
2 (verify)

Mozart and his older sister, Maria Anna
(CE 1751–1829), are prodigies. At age
five Mozart begins to compose and gives
his first public performance. Starting
in 1763 Leopold tours throughout Europe
with his children. Mozart dies at the
young age of 35.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "Nannerl's Music Book". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nannerl%27s
_Music_Book
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
4. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
5. ^ "Nannerl's Music Book". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nannerl%27s
_Music_Book {c1761 (verify}
Salzburg, Austria4  
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
238 YBN
[04/??/1762 AD] 7 		1955) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (CE
1712-1778) prints "Du Contrat Social,
Principes du droit politique" (English:
"Of the Social Contract, Principles of
Political Right"), which criticizes
religion and is banned in both France
and Geneva. Rousseau is forced to flee
arrest.1

In this book Rousseau describes
government as the servant of the
people, and not their master.2
"Social
Contract", "Émile" and other works by
Rousseau help to prepare the way for
the French Revolution.3

The first sentence in "Social Contract"
is "Man was born free, but he is
everywhere in chains"4

In the Social Contract he claims that
true followers of Jesus would not make
good citizens. This was one of the
reasons for the book's condemnation in
Geneva.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean-Jacques Rousseau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacque
s_Rousseau
2. ^ "Voltaire". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
3. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean-Jacques%20Ro
usseau
4. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9503/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau
5. ^ "Jean-Jacques Rousseau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacque
s_Rousseau
6. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9503/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau
7. ^ "Jean-Jacques Rousseau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacque
s_Rousseau (04/1762)
Paris, France6  
[1] * Description: Portrait of
Jean-Jacques Rousseau * Artist:
Maurice-Quentin La Tour (1704-1788)
* Media/Date: Pastel/1753 Rousseau,
drawing in pastels by Maurice-Quentin
de La Tour, 1753. In the Musée d'Art
et … Courtesy of the Musee d'Art et
d'Histoire, Geneva; photograph, Jean
Arlaud[1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_port
rait%29.jpg

[2] Artist Ramsay, Allan Title
Deutsch: Porträt des Jean-Jacques
Rousseau Year 1766 Technique
Deutsch: Öl auf
Leinwand Dimensions Deutsch: 75 ×
62 cm Current location Deutsch:
National Gallery of Scotland Deutsch:
Edinburgh Source The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Allan_Ramsay_003.jpg
238 YBN
[05/??/1762 AD] 8 		1956) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (CE
1712-1778) publishes "L'Émile ou de
l'éducation" (1762)1 (or "Emile or On
Education") a semi-fictitious work
detailing the growth of a young boy of
that name, presided over by Rousseau
himself2 .

Rousseau rejects an education where a
child learns only to please the
instructor claiming that this produces
people fit to be only masters or
slaves, not free people.3

Both "Du contrat social" (1762); and
"Émile" (1762), which offend both the
French and Genevan ecclesiastic
authorities are burned in Paris and
Geneva.4

Émile and its author are condemned for
religious unorthodoxy in 1762 by the
Parlement de Paris, and Rousseau feels
obliged to flee to Switzerland.5

Rousseau is most controversial in his
own time for his views on religion.
Rousseau's view that man is good by
nature conflicts with the doctrine of
original sin and his theology of nature
expounded by the Savoyard Vicar in
Émile leads to the condemnation of the
book in both Calvinist Geneva and
Catholic Paris.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean-Jacques%20Ro
usseau
2. ^ "Jean-Jacques Rousseau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacque
s_Rousseau
3. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean-Jacques%20Ro
usseau
4. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean-Jacques%20Ro
usseau
5. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean-Jacques%20Ro
usseau
6. ^ "Jean-Jacques Rousseau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacque
s_Rousseau
7. ^ "Jean Jacques Rousseau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9503/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau
8. ^ "Jean-Jacques Rousseau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacque
s_Rousseau (05/1762)
Paris, France7  
[1] * Description: Portrait of
Jean-Jacques Rousseau * Artist:
Maurice-Quentin La Tour (1704-1788)
* Media/Date: Pastel/1753 Rousseau,
drawing in pastels by Maurice-Quentin
de La Tour, 1753. In the Musée d'Art
et … Courtesy of the Musee d'Art et
d'Histoire, Geneva; photograph, Jean
Arlaud[1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_port
rait%29.jpg

[2] Artist Ramsay, Allan Title
Deutsch: Porträt des Jean-Jacques
Rousseau Year 1766 Technique
Deutsch: Öl auf
Leinwand Dimensions Deutsch: 75 ×
62 cm Current location Deutsch:
National Gallery of Scotland Deutsch:
Edinburgh Source The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Allan_Ramsay_003.jpg
238 YBN
[1762 AD] 2 		1218) Pennsylvia psychiatric hospital
charges 4 pence to visit.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
  
238 YBN
[1762 AD] 5 		2065) This is evidence against the view
of those at the Florentine Academy that
water is incompressible.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "John
Canton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
4. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190. (1762) (1762)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
238 YBN
[1762 AD] 8 		2187) (John4 ) Hutton uses some of
Saussure's data.5
Saussure leads the
second expedition to successfully reach
the top of Mount Blanc, the highest
peak of the Alps.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp215-216.
3. ^ "Horace Benedict
de Saussure". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp215-216.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp215-216.
7. ^ "Horace
Benedict de Saussure". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
8. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure (1762)

MORE INFO
[1] "Horace Bénédict de
Saussure". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_B%C3
%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Horace+B%C3%A9n%C
3%A9dict+de+Saussure+?cat=technology
Geneva, Switzerland7  
[1] Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure (1740 - 1799) PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.geneve.ch/fao/2003/20
030822.asp

[2] Horace-Benedict de Saussure and
Jacques Balmat, monument in Chamonix /
France. Scanned by Dake from a book
(1899) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hb_saussure_chamonix.jpg
238 YBN
[1762 AD] 16 17 18 19 20 		2715)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johan Carl Wilcke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Carl_
Wilcke
2. ^ John Heilbron, "Electricity in the
17th and 18th Centuries: A Study in
Early Modern Physics", 1979,
pp418-419.
3. ^ "Electrophorus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electrophorus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrop
horus
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ John
Heilbron, "Electricity in the 17th and
18th Centuries: A Study in Early
Modern Physics", 1979, pp418-419.
12. ^
Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism By Silvanus
Phillips Thompson Published 1915,
p28.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
13. ^ Dictionary of scientific
biography. Charles Coulston Gillispie,
editor-in-chief,New York, Scribner
c1970-c1990. 18, v14 p71.
v. volta_DictSci.pdf
14. ^
http://www.kva.se/KVA_Root/eng/about/his
tory/index.asp
15. ^ "Johan Carl Wilcke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Carl_
Wilcke
16. ^ John Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study in
Early Modern Physics", 1979,
pp418-419. (1762)
17. ^ "Electrophorus
(1762)". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Electrophorus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrop
horus (1762) (1762)
18. ^ Elementary Lessons
in Electricity and Magnetism By
Silvanus Phillips Thompson Published
1915, p28.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ (1762)
19. ^ "Johan Carl Wilcke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Carl_
Wilcke (1764)
20. ^
http://campus.murraystate.edu/tsm/tsm118
/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm (1764)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electrophorus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophor
us
[2]
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tuto
rials/timeline/1750-1774.html
[3] Pancaldi, Giuliano (2003). Volta,
Science and Culture in the Age of
Enlightenment. Princeton Univ. Press.
ISBN 0691122261. , p.73
[4] Jones, Thomas B.
(July 2007). Electrophorus and
accessories. Thomas B. Jones website.
Univ. of Rochester. Retrieved on
2007-12-27
[5] Pancaldi 2003, p.75-105
[6] Lewis, Nancy D..
Alesandro Volta, The Perpetual
Electrophorus. Electricity:A Summary of
Scientists and their Discoveries.
Retrieved on 2007-12-27
[7] Alessandro Volta.
World Of Biography. Retrieved on
2007-12-27
[8] Robert Symmer and the Two
Electricities, J. L. Heilbron Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976), pp.
7-20. Symmer_Heilbron.pdf
[9] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
(Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
Stockholm14 , Sweden15  
[1] Wilcke's dissectible condenser.
From Wilcke ''Der Konigl. schwedischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Abhandlungen, aus der Naturlehre,
Haushaltungskunst und Mechanik'', vol.
24, (1762), pp213-235.
source: John Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study in
Early Modern Physics", 1979,
pp418-419.

[2] Portrait of Wilcke with his
Electrophorus [12 28] descirbes this
as ''Volta's Electrophorus'' find
origin of this image PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm
238 YBN
[1762 AD] 9 		2975)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johan Carl Wilcke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Carl_
Wilcke
2. ^ "Franz Ulrich Theodor Aepinus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Ul
rich_Theodor_Aepinus
3. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols) http://galenet.galegroup.com/serv
let/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=06578005
01&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW33
08601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10
&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&a
e=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electric
ity.pdf (v1 p300-301)
4. ^ The History and
Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged. London, 1775.
542pp. (2
vols) http://galenet.galegroup.com/serv
let/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=06578005
01&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW33
08601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10
&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&a
e=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electric
ity.pdf (v1 p300-301)
5. ^ The History and
Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged. London, 1775.
542pp. (2
vols) http://galenet.galegroup.com/serv
let/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=06578005
01&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW33
08601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10
&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&a
e=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electric
ity.pdf (v1 p300)
6. ^ The History and
Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged. London, 1775.
542pp. (2
vols) http://galenet.galegroup.com/serv
let/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=06578005
01&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW33
08601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10
&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&a
e=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electric
ity.pdf (v1 p301)
7. ^ The History and
Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged. London, 1775.
542pp. (2
vols) http://galenet.galegroup.com/serv
let/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=06578005
01&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW33
08601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10
&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&a
e=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electric
ity.pdf (v1 p300)
8. ^ "Electricity".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
9. ^ "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity (1762)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electrophorus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophor
us
[2]
http://campus.murraystate.edu/tsm/tsm118
/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm
[3]
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tuto
rials/timeline/1750-1774.html
[4] Pancaldi, Giuliano (2003). Volta,
Science and Culture in the Age of
Enlightenment. Princeton Univ. Press.
ISBN 0691122261. , p.73
[5] Jones, Thomas B.
(July 2007). Electrophorus and
accessories. Thomas B. Jones website.
Univ. of Rochester. Retrieved on
2007-12-27.
[6] Pancaldi 2003, p.75-105
[7] Lewis, Nancy D..
Alesandro Volta, The Perpetual
Electrophorus. Electricity:A Summary of
Scientists and their Discoveries.
Retrieved on 2007-12-27.
[8] Alessandro Volta.
World Of Biography. Retrieved on
2007-12-27.
[9]
http://www.kva.se/KVA_Root/eng/about/his
tory/index.asp
[10] "Electrophorus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrop
horus
Berlin7 , Germany8  
[1] Portrait of Wilcke with his
Electrophorus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm

[2] Wilcke's Drawing, showing the
Apparatus' Use PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm
238 YBN
[1762 AD] 7 		2978) There is a conflict between who
first understood the principle and who
invented an actual electrophorus
between Johann Wilcke (1762 or 1764),
Cigna (1762), and Volta(1775).5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www2.polito.it/strutture/cemed/mu
seovirtuale/english/luoghi/3-01/3-1-05/3
-1-05.htm
2. ^, p19.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
186/01a00020/0 Robert Symmer and the
Two Electricities, J. L. Heilbron
,Isis, Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976),
pp. 7-20
3. ^, p19.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
186/01a00020/0 Robert Symmer and the
Two Electricities, J. L. Heilbron
,Isis, Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976),
pp. 7-20
4. ^ Dictionary of scientific
biography. Charles Coulston Gillispie,
editor-in-chief,New York, Scribner
c1970-c1990. 18, p71.
v. volta_DictSci.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www2.polito.it/strutture/cemed/mu
seovirtuale/english/luoghi/3-01/3-1-05/3
-1-05.htm
7. ^, p19.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
186/01a00020/0 Robert Symmer and the
Two Electricities, J. L. Heilbron
,Isis, Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976),
pp. 7-20 (1762) (1762)
Turin, Italy6 (presumably) 
[1] Luigi Lagrange, Gianfrancesco Cigna
and Angelo Saluzzo di Monesiglio
constituted a ''private society'' for
comparing the scientific researches
they were performing and for spreading
over the achieved on publications. In
1783 the king Vittorio Amedeo III
through Royal Letters Patent turned the
private Society into the Royal Academy
of Sciences of Turin, of which the best
subalpine scientists were part.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/pers
onaggi/apri?obj_id=373
237 YBN
[1763 AD] 3 		2000)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carolus linnaeus". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
2. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
3. ^ "carolus linnaeus". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1763)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carolus Linnaeus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
[3] "Systema Naturae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Nat
urae
Uppsala, Sweden2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
237 YBN
[1763 AD] 15 16 		2043) Also published in this year is
Lavaille's "Journal historique du
voyage fait au cap de Bonne-Esperance"
(1763).13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille
2. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Lou
is_de_Lacaille
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p187.
7. ^ "Nicolas
Louis de Lacaille". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Lou
is_de_Lacaille
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p187.
9. ^ "Nicolas Louis
de Lacaille". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille
10. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Louis%2
0de%20Lacaille%20
11. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille
12. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Lou
is_de_Lacaille
13. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Louis%2
0de%20Lacaille%20
14. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille
15. ^ "Nicolas Louis de Lacaille".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6736/Nicolas-Louis-de-Lacaille (1763)
16. ^
"Nicolas Louis de Lacaille". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Louis%2
0de%20Lacaille%20 (1763)
Paris, France14 (presumably) 
[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg
237 YBN
[1763 AD] 11 		2080)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p193.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p193.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p193.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p193.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p193.
6. ^ "Nicolas
Desmarest". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
7. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0072/Nicolas-Desmarest
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p193.
10. ^ "Nicolas
Desmarest". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
11. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology (1763)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Desmarest".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Des
marest
France10  
[1] Desmarest, Nicolas (1725-1815).
''Mémoire Sur l'origine & la nature du
Basalte à grandes colonnes polygones,
determinées par l'Histoire Naturelle
de cette pierre, observée en
Auvergne''. Histoire de l'Académie
royale des Sciences, Année M. DCCLXXI,
Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique &
de Physique. Paris, De l'Imprimerie
Royale, 1774, pp. 705-775 PD?
source: http://members.chello.nl/~a.heks
tra2/VII%2019%20In%201771%20werd%20de%20
vulkanische%20oorsprong...htm

[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg
237 YBN
[1763 AD] 12 		2128) Maskelyne is a member of the
Board of Longitude, which was created
in 1714 to decide on the award of the
£20,000 prize for a solution to the
problem of determining longitude at
sea. Possibly Maskelyne's allegience to
his lunar method causes him to refuse
to recommed the chronometer of John
Harrison for the award.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
5. ^ "Nevil
Maskelyne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1263/Nevil-Maskelyne
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
7. ^ "Nevil
Maskelyne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1263/Nevil-Maskelyne
8. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1263/Nevil-Maskelyne
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
10. ^ "Nevil
Maskelyne". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nevil%20Maskelyne
%20
11. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nevil%20Maskelyne
%20
12. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1263/Nevil-Maskelyne (1763)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nevil Maskelyne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevil_Maske
lyne
London, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Nevil Maskelyne * 12:15, 28
July 2004 Magnus Manske 816x1026
(118,983 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nevil_Maskelyne.jpg
236 YBN
[1764 AD] 4 		1222) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (January
27, 1756 - December 5, 17911 ) composes
his first symphony at age 8.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mozart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozart
2. ^
http://www.clevelandopera.org/tour/educa
tional/dongiov/events.html
3. ^
http://www.clevelandopera.org/tour/educa
tional/dongiov/events.html
4. ^
http://www.clevelandopera.org/tour/educa
tional/dongiov/events.html
Salzburg, Germany3  
[1] Young Mozart at the piano digital
image may be COPYRIGHTED (but image of
painting is PD)
source: http://www.musicwithease.com/moz
art-pictures.html
236 YBN
[1764 AD] 4 		1947) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) publishes
"Encyclopédie, the Dictionnaire
philosophique" (1764) ("Philosophical
Dictionary").1
This work will be
enlarged after 1770 as "Questions sur
l'Encyclopédie".2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
2. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
3. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
4. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire (1764)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
[3] "Dictionnaire philosophique".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnair
e_philosophique
Cirey, France3  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
236 YBN
[1764 AD] 5 		1952) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) publishes
"Encyclopédie, the Dictionnaire
philosophique" (1764) ("Philosophical
Dictionary").1
This work will be
enlarged after 1770 as "Questions sur
l'Encyclopédie".2

In "Philosophical Dictionary" Voltaire
uses an alphabetical format to air his
own views on theology, modern religious
beliefs, and many other subjects, in a
series of short essays. The Dictionary
directs criticism against French
political institutions, Voltaire's
personal enemies, the Bible, and the
Catholic Church. Presented in a wryly
humorous manner, Voltaire's
controversial thoughts are condemned in
Paris, Geneva, and Amsterdam. For
safety reasons, Voltaire denies his
authorship.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
2. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
3. ^ "Dictionnaire philosophique".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnair
e_philosophique
4. ^ "Voltaire". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
5. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire (1764)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
Cirey, France4  
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
236 YBN
[1764 AD] 3 		1986) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790)
invents bifocals, eyeglasses whose
corrective lenses each contain areas
with two distinct optical powers.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bifocals". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifocals
2. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
3. ^ "Bifocals". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifocals
(1764=first cartoon with bifocals)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[4]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania2
(presumably) 
[1] * Bildinhalt: Bifokalbrille, stark
angeschnitten * Fotograf: Frank C.
Müller * Aufnahmedatum:
08.02.2006 * Aufnahmeort:
Baden-Baden, Deutschland *
Hochgeladen von: Frank C. Müller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bifoklabrille_fcm.jpg

[2] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin
Wilson-who disagreed with Franklin''s
findings about electrical polarity-this
portrait hung in Franklin''s dining
room in Philadelphia until Captain
Andre'' stole it during the British
occupation of Philadelphia. Returned to
the U.S. in 1906, it is now in the
White House, in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
236 YBN
[1764 AD] 27 		2091)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
2. ^ "Joseph Black".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Black+?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
4. ^ "latent heat".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7272/latent-heat
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
6. ^ "Joseph Black".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Joseph Black".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
9. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ "Joseph Black".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
12. ^ "latent heat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7272/latent-heat
13. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
14. ^ "latent heat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7272/latent-heat
15. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
20. ^ Ted Huntington
21. ^
"Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
23. ^ Ted Huntington
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196.
26. ^ "Joseph
Black". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp194-196. (1764)
(1764)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Black". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Blac
k
[2]
http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e
/elem/e01200.html
Glasgow, Scotland26  
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
236 YBN
[1764 AD] 3 		2160)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
2. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire (1764)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Louis Lagrange".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
[3] http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
[4] History of Mathematics, D.E.
Smith, vol 1
[5] "calculus of
variations". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
[6] "Calculus of variations".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of
_variations
Turin, Italy2 (presumably) 
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
235 YBN
[05/??/1765 AD] 14 		2145) Watt's father is the treasurer
and magistrate of Greenock, runs a
successful ship and house building
business. As a young person James Watt
uses his father's workshops equipped
with tools, bench and forge to make
models (for example of cranes and
barrel organs) and to become familiar
with ships' instruments.6

In Glasgow, Watt meets many scientists
and becomes friend of Joseph Black, who
developed the concept of "latent
heat".7
Watt is a member of the Lunar
society.8 9
In 1757 Watt is established
at he University of Glasgow as
"mathematical instrument maker to the
university".10
In 1814 Watt is offered
a baronetcy, which he declines.11

Watt's interests in applied chemistry
lead him to introduce chlorine
bleaching into Great Britain and to
devise a famous iron cement. In
theoretical chemistry, Watt is one of
the first to argue that water is not an
element but a compound.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
3. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
4. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
6. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
7. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
9. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
10. ^ "James Watt". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
11. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
12. ^ "James Watt". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
13. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
14. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt (05/1765)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
Glasgow, Scotland13 (presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
234 YBN
[01/01/1766 AD] 6 		2959)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
2. ^ Keithley, Joseph F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements.
New York: IEEE
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
4. ^ Keithley, Joseph F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements.
New York: IEEE
5. ^ "Horace Benedict de
Saussure". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
6. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Horace Benedict de
Saussure". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bene
dict_de_Saussure
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/horace-b-n-
dict-de-saussure?cat=technology
(Academy of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland5 (presumably) 
[1] Horace Bénédict de Saussure. (Les
Alpinistes célèbres, Henry de
Ségogne, Editions Mazenod
1956) PD/Corel
source: http://www.ifjungo.ch/gornergrat
/history.html

[2] Horace Bénédict de Saussure
PD/Corel
source: http://www.memo.fr/articleRoute.
asp?ID=PER_MOD_113
234 YBN
[04/05/1766 AD] 12 		3012) Priestley writes "It is now also
Mr. Canton's opinion, that electric
atmospheres are not made of effluvia
from excited or electrified bodies, but
that they are only an alteration of the
state of the electric fluid contained
in, or belonging to the air surrounding
them, to a certain distance; that
excited glass, for instance, repels the
electric fluid from it, and
consequently, beyond that distance
makes it more dense; whereas excited
was attracts the electric fluid
existing in the air nearer to it,
making it rarer than it was before.
This
will be best understood by a figure.
Let A (Plate I, figure 1) represent
unexcited glass or wax. B excited
glass, and C excited wax; and let the
dots on each side of A represent a line
of particles of the electric fluid at
their proper distance in a natural
state. (Here clearly is the concept of
particles of electric fluid, later to
be called "electrons"9 )
Let B and C be
carried about where you will in the
air, B will make an atmosphere equally
dense, and C an atmosphere equally
rare, while the quantity of the
electric fluid each of them contains in
the same as at first. When any part of
a conductor comes within the atmosphere
of B, the electric fluid it naturally
contains will be repelled by the dense
atmosphere, and will recede from it.
But if any part of a conductor be
brought within the atmosphere of C, the
electric fluid it natually contains
will be attracted by the rare
atmosphere, and move towards it. And
thus may the electric fluid contained
in any body be condensed or rarefied;
and if the body be a conductor, it may
be condensed or rarefied in any part of
it, and some may be easily drawn out
of, or an additional quantity put into
it."10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 pp305-306.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

4. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th Centuries: a Study
of Early Modern Physics", University
of California Press, (1979), pp427-428.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ John L. Heilbron,
"Electricity in the 17th and 18th
Centuries: a Study of Early Modern
Physics", University of California
Press, (1979), pp427-428.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 pp305-306.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

11. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
12. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th Centuries: a Study
of Early Modern Physics", University
of California Press, (1979), pp427-428.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3 (04/05/1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
London, England11  
[1] Canton' s representation of the
electric field. From Priestly Hist I
305-306. PD
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th Centuries: a Study
of Early Modern Physics", University
of California Press, (1979), pp427-428.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3

[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
234 YBN
[05/29/1766 AD] 35 36 		2113) Hydrogen gas isolated.21 22

Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810), English
chemist and physicist23 , produces
"inflammable air" (hydrogen) by
dissolving metals in acids and "fixed
air" (carbon dioxide) by dissolving
alkalis in acids, and he collected
these and other gases in bottles
inverted over water or mercury.24

An alkali is any of the soluble
hydroxides of the alkali metals-i.e.,
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
and cesium. Alkalies are strong bases
that turn litmus paper from red to
blue; they react with acids to yield
neutral salts; and they are caustic and
in concentrated form are corrosive to
organic tissues.25 (show periodic
table for this26 )

Cavendish publishes these experiments
in a combination of three short
chemistry papers on "factitious airs,"
or gases produced in the laboratory.27


Cavendish's "inflammible air" will be
later named Hydrogen by Lavoisier.28 29
 The term Cavendish uses "inflammable
air" is confusing because inflammable
air is flammable and perhaps "flammable
air" would have been a better choice of
words.30

Cavendish explains heat as the result
of the motion of matter in the 1760s.
In 1783 Cavendish will publish a paper
on the temperature at which mercury
freezes and in that paper make use of
the idea of latent heat, although he
does not use the term "latent heat"
because he believes that it implies
acceptance of a material theory of
heat.31

Cavendish will determine the "specific
heat" for a number of substances
(although these heat constants will not
be recognized later.32

These reactions form equations similar
to the equation:
metal + acid + water --> salt +
inflammable air
for example:
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 +
H2 33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
6. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
7. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
8. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
9. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
11. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
12. ^ "alkali". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5747/alkali
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
16. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
19. ^ "Henry Cavendish". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
20. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/text_761552913__1
/Hydrogen.html
21. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
22. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
24. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
25. ^ "alkali". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5747/alkali
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
29. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
30. ^ Ted Huntington
31. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
32. ^ "Henry Cavendish". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
33. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/text_761552913__1
/Hydrogen.html
34. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
35. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
36. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Hydrogen#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#Hi
story
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ygqYnSR
3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+scienti
fic+papers+cavendish#PPA77,M1
[4]
http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/co
ntent?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMA
IN&node_id=925&content_id=CTP_004439&use
_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1
[5] Three Papers, Containing
Experiments on Factitious Air, by the
Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 56 -
1766 Pages 141-184 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
66.0019 http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac
.uk/content/k22512528480nx11/?p=d80161c9
05fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=2 cavendish
_3gases.pdf
London, England34  
[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91

[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
234 YBN
[07/01/1766 AD] 9 10 		1951) The 19-year-old Chevalier de La
Barre, is tortured1 , beheaded and his
body burnt2 on a fire along with a
copy of Voltaire's "Philosophical
Dictionary"3 , for having insulted a
religious procession and damaging a
crucifix.4

Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) tried
unsuccessfully to stop the murder of La
Barre.5

It is often said (by Dickens, in "A
Tale of Two Cities", among others) that
La Barre was executed for not kneeling
or removing his hat before a Catholic
procession (on the feast of Corpus
Christi). In fact the original cause of
the inquiry was the mutilation of a
cross, a far more serious offense,
probably committed by La Barre's friend
Gaillard d'Etalonde (who escaped). In
France, La Barre is a symbol of
Christian religious intolerance, along
with Jean Calas and Pierre-Paul Sirven,
all championed by Voltaire.6

Voltaire, at first scared by the
attention the affair draws to him,
ended up defending La Barre's memory
and helping d'Etallonde. The sentence
against La Barre will be reversed by
the National Convention during the
French Revolution in 1794.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean-François de la Barre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_de_la_Barre
2. ^ "chevalier de La Barre". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%20chevalier%20de
%20La%20Barre
3. ^ "Jean-François de la Barre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_de_la_Barre
4. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
5. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire
6. ^ "Jean-François de la Barre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_de_la_Barre
7. ^ "Jean-François de la Barre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_de_la_Barre
8. ^ "Jean-François de la Barre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_de_la_Barre
9. ^ "Voltaire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6001/Voltaire (07/01/1766)
10. ^ "Jean-François de
la Barre". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_de_la_Barre (07/01/1766)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Voltaire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire
[3] http://www.answers.com/Voltaire
[4]
http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=
1184120
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm
234 YBN
[1766 AD] 13 14 		2014)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
2. ^ "Albrecht von
Haller". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
3. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p184.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Albrecht von Haller". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller
10. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller
11. ^ "Albrecht von Haller". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
12. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184. (1766) (1766)
14. ^
"Albrecht von Haller". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albrecht von Haller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_vo
n_Haller
Bern, Switzerland12 (presumably) 
[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html
234 YBN
[1766 AD] 4 		2095)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
2. ^ "Johann Heinrich
Lambert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
3. ^ "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
4. ^ "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_Lambert
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Heinrich+L
ambert?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Lambert/RouseBall/RB_Lambert.html
[4] "hyperbolic functions".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1791/hyperbolic-functions
[5]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Lambert.html
Berlin, Germany3  
[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg

[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics
234 YBN
[1766 AD] 6 		2103) Johann Daniel Titius (TisuS) (CE
1729-1796), German astronomer1 ,
suggests that the distance of the
planets from the Sun follow the series
A=4+(2^n *3), where n=0,1,2,3... this
is the series 4,7,10,16,28,52,100...
which fits for Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, some unknown object, Jupiter and
Saturn. In 70 years Neptune will prove
this theory wrong, but it does
encourage Olbers and others to find the
asteroid belt in between Mars and
Jupiter, (in addition to inspiring the
application of math to physical
phenomena2 ).3 Johann Elert Bode will
explore this theory further.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p197.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p197.
4. ^ "Johann Daniel
Titius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Dani
el_Titius
5. ^ "Johann Daniel Titius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2653/Johann-Daniel-Titius
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p197. (1766) (1766)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johann%20Daniel%2
0Titius
Wittenberg, Germany5  
[1] Johann Daniel Titus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Daniel_Titius.jpg
234 YBN
[1766 AD] 18 		2142) Mesmer's dissertation at the
University of Vienna (M.D., 1766),
(which according to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, borrows heavily from the
work of the British physician Richard
Mead), suggests that the gravitational
attraction of the planets affects human
health by affecting an invisible fluid
found in the human body and throughout
nature. In 1775 Mesmer will revise his
theory of "animal gravitation" to one
of "animal magnetism", wherein the
invisible fluid in the body acts
according to the laws of magnetism.4

Mesmer passes magnets over people
trying to cure disease. Later Mesmer
just uses his hands believing in
"animal magnetism".5

Braid will examine hypnotism 50 years
later, when it is still called
"mesmerism".6

(I accept that the power of suggestion,
like a placebo, where people think they
might be receiving a legitimate cure,
might have some tiny measurable health
effect, but it seems to me, to be based
on trickery in some way, for example,
an educated person would know that a
person is simply telling them to heal,
and then it is useless. It seems to me
to have very little scientific content,
but it seems with my limited
information that hypnotism may be an
actual phenomenon for some people,
perhaps only a small minority. It's
tough to know if hypnotist shows are
fraudulent or legitimate. The power of
suggestion also relates to how people
secretly beam images and sounds on to
other people's brains, which is a
powerful method to invoke a suggestion
in particular in a person who is not
aware that some high school drop out
skin head in the government military,
police or phone company is sending
images and sounds onto their brain.
This form of suggestion, beaming images
and sounds onto brains through neuron
activation, is very powerful for those
who are not aware of the technology
(which sadly is most people). As is the
case with many suggestion techniques,
once the person receiving the
suggestion understands what is being
done to them, the suggestion has less
effect. But this secret image and sound
sending technology has been terribly
abused to control people like pawns, to
make people kill themselves, to kill
other people, to start violent
conflict, and countless other terrible
uses.7 )

(In addition, this is typical of the
idea of health care without any kind of
license, in other words, do people
stop, fine, or jail people treating
people with fraudulent theories or
treatments, or do they allow people to
freely choose to have health treatments
that a majority of people find to be
fraudulent or the doctor incompetent?8
)
(Perhaps the origin of Mesmerism in
Vienna is only coincidence in being the
same birthplace of Freud's theories of
psychology. Psychology has grown to be
a modern snake-oil cure-all
pseudoscience industry without any
chemical diagnostic basis inflicted on
people without choice at worst and a
consensual experimental science at
best.9 )

Mesmer believes in a good relationship
with his patients and makes his
treatment rooms heavily draped, with
music playing, and Mesmer appearing in
long, violet robes.10

(Sadly,11 ) Mesmer enjoys a popular
following and claims to be able to
"channel" magnetic powers in order to
cure a variety of ailments, which
Mesmer does for public display. The
medical establishment of Vienna
pressure Mesmer to leave and Mesmer
finds favor in Paris at the end of the
1770s.12

In 1784 King Louis XVI appoints a
commission of scientists and physicians
to investigate Mesmer's methods. Among
the commission's members are Benjamin
Franklin and Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier.
The commission reports that Mesmer is
unable to support his scientific
claims.13

Discredited, Mesmer leaves France in
1791 and eventually settles in
Switzerland.14
Mesmer's theories will
bring on successors who claim they can
tap an unseen magnetic force within the
body, and Mesmer is often credited with
influencing the development of
hypnotism as psychotherapy (and what
should potentially be called
unconsensual psycho-torture techniques
since the word "therapy" may imply
consent and or permission from the
so-called patient15 ).16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp206-207.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Franz
Anton Mesmer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2209/Franz-Anton-Mesmer
4. ^ "Franz Anton Mesmer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2209/Franz-Anton-Mesmer
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp206-207.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp206-207.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Franz Anton
Mesmer". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Franz%20Anton%20M
esmer
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Franz Anton Mesmer".
Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008.
Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Franz%20Anton%20M
esmer
13. ^ "Franz Anton Mesmer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2209/Franz-Anton-Mesmer
14. ^ "Franz Anton Mesmer". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Franz%20Anton%20M
esmer
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Franz Anton Mesmer".
Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008.
Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Franz%20Anton%20M
esmer
17. ^ "Franz Anton Mesmer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2209/Franz-Anton-Mesmer
18. ^ "Franz Anton Mesmer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2209/Franz-Anton-Mesmer (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franz Anton Mesmer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Anton
_Mesmer
Vienna, Austria17  
[1] Franz Anton Mesmer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg

[2]
http://www.answers.com/main/source_info_
frames.jsp?sourceURL=http://www.williamj
ames.com/Folklore/HEALING.htm&imageURL=h
ttp://content.answers.com/main/content/i
mg/webpics/Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg&imgSrc
URL=http://www.williamjames.com/Folklore
/mesmer.jpg&flavor=AC PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Franz%20A
nton%20Mesmer
234 YBN
[1766 AD] 5 		2161) This and other planetary model
works may be an important source for
seeing early views of how Newton's
equation is applied for more than one
object. I apply Newton's equation
iteratively, in other words calculating
velocities of all masses for each time
unit into the future. I think this is
the most simple method, and after a
certain number of bodies I think
geometric or algebraic solutions are
too complex. For example, I think
people in the past were trying to use
Newton's equation to find algebraic and
geometric solutions to the planet moon
motions, basing their solutions on the
idea of a static pattern that repeats.
This method may produce equivalent
solutions with the iterative method. An
important point is that there are many
uncertainties in terms of distribution
of matter in planets, the Sun and moons
which will probably never be accurately
handled and will always be
estimations.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Joseph Louis
Lagrange comte de lEmpire".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Louis Lagrange".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
[3] History of Mathematics, D.E. Smith,
vol 1
[4] "calculus of variations".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
[5] "Calculus of variations".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of
_variations
Turin, Italy4 (presumably) 
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
234 YBN
[1766 AD] 4 		3725)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/publications/doc
s/asa_history.php
2. ^ "ephemeris." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ephemeris
3. ^
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/publications/doc
s/asa_history.php
4. ^
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/publications/doc
s/asa_history.php {1766}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?q=editions
:0aAc2MdxS-_MXwI0B66&id=VVwAAAAAMAAJ
London, England3 (presumably)  
233 YBN
[1767 AD] 9 		2075)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
2. ^ "John Michell".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
3. ^ "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
5. ^ "John Michell".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ An Inquiry into the
Probable Parallax, and Magnitude of the
Fixed Stars, from the Quantity of Light
Which They Afford us, and the
Particular Circumstances of Their
Situation, by the Rev. John Michell, B.
D. F. R. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
57 -
1767 Pages 234-264 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
67.0028 michell_john_1767_binary_stars.
pdf
8. ^ "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
9. ^ "John Michell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology (1767)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England8
(presumably) 		 
233 YBN
[1767 AD] 36 		2131) Priestley compares the two-fluid
versus one-fluid with acid-base
(alkali) being united and neutral.17

Priestley states that a full charge of
two or three thousand feet of coated
glass would give a shock as great as a
single flash of light, and that new
discoveries can be made by such a
power.18
In 1752 Priestley attended
the Dissenting Academy at Daventry,
Northamptonshire. Dissenters are named
for their unwillingness to conform to
the Church of England and are not
allowed to enter English universities
by the Act of Uniformity (1662).19

Priestley is a Unitarian minister (the
Unitarian's deny the divinity of
Jesus).20 Priestley openly rejects the
Calvinist doctrines of original sin and
atonement, rejecting (the false and
idiotic myth21 ) of the Trinity,
viewing humans as being capable of
improvement.22
Priestley openly
supports the American colonists
revolting against King George III.23
Pri
estley is against the slave trade.24 25

Priestley is against religious
bigotry.26 27
Priestley sympathizes
with the French Revolution.28
In 1766
Priestley meets Benjamin Franklin in
England, and this may have been what
influenced (Priestley29 ) into
science.
Priestley is the companion of a liberal
Lord Shelburne, who lost a government
post for sympathizing with the American
colonists.30
Priestley believes the
phlogiston theory until death.31
-July
14, 1791 some Birmingham pro-French
Jacobins have a celebration in honor of
the second anniversary of the fall of
the Bastille (Jacobins are liberals32
). An angry mob retaliates against the
best known Jacobin in the city and
burns down Priestley's house. Priestley
uses the text for his Sermon: "Father,
forgive them for they know not what
they do"
Priestley is a member of the Lunar
Society. meeting near night of full
moon so members can walk home under
light of moon.33
Priestley moves to
the USA for the last ten years of his
life, turning down an offer to teach at
University of Pennsylvania and as
Unitarian minister in New York.34
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
8. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v2p29.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

14. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v2p35.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

15. ^ R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p3.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v2 p44.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

18. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v2 p108.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

19. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
"Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
25. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
27. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
34. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
35. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
36. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley (1767)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
Warrington, England35  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 4 5 		1993)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp180-181.
2. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
3. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
4. ^ "Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler (1768)
5. ^ "Leonhard
Euler". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20 (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
[2] "Contributions of Leonhard Euler to
mathematics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributio
ns_of_Leonhard_Euler_to_mathematics
[3] Euler, Leonhard (1960). "Rettung
der Göttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die
Einwürfe der Freygeister". Leonhardi
Euleri Opera Omnia (series 3) 12.
[4]
"Function (mathematics)#Notation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_%2
8mathematics%29#Notation
St Petersburg, Russia3
(presumably) 
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 5 		2081)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p193.
2. ^ "Nicolas
Desmarest". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
3. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
4. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
5. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Desmarest".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0072/Nicolas-Desmarest
[2] "Nicolas Desmarest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Des
marest
France4  
[1] Desmarest, Nicolas (1725-1815).
''Mémoire Sur l'origine & la nature du
Basalte à grandes colonnes polygones,
determinées par l'Histoire Naturelle
de cette pierre, observée en
Auvergne''. Histoire de l'Académie
royale des Sciences, Année M. DCCLXXI,
Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique &
de Physique. Paris, De l'Imprimerie
Royale, 1774, pp. 705-775 PD?
source: http://members.chello.nl/~a.heks
tra2/VII%2019%20In%201771%20werd%20de%20
vulkanische%20oorsprong...htm

[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 4 		2082) Nicolas Desmarest (DAmureST) (CE
1725-1815) French geologist1 ,
publishes "Géographie physique" (1794;
"Physical Geography").2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p193.
2. ^ "Nicolas
Desmarest". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
3. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
4. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Desmarest".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0072/Nicolas-Desmarest
[2] "Nicolas Desmarest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Des
marest
France3  
[1] Desmarest, Nicolas (1725-1815).
''Mémoire Sur l'origine & la nature du
Basalte à grandes colonnes polygones,
determinées par l'Histoire Naturelle
de cette pierre, observée en
Auvergne''. Histoire de l'Académie
royale des Sciences, Année M. DCCLXXI,
Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique &
de Physique. Paris, De l'Imprimerie
Royale, 1774, pp. 705-775 PD?
source: http://members.chello.nl/~a.heks
tra2/VII%2019%20In%201771%20werd%20de%20
vulkanische%20oorsprong...htm

[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 9 10 		2093)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
2. ^ "hyperbolic
functions". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1791/hyperbolic-functions
3. ^ "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Johann
Heinrich Lambert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
8. ^ "Johann Heinrich
Lambert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196. (1768) (1768)
10. ^
"Johann Heinrich Lambert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_Lambert
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Heinrich+L
ambert?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Lambert/RouseBall/RB_Lambert.html
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Lambert.html
Berlin, Germany8  
[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg

[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 10 		2096) James Cook (CE 1728-1779),
English navigator 1 , is chosen by the
Royal Society to take command of the
ship "Endeavour" on its voyage to the
islands of Tahiti2 to transport the
gentlemen of the Royal Society and
their assistants to observe a transit
of Venus3 .
The second main objective of
this voyage is to discover the southern
continent, Terra Australis, which is
believed to exist in order to
symmetrically balance the northern land
mass of Eurasia.4
The leader of the
scientists is Joseph Banks, aged 26,
who is assisted by Daniel Solander, a
Swedish botanist, as well as
astronomers (Cook rating as one) and
artists to maintain a visual record.5 6

Cook carries an early nautical almanac
and brass sextants, but no chronometer
on the first voyage.7
Transits of
planets are valuable for determining
the distance between the Earth and the
Sun.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
2. ^ "James Cook".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
3. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
4. ^ "James Cook". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
5. ^ "James Cook". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
6. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
7. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
8. ^ "James Cook". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
9. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
10. ^ "James Cook". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Cook". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook
London, England9  
[1] official portrait of Captain James
Cook Source from the National
Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Date
~ 1775 Author Nathaniel
Dance PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg

[2] James Cook, oil painting by John
Webber; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Cook, James (Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia) British sailor
and explorer. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''Cook, James.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007
. ORIGINAL PD DIGITAL IMAGE:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9610/James-Cook-oil-painting-by-John-We
bber-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 10 		2104) This work by Spallanzani is set
against the biological theory created
by Georges Buffon and John Turberville
Needham that all living things contain,
in addition to inanimate matter,
special "vital atoms" that are
responsible for all physiological
activities. Buffon and Needham
postulated that, after death, the
"vital atoms" escape into the soil and
are again taken up by plants. Buffon
and Needham claim that the small moving
objects in pond water (first seen by
Leewenhoek5 ) are not living organisms
but only "vital atoms" escaping from
the organic material. Spallanzani
studies various forms of microscopic
life and correctly confirms the view of
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek that these
objects are living organisms.6

Some people object to Spallanzani's
conclusions by arguing that by boiling
so long Spallanzani removed some vital
principle in the air and that without
this principle the microorganisms could
not breed. Pasteur's work will remove
this objection in a century.7

Spallanzani's cousin Laura Bassi, is a
female professor of physics who has 12
children in her spare time.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Lazzaro Spallanzani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8983/Lazzaro-Spallanzani
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
9. ^ "Lazzaro
Spallanzani". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazzaro_Spa
llanzani
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198. (1768)
(1768)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Lazzaro+Spallanza
ni?cat=health
Pavia, Italy9 (presumably) 
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 5 		2133)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
2. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
3. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
5. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
Leeds, England4  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 29 		2213) Lavoisier is from a wealthy
family.7
Lavoisier gets a degree in
law, but instead of practicing law
pursues chemical scientific research
that will result in his being admitted
into the Academy of Sciences in Paris.8

At this time many natural philosophers
still view the four elements (earth,
air, fire, and water) as the primary
substances of all matter. Chemists in
this time analyze "mixts" (compounds),
such as the salts formed when acids
combine with alkalis.9
At the time, the
study of specific airs or gases is
called pneumatic chemistry.10
Lavoisier
is viewed as one of the founders of
modern chemistry.11
Some describe
Lavoisier as the father of modern
chemistry.12 13
Asimov states that
Lavoisier is the Newton of chemistry
stating that Lavoisier does for
chemistry what Galileo did for physics
two centuries earlier.14
Lavoisier
invested half a million francs in the
Ferme Générale ("General Farm"), a
private firm hired by the French
government to collect taxes, in order
to fund his research.15 The General
Farm is a partnership that has a
contract with the royal government to
collect certain sales and excise taxes,
such as those on salt and tobacco.16
This firm gouges the public because
anything they collect over their fixed
fee they can keep, and are hated by the
public. Lavoisier earns 100,000 francs
a year from this. Asimov argues that
Lavoisier puts the money back into
chemical research which helps the
public.17
In 1771 Lavoisier marries
Marie-Anne the daughter of an important
executive of the Ferme Générale. She
is 14 and beautiful and intelligent and
throws herself fully into Lavoisier's
work, taking his notes, translating
from English (Lavoisier never learns
English), and illustrating his books.18

Lavoisier bans Jean-Paul Marat, a
journalist, from membership in the
French Academy of Sciences, because the
papers Marat offers on the nature of
fire are of no value. Marat remembers
this and it will contribute to the
murder of Lavoisier by guillotine.19
La
voisier's work with street lighting
introduces him to combustion.20
In 1760
Lavoisier works on on improved methods
of lighting towns.21
Lavoisier avoids
mentioning the help he receives from
Priestly.22
Lavoisier never identifies
a new element.23
Lavoisier implies that
the experiment of burning Hydrogen is
original to him and not Cavindish.24
In
England, Hutton, Cavendish, and
Priestly refuse to abandon the
phlogiston theory, but Black accepts
it. In Sweden, Bergman accepts the new
view, and in Germany Klaproth does.25

Lavoisier helps Guyton de Morveau with
his writing of an article for chemistry
for an encyclopedia.26 (diderots?27 )
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
6. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
8. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
9. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
10. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
11. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
13. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
16. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1768)
(1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France28 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 3 		2229)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1768)
(1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 3 		2667)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2600/Encyclopaedia-Britannica
2. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2600/Encyclopaedia-Britannica
3. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2600/Encyclopaedia-Britannica (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Encyclopaedia britannica".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaed
ia_britannica
Edinburgh, Scotland2  
[1] Scanned titlepage of my facsimile
copy of the first edition of the
Encyclopædia Britannica, published in
1771. Slightly rotated and saved using
the GIMP. Scanned and modified by me on
3 April 2007 and released into the
public domain, owing to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EB1_titlepage.gif

[2] First edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-97337/First-edition-of-the-Encyclopaedi
a-Britannica?articleTypeId=1
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 7 		2967)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p200.
2. ^ "Jesse Ramsden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Jesse
Ramsden". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jesse_Ra
msden
3. ^
http://nms.scran.ac.uk/database/record.p
hp?scache=4cx681i94a&searchdb=scran&usi=
000-180-001-005-C
4. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v2 p111-112.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

5. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v2 p111-112.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

6. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz
7. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Ingenhousz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Ingenho
usz
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Ingenhousz?ca
t=technology
[3]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html
(Vienna? and) London, England6  
[1] Jan Ingenhousz PD?
source: http://www.americanchemistry.com
/s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401
6

[2] Ingenhousz, detail of an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture
Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz,
Jan (Encyclopedia
Britannica) Dutch-born British
physician and scientist who is best
known for his discovery of the process
of photosynthesis, by which green
plants in sunlight absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 12
Nov. 2007 . PD/Corel
source: http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid
%3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http
://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge
nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24
8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P
uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3
Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu
m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2
6sa%3DN
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 5 		4482)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ John Canton, M.
A. and F. R. S., "An Easy Method of
Making a Phosphorus, That Will Imbibe
and Emit Light, like the Bolognian
Stone; With Experiments and
Observations"; Phil. Trans. January 1,
1768 58:337-344;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1768.0045 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/58/33
7.full.pdf+html?sid=001d4bce-e36d-4a76-9
692-410401128f00
3. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
4. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
5. ^ John Canton, M. A. and F. R. S.,
"An Easy Method of Making a Phosphorus,
That Will Imbibe and Emit Light, like
the Bolognian Stone; With Experiments
and Observations"; Phil. Trans. January
1, 1768 58:337-344;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1768.0045 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/58/33
7.full.pdf+html?sid=001d4bce-e36d-4a76-9
692-410401128f00

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
[2] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton
 (1750)
London, England4  
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
231 YBN
[02/26/1769 AD] 8 9 		3013)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ John L. Heilbron,
"Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), pp428-429.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
4. ^ "De Athmosphaera Electrica",
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Volume 60, (1770),
pp277-301. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/h3170l6707651605/?p=61b9652
720fe419eb913ad0bcc1b5af2&pi=0 {Beccari
a_atmosphere_1770.pdf}
5. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), pp428-429.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
6. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
7. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Beccaria
8. ^ "De Athmosphaera Electrica",
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Volume 60, (1770),
pp277-301. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/h3170l6707651605/?p=61b9652
720fe419eb913ad0bcc1b5af2&pi=0 {Beccari
a_atmosphere_1770.pdf} (02/26/1769)
9. ^ John L.
Heilbron, "Electricity in the 17th and
18th centuries: a study of early
Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), pp428-429.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3 (02/1769)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2] "Electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrol
ysis
[3]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
[4]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/?k=Beccaria
[5] "biophysics#48706.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0580/biophysics#48706.toc
[6]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/
beccaria.xml
[7] The History and Present State of
Electricity, Joseph Priestley, The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), pp248-250.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

[8] Crucibles, The Lives and
Achievements of the Great Chemists,
Bernanrd Jaffe, 1930, p79
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
[10] "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Battista_Beccaria
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
Turin, Italy6 7  
[1] Beccaria's representation of the
electric field. (a) About a positive
body (b) about a negative one (c)
between positive bodies (d) between
negative ones (e) between unlike ones.
From Beccaria, Elettricismo (1772)
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), p429.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3

[2] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg
231 YBN
[03/16/1769 AD] 11 		2108) Louis Antoine de Bougainville
(BUGoNVEL) (CE 1729-1811) French
navigator 1 completes the first French
journey to sail around the Earth
(1766-1769).2 3

In 1768 Bougainville was the first to
sight the Solomon Islands.4
Bougainvill
e confirms the existence of marsupials
in the eastern islands of Indonesia
(something Buffon refuses to believe).5
Bougainville will publish his widely
read account, "Voyage autor du monde"
(1771; "A Voyage Round the World",
1772) in 17716 .7

Bougainville was commissioned by the
French government to circle the Earth
in a voyage of exploration, and set out
to sea in December 1766, accompanied by
naturalists and other scientists.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp198-199.
2. ^ "Louis Antoine
de Bougainville". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis%20Antoine%2
0de%20Bougainville
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp198-199.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp198-199.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp198-199.
6. ^ "Louis Antoine
de Bougainville". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis%20Antoine%2
0de%20Bougainville
7. ^ "Louis Antoine de Bougainville".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5903/Louis-Antoine-de-Bougainville
8. ^ "Louis Antoine de Bougainville".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5903/Louis-Antoine-de-Bougainville
9. ^ "Louis Antoine de Bougainville".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis%20Antoine%2
0de%20Bougainville
10. ^ "Saint-Malo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Malo
11. ^ "Louis Antoine de Bougainville".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis%20Antoine%2
0de%20Bougainville (03/16/1769)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Antoine de
Bougainville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Antoi
ne_de_Bougainville
Saint-Malo, France9 10  
[1] Portrait of French explorer and
navigator Louis Antoine de Bougainville
(1729-1811) by Jean-Pierre Franquel
(1774-1860) Source
http://www.oppisworld.de/philo/bougai
n.html [1] Date 19th
century Author Jean-Pierre
Franquel (1774-1860) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Antoine_de_Bougainville_-_Portr
ait_par_Jean-Pierre_Franquel.jpg
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 38 		1206) The first Self-propelled
vehicle.26 27 A steam-engine powered
automobile.28 29

Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot (26 February 1725
- 2 October 1804), a French inventor,
builds what may be the first
self-propelled vehicle built on earth
using a steam engine.30 31

Cugnot may be the first to convert the
back-and-forth motion of a steam piston
into rotary motion (James Watt does
this too in 1781 in England32 ).33

Cugnot is trained as a military
engineer. He experiments with working
models of steam engine powered vehicles
intended for hauling heavy cannons for
the French Army, starting in 1765.34

A functioning version of his "Fardier
à vapeur" ("Steam wagon") run in this
year, 1769. The following year he
builds an improved version. His vehicle
is said to be able to pull 4 tons and
travel at speeds of up to 4 km per
hour.35 The heavy vehicle has two
wheels in the back and one in the
front, which supports the steam boiler
and was steered by a tiller.36
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
10. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
12. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
16. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
17. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
18. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
19. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
20. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
22. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
23. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
24. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
25. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
26. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
27. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
28. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
29. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
30. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
31. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
33. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
34. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
35. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
36. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
37. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
38. ^ "Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/145966/Nicolas-Joseph-Cugnot>. {1769}
England37  
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg

[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 5 		1940) King George III of England tests
this H5 clock and is reported to have
declared "By God, Harrison, I will see
you righted!", (in support of Harrison
getting the full prize money for a
timepiece accurate enough to measure
longitude at sea2 ).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Harrison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9360/John-Harrison
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebD
oc.355/viewPage/6
4. ^ "John Harrison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harris
on
5. ^
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebD
oc.355/viewPage/6 (1769)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology
[3]
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/serv
er/show/ConNarrative.132/chapterId/2704/
Greenwich-and-the-story-of-time.html
London, England4  
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903

[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 10 		2069) Bonnet publishes this catastrophe
theory in "La Palingénésie
philosophique" (1769; "The
Philosophical Revival").6

The catastrophism theory will be
adopted by Georges Cuvier, and strongly
influences geological thinking until
the 1820s.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Charles Bonnet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191.
5. ^ "Charles
Bonnet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
6. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
7. ^ "Charles Bonnet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Bonnet?ca
t=technology
8. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net
9. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
10. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet (1769)
Geneva?, Switzerland8 9
(presumably) 
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 5 		2097)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/new-zealand
-oceania?cat=travel
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/new-zealand
-oceania?cat=travel
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/new-zealand
-oceania?cat=travel (1769)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
[2] "James Cook". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook
[3]
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
New Zealand4  
[1] official portrait of Captain James
Cook Source from the National
Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Date
~ 1775 Author Nathaniel
Dance PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg

[2] James Cook, oil painting by John
Webber; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Cook, James (Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia) British sailor
and explorer. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''Cook, James.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007
. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9610/James-Cook-oil-painting-by-John-We
bber-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 		2130) Apart from a completely
mechanical loom, Arkwright eliminates
all the major obstacles to producing
cotton cloth by machine. Because thread
production is now completely
mechanized, all operations previously
conducted separately could be
coordinated and carried out under one
roof, in a mill, or, as it is
increasingly called, a factory.8

With several partners, Arkwright opens
factories at Nottingham and Cromford.
Within a few years Arkwright is
operating a number of factories
equipped with machinery for carrying
out all phases of textile manufacturing
from carding to spinning.9 Carding is
to cleanse, disentangle, and collect
together as fibers by the use of cards
in preparation to spin.10
Lancashire
cottonmasters successfully attack
Arkwright's patent (in 1781 and
1785).11
By 1782 Arkwright has capital
of £200,000 and employs 5,000
workers.12
At the time of his death
Arkwright has 2.5 million dollars, an
enormous sum for this time.13
Many
people are angry with Arkwright,
thinking that he is taking away jobs.14


Some consider Arkwright the "father of
the factory system".15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp203-204.
2. ^ "Richard
Arkwright". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard+Arkwright
?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp203-204.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp203-204.
5. ^ "Sir Richard
Arkwright". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9480/Sir-Richard-Arkwright
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Richard Arkwright".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard+Arkwright
?cat=technology
8. ^ "Richard Arkwright". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Richard+Arkwright
?cat=technology
9. ^ "Sir Richard Arkwright".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9480/Sir-Richard-Arkwright
10. ^ "Sir Richard Arkwright".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9480/Sir-Richard-Arkwright
11. ^ "Richard Arkwright". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard+Arkwright
?cat=technology
12. ^ "Sir Richard Arkwright".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9480/Sir-Richard-Arkwright
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp203-204.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp203-204.
15. ^ "Richard
Arkwright". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard+Arkwright
?cat=technology

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Arkwright".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Ark
wright
 
[1] Description Richard Arkwright
portrait Source
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/port
raits/arkwright.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_arkwright.jpg

[2] Richard Arkwright
1732-92 COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.derwentvalleymills.or
g/04_his/his_003b.htm
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 6 		2146)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
5. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209. (1769)
(1769)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Glasgow, Scotland5 (presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 5 		2426)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Tricker, R. A. R.,
"Early Electrodynamics - The First Law
of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p3.
3. ^ Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p3.
4.
^ Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p3.
5.
^ Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p3.
{1769}
Edinburgh, Scotland4   
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 17 		2980)
Beccaria's main work is the
treatise "Dell' Elettricismo Naturale
ed Artificiale" (1753,tr 1776).13
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
2. ^, pp408-412.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=faraday+1844
+%22speculation+touching+electric+conduc
tion+and+the+nature+of+matter%22&source=
web&ots=VKIsaGjcNg&sig=xG0TBslqLW2Zfdhm3
NXg37e9Ez4#PPA284,M1
3. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
4. ^, pp408-412.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=faraday+1844
+%22speculation+touching+electric+conduc
tion+and+the+nature+of+matter%22&source=
web&ots=VKIsaGjcNg&sig=xG0TBslqLW2Zfdhm3
NXg37e9Ez4#PPA284,M1
5. ^ Record ID2971. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID2979. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^, pp408-412.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=faraday+1844
+%22speculation+touching+electric+conduc
tion+and+the+nature+of+matter%22&source=
web&ots=VKIsaGjcNg&sig=xG0TBslqLW2Zfdhm3
NXg37e9Ez4#PPA284,M1
11. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
Centuries: A Study in Early Modern
Physics, John Heilbron, 1979,
pp408-412.
12. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
Centuries: A Study in Early Modern
Physics, John Heilbron, 1979,
pp408-412.
13. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Battista_Beccaria
14. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
15. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Beccaria
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Electricity in the 17th
and 18th Centuries: A Study in Early
Modern Physics, John Heilbron, 1979,
p408. (1769)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p. 167).
[3]
"Electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrol
ysis
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
[5]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
[6]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/?k=Beccaria
[7]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/c8x97gg743267538/fulltext.pdf
[8] "biophysics#48706.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0580/biophysics#48706.toc
[9] Crucibles, The Lives and
Achievements of the Great Chemists,
Bernanrd Jaffe, 1930
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
[11]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/
beccaria.xml
[12] The History and Present State of
Electricity, Joseph Priestley, The
History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols) http://galenet.galegroup.com/serv
let/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=06578005
01&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW33
08601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10
&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&a
e=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electric
ity.pdf
[13] Elettricimo artificiale, &c
Turin, Italy14 15 (verify16 ) 
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 4 		6323) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes "Te Deum Laudemus".1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jonathan D. Green, "A Conductor's
Guide to Choral-orchestral Works,
Classical Period: Haydn and ",
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
K-eNo06Zz48C
2. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
4. ^ Jonathan D. Green, "A Conductor's
Guide to Choral-orchestral Works,
Classical Period: Haydn and ",
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
K-eNo06Zz48C

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>
[2] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
Salzburg, Austria3  
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
230 YBN
[04/19/1770 AD] 6 		2100) James Cook (CE 1728-1779)3
claims the coast of Australia for Great
Britain.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/australia-c
ontinent?cat=health
5. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
6. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook (04/19/1770)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Cook". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
Australia5  
[1] official portrait of Captain James
Cook Source from the National
Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Date
~ 1775 Author Nathaniel
Dance PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg

[2] James Cook, oil painting by John
Webber; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Cook, James (Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia) British sailor
and explorer. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''Cook, James.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007
. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9610/James-Cook-oil-painting-by-John-We
bber-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
230 YBN
[1770 AD] 10 		2158)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Lagrange".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
9. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
10. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire (1770)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Louis Lagrange".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
[3] History of Mathematics, D.E. Smith,
vol 1
[4] "calculus of variations".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
Berlin, Germany9  
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
230 YBN
[1770 AD] 4 		2195)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Lexell.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p217.
3. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Lexell.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p217. (1770) (1770)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Johan Lexell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Joha
n_Lexell
St. Petersburg, Russia3
(presumably) 
[1] Anders Johan Lexell
(1740-1784) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/
ttpk1/ttpkI/22Suomi.html
230 YBN
[1770 AD] 4 		2214)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1770)
(1770)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
230 YBN
[1770 AD] 6 		2257) Gahn's company fills an emergency
order of copper to the colonists in the
Revolutionary war.3
Gahnite (zinc
spinel) is named for Gahn.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johan Gottlieb Gahn".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5808/Johan-Gottlieb-Gahn
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p230.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p230.
4. ^ "Johan
Gottlieb Gahn". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5808/Johan-Gottlieb-Gahn
5. ^ "Johan Gottlieb Gahn".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5808/Johan-Gottlieb-Gahn
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p230. (1770) (1770)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Gottlieb Gahn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gott
lieb_Gahn
Uppsala, Sweden5  
[1] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från
Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med:
Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord:
kemist, mangan Död:
1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht
ml

[2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn
(1745-1818) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E
lements/ore.html
230 YBN
[1770 AD] 6 		2958) Joseph Priestley writes:
"I find by
experience that the (Henley)
electrometer answers all the purposes I
have mentioned, with the greatest ease
and exactness. I am now sure of the
force of an explosion before a
discharge of a jar or battery, which I
had no better method of guessing at
before, than by presenting to them a
pair of Mr. Canton’s balls and
observing their divergence at a given
distance"4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "An Account of a New
Electrometer, Contrived by Mr. William
Henly, and of Several Electrical
Experiments Made by Him, in a Letter
from Dr. Priestley, F. R. S. to Dr.
Franklin, F. R. S.", Philosophical
Transactions, Vol. 62, (1772),
pp.359-364. http://journals.royalsociet
y.org/content/mt6u571j1877t155/?p=213366
bce0d14adca9f945439536003b&pi=26 Henly_
William_1772_PT_Electrometer.pdf
2. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
3. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p451. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
4. ^
http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/s
tories/enlightenment_and_measurement/05.
ST.05/?scene=6
5. ^ "An Account of a New Electrometer,
Contrived by Mr. William Henly, and of
Several Electrical Experiments Made by
Him, in a Letter from Dr. Priestley, F.
R. S. to Dr. Franklin, F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 62,
(1772),
pp.359-364. http://journals.royalsociet
y.org/content/mt6u571j1877t155/?p=213366
bce0d14adca9f945439536003b&pi=26 Henly_
William_1772_PT_Electrometer.pdf
6. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p451. ISBN
0-520-03478-3 (1770)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
 London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Henley's electrometer PD
source: "An Account of a New
Electrometer, Contrived by Mr. William
Henly, and of Several Electrical
Experiments Made by Him, in a Letter
from Dr. Priestley, F. R. S. to Dr.
Franklin, F. R. S.", Philosophical
Transactions, Vol. 62, (1772),
pp.359-364. http://journals.royalsociet
y.org/content/mt6u571j1877t155/?p=213366
bce0d14adca9f945439536003b&pi=26 Henly_
William_1772_PT_Electrometer.pdf

[2] Henley’s electrometer,
c.1770. © Science Museum/Science
and Society Picture
Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/stories/enlightenment_and_measure
ment/05.ST.05/?scene=6
229 YBN
[07/12/1771 AD] 26 		2207) In 1761 Banks inherits a
considerable fortune from his father.9

Determined to receive botanical
instruction, he paid Cambridge botanist
Israel Lyons to deliver a series of
lectures at Oxford in 1764.10 11
Asimov
describes Banks as a rare example of a
wealthy person that uses there money to
advance science.12
Banks goes on
several major collecting trips, the
most famous being the around-the-world
voyage aboard the Endeavour on the
1768-71 expedition led by James Cook, a
journey that makes marsupials known to
the people of Europe.13
Banks hires a
pupil of Linnaeus and four artists.14
Ba
nks is part of the British mission to
observe Venus from Tahiti and then to
search for the unknown southern
continent15 and that founds colonies
in Australia.16 (The Australian accent
must have evolved from an English
accent.17 ) Banks is viewed as a hero
upon his return.18
One ship
transporting breadfruits in 1788 is the
"Bounty" under William Bligh who had
been a ship's master under Cook on
Cook's final voyage to the Pacific. The
crew of the Bounty mutinied against
harsh treatment by the captain and
against having to leave Tahiti.19
Banks'
"Florilegium", a collection of
engravings of plants compiled by Banks
and based on drawings by Swedish
botanist Daniel Solander during Cook's
1768-71 voyage, will not be published
in full until 1989.20
In 1805, Banks is
the first to suggest the identity of
the wheat rust and barberry fungus.21
Ba
nks is president of the Royal Society
from 1778 to 1820.22
Banks develops an
extensive botanical collection which
will be donated to the British Museum,
and Banks helps establish Kew Gardens
in London.23 Through Banks' efforts
Kew Gardens became arguably the
pre-eminent botanical gardens in the
world.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Banks' Florilegium'
Florilegium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banks%27_Fl
orilegium
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
3. ^ "Banks'
Florilegium' Florilegium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banks%27_Fl
orilegium
4. ^ "Banks' Florilegium' Florilegium".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banks%27_Fl
orilegium
5. ^ "Joseph Banks". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Banks+?cat
=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
9. ^ "Sir Joseph
Banks Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3193/Sir-Joseph-Banks-Baronet
10. ^ "Joseph Banks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bank
s
11. ^ John Gascoigne, Banks, Sir
Joseph, baronet (1743-1820), Oxford
Dictionary of National Biography,
Oxford University Press, Sept 2004
12. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
13. ^ "Joseph Banks".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Banks+?cat
=technology
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
15. ^ "Joseph Banks".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Banks+?cat
=technology
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
"Joseph Banks". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Banks+?cat
=technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp220-221.
20. ^ "Sir Joseph
Banks Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3193/Sir-Joseph-Banks-Baronet
21. ^ "Joseph Banks". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Banks+?cat
=technology
22. ^ "Joseph Banks". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Banks+?cat
=technology
23. ^ "Joseph Banks". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Banks+?cat
=technology
24. ^ "Joseph Banks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bank
s
25. ^ "Sir Joseph Banks Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3193/Sir-Joseph-Banks-Baronet
26. ^ "Captain cook". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_coo
k (07/12/1771)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-on
line/endeavour-botanical/index.dsml
[2]
http://www.alectouk.com/banksfam_a.htm
[3] "Daniel Solander". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Sola
nder
London (where Banks lives), England25
 
[1] Joesph Banks, 1757, Artist
unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joesph_banks_as_a_boy.jpg

[2] This is an image of the official
portrait of Sir Joseph Banks, President
of the Royal Society. It is a 43.2 x
34.2 cm engraving. Source The image
from which this image was obtained is
available through the National Library
of Australia's website here. The NLA
image contains a strip of spurious
attribution and indexing information
along the bottom. This is a cropped
version that eliminates this. Date
1812 Author The original
painting was by Thomas Phillips
(1770-1845); the engraving was by
Nicholas Schiavonetti (d.
1813) Permission (Reusing this image)
It is in the public domain
worldwide A closeup on Banks without
the surrounds or dedication is
available at Image:Joseph
banks.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_banks.jpg
229 YBN
[1771 AD] 13 		2118) Cavendish measures current by
shocking himself and estimating the
pain.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ Henry Crew, "The
Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and
Wilkens, Second Edition, 1935,
p272-273.
3. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p272-273.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
12. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
13. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1771)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England12  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
229 YBN
[1771 AD] 12 		2292) Abraham Gottlob Werner (VRNR or
VARNR) (CE 1750-1817), German
geologist,1 establishes the erroneous
theory of "Neptunism" that the earth
was once all covered with water and
that over time all the minerals were
precipitated out of the water into
distinct layers2 . This theory is in
contrast to the Vulcanists (or
Plutonists), who argue that granite and
many other rocks are of igneous origin
(the result of volcanic magma, (red hot
liquid rock3 )).4

According to Werner the first layer is
made of primitive rocks, such as
granite, gneiss, and slates, and
contains no fossils. The next strata
has shales and graywacke and contains
fossilized fish. Above this are the
limestones, sandstones, and chalks and
then the gravels and sands of the
alluvial strata. Lastly, local volcanic
activity produced lavas and other
deposits.5 Because this theory does
not allow for a molten core, Werner
proposes that volcanoes are a recent
phenomena caused by the spontaneous
combustion of underground coal beds.6

For many years Werner's theories
prevail over those of the plutonists,
led by James Hutton, who (correctly7 )
identifies the origin of igneous rocks
resulting from (the cooling of8 )
molten material9 . Neptunism will
prevail until Lyell.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p240.
2. ^ "Abraham Gottlob
Werner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6563/Abraham-Gottlob-Werner
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6563/Abraham-Gottlob-Werner
5. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
6. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6563/Abraham-Gottlob-Werner
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Abraham Gottlob
Werner". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p240.
11. ^ "Abraham
Gottlob Werner". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
12. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology (1771-1775)

MORE INFO
[1] "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Got
tlob_Werner
Leipzig, Germany11  
[1] Abraham Gottlob Werner [t a rare
smiling portrait] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_Gottlob_Werner.jpg

[2] Abraham Werner, engraving by
Johann Friedrich Rossmäsler after a
portrait by Carl Demiani Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin # MLA
style: ''Werner, Abraham Gottlob.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Dec. 2007 .
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15183/Abraham-Werner-engraving-by-Johan
n-Friedrich-Rossmasler-after-a-portrait?
articleTypeId=1
229 YBN
[1771 AD] 6 		3010)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ John L.
Heilbron, "Electricity in the 17th and
18th centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, 1979, pp422. ISBN 0-520-03478-3
3. ^ Henry
Cavendish, "An Attempt to Explain Some
of the Principal Phaenomena of
Electricity, by means of an Elastic
Fluid", Philosophical Transactions,
vol. 61, (1771), pp
584-677. {Cavendish_Newtonian_Electrici
ty.pdf}
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "An Attempt to
Explain Some of the Principal
Phaenomena of Electricity, by means of
an Elastic Fluid", Philosophical
Transactions, vol. 61, (1771), pp
584-677. {Cavendish_Newtonian_Electrici
ty.pdf}
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, 1979, pp422. ISBN
0-520-03478-3 (1771)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ygqYnSR
3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+scienti
fic+papers+cavendish#PPA77,M1
[3]
http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/co
ntent?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMA
IN&node_id=925&content_id=CTP_004439&use
_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1
[4] "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1766)
London, England5  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
229 YBN
[1771 AD] 4 5 		5956)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luigi Boccherini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luigi-bocch
erini
2. ^ "Luigi Boccherini." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/70874/Luigi-Boccherini>.
3. ^ "Luigi Boccherini." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/70874/Luigi-Boccherini>.
4. ^ "String Quintet in E
(Boccherini)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_Quin
tet_in_E_%28Boccherini%29 {1771
(verify}
5. ^ de Guin, Elisabeth, "Boccherini's
body: an essay in carnal musicology",
p. 157, 2006, University of California
Press, Berkeley, ISBN 0-520-24017-0
{1771 (verify}
Madrid, Spain3 (verify) 
[1] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Luigi_Boccherini.jpg
228 YBN
[10/20/1772 AD] 4 		2224)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health (10/20/1772)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
228 YBN
[11/01/1772 AD] 4 		2225)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health (11/01/1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 7 		2049) The completion of the
"Encyclopédie" in 1772 leaves Diderot
without a source of income. To relieve
Diderot of financial worry, Catherine
the Great of Russia buys Diderot's
library, requesting him to retain the
books until she requires them, and then
appoints him librarian on an annual
salary for the duration of his life.
Diderot goes to St. Petersburg in 1773
to thank her for her financial support
and is received with great honor and
warmth.4

The Oxford University Press states that
the Encyclopédie issues a direct
challenge to royal absolutism and the
religious supremacy of the Catholic
Church throughout Europe.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
2. ^ "Denis Diderot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
3. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
4. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
5. ^ "Denis Diderot". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Diderot%2
0
6. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
7. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot (1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Diderot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
[2] "Encyclopédie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3
%A9die
[3] http://diderot.alembert.free.fr/
(online edition)
[4]
http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/p
rojects/encyc/ (with english interface)
Paris, France6  
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 		2051) Denis Diderot (DEDrO) (CE
1713-1784), French writer 1 , writes
"L'Entretien entre d'Alembert et
Diderot" (written 1769, published 1830;
"Conversation Between d'Alembert and
Diderot"), and "Le Rêve de d'Alembert"
(written 1769, published 1830;
"D'Alembert's Dream"). In these works
and his later "Eléments de
physiologie" (1774-80) Diderot develops
his materialist philosophy, speculates
on the origins of life without divine
intervention and the cellular structure
of matter.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
2. ^ "Denis Diderot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
3. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
4. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot (1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Diderot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Diderot%2
0
[3] "Encyclopédie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3
%A9die
[4] http://diderot.alembert.free.fr/
(online edition)
[5]
http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/p
rojects/encyc/ (with english interface)
Paris, France3  
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 7 		2078)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Criticisms of the projectile
theory of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys.
Educ. 16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March 1981)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Criticisms of the
projectile theory of light G N Cantor
1981 Phys. Educ. 16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March 1981)
4. ^ Priestley J 1772 The
History and Present State Of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light,
and Colours (London: J Johnson)
5. ^ Criticisms
of the projectile theory of light G N
Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ. 16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March 1981)
6. ^ "John Michell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
7. ^ "John Michell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology (1790)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John Michell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
[3]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/mi
chell.html
[4]
http://www.yorksphilsoc.org.uk/files/mic
hell.pdf
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England6
(presumably) 		 
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 23 		2138) Nitrous oxide is one of several
oxides of nitrogen, is colorless with
pleasant, sweetish odor and taste,
which when inhaled produces
insensibility to pain preceded by mild
hysteria (nervous system excitement,
emotion, reaction13 ), and sometimes
laughter.14
Nitrous oxide currently is
used mainly as an anesthetic in
surgical operations of short
duration.15
Prolonged inhalation of
nitrous oxide causes death.16
Nitrous
oxide is also used as a propellant in
food aerosols.17
Nitrous oxide is
prepared by the action of zinc on
dilute nitric acid, by the action of
hydroxylamine hydrochloride
(NH2OH×HCl) on sodium nitrite (NaNO2),
and, most commonly, by the
decomposition of ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3).18 (State method Priestley
uses19 )
Priestley reports in his
posthumously published memoir that his
interest in chemistry is a consequence
of living next to a brewery during his
ministry at Leeds (1767-1773).20
For
his work on gases, Priestley will be
awarded the Royal Society's prestigious
Copley Medal in 1773.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
11. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
12. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "nitrous oxide".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
15. ^ "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
16. ^ "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
17. ^ "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
18. ^ "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
21. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
22. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
23. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley (1772)
Leeds, England22  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 12 		2140)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and
colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771, p
530. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/EC
HOdocuViewfull?mode=imagepath&url=/mpiwg
/online/permanent/library/BVC1P0A1/pagei
mg&viewMode=images
OR http://books.google.com/books?id=OiR
Pz-gpApcC (preview)
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
Priestley, Joseph. Proposals for
printing by subscription, The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and colours.
Leeds: n.p., 1771.
5. ^ Maraldi, G.F.: 1723,
‘Diverses expériences
d’optique,’ Histoires de
l’Academie des Sciences avec les
Mémoires de Mathématique et de
Physique, Paris, Amsterdam, 1730, pp.
157–200 {Maraldi_Giacomo_Filippo_p111
_143_vol3587m.pdf}
6. ^ Priestley, Joseph. Proposals for
printing by subscription, The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and colours.
Leeds: n.p., 1771,p 530.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Priestley, Joseph. Proposals for
printing by subscription, The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and colours.
Leeds: n.p., 1771,p 530.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Joseph Priestley".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
12. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and
colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771, p
530. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/EC
HOdocuViewfull?mode=imagepath&url=/mpiwg
/online/permanent/library/BVC1P0A1/pagei
mg&viewMode=images
OR http://books.google.com/books?id=OiR
Pz-gpApcC (preview)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=prOsrEl
RVHoC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=ac.+par.+1723&
source=web&ots=8KE7ChOjYe&sig=5bJOnyDkXk
JNqljVIEI_-nhrl_k&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&resnum=1&ct=result {interesting
account about Newton believing
inflexion}
[4] "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley (1772)
Leeds, England11  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 13 14 		2162) Lagrange studies situations where
three bodies might form stable
configurations providing one body is
very low mass. These are now sometimes
referred to as "trojan" systems.11
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Lagrangian point". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6840/Lagrangian-point
7. ^ "Lagrangian point". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6840/Lagrangian-point
8. ^ "Lagrangian point". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6840/Lagrangian-point
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
12. ^ "Joseph
Louis Lagrange comte de lEmpire".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
13. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange (1772)
14. ^
"Lagrangian point". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6840/Lagrangian-point (1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Lagrange".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
[2] History of Mathematics, D.E. Smith,
vol 1
[3] "calculus of variations".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
[4] "Calculus of variations".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of
_variations
[5] "Lagrangian point". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_
point
Berlin, Germany12  
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 6 		2170) Joining in the anticlericalism of
the time, in 1763 Morveau publishes a
long poem attacking the Jesuits
anonymously.2
In 1787, when spending
several months in Paris, Lavoisier
convinces Morveau of the accuracy of
Lavoisier's oxygen theory of
combustion.3
Guyton De Morveau makes no
effort to save his fellow chemist
Lavoisier.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp211-212.
2. ^ "Louis Bernard
Guyton de Morveau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
3. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp211-212.
5. ^ "Louis Bernard
Guyton de Morveau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp211-212. (1772)
(1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis-Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Berna
rd_Guyton_de_Morveau
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Guyton+De+Morveau
+?cat=technology
?, France5  
[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né à
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,à
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 		2172)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp211-212. (1772)
(1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis-Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Berna
rd_Guyton_de_Morveau
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Guyton+De+Morveau
+?cat=technology
Dijon, France3  
[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né Ã
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,Ã
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 		2199) Oxygen is a colourless,
odourless, tasteless gas.11
Oxygen is
the fifth least dense of all
elements.12
Oxygen is symbol O; at. no.
8; at. wt. 15.9994; m.p.
−218.4°C; b.p.
−182.962°C; density 1.429 grams
per liter at STP; valence −2.13
Ox
ygen has an atomic radius of 60 pm.14
Ox
ygen has 3 stable isotopes, the most
common 16 has 8 neutrons, the other two
have 9 and 10 neutrons.15

In 1757 Scheele is apprenticed to a
pharmacist in Göteborg, Sweden.16
Schee
le refuses to work as a court chemist
for Frederick II.(detail17 )18
Asimov
comments that Sweden in proportion to
its population has probably produced
more first-rate chemists in the last
two centuries than any other nation.19

In his short lifetime, Scheele
identifies or helps to identifies more
new substances than any other chemist
in a similar period of time.20
Scheele
wrote "It is the truth alone that we
desire to know and what a joy there is
in discovering it!"21
Scheele dies at
43, which may have been from mercury
poisoning.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "oxygen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen
2. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
4. ^ "oxygen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen
5. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
9. ^ Cook (1968). The
Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements,
page 499
10. ^ "Oxygen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
11. ^ "oxygen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen
12. ^ "List of elements by density".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ele
ments_by_density
13. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology
14. ^ "Oxygen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
15. ^ "Oxygen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
16. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
21. ^ A History of
Chemistry from the Earliest Times,
Ernst von Meyer, 1905,, p133.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
23. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1771)
(1771)
25. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1771)
26. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (c1773)
27. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(c1773)
28. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1770-1773)
29. ^ "oxygen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen (1772)
30. ^ Cook (1968). The
Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements,
page 499 (1772) (1772)
31. ^ "Oxygen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
(1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[2]
http://www.answers.com/oxygen?cat=health

Uppsala, Sweden23  
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 		2215)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1772)
(1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 15 		2266) Whether this law is pure
coincidence is unknown.10

Bode writes astronomy textbooks in 1766
at age 19.11

Sagan in the video Cosmos states that
in simulations many systems are
physically possible, for example large
gas giant planets close to Sun and
terrestrial planets far away.12

Planets found by their gravitational
effect on a star's Doppler shift
indicate that massive planets can be
very close to a star, however planets
being moved closer to a star by life
cannot be ruled out.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p197.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp232-233.
4. ^ "Johann
Elert Bode". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1804/Johann-Elert-Bode
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp232-233.
7. ^ "Johann Elert
Bode". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1804/Johann-Elert-Bode
8. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp232-233.
10. ^ "Johann Elert
Bode". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp232-233.
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ Ted
Huntington
14. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology
15. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology (1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Elert Bode".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Eler
t_Bode
Berlin, Germany14  
[1] English: Johann Elert Bode
(1747-1826), German astronomer Source
das Originalbild hat eine Abmessung
von 9 x 7 cm Date 1806 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Elert_Bode.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 22 		2285) Nitrogen gas isolated.18

Daniel Rutherford (CE 1749-1819)
Scottish chemist, (is credited with
being19 ) the first to isolate
nitrogen.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p238.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p238.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
8. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Ruth
erford
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Rutherford
?cat=technology
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
13. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Rutherford
?cat=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "nitrogen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5947/nitrogen (1772)
17. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Ruth
erford
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
21. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Rutherford
?cat=technology
22. ^ "nitrogen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5947/nitrogen (1772)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "Nitrogen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen
Edinburgh, Scotland21  
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 		4484)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History
and Present State of Discoveries
Relating to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The
History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours", 1772, kraus reprint
1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
4. ^ The London encyclopaedia: or,
Universal dictionary of science, art,
literature, and practical mechanics,
comprising a popular view of the
present state of knowledge. Illustrated
by numerous engravings, a general
atlas, and appropriate diagrams, Volume
12 http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA7
32&lpg=PA732&dq=%22Mr.%20Mitchell%2C%20s
ome%20years%20ago%22&sig=sCXVW28494jBciu
lu-HQ_o5d4AM&ei=bTouTOrEOYHhnAfE--HVAw&c
t=result&id=eW5MAAAAMAAJ&ots=fAX0Z65ISw&
output=text
5. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "John Michell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
[3]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/mi
chell.html
[4] Criticisms of the projectile theory
of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ.
16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) michell_corpuscular_criticism_pev
16i2p112.pdf
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192. (1784) (1784)
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England7
(presumably) 		 
226 YBN
[08/01/1774 AD] 18 		2139) This is Priestley's most famous
chemical discovery.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
10. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
11. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
12. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
16. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
17. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
18. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (08/01/1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
[2] "oxygen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen
[3] "Oxygen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
[4]
http://www.answers.com/oxygen?cat=health

Calne, England17  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 		1225) "Act for regulating madhouses,
licensing, and inspection" is passed in
England. This law requires physicians
to certify that a human is "insane".1
However, since this diagnosis describes
a nonexistant, lawful, or trivial
condition, this label of "insane" may
be used as a way around the due process
of the established legal system.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in
America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and
the Enduring Mistreatment of the
Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus
Publishing, 2001).
  
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 11 		2111)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200.
2. ^ "Charles
Messier". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200.
4. ^ "Charles
Messier". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200.
8. ^ "Arecibo
Observatory". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecibo_Obs
ervatory
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Charles Messier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
11. ^ "Charles Messier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Messier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2247/Charles-Messier
[2] "Charles Messier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mes
sier
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Messier 1730 - 1817 [t
Notice how the curtain appears to be
made to look like a spiral galaxy with
the earth as part of it. I doubt this
is coincidence. Interesting that the
artist felt that this needed to be
hidden. it seems unlikely to be
coincidence, because the curtain is so
important as to cover part of the
globe.] PD
source: http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise
/a101_historicalfigures.html

[2] Messier, Charles Joseph
(1730-1817) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/M/Messier.html
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 12 13 		2129)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
2. ^ "Nevil
Maskelyne". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nevil%20Maskelyne
%20
3. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1263/Nevil-Maskelyne
4. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nevil%20Maskelyne
%20
5. ^ "Water". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water
6. ^ "Earth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
7. ^ "geoid". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-253
203/geoid
8. ^
http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese
/javascript/water-density.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1263/Nevil-Maskelyne
11. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nevil%20Maskelyne
%20
12. ^ "Nevil Maskelyne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevil_Maske
lyne (1774)
13. ^ Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society. 1. 495 (1774)
Schiehallion Mountain, North
Perthshireit, Scotland10 11  
[1] Nevil Maskelyne * 12:15, 28
July 2004 Magnus Manske 816x1026
(118,983 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nevil_Maskelyne.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 		2136)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
3. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Calne, England2  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 		2137) English chemist Joseph Priestley
(CE 1733-1804) writes two volumes of a
General History of the Christian Church
to the Fall of the Western Empire (in
1790). Four volumes of the later
history of the church will appear
between 1802 and 1803.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
3. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
Calne, England2  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 13 14 15 16 		2200) Chlorine has: atomic number 17;
atomic weight 35.453; freezing point
−100.98°C; boiling point
−34.6°C; relative density
(specific gravity) 1.56
(−33.6°C); valence 1, 3, 5, 7.8


Chlorine is 8th least dense element
known.9

Chlorine is a toxic, corrosive,
greenish yellow gas that is irritating
to the eyes and respiratory system.10

Chlorine is two and a half times
heavier than air.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ "chlorine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2243/chlorine
4. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
5. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
6. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "chlorine". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/chlorine?cat=heal
th
9. ^ "List of elements by density".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ele
ments_by_density
10. ^ "chlorine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2243/chlorine
11. ^ "chlorine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2243/chlorine
12. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774)
(1774)
14. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
15. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
16. ^ "chlorine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2243/chlorine (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3] "Chlorine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine
Uppsala, Sweden12  
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 8 9 10 		2201)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
5. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
6. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
7. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774)
(1774)
9. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
10. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/scheele77
.html
Uppsala, Sweden7  
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 11 		2216) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) shows how
material in the air combines with
metals when heated, which will end the
phlogiston theory of combustion, and
demonstrates the conservation of mass.3


Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (loVWoZYA)
(CE 1743-1794) heats tin and lead in
closed contained with air. Both metals
form a layer of calx on the surface.
The calx is heavier than the original
metal, but the vessel still weighs the
same after heating, so Lavoisier
concludes that there must be a weight
loss elsewhere, possibly in the air or
in the vessel. If the air, then a
partial vacuum must exist in the
vessel, and sure enough air rushes in
when Lavoisier opens the vessel, and
then the vessel and its contents gain
weight. (It is interesting that atoms
in air bonding with a solid creates a
vacuum, as I suppose any gas chemically
combining with a solid in a closed
container will create a vacuum of empty
space and pressure difference with the
atmosphere of Earth.4 ) Lavoisier
therefore shows that the calx (now
known as oxide5 ) is made of a
combination of the metal with air, and
that rusting (and combustion) do not
involve a loss of phlogiston but a gain
of at least a portion of the air. This
experiment will finally end the
popularity of the phlogiston theory,
and establish chemistry on its modern
basis (in terms of oxygen combustion6
). Lavoisier also shows that mass is
only shifted from one place to another
and cannot be created or destroyed,
which is the law of conservation of
mass.7

The mass loss from particles of light
in the form of particles of light of
various frequencies is apparently too
small to be measured and Lavoisier
(presumably) misses this concept.8 One
modern view is that electrons are
composed of photons and vary in mass
depending on their orbit as the Bohr
model requires, and in combustion, the
photons observed are released from
electrons around the oxygen and fuel
atoms, the electrons losing mass in the
form of photons, while the nucleus of
all atoms is still preserved. Another
view holds that some atoms completely
separate into their source photons in
oxygen combustion.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Ted
Huntington
10. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1774)
(1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 11 		2217)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
8. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
9. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
10. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1774)
(1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 		2226)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 12 		2258) Manganese has atomic number 25;
atomic weight 54.9380; melting point
1,244°C; boiling point 1,962°C;
relative density 7.21 to 7.44; valence
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7.4
Depending on form
manganese has a valence principally +2,
+4, or +7.5

Manganese is a pinkish-gray, chemically
active metal. Manganese is the first
element in Group 7 of the periodic
table. Manganese resembles iron but is
harder and more brittle.6
Manganese is
the twelfth most abundant element in
the Earth's crust (approximately 0.1%)
and occurs naturally in several forms,
primarily as the silicate (MnSiO3) but
also as the carbonate (MnCO3) and a
variety of oxides, including pyrolusite
(MnO2) and hausmannite (Mn3O4). Land
deposits cause large amounts of
manganese oxide to be washed out to
sea, where the manganese oxides
aggregated into manganese nodules
containing 15-30% Mn.7
Manganese is
essential to plant growth and is
involved in the reduction of nitrates
in green plants and algae.8
Manganese
is also a necessary trace element for
higher animals, in which manganese
participates in the action of many
enzymes. Lack of manganese causes
testicular atrophy, however an excess
of manganese in plants and animals is
toxic.9

Manganese metal oxidizes superficially
in air and rusts in moist air.
Manganese metal burns in air (or
oxygen) at elevated temperatures, as
does iron.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p230.
2. ^ "article
9050515". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0515
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p230.
4. ^ "manganese". The
New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy,
Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/manganese?cat=hea
lth
5. ^ "manganese". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/manganese?cat=hea
lth
6. ^ "manganese". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/manganese?cat=hea
lth
7. ^ "manganese". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/manganese?cat=hea
lth
8. ^ "article 9050515". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0515
9. ^ "article 9050515". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0515
10. ^ "article 9050515". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0515
11. ^ "Johan Gottlieb Gahn".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5808/Johan-Gottlieb-Gahn
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p230. (1774) (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Gottlieb Gahn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gott
lieb_Gahn
Uppsala, Sweden11  
[1] Manganese GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mangan_1.jpg

[2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från
Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med:
Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord:
kemist, mangan Död:
1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht
ml
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 4 		2267)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1804/Johann-Elert-Bode
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp232-233.
3. ^ "Johann Elert
Bode". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1804/Johann-Elert-Bode (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Elert Bode".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Eler
t_Bode
Berlin, Germany3  
[1] English: Johann Elert Bode
(1747-1826), German astronomer Source
das Originalbild hat eine Abmessung
von 9 x 7 cm Date 1806 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Elert_Bode.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 7 		2293) Werner classifies minerals as
Linnaeus had classified living objects
50 years before.4 (in this book?5 )
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p240.
2. ^ "Abraham Gottlob
Werner". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
3. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p240.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Abraham Gottlob Werner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
7. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6563/Abraham-Gottlob-Werner
[2] "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Got
tlob_Werner
Leipzig, Germany6  
[1] Abraham Gottlob Werner [t a rare
smiling portrait] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_Gottlob_Werner.jpg

[2] Abraham Werner, engraving by
Johann Friedrich Rossmäsler after a
portrait by Carl Demiani Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin # MLA
style: ''Werner, Abraham Gottlob.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Dec. 2007 .
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15183/Abraham-Werner-engraving-by-Johan
n-Friedrich-Rossmasler-after-a-portrait?
articleTypeId=1
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 6 		2664)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pith". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Pith". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pith
2. ^ "Pith helmet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pith_helmet

3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49.
5. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49.
6. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49. (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges-Louis LeSage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Lou
is_LeSage
Switzerland5 (presumably) 
[1] Description Georges-Louis Le
Sage Source Bibliotheque
Geneve Date 2007-08-27 Author
Created around 1780 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lesage.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 33 		2841) In 1757 Herschel is German, but
escapes to England deserting the
Hannoverian army and the Seven Years'
War.6 7
Herschel is an organist and
music teacher8
Herschel reads Robert
Smith's "A Compleat System of Opticks",
which introduces Herschel to the
techniques of telescope construction
and interests Herschel in viewing the
night sky.9

Most astronomer of this time are
content to observe the Sun, Moon, and
planets but Herschel is determined to
see distant celestial bodies too. For
this Herschel needs telescopes with
larger mirrors to collect enough light,
mirror larger than the opticians can
supply for a reasonable cost, and so
Herschel starts to grind his own
mirrors from metal disks of copper,
tin, and antimony in various
proportions.10
In 1781 Herschel's needs
are larger than the local foundries can
produce and so Herschel casts molten
metal into disks in his basement.
Herschel's telescopes are far superior
to even those used at the Greenwich
Observatory.11
Herschel also makes his
own eyepieces (from glass12 ), the
strongest eyepiece Herschel makes has a
magnifying power of 6,450 times.13

Herschel grinds 200 lens before making
one that satisfies him.14
William, his
brother and his sister Caroline all
grind many lens together.15 16
William's
sister Caroline is the first important
female astronomer.17
Caroline reads
aloud to William and feeds him bites of
food while he grinds for hours.18
After
finding Uranus, Herschel is appointed
private astronomer of George III at a
salary of 300 guineas a year. (is in
England?19 )20

After finding Uranus Herschel becomes
famous almost overnight.21 The Royal
Society of London awards Herschel the
Copley Medal for the discovery of
Uranus, and elects Herschel a Fellow.
William is appointed as an astronomer
to George III, and the Herschels moved
to Datchet, near Windsor Castle.22

Herschel sells many of his telescopes
to supplement the income for his
family.23

Herschel meets Laplace and Napoleon,
and views Napoleon as pretending to
know more than Napoleon really does.24

Herschel reports 4 other satellites of
Uranus that are mistakes.25
Herschel
thinks the moon of Earth and planets
are inhabited.26
Herschel thinks that
inside the Sun is a cold solid body
that might even be inhabited, thinking
sunspots to be holes in the atmosphere
through which the cold surface can be
seen. (I think it might be possible
that sun spots are colder than the rest
of the sun, clearly no photons are
being emitted there...it could be like
small solidified areas, like an earth
crust temporarily forming. I think the
correct view is that these areas are in
fact not as hot as the rest of the
surface and that they are formed
strictly from the sun magnetic, what I
call electric, field. I guess a
magnetic field is thought to be a
static electric charge, while an
electric field is made by moving
electric charges.27 )28

Herschel stubbornly rejects the
accumulating evidence that not all
stars are equally bright (or emit the
same quantity of photons in the visible
spectrum29 ), holding to the belief
that differences in apparent brightness
(or quantity of visible photons
emitted, also related to star size30 )
represent differences in distances.31
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^
"search?q=speculum metal".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "search?q=speculum
metal". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q
=speculum%20metal
3. ^ "bronze". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"bronze". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ronze
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
9. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
10. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
11. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
16. ^ "William
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
21. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
22. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
23. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
32. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
33. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
[2] # Full text of The Story of the
Herschels (1886) from Project Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[3]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
Bath, England32  
[1] [t find better quality - go to
original source] William Herschel,
7-foot reflector, 6.5-inch speculum
metal mirror reflector in an altazimuth
stand, Bath England, 1774. King,
Figure 58, page 125. PD/Corel
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 		2982)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics, 1979, John L. Heilbron,
University of California Press. ISBN
0-520-03478-3, pp439-441.
2. ^
http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/es
im.asp?c=300306
3. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap000
052/00a00410/0?frame=noframe&userID=80c3
d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84866005010adbb&dpi=3&
config=jstor An Account of Some New
Experiments in Electricity, Containing,
1. An Enquiry Whether Vapour be a
Conductor of Electricity. 2. Some
Experiments, to Ascertain the Direction
of the Electric Matter, in the
Discharge of the Leyden Bottle: With a
New Analysis of the Leyden Bottle. 3.
Experiments on the Lateral Explosion,
in the Discharge of the Leyden Bottle.
4. The Description, and Use, of a New
Prime-Conductor. 5. Miscellaneous
Experiments, Made Principally in the
Years 1771 and 1772. 6. Experiments and
Observations on the Electricity of
Fogs, &c. in Pursuance of Those Made by
Thomas Ronayne, Esq; With a Plan of an
Electrical Journal, &c. By William
Henly, F. R. S. William Henly;
Thomas Ronayne Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775), Vol. 64.
(1774), pp. 389-431.
Henley_William_1774.pdf (1774) (1774)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
[2] "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
[3]
http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/s
tories/enlightenment_and_measurement/05.
ST.05/?scene=6
London?, England2  
[1] William Henley 1774 Figures PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/view/026070
85/ap000052/00a00410/0?frame=noframe&use
rID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84866005010adb
b&dpi=3&config=jstor An Account of
Some New Experiments in Electricity,
Containing, 1. An Enquiry Whether
Vapour be a Conductor of Electricity.
2. Some Experiments, to Ascertain the
Direction of the Electric Matter, in
the Discharge of the Leyden Bottle:
With a New Analysis of the Leyden
Bottle. 3. Experiments on the Lateral
Explosion, in the Discharge of the
Leyden Bottle. 4. The Description, and
Use, of a New Prime-Conductor. 5.
Miscellaneous Experiments, Made
Principally in the Years 1771 and 1772.
6. Experiments and Observations on the
Electricity of Fogs, &c. in Pursuance
of Those Made by Thomas Ronayne, Esq;
With a Plan of an Electrical Journal,
&c. By William Henly, F. R. S.
William Henly; Thomas Ronayne
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 64. (1774), pp. 389-431.
Henley_William_1774.pdf

[2] William Henley 1774 Figures PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/view/026070
85/ap000052/00a00410/0?frame=noframe&use
rID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84866005010adb
b&dpi=3&config=jstor An Account of
Some New Experiments in Electricity,
Containing, 1. An Enquiry Whether
Vapour be a Conductor of Electricity.
2. Some Experiments, to Ascertain the
Direction of the Electric Matter, in
the Discharge of the Leyden Bottle:
With a New Analysis of the Leyden
Bottle. 3. Experiments on the Lateral
Explosion, in the Discharge of the
Leyden Bottle. 4. The Description, and
Use, of a New Prime-Conductor. 5.
Miscellaneous Experiments, Made
Principally in the Years 1771 and 1772.
6. Experiments and Observations on the
Electricity of Fogs, &c. in Pursuance
of Those Made by Thomas Ronayne, Esq;
With a Plan of an Electrical Journal,
&c. By William Henly, F. R. S.
William Henly; Thomas Ronayne
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 64. (1774), pp. 389-431.
Henley_William_1774.pdf
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 4 		5959) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791)1 ,
Austrian composer,composes his first
piano sonata (Piano Sonata No. 1 in C
major, K. 279).2 (verify)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
3. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
4. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart {Summer) 1774 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Munich, Germany3 (verify) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
225 YBN
[06/10/1775 AD] 32 33 		2246) In 1774, Volta becomes professor
of physics at the Royal School of
Como.26
In 1779, Volta is appointed to
the chair of physics at the University
of Pavia.27
Volta describes the
electrophorus first in a letter to
Priestly.28
Galvani sends copies of his
papers to Volta, and the two are
friends.29
In 1794, Volta receives the
Copley medal from he Royal Society of
London before inventing the battery.30

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Electrophorus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electrophorus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrop
horus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
3. ^ "ebonite".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "ebonite".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
bonite
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Electrophorus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electrophorus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrop
horus
9. ^ Dictionary of scientific
biography. Charles Coulston Gillispie,
editor-in-chief,New York, Scribner
c1970-c1990. 18, v14 p71.
v. volta_DictSci.pdf
10. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
Centuries: A Study in Early Modern
Physics, John Heilbron, 1979, p. 416.
11. ^
Alessandro Volta, "Le opere di
Alessandro Volta", 7 vols, Milano,
Hoepli,
1918-29. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.d
e/content/electricity/volta_volume1
12. ^ Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson Published 1915 Macmillan,
p30.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
13. ^ Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson Published 1915 Macmillan,
pp29-30.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
14. ^ Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson Published 1915 Macmillan,
pp29-30.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
15. ^ Dictionary of scientific
biography. Charles Coulston Gillispie,
editor-in-chief,New York, Scribner
c1970-c1990. 18, v14 p71.
v. volta_DictSci.pdf
16. ^ Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson Published 1915 Macmillan,
pp29-30.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
17. ^ Dictionary of scientific
biography. Charles Coulston Gillispie,
editor-in-chief,New York, Scribner
c1970-c1990. 18, v14 p71.
v. volta_DictSci.pdf
18. ^ Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson Published 1915 Macmillan,
p28.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAA
AMAAJ
19. ^ "Electrophorus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophor
us
20. ^ Pancaldi, Giuliano (2003). Volta,
Science and Culture in the Age of
Enlightenment. Princeton Univ. Press.
ISBN 0691122261. , p.73
21. ^ Jones, Thomas
B. (July 2007). Electrophorus and
accessories. Thomas B. Jones website.
Univ. of Rochester. Retrieved on
2007-12-27.
22. ^, p19.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
186/01a00020/0 Robert Symmer and the
Two Electricities, J. L. Heilbron
,Isis, Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976),
pp. 7-20
23. ^ Record ID2978. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
24. ^
Dictionary of scientific biography.
Charles Coulston Gillispie,
editor-in-chief,New York, Scribner
c1970-c1990. 18, v14 p71.
v. volta_DictSci.pdf
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Conte Alessandro
Volta". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
27. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
30. ^ "alessandro
volta". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology
31. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
32. ^ "1775)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Electrophorus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrop
horus (06/10/1775)
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1775)
(1775)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://campus.murraystate.edu/tsm/tsm118
/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm
[4]
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tuto
rials/timeline/1750-1774.html
[5]
http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/p
hys03/aeleclab/induct.htm
Como, Italy31  
[1] Volta's electrophore: a) charging
by 'oscillation of the electricities'
b) charging a bottle by an electrphore
c) charging an electrophore by a
bottle. From Alessandro Volta, ''Le
Opere. 7 vols. Milan, 1918-29. vol III,
p101.
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), p417.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3

[2] Drawing of an electrophorus from
around 1900, showing electric charges.
The electrophorus is a static
electricity generator invented by Johan
Carl Wilcke around 1762. The negative
charge on the lower dielectric induces
a separation of charge in the upper
metal plate, with positive charges
attracted to its lower surface and
negative charges repelled to its upper
surface. The upper surface of the plate
is then momentarily grounded, draining
off the negative charge, leaving the
plate with a positive charge.
Alterations: Removed captions and part
labels, moved upper and lower plates
farther apart to make it clearer. [t I
think that possibly whatever charge
accumulates on the bottom insulated
surface, the opposite pulls to the
bottom of the top plate, grounding
either fills electrons into holes
leaving excess electrons on the bottom
surface to match the holes on the
bottom plate, or if negative charge
(excess electrons) electrons move to
top of upper surface, touching the top
plate causes electrons to go to the
Earth, to become neutral with the
charge on the Earth. When lifted away
from the excess charge on the bottom
plate, the electrons fall back into
holes, but there is an excess either of
electrons or holes.] Source
Downloaded on 2007-12-25 from
Solomon Solis Cohen (1902) A System of
Physiologic Therapeutics, Vol. 1, Book
1 - Electrophysics, P. Blackiston's Son
& Co., Philadelphia on Google
Books Date 1902 Author Solomon
Solis Cohen Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain - published in
USA before 1923 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Elect
rophorus_device.png
225 YBN
[1775 AD] 6 		1227)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Flushing toilet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet
2. ^ "Alexander Cummings". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_C
ummings
3. ^ "Flushing toilet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ "Alexander Cummings". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_C
ummings
6. ^ "Flushing toilet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet
London, England5   
225 YBN
[1775 AD] 4 		2101) James Cook (CE 1728-1779),
English navigator 1 , completes three
years (1772-1775) of navigating
southern waters down to the Antarctic
circle and proves that there are no
other vast southern continents beside
Australia, but does not identify
Antarctica itself.2

Cook charts Tonga and Easter Island,
and discovered New Caledonia in the
Pacific and the South Sandwich Islands
and South Georgia Island in the
Atlantic.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
3. ^ "James
Cook". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
(1772-1775) (1772-1775)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Cook". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/australia-c
ontinent?cat=health
Southern Pacific Ocean 
[1] official portrait of Captain James
Cook Source from the National
Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Date
~ 1775 Author Nathaniel
Dance PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg

[2] James Cook, oil painting by John
Webber; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Cook, James (Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia) British sailor
and explorer. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''Cook, James.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007
. ORIGINAL PD DIGITAL IMAGE:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9610/James-Cook-oil-painting-by-John-We
bber-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
225 YBN
[1775 AD] 11 		2143) Bergman gives early encouragement
to Karl Scheele, some of whose work
Bergman publishes.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p207.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p207.
3. ^ "Torbern
Olof Bergman". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Torbern+Olof+Berg
man?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8763/Torbern-Olof-Bergman
6. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Torbern+Olof+Berg
man?cat=technology
7. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8763/Torbern-Olof-Bergman
8. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Torbern+Olof+Berg
man?cat=technology
9. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Torbern+Olof+Berg
man?cat=technology
10. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Torbern+Olof+Berg
man?cat=technology
11. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8763/Torbern-Olof-Bergman (1775)

MORE INFO
[1] "Torbern Olof Bergman".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torbern_Olo
f_Bergman
Uppsala, Sweden10 (presumably) 
[1] Torbern Olof Bergman (1735-1784),
Swedish chemist and mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Torbern_Bergman.jpg

[2] Torbern Olof Bergman
1735-1784 PD?
source: http://www.chemsoc.se/sidor/KK/a
nadag/torberneng.htm
225 YBN
[1775 AD] 13 		2296)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5787/Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
4. ^ "Johann
Friedrich Blumenbach". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann%20Friedric
h%20Blumenbach
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p241.
7. ^ "Johann
Friedrich Blumenbach". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5787/Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p241.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Johann Friedrich Blumenbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Frie
drich_Blumenbach
13. ^ "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5787/Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach (1775)
Göttingen, Germany{2 presumably}12
 
[1] Johann Friedrich Blumenbach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Blumenbach.jpg

[2] Blumenbach's five races Source
No source specified. Please edit this
image description and provide a
source. Date 18th Century Author
Blumenbach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG
224 YBN
[07/04/1776 AD] 7 		1532) Thomas Jefferson (CE 1743-1826)4
, American statesman and scholar, 3rd
President of the USA, drafts the
Declaration of Independence.5
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "United States Declaration of
Independence". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Declaration_of_Independence
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "United States
Declaration of Independence".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Declaration_of_Independence
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
5. ^ "Thomas
Jefferson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6454/Thomas-Jefferson
6. ^ "United States Declaration of
Independence". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Declaration_of_Independence
7. ^ "United States Declaration of
Independence". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Declaration_of_Independence
(07/04/1776)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (modern:
United States)6  
[1] The original image of the
Declaration of Independence (with
annotations on it) This is a
high-resolution image of the United
States Declaration of Independence
(article
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Us_declaration_independence.jpg
224 YBN
[1776 AD] 5 		2109)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p199.
2. ^ "Otto Friedrich
Müller". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Friedr
ich_M%C3%BCller
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p199.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Otto Friedrich
Müller". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Friedr
ich_M%C3%BCller (1776)
Copenhagen, Denmark4 (published) 
[1] Otto Friedrich Müller
(1730-1784) Source : Hansen,
Illustrert Dansk Litteratur Historie
(1902) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M%C3%BCller_Otto_Friedrich_1730-1784.
jpg
224 YBN
[1776 AD] 5 		2176)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
4. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
5. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html (1776)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
[2] "William Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
[4] # Full text of The Story of the
Herschels (1886) from Project Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[5]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
[6] "search?q=speculum metal".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q
=speculum%20metal
[7] "bronze". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ronze
Bath, England4  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
223 YBN
[1777 AD] 6 		2165)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p211.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p211.
4. ^ "Charles
Augustin Coulomb". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p211. (1777) (1777)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
Paris?, France5  
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
223 YBN
[1777 AD] 4 		2182)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ "William
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
3. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (1777)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Bath, England3  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 5 		1204)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Spinning mule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_mu
le
3. ^ "Samuel Crompton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Crom
pton
4. ^ "Samuel Crompton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Crom
pton
5. ^ "Spinning mule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_mu
le
England4  
[1] Samuel Crompton (1753-1827),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Crompton.jpg
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 11 		2004) Georges Louis Leclerc, comte
(count) de Buffon (BYUFoN) (CE
1707-1788), French naturalist,
translates Stephen Hales' "Vegetable
Statics" (1735) into French.1 2

Buffon experiments to try and prove if
Archimedes could burn ships with lens
and decides that it is possible (modern
people have determined it to be
possible only for very close ships3 ).4

Buffon spends much of his life writing
a "Natural History" which will reach 44
volumes when complete.5
In 1739 Buffon
is appointed keeper of the Jardin du
Roi (Royal Garden6 , now "Jardin des
Plantes"7 ), a job Buffon keeps until
his death.8
Buffon's son is guillotined
during the French Revolution.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
6. ^ "Georges
Louis Leclerc". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
7. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
8. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp183-184.
10. ^ "Georges Louis
Leclerc count de Buffon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7945/Georges-Louis-Leclerc-count-de-Buff
on
11. ^ "Georges Louis Leclerc". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges%20Louis%2
0Leclerc (1778)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Louis Leclerc".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lou
is_Leclerc
Montbard, France10  
[1] Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc,
comte de Buffon Source Musée
Buffon à Montbard Date Author
François-Hubert Drouais PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 4 		2102) Cook is killed by native people
of Hawaii.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp196-197.
2. ^ "Hawaii".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii
3. ^ "James Cook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6113/James-Cook
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/hawaii-isla
nd (1778)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Cook". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Cook?cat=te
chnology
[3] "Hawaii". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9594/Hawaii
Hawaii 
[1] official portrait of Captain James
Cook Source from the National
Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Date
~ 1775 Author Nathaniel
Dance PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg

[2] James Cook, oil painting by John
Webber; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Cook, James (Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia) British sailor
and explorer. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''Cook, James.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007
. ORIGINAL PD DIGITAL IMAGE:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9610/James-Cook-oil-painting-by-John-We
bber-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 4 		2144) Torbern Olof Bergman (CE
1735-1784), Swedish mineralogist 1
publishes "De Analysi Aquarum" (1778;
"On Water Analysis") the first
comprehensive account of the analysis
of mineral waters.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p207.
2. ^ "Torbern Olof
Bergman". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8763/Torbern-Olof-Bergman
3. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Torbern+Olof+Berg
man?cat=technology
4. ^ "Torbern Olof Bergman".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8763/Torbern-Olof-Bergman (1778)

MORE INFO
[1] "Torbern Olof Bergman".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torbern_Olo
f_Bergman
Uppsala, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1] Torbern Olof Bergman (1735-1784),
Swedish chemist and mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Torbern_Bergman.jpg

[2] Torbern Olof Bergman
1735-1784 PD?
source: http://www.chemsoc.se/sidor/KK/a
nadag/torberneng.htm
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 9 		2203) Molybdenum is atomic nunmber 42;
at. wt. 95.94; m.p. about 2,617°C;
b.p. about 4,612°C; rel. dens. (sp.
gr.) 10.22 at 20°C; valence +2, +3,
+4, +5, or +6. Molybdenum is a hard,
malleable, ductile, high-melting,
silver-white metal with a body-centered
cubic crystalline structure.6

Molybdenum has the sixth highest
melting point of any element.7
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "molybdenum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3286/molybdenum
2. ^ "Molybdenum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum
3. ^ "molybdenum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3286/molybdenum
4. ^
http://www.molybdenum.com/molyinfo/molyi
nfo.html
5. ^ "molybdenum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3286/molybdenum
6. ^ "Molybdenum". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Molybdenum?cat=he
alth
7. ^ "Molybdenum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum
8. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
9. ^ "molybdenum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3286/molybdenum (c1778)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology
[4] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[5]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/scheele77
.html
[6] "hydrogen cyanide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1730/hydrogen-cyanide
Köping, Sweden8 (presumably) 
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 7 		2218)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/calcine?cat
=health
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
6. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1778)
(1778)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 13 		2236) In 1793, when the Jardin des
Plantes is changed to the National
Museum of Natural History, Lamarck is
made professor of "Insects and Worms"
(Carl Linnaeus's terms for
invertebrates).4 By this time Lamarck
has a large invertebrate collection of
his own.5

Lamarck (with poor intuition6 ) opposes
the new view of Lavoisier.7
Lamarck
publishes "Recherches sur les causes
des principaux faits physiques, et
particulièrement sur celles de la
combustion" (1794, "Research on the
Causes of Principal Physical Facts, and
Particularly on Those of Combustion"),
followed by "Réfutation de la théorie
pneumatique, ou de la nouvelle doctrine
des chimistes modernes" (1796,
"Refutation of the Pneumatic Theory, or
of the New Doctrine of Modern
Chemists") in which Lamarck opposes
Lavoisier's theory of combustion,
comparing it with his own theory.8
(detail on Lamarck's theory9 )

Cuvier opposes Lamarck because of
Lamarck's sarcastic references to
Cuvier's theories of catastrophism.10


Lamarck dies blind and in poverty.11
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean
Baptiste de Monet chevalier de
Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
4. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
8. ^ "Jean Baptiste
de Monet chevalier de Lamarck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
11. ^ "Jean Baptiste
de Monet chevalier de Lamarck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
12. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
13. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck (1778)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé
dans le domaine public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 7 		2237)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
3. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
6. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
7. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck (1778)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé
dans le domaine public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 9 		2248) Methane is a colorless, odorless
gas that is the main component of
natural gas, a component of firedamp in
coal mines, and a product of the
anaerobic bacterial decomposition of
vegetable matter under water (from
which methane gets the alternate name
of "marsh" gas).6

Methane is the simplest member of the
paraffin series of hydrocarbons.
Methane's chemical formula is CH4.
Methane is lighter than air. Methane
has a relative density of 0.554.
methane is only slightly soluble in
water. Methane burns in air, forming
carbon dioxide and water vapor.7
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ "Conte
Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
4. ^ "Conte
Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
5. ^ "alessandro volta". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology
6. ^ "methane". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2328/methane
7. ^ "methane". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2328/methane
8. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1778)
(1778)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2] "Methane". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane
[3]
http://www.answers.com/methane?cat=healt
h
Como, Italy8  
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 4 5 		5960)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
3. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
4. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1778}
5. ^ "List of solo piano
compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart {Summer) 1778 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Paris, France3 (verify) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 5 		2106) This is before the cell theory of
1839 and Spallanzani supports the
prevailing view that spermatozoa are
parasites within the semen.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
2. ^ "Lazzaro
Spallanzani". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8983/Lazzaro-Spallanzani
3. ^ "Lazzaro Spallanzani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8983/Lazzaro-Spallanzani
4. ^ "Lazzaro Spallanzani". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazzaro_Spa
llanzani
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198. (1779)
(1779)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Lazzaro+Spallanza
ni?cat=health
Pavia, Italy4 (presumably) 
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 16 		2112)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p200.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p170.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p170.
4. ^ "Jan
Ingenhousz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz
11. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/Ingenhous
z.html
12. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz
13. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Ingenhousz?ca
t=technology
14. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz
15. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz
16. ^ "Jan Ingenhousz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2412/Jan-Ingenhousz (1779)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Ingenhousz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Ingenho
usz
London, England15  
[1] Jan Ingenhousz PD?
source: http://www.americanchemistry.com
/s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401
6

[2] Ingenhousz, detail of an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture
Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz,
Jan (Encyclop�dia
Britannica) Dutch-born British
physician and scientist who is best
known for his discovery of the process
of photosynthesis, by which green
plants in sunlight absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 12
Nov. 2007 . ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid
%3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http
://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge
nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24
8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P
uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3
Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu
m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2
6sa%3DN
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 5 		2166)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
2. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology (1779)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
Paris?, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 4 5 		2188)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
2. ^ "Horace Bénédict de Saussure".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Horace+B%C3%A9n%C
3%A9dict+de+Saussure+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
4. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure (1779)
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp215-216. (1779)
(1779)

MORE INFO
[1] "Horace Bénédict de
Saussure". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_B%C3
%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure
Geneva, Switzerland3
(presumably) 
[1] Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure (1740 - 1799) PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.geneve.ch/fao/2003/20
030822.asp

[2] Horace-Benedict de Saussure and
Jacques Balmat, monument in Chamonix /
France. Scanned by Dake from a book
(1899) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hb_saussure_chamonix.jpg
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 11 12 		2219)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
5. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
9. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
10. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1779)
(1779)
12. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health (1779)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 4 		3251)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196.
2. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn,
"The Caloric Theory of Adiabatic
Compression", Isis, Vol. 49, No. 2
(Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
3. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
4. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (1779)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Heinrich Lambert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_Lambert
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Heinrich+L
ambert?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Lambert/RouseBall/RB_Lambert.html
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Lambert.html
[5] "hyperbolic functions".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1791/hyperbolic-functions
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p196. (1768) (1768)
[7]
"Johann Heinrich Lambert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6942/Johann-Heinrich-Lambert (1768)
Berlin, Germany3  
[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg

[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics
220 YBN
[1780 AD] 10 		1208)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Aimé Argand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_A
rgand
3. ^ "Argand lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argand_lamp

4. ^ "Oil lamp". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_lamp
5. ^ "Aimé Argand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_A
rgand
6. ^ "Argand lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argand_lamp

7. ^ "Argand lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argand_lamp

8. ^ "Argand lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argand_lamp

9. ^ "Aimé Argand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_A
rgand
10. ^ "Argand lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argand_lamp

Switzerland?9   
220 YBN
[1780 AD] 6 		2053) Jean Étienne Guettard (GeToRD)
(CE 1715-1786), French geologist 3 , is
the first to geologically map France
publishing this in his "Atlas et
description minéralogiques de la
France" ("Mineralogical Atlas and
Description of France").4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
2. ^ "Jean Étienne
Guettard". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+%C3%89tienne
+Guettard?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
4. ^ "Jean Étienne
Guettard". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+%C3%89tienne
+Guettard?cat=technology
5. ^ "Jean Étienne Guettard". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+%C3%89tienne
+Guettard?cat=technology
6. ^ "Jean Étienne Guettard". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+%C3%89tienne
+Guettard?cat=technology (1780)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Etienne Guettard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8385/Jean-Etienne-Guettard
[2] "Jean-Étienne Guettard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-%C3%89
tienne_Guettard
France5  
[1] Jean-Étienne Guettard Portrait de
Jean-Etienne Guettard par Théodore
Charpentier (Musée d'Etampes) ©
Corpus Etampois & Musée d''Étampes
2002 PAINTING: PD IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cb
e-guettard.html
220 YBN
[1780 AD] 5 		2062)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p190.
2. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Jean Le Rond d
Alembert". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert
5. ^ "Jean Le Rond d Alembert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5564/Jean-Le-Rond-d-Alembert (1780)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean le Rond D'Alembert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_le_Ron
d_D%27Alembert
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20le%20Rond%
20D'Alembert
[3] "partial differential equation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
2198/partial-differential-equation
[4] "Partial differential equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_dif
ferential_equation
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics
220 YBN
[1780 AD] 17 		2274) According to Asimov, Laplace is
reluctant to give credit to others, for
example Lagrange's contributions to
their joint work on celestial
mechanics.12

Napoleon makes Laplace minister of
interior, but Laplace proves
incompetent and is promoted to the
purely decorative position of Senator.
When Louis XVIII comes to the throne
after Napoleon's fall, Laplace is not
penalized like Haüy and Chaptal, but
instead Louis XVIII makes Laplace a
marquis.13

The Encyclopedia Britannica speculates
that because Laplace does not hold
strong political views and was not a
member of the aristocracy as being
probably why Laplace escapes
imprisonment and execution during the
French Revolution.14

Napoleon remarks on leafing through
Laplace's book that he sees no mention
of God, to which Laplace replies "I had
no need of that hypothesis".15
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
9. ^ "specific heat".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9029/specific-heat
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
14. ^ "Pierre Simon
marquis de Laplace". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
16. ^ "Pierre Simon
marquis de Laplace". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236. (1780)
(1780)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre-Simon Laplace".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simo
n_Laplace
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
Paris, France16 (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
220 YBN
[1780 AD] 2 		2286)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Six". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Six
2. ^ "James Six". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Six
(1780)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/six-s-therm
ometer?cat=technology
[2] "Six's thermometer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six%27s_the
rmometer
Canterbury, England1  
[1] A Maximum Minimum thermometer, also
known as Six''s thermometer after its
inventor. The scales are Fahrenheit on
the inside of the U and Centigrade on
the outside. The current temperature is
23 Centigrade, The maximum recorded is
25, and the minimum is 15, both read
from the base of the small markers in
each arm of the U tube. The bulbs are
hidden by a plastic housing GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Max_Min_Thermometer.JPG
219 YBN
[03/13/1781 AD] 20 21 		2840) German-English astronomer,
William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
identifies the planet Uranus.7

This is the first new planet to be
discovered since prehistoric times.8

In recording double stars
systematically, on this day, Herschel
enters a pair of which "the lowest of
the two is a curious either nebulous
star or perhaps a comet". Four days
later Herschel looks for the object and
finds that it has moved. From this time
on Herschel regularly observes the
object.9

When enough observations (positions10 )
have been made to calculate an orbit,
Hershel and in particular Laplace find
that the orbit is nearly circular like
a planet instead of elongated like a
comet. In addition the orbit of the
object is located far outside of
Saturn. Herschel then understands that
he has found a new planet. This planet
is barely visible to the naked eye and
has been seen a number of times before
this. Flamsteed recorded it as 34 Tauri
in the constellation Taurus. Hershel
tries to name the planet "Georgium
Sidus" ("George's star") after George
II, then king of England. Lalande
suggests the name "Hershel", but
ultimately it is decided to stay with
mythological names for the planets, and
Bode's suggestion of "Uranus" after the
(Roman God who is the11 ) father of
Saturn (in Greek "Cronos" t: presumably
the Greek version of Uranus). The
identification of Uranus caused a large
amount of excitement. (in particular to
those who think that Newton had left
nothing to find).12

Before this Herschel has made two
preliminary telescopic surveys (and
catalogs) of outer space, and finds
Uranus during a third and most complete
survey.13

Herschel is the first to systematically
report on variable stars.14

Hershel wrongly views the Sun as being
near the center of a giant collection
of stars in the shape of a grindstone.
Harlow Shapley will determine the sun's
correct position.15

Hershel suggests the name
"€œasteroids"€ (star-like) (in
180216 ) for the small objects being
found in between the orbit of Mars and
Jupiter, for example Ceres, because
they are too small to appear as discs
in the telescope but appear only as
points of light. Asimov comments that
"€œasteroids" is not a good name, and
"€œplanetoids", or "€œminor
planets"€ is more accurate and
considered preferable.17 (Perhaps
there should be a name for all orbiting
objects, orbiting stars, planets, etc.
but there would be the problem of two
objects orbiting each other with no
clear larger one.18 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
4. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
5. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
8. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
9. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
13. ^ "Sir
William Herschel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
16. ^ "William
Herschel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p231.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Sir
William Herschel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1781)
(1781)
21. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (03/13/1781)

MORE INFO
[1] # Full text of The Story of
the Herschels (1886) from Project
Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[2]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
Bath, England19  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 12 		2123) Darwin is described as a
freethinker and radical, who often
writes his opinions and scientific
treatises in verse.7
Darwin sympathizes
with the French revolutionaries.8

Darwin's scientific writings are
generally well received until the
politician George Canning produces a
very damaging parody of Darwin's work.
This is part of a general campaign by
the government against the Lunar
Society for its support of the French
and American revolutions, as well as
the Lunar Society's denouncement of
slavery.9

Darwin's other major works will include
"A Plan for the Conduct of Female
Education in Boarding Schools" (1797)
and "Phytologia, or the Philosophy of
Agriculture and Gardening" (1800).10
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203.
2. ^ "Erasmus
Darwin". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Erasmus Darwin".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203.
9. ^ "Erasmus
Darwin". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
10. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
11. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
12. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin (1781)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Darwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Dar
win
Derby, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Darwin, Erasmus (1731
- 1802) Discipline(s): Medicine ;
Botany ; Engineering Print Artist:
Moses Haughton Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Rawlinson
Original Dimensions: PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Engineering
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 10 		2147) According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Matthew Boulton, the
manufacturer of the Soho Works in
Birmingham, who funds much of Watt's
work, foreseeing a new market in the
corn, malt, and cotton mills, urges
Watt to invent a rotary motion for the
steam engine, to replace the
reciprocating action of the original.6


William Murdoch is generally credited
with inventing the sun-and-planet gear
which is included in James Watt's
patent.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
3. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
4. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
6. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
7. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
8. ^ "Sun and planet gear". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_and_pla
net_gear
9. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209. (1781)
(1781)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England9
(presumably) 
[1] Schematic animation of Watt's sun
and planet gears. The Sun is yellow,
the planet red, the reciprocating crank
is blue, the flywheel is green and the
driveshaft is grey. Notice that the sun
and flywheel rotate twice for every
rotation of the planet. Schematic
animation of Watt's Sun and Planet
gears, drawn by me using Xarax
Emoscopes 03:36, 4 March 2006
(UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
_and_planet_gear

[2] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 6 		2196) The radius predicted by Bode's
law agreed within two percent of the
observed radius.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p217.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p217.
3. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Lexell.html
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Lexell.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p217. (1781) (1781)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Johan Lexell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Joha
n_Lexell
St. Petersburg, Russia5
(presumably) 
[1] Anders Johan Lexell
(1740-1784) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/
ttpk1/ttpkI/22Suomi.html
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 4 		2204)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tungsten". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3778/tungsten
2. ^ "tungsten". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3778/tungsten
3. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology
4. ^ "tungsten". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3778/tungsten (1781)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
[3] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[4] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
Köping, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 6 		2208) As a priest, Haüy is in danger
during the French Revolution, and is
jailed for some time. (It is
interesting that priests were jailed in
the Revolution, perhaps for fraud? My
vote is to tolerate total free thought,
speech and delusion. To me it is
hopeful to see religious people
supporting and involved in science.4 )
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p221.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p221.
3. ^ "ren just ha
y". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "ren just ha y". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
6. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology (1781)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Just Hauy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9573/Rene-Just-Hauy
[2] "René Just Haüy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_J
ust_Ha%C3%BCy
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

[2] Scientist: Haüy, René Just
(1743 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Geology Print Artist: Riedel
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Felix Massard, 1773- Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9 x 7.2 cm /
Sheet: 20.5 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=H
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 14 		2211) Thomas Jefferson (CE 1743-1826),
American statesman and scholar1 ,
publishes "Notes on the State of
Virginia" (1781), which is part travel
guide, part scientific treatise, and
part philosophical meditation, the only
book Jefferson ever publishes.2 In
this work Jefferson advocates ending
slavery.3

Jefferson writes "Millions
of innocent men, women, and children,
since the introduction of Christianity,
have been burnt, tortured, fined, and
imprisoned; yet we have not advanced
one inch toward uniformity. What has
been the effect of coercion? To make
one-half the world fools and the other
half hypocrites. To support roguery and
error all over the earth."4

Jefferson experiments with new
varieties of grain.5
Jefferson studies
and classifies fossils unearthed in New
York State.6
Jefferson is friends with
Joseph Priestley.7
Jefferson is a
skillful architect.8
Asimov comments
that Jefferson is the closest to
scientist-in-office of all Presidents
of the USA (Jefferson is 3rd US
President9 ).10
Jefferson is a strong
advocate of separation of Church and
State.11
All accounts of Jefferson in
his youth describe him as an obsessive
student, often spending 15 hours of the
day with his books, 3 hours practicing
his violin, and the remaining 6 hours
eating and sleeping.12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
2. ^ "Thomas
Jefferson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6454/Thomas-Jefferson
3. ^ "Thomas Jefferson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6454/Thomas-Jefferson
4. ^
http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/quot
es/jefferson.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
9. ^ "Thomas
Jefferson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6454/Thomas-Jefferson
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
11. ^ "Thomas
Jefferson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6454/Thomas-Jefferson
12. ^ "Thomas Jefferson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6454/Thomas-Jefferson
13. ^ "University of Virginia".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5476/University-of-Virginia
14. ^ "University of Virginia".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5476/University-of-Virginia (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas jefferson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_jeff
erson
[2]
http://www.answers.com/thomas%20jefferso
n
Charlottesville, Virginia, USA13  
[1] Cropped version of Thomas
Jefferson, painted by Charles Willson
Peale. Philadelphia, 1791. Source
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/jefferson
/jefffed.html [1] Date 1791 Author
Charles Willson Peale PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_
1791_2.jpg

[2] Th. Jefferson, photomechanical
print, created/published [between 1890
and 1940(?)]. Library of Congress,
Prints and Photographs Division,
Presidential File. Reproduction Number:
LC-USZC4-2474. This print is a
reproduction of the 1805 Rembrandt
Peale painting of Thomas Jefferson held
by the New-York Historical
Society. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/coll
ections/jefferson_papers/jefferson1.html

219 YBN
[1781 AD] 6 		2263)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p232.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Peter Jacob Hjelm". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0620/Peter-Jacob-Hjelm
5. ^ "Peter Jacob Hjelm". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0620/Peter-Jacob-Hjelm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232. (1781) (1781)
Uppsala, Sweden5 (presumably) 
[1] Molybdenum sample GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mo%2C42.jpg

[2] Molybdenum ingot COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.molybdenum.com/molyin
fo/molyinfo.html
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 3 4 		2304) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815)
English chemist 1 publishes
"Introduction to Natural Philosophy"
(1781).

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
2. ^ "William
Nicholson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
3. ^ "William Nicholson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson (1781)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (1781) (1781)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Nicholson
(chemist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nic
holson_%28chemist%29
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 7 		2321) Chaptal is one of first to adopt
Lavoisier's new view.3
Chaptal is a
strong advocate of science
popularization4 and writing science
for the average person.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp247-248.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp247-248.
4. ^ "Jean-Antoine
Chaptal". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Chaptal
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp247-248.
6. ^ "chaptal jean
antoine". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaptal-jea
n-antoine?cat=technology , -248.
(1781)
7. ^ Ted Huntington. (1781)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Antoine Claude, Comte
De Chante Chaptal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Claude,_Comte_De_Chante_Chaptal
Montpellier, France6  
[1] Jean-Antoine Claude, comte Chaptal
de Chanteloup (1756-1832), French
chemist and statesman. This is a
faithful photographic reproduction of
an original two-dimensional work of
art. The original image comprising the
work of art itself is in the public
domain for the following
reason: Public domain This image (or
other media file) is in the public
domain because its copyright has
expired. This applies to the United
States, Canada, the European Union and
those countries with a copyright term
of life of the author plus 70
years. Faithful reproductions of
two-dimensional original works cannot
attract copyright in the U.S. according
to the rule in Bridgeman Art Library v.
Corel Corp. This photograph was taken
in the U.S. or in another country where
a similar rule applies (for a list of
allowable countries, see Commons:When
to use the PD-Art tag#Country-specific
rules). This photographic reproduction
is therefore also in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Antoine_Chaptal.jpg

[2] Scientist: Chaptal,
Jean-Antoine-Claude (1756 -
1832) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: G. Metzeroth Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12 x 10 cm / Sheet: 23 x 14
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C
218 YBN
[11/??/1782 AD] 35 36 		2348) Goodricke is deaf and mute
throughout his life, probably because
of an illness in childhood.24
Despite
this handicap, Goodricke is a bright
student.25
Goodricke makes this
discovery at age 17.26
Goodricke
reports this to the Royal Society who
award Goodricke with a Copley Medal in
1783.27
Variable stars had been
discovered by David Fabricius
(1564-1617)28 nearly 200 years
before29 in the year 159630 .31
Algol,
means "blinking demon."32

John Goodricke's, journal entry
November 12, 1782 reads:
"This night
looked at Beta-Persei (Algol) and was
much amazed to find its brightness
altered. It now appears to be fourth
magnitude... I observed it diligently
for about an hour upwards...hardly
believing that it changed its
brightness, because I had never heard
of any star varying so quick in its
brightness. I thought it might be
perhaps owing to an optical illusion, a
defect in my eyes or bad air, but the
sequel will show that its change is
true and that it was not mistaken."33
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
2. ^ "John
Goodricke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
3. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
5. ^ "John
Goodricke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
6. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
7. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p253.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html
12. ^ "John Goodricke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Goodri
cke
13. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
14. ^ "variable star". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4847/variable-star
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "variable star".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4847/variable-star
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "variable star".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4847/variable-star
22. ^ "variable star". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4847/variable-star
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "John Goodricke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
25. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
27. ^ "John
Goodricke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
28. ^
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html
29. ^ "John Goodricke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Goodricke+?c
at=technology
30. ^
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html
31. ^ Record ID1616. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
32. ^ "variable
star". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4847/variable-star
33. ^
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html
34. ^ "John Goodricke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Goodri
cke
35. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke (11/1782)
36. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p253. (1782)
(1782)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jyi.org/features/ft.php?id=93
8
York Minster, England34  
[1] John Goodricke (1764-1786),
Astronomer PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de
/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html

[2] The position of Beta Persei
(Algol; Gorgona; Gorgonea Prima; Demon
Star; El Ghoul) By
Zwergelstern Thanks for the help of
Patrick Chevalley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Position_Beta_Per.png
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 6 		2134)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
2. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
5. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
6. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (1782)
Birmingham, England5  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 5 		2148)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
3. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
4. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
5. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt (1782)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England4
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 5 		2149) Watt describes this invention as
"one of the most ingenious, simple
pieces of mechanism I have contrived".3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
3. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
4. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
5. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt (1782)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England4
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 19 20 		2190) Tellurium's electron
configuration is:
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p415

Tellurium is occasionally found
uncombined in nature but is more often
found combined with metals, as in the
minerals calaverite (gold telluride)
and sylvanite (silver-gold
telluride).16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p216.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p216.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "oxygen group element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-810
32/oxygen-group-element
5. ^ "tellurium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1610/tellurium
6. ^ "tellurium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1610/tellurium
7. ^ "oxygen group element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-810
32/oxygen-group-element
8. ^ "tellurium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1610/tellurium
9. ^ "Tellurium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellurium
10. ^ "Tellurium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellurium
11. ^ "tellurium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1610/tellurium
12. ^ "oxygen group element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-810
32/oxygen-group-element
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "oxygen group element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-810
32/oxygen-group-element
15. ^ "oxygen group element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-810
32/oxygen-group-element
16. ^ "tellurium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1610/tellurium
17. ^ "tellurium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1610/tellurium
18. ^ "Transylvania". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3229/Transylvania
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p216. (1782) (1782)
20. ^
"oxygen group element". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-810
32/oxygen-group-element (about 1782)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franz-Joseph Müller von
Reichenstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz-Josep
h_M%C3%BCller_von_Reichenstein
[2]
http://www.answers.com/tellurium?cat=hea
lth
Transylvania17 , Romania (was Hungary
at time)18  
[1] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te-TableImage.png

[2] English: Tellurium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te%2C52.jpg
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 7 		2202) Hydrogen cyanide is highly toxic
because it inhibits cellular oxidative
processes.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hydrogen cyanide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1730/hydrogen-cyanide
2. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
5. ^ "hydrogen
cyanide". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1730/hydrogen-cyanide
6. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
7. ^ "hydrogen cyanide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1730/hydrogen-cyanide (1782)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology
[3] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[4]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/scheele77
.html
Köping, Sweden6 (presumably) 
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 8 		2220)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
7. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1782)
(1782)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 5 		3387)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bloliverevans.htm
2. ^ "mill." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 03 Jul.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ill>.
3. ^ "mill." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
03 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/382605/mill>.
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bloliverevans.htm
5. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bloliverevans.htm {1782}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Evans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evan
s
Red Clay Creek, Delaware, USA4  
[1] Automated mill for processing grain
designed by American inventor Oliver
Evans (1775-1819) Source This
image is available from the United
States Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs Division under the digital
ID cph.3c10379 This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 1795 Author
Illustration by James Poupard from
''The young mill-wright & miller's
guide : in five parts, embellished with
twenty five plates'' by Oliver Evans,
of Philadelphia. Philadelphia : Printed
for, and sold by the author,
1795. Permission (Reusing this image)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Oliver_Evans_-_Automa
ted_mill.jpg

[2] Scientist: Evans, Oliver (1755 -
1819) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5
x 15.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-E2-09a.jpg
217 YBN
[05/26/1783 AD] 18 19 		2076) The is a problem in thinking a
star is so massive that particles of
light would return to it, because they
would not have sufficient velocity to
leave it to begin with. But even if
true that some matter was so large that
even particle of light from a distance
would be attracted to it, that presumes
that the most dense matter possible can
produce a gravity strong enough to trap
a light particle. This idea of a mass
so large that particles of light attach
to it, and cannot escape seems unlikely
to me, but of course it cannot be ruled
out. If true, in the visible universe
we would notice light beams all bend to
the large unseen influential masses,
there would be large spaces with no
light. On earth, we don't see light
bend in any direction, light particles
appear to move in the direction they
exit from, for example from a flash
light. I reject the idea of black-holes
as unlikely because time dilation is
probably wrong, as is a space-time
geometry where time is not the same
everywhere, and I doubt that there can
be a center of mass so large that even
particles of light cannot escape
because probably photons cannot be
compressed that tightly, and even if
they were, that might not be enough
mass to stop photons from escaping,
because photons take up space, and as a
mass grows, it's radius grows, so
incoming photons will always be at a
distance from the center of mass, and
be more effected by the outer mass
because it is closer. I want to run
some simulations of this. In addition,
just to give an idea of how backwards
science is right now, we do not even
have an estimate of the mass of a
photon, it's absurdly backward at least
publicly.15 It's interesting also that
Michell appears to be one of those
people, right after Newton, who were
filling in the blanks that Newton left
out, such as the consequences of light
corpuscles obeying the laws of gravity.
This path started in a good direction,
but then apparently was sent astray in
the 1800s by the wave theory with an
aether medium of light.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
2. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
3. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
4. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
5. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
6. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
11. ^ Albert Einstein, Ann. Physik, 35,
898 (1911)
12. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P.
Schiffer, and A. B. Whitehead,
"Measurement of the Gravitational Red
Shift Using the Mössbauer Effect in
Fe57", Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 163–164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
13. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ Ted
Huntington
17. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
18. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf {05/26/1783}
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192. (1784) (1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
[3]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/mi
chell.html
[4] Criticisms of the projectile theory
of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ.
16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) michell_corpuscular_criticism_pev
16i2p112.pdf
[5] "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England17   
217 YBN
[06/04/1783 AD] 13 14 		2192) In Paris the Montgolfier brothers
fly six miles before a crowd of 300
which includes Benjamin Franklin.9
The
Montgolfiers are the sons of a paper
manufacturer.10
Of the brothers, only
Michel will actually fly in the
balloon, making an ascent of 3000 feet
with seven other people in 1784.11
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
2. ^ "Joseph Michel
and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
3. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
7. ^ "Joseph Michel
and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
8. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
10. ^ "Montgolfier".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
11. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
12. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques
Etienne Montgolfier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
13. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques
Etienne Montgolfier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier (06/04/1783)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
(06/05/1783) (06/05/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier

Annonay, France12  
[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg
217 YBN
[07/15/1783 AD] 9 10 11 		2206) Steamboat.5

The ship moves upstream with a speed of
six miles per hour, in the presence of
thousands of enthusiastic spectators.6


Before the pyroscaphe d'Abbans had
constructed an experimental boat, and
ran it on the River Doubs during June
and July, 1776. The system he used then
was the palmipede, or web-foot, which
proved unsatisfactory.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
2. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
3. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
4. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
5. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
6. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08526b.h
tm
7. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08526b.h
tm
8. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
9. ^ http://www.answers.com/steamship
(1783)
10. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans (1783)
11. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08526b.h
tm (07/15/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude de Jouffroy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_de_J
ouffroy
[2] "Steamboat". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat
Saône River, near Lyon, France8  
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
217 YBN
[08/27/1783 AD] 9 		2264) Charles confirms Benjamin
Franklin's electrical experiments.7
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p232.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2590/Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar-Charles
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232.
6. ^ "Jacques
Charles". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
8. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232. (08/27/1783)
(08/27/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Charles". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Cha
rles
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg
217 YBN
[10/15/1783 AD] 4 5 		2193)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
2. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology (10/1783)
5. ^ "Jean-François Pilâtre
de Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
(10/15/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Michel and
Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
[3] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier

Paris, France3  
[1] Beschreibung: The first manned
balloon ascent on October 15, 1783, to
a height of 25 meters. This ascent was
made by the Marquis d'Arlandes and
Pilatre de Rozier. In: ''Histoire des
Ballons et des Aeronautes Celebres,''
by Gaston Tissandier, 1887, p. VII.
Library Call Number TL616 .T57
1887. * Image ID: libr0458,
Treasures of the NOAA Library
Collection Source:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0458.htm ; original upload in german
wikipedia 7. Aug 2004 by
de:Benutzer:Srbauer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ballon_de_Rozier.jpg

[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
217 YBN
[11/21/1783 AD] 9 10 		2194) Human flight by balloon.5
During
the 25-minute flight using a
Montgolfier hot air balloon, the two
travel 12 kilometers from the Château
de la Muette to the Butte-aux-Cailles,
then in the outskirts of Paris,
attaining an altitude of 3,000 feet.6

On June 15, 1785 De Rozier and his
companion, Pierre Romain, will be
killed when trying to cross the English
channel in a balloon.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
2. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
3. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p40.
5. ^
"balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
6. ^ "Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
7. ^ "Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
8. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
9. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>. {11/21/1783}
10. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p40.
{11/21/1783}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Joseph Michel and
Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
[3] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier

[4] "Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
(11/21/1783)
Paris, France8  
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg

[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 10 		1207)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace
3. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace
4. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace
5. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace
6. ^ "Faggoting". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faggoting
7. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace
8. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace
9. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace
10. ^ "Puddling furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_fu
rnace

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cort". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cort
England9  
[1] Schematic drawing of a puddling
furnace. A, the hearth; F. the grate
or fireplace; C, the chimney with a
damper at the summit to regulate the
draught; D, a bridge separating the
grate from the hearth, for preventing
the direct contact of the fuel with the
iron. Found on the web at
http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/metallu
rgy_pics.html Scanned from The
Household Cyclopedia by Henry
Hartshorne, 1881. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Puddling_furnace.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 4 		1220) Benjamin Rush (December 24, 1745
- April 19, 1813), a US physician and
signer of the Declaration of
Independence is an early opponent of
slavery and capital punishment. Rush is
on the faculty of the first medical
school in America, "College of
Philadelphia", founded in 1765.1 In
the Pennslyvania psychiatric hospital,
Rush does replace the hay beds with
hair mattresses, however he brutally
assaults and tortures people under the
excuse of experimentation and
treatment. Rush, thinking insanity to
be caused by irregular movements of
blood in the brain, bleeds humans. Rush
writes that "four-fifths of the blood
in the body" should be taken. Other
doctors call such actions a "murderous
dose", and a "dose for a horse". Rush
writes "fear, accompanied with pain and
a sense of shame, has sometimes cured
this disease". Rush uses a spinning
device called a "gyrator" to spin
humans, thinking there is increased
blood flow in brain. Rush uses a
"tranquilizer chair" to "cure"
"madness". In this chair a prisoner's
arms, wrists and feet are strapped,
their head put in a wooden container,
and a bucket is put beneath the chair
for excrement. Some humans are tied in
this chair for hours, days, and even
months.2 The "gyrator" and
"trainquilizer chair", used and
promoted by Benjamin Rush, will
eventually be removed from Pennsylvania
hospital, and viewed as an instrument
of abuse.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
3. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
4. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
 
[1] Dr. Benjamin Rush painted by
Charles Wilson Peale in 1783 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.
jpg

[2] Dr. Benjamin Rush, painted by
Charles Wilson Peale, c.
1818 ''Benjamin Rush'' painted by
Charles Wilson Peale, c. 1818.
Independence National Historical Park.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 6 		2114)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
5. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1783 (presumably)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
London, England5  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 6 		2155) Watt (CE 1736-1819) defines the
unit "horsepower" as 550 foot-pounds
per second, finding that a strong horse
can raise a 150-pound weight nearly 4
feet in a second. This unit of power is
still used, however the metric system
uses the Watt in honor of James Watt. 1
horsepower=746 watts.1

These rotary steam engines replace
animal power, and it is natural that
the new engine should be measured in
terms of the number of horses it
replaces. By using measurements that
millwrights, who set up horse gins
(animal-driven wheels), have
determined. Watt finds the value of one
"horse power" to be equal to 33,000
pounds lifted one foot high per minute,
a value which is still that of the
standard American and English
horsepower. The (cost2 ) of erecting
the new type of (rotary3 ) steam engine
is therefore based on its horsepower.4


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "James Watt". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
5. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209. (1783)
(1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
Birmingham, England5
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 5 		2173)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
2. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp211-212.
4. ^ "Louis Bernard
Guyton de Morveau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp211-212. (1783)
(1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis-Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Berna
rd_Guyton_de_Morveau
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Guyton+De+Morveau
+?cat=technology
France4  
[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né Ã
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,Ã
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 11 		2183)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ "William
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "William
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
11. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
[2] "William Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Slough, England10  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 9 		2189)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Horace Bénédict de Saussure".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Horace+B%C3%A9n%C
3%A9dict+de+Saussure+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp215-216.
4. ^ "Horace Benedict
de Saussure". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn,
"The Caloric Theory of Adiabatic
Compression", Isis, Vol. 49, No. 2
(Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
8. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure
9. ^ "Horace Benedict de Saussure".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5909/Horace-Benedict-de-Saussure (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Horace Bénédict de
Saussure". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_B%C3
%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure
Geneva, Switzerland8
(presumably) 
[1] Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure (1740 - 1799) PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.geneve.ch/fao/2003/20
030822.asp

[2] Horace-Benedict de Saussure and
Jacques Balmat, monument in Chamonix /
France. Scanned by Dake from a book
(1899) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hb_saussure_chamonix.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 6 		2221)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
5. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1783)
(1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 3 		2227)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 6 		2242)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean
Baptiste de Monet chevalier de
Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
4. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
5. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
6. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h (1783-1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 23 		2287) Asimov states that Caroline
Herschel is the first female of record
to contribute findings to astronomy.3
It seems possible that Hypatia may have
made astronomical contributions too.4
Ca
roline herschel does not receive a
formal education.5
Herschel leads a
harsh life until her brother William
invites her to live with him in Bath,
England. Herschel's mother requires
William to give her funds to retain a
maid before allowing Caroline to
leave.6
In Bath, Caroline enrolls in
voice lessons and learns to play the
harpsichord, soon becoming an integral
part of William's musical performances
at small gatherings.7
Both Caroline and
William are musicians and give their
last public musical performance in
1782, when William accepts the private
office of court astronomer to George
III.8
Caroline helps grind and polish
mirrors.9
Caroline Herschel executes
many of the astronomical calculations
(for10 ) William.11
Herschel uses a
telescope her brother William built for
her.12
When William marries, the two
women become good friends.13
In 1787
the king (of England14 ) gives Caroline
an annual pension of £50 (to work15 )
as her brother's assistant.16
This
appointment makes Caroline Herschel the
first female in England to be honored
with a government position.17
In 1828,
at the age of 75, the Royal
Astronomical Society awards Herschel a
gold medal for her monumental works in
science. Ten years later, in 1838
Carloine Herschel is made an honorary
member of the Royal Astronomical
Society.18
On her 96th birthday,
Herschel is awarded the gold medal of
science by the King of Prussia.19
Hersch
el dies at age 97.20

(Perhaps in someway, at this time
female humans, certainly in England,
were becoming less inhibited and
obstructed from social and legal
equality.21 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ "Caroline Lucretia
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp238-239.
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^
"Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
6. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
7. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
8. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel
9. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Caroline Lucretia
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp238-239.
13. ^ "Caroline
Lucretia Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Caroline
Lucretia Herschel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel
17. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
18. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
19. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
20. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
23. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Lu
cretia_Herschel
[2]
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/herschel_c.htm
Datchet, England22  
[1] Caroline Herschel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caroline_Herschel.jpg

[2] Karoline Herschel PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/herschel_c.htm
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 6 		2311) There are some reports but no
evidence that parachutes were used for
amusement in the 1100s CE.3

Apparently Lenormand views parachute as
way for people trapped in burning
buildings to leap to safety.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "parachute". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8369/parachute
2. ^ "parachute". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8369/parachute
3. ^ "parachute". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8369/parachute
4. ^ "Louis Sebastien Lenormand".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7764/Louis-Sebastien-Lenormand
5. ^ "parachute". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8369/parachute
6. ^ "parachute". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8369/parachute (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Parachute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute
[2]
http://www.answers.com/parachute?cat=tec
hnology
?, France5   
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 12 		2320) Fausto D'elhuyar writes several
volumes on mineralogy and coining.10
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p247.
2. ^ "Fausto
Elhuyar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2385/Fausto-Elhuyar
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p247.
4. ^ "Fausto
Elhuyar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2385/Fausto-Elhuyar
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p247.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p247.
9. ^ "Fausto
Elhuyar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2385/Fausto-Elhuyar
10. ^ "Fausto Elhuyar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2385/Fausto-Elhuyar
11. ^ "Fausto Elhuyar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2385/Fausto-Elhuyar
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p247. (1783) (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fausto Elhuyar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fausto_Elhu
yar
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/don-fausto-
d-elhuyar?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.minas.upm.es/inicio/Museo%20H
istorico/Ingles/history.htm
Vergara, Spain11  
[1] Fausto Elhuyarren urteurrena
(1755-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zientzia.net/argazkik
onts.asp?Artik_kod=3751

[2] FAUSTO FERMÍN DE ELHUYAR
(1757-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.minas.upm.es/inicio/M
useo%20Historico/Ingles/history.htm
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 4 		5962)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
4. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1783}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>
Vienna, Austria3 (presumably) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 4 		5964)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "Three German Dances (Mozart)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Germa
n_Dances_%28Mozart%29
3. ^ "Three German Dances (Mozart)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Germa
n_Dances_%28Mozart%29
4. ^ "Three German Dances (Mozart)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Germa
n_Dances_%28Mozart%29 {1791 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>
Vienna, Austria3 (verify) 
[1] Große Redoutensaal (Grand
Ballroom) in the Hofburg in Vienna.
Engraving by Joseph Schütz, end of
18th century. From the Städtische
Sammlungen, Vienna. Obtained from:
http://images.zeno.org/Musik/I/big/61050
71a.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/25/GrosseRedoutensaal_Imperia
lPalaceVienna.jpg

[2] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg
216 YBN
[01/15/1784 AD] 16 17 		2115) Cavendish concludes (wrongly11 )
that dephlogisticated air (oxygen) is
dephlogisticated water and that
hydrogen is either pure phlogiston or
phlogisticated water.12
Cavendish
reported these findings to Joseph
Priestley, English clergyman and
scientist, no later than March 1783,
but does not publish them until the
following year.13

The Scottish inventor James Watt
published a paper on the composition of
water in 1783; Cavendish had performed
the experiments first but published
second.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
5. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
7. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
13. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
14. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
15. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
16. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
(01/15/1784) (01/15/1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
London, England15  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
216 YBN
[03/02/1784 AD] 6 		2309) Jean Pierre François Blanchard
(BloNsoR) (CE 1753-1809) and an
American physician John Jeffries are
the first to float over the English
Channel, carrying the first airmail in
history, landing near Calais.1

In 1785 Blanchard successfully uses a
parachute, dropping a dog (or cat) in a
basket attached to a parachute.2

Louis-Sébastien Lenormand had
demonstrated a parachute in 1783.3
At
age 16, Blanchard constructs a kind of
bicycle.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
3. ^ Record
ID2311. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
5. ^ "Jean Pierre
Francois Blanchard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5591/Jean-Pierre-Francois-Blanchard
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
(03/02/1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Pierre Blanchard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre
_Blanchard
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Pierre+Fran%
C3%A7ois+Blanchard?cat=entertainment
(Dover, England to) Felmores Forest,
France.5  
[1] Quelle:
http://memory.loc.gov/master/pnp/ppmsca/
02100/02174u.tif Jean Pierre Blanchard
(7 July 1753 ? 7 March 1809), French
inventor and balloonist. This image is
from the Library of Congress online
collection, and is in the public
domain. See catalog info below. TITLE:
Jean Pierre Blanchard / R. Livesay,
pinxit ; J. Newton, sculpsit. CALL
NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 10 [P&P] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Pierre_Blanchard.jpg
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 5 		2152)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209. (1784)
(1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England4
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 10 		2180)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
2. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
3. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"William Herschel". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
9. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
10. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel (1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Datchet, England9  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 3 		5967) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes Piano Concerto in F,
k. 459.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1784}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
215 YBN
[01/07/1785 AD] 11 		2310) Jean Pierre François Blanchard
(BloNsoR) (CE 1753-1809) and American
physician John Jeffries to cross the
English Channel in the air, carrying
the first airmail in history, landing
near Calais.1
Blanchard throws a dog
in a basket attached to a parachute
(which lands unhurt2 ). Later Blanchard
will parachute himself too.3
Blanchard
tries to use sails to help with
propulsion and steering in balloons.4
(It seems like sails would work for
adding propulsion and steering
control.5 )

At age 16 Blanchard constructs a kind
of bicycle.6
Blanchard works on the
design of heavier-than-air vehicles in
the 1770s including one vehicle that
uses rowing in the air with oars and
tiller.7
Blanchard takes up ballooning
after the Montgolfier brothers
hot-air-balloon demonstrations in
Annonay, France, in 1783.8
Blanchard is
the first to make balloon flights in
England, North America, Germany,
Belgium, and Poland.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
4. ^ "Jean Pierre
Francois Blanchard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5591/Jean-Pierre-Francois-Blanchard
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
7. ^ "Jean Pierre
Francois Blanchard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5591/Jean-Pierre-Francois-Blanchard
8. ^ "Jean Pierre Francois Blanchard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5591/Jean-Pierre-Francois-Blanchard
9. ^ "Jean Pierre Francois Blanchard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5591/Jean-Pierre-Francois-Blanchard
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp244-245.
11. ^ "Jean Pierre
Francois Blanchard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5591/Jean-Pierre-Francois-Blanchard
(01/07/1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Pierre Blanchard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre
_Blanchard
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Pierre+Fran%
C3%A7ois+Blanchard?cat=entertainment
[3] "parachute". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8369/parachute
[4] was Louis-Sébastien Lenormand of
France in 1783.
Calais, France10  
[1] Quelle:
http://memory.loc.gov/master/pnp/ppmsca/
02100/02174u.tif Jean Pierre Blanchard
(7 July 1753 ? 7 March 1809), French
inventor and balloonist. This image is
from the Library of Congress online
collection, and is in the public
domain. See catalog info below. TITLE:
Jean Pierre Blanchard / R. Livesay,
pinxit ; J. Newton, sculpsit. CALL
NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 10 [P&P] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Pierre_Blanchard.jpg

[2] N°. 7 - Traversée en balon du
Pas-de-Calais par Blanchard et
Jefferies (1785) Crossing of the
Strait of Dover by Blanchard and
Jefferies · Überquerung der Strasse
von Dover durch Blanchard und
Jefferies PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%287%29.jpg
215 YBN
[02/12/1785 AD] 16 		2878)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Morgan (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mor
gan_%28scientist%29
2. ^ Anderson, J.G. (January 1945),
"William Morgan and x-rays",
Transactions of the Faculty of
Actuaries 17: pp219-221
http://www.actuaries.org.uk/files/pdf/
library/TFA-017/0219-0221.pdf Morgan_Wi
lliam_xray_0219-0221.pdf
3. ^ Electrical Experiments Made in
Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting
Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c. By Mr.
William Morgan; Communicated by the
Rev. Richard Price, LL.D. F.R.S.
Richard Price; William Morgan
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp.
272-278.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap0
00100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9
eaf146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi
=3&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Electrical Experiments
Made in Order to Ascertain the
Non-Conducting Power of a Perfect
Vacuum, &c. By Mr. William Morgan;
Communicated by the Rev. Richard Price,
LL.D. F.R.S. Richard Price;
William Morgan Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp. 272-278.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap0
00100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9
eaf146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi
=3&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf

6. ^ Record ID2976. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Electrical
Experiments Made in Order to Ascertain
the Non-Conducting Power of a Perfect
Vacuum, &c. By Mr. William Morgan;
Communicated by the Rev. Richard Price,
LL.D. F.R.S. Richard Price;
William Morgan Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp. 272-278,
p272.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap000
100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9ea
f146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi=3
&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf
8. ^ Electrical Experiments Made in
Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting
Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c. By Mr.
William Morgan; Communicated by the
Rev. Richard Price, LL.D. F.R.S.
Richard Price; William Morgan
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp.
272-278, p272.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap000
100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9ea
f146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi=3
&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf
9. ^ Electrical Experiments Made in
Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting
Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c. By Mr.
William Morgan; Communicated by the
Rev. Richard Price, LL.D. F.R.S.
Richard Price; William Morgan
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp.
272-278, pp272-274.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap000
100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9ea
f146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi=3
&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Xray".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xray
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Electrical Experiments
Made in Order to Ascertain the
Non-Conducting Power of a Perfect
Vacuum, &c. By Mr. William Morgan;
Communicated by the Rev. Richard Price,
LL.D. F.R.S. Richard Price;
William Morgan Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp. 272-278,
p278.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap000
100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9ea
f146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi=3
&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf
15. ^ "William Morgan (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mor
gan_%28scientist%29
16. ^ Electrical Experiments Made in
Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting
Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c. By Mr.
William Morgan; Communicated by the
Rev. Richard Price, LL.D. F.R.S.
Richard Price; William Morgan
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp.
272-278, p278.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap000
100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9ea
f146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi=3
&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf
(02/12/1785) (02/12/1785)

MORE INFO
[1] William Morgan: Bridgend Hall
of Fame (HTML). Bridgend County Borough
Council. http://www.bridgend.gov.uk/Web
1/groups/public/documents/services/00222
5.hcsp
(Chatham-Place) London, England14 15
(presumably) 
[1] A mercurial gage B (see tab. IX.
fig. 1.) about 15 inches long,
carefully and accurately boiled till
every particle of air was expelled from
the inside, was coated with tin-foil
five inches down from its sealed end
(A), and being inverted into mercury
through a perforation (D) in the brass
cap (E) which covered the mouth of the
cistern (H), the whole was cemented
together, and the air was exhausted
from the inside of the cistern through
a valve (C) in the brass cap (E) just
mentioned, which producing a perfect
vacuum in the gage (B) afforded an
instrument peculiarly well adapted for
experiments of this kind. Things being
thus adjusted (a small wire (F) having
been previously fixed on the inside of
the cistern to form a communication
between the brass cap (E) and the
mercury (G) into which the gage was
inverted) the coated end (A) was
applied to the conductor of an
electrical machine, and notwithstanding
every effort, neither the smallest ray
of light, not the slightest charge,
could ever be procured in this
exhausted gage.[3 p272-273] PD
source: Electrical Experiments Made in
Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting
Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c. By Mr.
William Morgan; Communicated by the
Rev. Richard Price, LL.D. F.R.S.
Richard Price; William Morgan
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp.
272-278.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap0
00100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9
eaf146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi
=3&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf
p279

[2] By permission of Llyfrgell
Genedlaethol Cymru / The National
Library of Wales PD
source: http://www.bridgend.gov.uk/Web1/
groups/public/documents/services/002225.
hcsp
215 YBN
[02/17/1785 AD] 14 		3463) Horace Richards writes that se
was looked upon by fellows as, after
Franklin, the foremost scientist of the
country. His abilities were
highlesteemed abroad, though, as has
been seen, the recognition was limited
to his astronomical work. On the death
of Franklin he was at once elected to
the presidency of this (the American
Philosophical Society11 ), and when six
years later he passed away at the age
of sixty-four, his successor, Thomas
jefferson, in accepting the same office
summed up his character in the words;
"Genius, Science, modesty, purity of
morals, simplicity of manners, marked
him one of Nature's best samples of the
Perfection she can cover under the
human form. Surely, no Society, till
ours, within the same compass of time,
ever had to deplore the loss of two
such members as Franklin and
Rittenhouse.".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
2. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
3. ^ William Jay, Pioneers of Science
in America, D. Appleton and company,
1896, p47.
4. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
5. ^ Horace C. Richard, "Some Early
American Physicists", Proceedings,
American Philosophical Society, v86,
1943,
pp22-28. http://books.google.com/books?
id=o1ULAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22&dq=david+rittenh
ouse+grating&lr=&as_brr=1&sig=ACfU3U0Z2V
gHcMQd0GbphTKuQKpcv0ybEw#PPA22,M1
6. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
7. ^ Record ID2405. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record
ID2572. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Horace C. Richard,
"Some Early American Physicists",
Proceedings, American Philosophical
Society, v86, 1943,
pp22-28. http://books.google.com/books?
id=o1ULAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22&dq=david+rittenh
ouse+grating&lr=&as_brr=1&sig=ACfU3U0Z2V
gHcMQd0GbphTKuQKpcv0ybEw#PPA22,M1
13. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
14. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
} {02/17/1785}
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA13
 
[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1
215 YBN
[04/??/1785 AD] 10 		2184)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
3. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
9. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
10. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html (04/1785)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
[4] # Full text of The Story of the
Herschels (1886) from Project Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
Datchet, England9  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
215 YBN
[06/02/1785 AD] 69 70 		2116) Air is shown to be a mixture of
gases, and not a single element.38

Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810)39
shows, by sparking air to make nitric
acid, that air is a mixture of gases,
not a single element as was thought.40
41 42 Cavendish is the first to
recognize that air is composed of
around 4 parts nitrogen (at the time
called "phlogisticated air") to 1 part
oxygen (at the time called
"dephlogisticated air").43 The current
estimate is 78% nitrogen and 21%
oxygen.44
In addition Cavendish
observes that air contains a small
volume of gas (1/120) that is not
nitrogen or oxygen.45 46 This will be
shown to be argon and other inert gases
over 100 years later in 1895 by
Rayleigh and Ramsay.47
Cavendish
observes that, when he had determined
the amounts of phlogisticated air
(nitrogen) and dephlogisticated air
(oxygen), there remained a volume of
gas amounting to 1/120 of the original
volume of common air.48

Cavendish writes "In Dr. Priestley's
last volume of experiments is related
an experiment of Mr. Warltire's in
which it is said that, on firing a
mixture of common and inflammable air
by electricity in a closed copper
vessel holding about three pints, a
loss of weight was always perceived, on
an average about two grains, though the
vessel was stopped in such a manner
that no air could escape by the
explosion. (ULSF: Perhaps this could be
explained as mass lost from photons
emitted from the reaction in infrared
and radio frequency.49 ) It is also
related, that on repeating the
experiment in glass vessels, the inside
of the glass, though clean and dry
before, immediately became dewy; which
confirmed an opinion he had long
entertained, that common air deposits
its moisture by phlogistication. As the
latter experiment seemed likely to
throw great light on the subject I had
in view ("throw great light" may hint
at the private view that all matter is
made of light- and "subject" of the
monarchy which may limit the flow of
truth to the public50 ), I thought it
well worth examining more closely. The
first experiment also, if there was no
mistake in it, would be very
extraordinary and curious; but it did
not succeed with me; for though the
vessel I used held more than Mr.
Warltire's namely, 24,000 grains of
water, and though the experiment was
repeated several times with different
proportions of common and inflammable
air, I could never perceive a loss of
weight of more than one-fifth of a
grain, and commonly none at all. It
must be observed, however, that though
there were some of the experiments in
which it seemed to diminish a little in
weight, there were none in which it
increased. (*Dr. Priestley, I am
informed, has since found the
experiment not to succeed)"51
Cavendish
uses inflammable air (hydrogen) from
zinc for these experiments and goes on
to find no change in weight from
inflammable air produced from iron.52
Ca
vendish starts from an experiment,
narrated by Joseph Priestley, in which
John Warltire uses electrolysis
(passing an electric current through a
substance to cause a chemical change53
), by (burning54 ) a mixture of common
air and hydrogen by electricity, with
the result that there the volume of air
is lowered and moisture is deposited.55
 Cavendish fires, by electric spark, a
mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
(dephlogisticated air), and finds that
the resulting water contained nitric
acid, which he argued must be due to
the nitrogen present as an impurity in
the oxygen ("phlogisticated air with
which it {the dephlogisticated air} is
debased").56 {ULSF: Does electrode
material not contaminate the
reaction?}
Cavendish then proves this theory
correct by passing sparks through
(plain57 ) air forcing (in modern
terms) the nitrogen to combine with the
oxygen and dissolving the resulting
oxide {ULSF: on the electrode?} in
water.58 Cavendish proves that air is
made of nitrogen by showing that when
electric sparks are passed through
common air there is a shrinkage of
volume because of the nitrogen uniting
with the oxygen to form nitric acid.59
Cavendish therefore understands the
composition of nitric acid.60 Adding
more oxygen, Cavendish expects to use
up all the nitrogen, however a small
bubble of gas, amounting to less than 1
per cent of the whole, always remains
uncombined. Cavendish speculates that
air contains a small quantity of a gas
that is very inert and resistant to
reaction. We now know that this
remaining part of air contains Argon
(and the other inert gases61 ). This
experiment will not be used for a
century until Ramsey repeats it62 in
the 1890s63 . Michael Faraday will
create laws that describe electrolysis
in 1832.64 65

One way of describing this is that
Cavendish performs the opposite of
"electrolysis" (using electricity to
split a molecule into two or more
parts), which might be called
"electrofusion", and defined as using
electricity to join two or more parts
to form a molecule.66

In showing both air and water not to be
single elements, as was believed around
the time of Pythagoras, Cavendish takes
science a large step forward in
improving on a theory that is more than
two thousand years old. This work helps
to pull science away from an ancient
and traditional mind-set.67
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
4. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
William Ramsay, "Argon, a New
Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.2307/106766 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 29 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
7. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
8. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
10. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
William Ramsay, "Argon, a New
Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.2307/106766 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
11. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
12. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 29 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
13. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
14. ^ "air." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Feb.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/air
15. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
17. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
William Ramsay, "Argon, a New
Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.2307/106766 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
18. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Experiments
on Air. By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S.
and A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023, p126.
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c905fe4831a
a63484ba66ccb98&pi=6 cavendish_experime
nts_on_air_1785.pdf
22. ^ Experiments on Air. By Henry
Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023, p127.
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c905fe4831a
a63484ba66ccb98&pi=6 cavendish_experime
nts_on_air_1785.pdf
23. ^ "electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2306/electrolysis
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/030/000083778
/
26. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/030/000083778
/
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
29. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/030/000083778
/
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
33. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
34. ^ "Electrolysis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysi
s
35. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-260
80/Michael-Faraday
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
39. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
40. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
William Ramsay, "Argon, a New
Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.2307/106766 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
41. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
42. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 29 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
43. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
44. ^ "air." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Feb.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/air
45. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
46. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
47. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
William Ramsay, "Argon, a New
Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.2307/106766 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
48. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ Experiments
on Air. By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S.
and A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023, p126.
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c905fe4831a
a63484ba66ccb98&pi=6 cavendish_experime
nts_on_air_1785.pdf
52. ^ Experiments on Air. By Henry
Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023, p127.
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c905fe4831a
a63484ba66ccb98&pi=6 cavendish_experime
nts_on_air_1785.pdf
53. ^ "electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2306/electrolysis
54. ^ Ted Huntington.
55. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/030/000083778
/
56. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/030/000083778
/
57. ^ Ted Huntington.
58. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
59. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/030/000083778
/
60. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
61. ^ Ted Huntington.
62. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
63. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
64. ^ "Electrolysis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysi
s
65. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-260
80/Michael-Faraday
66. ^ Ted Huntington.
67. ^ Ted Huntington.
68. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
69. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
70. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England68  
[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ

[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 9 		1239)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Power loom". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_loom
3. ^ "Edmund Cartwright". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Cart
wright
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Power loom". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_loom
6. ^ "Power loom". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_loom
7. ^ "Power loom". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_loom
8. ^ "Edmund Cartwright". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Cart
wright
9. ^ "Power loom". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_loom
England8  
[1] Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Cartwright_2.jpg

[2] Some of the 1200 power looms at
the Plevna factory building, completed
in 1877, at the Finlayson & Co Cotton
mills in Tampere, Finland source:
http://www.finlayson.fi/kodintekstiilit/
histo07.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Finlayson_%26_Co_-_Plevna_1877.jpg
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 4 		1240)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aerial Steam Carriage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_Stea
m_Carriage
2. ^ "Early flight". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_fligh
t
3. ^ "Aerial Steam Carriage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_Stea
m_Carriage
4. ^ "Aerial Steam Carriage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_Stea
m_Carriage
England3  
[1] William Samuel Henson and the
Aerial Transit Company's publicity
engraving of the ''Aerial Steam
Carriage'' of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_02.jpg

[2] Patent drawing for the Henson
Aerial Steam Carriage of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_03.jpg
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 20 		2083) Hutton is called the father of
geology.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
3. ^ "James
Hutton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
9. ^ "James Hutton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
10. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ "James Hutton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
16. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
19. ^ "James Hutton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutto
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
Edinburgh, Scotland19  
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 10 		2107)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Lazzaro Spallanzani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8983/Lazzaro-Spallanzani
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
8. ^ "Lazzaro
Spallanzani". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8983/Lazzaro-Spallanzani
9. ^ "Lazzaro Spallanzani". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazzaro_Spa
llanzani
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Lazzaro+Spallanza
ni?cat=health
Pavia, Italy9 (presumably) 
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 5 		2132)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
Birmingham, England4  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 28 		2167)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ 3. ^ John L. Heilbron,
"Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, 1979, pp422-426. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
4. ^ "coulomb s law". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coulomb-s-l
aw?cat=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ 10. ^
John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in the
17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, 1979, pp422-426. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
11. ^ "Franz Maria Ulrich Theodor Hoch
Aepinus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864/Franz-Maria-Ulrich-Theodor-Hoch-Aep
inus
12. ^ Record ID3011. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
15. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
16. ^
http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?8CA121
-1/159/100/416/79/316
17. ^, p107.
http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?8CA121
-1/159/100/416/79/316
18. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Charles Augustin
Coulomb". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
21. ^ Ted Huntington
22. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
23. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
24. ^ Ted Huntington
25. ^ "Charles Augustin
Coulomb". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
26. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
27. ^ "Charles Augustin
Coulomb". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p211. (1785) (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
[3] "Coulomb force#239727.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6556/Coulomb-force#239727.hook
[4] "Coulomb's law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s
_law
Paris?, France27 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 21 		2168) Charles Augustin Coulomb (KUlOM)
(CE 1736-1806) shows that electrical
and magnetic attraction and repulsion
are both proportional to amount of
charge and inversely proportional to
distance squared.9 10

This will eventually lead to the famous
equation now called Coulomb's law:
F=kq1q2/r^
211 (state who is the first to
formally state this equation12 )

The quantity of electric charge will be
named in honor of Coulomb.13

In this equation F is the force in
Newtons between two charged objects, k
is a constant which depends on the
medium in which the charged bodies are
immersed14 , q1 and q2 are the two
charges in Coulombs, and r is the
distance in meters between the centers
of the two charged objects.15 k in a
vacuum equals 8.98 x 10^9 Nm^2/C^2
Newton-meters squared per coulombs
squared.16 17

Coulomb never explicitly states this
relationship in the formal equation
that will be first created by ?.18

This view implies to many that there
exists a force of electricity, which is
similar to, but different from a force
of gravity.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
7. ^ "coulomb s law". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coulomb-s-l
aw?cat=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^, p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
10. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
11. ^ "coulomb s law". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coulomb-s-l
aw?cat=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p211.
14. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785+c
onstruction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp
1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqTI#
PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By
Brian Baigrie, 2006
15. ^ "coulomb s law".
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coulomb-s-l
aw?cat=technology
16. ^ "Coulomb force#239727.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6556/Coulomb-force#239727.hook
17. ^ "Coulomb's law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s
_law
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p211.
21. ^
"Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
[3]
http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?8CA121
-1/159/100/416/79/316
Paris?, France20 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 7 		2197)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Withering". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4999/William-Withering
2. ^ "edema". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1974/edema
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p217.
4. ^ "William
Withering". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4999/William-Withering
5. ^ "William Withering". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4999/William-Withering
6. ^ "William Withering". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4999/William-Withering
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p217. (1785) (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Withering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wit
hering
[2]
http://www.answers.com/William%20Witheri
ng%20
 
[1] William Withering was an English
botanist, geologist, chemist, physician
and the discoverer of
digitalis. Source
http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/trial
_records/17th_18th_Century/withering/wit
hering_portrait.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Withering.jpg
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 12 		2259) Monge is a close friend of
Napoleon, and accompanies Napoleon to
Egypt in 1798.7
Monge serves on the
committee of weights and measures that
establishes the metric system in 1791.8

Monge publishes "Géométrie
descriptive" (1799, "Descriptive
Geometry") and "Application de
l'analyse à la géométrie" (1807,
"Applications of Analysis to
Geometry").9
Following Napoleon's fall
from power in 1815 and the restoration
of monarchy10 , the Bourbons exclude
Monge from the French Academy and
deprive Monge of all his honors.11
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
"Gaspard Monge count de Peluse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3349/Gaspard-Monge-count-de-Peluse
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
6. ^ "Gaspard Monge".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gaspard+Monge?cat
=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
8. ^ "Gaspard Monge
count de Peluse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3349/Gaspard-Monge-count-de-Peluse
9. ^ "Gaspard Monge count de Peluse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3349/Gaspard-Monge-count-de-Peluse
10. ^ "Gaspard Monge". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gaspard+Monge?cat
=technology
11. ^ "Gaspard Monge". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gaspard+Monge?cat
=technology
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gaspard Monge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Mon
ge
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=YrQEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:statics&as_brr=
1&hl=en An Elementary Treatise on
Statics With a Biographical Notice of
the Author (Biddle, Philadelphia, 1851)
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=UjEDAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=inauthor:Gas
pard+inauthor:Monge&as_brr=0&hl=en An
elementary treatise on descriptive
geometry, with a theory of shadows and
of perspective (Weale, London, 1851)
 
[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 20 		2271) Berthollet wrongly thinks
chlorine is a compound and contains
oxygen.9 10

Finding no oxygen in the acids prussic
acid or hydrogen sulfide, Berthollet
(correctly11 ) remains skeptical about
Lavoisier's theory of acidity as the
result of oxygen.12
It has to be fun
to find out what some compound
substance is made of.13

In 1798, while in Egypt on a business
trip, Berthollet meets Napoleon and
teaches Napeleon chemistry. Napoleon
makes Berthollet a senator and a
count.14 In 1806 Napoleon also bails
Berthollet out with a considerable
loan.15 In 1814 Berthollet signs the
Senate's bill deposing Napoleon after
Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of
Waterloo.16

Proust will prove Berthollet wrong in
the view that the composition of
products of a reaction vary with the
masses of the reagents.17

Berthollet is wrong in viewing heat as
a fluid, in opposition to the more
accurate theory of Rumford.18
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
4. ^ "Claude
Louis, Comte Berthollet". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
6. ^ "Claude Louis,
Comte Berthollet". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
7. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
10. ^ "Claude Louis,
Comte Berthollet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte
Berthollet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
15. ^ "Claude Louis
Berthollet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
16. ^ "Claude Louis Berthollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
19. ^ "Claude
Louis, Comte Berthollet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude Louis, Comte
Berthollet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Loui
s%2C_Comte_Berthollet
Paris, France19 (presumably) 
[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berthollet, Claude
Louis (1748 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist: Jean
Pierre Sudre, 1783-1866 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 28 x 19.5 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 7 		2275)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Pierre Simon
marquis de Laplace". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre-Simon Laplace".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simo
n_Laplace
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
[4] "specific heat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9029/specific-heat
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 5 		2983) In 1773, Nairne had produced a
electrostatic generator that could
produce 13-inch sparks which Franklin
thought promising.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
159/01a00160/0
2. ^ Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics, 1979, John L. Heilbron,
University of California Press. ISBN
0-520-03478-3, pp441-443
3. ^ Electricity in the
17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics, 1979, John L.
Heilbron, University of California
Press. ISBN 0-520-03478-3, pp441-443
4. ^
Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics, 1979, John L. Heilbron,
University of California Press. ISBN
0-520-03478-3, pp441-443
5. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
159/01a00160/0 (1785)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345803&lid=1
Haarlam, Netherlands4  
[1] Van Marum, Martinus, 1826. Van
Marum, Martinus est un médecin, un
naturaliste et un physicien
néerlandais, né le 20 mars 1750 à
Delft et mort le 26 décembre 1837 à
Haarlem. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Van_Marum_Martinus_1826.jpg

[2] Worlds largest Electrostatic
generator at Teylers Museum (Haarlem,
The Netherlands)) Source own
work Date November 25, 2006 Author
McSmit PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Electrostatic_generator_Teylers_Museu
m.jpg
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 3 		5968)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1785}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
214 YBN
[12/07/1786 AD] 10 11 		2960)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
2. ^ Keithley, Joseph F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements.
New York: IEEE
3. ^ "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
4. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
5. ^ Keithley, Joseph F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements.
New York: IEEE
6. ^ "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
7. ^ "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
p27. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd2f54
2229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abraham
_Electrometer.pdf (12/07/1786)
8. ^ John L.
Heilbron, "Electricity in the 17th and
18th centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), pp450-451. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
9. ^ "Abraham Bennet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Ben
net
10. ^ "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
pp26-31. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd
2f542229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abr
aham_Electrometer.pdf (12/07/1786)
11. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM (1786)

MORE INFO
[1] Elliott, P. (1999). "Abraham
Bennet F.R.S. (1749-1799): a provincial
electrician in eighteenth-century
England". Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London 53(1): 59-78.
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/con
tent/klgdd0umcmvjqnpr/fulltext.pdf
London, England9 (probably) 
[1] Bennet's electrometer figure 1 [t
Heilbron comments: note the earthed
metal foil on the interior walls to
prevent accumulation of charge that
otherwise might be brought by the
leaves to the glass.] PD
source: "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
p34. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd2f54
2229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abraham
_Electrometer.pdf

[2] Bennet's electrometer figures
2-8 [t notice that blowing the charged
powder must lower the charge on the
leaves? Do they not remain
charged?] PD
source: "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
p35. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd2f54
2229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abraham
_Electrometer.pdf
214 YBN
[1786 AD] 20 21 22 		1209) Winnowing was also done manually
by taking a basket of mixed grain and
chaff, or using a winnowing fork on a
pile of harvested grain and tossing the
contents into the air, causing the
chaff to blow away while the heavier
grains fall back into the basket or
ground.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine
2. ^ "Andrew Meikle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Meik
le
3. ^ "Threshing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing
4. ^ "Flail (agriculture)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flail_%28ag
riculture%29
5. ^ "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine
6. ^ "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ "Threshing machine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine
9. ^ "Chaff". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaff
10. ^ "Cereal germ". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal_germ

11. ^ "Bran". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bran
12. ^ "Threshing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing
13. ^ "Andrew Meikle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Meik
le
14. ^ "Winnowing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnowing
15. ^
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/f
amousfirst243.html
16. ^ "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine
17. ^ "Winnowing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnowing
18. ^
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/f
amousfirst243.html
19. ^ "Lothian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothian
20. ^ "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine (=1796)
21. ^ "Andrew Meikle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Meik
le (=1786)
22. ^
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/f
amousfirst243.html (=1789)

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
East Lothian, Scotland, United
Kingdom18 19  
[1] Threshing machine from
1881 Source: cropped from
http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi
ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu
striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1
881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg

[2] Flail PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dreschflegel.jpg
214 YBN
[1786 AD] 4 		1987)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ "Gulf stream".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_stream

3. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
4. ^ "Gulf stream". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_stream
 (1786)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania3
(presumably) 
[1] The Gulf Stream is orange and
yellow in this representation of water
temperatures of the Atlantic. Source:
NASA. Description: False-color image
of the temperature of the Gulf
Stream Caption: ''In this
false-color Terra MODIS image, the Gulf
Stream can be seen flowing to the
northeast off of the United State''s
eastern seaboard. This image is a
false-color representation of water
temperatures of the Atlantic, and since
the Gulf Stream is a warm current, it
shows up clearly against the
surrounding waters. Temperatures are
shown in a color range; progressing
from low to high are purple, blue,
turquoise, green yellow, orange, and
red. Black represents a lack of data,
and is used predominantly to represent
land. The Gulf Stream shows up as a
winding rope of orange and yellow
against the cooler green and blue
waters.'' From the description provided
by NASA[1] Source: This image is
named ev25320_image04242003_1km.jpg on
NASA's Visible Earth website. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gulf_Stream_water_temperature.jpg

[2] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin
Wilson-who disagreed with Franklin''s
findings about electrical polarity-this
portrait hung in Franklin''s dining
room in Philadelphia until Captain
Andre'' stole it during the British
occupation of Philadelphia. Returned to
the U.S. in 1906, it is now in the
White House, in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
214 YBN
[1786 AD] 3 		2135)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
3. ^ "Joseph Priestley". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (1786)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
Birmingham, England2  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
214 YBN
[1786 AD] 5 		5965)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "libretto." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/libretto
3. ^ "The Marriage of Figaro".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Marriag
e_of_Figaro
4. ^ "The Marriage of Figaro".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Marriag
e_of_Figaro
5. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1786}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Vienna, Austria4 (verify) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
213 YBN
[05/10/1787 AD] 7 		2988) Bennet writes "The experiment
which proves that the electricity is
doubled by each operation is this. if
the two flips of pendulous leaf gold of
the electrometer be made to diverge to
a certain distance by the above
process, that distance will be nearly
doubled by repeating the operation.
Another proof of this duplicate
accumulation is, that, when the third
plate is applied to the first, the
divergency of the leaf gold is
apparently undiminished, though in this
situation their electricity is diffused
over double the quantity of surface."5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), pp457-458.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
2. ^ "An Account of a Doubler of
Electricity, or a Machine by Which the
Least Conceivable Quantity of Positive
or Negative Electricity May be
Continually Doubled, Till It Becomes
Perceptible by Common Electrometers, or
Visible in Sparks. By the Rev. Abraham
Bennet, M. A.; Communicated by the Rev.
Richard Kaye, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
pp288-296. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/0106540mu542135r/?p=127a8d5
3ce5a4ce89efed0b44afcb3d8&pi=26 Bennet_
doubler_PT_1787.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ John L. Heilbron,
"Electricity in the 17th and 18th
centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), pp457-458. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
5. ^ "An Account of a Doubler of
Electricity, or a Machine by Which the
Least Conceivable Quantity of Positive
or Negative Electricity May be
Continually Doubled, Till It Becomes
Perceptible by Common Electrometers, or
Visible in Sparks. By the Rev. Abraham
Bennet, M. A.; Communicated by the Rev.
Richard Kaye, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
pp288-296. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/0106540mu542135r/?p=127a8d5
3ce5a4ce89efed0b44afcb3d8&pi=26 Bennet_
doubler_PT_1787.pdf
6. ^ "An Account of a Doubler of
Electricity, or a Machine by Which the
Least Conceivable Quantity of Positive
or Negative Electricity May be
Continually Doubled, Till It Becomes
Perceptible by Common Electrometers, or
Visible in Sparks. By the Rev. Abraham
Bennet, M. A.; Communicated by the Rev.
Richard Kaye, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
pp288-296. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/0106540mu542135r/?p=127a8d5
3ce5a4ce89efed0b44afcb3d8&pi=26 Bennet_
doubler_PT_1787.pdf
7. ^ "An Account of a Doubler of
Electricity, or a Machine by Which the
Least Conceivable Quantity of Positive
or Negative Electricity May be
Continually Doubled, Till It Becomes
Perceptible by Common Electrometers, or
Visible in Sparks. By the Rev. Abraham
Bennet, M. A.; Communicated by the Rev.
Richard Kaye, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
pp288-296. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/0106540mu542135r/?p=127a8d5
3ce5a4ce89efed0b44afcb3d8&pi=26 Bennet_
doubler_PT_1787.pdf (105/10/1787)
London, England6 (probably) 
[1] Bennet's doubler [t Notice fig4-6
demonstrate how the device
works.] PD/Corel
source: "An Account of a Doubler of
Electricity, or a Machine by Which the
Least Conceivable Quantity of Positive
or Negative Electricity May be
Continually Doubled, Till It Becomes
Perceptible by Common Electrometers, or
Visible in Sparks. By the Rev. Abraham
Bennet, M. A.; Communicated by the Rev.
Richard Kaye, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
pp288-296. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/0106540mu542135r/?p=127a8d5
3ce5a4ce89efed0b44afcb3d8&pi=26 Bennet_
doubler_PT_1787.pdf

[2] Bennet's electrometer figure 1 [t
Heilbron comments: note the earthed
metal foil on the interior walls to
prevent accumulation of charge that
otherwise might be brought by the
leaves to the glass.] PD
source: "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
p34. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd2f54
2229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abraham
_Electrometer.pdf
213 YBN
[08/22/1787 AD] 9 10 		2205) Fitch demonstrates this ship on
the Delaware river before a group of
delegates to the Constitutional
Convention.4
Fitch goes on to built a
larger steamboat to carry passengers
and freight. Propelled by paddle
wheels, this ship makes regularly
scheduled trips between Philadelphia
and New Jersey5 can move 8 mi (12.9
km) per hour6 .
Fitch began to build
another steamboat, but its loss in a
storm discouraged his funders.7
Little
popularity of steam-powered travel with
the public, combined with constant
mechanical troubles and uncertain
financial backing, results in the
failure of Fitch's business.8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "John Fitch". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4416/John-Fitch
2. ^ "John Fitch". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Fitch
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p219.
4. ^ "John Fitch".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4416/John-Fitch
5. ^ "John Fitch". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4416/John-Fitch
6. ^ "steamboat". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/steamboat
7. ^ "John Fitch". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4416/John-Fitch
8. ^ "John Fitch". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Fitch
9. ^ "John Fitch". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4416/John-Fitch (08/22/1787)
10. ^ "John Fitch".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Fitch
(08/22/1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Fitch (inventor)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fitch_
%28inventor%29
 
[1] John Fitch. Sketch of
Steamboat, ca. 1787. Ink and
pencil. Manuscript Division, Library
of Congress (133) PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brit
ish/images/133vc.jpg

[2] John Fitch (1743-1798) Source
Lloyd's Steamboat Directory, 1856
[1] http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb
.com/~silversmiths/73/55504.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FitchJohnPortrait.jpg
213 YBN
[08/27/1787 AD] 10 		2265)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
3. ^ "Jacques
Charles". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
9. ^ "Jacques
Charles". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232. (1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Alexandre Cesar
Charles". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2590/Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar-Charles
[2] "Jacques Charles". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Cha
rles
Paris, France9 (presumably) 
[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg

[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
213 YBN
[12/13/1787 AD] 7 8 		3252)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203.
2. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn,
"The Caloric Theory of Adiabatic
Compression", Isis, Vol. 49, No. 2
(Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
3. ^ Frigorific Experiments on the
Mechanical Expansion of Air, Explaining
the Cause of the Great Degree of Cold
on the Summits of High Mountains, the
Sudden Condensation of Aerial Vapour,
and of the Perpetual Mutability of
Atmospheric Heat. By Erasmus Darwin, M.
D. F. R. S.; Communicated by the Right
Honourable Charles Greville, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 78 -
1788 Pages 43-52 http://journals.royal
society.org/content/p4w281r77j850k73/?p=
92e8ab74553a4768b7804aed9e09c5bd&pi=1
{Darwin_Erasmus_Frigorific_12_13_1787.
pdf}
4. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
5. ^ Frigorific Experiments on the
Mechanical Expansion of Air, Explaining
the Cause of the Great Degree of Cold
on the Summits of High Mountains, the
Sudden Condensation of Aerial Vapour,
and of the Perpetual Mutability of
Atmospheric Heat. By Erasmus Darwin, M.
D. F. R. S.; Communicated by the Right
Honourable Charles Greville, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 78 -
1788 Pages 43-52 http://journals.royal
society.org/content/p4w281r77j850k73/?p=
92e8ab74553a4768b7804aed9e09c5bd&pi=1
{Darwin_Erasmus_Frigorific_12_13_1787.
pdf}
6. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
7. ^ Frigorific Experiments on the
Mechanical Expansion of Air, Explaining
the Cause of the Great Degree of Cold
on the Summits of High Mountains, the
Sudden Condensation of Aerial Vapour,
and of the Perpetual Mutability of
Atmospheric Heat. By Erasmus Darwin, M.
D. F. R. S.; Communicated by the Right
Honourable Charles Greville, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 78 -
1788 Pages 43-52 http://journals.royal
society.org/content/p4w281r77j850k73/?p=
92e8ab74553a4768b7804aed9e09c5bd&pi=1
{Darwin_Erasmus_Frigorific_12_13_1787.
pdf} (read) 12/13/1787)
8. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The
Caloric Theory of Adiabatic
Compression", Isis, Vol. 49, No. 2
(Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (1788)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Darwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Dar
win
[2] "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin (1781)
Derby, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Darwin, Erasmus (1731
- 1802) Discipline(s): Medicine ;
Botany ; Engineering Print Artist:
Moses Haughton Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Rawlinson
Original Dimensions: PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Engineering
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 9 		2171) A few phlogistonists object to
the new system.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ "Louis Bernard
Guyton de Morveau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
4. ^ "Guyton De Morveau". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Guyton+De+Morveau
+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
6. ^ "Guyton De Morveau". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Guyton+De+Morveau
+?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
8. ^ "Louis Bernard
Guyton de Morveau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
9. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-218
480/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier (1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis-Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Berna
rd_Guyton_de_Morveau
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] DE MORVEAU, GUYTON (1737 - 1816);
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794); BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748 -
1822); DE FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
(1755 - 1809). Méthode de Nomenclature
Chimique. Paris, 1787. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/large/02_19.gif

[2] DE MORVEAU, GUYTON (1737 - 1816);
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794); BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748 -
1822); DE FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
(1755 - 1809). Méthode de Nomenclature
Chimique. Paris, 1787. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/large/02_20.gif
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 5 		2178)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
4. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1787)
(1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
[2]
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
Old Windsor, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 7 		2272) Potassium chlorate KClO3 is a
poisonous crystalline compound that is
used as an oxidizing agent, a bleach,
and a disinfectant and in making
explosives, matches, and fireworks.5
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233.
2. ^ "Claude Louis,
Comte Berthollet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
5. ^ "potassium
chlorate". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/potassium-c
hlorate?cat=health
6. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
7. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology (1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude Louis Berthollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
[2] "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Loui
s%2C_Comte_Berthollet
[3] "Potassium chlorate". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_c
hlorate
[4] "explosive". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
72/explosive
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berthollet, Claude
Louis (1748 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist: Jean
Pierre Sudre, 1783-1866 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 28 x 19.5 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 25 		2276) So Laplace explains that the
Moon's mean motion is accelerated as
long as the Earth's orbit (around the
Sun21 ) tends to become more circular,
but when (the Earth's orbit around the
Sun tends to become more elliptical22 )
the reverse occurs, the Moon
decelerates. The inequality is of a
period running into millions of years
therefore removing the threat of
instability.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
3. ^ "pierre simon
laplace". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "pierre simon
laplace". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
8. ^ "pierre simon
laplace". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "pierre simon laplace".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
13. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
14. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
20. ^ Ted Huntington
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis
de Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
24. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236. (1787)
(1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre-Simon Laplace".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simo
n_Laplace
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France24 (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 5 		2288) Caroline Herschel is the first
woman to discover a comet.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp238-239.
3. ^ "Caroline
Lucretia Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Caroline+Lucretia
+Herschel?cat=technology
4. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
5. ^ "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0233/Caroline-Lucretia-Herschel
(1786-1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "Caroline Lucretia Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Lu
cretia_Herschel
[2]
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/herschel_c.htm
Datchet, England4  
[1] Caroline Herschel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caroline_Herschel.jpg

[2] Karoline Herschel PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/herschel_c.htm
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 21 		2325)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/chladni.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID3999. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Record ID3997.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Record ID4001. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp248-249.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/chladni.html
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp248-249.
15. ^ "Ernst Florens
Friedrich Chladni". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni
16. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich
Chladni". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni
17. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich
Chladni". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni
18. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich
Chladni". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ernst+Florens+Fri
edrich+Chladni?cat=technology
19. ^ Record ID1664. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Ernst
Florens Friedrich Chladni". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ernst+Florens+Fri
edrich+Chladni?cat=technology
21. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich
Chladni". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni (1787)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.springerlink.com/content/fx2j
m482p0404q33/fulltext.pdf
Wittenberg, Germany20
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Chladni, Ernst Florens
Friedrich (1756 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Henry Adlard,
19th C. Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 8 cm /
Sheet: 19 x11 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C

[2] Scientist: Chladni, Ernst Florens
Friedrich (1756 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
J. W. Bollinger Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 33 x 23
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 3 		2665)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49. (1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Agustín de Betancourt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agust%C3%AD
n_de_Betancourt
Madrid (y Aranjuez), Spain2  
[1] Description Augustin de
Betancourt (1758-1825), Spanish
engineer, shown in Russian attire.
1810s portrait. Source St.Isaac's
Cathedral Museum, Saint Petersburg,
Russia Date 1810s Author
Unknown painter PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Augustin_de_Betancourt_in_Russian_att
ire%2C_1810s.jpg
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 3 		5966)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "The Marriage of Figaro".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Marriag
e_of_Figaro
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1787}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
[2] "libretto." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/libretto
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
212 YBN
[06/05/1788 AD] 13 		2989) (It seems like there must be some
balancing between particles on the
Earth and those on smaller insulated
objects. Perhaps the source of
particles or electric potential from
Earth is larger than that insulated on
a small object.11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
2. ^ John L.
Heilbron, "Electricity in the 17th and
18th centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), p457,p459. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
3. ^ "A Description of an Instrument
Which, by the Turning of a Winch,
Produces the Two States of Electricity
without Friction or Communication with
the Earth. In a Letter from Mr. William
Nicholson to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. P.
R. S.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Vol. 78, (1788),
pp403-407. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/w75r181h48w1g6g1/?p=2eb3ce3
f62e847889f9b0c4522c65e0a&pi=27 Nichols
on_William_doubler.pdf
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ John L.
Heilbron, "Electricity in the 17th and
18th centuries: a study of early Modern
physics", University of California
Press, (1979), p457,p459. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
7. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism", Macmillan, (1915),
pp51-62. http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&lpg=PA45&ots=Op8vIkfDDE&
dq=winckler+leipzig+electricity&pg=PA51&
ci=27,1371,860,134&source=bookclip">Elem
entary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Silvanus
Phillips Thompson, "Elementary Lessons
in Electricity and Magnetism",
Macmillan, (1915),
pp51-62. http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&lpg=PA45&ots=Op8vIkfDDE&
dq=winckler+leipzig+electricity&pg=PA51&
ci=27,1371,860,134&source=bookclip">Elem
entary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "A Description of an
Instrument Which, by the Turning of a
Winch, Produces the Two States of
Electricity without Friction or
Communication with the Earth. In a
Letter from Mr. William Nicholson to
Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. P. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Vol. 78,
(1788),
pp403-407. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/w75r181h48w1g6g1/?p=2eb3ce3
f62e847889f9b0c4522c65e0a&pi=27 Nichols
on_William_doubler.pdf
13. ^ "A Description of an Instrument
Which, by the Turning of a Winch,
Produces the Two States of Electricity
without Friction or Communication with
the Earth. In a Letter from Mr. William
Nicholson to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. P.
R. S.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Vol. 78, (1788),
pp403-407. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/w75r181h48w1g6g1/?p=2eb3ce3
f62e847889f9b0c4522c65e0a&pi=27 Nichols
on_William_doubler.pdf (06/05/1788)
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Nicholson's doubler PD/Corel
source: "A Description of an Instrument
Which, by the Turning of a Winch,
Produces the Two States of Electricity
without Friction or Communication with
the Earth. In a Letter from Mr. William
Nicholson to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. P.
R. S.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Vol. 78, (1788),
pp403-407. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/w75r181h48w1g6g1/?p=2eb3ce3
f62e847889f9b0c4522c65e0a&pi=27 Nichols
on_William_doubler.pdf

[2] William Nicholson
Figures negative balls are shown in
a,d,f c,f are simultaneous appearance
of plus and minus sparks which agree
well with theory of differential
resistance [t clearly there are two
different appearing phenomena. In
particular it is unusual for the
branching to appear to be exiting
toward the negative, when the view is
that particles are moving from negative
to positive. From the view of
gravitational grouping or collapse,
these branches might imply movement
from outside to the main line where
presumably there would be more matter,
although much if not all is dissipated
as free photons, which would imply a
negative to positive
direction.] 1789 PD
source: William Nicholson, "Experiments
and Observations on Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 79. (1789),
265-288.
http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/print
page/02610523/ap000099/00a00230/0?frame=
noframe&dpi=3&userID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01
c0a84866005010adbb&backcontext=page&back
url=/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem/02610523/ap0
00099/00a00230/0%3fframe%3dnoframe%26dpi
%3d3%26userID%3d80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84
866005010adbb%26config%3djstor%26PAGE%3d
0&action=download&config=jstor Nicholso
n_William_1789.pdf
212 YBN
[06/21/1788 AD] 10 		1529)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "American Revolutionary War".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Re
volutionary_War
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "United States
Constitution". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Constitution
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "United States
Constitution". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Constitution
6. ^ "Constitution of the United States
of America". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6012/Constitution-of-the-United-States-o
f-America
7. ^ "United States Constitution".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Constitution
8. ^ "Constitution of the United States
of America". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6012/Constitution-of-the-United-States-o
f-America
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "United States
Constitution". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Constitution (June 21, 1788)
New Hampshire, USA 
[1] First page of Constitution of the
United States. Source
http://www.archives.gov/national-archiv
es-experience/charters/charters_download
s.html Date 1787 Author
Constitutional Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Constitution_Pg1of4_AC.jpg

[2] Scene at the Signing of the
Constitution of the United States The
Philadelphia Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scene_Constitution.jpg
212 YBN
[06/26/1788 AD] 4 		5961)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
3. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
4. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart {1788 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Vienna, Austria3 (verify) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
212 YBN
[06/26/1788 AD] 4 		5963)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
3. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
4. ^ "List of solo piano compositions
by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart {1788 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Vienna, Austria3 (verify) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
212 YBN
[1788 AD] 2 		1228) There are at this time 22
privately owned psychiatric hospitals
in London.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
  
212 YBN
[1788 AD] 3 		1229) The Queen of England calls on
Francis Willis to cure King George III
of "madness". Willis thinks George must
be broken like a horse and is put in a
straight waist coat, legs tied to a
bed, blisters made on the legs, bled
with leeches, and emetics are added to
his food.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
3. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
London, England2   
212 YBN
[1788 AD] 5 		2015)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
2. ^ "Albrecht von
Haller". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p184.
4. ^ "Albrecht von
Haller". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_vo
n_Haller
5. ^ "Albrecht von Haller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8941/Albrecht-von-Haller (1788)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Albrecht%20von%20
Haller
Bern, Switzerland4 (presumably) 
[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html
212 YBN
[1788 AD] 6 		2150)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
3. ^ "James
Watt". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
5. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
6. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt (1788)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England5
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
212 YBN
[1788 AD] 26 27 		2163) This book is typically analytic.
Lagrange writes in his preface that
"one cannot find any figures in this
work".21
This work is published 101
years after Isaac Newton's "Principia"
(1687).22
Lagrange is the first to
suggest that a description of
mechanical motion can be accomplished
in terms of a geometry of four
dimensions.23 (Four dimensions is more
easily understood as simply 4
variables.24 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211.
3. ^ "Lagrange".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange
comte de lEmpire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "celestial mechanics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-774
30>.
21. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
22. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
23. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange
comte de lEmpire". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp209-211. (1788)
(1788)
27. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire (1788)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Lagrange".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
Paris, France25  
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
212 YBN
[1788 AD] 3 		5969)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1788}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
212 YBN
[1788 AD] 7 		5983) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his 41st Symphony
"Jupiter" (k. 551).1

Jupiter is the last symphony that
Mozart composes.2 (verify)

The name of the symphony of "Jupiter"
apparently dates from the early 1800s
according to Encyclopedia Britannica.3


(This seems to be a transition from the
very Christian music of Bach to more of
a polytheistic and perhaps scientific
song title and theme.4 )



(It's interesting to think about what
Mozart might have composed in his later
life, had he not died at so young an
age.5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "Jupiter Symphony". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_Sym
phony
3. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 18 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
7. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1788}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
[2] "List of solo piano compositions by
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sol
o_piano_compositions_by_Wolfgang_Amadeus
_Mozart
Vienna, Austria6 (presumably) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
211 YBN
[06/25/1789 AD] 6 		2984)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
2. ^ Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of
early Modern physics, 1979, John L.
Heilbron, University of California
Press. ISBN 0-520-03478-3, pp442-443
3. ^
Nicholson,279
4. ^ Nicholson,279-280
5. ^ "William Nicholson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
6. ^ William Nicholson, "Experiments
and Observations on Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 79. (1789),
265-288.
http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/print
page/02610523/ap000099/00a00230/0?frame=
noframe&dpi=3&userID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01
c0a84866005010adbb&backcontext=page&back
url=/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem/02610523/ap0
00099/00a00230/0%3fframe%3dnoframe%26dpi
%3d3%26userID%3d80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84
866005010adbb%26config%3djstor%26PAGE%3d
0&action=download&config=jstor Nicholso
n_William_1789.pdf (06/25/1789)
(06/25/1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Nicholson
(chemist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nic
holson_%28chemist%29
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
[4]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/g10lp16615843r73/?p=4b984232886847f4980
95d3814da4714&pi=0 Experiments and
Observations, Made with the View of
Ascertaining the Nature of the Gaz
Produced by Passing Electric Discharges
through Water. By George Pearson, M. D.
F. R. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 87 -
1797 Pages 142-158 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
97.0008
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] William Nicholson
Figures negative balls are shown in
a,d,f c,f are simultaneous appearance
of plus and minus sparks which agree
well with theory of differential
resistance [t clearly there are two
different appearing phenomena. In
particular it is unusual for the
branching to appear to be exiting
toward the negative, when the view is
that particles are moving from negative
to positive. From the view of
gravitational grouping or collapse,
these branches might imply movement
from outside to the main line where
presumably there would be more matter,
although much if not all is dissipated
as free photons, which would imply a
negative to positive
direction.] 1789 PD
source: William Nicholson, "Experiments
and Observations on Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 79. (1789),
265-288.
http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/print
page/02610523/ap000099/00a00230/0?frame=
noframe&dpi=3&userID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01
c0a84866005010adbb&backcontext=page&back
url=/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem/02610523/ap0
00099/00a00230/0%3fframe%3dnoframe%26dpi
%3d3%26userID%3d80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84
866005010adbb%26config%3djstor%26PAGE%3d
0&action=download&config=jstor Nicholso
n_William_1789.pdf

[2] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html
211 YBN
[08/28/1789 AD] 7 8 		2181)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ "Speculum
metal". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculum_me
tal
3. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
6. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
7. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel (1789)
8. ^ "William
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (08/28/1789 (night
telescope is complete)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Slough, England6  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 7 8 9 		2177)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
3. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
4. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
6. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1793)
(1793)
8. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1789)
9. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html (1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Slough, England6  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 5 		2185)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
2. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
3. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
4. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
5. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html (1789)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
[4] # Full text of The Story of the
Herschels (1886) from Project Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
Slough, England4  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 9 		2222)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
5. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
6. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
7. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
8. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1789)
(1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794). Traité élémentaire de chimie,
présenté dans un ordre nouveau et
d'après les découvertes modernes. 2
vols. Paris, 1789. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm

[2] same PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 21 22 23 		2230) Klaproth is an apothecary (one
who prepares and sells drugs or
compounds for medicinal purposes) for
many years.8
In 1792 Klaproth becomes
lecturer in chemistry at the Berlin
Artillery School.9
Klaproth will be
chosen to be professor of chemistry at
the newly founded University of Berlin
in 1810.10

Klaproth is an early convert to
Lavoisier's theory of oxygen
combustion, which is good since Stahl
who created the phlogiston theory was
German (and national or racial
prejudice may have impeded acceptance
of the more accurate theory11 ).12

In addition to more than 200 papers,
Klaproth publishes a five-volume
chemical dictionary with F.B. Wolff
(1807-10) and a four-volume supplement
(1815-19).13

Uranium is a heavy silvery-white
metallic element, radioactive and
toxic, easily oxidized, and has 14
known isotopes of which U 238 is the
most abundant in nature. The Uranium
atom occurs in several minerals,
including uraninite and carnotite.14

Uranium is symbol U, atomic number 92;
atomic weight 238.03; melting point
1,132°C; boiling point 3,818°C;
relative density (specific gravity)
18.95; and can have a valence of 2, 3,
4, 5, 6.15
An isotope of uranium,
uranium 235, is (fissionable,
splittable and is16 ) the main fuel for
nuclear reactors and atomic bombs.17
Eug
ene M. Péligot will isolate the
element in 1841.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p226.
3. ^ "Martin
Heinrich Klaproth". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226.
8. ^ "Martin Heinrich
Klaproth". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
9. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
10. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p266.
13. ^ "Martin
Heinrich Klaproth". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
14. ^ "uranium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/uranium?cat=healt
h
15. ^ "uranium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/uranium?cat=healt
h
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Martin Heinrich
Klaproth". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
18. ^ "uranium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/uranium?cat=healt
h
19. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
20. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226. (1789) (1789)
22. ^
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth (1789)
23. ^
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology (1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hein
rich_Klaproth
[2] "article 9074425". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4425
[3] "Uranium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)19 20  
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg

[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 9 10 11 		2231) The actual zirconium metal will
be isolated in 1824 in impure form by
the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob
Berzelius.3
The impure metal, even when
99 percent pure, is hard and brittle.
The white, soft, malleable, and ductile
metal of higher purity will be first
produced in quantity in 1925 by the
Dutch chemists Anton E. van Arkel and
J.H. de Boer.4
Zirconium is highly
transparent to neutrons.5

Zirconium is symbol Zr; atomic number
40; at. wt. 91.22; m.p. about 1,852°C;
b.p. 4,377°C; rel dens. (sp. gr.) 6.5
at 20°C; valence +2, +3, or +4.6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p226.
3. ^ "article
9078405". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8405
4. ^ "article 9078405". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8405
5. ^ "article 9078405". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8405
6. ^ "zirconium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/zirconium?cat=hea
lth
7. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226. (1789) (1789)
10. ^
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth (1789)
11. ^
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology (1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hein
rich_Klaproth
[2] "Zirconium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium
[3] "Zircon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zircon
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)7 8  
[1] Zircon crystal Origin:Peixes,
Goiás, Brazil Description = One
single brown zircon crystal (2x2
cm) Source = the authors are
owner Date = created
2005-12-07 Authors = Eurico Zimbres
(FGEL-UERJ) / Tom Epaminondas (mineral
collector) Permission = Free for all
use CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zirc%C3%A3o.jpeg

[2] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 11 		2269) This paper Jussieu submits to the
Académie des Sciences is his first
publication.5 6
Jussieu's paper
reexamines the taxonomy of the
Ranunculaceae (crowfoot7 ).8
Jussieu's
uncle Bernard first identifies sea
anemones and related creatures as
animals instead of plants.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233.
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent
de Jussieu". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4202/Antoine-Laurent-de-Jussieu
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4202/Antoine-Laurent-de-Jussieu
6. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
7. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4202/Antoine-Laurent-de-Jussieu
8. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233.
10. ^ "Antoine
Laurent de Jussieu". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233. (1789) (1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_de_Jussieu
Paris, France10  
[1] French botanist Antoine-Laurent de
Jussieu (1748-1836) Source : Galerie
des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jussieu_Antoine-Laurent_de_1748-1836.
jpg
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 8 		2270) Jussieu's uncle Bernard first
identifies sea anemones and related
creatures as animals instead of
plants.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233.
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent
de Jussieu". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4202/Antoine-Laurent-de-Jussieu
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233.
7. ^ "Antoine Laurent
de Jussieu". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+d
e+Jussieu+?cat=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p233. (1789) (1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_de_Jussieu
Paris, France7  
[1] French botanist Antoine-Laurent de
Jussieu (1748-1836) Source : Galerie
des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jussieu_Antoine-Laurent_de_1748-1836.
jpg
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 5 		1198)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Rail track". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_track
3. ^ "Rail track". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_track
4. ^ "William Jessop". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jes
sop
5. ^ "Rail track". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_track

MORE INFO
[1] "Tramway Track". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tramway_Tra
ck
England4  
[1] Flying shuttles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://inventors.about.com/libra
ry/inventors/blflyingshuttle.htm
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 19 		2077) It's amazing how little info
there is on Michell, and not even a
portrait.13

He is described by a contemporary as:
"John
Michell, BD is a little short Man, of a
black Complexion, and fat; but having
no Acquaintance with him, can say
little of him. I think he had the care
of St. Botolph's Church Cambridge,
while he continued Fellow of Queen's
College, where he was esteemed a very
ingenious Man, and an excellent
Philosopher. He has published some
things in that way, on the Magnet and
Electricity."14 15

(Cole MSS XXXIII, 156,
British Library).16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
2. ^ "John Michell".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "John Michell". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
6. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/mi
chell.html
7. ^ "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
8. ^
http://www.yorksphilsoc.org.uk/files/mic
hell.pdf
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
10. ^ "John Michell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
11. ^ "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ "John
Michell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
15. ^
http://www.yorksphilsoc.org.uk/files/mic
hell.pdf
16. ^ "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
17. ^
http://www.yorksphilsoc.org.uk/files/mic
hell.pdf
18. ^ "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
19. ^ "John Michell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology (1790)
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England18
(presumably) 		 
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 4 		2151)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
3. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
4. ^ "James Watt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt (1790)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England3
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 3 		2153) The Watt (CE 1736-1819) engine
has completely replaced the Newcomen
engine by this time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209. (1790)
(1790)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England2
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 9 10 		2191) Not until Boucher 50 years later
will such finds be no longer ignored.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Frere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5369/John-Frere
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p216.
3. ^ "John Frere".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Frere%20
4. ^ "John Frere". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Frere%20
5. ^ "John Frere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5369/John-Frere
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p216.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p216.
8. ^ "John
Frere". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Frere%20
9. ^ "John Frere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5369/John-Frere (1790)
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p216. (1790)
(1790)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Frere". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frere
Hoxne, Suffolk, England8   
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 20 		2198) Leblanc is unable to provide
enough money for his family on the
medical fees he obtains as a surgeon
from his patients, and so in 1780
accepts a position as the private
physician to the household of the Duke
of Orleans, later known as the
revolutionary figure Philippe Egalite
who will be beheaded in 1793.12

The Duke agrees to fund Leblanc's
research into a chemical method to
convert salt to soda ash, on the
condition that Darcet, a longtime
consultant to the Duke, be included in
the process. Leblanc is allowed to set
up a laboratory at the College of
Paris, and Darcet assigns J. Dize, his
assistant, to collaborate with
Leblanc.13

This happens during the French
Revolution, and the government awards
Leblanc a 15-year secret patent in
September 1791 but confiscates his
patent and factory three years later
with only a small compensation.14 15
In addition the government forces
Leblanc to make public his method.16
(My own view is of course that there
should be no secrets, in particular in
science, but that we should respect and
celebrate inventors and all smart
people.17 ) Napoleon will return the
factory to Leblanc around 1800 however
Leblanc cannot raise enough capital to
reopen it and takes his own life in
1806.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp217-218.
2. ^ "Nicolas
Leblanc". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
3. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
4. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Leblanc

5. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp217-218.
7. ^ "Nicolas
Leblanc". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
8. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp217-218.
10. ^ "Nicolas
Leblanc". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
11. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Leblanc

12. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Leblanc

13. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Leblanc

14. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
15. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Leblanc

16. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Leblanc

17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc
19. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Leblanc

20. ^ "Nicolas Leblanc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7550/Nicolas-Leblanc (1790)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Leblanc". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Leb
lanc
Paris, France19  
[1] * Statue of Nicolas Leblanc
probably from early 1800s. * The
following image was obtained from a
public domain website available on
http://isimabomba.free.fr/biographies/ch
imistes/leblanc.htm (in French) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NicholasLeblanc.JPG
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 4 		2297)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5787/Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach
2. ^ "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann%20Friedric
h%20Blumenbach
3. ^ "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Frie
drich_Blumenbach
4. ^ "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5787/Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach
(1790-1828)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Göttingen, Germany{2 presumably}3
 
[1] Johann Friedrich Blumenbach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Blumenbach.jpg

[2] Blumenbach's five races Source
No source specified. Please edit this
image description and provide a
source. Date 18th Century Author
Blumenbach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 5 6 		2305)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
2. ^ "William
Nicholson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
4. ^ "William Nicholson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
5. ^ "William Nicholson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson (1790)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (1790) (1790)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Nicholson
(chemist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nic
holson_%28chemist%29
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 5 		2322)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp247-248.
2. ^ "chaptal jean
antoine". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaptal-jea
n-antoine?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "chaptal jean antoine".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaptal-jea
n-antoine?cat=technology , -248.
(1790)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp247-248. (1790)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Antoine Claude, Comte
De Chante Chaptal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Claude,_Comte_De_Chante_Chaptal
[2] "Jean-Antoine Chaptal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Chaptal
Montpellier, France4
(presuambly) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Claude, comte Chaptal
de Chanteloup (1756-1832), French
chemist and statesman. This is a
faithful photographic reproduction of
an original two-dimensional work of
art. The original image comprising the
work of art itself is in the public
domain for the following
reason: Public domain This image (or
other media file) is in the public
domain because its copyright has
expired. This applies to the United
States, Canada, the European Union and
those countries with a copyright term
of life of the author plus 70
years. Faithful reproductions of
two-dimensional original works cannot
attract copyright in the U.S. according
to the rule in Bridgeman Art Library v.
Corel Corp. This photograph was taken
in the U.S. or in another country where
a similar rule applies (for a list of
allowable countries, see Commons:When
to use the PD-Art tag#Country-specific
rules). This photographic reproduction
is therefore also in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Antoine_Chaptal.jpg

[2] Scientist: Chaptal,
Jean-Antoine-Claude (1756 -
1832) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: G. Metzeroth Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12 x 10 cm / Sheet: 23 x 14
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 3 		2876)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Friedrich Albrecht Carl Gren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_A
lbrecht_Carl_Gren
2. ^ "Friedrich Albrecht Carl Gren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_A
lbrecht_Carl_Gren
3. ^ "Friedrich Albrecht Carl Gren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_A
lbrecht_Carl_Gren (1790)
Halle, Germany2 (presumably)   
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 4 		3269)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sewing machine." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "sewing machine." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
4. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine (1790)
England3  
[1] Thomas Saint Sewing
Machine Replica sewing machine created
for Brother International for their
Sewing Machine museum in Nagoya,
Japan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gluefactory.co.uk/mod
elmaker/thomas-saint-1.jpg
209 YBN
[05/03/1791 AD] 5 		1530)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Poland". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-282
02/Poland
2. ^ "Poland". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-282
02/Poland
3. ^ "Polish Constitution of May 3,
1791". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Cons
titution_of_May_3%2C_1791
4. ^ "Poland". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-282
02/Poland
5. ^ "Polish Constitution of May 3,
1791". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Cons
titution_of_May_3%2C_1791 (05/03/1791)
 
[1] May 3rd Constitution (painting by
Jan Matejko, 1891). King Stanisław
August (left, in ermine-trimmed cloak),
enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm
deputies will swear to uphold the new
Constitution; in the background,
Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the
Constitution had just been
adopted. Painting by Jan Matejko from
1891 Source:
en:Image:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg;
originally at
http://pl.wikipedia.org/upload/3/3c/Ko
nstytucja_3_Maja.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg

[2] Original manuscript of the May 3rd
Constitution. PD with source
statement: Source:
http://www.president.pl/x.node?id=404274
5
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oryginal_Konstytucji_3_maja.jpg
209 YBN
[12/15/1791 AD] 4 5 		1531)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Constitution of the United
States of America". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-219
002/Constitution-of-the-United-States-of
-America
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Constitution of the
United States of America". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-219
002/Constitution-of-the-United-States-of
-America
4. ^ "Constitution of the United States
of America". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-219
002/Constitution-of-the-United-States-of
-America (Dec. 15, 1791)
5. ^ "United States
Bill of Rights". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Bill_of_Rights (Dec. 15, 1791)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bill of rights". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_rig
hts
[2] "United States Bill of Rights".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stat
es_Bill_of_Rights
Virginia, USA3   
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 5 		1230) Hannah Mills, a quaker woman,
dies of ill treatment and neglect at
the York asylum and this leads William
Tuke (March 24, 1732 - 1822), an
English businessman and philanthropist
and other quakers to build "The Retreat
at York", to implement a more humaine
process for quakers viewed as "mentally
ill".1 The success of this business
leads to more stringent legislation in
the interests of those diagnosed with
mental diseases.2 This is a positive
step on the long road to removing the
inhuman torture of restraining people
to beds with less movement than a cage
provides, and any kind of involuntary
treatment, in particular drugging or
coercing to take drugs (or so-called
"meds").3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ "William Tuke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tuk
e
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in
America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and
the Enduring Mistreatment of the
Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus
Publishing, 2001).
5. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad
in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine,
and the Enduring Mistreatment of the
Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus
Publishing, 2001).
York, England4   
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 66 		2175) Remote neuron activation (remote
neuron writing). Muscle contracted
remotely by using an electric spark and
metal connected to a nerve.36

Galvani makes an electric pendulum
using a frog leg, brass hook and silver
box.37

Imagine Galvani's scalpel reduced in
size to the size of a dust fiber, about
1 micrometer, and capable of photon
communication can can be swallowed or
even breathed in, and then remotely
communicated with, and moved around
inside a body, made to activate a
neuron, or to attach to a bacterium,
perhaps to enter a cell and function as
the first human-made cellular
organelle.38

Although the use of the scalpel might
be interpreted as direct neuron
activation, this is a very similar
process to a small electronic device
inside a body that receives remotely
produced photons to directly activate a
neuron.39

Jan Swammerdam had made frog muscle
contracted using two different metals
in 1678.40
Early, in Bologna, Floriano
Caldani in 1756 and Giambattista
Beccaria in 1758 had demonstrated
electrical excitability in the muscles
of dead frogs.41
Later an unknown
person will focus this principle of
remote nerve stimulation to individual
nerves without the need for a metal
conductor attached to the nerve. When
this happens is also unknown, perhaps
this invention must wait for the laser.
The earliest evidence I am aware of for
this remote conductor-less stimulation,
is probably the use of the word
"suggest" by Felix Savery in 182642 ,
and Andre Ampere in 1827, who uses the
French form of "suggest" and "muscle
contraction" in the same sentence43 .
This remote neuron activation may
advance to making an individual neuron
fire even as far back as the 1800s, and
still is a secret from the public.44

Luigi Galvani (GoLVonE) (CE 1737-1798)
publishes the results of his using
electricity to make frog leg muscles
contract in "De Viribus Electricitatis
in Motu Musculari Commentarius"
("Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion").45

Luigi Galvani (GoLVonE) (CE 1737-1798)
finds that twitching of frog muscles
can occur during a lightning storm or
with the aid of an electrostatic
machine, but can also occur with only a
metallic contact between leg muscles
and the nerves leading to them. Galvani
finds that two different specific kinds
of metals connected together connecting
the nerves and the muscle connected to
the nerve can serve as a substitute for
the electrostatic machine.46

Galvani has found the basic design of
an electrical battery, but wrongly
concludes that the electricity comes
from the from leg as "animal
electricity". Alessandro Volta will
prove that the electricity comes from
the metal several years later.47

This find will form the basis of and
lead directly to the first electric
battery (voltaic pile) by Volta in 1800
and to the remote contraction of
muscles, by whom, when and where is
still unknown to the public.48

Galvani wrongly concludes that animal
tissue contains an "animal
electricity", that activates nerve and
muscle when metal probes connect nerve
and muscle causing muscle to contract.
Galvani supposes that this electricity
is different from the "natural"
electricity of lightning or eels, and
the "unnatural" electricity from static
electricity generating machines.49

Galvani and Volta enter into a friendly
disagreement, Galvani supporting his
view of animal electricity, with Volta
holding the view that the two different
metals are the source of electricity,
calling it "metallic electricity".50

Galvani and Volta will be shown to be
both partly right and partly wrong.
Galvani is correct in attributing
muscular contractions to an electrical
stimulus but wrong in identifying it as
an "animal electricity." Volta is
correct in denying the existence of an
"animal electricity" but is wrong in
implying that every
electrophysiological effect requires
two different metals as sources of
current.51

Galvani is influenced by Franklin's
"one fluid theory", where electrical
phenomena are thought to be caused by
an electric fluid that results in
positive electricity, while negative
electricity is the absence of this
fluid.52 Franklin explained the Leyden
jar as accumulating positive
electricity on the inner conductor
while the outer conductor becomes
negatively charged.53

Galvani views the brain as the most
important organ which secretes
"electric fluid" and views the nerves
as conductors of the fluid to the nerve
and muscle.54 Galvani views the
tissues of nerves and muscles as being
analogous to the outer and inner
surfaces of the Leyden jar.55

Galvani writes in "De Viribus
Electricitatis" (translated from
Latin):
" In my desire to make that which,
with no inconsiderable expenditure of
pains, after many experiments, I have
succeeded in discovering in nerves and
muscles, so far useful that both their
concealed properties might be revealed,
if possible, and we might be able more
surely to heal their diseases, nothing
seemed more suitable for fulfilling
such a wish than if I should simply
publish my results, just as they are,
for general judgment. For learned and
eminent scholars, by reading my
discoveries, will be able, through
their own meditations and experiments,
not only to amplify and extend them,
but also to attain that which I indeed
have attempted, but perhaps have not
fully achieved.
It was also my desire
not to publish this work in a crude and
barely incipient form, even though not
perfect and complete, which perhaps I
should never have been able to do. But
since I realized that I had neither
time nor leisure nor ability sufficient
to accomplish that, I preferred rather
to fall short of my own very reasonable
desire than to fail the practical value
of the work.
I thought, therefore, that I
should be doing something worth while,
if I reported a brief and accurate
account of my discoveries and findings
in the order and relation in which
partly chance and fortune presented and
partly diligence and industry revealed
them to me; not so much lest more be
attributed to me than to fortune, or
more to fortune than to me, but that
either I might hand on a torch to those
who had wished to enter this same
pathway of experiment, or might satisfy
the honest desire of scholars who are
wont to be interested in things which
contain some novelty either in origin
itself or in principle.
But to the description
of the experiments I will add some
corollaries, and some conjectures and
hypotheses, primarily with this
purpose, that I may smooth the way for
understanding new experiments, whereby,
if we cannot attain the truth, at least
a new approach thereto may be opened.
The affair began at first as follows:
Part
One
THE EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL ELECTRICITY
ON MUSCULAR MOTION

I dissected and
prepared a frog, as in Fig. 2, Tab. I,
and placed it on a table, on which was
an electrical machine, Fig. 1, Tab. 1,
widely removed from its conductor and
separated by no brief interval. When by
chance one of those who were assisting
me gently touched the point of a
scalpel to the medial crural nerves,
DD, of this frog, immediately all the
muscles of the limbs seemed to be so
contracted that they appeared to have
fallen into violent tonic convulsions.
but another of the assistants, who was
on hand when I did electrical
experiments, seemed to observe that the
same thing occurred whenever a spark
was discharged from the conductor of
the machine, (Fig. I, B).
He, wondering
at the novelty of the phenomenon,
immediately apprised me of the same,
wrapped in thought though I was and
pondering something entirely different,
Hereupon I was fired with incredible
zeal and desire of having the same
experience, and of bringing to light
whatever might be concealed in the
phenomenon. Therefore I myself also
applied the point of a scalpel to one
or other crural nerve at a time when
one or other of those who were present
elicited a spark. The phenomenon always
occurred in the same manner: violent
contraction in individual muscles of
the limbs, just as if the prepared
animal had been seized with tetanus,
were induced at the same moment of time
in which sparks were discharged.
But fearing lest
these very motions arose rather from
the contact of the point, which
perchance acted as a stimulus, than
from the spark, I again tested the same
nerves in the same way in other frogs,
and even more severely, but without any
spark being elicited at that time by
anyone; but no motions were seen at
all. Hence it occurred to me that
perhaps for the induction of the
phenomenon both the contact of some
body and the passage of a spark were
simultaneously required. Wherefore I
applied the edge of the scalpel again
to the nerves and held it motionless,
both at the time when a spark was being
elicited and when the machine was
perfectly quiet. but the phenomenon
appeared only when the spark was
produced.
We repeated the
experiment, always employing the same
scalpel; but not without our surprise,
sometimes, when the spark was produces,
the aforesaid motions occurred,
sometimes they were lacking.
Aroused by the
novelty of the circumstance, we
resolved to test it in various ways,
and to experiment, employing
nevertheless the same scalpel, in order
that, if possible, we might ascertain
the causes of the unexpected
difference; nor did this new labor
prove vain; for we found that the whole
thing was to be attributed to the
different part of the scalpel by which
we held it with our fingers: for since
the scalpel had a bone handle, when the
same handle was held by the hand, even
though a spark was produced, no
movements resulted, but they did ensue,
if the fingers touched either the
metallic blade or the iron nails
securing the blade of the scalpel.
Now, since
dry bones possess a non-conductile, but
the metallic blade and the iron nails a
conductile nature, we came into this
suspicion, that perhaps it happened
that when we held the bony handle with
our fingers, then all access was cut
off from the electric current, in
whatever way it was acting on the frog,
but that it was afforded when we
touched the blade or the nails
communicating therewith.
Therefore, to place the
matter beyond all doubt, instead of a
scalpel we used sometimes a slender
glass cylinder H, Fig. 2, wiped clean
from all moisture and dust, and
sometimes an iron cylinder G. With the
glass cylinder we not merely touched
but rubber the crural nerves, when the
spark was elicited, but with all our
effort, the phenomenon never appeared,
though innumerable and violent sparks
were elicited from the conductor of the
machine, and at a short distance from
the animal; but it appeared when the
iron cylinder was even lightly applied
to the same nerves and scanty sparks
elicited.
...". Galvani goes on to describe
numerous other experiments. Having
tested positive electricity, they test
negative electricity, concluding
"...the same contractions were
obtained, whether the spark was
elicited from the crook of the Leyden
jar at the same time when the said jar,
as they say, was being charged, or in
the same place in which it was charged,
or elsewhere, and far removed from the
machine.". Galvani finds that "These
phenomena, moreover, occurred when the
frogs were equipped not only with a
nerve-conductor, but merely with a
muscle-conductor...". They contract the
frgo muscle through glass by containing
the frog and conductor in a jar. They
test the crural nerve with a live frog
exposing the crural nerve in the thigh
with the conductor applied and find
that "...contractions ensued on the
passage of the spark in the
corresponding leg alone, only less, as
it seemed to us, than in the dead
animal.". Galvani confirms that the
contraction works when the frog is
contained in a airless vacuum jar.
Galvani writes "These experiments were
all performed in animals wihch are
called cold-blooded. These things
having been tested and discovered,
nothing was more in my desires than to
perform the same or similar experiments
in warm-blooded animals, as for example
in hens and in sheep. The experiment
having been tried, the result was the
same in the latter as in the former.
but there was need of a different
preparation in the latter; for it was
necessary first to expose the crural
nerve, not inside the abdomen, but
externally in the thigh itself, and to
separate it from the other parts and
bring it to the surface, than apply the
conductor to it, and then elicit the
spark from the conductor of the
machine, with the leg either attrached
to the living animal or resected from
it as soon as possible; for otherwise,
if the customary manner of preparing
frogs were employed, the phenomenon was
wholly lacking, perhaps because the
power of self-contraction of the
muscles was lacking beforehand, which
that long and complex preparation can
release.". Galvani concludes this
section by writing:
" but indeed, in this kind
of experiments, whether in warm or in
cold animals, there are some things at
the end, and these peculiar and, as I
think, not unimportant to note, which
never presented themselves to us. One
was that prepared animals were more
suitable for these phenomena, the more
advanced they were in age, and also the
whiter their muscles were and the more
they were deficient in blood, and
therefore perhaps the muscular
contractions were propter and easier
and could be excited much longer in
cold than in warm animals; for the
former, in comparison with the latter,
have more dilute blood, more difficult
to coagulate, and therefore flowing
much more easily from the muscles:
another was that prepared animals, in
whom these electric experiments were
undertaken, decay and rot much more
quickly than those who have suffered no
electric force: finally that even if
the phenomena which we have described
thus far as occurring did so in the way
we stated, animals prepared for
experiment fail differently. For if the
conductors are applied not to the
dissected spinal cord or to the nerves,
as we have been accustomed, but are
applied or even attached to the brain
or the muscles, or if nerve conductors
are extended or prolonged, or if nerves
according to custom are in the least
detached from surrounding parts, the
contractions are wither none or very
slight. Many accepted things certainly,
which we have discovered from these
experiments, we refer chiefly to this
method of preparing and separating
nerves.".56

Galvani then writes "Part Two
THE EFFECTS
OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY ON MUSCULAR
MOTION
Having discovered the effects of
artificial electricity on muscular
contractions which we have thus far
explained, there was nothing we would
sooner do than to investigate whether
atmospheric electricity, as it is
called, would afford the same
phenomena, or not: whether, for
example, by employing the same devices,
the passage of lightning, as of sparks,
would excite muscular contractions.
Therefore we
erected, in the fresh air, in a lofty
part of the house, a long and suitable
conductor, namely an iron wire, and
insulated it, Fig. 7, and to it, when a
storm arose in the sky, attached by
their nerves either prepared frogs, or
prepared legs of warm animals, as in
Fig. 20, 21, Tab. IV. Also we attached
another conductor, namely another iron
wire, to the feet of the same, and this
as long as possible, that it might
extend as far as the waters of the well
indicated in the figure. Moreover, the
thing went according to our desire,
just as in artificial electricity; for
as often as the lightning broke out, at
the same moment of time all the muscles
fell into violent and multiple
contractions, so that, just as the
splendor and flash of the lightning are
wont, so the muscular motions and
contractions of those animals preceded
the thunders, and, as it were, warned
of them; nay, indeed, so great was the
concurrence of the phenomena that the
contractions occurred both when no
muscle conductor was also added, and
when the nerve conductor was not
insulated, nay it was even possible to
observe them beyond hope and
expectation when the conductor was
placed on lower ground, Fig. 8,
particularly if the lightnings either
were very great, or burst from clouds
nearer the place of experimentation, or
if anyone held the iron wire F in his
hands at the same time when the
thunderbolts fell. ...". Galvani
concludes by noting that northern
lights produces no contractions.57

Galvani continues with "Part Three
THE
EFFECTS OF ANIMAL ELECTRICITY ON
MUSCULAR MOTION
The effects of stormy
atmospheric electricity having been
tested, my heart burned with desire to
test also the power of peaceful,
everyday electricity.
Wherefore,
since I had sometimes seen prepared
frogs placed in iron gratings which
surrounded a certain hanging garden of
my house, equipped also with bronze
hooks in their spinal cord, fall into
the customary contractions, not only
when the sky was lightning, but also
sometimes when it was quiet and serene,
I thought these contractions derived
their origin from the changes which
sometimes occur in atmospheric
electricity. hence, not without hope, I
began diligently to investigate the
effects of these changes on these
muscular motions in various ways.
Wherefore at different hours, and for
many days, I inspected animals,
appropriately adjusted therefor; but
there was scarceley any motion in their
muscles. Finally, weary with vain
expectation I began to press the bronze
hooks, whereby their spinal cords were
fixed, against the iron gratings, to
see whether by this kind of device they
excited muscular contractions, and in
various states of the atmosphere, and
of electricity whatever variety and
mutation they presented; not
infrequently, indeed, I observed
contractions, but bearing no relation
to varied state of atmosphere or of
electricity.
Nevertheless, since I had not
inspected these contractions except in
the fresh air, for I had not yet
experimented in other places, I was on
the point of seeking such contractions
from electricity of the atmosphere,
which had crept into the animal and
accumulated in him and gone out rapidly
from him in contact of the hook with
the iron grating; for it is easy in
experimentation to be deceived, and to
think one has seen and discovered what
we desire to see and discover.
But when I had
transported the animal into a closed
chamber and placed him on an iron
surface, and had begun to press against
it the hook fixed in his spinal cord,
behold the same contractions and the
same motions! Likewise continuously, I
tried using other metals, in other
places, other hours and days; and the
same result; except that the
contractions were different in
accordance with the diversity of
metals, namely more violent in some,
and more sluggish in others. Then it
continually occurred to me to employ
for the same experiment other bodies,
but those which transmit little or no
electricity, glass for example, gum,
resin, stone, wood, and those which are
dry; nothing similar occurred, it was
not possible to observe any muscular
motions or contractions. Results of
this sort both brought us no slight
amazement and began to arouse some
suspicion about inherent animal
electricity itself. Moreover both were
increased by the circuit of very thin
nervous fluid which by chance we
observed to be produced from the nerves
to the muscles, when the phenomenon
occurred, and which resembled the
electric circuit which is discharged in
the Leyden jar. ...". Galvani prepares
the frog on a hook fixed to its spinal
cord and its feet rest on a silver box.
In this way, Galvani finds that, with
one hand on the frog and the other a
metal object touching the silver box,
the frog leg contracts. Galvni then
gets an assistant, and finds that with
the assistant holding the frog while
Galvani touched the box again, there is
no contraction. However, a contraction
does occur if their other hands are
connected. Galvani then describes his
electric pendulum:
" ...if a frog is
held in the fingers so suspended by one
leg that a hook fixed in the spinal
cord touches a silver surface and the
other leg freely falls into the same
plane, Fig. 11, Tab. III, as soon as
this same leg touches the surface
itself immediately the muscles
contract, wherefore the leg rises and
is drawn up, but soon relaxes of its
own accord and again falls to the
surface, and as soon as it comes into
contact with it, is again elevated for
the same reason, and so it continues
thereafter to rise and fall
alternatively, so that, like an
electric pendulum, the same leg seems
to imitate the other, not without
admiration and pleasure on the part of
the beholder. ...". Galvani describes
how using an arc or hook of iron and
conducting surface of iron,
contractions either fail or are very
scanty, but if one is iron and the
other bronze, or much more for silver,
contractions will occur continuously
and far greater and far longer. Galvani
confirms that contractions occur even
when the frog is immersed in water, but
fails immersed in oil. Galvani covers
nerves with metal foil, "preferably of
tin, no less than the physicists are
accustomed to accomplish in their magic
square and Leyden jar", Fig. 9, Tab.
III, and finds that the muscular
contractions grow much stronger, so
that even without an arc, but with a
single contact of a body either
conducting or even non-conducting,
these "armatured nerves", as Galvani
calls them contract the connected
muscle. However, covering muscle in
metal foil causes no difference in
contraction, nor for covering the
denuded spinal cord. Galvani finds that
with the nerve and muscle removed from
the body, that far fewer contractions
take place, however, that contractions
arise far more easily and promptly if
the arc is applied to an armatured
nerve. Galvani finds that wrapping the
nerves in insulation such as silk and
then touching the nerve with the arc
causes no contraction. Galvani
describes the way nerves share
electricity, finding that two nerves
with the arc applied to one each cause
both connected muscles to contract.
Galvani writes "...But perhaps nothing
is more suitable for demonstrating
powers of cooperation than if the
crural nerves are prepared according to
custom, and the spinal cord and head
remain intact, and the upper limbs
intact in nature and position.
For then, if
either the crural nerve or the
vertebral column is armatured, and the
arc aplied partly to the armatured part
of the crural nerve and partly to the
corresponding limb, not only the lower
limbs contract, but the upper ones move
also, the eyelids move, and other parts
of the head move, so that on this
account, the electric fluid, aroused by
nervous contact of the arc, for the
most part flows from the indicated
place of the nerves to the muscles, but
partly also through the nerves seeks
the higher regions and is carried as
far as the brain, and seems to carry
such effect into it that thence, for
whatever reason, motions of other
muscles are excited. Galvani writes:
"
moreover, the experiments having been
performed, in birds and quadrupeds, not
once but again and again, not only the
principal phenomena appeared, according
to desire, as in cold-blooded animals,
namely frogs and turtles, but they both
appeared more easily and were far more
conspicuous. it was possible also to
observe this peculiarity in both the
living and the dead animal, Figs. 20
and 21, for example that in a lamb or a
chick, with a crural nerve dissected
and covered with metal foil and
extended on an armatured glass surface,
contractions were obtained without the
device of an arc, but solely by the
contact of some conducting body with
the same surface; but they are never
obtained when the nerve is extended on
a metallic surface, unless an arc is
applied to the animal according to
custom.".. Galvani states his belief
that "animal electricity, discovered by
us, ... corresponds not a little with
common electricity.", and "...those who
have devoted themselves to this kind of
experiments may the better recognize
the use and utility of the arc...".58

Galvani dedicates his last chapter,
part 4 to "CONJECTURES AND SOME
CONCLUSIONS". In this part, Galvani
states numerous conjectures, theories
and ideas for future research. In
particular Galvani argues in favor of
"animal electricity" as being different
from common electricity. Volta is
credited with disproving this theory.
Galvani writes:
"From what is known and
explored thys far, I think it is
sufficiently established that there is
electricity in animals, which, with
Bartholinus and others, we may be
permitted to call by the general name
of animal electricity.". Galvani then
goes on to theorize that two kinds of
electricity, positive and negative,
cause muscle contraction. Galvani
writes "...it would perhaps be a not
inept hypothesis and conjecture, nor
altogether deviating from the truth,
which should compare a muscle fibre to
a small Leyden jar, or other similar
electric body, charged with two
opposite kinds of electricity; but
should liken the nerve to the
conductor, and therefore compare the
whole muscle with an assemblage of
Leyden jars.". Galvani theorizes on the
three different methods of contracting
muscles: 1) from the internal surface
of a Leyden jar, 2) by an arc, and 3)
by the production of a spark from an
electric machine. Galvani discusses the
torpedo fish and how it can kill or
stupefy other bodies. Galvani writes
"...but already we have shown above
that electric fluid is carried through
the nerves of muscles; therefore it
will be carried through all: therefore
from one common source, namely the
cerebrum, they will drain it, from the
source and origin of all: for otherwise
there would be as many sources as there
are parts in which nerves terminate;
and although these are very different
in nature and construction, they do not
seem suited for the elaboration and
secretion of one and the same fluid.

Therefore we believe it equally true
that electricity is prepared by action
of the cerebrum, and that it is
extracted from the blood, and that it
enters the nerves, and that it runs
through them within, whether they are
hollow and free, or whether, as seems
more probable, they carry a very thin
lymph, or some other peculiar similar
thin fluid, secreted, as many think, by
the cortical cerebrum.". Galvani
distinguishes between voluntary and
involuntary motions. Galvani tries to
explain how a spark can cause a muscle
contraction writing: "For at the
passage of a spark, electricity breaks
out both from the layers of air
surrounding the conductor of the
machine and from the nerve-conductors
communicating with the same layers; and
negative electricity results on account
of them. Hence the intrinsic positive
electricity of muscles runs to the
nerves both with its own strength and
with strength from extrinsic
electricity, more abundant whether you
borrow it from artificial or natural,
as received from their conductors, and
flowing through them, failing both in
them and in the shortly hirtherto
mentioned layers of air, it will renew
the electricity and establish itself at
equilibrium therewith; not otherwise
than as, in a Leyden jar, the positive
electricity of the internal surface in
the production of a spark flows more
abundantly to the conductor of the
former, for the same reasons, and goes
out therefrom, just as the form of a
luminous electric pencil openly
declares.". Galvani suggests that just
as electricity can damage a nerve,
possibly self generated electricity
might damage a nerve. Galvani does not
explicitly mention the possibility of a
person remotely causing a muscle to
move without having to touch the nerve
directly, for example with a piece of
metal.59

This work of Galvani's is really an
epochal work. There are many sciences
that grow from this work. In
particular, the very interesting
science, of the difference between life
and death, and in particular the role
of electricity in living objects.
Related to this, is the science of
resuscitation and reviving back to
living a body that has been dead for a
period of time. Beyond this is the
major science of using electricity to
cause remote muscle contraction, which
develops secretly - it seems very
likely, around the early 1800s. In
addition, is the science of radio
communication - which involves his use
of electric induction which may be
simply the photoelectric effect.60

This technology of moving (human
muscles) is the focus of much secret
research. Some time, perhaps around
1912, some person figured out how to
remotely cause neurons to fire. Who
figured this out first is publicly not
known, nor is the location on earth
where this was first found publicly
known, not is the precise method known.
Possibly molecules in a neuron absorb
certain frequencies of photons, by
making the molecule (which could be
even the water molecule, but may be
more specific to neurons) absorb
photons, the neuron may be made to
fire. Perhaps the neurons of squid were
first used being much larger than the
neurons of other species.
When this process of
making neurons fire remotely was
understood, many new possibilities were
realized. In particular by remotely
causing the correct neuron to fire, any
muscle in any body with a muscular
system can be made to contract.

Sadly, this technology is being
terribly abused by the people, mostly
conservative military people who
control it, to cause people's muscles
to move in ways which may cause them
damage, for example, to cause a person
to drive off a road, or simply to
murder people by stopping their lung or
heart muscle. Clearly the amazing
potential of being able to control
muscles from a distance is a very
powerful tool. This technology could be
used to stop pain felt in surgery
without having to use anesthesia, to
send images, sounds, and smells to each
other just by thought, to stop a person
in the act of violence, for example,
many useful purposes. Ultimately this
movement of muscles is a way a person
can possibly completely control all the
thoughts and muscles of another body. A
person's body may be made to think
and/or move in a way without any
choice. This secret technology opens
many new ideas previously never thought
about. Sadly, as will be the case for
seeing thought in 1910, and hearing
thought in 1911, uneducated, greedy,
powerhungry wealthy people that control
the government and media will usurp
this technology for themselves,
continually giving the excuse of
"national security", and the advantage
keeping the technology secret from
other people gives them. In addition,
other major excuses involve the
financial panic or collapse that might
happen if information is freely
exchanged by all people, that people
will not be able to "handle" the new
reality of the machines and may seek to
destroy or otherwise limit the use of
the technology. This remote neuron
activation, image, sound and muscle
moving technology is probably one of
the most important scientific advances
in the history of earth, and is one of
the major science and technology
secrets of the early 1900s. Those
include:
1: Detecting status of
neurons
1) Seeing the images the eyes see
(October 25?, 1910, Michael I Pupin,
Columbia University, New York City, New
York, USA)
2) Seeing the images the brain
generates (October 25?, 1910, Michael I
Pupin, Columbia University, New York
City, New York, USA)
3) Hearing the sounds
the ears hear (1911?, DP?, Columbia
University?)
4) Hearing the sounds the brain
generates (1911?, DP?, Columbia
University?)
5) Detecting smells being smelled
6)
Detecting tastes being tasted
7) Detecting
touches being felt
8) Detecting feelings
of heat
9) Detecting feelings of pain
(from neuron receptors of pain sensors
in skin)
10) Detecting movement of muscles
11)
Detecting gland activity
12) Detecting sexual
stimulation

2: Remote Neuron activation (1912?,
CIP?, Columbia? California?)
1) Sending images to
appear in front of eyes
2) Sending images
to appear on internal thought screen
(the thought screen, a second screen
used in the brain, where dreams are
seen, and internal visualizations are
drawn, used to plant suggestions in
people's minds such as an image of a
food product)
3) Sending sounds to be heard as
if outside body
4) Sending sounds to be
heard as if from thoughts (used {many
times as their own voice} to plant
suggestions in people's minds)
5) Sending
smells
6) Sending tastes (same neurons as
smell?)
7) Sending touches (remotely
activating nerve receptors in brain
that receive signals from touch sensors
in skin)
8) Sending feeling of heat (one of
the few remote stimulations I have not
felt to my knowledge)
9) Sending pain
10) Sending
muscle moves (to neurons that control
muscle contraction)
11) causing glands to secret
hormones
12) causing sexual stimulation

3: public but used secretly: causing
cancer with photons in microwave

4: secret networks of hidden
microphones and cameras by telephone
companies, which must have developed to
be microscopic perhaps even as early as
1920.

5: transmutation: forming different
atoms, building atoms up using
particles to convert H to He, He to Li,
Li, Be, C, N, ...Au, Ag, Converting
common atoms into useful atoms such as
hydrogen and oxygen. Potentially making
gold from mercury through particle
accelerators.61

(State who is the first to clearly
publish the possibility of a person
moving the muscles of another body
remotely without having to touch the
other body. State any for both science
publication, or science fiction.62 )

This will lead to the development of
technology that can read from and write
to neurons, which will enable the
remote recording of images of thought,
the sounds of thought, the images a
brain sees, the sounds a brain hears,
smells, touches, tastes, and even the
writing to neurons, perhaps with
roentgen rays (x-rays, or X particles),
which allow a muscle to be contracted
from a remote distance using invisible
particle beams.63

This is one of the earliest reports of
the phenomenon of the electric
radiation which will be the basis of
wireless communication using light
particles (one form of which is
radio).64
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
2. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
3. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
4. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
5. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Luigi
Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
8. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Record ID3592. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Luigi
Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi.
13. ^ Record
ID3440. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Record ID2425.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Luigi Galvani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
17. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani (1791)
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Luigi
Galvani". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
21. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
22. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
23. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Luigi+Galvani+?ca
t=health
24. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Luigi+Galvani+?ca
t=health
25. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
26. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
27. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
28. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
29. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
30. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Charles
Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp. 32-42.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227753?seq
=11 {Maxwell_EM_before_Hertz_ISIS_1964.
pdf}
36. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
37. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted
Huntington.
40. ^ Record ID3592. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Luigi
Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953, p. xi.
42. ^ Record
ID3440. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Record ID2425.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ "Luigi Galvani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
46. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani (1791)
47. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ "Luigi
Galvani". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
50. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
51. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
52. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Luigi+Galvani+?ca
t=health
53. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Luigi+Galvani+?ca
t=health
54. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
55. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
56. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
57. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
58. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
59. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
60. ^ Ted Huntington.
61. ^ Ted
Huntington.
62. ^ Ted Huntington.
63. ^ Ted Huntington.
64. ^ Charles
Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp. 32-42.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227753?seq
=11 {Maxwell_EM_before_Hertz_ISIS_1964.
pdf}
65. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
66. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani (1791)

MORE INFO
[1]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Nat
ureandArtifice/lecture14.html
Bologna, Italy65  
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg

[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 5 		2243)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
de Monet chevalier de Lamarck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
3. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
4. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
5. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h (1791-1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 8 		2289) Dolomieu is a member of the order
of Malta since infancy, and is pardoned
from a sentence of death at age 19 for
killing a brother knight in a duel.3
Do
lomieu accompanies Napoleon to Egypt in
17984 and is captured and imprisoned
on the return (to France5 ).6
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p239.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p239.
3. ^ "Dieudonne
Dolomieu". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0843/Dieudonne-Dolomieu
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p239.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Dieudonne Dolomieu". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0843/Dieudonne-Dolomieu
7. ^ "Dolomite Alps". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomite_Al
ps
8. ^ "Dieudonne Dolomieu". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0843/Dieudonne-Dolomieu (1791)

MORE INFO
[1] "Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9odat
_Gratet_de_Dolomieu
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/dolomieu-d-
odat-guy-silvain-tancr-de-gratet-de?cat=
technology
[3] "Dolomite". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomite
Alps, Northern Italy7  
[1] Source: Chris Ralph. This photo
taken by Chris Ralph of
Nevada-outback-gems.com [1],
Photographer and author: photo taken by
author. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dolomite09.jpg

[2] The marmolada seen from the Sass
Pordoi. Source: Made by myself on
2004-07-28 Much89 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marmolata.JPG
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 4 		2290)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dieudonne Dolomieu".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0843/Dieudonne-Dolomieu
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p239.
3. ^ "Dolomite Alps".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomite_Al
ps
4. ^ "Dieudonne Dolomieu". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0843/Dieudonne-Dolomieu (1791)

MORE INFO
[1] "Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9odat
_Gratet_de_Dolomieu
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/dolomieu-d-
odat-guy-silvain-tancr-de-gratet-de?cat=
technology
[3] "Dolomite". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomite
Alps, Northern Italy3  
[1] Deodat de Dolomieu PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deodat_de_Dolomieu.jpg

[2] Portrait de Dolomieu par Nicolas
Gossé (1787-1878) réalisé en
1843 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/dolomieu.html
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 17 18 		2295)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Pierre Prévost". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Pr%C3%A9vo
st+?cat=technology (1791)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241.
7. ^ "Pierre
Prévost". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Pr%C3%A9vo
st+?cat=technology (1791)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Pierre Prévost". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Pr%C3%A9vo
st+?cat=technology (1791)
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241. (1791)
(1791)
18. ^ "Pierre Prévost". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Pr%C3%A9vo
st+?cat=technology (1791)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Prévost". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C
3%A9vost
[2] "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
  
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 8 9 		2342) An unknown mechanism in plants
may use titanium to stimulate the
production of carbohydrates and
encourage growth. This may explain why
most plants contain about 1 part per
million (ppm) of titanium, food plants
have about 2 ppm and horsetail and
nettle contain up to 80 ppm.5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p252.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p252.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p252.
4. ^ "William
Gregor". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Gregor+?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Titanium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium
6. ^ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's
Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the
Elements. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, pp. 451 - 53. ISBN
0-19-850341-5.
7. ^ "William Gregor". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Gregor+?c
at=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p252. (1791) (1791)
9. ^
"William Gregor". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Gregor+?c
at=technology (1791)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Gregor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gre
gor
[2] "Ilmenite". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite
Cornwall, England7  
[1] In 1791, while studying ilmenite
from the Manaccan valley, he isolated
the calx of an unknown metal which he
named manaccanite.[3 wiki] *
Italiano: Ilmenite, dall'Italia. Foto
di Sebastian Socha, 2006. *
Polski: Ilmenit, pochodzenie Włochy;
autor zdjęcia Sebastian Socha. 11.10.
2006 r. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ilmenit%2C_W%C5%82ochy.jpg
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 13 		2343) Richter publishes his measurement
of how much of a given acid is required
to neutralize a given base9 in
"Anfangsgriinden der Stochiometrie oder
Messkunst chemischer Elemente"
(1792-94), and "Ober die neueren
Gegenstande in der Chemie"
(1792-1802).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p252.
2. ^ "Jons Jacob
Berzelius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-218
464/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Jeremias Benjamin
Richter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremias_Be
njamin_Richter
5. ^
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/hi
story/richter.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
7. ^ Record ID2315.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
10. ^ "Jeremias Benjamin Richter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Jeremias Benjamin Richter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jeremias
_Benjamin_Richter
11. ^
http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/18t
hCentury/benjamin.asp
12. ^ "Jeremias Benjamin Richter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Jeremias Benjamin Richter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jeremias
_Benjamin_Richter
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p252. (1791) (1791)
?, Germany11 12  
[1] Photograph reproduced courtesy of
the Library & Information Centre, Royal
Society of Chemistry PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richterchemist.gif
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 7 		2908)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ling.su.se/staff/hartmut/kemp
lne.htm
2. ^
http://www.ling.su.se/staff/hartmut/kemp
lne.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.ling.su.se/staff/hartmut/kemp
lne.htm
5. ^ "Wolfgang von Kempelen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_vo
n_Kempelen
6. ^ "Bratislava". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava
7. ^
http://www.ling.su.se/staff/hartmut/kemp
lne.htm (starts around 1773, book
published in 1791)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
Pressburg (Bratislava), Slovakia5 6
 
[1] A charcoal self portrait of
Wolfgang von Kempelen (1734-1804). As
Kempelen passed away in 1804, this is
in the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kempelen-charcoal.jpg

[2] Von Kempelen's speaking machine,
as it can be seen in the Deutsches
Museum in Munich, and seen from above,
with the cover of the box
removed. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ling.su.se/staff/hart
mut/kemplne.htm
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 11 		3380)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "John Barber (engineer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Barber
_(engineer)
4. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
5. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
6. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
7. ^ "gas-turbine engine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/226481/gas-turbine-engine>.
8. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ William Robinson, "Gas
and Petroleum Engines: A Practical
Treatise on the Internal Combustion
...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
11. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html {1791}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1794}
[2] Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
?, England10  
[1] [t Drawing of Barber's 1791
exploder gas engine] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA103,M1
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 6 		5954)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Haydn." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-hayd
n
2. ^ "Joseph Haydn." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-hayd
n
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2010, p291.
4. ^
"Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>
5. ^ "Joseph Haydn." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-hayd
n
6. ^ "Joseph Haydn." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-hayd
n {1791}

MORE INFO
[1] "Trumpet Concerto (Haydn)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpet_Con
certo_%28Haydn%29
Vienna, Austria5 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Haydn by Hardy, 1792 PD
source: http://www.haydnsocietyofgb.co.u
k/documents/JHaydn.jpg
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 5 		5970)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
2. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart." The Concise Grove Dictionary
of Music. Oxford University Press,
Inc., 1994. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart
5. ^ "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wolfgang-am
adeus-mozart {1791}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/395455/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart>
Vienna, Austria4 (presumably) 
[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg
208 YBN
[09/21/1792 AD] 7 		1534)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "French Revolution". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
806/French-Revolution
2. ^ "French Revolution". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revo
lution
3. ^ "French Revolution". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revo
lution
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "French Revolution".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revo
lution
6. ^ "French Revolution". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
806/French-Revolution
7. ^ "French Revolution". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
806/French-Revolution (09/21/1792)
Paris, France6  
[1] Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of
the National Assembly taking the Tennis
Court Oath David, le serment du Jeu de
Paume. Tennis Court Oath. Painting by
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Serment_du_jeu_de_paume.jpg

[2] The storming of the Bastille, 14
July 1789 Painting by Jean-Pierre
Houël (1735-1813), entitled Prise de
la Bastille (''The Storming of the
Bastille''). Watercolor painting; 37,8
x 50,5 cm. Published 1789. Visible in
the center is the arrest of Bernard
René Jourdan, marquis de Launay
(1740-1789). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 3 		2164)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mary Wollstonecraft".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7363/Mary-Wollstonecraft
2. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
3. ^ "Mary Wollstonecraft".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7363/Mary-Wollstonecraft (1792)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mary Wollstonecraft".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Wollst
onecraft
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Mary%20Wollstonec
raft%20
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] * Mary Wollstonecraft (London, 27
April 1759 - London, 10 September
1797) * by John Opie * Date:
circa 1797 * Medium: oil on
canvas * Measurements: 30 1/4 in.
x 25 1/4 in. (768 mm x 641 mm) *
On display at the National Portrait
Gallery * Source:
[1] http://www.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articl
es/marywollstonecraft.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marywollstonecraft.jpg

[2] Title page from the first edition
of Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of
the Rights of Woman Source
Eighteenth Century Collections
Online Date 1792 Author Mary
Wollstonecraft PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:WollstonecraftVindicationWomanTitle.j
pg
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 4 		2232)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226.
2. ^ "Martin Heinrich
Klaproth". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226. (1792) (1792)

MORE INFO
[1] "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hein
rich_Klaproth
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)2 3  
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg

[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 16 17 		2251) This device is named a battery
because any group of similar objects
working as a unit may be called a
battery. Volta will improve on this
device, making things less messy,
watery and more compact by using small
round plates of copper and zinc and
discs of salt soaked cardboard.13

(What kind of voltage and current can
be produced by such a device, and what
voltages and currents did Volta measure
with his devices?14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Heilbron, J. L. 1976.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "alessandro volta".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
"Conte Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
16. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1792)
17. ^ Heilbron, J. L. 1976. (1792)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2] "battery". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
58/battery
Pavia, Italy15  
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 19 		2254) I think the science of psychology
needs to be made consensual treatment
only, no more people locked in
hospitals without consent, and/or
against their objection. Just as no
person should be allowed to remove a
lung from a person, no person should be
able to drug or operate on another
person without consent. In other words,
delusion must be legal. People must
never be jailed for holding beliefs or
views different from the majority or in
apparent disagreement with observed
reality.2

Some clear changes needed are: 1) no
tying to bed (restraints) or
restricting a person from bodily
movement, no straight jackets 2) no
lobotomies 3) no electroshock, 4) no
drugging, forced, or coerced. As always
these things can be done if a person
consents and even then, my advice to
people out there is to object, and to
presume that most average people do not
want to be restrained.3

I would define psychology as an
experimental science that seeks to
understand and consensually-only try to
solve problems of the brain for which
the cause is unknown, generally using
methods such as consensual experimental
drugs, touching, talking, etc. I
honestly think that more and more as we
continue into the future, psychology is
going to be viewed as mostly
pseudoscience in particular once
treatment is made consensual only by
law, and neurology the study of the
physiology of the brain will probably
be the legitimate science of the brain
and so-called mind which Pupin revealed
is nothing more than the remembering of
images, sounds and other sensory data
in addition to sequences of muscle
contractions.4

Beyond this I would say that we should
seek to make prisons for nonviolent
people, nice, clean and safe
environments. We should focus on trying
to show people in prison where they are
going wrong in violating laws, explain
science, evolution, atheism, and
history to them, and to try to help
them understand and obey the laws using
consensual-only methods. We should
generally try to apply consensual
nonviolent honest methods to get people
to obey laws, focusing on locking
violent people in jail as opposed to
nonviolent people, although those who
repeat nonviolent crimes which are a
nuisance to the majority should be
jailed for small amounts of time.5

I can see a possible exception for a
person with a communicable virus,
bacteria or protist that causes death,
damage or severe and permanent illness,
being contained to a volume of space.6


Unfortunately, what has happened is
that the majority is imposing their
beliefs on to minorities by
imprisonment, drugging and torture, and
this was precisely what the founders of
freedom of religion sought to oppose.
As is the case for the military, in the
psychiatric system, people should never
be locked in a hospital or prison
without having violated a law, without
an opportunity to defend the charge
against them, without receiving a
democratic trial, without receiving a
sentence, and they should never be
drugged, restrained or tortured.7 It
is wrong to jail a person simply
because you think their beliefs are
unrealistic, or not based in fact. A
perfect example are the religions, who
claims are clearly in contradiction to
physical reality. Those people should
not be jailed simply for holding
unrealistic beliefs, and the same is
true for those who have nonreligious
inaccurate beliefs.8 One difficult
aspect to accept is when a person may
be harming themselves. It is difficult
to accept but since a person must own
their own body, they must be allowed to
damage their own body. This extends to
drug addiction, to self mutilation, to
suicide, to starvation, to obesity, and
similar forms of unhealthy or self
hurting activities. In such cases, it
is my opinion that consensual-only help
and services may be provided, for
example, providing starving people with
food, giving obese people advice in how
to lose weight, helping to clean
people's rooms that choose not to clean
them themselves, etc.9

Currently, at this time there is a very
frightening reality, and that is that
because of the psychiatric system that
is in place, any person or group of
people can be locked in psychiatric
hospitals indefinitely, without a
trial, with no appeals, no phone calls,
nobody allowed to know where they are,
and that is a simple fact. People
should realize that there are humans
who have been locked in psychiatric
hospitals for years, some for decades,
without ever having violated any single
law, never having received any trial,
and what is those people's crime? How
many of them would like to be released?
How many of them broke a law but never
went to jail? How many broke a violent
law, but didn't go to jail for it? All
these questions should concern the
average person I think.10

In addition, there is something highly
unethical being done by those in the
psychiatric industry. When people can
be locked in hospitals without having
violated a law, and taxpayers must pay,
the psychiatric hospital owners are
guaranteed income by law. When people
must be given psychiatric treatment by
law, the psychiatric doctors are
guaranteed income, and when people are
forced by law to take drugs for the
most trivial and experimental
psychiatric diseases that guarantees
massive income for the drug companies.
So in violating a human's basic right
to body, to trial, etc. all these
people are getting guaranteed income
from taxpayers and the victims
themselves who are forced by law the
buy these drugs and services even if
they don't need or more importantly
don't want them.11

The irony is that here people viciously
jail those who consensually use
recreational drugs, while
simultaneously legally forcing people
to use drugs that they don't want to
use.12 Many of these psychiatric
victims do "just say no", as the
classic logo states, but it doesn't
matter, as they are still drugged
unconsensually anyway.13

Any discussion of psychology cannot
fail to mention that there exists a
massive mistaken belief, not only in
the claims of religions, but in the
pseudoscience claims of psychology.
Harmless, realistic, lawful people are
outcast and imprisoned because of this
massive mistaken belief. For example,
the theories of psychosis, neurosis and
schizophrenia are completely
fraudulent, because there is no known
physical, diagnostic test which can
detect these so-called diseases, but
yet the label of "psycho" causes terror
and fright in people, even if a person
has never been violent or violated a
single law, and so it is with "heretic"
or "witch" even though there is no
justification for any fear since the
claims of "psycho", "heretic" and
"witch" are not based on physical fact.
Many times a person who murdered may be
labeled a psycho, heretic or witch to
try to associate violence with the
label. People must recognize that
violence is what we should fear, and we
should dismiss explanations such as
psychosis, witchcraft and heresy as
being the cause of violence. Curiously
there is no disease of "violent",
perhaps because people have supported
and tolerated violence for many
centuries.14 But even if there is a
disease of "violent" we should never
allow unconsensual treatment.15 So the
important point to understand is that
there simply is no basis for many of
the psychological "diseases" in
particular psychosis, neurosis and
schizophrenia. Many of these labels can
be reduced to labeling a person with
"inaccurate opinions", or "unusual
opinions" or "unusual behavior" all of
which should be completely legal. Many
of the so-called diseases coming out of
psychology are potentially true, but
trivial, such as attention deficit
disorder, where certainly many people
have small attention spans, but that is
trivial and not a cause for tremendous
concern, and certainly, no matter what
the alleged disease, only consensual
treatments should ever be
administered.16

At the current time, many people are
being misled by terrible people that
control image and sound sending to
brains (ie the secret Pupin thought
sending technology), and many of them
are being punished for correctly
claiming that "people hear their
thoughts".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^ Ted
Huntington
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Ted
Huntington
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ Ted Huntington
18. ^ "Philippe
Pinel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
19. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel (1792)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Philippe Pinel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Philippe+Pinel?ca
t=health
Paris, France18  
[1] Dr. Philippe Pinel at the
Salpêtrière, 1795 by Robert Fleury.
Pinel ordering the removal of chains
from patients at the Paris Asylum for
insane women. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pinel.jpg

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 6 7 8 9 		2282) Delambre turns his interest to
science when he is 36.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Joseph Delambre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology
4. ^
http://www.nndb.com/people/404/000097113
/
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Delambre.html
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
(1792)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238. (1789) (1789)
8. ^
"Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology1789)
(jup+sat)1789)
9. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology1792)
(+uran)1792)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Delambre". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Delambre
Pairs, France4 5  
[1] Scientist: Delambre, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1749 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist:
Attributed to Julien Leopold Boilly,
1796-1874 and Benjamin Holl, 1808-1884
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 25.8 x 17.5 cm Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Delambre - French mathematician
and astronomer. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-D2-17a.jpg Date 1820 Author Julien
Leopold Boilly (1796-1874) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre.jpg

[2] Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Delambre Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
DelambreBorn: 19-Sep-1749 Birthplace:
Amiens, France Died:
19-Aug-1822 Location of death: Paris,
France Cause of death:
unspecified PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/404/0
00097113/
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 16 		2312) In 1777 Murdoch is hired into the
engineering business of Matthew Boulton
and James Watt in Birmingham, England.6

Murdoch joins the Lunar society.7

Around 1784 Murdoch builds the first
model of an oscillating (steam?8 )
engine.9 (detail how works10 )

In 1786 Murdoch builds a steam carriage
(or road locomotive) that is
unsuccessful.11

In 1799 he invented the long D slide
valve.12 (detail: what is and how
works?13 )

Around 1799, Murdoch returns to
Birmingham and perfects practical
methods for making, storing, and
purifying gas.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p245.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
5. ^ "coal gas". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4503/coal-gas
6. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "William Murdock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
12. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "William Murdock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
15. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245. (1792) (1792)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Murdoch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mur
doch
[2] "Coal gas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_gas
Redruth, Cornwall, England15  
[1] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 7 		2318) Antoine François, comte de
Fourcroy (FURKrWo) (CE 1755-1809),
French chemist, publishes "The
Philosophy of Chemistry" (1792, tr.
1795).1
Fourcroy is an early convert to
Lavoisier and helps to establish the
new chemical nomenclature.2
Fourcroy is
a member of the French government and
takes a leading part in the
establishment of schools for both
primary and secondary education,
proving in particular for scientific
studies.3

According to Asimov, Fourcroy is a
violent partisan of the radicals that
succeed to the seat previously held by
the murdered Marat.4
Fourcroy does not
use his influence to help Lavoisier,
but does use his influence to save
other scientists.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "antoine fran ois comte de
fourcroy". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antoine-fra
n-ois-comte-de-fourcroy
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp246-247.
3. ^ "Antoine
Francois, comte de Fourcroy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Antoine Francois, comte de Fourcroy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Antoine_
Francois,_comte_de_Fourcroy
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp246-247.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp246-247.
6. ^ "Antoine
Francois, comte de Fourcroy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Antoine Francois, comte de Fourcroy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Antoine_
Francois,_comte_de_Fourcroy
7. ^ "antoine fran ois comte de
fourcroy". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antoine-fra
n-ois-comte-de-fourcroy (1792
(presumably)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Fourcroy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Fou
rcroy
Paris, France6  
[1] Antoine François, comte de
Fourcroy (1755-1809), French
chemist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine_Fran%C3%A7ois%2C_comte_de_Fou
rcroy.jpg

[2] Portrait of Antoine Francois de
Fourcroy Giclee Print by
Anicet-Charles Lemonnier item #:
12263478A PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.art.com/asp/sp-asp/_/
pd--12263478/sp--A/Portrait_of_Antoine_F
rancois_de_Fourcroy.htm
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 35 		2442) Gauss works on number theory
established by Fermat.18

Gauss is reluctant to publish anything
that could be regarded as
controversial, so some of his most
brilliant work is found only after his
death.19 (It is hard to believe that
anything in math could be
controversial, but I suppose anything
that might be interpreted as false
might be controversial.20 )

Gauss recognizes that all numbers are
of the form a + ib and represents such
numbers by points in a plane.21
Gauss
has unpublished insights into the
nature of complex functions and their
integrals.22

Gauss offers a new definition for a
prime number, in which the number 3,
for example, remains a prime, while the
number 5 becomes composite, since it
can be expressed as a product of
complex factor (1 + 2i)(1 −
2i).23

As a result of Gauss' survey work, in
1827 Gauss publishes a memoir in which
the geometry of a curved surface is
developed in terms of intrinsic, or
Gaussian, coordinates.24

Gauss works out a non-Euclidean
geometry, a geometry based on axioms
different from those of Euclid, but
hesitates to publish. Lobachevski and
Bolyai will publish first.25
Gauss is
the only child of poor parents.26
Gauss
is a child prodigy, at age 3
correcting his fathers sums.27
Gauss
is a calculating prodigy and retains
the ability to do elaborate
calculations in his head most of his
life.28
Gauss' unusual mind is
recognized and he is educated at the
expense of Duke Ferdinand of
Brunswick.29
From 1795-8 Gauss studies
mathematics at the University of
Göttingen.30
From 1818 to 1832 Gauss
makes a survey of Hannover.31
A statue
of Gauss stands on a pedestal in the
shape of a 17-pointed star.32
Some
people rank Gauss with Archimedes and
Newton as one of the three greatest
mathematicians of all time.33
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
2. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
3. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Carl
Friedrich Gauss". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
10. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "algebraic equation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
15. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
16. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
17. ^ "Galois theory". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
19. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
22. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
23. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
24. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
26. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
28. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
30. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
31. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
34. ^ "Carl
Friedrich Gauss". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
35. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss (1792)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[2] "Regular polygon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_pol
ygon
[3] "Heptadecagon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptadecago
n
Brunswick, Germany34  
[1] Regular heptadecagon made in
inkscape. [t 17-sided polygon] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heptadecagon.svg

[2] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg
 
207 YBN
[04/??/1793 AD] 13 14 		2359) Whitney graduates from Yale
College in 1792.6

Perhaps out of guilt in seeing people
get rich using the cotton gin (which is
simple to copy) and Whitney and his
partner Phineas Miller not able to win
lawsuits against the farmers, some
southern US governments award Whitney
and Miller about $90,000. In the end
Whitney and Miller gain practically
nothing.7 .8

When Congress refuses to renew the
patent, which expires in 1807, Whitney
(writes9 ) that "an invention can be so
valuable as to be worthless to the
inventor". Whitney chooses not to
patent his later inventions, including
a milling machine.10

(My own view is that inventors should
be recognized, but I don't think people
should try to restrict the free-flow
and in particular copying of ideas and
information, even so-called
intellectual property and invention
designs.11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp256-257.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp256-257.
3. ^ "Eli
Whitney". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
4. ^ "Eli Whitney". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp256-257.
6. ^ "Eli Whitney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
7. ^ "Eli Whitney". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp256-257.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Eli
Whitney". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Eli Whitney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp256-257. (04/1793)
(04/1793)
14. ^ "Eli Whitney". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney (patents 1794)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eli Whitney". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Whitney

[2]
http://www.answers.com/Eli+Whitney?cat=t
echnology
Mulberry Grove, Georgia12
(presumably) 
[1] An Engraving, based on a painting
of Eli Whitney, an American
inventor Source LoC
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g12270
Date 1820-1830 Author Painting,
Charles Bird King (1785-1862),
Engraving William Hoogland (1794 or 5
to 1832) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney-Eli-LOC.jpg

[2] U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney_Gin.jpg
207 YBN
[05/30/1793 AD] 23 		2403) Young is born of Quaker parents.6

Young is a child prodigy7 , able to
read at age 2.8
Young (is reported to
have9 ) read through the Bible twice by
the age of four, to be reading and
writing Latin at six, and by 14 to have
knowledge of at least five languages.10

Young learns Greek, Latin, Hebrew,
Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and
Ethiopian.11
Young can play a variety
of musical instruments.12
Young is
called "Phenomenon Young" at
Cambridge.13
In 1799 Young sets up a
medical practice in London.14
From
1801-3 Young lectures while professor
of natural philosophy at the Royal
Institution in London.15
Henry
Brougham, a baronet, and influential
literary reviewer, according to Asimov,
expresses enmity towards Young's work.
(see Young book16 ) Brougham wrongly
relies more on criticisms of Young's
character and less on physical
phenomena.17

In England Newton's particle theory is
most popular18 so Young's wave theory
initially is opposed by the majority of
intellectuals19 .
Wollaston supports
Young vigorously.20

21 For a person who changed the
popular paradigm of light from particle
to wave, which still stands for the
most part today, there is surprising
little information on Young's works.
There is only one book "Miscellaneous
Works of the Late Thomas Young"
published in 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
2. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/4r7tm80796486127/?p=f405db850b7e452ea56
6e46dc2ec00d1&pi=0 Observations on
Vision. By Thomas Young. Communicated
by Richard Brocklesby, M. D. F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 83 -
1793 Pages 169-181 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
93.0017 Young_Thomas_1793_fulltext.pdf
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
4. ^ "Thomas Young".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
6. ^ "thomas young".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
7. ^ "thomas young". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"thomas young". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
14. ^ "Thomas Young".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
15. ^ "thomas young". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
"thomas young". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
23. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/4r7tm80796486127/?p=f405db850b7e452ea56
6e46dc2ec00d1&pi=0 Observations on
Vision. By Thomas Young. Communicated
by Richard Brocklesby, M. D. F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 83 -
1793 Pages 169-181 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
93.0017 Young_Thomas_1793_fulltext.pdf
{1793}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[4] "astigmatism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[5] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
peacocl, 1855 John Murray
[6] Thomas Young,
Philip Kelland, "A Course of Lectures
on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
London, England22  
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
207 YBN
[08/08/1793 AD] 		2228) All the (educational1 )
societies, including the Academy of
Sciences, are suppressed in France2 ,
for being to aristocratic3 .
The Jardin
des Plantes is transformed into the
Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle
(National Museum of Natural History).4
(on this date too?5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
3. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
4. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
207 YBN
[1793 AD] 12 13 		2291) When his book is not well
received, Sprengel becomes depressed
and does not publish the results of his
other botanical research.8

Charles Darwin praises Sprengel's book
50 years later in 1841.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Christian Konrad
Sprengel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp239-240.
4. ^ "Christian
Konrad Sprengel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp239-240.
6. ^ "Christian
Konrad Sprengel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel
7. ^ "Christian Konrad Sprengel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel
8. ^ "Christian Konrad Sprengel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel
9. ^ "Christian Konrad Sprengel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp239-240.
11. ^ "Christian
Konrad Sprengel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp239-240. (1793)
(1793)
13. ^ "Christian Konrad Sprengel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9241/Christian-Konrad-Sprengel (1793)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Konrad Sprengel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_K
onrad_Sprengel
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christian%20Konra
d%20Sprengel%20
Spandau, Germany11  
[1] reprint of Sprengel's 1793
book PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nedabei.net/jacquin/a
rchives/2006/01/

[2] Christian Konrad Sprengel Das
entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau
und in der Befruchtung der Blumen [The
secret of nature in the form and
fertilization of flowers
discovered] Berlin,
1793 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/Exhibition
s/Science-and-the-Artists-Book/94-13500.
jpg
207 YBN
[1793 AD] 26 		2372) Dalton attends John Fletcher's
Quaker grammar school in Eaglesfield.
When Dalton is only 12 years old,
Fletcher turns the school over to
Dalton's older brother, Jonathan, who
asks the younger Dalton to teach.7 As
a result, Dalton teaches at a Quaker
school at age 12. Some of the students
are as old as Dalton and present
disciplinary problems.8 Two years
later the Dalton brothers purchase a
school in Kendal, where they teach
around 60 students.9

Dalton learns from Elihu Robinson and
John Gough who were also amateur
meteorologists.10

Starting in 178711 , Dalton keeps daily
records of the weather (atmospheric
pressure, temperature, wind, and
humidity12 ) for 57 years to the day he
dies, recording some 200,000
observations.13

Dalton's records, carefully preserved
for a century are destroyed during the
World War II bombing of Manchester.14


In 1793 Dalton moves to Manchester to
teach mathematics at a dissenting
academy, the New College.15

In 1801, Dalton publishes "Elements of
English Grammar".16

In 1810 Dalton refuses an invitation to
join the Royal Society but is finally
elected in 1822 without his
knowledge.17

In 1825 Dalton receives a medal
(which?18 ) from the Royal Society for
his work on the atomic theory.19

In 1831 Dalton helps to found the
British Association for the Advancement
of Science.20

In 1832, (Dalton is awarded21 ) a
doctor's degree from Oxford, at which
time Dalton is presented to King
William IV.22

In 1838 the Royal Society rejects
Dalton's paper "On the Arseniates and
Phosphates" which Dalton has printed
privately, noting bitterly that
Britain's chemistry elites, "Cavendish,
Davy, Wollaston, and Gilbert are no
more".23

During most of his life Dalton has
little money.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "John
Dalton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "John
Dalton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
7. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
9. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
10. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
11. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
12. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
15. ^ "John
Dalton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
16. ^ "John Dalton". Who2? Biographies.
Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
17. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "John Dalton". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "John
Dalton". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
23. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
24. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
25. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1793)
(1793)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Manchester, England25  
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
206 YBN
[05/08/1794 AD] 		2223) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794), his
father-in-law, and 26 other Tax Farmers
are killed with a guillotine.1

Althought a reformer and political
liberal2 , in 1792 Lavoisier is forced
to resign from his post on the
Gunpowder Commission and to move from
his house and laboratory at the Royal
Arsenal.3

On November 24, 1793, the arrest of all
the former tax gatherers is ordered.4

Marat now a powerful revolutionary
leader accuses Lavoisier of ridiculous
plots such as "adding water to the
peoples' tobacco" and wildly demanding
his death. Marat is killed in July
1793, (however the trial of Lavoisier
and the other tax farmers continues5
).6
Lavoisier's wife and chemical
disciples circulate letters and
petitions to show how much the "father
of French chemistry," as he is
contemporarily called, has been useful
to the Revolution.7
The tax farmers are
formally brought to trial on this day
May 8, 1794, and convicted with summary
justice of having plundered the people
and the treasury of France, of having
adulterated the nation's tobacco with
water, and of having supplied the
enemies of France with huge sums of
money from the national treasury.8
Lavoi
sier objects that he is a scientist and
the judge9 reportedly states that "the
republic has no need of scientists"
(Chaptal and Leblanc prove how wrong
this is).10

The Reign of Terror falls only three
months later11 when the radicals are
overthrown12 . Asimov comments that
Lavoisier was the single biggest loss
of the revolution.13

Joseph-Louis
Lagrange comments, "It took them only
an instant to cut off that head, and a
hundred years may not produce another
like it."14

Within two years of Lavoisier's death,
the regretful French people will unveil
busts of him.15

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
7. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia of the Early
Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
8. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
9. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
11. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
14. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
16. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France16 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
206 YBN
[08/15/1794 AD] 6 7 		1895)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p601.
2. ^ "Claude
Chappe". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2487/Claude-Chappe
3. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
4. ^ "semaphore". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6703/semaphore
5. ^ "semaphore". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6703/semaphore
6. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p601. (08/15/1794)
7. ^
"semaphore". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6703/semaphore (1794)
France5  
[1] Optical Telegraf of Claude Chappe
on the Litermont near Nalbach,
Germany GNU
source: http://commons.media.org//Image:
OptischerTelegraf.jpg

[2] # Subject: Claude Chappe #
Source: *
http://www-phase.c-strasbourg.fr/~morel/
chappe/t2.html PD
source: http://commons.media.org//Image:
Claude_Chappe.jpg
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 9 10 		2086)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
2. ^ Criticisms of
the projectile theory of light G N
Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ. 16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/003
1-9120/16/2/314/pev16i2p112.pdf?request-
id=GEXT97iQ3BG5LVsA3Ai7Kg michell_corpu
scular_criticism_pev16i2p112.pdf
3. ^ Hutton J 1794 A Dissertation upon
the Philosophy of Light, Heat and Fire
(Edinburgh: Cadell and Davies)
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Criticisms of the
projectile theory of light G N Cantor
1981 Phys. Educ. 16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/003
1-9120/16/2/314/pev16i2p112.pdf?request-
id=GEXT97iQ3BG5LVsA3Ai7Kg michell_corpu
scular_criticism_pev16i2p112.pdf
7. ^ Hutton J 1794 A Dissertation upon
the Philosophy of Light, Heat and Fire
(Edinburgh: Cadell and Davies)
8. ^ "James
Hutton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
9. ^ Criticisms of the projectile
theory of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys.
Educ. 16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/003
1-9120/16/2/314/pev16i2p112.pdf?request-
id=GEXT97iQ3BG5LVsA3Ai7Kg michell_corpu
scular_criticism_pev16i2p112.pdf (1794)
(1794)
10. ^ Hutton J 1794 A Dissertation upon
the Philosophy of Light, Heat and Fire
(Edinburgh: Cadell and Davies) (1794)
(1794)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutto
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
Edinburgh, Scotland8  
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 8 		2249) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ "Conte
Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "alessandro volta".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology
5. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1794)
(1794)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
Pavia, Italy7  
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 4 		2255)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Philippe Pinel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
4. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel (1794)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Philippe Pinel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Philippe+Pinel?ca
t=health
Paris, France3  
[1] Dr. Philippe Pinel at the
Salpêtrière, 1795 by Robert Fleury.
Pinel ordering the removal of chains
from patients at the Paris Asylum for
insane women. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pinel.jpg

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 4 		2260) The École Polytechnique in
Paris, France is established by the
National Convention as the "École
Centrale des Travaux Publics" ("Central
School of Public Works") under the
leadership of Lazare Carnot and Gaspard
Monge (moNZ) (CE 1746-1818)1 .2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
2. ^ "Ecole
Polytechnique". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1923/Ecole-Polytechnique
3. ^ "Ecole Polytechnique".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1923/Ecole-Polytechnique
4. ^ "Ecole Polytechnique".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1923/Ecole-Polytechnique (1794)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gaspard Monge count de
Peluse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3349/Gaspard-Monge-count-de-Peluse
[2] "Gaspard Monge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Mon
ge
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Gaspard+Monge?cat
=technology
Paris, France3  
[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 13 		2298) This book is widely adopted in
Europe and in the USA where it is
translated.8
This book contains many
misleading attempts to defend the
parallel postulate.9
According to
Asimov Laplace, who Asimov
characterizes as small minded,
expresses enmity towards Legendre.10
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
2. ^ "Adrien Marie
Legendre". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
3. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
8. ^ "Adrien Marie
Legendre". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
9. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p241.
11. ^ "Adrien Marie
Legendre". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
12. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adrien%20Marie%20
Legendre%20
13. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre (1794)

MORE INFO
[1] "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_Mari
e_Legendre
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France11 12 (presumably) 
[1] The picture is an engraving by
J.S.Delpech. According to the file
Adrien Marie Legendre in the ''Institut
de France'' it shows a person with the
name Legendre, but not the
mathematician Adrien Marie Legendre. It
is older. It's Louis
Legendre (Legendre, detail of a
lithograph by F.-S. Delpech after a
portrait by Z. Belliard Courtesy of
the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris[2]) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adrien-Marie_Legendre.jpg
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 6 7 		2327) Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni
(KloDnE) (CE 1756-1827) is one of the
first to claim that meteors (found on
earth1 ) fall from the sky, but this is
not believed since meteorites are
thought to be of volcanic origin2
until Jean Baptiste Biot proves this in
1803.3
In this book, Chladni suggests
that meteorites are the debris of an
exploded planet.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich
Chladni". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni
3. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ernst+Florens+Fri
edrich+Chladni?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp248-249.
5. ^ "Ernst Florens
Friedrich Chladni". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ernst+Florens+Fri
edrich+Chladni?cat=technology
6. ^ "Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Flore
ns_Friedrich_Chladni (1794)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp248-249. (1794)
(1794)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/chladni.html
Wittenberg, Germany5
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Chladni, Ernst Florens
Friedrich (1756 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Henry Adlard,
19th C. Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 8 cm /
Sheet: 19 x11 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C

[2] Scientist: Chladni, Ernst Florens
Friedrich (1756 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
J. W. Bollinger Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 33 x 23
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 9 		2336)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "johan gadolin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johan-gadol
in?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p250.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p250.
4. ^ "johan
gadolin". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johan-gadol
in?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p250.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "johan
gadolin". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johan-gadol
in?cat=technology
8. ^ "johan gadolin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johan-gadol
in?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p250. (1794) (1794)

MORE INFO
[1] "gadolinium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5781/gadolinium
[2] "Johan Gadolin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Gadol
in
(was Åbo is now)Turku, Finland8  
[1] Gadolinite The mineral that
Gadolin examined was named gadolinite
in
1800.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan
_Gadolin] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gadolinitas.jpg

[2] Portrait of Johan Gadolin
(1760-1852). Scanned from the book
Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam
(published in 1910). Artist unknown but
most probably born many years before
1852, so the copyright has
expired. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 5 		2373) Dalton's brother also is color
blind.2
Colorblindedness is also called
"Daltonism".3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
2. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
3. ^ "John Dalton". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1794)
(1794)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Manchester, England4  
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 15 16 		3376)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
2. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
3. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
4. ^ Record ID3380. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Gas Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Gas Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas
Engine", Scientific American Supplement
(Vol. 19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
11. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
12. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Gas Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
15. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1794}
16. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas
Engine", Scientific American Supplement
(Vol. 19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3 {1794}
?, England14   
205 YBN
[1795 AD] 6 		2084)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
2. ^ "James Hutton".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
3. ^ "James Hutton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
4. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
5. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
6. ^ "James Hutton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
(1795)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutto
n
Edinburgh, Scotland5
(presumably) 
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
205 YBN
[1795 AD] 7 		2085)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Hutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutto
n
2. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003).
In Retrospect (html). Nature V. 425
#6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's
3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
4. ^ "James Hutton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutto
n
5. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003).
In Retrospect (html). Nature V. 425
#6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's
3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
6. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
7. ^ "James Hutton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
(1795)
Edinburgh, Scotland6
(presumably) 
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
205 YBN
[1795 AD] 8 9 10 		2233) Titanium is a silvery-gray,
lightweight, high-strength,
low-corrosion structural metal and is
used in alloy form for parts in
high-speed aircraft.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p226.
3. ^ "titanium".
How Products are Made. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/titanium?cat=heal
th
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "article 9072643".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2643
6. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
7. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226. (1795) (1795)
9. ^
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth (1795)
10. ^
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology (1795)

MORE INFO
[1] "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hein
rich_Klaproth
[2] "Titanium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)6 7  
[1] Acicular crystals of rutile
protruding from a quartz crystal Tuft
of brown needles of rutile protruding
from a quartz crystal, from Brazil.
Photograph taken at the Natural History
Museum, London. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutile_needles.jpg

[2] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
205 YBN
[1795 AD] 3 		2645)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
2. ^ "Samuel FB Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph (1795)
England2   
205 YBN
[1795 AD] 4 		5971) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, publishes
his first Sonata (opus 2).1

Beethoven lives through the end of the
Classical era and the beginning of the
Romantic era of music which is around
1800.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
4. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {c1795}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
Vienna, Austria3 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
204 YBN
[01/28/1796 AD] 4 		3321) Henry Brougham publishes a paper
defending Newton's interpretation of
inflexion" (as opposed to explaining
inflexion as simple particle
reflection1 ).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Henry Brougham,
"Experiments and Observations on the
Inflection, Reflection, and Colours of
Light.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 86, 1796,
p227-277. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/772238r066757334/?p=6d2eb405
546d48dfb9ff96d0a606f5dc&pi=1 {Brougham
_Henry_Inflexion_1796.pdf}
3. ^ Henry Brougham, "Experiments and
Observations on the Inflection,
Reflection, and Colours of Light.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
86, 1796,
p227-277. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/772238r066757334/?p=6d2eb405
546d48dfb9ff96d0a606f5dc&pi=1 {Brougham
_Henry_Inflexion_1796.pdf}
4. ^ Henry Brougham, "Experiments and
Observations on the Inflection,
Reflection, and Colours of Light.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
86, 1796,
p227-277. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/772238r066757334/?p=6d2eb405
546d48dfb9ff96d0a606f5dc&pi=1 {Brougham
_Henry_Inflexion_1796.pdf} {01/28/1796}
London, England3 (presumably)  
204 YBN
[07/01/1796 AD] 22 23 24 		2280) At the age of 13 is apprenticed
to a nearby surgeon, and completes his
apprenticeship at age 21.17

Jenner prepares and arranges zoological
specimens collected by Captain Cook
after his first voyage to the Pacific.
Jenner refuses an offer as naturalist
on Cook's second voyage.18

Jenner receives worldwide recognition
and many honors (for cowpox
vaccination19 ), but makes no attempt
to enrich himself through his
discovery.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
6. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Edward
Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
11. ^ "Edward
Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
13. ^ "Edward
Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
14. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
17. ^ "Edward
Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^
"Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
21. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
22. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (07/01/1796
(injection of small pox)
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
24. ^
"Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (05/14/1796
(injection of cow pox)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Jenner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenn
er
[2]
http://www.answers.com/edward+jenner?cat
=health
Berkeley, England21 (presumably) 
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg

[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 9 10 		2124) Darwin declines the offer to be
physician of George III.5 6
Erasmus
Darwin is the grandfather of the
naturalist Charles Darwin (by his first
wife) and the biologist Francis Galton
(by his second wife).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203.
3. ^ "Erasmus
Darwin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
4. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203.
6. ^ "Erasmus
Darwin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
7. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
8. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
9. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin (1796)
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203. (1796)
(1796)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Darwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Dar
win
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=lQcAAAA
AQAAJ&dq=Erasmus+Darwin&prev=http://www.
google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3DErasmu
s%2BDarwin%2B%26btnG%3DGoogle%2BSearch&s
a=X&oi=print&ct=result&cd=1&cad=author-n
avigational
Derby, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Darwin, Erasmus (1731
- 1802) Discipline(s): Medicine ;
Botany ; Engineering Print Artist:
Moses Haughton Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Rawlinson
Original Dimensions: PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Engineering
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 5 6 		2126)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203.
2. ^ "Erasmus
Darwin". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
5. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin (1796)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp202-203. (1796)
(1796)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Darwin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Dar
win
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=lQcAAAA
AQAAJ&dq=Erasmus+Darwin&prev=http://www.
google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3DErasmu
s%2BDarwin%2B%26btnG%3DGoogle%2BSearch&s
a=X&oi=print&ct=result&cd=1&cad=author-n
avigational
Derby, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Darwin, Erasmus (1731
- 1802) Discipline(s): Medicine ;
Botany ; Engineering Print Artist:
Moses Haughton Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Rawlinson
Original Dimensions: PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Engineering
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 9 		2277)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
8. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de Laplace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
9. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de Laplace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
(1796)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Pierre-Simon Laplace".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simo
n_Laplace
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
[4] "specific heat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9029/specific-heat
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 16 		2330) Gall gives lectures and charges
admission. Emperor Francis I stops Gall
thinking his philosophy is subversive
of religion.13
Like Mesmer, a
committee appraises Gall's phrenology
and reports unfavorably.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p249.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p249.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p249.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "grey matter".
The Veterinary Dictionary. Elsevier,
2007. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grey-matter
?cat=health
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Franz Joseph Gall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Franz
Joseph Gall". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Jo
seph_Gall
12. ^ "Franz Joseph Gall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5879/Franz-Joseph-Gall
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p249.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p249.
15. ^ "Franz
Joseph Gall". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Franz Joseph Gall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Jo
seph_Gall
16. ^ "Franz Joseph Gall (1796)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Franz
Joseph Gall". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Jo
seph_Gall (1796) (1796)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franz Joseph Gall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Josep
h_Gall
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Franz%20Joseph%20
Gall
Vienna, Germany15  
[1] English: Franz Joseph Gall
(1758-1828), German physician and
anatomist Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htmh
ere. Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franz_Joseph_Gall.jpg

[2] Franz Joseph Gall, engraving by
Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger after a
portrait by Karl Heinrich Rahl, c.
1812 Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte,
Berlin PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10919/Franz-Joseph-Gall-engraving-by-Fr
iedrich-Wilhelm-Bollinger-after-a?articl
eTypeId=1
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 10 		2339)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p251.
3. ^ "Smithson
Tennant". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Smithson%20Tennan
t%20
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p251.
6. ^ "Smithson
Tennant". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Smithson%20Tennan
t%20
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p251.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p251.
9. ^
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p251. (1796) (1796)

MORE INFO
[1] "Smithson Tennant".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Smithson
_Tennant
[2] "Smithson Tennant". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithson_Te
nnant
[3]
http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/dyna
mic/article/view/48-4-182-189
London, England9 (presumably) 
[1] A slightly misshapen octahedral
diamond crystal in matrix. Image from
the USGS. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rough_diamond.jpg
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 4 		2390)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
3. ^ "Georges
Cuvier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266. (1796)
(1796)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
[2] "Georges Cuvier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuv
ier
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France3  
[1] Illustration of Megatherium.
(extinct) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2007-07-22 (original
upload date) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Megatherum_DB.jpg

[2] Photographer:
en:User:Ballista from English
Wikipedia[1] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Megatherium_americanum_Skeleton_NHM.J
PG
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 4 		5953)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Haydn." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-hayd
n
2. ^ "Trumpet Concerto (Haydn)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpet_Con
certo_%28Haydn%29
3. ^ "Joseph Haydn." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-hayd
n
4. ^ "Joseph Haydn." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-hayd
n {1796}
Vienna, Austria3 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Haydn by Hardy, 1792 PD
source: http://www.haydnsocietyofgb.co.u
k/documents/JHaydn.jpg
203 YBN
[06/15/1797 AD] 5 		3839)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Henry Brougham, "Farther
Experiments and Observations on the
Affections and Properties of Light.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
87, 1797, p352-385,
p381. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/3270v02406277247/?p=95002a540a65
412e902eb396569249fdπ=17 {Brougham_Hen
ry_double_refraction_reflection_1797.pdf
}
2. ^ David Brewster, "On the
multiplication of images, and the
colours which accompany them in some
specimens of calcareous spar.", Phil.
Trans., 1815,
p270. http://books.google.com/books?id=
MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA270&dq=david+brewster+
intitle:philosophical+young+date:1750-18
20&as_brr=1&ei=RPxwSfy8K4bWlQTa9ZG6Dg#PP
A270,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Henry Brougham, "Farther
Experiments and Observations on the
Affections and Properties of Light.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
87, 1797, p352-385,
p381. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/3270v02406277247/?p=95002a540a65
412e902eb396569249fdπ=17 {Brougham_Hen
ry_double_refraction_reflection_1797.pdf
}
5. ^ Henry Brougham, "Farther
Experiments and Observations on the
Affections and Properties of Light.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
87, 1797, p352-385,
p381. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/3270v02406277247/?p=95002a540a65
412e902eb396569249fdπ=17 {Brougham_Hen
ry_double_refraction_reflection_1797.pdf
}

MORE INFO
[1] Henry Brougham, "Experiments
and Observations on the Inflection,
Reflection, and Colours of Light.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
86, 1796,
p227-277. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/772238r066757334/?p=6d2eb405
546d48dfb9ff96d0a606f5dcπ=1
(read aloud in:) London, England4
 		 
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 4 		1231) Jean-Baptiste Pussin (1745-1811)
replaces iron shackles with
strait-jackets at Bicêtre Hospital in
Paris.1 Shackles provide more freedom
of bodily movement, straight-jackets
leave a person helpless to move their
arms even for example to itch
themselves. However, this is viewed as
being a more humaine treatment, and it
does represent a change in approach to
the prisoners in psychiatric
hospitals.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Robert Whitaker,
"Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad
Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment
of the Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA:
Perseus Publishing, 2001).

MORE INFO
[1] "Bicêtre Hospital".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bic%C3%AAtr
e_Hospital
Paris, France3   
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 4 		2159)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
2. ^ "Lagrange". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Lagrange comte de
lEmpire". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6837/Joseph-Louis-Lagrange-comte-de-lEmp
ire (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Joseph Louis Lagrange".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Lagrange
[3] History of Mathematics, D.E. Smith,
vol 1
[4] "calculus of variations".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8632/calculus-of-variations
[5] "Calculus of variations".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of
_variations
Paris, France3  
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 6 		2306)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
2. ^ "William
Nicholson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
4. ^ "William
Nicholson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
5. ^ "William Nicholson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (1797) (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Nicholson
(chemist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nic
holson_%28chemist%29
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 17 		2331) Olbers is a physician that
converts the upper portion of his house
into an observatory.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "olbers s paradox". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
7. ^ "olbers s paradox". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
9. ^ "olbers s
paradox". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "olbers s
paradox". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
15. ^ "Wilhelm
Olbers". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
16. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250. (1797)
(1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus
Olbers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wi
lhelm_Matth%C3%A4us_Olbers
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Bremen, Germany16  
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg

[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 16 		2338) James Hall is President of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.15
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Sir James Hall 4th Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet ,
-251.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
3. ^ "Sir James Hall
4th Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
8. ^ "Sir James Hall
4th Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
9. ^ "Sir James Hall 4th Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington
14. ^ "Sir James Hall 4th Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251. (1797)
16. ^
"Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hall, 4th Baronet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hall%
2C_4th_Baronet
[2]
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/hall_james.htm
[3]
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/f
amousfirst2053.html
 
[1] Sir James Hall, Scottish chemist
and geologist, late 18th
century. Photo of Sir James Hall,
Scottish chemist and geologist, late
18th century. Oil painting by
Angelica Kauffman of Sir James Hall
(1761-1832), 4th Baronet of Dunglass.
Hall discovered that by heating calcium
carbonate under pressure a rock
substance similar to marble is formed.
His work on the creation of rocks also
proved that igneous rocks in Scotland
had been produced under
heat. Picture Reference:
10301789 Subject: PERSONALITIES >
Personalities > Hall, James'' Credit:
Science Museum PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/results.asp?image=10301789&wwwflag=2&
imagepos=1
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 18 		2344) Chromium is a hard, steel-gray
metal that takes a high polish and is
used in alloys to increase strength and
corrosion resistance.7

Chromium is added to iron and nickel to
produce alloys that have high
resistance to corrosion and oxidation
(these have about 70 percent chromium).
Used in small amounts, chromium hardens
steel. Stainless steels are alloys of
chromium and iron in which the chromium
content is between 10 to 26 percent.8


Chromium is atomic number 24; atomic
weight 51.996; melting point
1,890°C; boiling point 2,482°C;
specific gravity 7.18; valence 2, 3,
6.9

The green colour of emerald,
serpentine, and chrome mica and the red
colour of ruby are due to chromium.10
Ch
romium is a relatively abundant element
in the Earth's crust.11
The son of a
farm laborer12 , Vauquelin went to work
in an apothecary shop where he
befriends Antoine-François Fourcroy
who makes Vanquelin his laboratory
assistant from 1783â€"91.13

Vauquelin lives with Fourcroy's
sisters, who never marry, and Vauquelin
returns their care for him when young
by caring for them when they are old.14


Vauquelin starts publishing his own
work in 1790 and is associated with 376
scientific papers.15

Vauquelin will fund Louis-Jacques
Thenard, another peasant's son who will
go on to become a famous chemist.16
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
3. ^ "Louis
Nicolas Vauquelin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vau
quelin+?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
5. ^ "Chromium".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium
6. ^ "Nicolas Louis Vauquelin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
7. ^ "article 9082451". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2451
8. ^ "article 9082451". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2451
9. ^ "chromium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/chromium?cat=heal
th
10. ^ "article 9082451". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2451
11. ^ "Nicolas Louis Vauquelin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
12. ^ "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vau
quelin+?cat=technology
13. ^ "Nicolas Louis Vauquelin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
15. ^ "Nicolas Louis
Vauquelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
16. ^ "Nicolas Louis Vauquelin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
17. ^ "Nicolas Louis Vauquelin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253. (1797)
(1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Nicol
as_Vauquelin
Paris, France17  
[1] Chrom Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Chr
om_1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chrom_1.jpg

[2] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 9 10 		2385) In 1798, Cuvier refuses an
invitation to become a naturalist on
Napoleon's expedition to Egypt
(1798-1801).4 5

Cuvier has a library of 19,000 books
Asimov claims he supposedly virtually
memorized the contents of all of them.6
 (doubt7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
2. ^ "Georges
Cuvier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
4. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Georges Cuvier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
9. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier (1797)
10. ^
"Georges Cuvier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Cuvier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuv
ier
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France8  
[1] Francois Andre Vincent Baron
Georges Cuvier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vincentwfa.jpg

[2] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 11 12 		2398) Trevithick's schoolmaster
describes him as "disobedient, slow and
obstinate". Trevithick's father, a mine
manager views young Richard as a
loafer. However Trevithick has an
extraordinary talent in engineering and
because of this ability Trevithick is
hired as an engineer to several Cornish
ore mines in 1790 at the age of 19.4

In all, Trevithick builds 30
(high-pressure5 ) engines. These
engines are so compact that they can be
transported in an ordinary farm wagon
to the Cornish mines, where they are
known as "puffer whims" because they
vent their steam into the atmosphere.6

Trevithick has trouble making his
steam-engine trains a financial
success, just as Fitch was to Fulton,
so Trevithick is to Stephenson.7
Trevith
ick dies a poor man8 and is buried in
an unmarked grave9 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p268.
2. ^ "Richard
Trevithick". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20
3. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
4. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p268.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p268.
9. ^ "Richard
Trevithick". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
10. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20
11. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick (1797)
12. ^ "Richard
Trevithick". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20 (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Trevithick".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Tre
vithick
Cornwall, England10 (presumably) 
[1] Richard Trevithick PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Trevithick.jpg

[2] Richard Trevithick, detail of an
oil painting by John Linnell, 1816; in
the Science Museum, London. Courtesy
of the Science Museum, London, the
Woodcroft Bequest PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14880/Richard-Trevithick-detail-of-an-o
il-painting-by-John-Linnell?articleTypeI
d=1
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 11 12 		2443) This proof is given as Gauss'
doctoral thesis.7

The Encyclopedia Britannica biographer
comments that "Gauss's proof, though
not wholly convincing, was remarkable
for its critique of earlier attempts",
which shows that math proofs can be
interpreted differently and widely
sometimes.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Carl
Friedrich Gauss". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
5. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
6. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
7. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
8. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
11. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss (1797)
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
(1799(perhaps second proof?)
(1799(perhaps second proof?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
Göttingen, Germany10  
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 3 		2666)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49. (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "Agustín de Betancourt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agust%C3%AD
n_de_Betancourt
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Description Augustin de
Betancourt (1758-1825), Spanish
engineer, shown in Russian attire.
1810s portrait. Source St.Isaac's
Cathedral Museum, Saint Petersburg,
Russia Date 1810s Author
Unknown painter PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Augustin_de_Betancourt_in_Russian_att
ire%2C_1810s.jpg
202 YBN
[01/25/1798 AD] 4 		2234)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226.
2. ^ "Martin Heinrich
Klaproth". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p226. (01/25/1798)
(01/25/1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hein
rich_Klaproth
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)2 3  
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg

[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
202 YBN
[05/14/1798 AD] 12 13 		2281) Jenner goes to London seeking
volunteers for vaccination but (finds
none8 ) in a stay of three months.9
At
the time, pure cowpox vaccine is not
always easy to obtain, preserve or
transmit.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
10. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
11. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237. (1798)
(1798)
13. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Jenner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenn
er
[2]
http://www.answers.com/edward+jenner?cat
=health
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Berkeley, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg

[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
202 YBN
[06/02/1798 AD] 3 		1233)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
Egypt2   
202 YBN
[07/14/1798 AD] 11 		2360) Whitney builds a
water‐powered (gun building5 )
factory in Hamden.6
There is some
disagreement about whether Whitney's
muskets had interchangeable parts.7
However, Encyclopedia Britannica states
that "Finally, he (Whitney8 ) overcame
most of the skepticism in 1801, when,
in Washington, D.C., before
President-elect Thomas Jefferson and
other officials, he demonstrated the
result of his system: from piles of
disassembled muskets they picked parts
at random and assembled complete
muskets."9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Eli Whitney". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
2. ^ "Eli Whitney". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Eli+Whitney?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ "Eli Whitney". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Eli+Whitney?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp256-257.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Eli
Whitney". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Eli+Whitney?cat=t
echnology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Eli Whitney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6879/Eli-Whitney
10. ^ "Eli Whitney". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Eli+Whitney?cat=t
echnology
11. ^ unknown source (07/14/1798
(signed contract with government)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eli Whitney". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Whitney

Hamden, Connecticut, USA10  
[1] An Engraving, based on a painting
of Eli Whitney, an American
inventor Source LoC
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g12270
Date 1820-1830 Author Painting,
Charles Bird King (1785-1862),
Engraving William Hoogland (1794 or 5
to 1832) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney-Eli-LOC.jpg

[2] U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney_Gin.jpg
202 YBN
[07/25/1798 AD] 3 		1234)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
Egypt2   
202 YBN
[08/07/1798 AD] 3 		1236) The British navy under the
command of Nelson, destroy 13 of 17
French war ships, and form a blockade
of Egypt (in the Battle of the Nile).
Napoleon and 55,000 men are in Egypt
and have no way to get supplies from
France. On the morning of getting the
news from Aboukir Bay, Napoleon says
"It seems you like this country. That
is very lucky, for we now have no fleet
to carry us back to Europe."1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p10.
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
Egypt2   
202 YBN
[08/??/1798 AD] 4 		1235) Napoleon founds an institute in
Cairo based on the Institute de France
in Paris, to coordinate the research of
150 scientists. Mathematician Gaspard
Monge is president, with Napoleon as
Vice President. In jealously the
military officers call the scientists
"pekinese dogs", viewing them only as
lap-dog servants to Napoleon.1
Of these
scientists, Berthollet studies the
making of indigo. Villoteau studies
arab music. Larrey strudies opthalmia.
Savigny uncovers new species of water
lily. Saint-Hilaire studies the
ostrich, crocodile, and polypterus, a
species of nile fish only found in the
Nile. Saint-Hilaire studies mummified
ibises, and is the first human to
follow the development of a species
through more than 1000 years.
Dominique-Vivant Denon, scetches much
of Egypt including the chapel of
Amenophis III at Aswan, and this is the
only drawing that has ever been found.2


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p11.
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993),
pp11-12.
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
4. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
Egypt3   
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 5 		1935) This star map is more extensive
and accurate than that of Flamsteed.2
F.
W. Bessel's catalog in 1818, with
3,000 star positions, will be largely
based on Bradley's observations.3

The publication of Bradley's
observations are delayed by disputes
about their ownership; but are finally
issued by the Clarendon Press, Oxford,
in two folio volumes (1798, 1805).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp169-171.
3. ^ "James Bradley".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
4. ^ "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey
5. ^ "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Bradley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6120/James-Bradley
[2] "Aberration of light". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_
of_light
Oxford, England4  
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 39 		2117) The gravitational constant, and
the mass, and density of the Earth is
measured.14 15

Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810)16
measures Newton's gravitational
constant by using a modified torsion
balance created by John Michell.17 18

Using this constant Cavendish
calculates the mass and density of the
planet Earth.19 That the (average20 )
density of earth is larger than a stone
implies a (dense21 ) core.22

Michell suggested this experiment.23

Cavendish suspends a rod with a lead
ball on each end.24 A light force
applied to the balls will cause the rod
to twist. Cavendish measures how large
a twist is produced by various small
forces. Cavendish puts a large lead25
ball on each side of the lighter lead
balls and from the amount of twist the
gravitational force between the two
pairs of balls can be measured.26
Cavendish calculates the attraction
between the balls from the period of
oscillation of the torsion balance.27
(more detail, show how, units28 )
Knowing the mass of each ball, their
distance from center to center, (and
the force of attraction between them29
), the only unknown is the
Gravitational constant which Cavendish
calculates (as=?30 ). From this
constant, Cavendish calculates the mass
of the earth to be 6.6e21 tons and to
have a density of about 5 and a half
times that of water. (Asimov claims
that Newton guessed this value a
century before.) (find Newton's
estimate, how did Newton create his
estimate?31 )

Cavendish succeeds in measuring a
gravitational attraction that is only
1/50,000,000 of the weight of the lead
balls.32 The result that Cavendish
obtains for the density of the Earth is
within 1 percent of the currently
accepted density.33

Humans are still waiting to calculate a
mass estimate for a light particle
which may be the basis of all matter in
the universe. Is the gravitational
constant the same even for photons?
Perhaps if we use a different set of
quantities, such as "number of photons"
and "number of photon spaces" we might
be able to find a physics without any
need for constants such as the
gravitational constant.34

Cavendish publishes his results in
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London as "the Experiments
to Determine the Density of the
Earth".35

Cavendish never explicitly measures the
gravitational constant, and his aim is
to measure the mass and density of
earth relative to water through the
precise measurement of gravitational
interaction.36

I think there is a lot of room for
error in this kind of precise
measurement of a quantity so small.
People should definitely continue to
perform this experiment, in particular
between different size masses and
temperatures, in low gravity such as in
orbit of Earth.37
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
4. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
6. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
10. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
12. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
13. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
15. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
18. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
19. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
25. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
27. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
33. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
34. ^ Ted Huntington
35. ^ Experiments to
Determine the Density of the Earth. By
Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R. S. and A.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 88 -
1798 Author Henry
Cavendish DOI 10.1098/rstl.1798.0022 h
ttp://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conten
t/w8098l1710t828hl/?p=84813da119454dedb0
99470d30511e3a&pi=0 cavendish_1798.pdf
36. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/gravitation
al-constant?cat=health
37. ^ Ted Huntington
38. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
39. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England38  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 14 		2253)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Philippe
Pinel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp229-230.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp229-230.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp229-230.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
12. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Philippe+Pinel?ca
t=health
13. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
14. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Philippe Pinel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
Paris, France13  
[1] Dr. Philippe Pinel at the
Salpêtrière, 1795 by Robert Fleury.
Pinel ordering the removal of chains
from patients at the Paris Asylum for
insane women. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pinel.jpg

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 19 20 		2278)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de Laplace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
6. ^ "pierre simon laplace".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"pierre simon laplace". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
11. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Pierre Simon
marquis de Laplace". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
18. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
19. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de
Laplace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
(1798-1827)
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
(1799-1825) (1799-1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre-Simon Laplace".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simo
n_Laplace
[2] "specific heat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9029/specific-heat
Paris, France18 (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 4 5 		2279)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
3. ^ "Pierre Simon
marquis de Laplace". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
4. ^ "Pierre Simon marquis de Laplace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7167/Pierre-Simon-marquis-de-Laplace
(1798-1827)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp234-236.
(1799-1825) (1799-1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre-Simon Laplace".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simo
n_Laplace
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-simo
n-laplace
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "specific heat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9029/specific-heat
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 48 49 		2303) Thompson receives only 2 years of
formal education and at age 13 is
apprenticed to a local merchant. At the
age of 19, while teaching in Concord,
New Hampshire, Thompson marries a
wealthy widow, 14 years older than he
and therefore acquires an extensive
estate and social and political
influence.35 (Did the female have the
right to own the property and money or
did she legally have to surrender it to
her husband?36 )
Thompson is on the side
of England in the Revolutionary War,
and spies on the colonialists. When the
British troops leave Boston, Thompson
goes with them leaving his wife and
child behind.37

Like Franklin, Thompson refuses to
patent his inventions.38
In 1793 while
living in Munich39 , Bavaria, Thompson
is made a count of the Holy Roman
Empire and chooses as his title "Count
Rumford", Rumford being the original
name of Concord, New Hampshire, USA.40

In 1804 Thompson moves to Paris and in
1805 marries Lavoisier's widowed wife
but the marriage only lasts two
years.41
In some way, the heat as a
fluid called "caloric" theory, i think
will ultimately be seen to be closer to
the correct path, and more intuitive,
since there is a strong identity
between caloric and photons, photons
are not a fluid, and may or may not be
thought of as heat itself...it depends
if you think the photon is the cause of
heat, or the movement of the photon (in
addition to the photon itself) is the
cause of heat, but otherwise I think
the caloric was an good intuitive
theory.42 The term "calorie" is still
used43 , but may be replaced my
Gigaphotons per second or similar
units44 . In someway Thompson was
partially correct in that, probably the
movement of the photon is a necessary
component (although in addition to the
photon itself) to record a measurement
of heat.45

Thompson writes: "And, in reasoning on
this subject, we must not forget to
consider that most remarkable
circumstance, that the source of the
heat generated by friction, in these
experiments, appeared evidently to be
inexhaustible.
It is hardly necessary
to add, that any thing which any
insulated body, or system of bodies,
can continue to furnish without
limitation, cannot possibly be a
material substance: and it appears to
me to be extremely difficult, if not
quite impossible, to form any distinct
idea of any thing, capable of being
excited, and communicated, in the
manner the heat was excited and
communicated in these experiments,
except it be MOTION.
I am very far from
pretending to know how, or by what
means, or mechanical contrivance, that
particular kind of motion in bodies,
which has been supposed to constitute
heat, is excited, continued, and
propagated, and I shall not presume to
trouble the Society with mere
conjectures; particularly on a subject
which, during so many thousand years,
the most enlightened philosophers have
endeavored, but in vain, to
comprehend."46
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
2. ^ "Sir Benjamin
Thompson count von Rumford".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
4. ^ "Sir Benjamin
Thompson count von Rumford".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford
5. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/h2502612w166p177/?p=9904b45f17444d31937
3dcd591a72055&pi=1 An Inquiry
concerning the Source of the Heat Which
is Excited by Friction. By Benjamin
Count of Rumford, F. R. S. M. R. I.
A. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 88 -
1798 Pages 80-102 DOI 10.1098/rstl.179
8.0006
thompson_rumford_1798_heat.pdf
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
8. ^ "Benjamin
Thompson". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
10. ^ "Benjamin
Thompson". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Benjamin Thompson".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
18. ^ Ted Huntington
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^
"Benjamin Thompson". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
24. ^ Ted Huntington
25. ^ "Benjamin Thompson".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
26. ^ "Sir Benjamin Thompson count von
Rumford". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
31. ^ "Sir Benjamin
Thompson count von Rumford".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
34. ^ "Sir Benjamin
Thompson count von Rumford".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford
35. ^ "Benjamin Thompson". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
38. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244.
39. ^ "Benjamin
Thompson". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
40. ^ "Sir Benjamin Thompson count von
Rumford". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford
41. ^ "Benjamin Thompson". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
42. ^ Ted Huntington
43. ^ "Benjamin Thompson".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+Thompson
?cat=technology
44. ^ Ted Huntington
45. ^ Ted Huntington
46. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/h2502612w166p177/?p=9904b45f17444d31937
3dcd591a72055&pi=1 An Inquiry
concerning the Source of the Heat Which
is Excited by Friction. By Benjamin
Count of Rumford, F. R. S. M. R. I.
A. Journal Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 88 -
1798 Pages 80-102 DOI 10.1098/rstl.179
8.0006
thompson_rumford_1798_heat.pdf
47. ^ "Sir Benjamin Thompson count von
Rumford". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford
48. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp242-244. (1798)
(1798)
49. ^ "Sir Benjamin Thompson count von
Rumford". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2183/Sir-Benjamin-Thompson-count-von-Rum
ford (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Thompson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Th
ompson
[2] "An Experimental Enquiry Concerning
the Source of the Heat which is Excited
by Friction". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experime
ntal_Enquiry_Concerning_the_Source_of_th
e_Heat_which_is_Excited_by_Friction
Bavaria, Germany47 (presumably) 
[1] * description: Benjamin Thompson
* source:
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
* license: public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Thompson.jpg

[2] Count Rumford (Benjamin
Thompson) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+
Thompson?cat=technology
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 3 		2337)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p250.
2. ^ "johan gadolin".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johan-gadol
in?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p250. (1798) (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "gadolinium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5781/gadolinium
[2] "Johan Gadolin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Gadol
in
(was Åbo is now)Turku, Finland2  
[1] Portrait of Johan Gadolin
(1760-1852). Scanned from the book
Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam
(published in 1910). Artist unknown but
most probably born many years before
1852, so the copyright has
expired. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 16 17 		2345) Beryllium is initially called
"glucinum" because of the sweetness of
its compounds, and will be renamed
"beryllium" in 1957.6 7

Beryl is a mineral composed of
beryllium aluminum silicate,
Be3Al2(SiO3)6.8

Beryl is a silicate. The silicates make
up about 95 percent of the Earth's
crust and upper mantle. Silicates are
the major constituents of most igneous
rocks and are found in sedimentary and
metamorphic rock too. Silicates are
important parts of rock from the moon
of Earth, meteorites, most asteroids,
and rocks on the surface of Mercury,
Venus, and Mars. The basic structural
unit of all silicate minerals is the
silicon tetrahedron in which one
silicon atom is surrounded by and
bonded to four oxygen atoms, each at
the corner of a regular tetrahedron.9

Beryllium is a high-melting,
lightweight, corrosion-resistant,
rigid, steel-gray metallic element used
as an aerospace structural material, as
a moderator and reflector in nuclear
reactors, and in a copper alloy used
for springs, electrical contacts, and
nonsparking tools. Beryllium has atomic
number 4; atomic weight 9.0122; melting
point 1,278°C; boiling point 2,970°C;
specific gravity 1.848; valence 2.10

Beryllium is highly permeable to
X-rays, and neutrons are liberated when
beryllium is hit by alpha particles,
for example alpha particles from radium
or polonium (about 30 neutrons/million
alpha particles).11 Beryllium emitting
neutrons from collision with alpha
particles will lead to the discovery of
the neutron by Chadwick in 193212 .
Neutrons will prove to be very useful
in separating atoms and transmuting
less useful and more common atoms to
more useful and less common atoms, and
will open the door to the very useful
process of nuclear fission.13 (In
particular there may already secretly
or in the future be a way to use
neutrons to extract large quantities of
hydrogen and other gases which float
free from any atoms, which can then by
used as fuel by oxygen combustion).14
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
3. ^ "beryl".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8916/beryl
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
5. ^ "article
9078918". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8918
6. ^ "article 9078918". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8918
7. ^ "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vau
quelin+?cat=technology
8. ^ "beryl". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8916/beryl
9. ^ "silicate mineral". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7760/silicate-mineral
10. ^ "beryllium". The New Dictionary
of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/beryllium?cat=hea
lth
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/beryllium?cat=hea
lth
12. ^ "Sir James Chadwick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2224/Sir-James-Chadwick
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Nicolas
Louis Vauquelin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
16. ^ "Nicolas Louis Vauquelin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin (1798)
17. ^
"Louis Nicolas Vauquelin". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vau
quelin+?cat=technology (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Nicol
as_Vauquelin
[2] "Beryllium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium
Paris, France15  
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 19 		2353) Senefelder accepts an offer from
a music publisher, Johann Anton André,
to set himself up at Offenbach and
train others in Senefelder's
lithographic process.15

Senefelder develops lithography all
over Europe, with the music publisher
Johann Anton André of Offenbach, in
London and in Vienna.16

In 1800 Senefelder founds a lithography
press in London and soon after this is
granted patents in Scotland, England,
Ireland and Austria.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
2. ^ "Alois Senefelder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Senef
elder
3. ^ "Alois Senefelder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Senef
elder
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Alois Senefelder }".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6754/Alois-Senefelder }
6. ^
"lithography". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
7. ^ "Alois Senefelder }". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6754/Alois-Senefelder }
8. ^ "Alois
Senefelder }". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6754/Alois-Senefelder }
9. ^ "Alois
Senefelder". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alois%20Senefelde
r
10. ^ "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
11. ^ "Alois Senefelder". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alois%20Senefelde
r
12. ^ "Alois Senefelder }".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6754/Alois-Senefelder }
13. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
14. ^ Record ID2351. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Alois
Senefelder }". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6754/Alois-Senefelder }
16. ^ "Alois
Senefelder". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alois%20Senefelde
r
17. ^ "Alois Senefelder". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alois%20Senefelde
r
18. ^ "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
19. ^ "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lithography". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithography

Munich, {Bavaria, now} Germany18  
[1] Two pictures showing the negative
litography stone and the resulting
positive print, with an old map of
Munich. This is the origin map, with
the north tower of the Frauenkirche in
the lower corner. All other maps of
this series are referenced to this
corner. The map also shows the
Hofgarten and the Englischer Garten.
Due to the nature of the printing
process, the negative shows everything
in reverse. Picture taken as part of
the Lange Nacht der Museen in
Munich See also Image:Litography print
of a Map of Munich.jpg and
Image:Litography stone of a Map of
Munich.jpg for the original images GNU

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Litography_negative_stone_and_positiv
e_paper.jpg

[2] Description Lithograph,
'Portrait of Senefelder'. Lithograph
of Senefelder, from Specimens of
Polyautography. Source
http://www.nga.gov.au/FirstImpression
s/index.cfm [1] Date 1818 Author
Lorenz Quaglio. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Senefelder.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 21 		2361) Malthus has a cleft palate that
interferes with his speech.7

This work causes some amount of
controversy.8 9

In 1803, Malthus publishes a second and
larger edition, converting his original
pamphlet into a book with the help of
demographic data from European
countries.10 In this second edition
Malthus admits that "moral restraint"
in the form of delayed marriage and
(asexuality11 ) might counter the
increase in population.12

In 1805 Malthus becomes a professor of
history and political economy at the
East India Company's college at
Haileybury, Hertfordshire.13

In 1820, Malthus publishes "Principles
of Political Economy" (1820), on
economics.14

Malthus will continue publishing later
editions until the final and massive
sixth edition of 1826.15

(On the topic over overpopulation, what
is frustrating to me is that even now,
people have trouble recognizing
anything beyond the earth. For example,
there is nothing but endless space and
matter in the universe, countless
stars, planets and empty space, and
even our own star system is huge. There
is far more matter and space than we
will ever possibly be able to make use
of. It seems clear that overpopulation,
as long as there is space on the moon
and other planets is not going to be a
problem, if we are smart and provide
paths for life to grow. We as humans on
Earth are failing to accommodate the
growth of life mainly because of the
stupid traditions of religions,
antisexuality, tolerance of violence,
secrecy, lack of free info, lack of
full democracy and not embracing the
method of science and honesty. As I
have said many times, there is more
than enough space and matter in the
universe for all of life of earth and
our descendants and this is obvious,
but not if we do nothing but stay here
on earth, not bothering to even talk
about moving to other stars and planets
let alone proceeding to build ships
(such as star ship one) and humanoid
robots like Honda, Sony, and Toyota
have done to start that inevitable
future.16 )

(My own feeling about the idea of
allowing humans to reproduce as often
as they want to, theoretically making
hundreds of new humans, is that people
should promote birth control for
unwanted pregnancy, but provide a
minimum standard of living for all
living humans. The key is to start
developing the Moon, Mars, the matter
of this star system, and of other stars
to allow humans to reproduce and grow
at a regular rate. There is a reality,
for example, like bacteria in an agar
dish; there are finite limits on how
much matter can be converted to living
objects. In particular if ever humans
figure out how to stop aging, the
population of humans will increase much
faster. In that event, I can see people
voting to put limits on how many new
humans can be made. In addition, people
may vote to nonviolently, without
prison, and without violating a
person's body, punish those who produce
more than a few new humans or more
humans than they can financially keep
from starvation. Perhaps those people
who have produced more humans than
allowed by the majority will be
physically prevented from being
impregnated or impregnating, or forced
to move to the outer newly developed
star systems.17 )

(Malthus' claim that disease and war
occur as a result of overpopulation I
think is inaccurate {although
starvation, or cannibalism I can see
occurring as a result of
overpopulation}. I see war and first
strike violence as completely
unnecessary in a smart and logical
population. I think tolerating first
strike violence whether on the small
scale and on the large scale is a path
to chaos, disorder and threatens
continued survival of life of Earth.18
)

(This view of overpopulation as being
the cause of all problems may influence
the popularity of the brutal eugenic
theories that the Nazis and others used
to justify murdering people based on
their race, income, and opinions. It
may be that Malthus was the first to
publicly and more explicitly apply the
idea of natural selection as described
by Hutton to the human species.19 )
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Thomas Robert Malthus".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Robert+Mal
thus+?cat=biz-fin
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p257.
4. ^ "Thomas Robert
Malthus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0380/Thomas-Robert-Malthus
5. ^ "Thomas Robert Malthus".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Robert+Mal
thus+?cat=biz-fin
6. ^ "Thomas Robert Malthus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0380/Thomas-Robert-Malthus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p257.
8. ^ "Thomas Robert
Malthus". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Robert+Mal
thus+?cat=biz-fin
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p257.
10. ^ "Thomas Robert
Malthus". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Robert+Mal
thus+?cat=biz-fin
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p257.
13. ^ "Thomas Robert
Malthus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0380/Thomas-Robert-Malthus
14. ^ "Thomas Robert Malthus".
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Robert+Mal
thus+?cat=biz-fin
15. ^ "Thomas Robert Malthus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0380/Thomas-Robert-Malthus
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Thomas Robert
Malthus". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Robert+Mal
thus+?cat=biz-fin
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p257. (1798) (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Robert Malthus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Robe
rt_Malthus
[2] "Poor Law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0826/Poor-Law
Surrey, England20 (presumably) 
[1] Thomas Malthus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Malthus.jpg

[2] Thomas R.
Malthus(1766-1834) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.business.salford.ac.u
k/legacy/isi/tm/diffusion/malthus_right.
htm
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 6 		2421) From 1790 to 1793 Buch studies at
the Freiberg School of Mining under
Abraham Werner.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p273.
2. ^ "Leopold Baron
von Buch". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7860/Leopold-Baron-von-Buch
3. ^ "Leopold Baron von Buch".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7860/Leopold-Baron-von-Buch
4. ^ "Leopold Baron von Buch".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7860/Leopold-Baron-von-Buch
5. ^ "Leopold Baron von Buch".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7860/Leopold-Baron-von-Buch
6. ^ "Leopold Baron von Buch".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7860/Leopold-Baron-von-Buch (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Leopold von Buch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_L
eopold_von_Buch
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christian%20Leopo
ld%20von%20Buch
Mount Vesuvius, Italy5  
[1] Leopold von buch PD
source: http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afb
eelding:Leopold_von_buch.jpg

[2] Christian Leopold von Buch,
erfolgreicher Geologe PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uckermark.city-map.de
/city/db/081801092800.html
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 9 		2877) A quote by Taylor is:
"Mythology is
the natural measure of the
unenlightened mind; it contains the
aspirings of the soul after higher
objects, which are beyond its reach,
and its efforts to realize the dim
images faintly formed in the mind, as
the man wandering in darkness strives
to give shape to the objects
indistinctly seen to connect them
together."5 6
("its efforts to realize
the dim images faintly formed in the
mind" only coincidence? or awareness of
people trying to follow this science ,
or possibly this was understood in the
1800s and a hint of frustration or
concern about the massive idiocy and
injustice of keeping seeing thought
secret?7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philosophical Magazine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophic
al_Magazine
2. ^ "Philosophical Magazine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophic
al_Magazine
3. ^
http://www.randi.org/jr/050605free.html
4. ^ "Philosophical Magazine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophic
al_Magazine
5. ^ "Richard Taylor (editor)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Tay
lor_%28editor%29
6. ^
http://www.randi.org/jr/050605free.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.taylorandfrancisgroup.com/abo
ut/history.asp
9. ^ "Philosophical Magazine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophic
al_Magazine (1798)
London, England8 (presumably)  
[1] Description Portail of Richard
Taylor (1781-1858) Source
http://www.archive.org/details/annals
magazineof46lond Date 1860 Author
Annals and magazine of natural
history : including zoology, botany and
geology Permission (Reusing this
image) see below PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Taylor_1781-1858.png
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 6 		3253)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=2GBMAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA122&lpg=PA122&dq=pictet+pik+&
source=web&ots=GkhDPNCy83&sig=8geB-7U6U-
JMgy8laKmGcmxdLxU&hl=en
2. ^ "Marc-Auguste Pictet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc-August
e_Pictet
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The
Caloric Theory of Adiabatic
Compression", Isis, Vol. 49, No. 2
(Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
5. ^ "Marc-Auguste Pictet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc-August
e_Pictet
6. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (1798)
Geneva, Switzerland5
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pictet, Marc-Auguste
(1752 - 1825) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Am Bouvier
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Firmin Massot, 1766-1849 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17.2 x 14.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.9 x 17.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P003-08a.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 3 		5972) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his Piano Sonata Number 8 in C
("Pathétique") (opus 13).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1798}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
201 YBN
[06/??/1799 AD] 26 		2392) (Over the course of his life14 ),
Humboldt collects 60,000 plants
including thousands of species never
described
before.15

Humboldt experiments with electricity
in nerves and muscles, erroneously
backing Galvani (as opposed to
Volta).16
During a short stay in the
United States at the end of his
journey, Humboldt is received by US
President Thomas Jefferson.17 18
Humbold
t is friends with King Louis Philippe
of France.19
Humboldt is in favor of
the French Revolution.20
Humboldt
writes against human slavery.21 22

In 1828 Humboldt organizes in Berlin
one of the first international
scientific conferences, which is
evidence of Humboldt's organizational
skills since such large gatherings of
potentially liberal-minded people are
frowned on by governments in the wake
of the Napoleonic Wars and the
associated rise of democratic
expectations.23

Humboldt has a voluminous
correspondence: about 8,000 letters
remain.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
2. ^ "Alexander
Humboldt". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
3. ^ "Alexander Humboldt".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
7. ^ "Alexander
Humboldt". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
8. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
18. ^ "Alexander von
Humboldt". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
22. ^ "Alexander von
Humboldt". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
23. ^ "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
24. ^ "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
25. ^ "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
26. ^ "Alexander Humboldt".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt (06/1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_v
on_Humboldt
South America25  
[1] * Description: Alexander von
Humboldt, oil paint on canvas, 126 x
92,5 cm * Author: Friedrich Georg
Weitsch, 1806 * Gallery:
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -
Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Alte
Nationalgalerie Berlin * Source:
http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatr
on/portrait.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg
201 YBN
[08/23/1799 AD] 3 		1238) Napoleon runs the English
blockade" and sails for France.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p13.
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
Egypt2   
201 YBN
[08/??/1799 AD] 4 		1237)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p13.
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p13.
3. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
4. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).

MORE INFO
[1] Steven Roger Fischer, "A
History of Writing", (London: Reaktion
Books, 2001). p46
Rashid, Egypt3   
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 7 8 		2283)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Joseph Delambre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
7. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
(1792-1799)
8. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology (1791-1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Delambre". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Delambre
France6  
[1] Scientist: Delambre, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1749 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist:
Attributed to Julien Leopold Boilly,
1796-1874 and Benjamin Holl, 1808-1884
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 25.8 x 17.5 cm Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Delambre - French mathematician
and astronomer. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-D2-17a.jpg Date 1820 Author Julien
Leopold Boilly (1796-1874) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre.jpg

[2] Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Delambre Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
DelambreBorn: 19-Sep-1749 Birthplace:
Amiens, France Died:
19-Aug-1822 Location of death: Paris,
France Cause of death:
unspecified PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/404/0
00097113/
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 23 24 25 26 		2315) Proust provides evidence that
that relative quantities of elements in
any compound remain the same no matter
what the source used to make the
compound5 or method of preparation6 .7


Proust shows that copper carbonate
contains definite proportions by weight
of copper, carbon and oxygen no matter
how the copper carbonate is prepared or
how it is isolated from nature. The
preparation is always 5 of copper, 4 of
oxygen, and 1 of carbon.8

Proust then shows that this same
principle applies for a number of
compounds.9 A compound is any
substance with identical molecules made
of more than one element.10
From these
experiments Proust formulates the
generalization that all compounds
contain elements in certain definite
proportions with no exceptions
regardless of conditions of
production.11

Proust maintains that all compounds are
made of components that combine in
fixed proportions by weight.12
Proust's
law of definite proportions comes under
attack in 1803 by the eminent French
chemist Claude-Louis Berthollet who
claims that chemicals do not always
combine in definite proportions.13
Prous
t shows how Berthollet is misled by
inaccurate analysis and by products
Berthollet did not purify enough.14

Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius
will establish the conceptual
relationship between Proust's law and
Dalton's theory in 1811.15

This finding helps to persuade Dalton
that elements must occur in the form of
atoms.16

Dalton's chemical atomic theory in 1801
will eventually settle this dispute
between Berthollet and Proust in favor
of Proust17 and atomism18 .19

This is evidence that the photons
emitted from atomic and molecular
reactions may not be completely
separated atoms, but only photons that
result in atoms of less mass.20 But
even if entire atoms are destroyed into
photons in two atoms contacting or
reacting with each other, the law of
definite proportions is still true,
even if some atoms are destroyed into
photons, since the composition of any
specific molecule is always the same.21

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
4. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
7. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
10. ^ "chemical
compound". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0804/chemical-compound
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
12. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
13. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
15. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
17. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
19. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
23. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust (1793)
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246. (1799)
(1799)
25. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Louis+Prou
st?cat=technology (1799)
26. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Proust".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Proust
Segovia, Spain22  
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007 . PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 11 		2451) Thénard is the son of poor
peasants who work to send him to
school.5
Thénard studies chemistry in
Paris under conditions of
semi-starvation until Vauquelin,
himself the son of a peasant, befriends
Thénard.6
In 1802, Thénard beomces
professor at the Collège de France.7
Th
énard works with lifelong friend
Gay-Lussac.8
Thénard becomes
chancellor of the University of Paris.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
2. ^ "Louis Jacques
Thenard". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1979/Louis-Jacques-Thenard
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
7. ^ "louis
jacques th nard". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-jacqu
es-th-nard
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
9. ^ "Louis Jacques
Thenard". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1979/Louis-Jacques-Thenard
10. ^ "louis jacques th nard". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-jacqu
es-th-nard
11. ^ "Louis Jacques Thenard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1979/Louis-Jacques-Thenard (1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Jacques Thénard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Jacqu
es_Th%C3%A9nard
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Thénard, Louis Jacques
(1777 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7.5 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
15.3 cm Louis Jacques Thénard,
uploaded to English Wikipedia by
en:User:Magnus Manske on 17th June
2004. Claimed source: [1]. As of today
(20th November 2005) the source URL is
[2]. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcolle
ctions/hst/scientific-identity/CF/displa
y_results.cfm?alpha_sort=T PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Jacques_Th%C3%A9nard.jpg

[2] Louis Jacques Thénard
(1777-1857). Collection Edgar Fats
Smith. PD
source: http://www.inrp.fr/she/cours_mag
istral/expose_thenard/expose_thenard_com
plet.htm
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 43 		2483) Davy also discovers hydrogen
telluride, and hydrogen phosphide
(phosphine).11 (chronology12 )

Davy's collected works (9 vol, 1839-40;
repr. 1972) include a biographical
memoir by his brother, John Davy.13
Dav
y is the elder son of middle-(income14
) parents.15
In 1795 Davy is
apprenticed to a surgeon and
apothecary.16
Davy (writes that17 )
when you he has plans for a volume of
poems, but in 1797 when he begins the
serious study of science, Davy's
interest in poetry "fled before the
voice of truth".18
Davy befriends
Davies Giddy (later Gilbert; president
of the Royal Society, 1827-30)19 and
Giddy recommends Davy for a job at the
Pneumatic Institution in Bristol20 .
From
10/1799-03/1801 Davy works at the
Pneumatic Institution in Bristol.21
In
1800, the account of Davy's work (at
the Pneumatic institution22 ) published
as "Researches, Chemical and
Philosophical" (1800) quickly
establishes Davy's reputation (as a
good scientist23 ).24
In 1801 Davy
moves to London and is invited to
lecture at the Royal Institution of
Great Britain25 newly founded by
Joseph Banks and Benjamin Thompson
(Rumford) in 179926 .
Davy's brilliant
lectures attract a fashionable and
intellectual audience.27 (open to the
public?28 )
In 1802 Davy becomes
professor of chemistry (at the Royal
Institution29 ).30
In 1805 Davy receive
the Copley Medal for his researches on
voltaic cells, tanning, and mineral
analysis.31
In 1807 Davy is a charter
member of Geological Society of
London.32
Davy wins an award for the
best work in electricity established by
Napoleon, says that while the
governments might be at war but the
scientists are not.33
Davy does not
accept Dalton's atomic theory.
Wollaston tries to convert him.34
In
1811 Davy hires Michael Faraday as an
assistant.35

In 1812 Davy damages his eyes in a
nitrogen trichloride explosion. Faraday
skillfully prepared, but Davy allows it
to explode.36
From 1820-1827 Davy is
president of the Royal Society.37
Davy's
assistant is Faraday.38
In 1824 Davy
tries to block Faraday's membership
into the Royal Society.39
Davy twice
opposes the election of Faraday to
fellowship in the Royal Society. At one
point Davy objects to honoring Faraday
for achieving the first liquefication
of chlorine, claiming that he himself
deserves credit for the feat. Another
time, Davy says his opposition is due
to his belief that William Wollaston
(1766-1828) had preceded Faraday in
discovering electromagnetic rotation.
Perhaps Davy is envious of the success
of his former assistant. Faraday does
finally become a Fellow of the Royal
Society in 1824.40
In his will Davy
leaves funds to establish a medal to be
given annually to chemists.41
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
8. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
11. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Humphry Davy". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
16. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
19. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
20. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
21. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Sir Humphry
Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
25. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
26. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
27. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ "Sir Humphry
Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
31. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
34. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
35. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008.
Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
36. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
37. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
38. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
39. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
40. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
42. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
43. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm (1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
Bristol, England42  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
200 YBN
[03/20/1800 AD] 25 26 		2250) Volta finds that not only will
two dissimilar metals in contact
produce a small electrical (current7 ),
but metals in contact with certain
fluids also produces electrical 8 .9

Volta's first battery uses copper and
tin or zinc metal strips in a bowl of
salt water to produce an electric
potential (or differential) and
current. Volta improves on this device,
making things less messy, watery and
more compact by using small round
plates of copper and zinc and discs of
salt soaked cardboard. Volta connects
these plates in order of copper, zinc,
cardboard, copper, zinc, cardboard, and
so on. When a wire is attached to the
top and bottom of this Voltaic pile an
electric current passes through it if
the circuit is closed.10

This "voltaic pile" consisted of
alternating zinc and silver disks
separated by layers of paper or cloth
soaked in a solution of either sodium
hydroxide or salt water (brine).11

This battery is the basis for all
wet-cell batteries.12

(What kind of voltage and current can
be produced by such a device, and what
voltages and currents did Volta measure
with his devices?13 )

Volta's battery is instantly popular
because for the first time there is a
device capable of producing a steady,
continuous flow of electricity.14 All
electrical machines before this,
including Volta's electrophorus, can
only produced short bursts of static
electricity. The use of constant
current will open up many new
inventions and discoveries.15

Within a short time the voltaic cell
will be put to practical use by William
Nicholson and this leads to the
electrical work of Davy (and Faraday
and much of the electrical revolution16
).17
Experiments performed with the
voltaic pile will lead Michael Faraday
to create the laws of electrochemistry
(around 1834), which establish the
relationship between quantity of
electrode material and amount of
electric power.18

The unit of electromotive force, the
driving force that moves the electric
current, will be named the volt in 1881
in honor of Alessandro Volta.19 20


Volta performs experiments to try to
show that the electricity of a voltaic
pile can produce the same results as
the static electricity of a Leyden jar,
and that the electricity is the same
exact kind of fluid. Volta uses a
"condensatore" (a condensing device,
basically a capacitor) and measures the
deflection of a gold leaf in an
electroscope.21 Volta concludes that
in order to produce a large deflection
of perhaps 35 degrees, Volta would need
a pile with 1800-2000 pairs of
copper-zinc elements.22 (Large sparks
will be shown to be the result mainly
of very large voltage differential, in
particular when the phenomenon of the
transformer is understood and the
induction coil in built. In my view the
comparison of electric particles moving
as current, in static electricity, and
in permanent magnets is important and
has yet to reveal a deeper truth
connecting all three. Perhaps in which
each is explained by a single force
such as gravity.23 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
6. ^ "Conte
Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "alessandro
volta". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
11. ^ "battery".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
58/battery
12. ^
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biograp
hies/VoltaBio.htm
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "alessandro volta".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology
15. ^ "alessandro volta". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
18. ^ "battery".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
58/battery
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
20. ^ "Conte
Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
21. ^, p90.
http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Pages/Libri/
Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4/4.pdf
22. ^, p94.
http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Pages/Libri/
Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4/4.pdf
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Conte Alessandro
Volta". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1800)
(1800)
26. ^ "alessandro volta". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology (03/20/1800(sends
letter to Banks secretary of royal
society)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm
Pavia, Italy24  
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
200 YBN
[03/27/1800 AD] 16 17 		2179) This is the first known
identification of invisible light.12

In the following year Ritter will
extend the visible spectrum in the
other direction. (to me that is so
interesting, that is a major find. This
finding is apparently required to see
thought 110 years later by Michael
Pupin. Looking at light in unseen
frequencies will open up an enormous
amount of new images and information
about other stars, and even objects on
earth.13 )14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
5. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
9. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
12. ^ "William
Herschel". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
15. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
16. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1800)
(1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Slough, England15  
[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255

[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g
200 YBN
[05/02/1800 AD] 21 		2307) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815),
English chemist, separates water into
hydrogen and oxygen gas using electric
current.7

Nicholson copies Volta and builds the
first voltaic pile in England.8
Nichols
on attaches the wire on both ends of
the voltaic pile into water9 and finds
that the water breaks up into hydrogen
and oxygen, which collect separately
forming bubbles at the submerged ends
of the wires.10
Nicholson
"electrolyzed" water, breaking up the
molecules into the individual
elements.11

Nicholson and friend Anthony Carlisle,
a London surgeon, use platinum
electrodes and separate tubes to
collect the gases evolved at each
electrode.12

Hydrogen gas bubbles from around the
cathode and oxygen gas from around the
anode in the ratio of two volumes of
hydrogen for every one volume of
oxygen.13

In 1760, Giovanni Beccaria (CE
1716-1781), Italian physicist14 , was
the first of record to separate water
into hydrogen and oxygen gases using
electricity created with a static
generator.15

In 1785, Henry Cavendish (CE
1731-1810)16 shows that air is a
mixture of gases by using static
electricity electrolysis.17

In 1789 Troostwyk and Deiman repeat
Beccaria's experiment of separating
water into hydrogen and oxygen using
static electricity.18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p244.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p244.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p244.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
10. ^ "William
Nicholson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
12. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
14. ^ "An Experimental Enquiry
Concerning the Source of the Heat which
is Excited by Friction". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experime
ntal_Enquiry_Concerning_the_Source_of_th
e_Heat_which_is_Excited_by_Friction
15. ^ Record ID2122. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
17. ^ Record ID2116.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
18. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=_q03AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=beccaria+war
ltire+priestley&source=web&ots=0Nu5psZ0e
P&sig=3p4hKHXRNA9TGMhio_6Glgd51Yg
19. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/g10lp16615843r73/?p=4b984232886847f4980
95d3814da4714&pi=0 Experiments and
Observations, Made with the View of
Ascertaining the Nature of the Gaz
Produced by Passing Electric Discharges
through Water. By George Pearson, M. D.
F. R. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 87 -
1797 Pages 142-158 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
97.0008
20. ^ "William Nicholson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (05/02/1800)
(05/02/1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Nicholson
(chemist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nic
holson_%28chemist%29
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
London, England20 (presumably) 
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html
200 YBN
[06/27/1800 AD] 6 		3254)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Philosophical
Magazine, Series Series 3, May 1845.
contained in: James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp172-189.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ John Dalton, "Experiments
and Observations on the Heat and Cold
produced by the Mechanical Condensation
and Rarefaction of Air", Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, 1802, 5: 515-526.
4. ^ "John
Dalton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
5. ^ Making of America Project, Eliakim
Littell, Robert S. Littell, "The Living
Age", 1845,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
2L3mqFyy8w0C&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=Exper
iments+and+Observations+on+the+Heat+and+
Cold+produced+by+the+Mechanical+Condensa
tion+and+Rarefaction+of+Air&source=web&o
ts=2XlBC3fRdE&sig=iDBlqgzlZyCmRpe0tDK2zo
Ac35c&hl=en (06/27/1800)
(06/27/1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1801)
(1801)
[5] Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory
of Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol.
49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
Manchester, England5  
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
200 YBN
[06/??/1800 AD] 17 18 		3597)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57
592?_fromAuth=1
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA

3. ^ William Cruickshank, "Some
Experiments and Observations on
Galvanic Electricity.", "Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the
Arts By William Nicholson", G. G. and
J. Robinson, 1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800-
March
1801),p187-191. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0eMW4sl3XZyNHpE6-nh#PPA18
7,M1
4. ^ Record ID3591. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ William
Cruickshank, "Some Experiments and
Observations on Galvanic Electricity.",
"Journal of Natural Philosophy,
Chemistry and the Arts By William
Nicholson", G. G. and J. Robinson,
1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800- March
1801),p187-191. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0eMW4sl3XZyNHpE6-nh#PPA18
7,M1
6. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p196. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the
+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA#PPA
196,M1
7. ^ "litmus." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/litmus
8. ^ "litmus." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 22
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/litmus
9. ^ "tincture." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 22
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tincture
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ William Cruickshank, "Some
Experiments and Observations on
Galvanic Electricity.", "Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the
Arts By William Nicholson", G. G. and
J. Robinson, 1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800-
March
1801),p187-191. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0eMW4sl3XZyNHpE6-nh#PPA18
7,M1
14. ^ "Cruikshank, William Cumberland",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p217.
15. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57
592?_fromAuth=1
16. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57
592?_fromAuth=1
17. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
 {09/1800} {06/1800}
18. ^ William Cruickshank,
"Some Experiments and Observations on
Galvanic Electricity.", "Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the
Arts By William Nicholson", G. G. and
J. Robinson, 1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800-
March
1801),p187-191. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0eMW4sl3XZyNHpE6-nh#PPA18
7,M1 {06/1800}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/cruickshank.html
[2]
http://www.buchmann.ca/Article3-page3.as
p
[3] "William Cruickshank (chemist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cru
ickshank_(chemist)
[4] William Cruickshank, "Additional
Remarks on Galvanic Electricity.",
"Journal of Natural Philosophy,
Chemistry and the Arts By William
Nicholson", G. G. and J. Robinson,
1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800- March
1801),p254-264. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0eMW4sl3XZyNHpE6-nh#PPA25
4,M1
(Royal Military Academy at Woolwich)
Woolwich, England16  		 
200 YBN
[09/17/1800 AD] 18 19 		2436) From 1791-5, Ritter is a
pharmacist in Liegnitz, Silesia.7
Starti
ng in 17968 , Ritter studies medicine
at the University of Jena, and teaches
there.9

Ritter tries to revive the phlogiston
theory.10
Ritter is interested in
"dowsing", (an inaccurate belief that
water, metals, gem stones and hidden
objects can be found by using a y
shaped stick, rod or pendulum11 ).12

In Munich Ritter becomes involved with
experiments with dividing rods and
pendulums which he claims have hidden
electricity. Ritter claims that he has
discovered a different form of
electrical polarity of the earth than
that caused by magnetic polarity and
that this newly discovered effect can
be demonstrated by suspending a gold
needle properly. Oersted fails to
successfully copy Ritter's experiment.
Ritter's work at the end of 1805 is
questioned by scientists, and during
the last part of Ritter's life he gains
a reputation of being unreliable.13
Ritt
er's entry into occult science
influences his later work and such
experiments destroy Ritter's science
reputation as a competitive scientist.
Because of these experiments and his
unsubstantiated claims, historians have
ignored Ritter's work between 1806 and
1810. In spite of the criticism leveled
toward him Ritter continues
experimenting, but his science career
was finished.14 (Perhaps this means,
his ability to publish the results of
his experiments? Clearly he was never
let go from his teaching job.15 )

Ritter only lives 34 years.16
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
8. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
9. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
11. ^ "Dowsing".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
13. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
14. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
17. ^ "Johann Wilhelm
Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)
(Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800)
19. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml (Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800) (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
Jena, Germany17 (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
200 YBN
[09/??/1800 AD] 5 6 		3598)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57
592?_fromAuth=1
2. ^
http://www.buchmann.ca/Article3-page3.as
p
3. ^
http://www.buchmann.ca/Article3-page3.as
p
4. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57
592?_fromAuth=1
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
 {09/1800}
6. ^ William Cruickshank, "Additional
Remarks on Galvanic Electricity.",
"Journal of Natural Philosophy,
Chemistry and the Arts By William
Nicholson", G. G. and J. Robinson,
1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800- March
1801),p254-264. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0eMW4sl3XZyNHpE6-nh#PPA25
4,M1 {09/1800}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/cruickshank.html
[2] "William Cruickshank (chemist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cru
ickshank_(chemist)
[3] "tincture." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tincture
[4] "litmus." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/litmus
[5] "litmus." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 22
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/litmus
[6] "Cruikshank, William Cumberland",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p217.
(Royal Military Academy at Woolwich)
Woolwich, England4  
[1] Cruickshank and the first flooded
battery. © Cadex Electronics
Inc. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.buchmann.ca/article3_
files/image008.jpg
200 YBN
[11/??/1800 AD] 7 8 		2437)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Johann
Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
7. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml (c11/1800 (just a guess after
id2436)
8. ^ Ted Huntington. (c11/1800 (just a
guess after id2436)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
Jena, Germany6 (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 3 		2154) 500 Watt (CE 1736-1819) engines
are working in England.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209.
2. ^ "James Watt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6296/James-Watt
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp208-209. (1800)
(1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Watt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt
[2]
http://www.answers.com/James+Watt?cat=te
chnology
Birmingham, England2
(presumably) 
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 6 		2386)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
2. ^ "Georges
Cuvier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
4. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
5. ^ "Georges Cuvier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier (1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Cuvier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuv
ier
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France5  
[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 21 		2401) Bichat studies anatomy and
surgery under Marc-Antoine Petit, the
chief surgeon at the Hôtel Dieu in
Lyon.12

Bichat is an extreme vitalist who
(wrongly13 ) rejects that physics or
chemistry can possibly aid in the
understanding of life.14
Bichat does
not use a microscope.15 16
In 1800
Bichat becomes physician at the
Hôtel-Dieu in Paris. From 1799 on
Bichat abandons surgery and does only
research in anatomy, performing as many
as 600 autopsies in a single year.17

Bichat dies at 30, faints and falls
down stairs in laboratory.18
Asimov
states that had Bichat lived longer
Bichat may have surpassed Laënnec as
the most distinguished physician of the
early 1800s.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marie François Xavier Bichat".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marie+Fran%C3%A7o
is+Xavier+Bichat?cat=health
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp268-269.
3. ^ "Marie François
Xavier Bichat". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marie+Fran%C3%A7o
is+Xavier+Bichat?cat=health
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp268-269.
5. ^ "Marie Francois
Xavier Bichat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9105/Marie-Francois-Xavier-Bichat
6. ^ "histology". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0592/histology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Marie Francois Xavier
Bichat". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9105/Marie-Francois-Xavier-Bichat
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Marie François Xavier
Bichat". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marie+Fran%C3%A7o
is+Xavier+Bichat?cat=health
11. ^ "Marie Francois Xavier Bichat".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9105/Marie-Francois-Xavier-Bichat
12. ^ "Marie Francois Xavier Bichat".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9105/Marie-Francois-Xavier-Bichat
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp268-269.
15. ^ "Marie Francois
Xavier Bichat". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9105/Marie-Francois-Xavier-Bichat
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp268-269.
17. ^ "Marie
François Xavier Bichat". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marie+Fran%C3%A7o
is+Xavier+Bichat?cat=health
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp268-269.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp268-269.
20. ^ "Marie
François Xavier Bichat". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marie+Fran%C3%A7o
is+Xavier+Bichat?cat=health
21. ^ "Marie Francois Xavier Bichat".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9105/Marie-Francois-Xavier-Bichat
(1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marie François Xavier
Bichat". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Fran%
C3%A7ois_Xavier_Bichat
Paris, France20  
[1] from
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html Source Originally
from en.wikipedia; description page is
(was) here * 11:29, 16 April 2004
Magnus Manske 423x579 (68,104 bytes)
({{msg:PD}} from
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html) Date Commons
upload by Magnus Manske 13:56, 14 May
2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marie_Francois_Xavier_Bichat.jpg
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 19 20 		2473) Davy writes that he "breathed 16
quarts of the gas in seven minutes" and
became "completely intoxicated" with
it.14
Davy persuades his scientific and
literary friends, including Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, and
P.M. Roget, to report the effects of
inhaling nitrous oxide. Davy nearly
loses his own life inhaling water gas,
a mixture of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide sometimes used as fuel.15

(I have tried nitrous oxide I think in
the form of a so-called "whip-it" small
gas container used as a propellant for
whip cream. The feeling is not very
pleasant in my opinion, sounds become
very distant sounding. My memories are
that the feeling is not really
understanding what people are saying, I
remember my head feeling very dense or
cloudy. It might be fun for people to
try just once to see what the effect
is. As I remember, the effect is not
very pleasant to me, but to others
perhaps the feeling is pleasant.
Perhaps the quantity used makes a
difference in the quality of the
effect. It is good to know that
prolonged inhalation of nitrous oxide
causes death16 , although more specific
info in terms of quantity and duration
and actual research done are needed.17
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "nitrous oxide".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
3. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
8. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
9. ^ "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
10. ^ "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
15. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
16. ^ "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286. (1800)
(1800)
20. ^ "Humphry Davy". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Bristol, England18  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 20 		3233) Howard continues "I was led to
this discovery, by a late assertion,
that hydrogen is the basis of the
muriatic acid: (hydrochloric acid15 )
it induced me to attempt to combine
different substances with hydrogen and
oxygen. With this view, I mixed such
substances with alcohol and nitric
acid, as I thought might (by
predisposing affinity) favour, as well
as attract, an acid combination, of the
hydrogen of the one, and the oxygen of
the other. The pure red oxide of
mercury appeared not unfit for this
purpose; it was therefore intermixed
with alcohol, and upon both, nitric
acid was affused. The acid did not act
upon the alcohol so immediately as when
these fluids are alone mixed together,
but first gradually dissolved the
oxide: however, after some minutes had
elapsed, a smell of ether was
perceptible, and a white dense smoke,
much resembling that from the liquor
fumans of Libavius, was emitted with
ebullition. The mixture then threw down
a dark coloured precipitate, which by
degrees became nearly white. This
precipitate I separated by filtration;
and, observing it to be crystallized in
small acicular crystals, of a saline
taste, and also finding a part of the
mercury volatilized in the white fumes,
I must acknowledge I was not altogether
without hopes that muriatic acid had
been formed, and united to the
mercurial oxide. I therefore, for
obvious reasons, poured sulphuric acid
upon the dried crystalline mass, when a
violent effervescence ensued, and, to
my great astonishment, an explosion
took place.".16

After being injured a second time with
the fulminate of mercury Howard turns
to other projects. Howard determine the
chemical composition of meteorites,
showing them all to contain nickel, and
more nickel in higher quantities than
earthly minerals other than those
minerals in nickel ore. This helps to
establish the extra-terrestrial origin
of meteorites.17
Howard is awarded the
Copley Medal of the Royal Society for
this discovery.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person
.asp?LinkID=mp02292
2. ^ Edward Howard, "On a New
Fulminating Mercury.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 90,1,
(1800),pp204-238. http://links.jstor.or
g/sici?sici=0261-0523%281800%2990%3C204%
3AOANFMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L
{Howard_Edward_1800_107053.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person
.asp?LinkID=mp02292
4. ^ Edward Howard, "On a New
Fulminating Mercury.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 90,1,
(1800),pp204-238. http://links.jstor.or
g/sici?sici=0261-0523%281800%2990%3C204%
3AOANFMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L
{Howard_Edward_1800_107053.pdf}
5. ^ "fulminate." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
02 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
ulminate>.
6. ^ Edward Howard, "On a New
Fulminating Mercury.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 90,1,
(1800),pp204-238. http://links.jstor.or
g/sici?sici=0261-0523%281800%2990%3C204%
3AOANFMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L
{Howard_Edward_1800_107053.pdf}
7. ^ "Fulminates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminates
8. ^ Rifled Breach Loader.
Globalsecurity.org.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/s
ystems/ground/rifle-history.htm
9. ^ "Fulminates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminates
10. ^ Greenberg, Arthur (2000). A
Chemical History Tour. John Wiley &
Sons, 198-203. ISBN 0-471-35408-2.
{Howard_Edward.pdf}
11. ^ "Fulminates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminates
12. ^ Greenberg, Arthur (2000). A
Chemical History Tour. John Wiley &
Sons, 198-203. ISBN 0-471-35408-2.
{Howard_Edward.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Edward Howard, "On a New
Fulminating Mercury.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 90,1,
(1800),pp204-238. http://links.jstor.or
g/sici?sici=0261-0523%281800%2990%3C204%
3AOANFMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L
{Howard_Edward_1800_107053.pdf}
17. ^ Greenberg, Arthur (2000). A
Chemical History Tour. John Wiley &
Sons, 198-203. ISBN 0-471-35408-2.
{Howard_Edward.pdf}
18. ^
http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person
.asp?LinkID=mp02292
19. ^ "fulminate." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
02 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
ulminate>.
20. ^
http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person
.asp?LinkID=mp02292 (1800)
London, England19 (presumably) 
[1] Structural formula of the fulminate
anion Structural formula of the
fulminate ion Source Own work Date
10 July 2007 Author Ben
Mills PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Fulminate-2D.png

[2] Edward Charles Howard PD/Corel
source: Howard_Edward.pdf
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 9 10 		4121) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531-532.
2. ^ "Francis
Maitland Balfour." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-mai
tland-balfour
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531-532.
4. ^ "Balfour,
Francis Maitland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
962>.
5. ^ Francis Maitland Balfour,
"Treatise on Comparative Embryology",2
vols, 1880-1881, vol2, p405 or p316
-see Brian K. Hall work. First
edition: Vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=8tV
OAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0ofS1Zti1ZRCPFEAEsag5s#v=onepage&q=&f=
false Vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=bzU
uAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0ofS1Zti1ZRCPFEAEsag5s#v=onepage&q=&f=
false Second edition: Volume
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=BTY
uAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Francis
+Maitland+Balfour#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Volume
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Aqc
XAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Francis
+Maitland+Balfour#v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Brian K. Hall, "Balfour, Garstang
and de Beer: The First Century of
Evolutionary Embryology", American
Zoologist 2000 40(5):718-728;
doi:10.1093/icb/40.5.718.
http://intl-icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi
/content/full/40/5/718
7. ^ "Balfour, Francis Maitland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
962>.
8. ^ Francis Maitland Balfour,
"Treatise on Comparative Embryology",2
vols, 1880-1881, vol2, p405 or p316
-see Brian K. Hall work. First
edition: Vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=8tV
OAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0ofS1Zti1ZRCPFEAEsag5s#v=onepage&q=&f=
false Vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=bzU
uAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0ofS1Zti1ZRCPFEAEsag5s#v=onepage&q=&f=
false Second edition: Volume
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=BTY
uAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Francis
+Maitland+Balfour#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Volume
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Aqc
XAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Francis
+Maitland+Balfour#v=onepage&q=&f=false
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531-532. {1800}
10. ^
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&
id=hKzSc02tbaMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA33&dq=chorda
ta+balfour&ots=yA1amPDeKF&sig=OdkAYUIHV9
Cer8oA8uBXhoKdcIQ#v=onepage&q=chordata%2
0balfour&f=false {1800}

MORE INFO
[1] Francis Maitland Balfour,
"The works of Francis Maitland
Balfour", 4 vols, 1885. vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=py4
rAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Francis
+Maitland+Balfour#v=onepage&q=&f=false
vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=QDE
rAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Francis
+Maitland+Balfour#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England7 8
 
[1] Description Francis
balfour.jpg Francis Maitland
Balfour Date Unknown (between
1870 and 1882) Source
http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/le
fa/Balfour.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Francis_balfour.jpg

[2] Ovum - From Treatise on
comparative embryology PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8tVOAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ofS1Zti1ZRCPFEAEsag5s#v=onepage&q
=The%20majority%20of%20these%20conclusio
ns%20are%20undoubtedly%20&f=false
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 2 		4541)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1800
(guess}
unknown  
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 2 		4542)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1800
(guess}
unknown  
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 3 		6324) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his first Symphony.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
[2] "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
199 YBN
[01/01/1801 AD] 14 		2261) In 1787 with the aid of the
viceroy of Sicily, Pizzi founds the
government6 Observatory of Palermo
where he makes his observations.7

Piazzi names Ceres after the Roman8
goddess of agriculture, once widely
worshiped in Sicily.9

Piazzi meets Hershel, and falls off the
ladder to Herschel's reflector
telescope and breaks his arm.10

Piazzi also establishes a government
observatory at Naples in 1817.11
Piazzi
"Lezioni elementari di astronomia" in
1817.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "olbers s paradox". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
4. ^ "Giuseppe
Piazzi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
9. ^ "Giuseppe
Piazzi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
10. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
11. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
12. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
13. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
14. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology (01/01/1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giuseppe Piazzi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9895/Giuseppe-Piazzi
[2] "Giuseppe Piazzi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Pi
azzi
[3]
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/AsteroidsI
II/pdf/3027.pdf
[4] "Ceres (dwarf planet)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_%28dw
arf_planet%29
Palermo, Sicily13  
[1] NASA's Hubble Space Telescope color
image of Ceres, the largest Main Belt
asteroid. Astronomers optimized spatial
resolution to about 18 km per pixel,
enhancing the contrast in these images
to bring out features on Ceres'
surface, that are both brighter and
darker than the average which absorbs
91% of sunlight falling on it.
(Original discription by NASA) Source
http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ceres
.jpg (Slightly cropped from
original) Date Taken: December 2003
- January 2004. Released 7 September
2005 Author NASA, ESA, J. Parker
(Southwest Research Institute), P.
Thomas (Cornell University), and L.
McFadden (University of Maryland,
College Park) Permission Unless
otherwise specifically stated, no claim
to copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. [...] [1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ceres_optimized.jpg

[2] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P
199 YBN
[06/??/1801 AD] 4 5 		2368)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ Dampier W C. A Shorter History of
Science. Cleveland, OH, World Pub,
1969,
101-103 http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/WOLL
ASTON_BIO.html
3. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
4. ^ Dampier W C. A Shorter History of
Science. Cleveland, OH, World Pub,
1969,
101-103 http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/WOLL
ASTON_BIO.html {06/1801}
5. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[3] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England3  
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
199 YBN
[11/12/1801 AD] 46 		2405) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829)
determines frequencies and wavelengths
(particle intervals) of light, uses
glass diffraction gratings, and puts
forward a theory of light
interference.21 22

Young puts forward the theory of light
wave interference (to explain lines of
diffraction23 ). This theory states
that two (or more24 ) light waves
interfere with each other, where light
waves can add together and subtract or
cancel each other out, similar to the
way two sound waves can add to or
cancel each other out to produce
silence.25

Young supports the theory of light as a
wave in an aether medium (aether being
like air for sound), which Grimaldi,
Huygens, Hooke, Malebranche, Euler and
others supported.26 27 Young refers to
this theory as the "undulatory"
theory.28

Young proposes that instead of the
retina containing an infinite number of
particles each capable of vibrating in
unison with every possible color, there
is only a need for one sensor for each
principle color red, yellow and blue.29
30

Young publishes these propositions in
"On the theory of light and colors".31


Albert Michelson will use this
principle of interference to create an
interferometer.32

I reject a wave theory for light, in
favor of a light as a particle that
moves in straight lines. However, this
principle of color determined by photon
interval is still a very important
truth without an aether or wave
interpretation. I think that what is
being called light interference may be
the result of particle reflection.
There are particle explanations for
light interference. The theory that two
rays of light combine to destroy each
other violates the conservation of
matter (and energy for those who
believe in energy); that matter would
disappear into empty space, and seems
to me unlikely. There are particle
explanations for light interference,
one is the photons fall into orbit
around each other, another is that
photons collide with each other,
another is that photons reflect of the
sides of the slits, and finally another
is that photons reflect at different
angles depending on atomic structure of
the material reflecting the photons.
State what humans offered particle
explanations for interference if any.33


This key concept, can light cancel
itself out like sound, will be divided
between the two already existing
schools of particle or wave
interpretation of light. Even after the
theory of an aether medium for light
falls with the Michelson-Morley
experiment, this concept of light
destruction will continue for wave
supporters.34 I reject the idea that
photons can ever be created or
destroyed, and so I reject the idea
that two beams of photons can cancel
each other out since in the view I
support no photon can ever be
destroyed.35

The theory of an aether goes back to
Aristoteles to the 4th century BCE,
over 2000 years before this time.36
The Michelson-Morley experiment will
finally end the popularity of the
belief in an aether.37

Young realizes that in terms of color
perception that there is not need for a
separate mechanism in the eye for every
color, instead that only 3 mechanisms
are necessary one each for the color
red, yellow and blue38 .39 This
concept is developed later by the
German physicist Hermann L.F. von
Helmholtz and is known as the
Young-Helmholtz three-color theory.40
Color photography, televisions and LCD
displays all use this three color
principle.41 I think the photon
detectors in an eye, perhaps neurons,
cannot possibly be sensitive enough to
detect a single beam of photons. Photon
detectors in the eye are much larger
than the size of a photon, and may
themselves also be composed of photons
in the form of atoms. So many millions
of beams are needed to "see" light. A
neuron might fire at a rate that is the
sum of two separate frequency beams
colliding on the same neuron surface.42


Another problem with the idea of light
beams canceling each other out into
empty space, is that if you think that
light is made of matter than it is a
violation of the conservation of
matter, and even if you think that
light is energy, as is the current
view, light canceling itself out into
empty space is a violation of the
conservation of energy. Matter, and in
the popular "modern" view, energy,
cannot simply disappear into empty
space without the equivalent quantity
of energy appearing in some other
form.43 In the example of two sound
waves canceling each other into
silence, the velocities of the
particles in the medium (air or sound)
oppose each other and result in no
motion, however for light no medium has
ever been observed, and in my view,
there cannot be a wave without a
medium. Given this intuitive piece of
evidence, that conservation of matter
and velocity should be observed, every
alternative particle interpretation
should be explored in my view. Equating
interference patterns based on color,
to determine frequency of light is a
major scientific contribution, and this
contribution is still accurate for a
particle theory of light too.44
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
2. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24 {Young_Tho
mas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colo
urs.pdf}
3. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
4. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24 {Young_Tho
mas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colo
urs.pdf}
5. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
6. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24 {Young_Tho
mas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colo
urs.pdf}
7. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
8. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24 {Young_Tho
mas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colo
urs.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Miscellaneous
Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas
Young, George Peacock, 1855 John
Murray, p157.
12. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of
the Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young,
George Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p168.
13. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p161.
14. ^ Thomas Young,
"The Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of
Light and Colours", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24 {Young_Tho
mas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colo
urs.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p157.
18. ^ "Miscellaneous
Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas
Young, George Peacock, 1855 John
Murray, p168.
19. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
20. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p147.
21. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p161.
22. ^ Thomas Young,
"The Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of
Light and Colours", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24 {Young_Tho
mas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colo
urs.pdf}
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p157.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p168.
28. ^ "Miscellaneous
Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas
Young, George Peacock, 1855 John
Murray, p168.
29. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
30. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p147.
31. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p161.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Record ID859.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of
the Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young,
George Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p147.
39. ^
"Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
40. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Ted
Huntington.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ John Charles Drury
Brand, Raymond Bonnett, "Lines of
Light: The Sources of Dispersive
Spectroscopy, 1800-1930", CRC Press,
1995, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0I
BC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=
web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1 {11/12/1801}
46. ^ Thomas
Young, Philip Kelland, "A Course of
Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ {11/12/1801}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] "etalon." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 17 Jun.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
talon>
London, England45  
[1] [t Table of light wavelengths and
frequencies calculated by Young from
Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801] The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf

[2]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0π=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf [t Young
writes: ''Let the concentric lines in
Fig. 1 (Plate I.) represent the
contemporaneous situation of similar
parts of a number of successive
undulations diverging from the point A;
they will also represent the successive
situations of each individual
undulation: let the force of each
undulation be represented by the
breadth of the line, and let the cone
of light ABC be admitted through the
apeture BC; then the principal
undulations will proceed in a
recilinear direction towards GH, and
the faint radiations on each side will
diverge from B and C as centres,
without receiving any additional force
from any intermediate point D of the
undulation, on account of the
inequality of the lines DE and DF. But
if we allow some little lateral
divergence from the extremities of the
undulations, it must diminish their
force, without adding materially to
that of the dissipated light; and their
termination, instead of the right line
BG, will assume the form CH; since the
loss of force must be more considerable
near to C than at greater distances.
This line corresponds with the boundary
of the shadow in NEWTON's first
observation, Fig. 1; and it is much
more probable that such a dissipation
of light was the cause of the increase
of the shadow in that observation, than
that it was owing to the action of the
inflecting atmosphere, which must have
extended a thirtieth of an inch each
way in order to produce it; especially
when it is considered that the shadow
was not diminished by surrounding the
hair with a denser medium than air,
which must in all probability have
weakened and contracted its inflecting
atmosphere. In other circumstances, the
lateral divergence might appear to
increase, instead of diminishing, the
breadth of the
beam.''] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae4
14c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 16 		1232) Philippe Pinel (April 20, 1745 -
October 25, 1826), a French physician,
publishes "Traité
médico-philosophique sur l'aleniation
mentale; ou la manie".1 This books
will be translated into English in 1806
as "Treatise on Insanity", and will
have an enormous influence on both
French, English and American
psychiatrists during the 1800s.2 The
profession of psychiatrists will grow
into a large industry similar to
chiropracters and accupuncturers,
mostly benign light-weight science of
talk or touch-based therapies, however
with psychiatry there is attached to
the payer the illogical stigma of
mental incompetence or unpredictable
and/or violent behavior.3

Pinel explains that insanity not due to
"lesion of the brain", but that humans
have delusions because of shocks of
life, for example disappointed love,
business failure, and poverty.4
Psychology will come to be viewed as
distinctly different from neurology
which is the study of nervous system
disorders with physically measurable
causes, while most of psychology is
pseudoscience being mostly filled with
meaningless abstract "diseases" (such
as psychosis, neurosis, schitzophrenia)
and/or overly trivial "diseases" (manic
depression, delusions of grandeur,
attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder) without clear definitions or
symptoms most of which can be reduced
to simply inaccurate beliefs or
delusion.5 6 In his book Pinel defines
5 specific types of "insanity".7

While at Bicêtre Hospital Pinel does
away with bleeding, purging, and
blistering in favor of a therapy that
involves close contact with and careful
observation of the patient-prisoners.
Pinel visits each prisoner, often
several times a day, and takes careful
notes over two years. He engages them
in lengthy conversations. His objective
is to assemble a detailed case history
and a natural history of each person's
supposed illness.8

This is after the French Revolution
which brings more moral "treatment" of
those people locked in psychiatric
hospitals. Two years before in 1795,
Pinel was appointed chief physician of
the Hospice de la Salpêtrière by the
new republic government, a post that he
retains for the rest of his life. The
Salpêtrière is, at the time, like a
large village, with seven thousand
women. Pinel misses Pussin, and in 1802
secures Pussin's transfer to the
Salpêtrière. Pinel creates an
inoculation clinic in his service at
the Salpêtrière in 1799 and the first
vaccination in Paris is given there
(perhaps without consent9 ) in April
1800.10 Inspired by Pussin, Pinel
takes a more humane view of people that
are brought to the hospital. Pinel is
skeptical of treatments in medical
texts, which he describes as "rarely
useful and frequently injurious"
methods formed from "prejudces,
hypotheses, pedantry" (condescending
and overly detailed opinions11 )",
ignorence, and the authority of
celebrated names."12 However, Pinel
condones the use of threats and chains
when other means fail.13 Pinel like
many others fails to distinguish
clearly between violent and nonviolent
people, mixing the two together instead
of requesting to move the violent to a
prison or establishing a more
restricted violent-only section within
the psychiatric hospital, and indeed he
inflicts assaults on the prisoners
himself.14

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
2. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in
America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and
the Enduring Mistreatment of the
Mentally Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus
Publishing, 2001).
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ "Neurology".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology
7. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
8. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ "Philippe Pinel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
11. ^ "Pedantry". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedantry
12. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
13. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
14. ^ Ted Huntington
15. ^ Ted Huntington
16. ^ "Philippe
Pinel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
Paris, France15  
[1] Dr. Philippe Pinel at the
Salpêtrière, 1795 by Robert Fleury.
Pinel ordering the removal of chains
from patients at the Paris Asylum for
insane women. Although Pinel always
gave Pussin the credit he deserved, a
legend grew up about Pinel
single-handedly liberating the insane
from their chains. This legend has been
commemorated in paintings and prints.
In fact Pinel condoned the use of
threats and chains when other means
failed. It was Pussin who replaced iron
shackles with straitjackets at Bicêtre
in 1797, after Pinel had left for the
Salpêtrière. Pinel followed Pussin's
example three years later, after
bringing Pussin to the
Salpêtrière. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pinel.jpg
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 22 		2127) In 1751 Lalande goes to Berlin to
measure the parallax of the moon in
conjunction with Lacaille12 at the
Cape of Good Hope13 .
In 1798 Lalande
makes a balloon ascension.14
Lalande
suggests improvements to the
parachute.15
Lalande is openly
anti-Jacobin and saves many threatened
by the Reign of Terror.16 The Jacobin
club is the most famous political group
of the French Revolution, which will
become identified with extreme
egalitarianism (belief in human
equality) and violence and which leads
the Revolutionary government from
mid-1793 to mid-179417 , dominated at
one point most famously by Maximilien
Robespierre.18
Lalande opposes the war
policies of Napoleon Bonaparte.19

Other works by Lalande are "Traité
d'astronomie" (1764; "Treatise on
Astronomy"), and "Bibliographie
astronomique" (1803; "Astronomical
Bibliography").20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jerome Lalande". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6905/Jerome-Lalande
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
3. ^ "Jérôme
Lalande". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me+
Lalande?cat=health
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
5. ^
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/V/vanderKamp.html
6. ^
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/V/vanderKamp.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
9. ^ "Jacobin Club".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3200/Jacobin-Club
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p203.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
13. ^ "Jerome
Lalande". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6905/Jerome-Lalande
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p203.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
17. ^ "Jacobin Club".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3200/Jacobin-Club
18. ^ "Jacobin Club". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3200/Jacobin-Club
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203.
20. ^ "Jerome
Lalande". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6905/Jerome-Lalande
21. ^ "Jerome Lalande". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6905/Jerome-Lalande
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p203. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jérôme Lalande".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3
%B4me_Lalande
[2] "France". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-404
12/France
[3] "Jacobin Club". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobin_Clu
b
[4] "Mathematics and Physical
Sciences". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-918
45/Mathematics-and-Physical-Sciences
[5] "Lalande 21185". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalande_211
85
Paris, France21 (presumably) 
[1] Jérôme Lalande (1732-1807),
French astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Lalande.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lalande, Joseph
Jérôme Le Français de (1732 -
1807) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Augustin Saint-Aubin,
1736-1807 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: G. Ely Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 20.1 x 14.3 cm /
Sheet: 21.8 x 15.3 cm PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=l
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 6 		2169)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p211.
2. ^ "Charles
Augustin Coulomb". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
3. ^ "viscosity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5513/viscosity
4. ^ "viscosity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5513/viscosity
5. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology
6. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
Paris?, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 10 		2209)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
2. ^ "Rene Just Hauy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9573/Rene-Just-Hauy
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "ren just ha y". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
5. ^ "Rene Just Hauy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9573/Rene-Just-Hauy
6. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
7. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
8. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
9. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
10. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "René Just Haüy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_J
ust_Ha%C3%BCy
Paris, France9 (presumably) 
[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

[2] Scientist: Haüy, René Just
(1743 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Geology Print Artist: Riedel
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Felix Massard, 1773- Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9 x 7.2 cm /
Sheet: 20.5 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=H
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 11 		2238)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
4. ^ "Lamarck". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
5. ^ "Lamarck". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Jean
Baptiste de Monet chevalier de
Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
9. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
10. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
11. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 6 		2256)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp229-230.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel
6. ^ "Philippe Pinel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0083/Philippe-Pinel (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Philippe Pinel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Pi
nel
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Philippe+Pinel?ca
t=health
Paris, France5  
[1] Dr. Philippe Pinel at the
Salpêtrière, 1795 by Robert Fleury.
Pinel ordering the removal of chains
from patients at the Paris Asylum for
insane women. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pinel.jpg

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 3 		2268)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Johann Elert Bode". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Elert+Bode
+?cat=technology (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Johann Elert Bode".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1804/Johann-Elert-Bode
[3] "Johann Elert Bode". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Eler
t_Bode
Berlin, Germany2  
[1] English: Johann Elert Bode
(1747-1826), German astronomer Source
das Originalbild hat eine Abmessung
von 9 x 7 cm Date 1806 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Elert_Bode.jpg
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 4 		2319) Antoine François, comte de
Fourcroy (FURKrWo) (CE 1755-1809)1 ,
publishes "A General System of Chemical
Knowledge" (11 vol., 1801-2; tr.
1804).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp246-247.
2. ^ "antoine fran
ois comte de fourcroy". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antoine-fra
n-ois-comte-de-fourcroy
3. ^ "Antoine Francois, comte de
Fourcroy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Antoine Francois, comte de
Fourcroy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Antoine_
Francois,_comte_de_Fourcroy
4. ^ "antoine fran ois comte de
fourcroy". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antoine-fra
n-ois-comte-de-fourcroy (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Fourcroy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Fou
rcroy
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Antoine François, comte de
Fourcroy (1755-1809), French
chemist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine_Fran%C3%A7ois%2C_comte_de_Fou
rcroy.jpg

[2] Portrait of Antoine Francois de
Fourcroy Giclee Print by
Anicet-Charles Lemonnier item #:
12263478A PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.art.com/asp/sp-asp/_/
pd--12263478/sp--A/Portrait_of_Antoine_F
rancois_de_Fourcroy.htm
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 18 		2349) Del Rio is chosen by Charles III
to learn about mining in France,
England, and Germany in order to
develop and modernize the mining
industry for the Spanish Empire.11
In
1794, Del Rio is sent to Mexico City to
become a professor of mineralogy at the
School of Mines set up by Fausto
D'Elhuyar.12

Del Rio is forced into exile from
1829-34 after Mexico's war of
independence but returns.13

(What is the routine of chemists to
analyze ores? How does Del Rio know
that he may have a new element?14 )


Vanadium is a bright white, soft,
ductile metallic element found in
several minerals, notably vanadinite
and carnotite. 4 dict]
Vanadium is used
to make rust-resistant steels, and as a
catalyst.15
Vanadium is atomic number
23; atomic weight 50.942; melting point
1,890°C; boiling point 3,000°C;
specific gravity 6.11; valence 2, 3, 4,
5.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p254.
2. ^ "vanadium
processing#82014.toc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0667/vanadium-processing#82014.toc
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p254.
4. ^ "Andrès Manuel
Del Rio". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
5. ^ "vanadium processing#82014.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0667/vanadium-processing#82014.toc
6. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del Rio". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p254.
8. ^ "vanadium
processing#82014.toc". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0667/vanadium-processing#82014.toc
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del
Rio". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
11. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del Rio". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
12. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del Rio". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
13. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del Rio". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del
Rio". The New Dictionary of Cultural
Literacy, Third Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
16. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del Rio". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
17. ^ "Andrès Manuel Del Rio". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A8s+Manue
l+Del+Rio?cat=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p254. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andrés Manuel del Río".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s
_Manuel_del_R%C3%ADo
Mexico City, Mexico17
(presumably) 
[1] Andrés Manuel del Río
(1764-1849), Spanish-Mexican geologist
and chemist. This image is a picture of
an oil painting dated from the XIX
century. The Painting is on public
display at the Palacio de Minería in
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Del_Rio.jpg

[2] Vanadium is not found in the
native state, but is present in
minerals such as vanadinite,
Pb5(VO4)3Cl. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vanadinita_Mibladen%2C_Midelt_Marruec
os.png
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 11 		2350) Niobium is a silvery, soft,
ductile metallic element that occurs
primarily in columbite-tantalite and is
used in steel alloys, arc welding, and
superconductivity research.7
Niobium
is atomic number 41; atomic weight
92.906; melting point 2,468°C; boiling
point 4,927°C; specific gravity 8.57;
valence 2, 3, 5.8


Hatchett is the son of a wealthy coach
builder in London, who builds coaches
for royalty. The young Hatchett is said
to have turned down an offer from his
father of £3,000 and a seat in
Parliament to give up chemistry.9

In 1950, the name Niobium will be
chosen as the official name for this
element by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry.10
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p254.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p254.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p254.
4. ^ "Charles
Hatchett". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9495/Charles-Hatchett
5. ^ "Columbite". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbite
6. ^
http://www.ul.ie/~childsp/CinA/Issue65/T
OC43_Columbian.htm
7. ^ "niobium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niobium?cat
=health
8. ^ "niobium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niobium?cat
=health
9. ^
http://www.ul.ie/~childsp/CinA/Issue65/T
OC43_Columbian.htm
10. ^ "Charles Hatchett". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9495/Charles-Hatchett
11. ^ "Charles Hatchett". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9495/Charles-Hatchett (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hatchett".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hat
chett
 
[1] Image of chemist en:Charles
Hatchett PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Hatchett.jpg

[2] Ferrocolumbite Photo Copyright ©
Keith Compton - This image is
copyrighted. Unauthorized reproduction
prohibited. Locality: Giles
Columbite-Beryl Pegmatite (Giles
Prospect), Spargoville, Coolgardie
Shire, Western Australia,
Australia Single black terminated
Ferrocolumbite xl. 36mm x 25mm x
14mm Personal collection and
photo. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mindat.org/min-1514.h
tml
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 8 		2357) Fulton submits plans to (the
government of2 ) France for a submarine
which Fulton argues can help France
overcome Britain's naval supremecy.
Fulton builds the Nautilus in 1800, and
the submarine works better than any
previous submarine, although much of
the submarine is modeled on one
designed by David Bushnell in 1776. The
Nautilus is reconstructed and improved
in 1801, but the French government
still rejects the project.3
Benjamin
Franklin poses for Fulton who paints
his portrait.4
Fulton is in the
process of building a steam warship
when he dies.5

Fulton is a member of the 1812
commission that recommends building the
Erie Canal.6

In 1813-15 Fulton adapts a catamaran
steam ship into the first steam warship
or "steam battery", but the War of 1812
ends before the ship is used.7
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp255-256.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Robert
Fulton". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Fulton?cat
=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp255-256.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp255-256.
6. ^ "Robert
Fulton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5642/Robert-Fulton
7. ^ "Robert Fulton". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Fulton?cat
=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp255-256. (1801)
(1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Fulton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fult
on
 
[1] Robert Fulton from
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/ which got it from Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fulton.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fulton, Robert (1765 -
1808) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist:
Ferdinand-Sebastien Goulu, b.1796
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Adele De Mancy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.9 x 8.4 cm / Sheet: 23.3 x
14.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 4 		2374) It seems unlikely to me that some
atoms of gas being larger would exert
more pressure, occupying more space, in
addition to offering more matter to
collide with. Perhaps atoms are too
small for any difference to be
measured, or perhaps Dalton's law is
true and size and mass does not affect
pressure.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "John
Dalton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1801)
(1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Manchester, England3  
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 4 5 6 		2399)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
2. ^ Record ID1206. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Richard
Trevithick". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p268. (1801) (1801)
5. ^
"Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick (1801)
6. ^ "Richard
Trevithick". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20 (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Trevithick".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Tre
vithick
Cornwall, England3 (presumably) 
[1] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg

[2] Richard Trevithick PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Trevithick.jpg
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 4 		2404)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "astigmatism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
3. ^ "thomas young".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271. (1801)
(1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
[2] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[5] "Miscellaneous Works
of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas
Young, George peacocl, 1855 John Murray
[6]
Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A Course
of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and
the Mechanical Arts", Taylor and
Walton, 1845. {Contains the lectures
which form vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
London, England3  
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 12 		2438)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
9. ^ "Johann Wilhelm
Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
11. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5]
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml
Jena, Germany11 (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 7 		2444)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
2. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
7. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[6]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
Göttingen, Germany6  
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 6 		2445) In his teens Gauss worked out the
method of least squares, advancing the
work of Legendre and this is the method
Gauss uses to calculate the orbit of
Ceres.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
5. ^ "Carl
Friedrich Gauss". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
6. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
[3] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
Göttingen, Germany5  
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 27 		2508) Hare is the son of a prominent
businessman and state senator. Hare is
educated at home, then studies
chemistry under James Woodhouse.19
Hare'
s father owns a brewery but the war of
1812 causes the brewery to fail.20
Hare
teaches briefly at the College of
William and Mary in Virginia.21
From
1818-1847 Hare is professor of
chemistry at the University of
Pennsylvania.22
In 1854, Hare writes a
large book on communicating with
spirits23 and claims that Benjamin
Franklin's spirit (from the dead24 )
had validated his electrical theories25
.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p291.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291.
5. ^ "Robert Hare".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
6. ^ "platinum". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/platinum?cat=biz-
fin
7. ^ "iron". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/iron?cat=health
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hare.h
tml
11. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hare.h
tml
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hare.h
tml
14. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hare.h
tml
15. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hare.h
tml
16. ^ "Robert Hare". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
17. ^ "laudanum". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/laudanum?cat=heal
th
18. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hare.h
tml
19. ^ "Robert Hare". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291.
21. ^ "Robert Hare".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
22. ^ "Robert Hare". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^
"Robert Hare". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
26. ^ "Robert Hare". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hare (chemist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hare
_%28chemist%29
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania26
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Hare, Robert (1781 -
1858) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: J. M. Butler Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 22.5 x
13.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h

[2] The Hare's hydrostatic
blow-pipe PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/hare.html
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 7 8 		3382)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
2. ^ Record ID3380. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
5. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
6. ^ "Philippe Lebon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/334270/Philippe-Lebon>.
7. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html {1801}
8. ^ William
Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A
Practical Treatise on the Internal
Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1799}

MORE INFO
[1] "Philippe le Bon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_le
_Bon
[2] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Description Philippe
Lebon Source Gallica Date
26/12/2007 Author Rousseau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Philippe_Lebon.png
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 4 		3388)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bloliverevans.htm
2. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3g
00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.jpg
3. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3g
00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.jpg
4. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3g
00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.jpg
{1801}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Evans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evan
s
[2]
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
Philadelphia, PA, USA3  
[1] Scientist: Evans, Oliver (1755 -
1819) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5
x 15.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/cph/3g00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.j
pg

[2] Automated mill for processing
grain designed by American inventor
Oliver Evans (1775-1819) Source
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID cph.3c10379 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 1795 Author
Illustration by James Poupard from
''The young mill-wright & miller's
guide : in five parts, embellished with
twenty five plates'' by Oliver Evans,
of Philadelphia. Philadelphia : Printed
for, and sold by the author,
1795. Permission (Reusing this image)
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-E2-09a.jpg
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 2 		4543)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1801
(guess}
unknown  
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 3 		5973)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1801}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
198 YBN
[03/??/1802 AD] 8 		2332)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "olbers s paradox". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
"Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^
"Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
8. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers (03/1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus
Olbers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wi
lhelm_Matth%C3%A4us_Olbers
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Bremen, Germany7  
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg

[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1
198 YBN
[07/01/1802 AD] 7 		3296)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
2. ^ John
Charles Drury Brand, Raymond Bonnett,
"Lines of Light: The Sources of
Dispersive Spectroscopy, 1800-1930",
CRC Press, 1995,
p27. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
Kx0IBC22p4C&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=joseph+f
raunhofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&sou
rce=web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa6
8680mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result
&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA27,M1
3. ^ Thomas Young, " An Account of Some
Cases of the Production of Colours, not
Hitherto Described", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 92, (1802),
pp387-397. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/430t7w24m1g61571/?p=6232750
3da1641a5a4b12085aaa7852e&pi=23 {Young_
Thomas_1802_An_Account.pdf}
4. ^ John Charles Drury Brand, Raymond
Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The Sources
of Dispersive Spectroscopy, 1800-1930",
CRC Press, 1995,
p27. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
Kx0IBC22p4C&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=joseph+f
raunhofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&sou
rce=web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa6
8680mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result
&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA27,M1
5. ^ Thomas Young, " An Account of Some
Cases of the Production of Colours, not
Hitherto Described", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 92, (1802),
pp387-397. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/430t7w24m1g61571/?p=6232750
3da1641a5a4b12085aaa7852e&pi=23 {Young_
Thomas_1802_An_Account.pdf}
6. ^ "thomas young". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
7. ^ Thomas Young, " An Account of Some
Cases of the Production of Colours, not
Hitherto Described", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 92, (1802),
pp387-397. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/430t7w24m1g61571/?p=6232750
3da1641a5a4b12085aaa7852e&pi=23 {Young_
Thomas_1802_An_Account.pdf}
(07/01/1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p157.
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
[5] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979, p317.
[6]
"astigmatism". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online,
p161.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[7] "Color". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[8] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038.
[9] The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours, Joseph
Priestley, 1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p401.
[10] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959, 1987, p95.
[11] Thomas Young,
"The Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of
Light and Colours", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24 {Young_Th
omas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_col
ours.pdf}
[12] Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
p36. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414
c9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24 {Young_Thomas
_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours
.pdf}
London, England6  
[1] [t Table of light wavelengths and
frequencies calculated by Young from
Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801] The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf

[2]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf [t Young
writes: ''Let the concentric lines in
Fig. 1 (Plate I.) represent the
contemporaneous situation of similar
parts of a number of successive
undulations diverging from the point A;
they will also represent the successive
situations of each individual
undulation: let the force of each
undulation be represented by the
breadth of the line, and let the cone
of light ABC be admitted through the
apeture BC; then the principal
undulations will proceed in a
recilinear direction towards GH, and
the faint radiations on each side will
diverge from B and C as centres,
without receiving any additional force
from any intermediate point D of the
undulation, on account of the
inequality of the lines DE and DF. But
if we allow some little lateral
divergence from the extremities of the
undulations, it must diminish their
force, without adding materially to
that of the dissipated light; and their
termination, instead of the right line
BG, will assume the form CH; since the
loss of force must be more considerable
near to C than at greater distances.
This line corresponds with the boundary
of the shadow in NEWTON's first
observation, Fig. 1; and it is much
more probable that such a dissipation
of light was the cause of the increase
of the shadow in that observation, than
that it was owing to the action of the
inflecting atmosphere, which must have
extended a thirtieth of an inch each
way in order to produce it; especially
when it is considered that the shadow
was not diminished by surrounding the
hair with a denser medium than air,
which must in all probability have
weakened and contracted its inflecting
atmosphere. In other circumstances, the
lateral divergence might appear to
increase, instead of diminishing, the
breadth of the
beam.''] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae4
14c9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24
198 YBN
[08/03/1802 AD] 15 		2845) Here is the translation of the
second more detailed report:10
"Gazzetta
di Rovereto (13 August, 1802 )
The
Counsellor, Giandomenico de Romagnosi,
living in Trento, known to the
republic of
letters by his learned productions,
hastens to communicate to the
physicists
of Europe an experiment showing the
action of the galvanic fluid on
magnetism.
Having constructed a voltaic pile,
of thin discs of copper and zinc,
separated by
flannel soaked in a solution
of sal-ammoniac, he attached to one of
the poles one
end of a silver chain, the
other end of which passed through a
short glass tube, and
terminated in a
silver knob.
This being done, he took an
ordinary compass-box, placed it on a
glass stand,
removed its glass cover and
touched one end of the needle with the
silver knob, which
he took care to hold by
its glass envelope. After a few seconds
contact the needle was
observed to take up
a new position, where it remained even
after the removal of the
knob. A fresh
application of the knob caused a still
further deflection of the needle,
which was
always observed to remain in the
position to which it was last
deflected, as
if its polarity were
altogether destroyed.
In order to check this
result he approached to the magnetic
needle at the smallest
possible distance
(without touching it) either a watch
spring or other iron objects, which
before
attracted the magnetic needle very
strongly at a distance four times
larger; but
now, under the action of
galvanism, had no effect at all.
To
ensure success to the experiment, one
needs the following precautions: not
all
the galvanic piles are good for the
experiment, but only the ones whose
discs have at
least a thickness of a
'linea' and are two inches of diameter;
it is convenient to use an
insulated pile,
and not for a long time in order to
avoid rapid oxidation at the surface
of the
discs; it is convenient to keep the
chains suspended in such a way that
they
do not touch any body conducting
electricity and to handle them with the
glass tube;
sometimes in order to ensure
rapid success to the experiment it is
convenient to touch
the point of the needle
with both knobs and then to make it
deviate with one of them;
and not forgetting
before that to handle the chains with
bare hands in order to excite
the apparatus,
since the galvanic flux has often some
interruptions. (clearly here there are
two chains connected to opposite sides
of the voltaic pile, and the
presumption is that current is flowing
through them.11 )
The needle used by
Mr. Romagnosi was only one inch of
length and one "linea"
of width in the greatest
extension near the pin. It was made of
a watch spring well
equilibrated and
suspended on a steel pin.
In order to
restore the polarity, Romagnosi took
the compass box between his fingers
and thumbs,
and held it steadily for some seconds.
The needle then returned to its
original
position, not all at once, but little
by little, advancing like the minute or
second
hand of a clock.
He then put the needle
under the action of Electricity, both
vitreous and resinous,
using a tube of rubbed
glass or sealing-wax ("cera di
Spagna""). The needle was strongly
attracted and
at some distance from the pipe, while
with the knob it did not move. After
removing
the tubes the needle returned to the
previous polar direction, while in the
ex-
periment with galvanism it remained in
the same deflected position. The
magnetic action
of a piece of iron, which
under the action of the galvanic fluid
had no effect on the nee-
dle, was stronger
than the opposite force of electricity
that was simultaneously applied.
This
experience was made in the month of
May, and repeated in the presence of a
few
spectators. In that occasion he also
observed very easily the electrical
attraction at
a very sensitive distance.
He used a thin thread soaked in a
solution of sal-ammoniac,
and it fastened it to a
glass pipe, he then approached the
silver chain to the thread at
the distance
of a "linea" and saw the thread flying
and remaining attached to the knob
as in
typical electrical experiments.
Mr. Romagnosi
believes it is his duty to publish this
experiment that should be-
come part of a
treatise on Galvanism and Electricity
in which he plans to discuss an
atmospheric
phenomenon that takes place every year
near the Brenner and that strongly
affects the
local population which feels all the
effects of galvanism."12
(see also
Govi's translation13 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gian Domenico Romagnosi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian_Domeni
co_Romagnosi
2. ^
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "electromagnetic
radiation". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-113
56/electromagnetic-radiation
5. ^, p131.
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
6. ^, p131.
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
7. ^, p133.
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
8. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
9. ^
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
10. ^, p133.
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^, pp133-135.
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
13. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon, 1884,
p257. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA#PPA257,M
1
14. ^, p116.
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
15. ^, p116.
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism (08/03/1802)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Pages/Libri/
Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4/4.pdf
* Romagnosi and Volta"s pile: Early
difficulties in the interpretation of
voltaic electricity romagnosi_4.pdf
Trento, Italy14  
[1] Description Portrait of Gian
Domenico Romagnosi, by painter: E.
Moscatelli (copy of Giuseppe Molteni's
painting); Museo del Risorgimento
(Milan). PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Romag
nosi.jpg

[2] Gian Domenico Romagnosi from Cantu
1861 PD/Corel
source: http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Page
s/Libri/Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4
/4.pdf * Romagnosi and Volta"s
pile: Early difficulties in the
interpretation of voltaic
electricity romagnosi_4.pdf
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 8 		2186)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
3. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
5. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
6. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
7. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
8. ^
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
[4] # Full text of The Story of the
Herschels (1886) from Project Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[5] "Herschel, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), np417-418.
Slough, England7  
[1] William Herschel Library of
Congress PD
source: "Herschel, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), np417-418.

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 6 		2239)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
de Monet chevalier de Lamarck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxi�me portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 4 		2245)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ "Lamarck".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
3. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
4. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste de Monet
chevalier de Lamarck". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
[2] "Lamarck". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé
dans le domaine public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 12 13 		2365) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) identifies dark spectral
lines in the spectrum of light from the
Sun, however wrongly interprets them as
the natural boundaries of each color.4


Wollaston reports this as "A Method of
Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection" in the
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society in 1802.5 6

In this paper Wollaston describes his
experiment:
"If a beam of day-light be
admitted into a dark room by a crevice
of 1/20 an inch broad, and received by
the eye at the distance of 10 or 12
feet, through a prism of flint-glass,
free from veins, held near the eye, the
beam is seen to be separated into the
four following colours only, red,
yellowish-green, blue, and violet; in
the proportions represented in Fig 3."


Wollaston goes on to describe the
discontinuous spectrum of light from a
source other than the Sun, writing "By
candle-light, a different set of
appearances may be distinguished. When
a very narrow line of the blue light at
the lower part of the flame is examined
alone, in the same manner through a
prism the spectrum ,may be seen divided
into five images, at a distance from
each other. The first is broad red,
terminated by a bright line of yellow;
the 2nd and 3d are both green; the 4th
and 5th are blue, the last of which
appears to correspond with the division
of blue and violet in the solar
spectrum, or the line D of Fig 3.
When the
object viewed is a blue line of
electric light, I have found the
spectrum to be also separated into
several images; but the phenomena are
somewhat different from the preceding.
It is, however, needless to describe
minutely, appearances which vary
according to the brilliancy of the
light, and which I cannot undertake to
explain."7 8

It is interesting to note that the
spectral "lines" are due to the way
light of different frequencies
separates in a prism (or when reflected
off a diffraction grating), and the
line is the image of the light passing
through a slit separated into many
identical slit copies over the
spectrum. So by isolating a single
frequency by viewing only one line of
the spectrum, a person can see the
universe at a very specific frequency
of light only. in fact, the universe
can be viewed only seeing the light
emitted at many frequencies and any
specific frequency just by only viewing
the light of one spectral line
(although the image has a very high
vertical to horizontal aspect ratio, it
can be spread out farther after initial
separation). For example, the Sun can
be seen in many different colors
(frequencies) simply by viewing
different spectral lines or spectral
dots by using a pinhole instead of a
slit. Each dot is a distinct image of
the Sun.9

(If seeing eyes and thought
was first done in 1810, William, or
"Bill" Wollaston may have played an
important part in the secret
unpublished development. That would put
Wollaston and this finding within the
time range to be the originator of this
finding if in 1810. It seems to me and
no doubt to many other outsiders that
do not see, hear or send thought images
or sounds, that this would be too far
in the past, and Pupin in 1910 or
earlier seems more likely. But what is
all the talk about "ten" before 1910?
For example, Faraday refers to things
not being "tenable", but most obviously
in a major obituary in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society for Charles
Wheatstone, the word "tenement" is used
near the end. This has to be beyond
coincidence, but does it refer to the
year 1810? And then, what happened in
the year 1810 that was so important and
was so closely related to Charles
Wheatstone? Wheatstone's obituary also
ends with "Better World" ("BW") which
might refer to Bill Wollaston, but it
is purely a guess.10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
3. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
5. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
6. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c0
71a024fe5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollast
on_William_1802_PT.pdf}
7. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
8. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c0
71a024fe5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollast
on_William_1802_PT.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
12. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1802)
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258. (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[2] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] Francis Wollaston, "The secret
history of a private man",
1795. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=vCUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=The+Secret+History
+of+a+Private+Man&printsec=frontcover&so
urce=web&ots=lMwgXnBmu7&sig=JiY5flaqsad7
lmMEp0aw3Smzu-c&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=1&ct=result
London, England11  
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 14 15 		2377) Tantalum is a very hard,
silver-gray metal of Group Vb of the
periodic table, characterized by its
high density, extremely high melting
point, and excellent resistance to all
acids except hydrofluoric at ordinary
temperatures.7

Tantalum has atomic number 73; atomic
weight 180.948; melting point 2,996°C;
boiling point 5,425°C; relative
density 16.6; valence 2, 3, 4, 5.8

Tantalum is relatively rare, about as
abundant as uranium.9

Tantalum capacitors have the highest
capacitance per unit volume of any
capacitors and are used extensively in
miniaturized electrical circuitry.10

Tantalum is quite inert to acid attack
except by hydrofluoric acid.11

For some time Tantalum is confused with
niobium.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p261.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p261.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Anders Gustaf Ekeberg". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Anders+Gustaf+Eke
berg+?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p261.
6. ^ "tantalum".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1207/tantalum
7. ^ "tantalum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1207/tantalum
8. ^ "tantalum". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tantalum?ca
t=health
9. ^ "tantalum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1207/tantalum
10. ^ "tantalum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1207/tantalum
11. ^ "tantalum". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tantalum?ca
t=health
12. ^ "tantalum". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tantalum?ca
t=health
13. ^ "Anders Gustaf Ekeberg". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Anders+Gustaf+Eke
berg+?cat=technology
14. ^ "Anders Gustaf Ekeberg". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Anders+Gustaf+Eke
berg+?cat=technology (1802)
15. ^ "tantalum".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tantalum?ca
t=health (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Gustaf Ekeberg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Gust
af_Ekeberg
[2] "Tantalum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum
Uppsala, Sweden13  
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Tantalum sample. GNU

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ta%2C73.jpg

[2] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg
(1767-1813) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E
lements/myth.html
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 8 9 		2439)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
5. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
8. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter (1802)
9. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[3]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[4]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[5] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
Gotha, Germany7  
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 37 		2464) In 1805 and 1806 Gay-Lussac
travels with Humboldt measuring
terrestrial magnetism.20
Napoleon funds
Gay-Lussac and his long-time friend and
co-worker Thénard to build a powerful
battery to compete with Davy in England
who is finding new elements through the
action of electricity.21

Gay-Lussac approaches the study of
matter as volume-centered as opposed to
mass-centered as English contemporary
John Dalton does.22

In Gay-Lussac's publications are found
the first use of the chemical terms
burette, pipette, and titrate.23
Titration is a method or the process of
determining the concentration of a
dissolved substance in terms of the
smallest amount of a reagent of known
concentration required to bring about a
given effect in reaction with a known
volume of the test solution.24 For
example, Gay-Lussac estimates (the
quantity25 ) of silver in solution
(1832), which Gay-Lussac titrates with
a solution of sodium chloride of known
strength.26
Gay-Lussac is the son of a
judge who is imprisoned during the
French Revolution.27
Gay-Lussac's
mathematical ability enables him to
pass the entrance examination for the
newly founded École Polytechnique,
where students' expenses are paid by
the state (and tuition?28 ).29
In 1801
Gay-Lussac becomes chemist Claude-Louis
Berthollet's research assistant at
Arcueil.30
Gay-Lussac works with
Berthollet's son in a factory where
chlorine is used to bleach linen.31
In
1808 Gay-Lussac is granted a
professorship in physics at the Faculty
of Science in Paris upon its
founding.32
In 1810 Gay-Lussac receives
a professorship in chemistry at the
École Polytechnique.33
In 1831
Gay-Lussac is elected to French Chamber
of Deputies under the new regime of
Louis-Phillippe.34
In 1839 Gay-Lussac
enters the upper house, the Chamber of
Peers.35
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
4. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
7. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
11. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
14. ^ Record ID1739. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
22. ^ "Joseph
Louis Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
23. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
24. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
27. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
30. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
32. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
33. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
36. ^ "Joseph
Louis Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1802)
(1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Arcueil, France36 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 4 		2484)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Sir Humphry Davy
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[3] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
London, England3  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 		2819)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cornell, 1938 E.S. Cornell, The
radiant heat spectrum from herschel to
Melloni-I. The Work of Herschel and his
contemporaries, Annals of Science 3
(1938), pp. 119-137. Full Text via
CrossRef http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/content?content=10.1080/0003379380020
0801 Infrared_Herschel_Melloni.pdf
2. ^ Phil. Trans., 1802, p. 47.
3. ^
Cornell, 1938 E.S. Cornell, The radiant
heat spectrum from herschel to
Melloni-I. The Work of Herschel and his
contemporaries, Annals of Science 3
(1938), pp. 119-137. Full Text via
CrossRef http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/content?content=10.1080/0003379380020
0801 Infrared_Herschel_Melloni.pdf
4. ^ "thomas young". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Thomas Young".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
[3] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[6] "astigmatism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[7] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
peacock, 1855 John Murray
[8] "Color".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[9] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038.
[10] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979
[11]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf
[12] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959, 1987
London, England4  
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Thoma
s_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 3 		5974) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his Piano Sonata 17 in D minor,
"Tempest" (opus 31).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1802}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
197 YBN
[02/27/1803 AD] 7 		3599)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon, 1884,
p343. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA#PPA257,M
1
2. ^ Aldini, "Account of late
Improvements in Galvanism, London,
1803, p.218.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ John
Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon, 1884,
p343. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA#PPA257,M
1
6. ^
http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=cala
is&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=geocode_result&
resnum=1&ct=title
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon, 1884,
p343. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA#PPA257,M
1 {02/27/1803}

MORE INFO
[1] Andre Parent, "Giovanni
Aldini: From Animal Electricity to
Human Brain Stimulation", The Canadian
Journal of Neurological Sciences, 2004,
31:
p576-584. http://people.clarkson.edu/~e
katz/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf
Calais5 , France6  
[1] Giovanni Aldini (1762-1834) PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/aldini1.jpg

[2] Giovanni Aldini (1762-1834) 1830
portrait PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf
197 YBN
[10/21/1803 AD] 28 29 		2375) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844) shows
that atoms of different elements vary
in size and mass, and makes the first
table of elements by atomic mass.7 8

Dalton theorizes that each chemical
element has distinct atoms, and begins
to work out the atomic structures of
compounds.9

Dalton claims that atoms of different
elements vary in size and mass.10
Before this, supporters of atomic
theory from the times of Democritos to
the 1700s Ruggero Boscovich all
believed that atoms of all kinds of
matter are alike, (that is that all
atoms are the same size and mass11 ).12


Many people believe that having so many
different fundamental particles, with
each element having its own kind of
atom appear to go against a view of the
simplicity of nature.13

Dalton focuses on determining the
relative mass of each different kind of
atom, a process that Dalton claims can
be accomplished by considering the
number of atoms of each element
contained in different chemical
compounds.14

In a memoir read to the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, "On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids"15 , Dalton describes his
method of measuring the masses of
various elements according to the way
each element combines with fixed masses
of each other. For these measurements
of masses to be meaningful, the
elements have to combine in fixed
proportions as the French chemist
Joseph-Louis Proust claimed (against
the opposition of Claude-Louis
Berthollet).16

In the last section of the paper is the
first table of atomic weights giving
Hydrogen a value of 1.17 18

Dalton creates the "Law of Multiple
Proportions", which is when two
elements form more than one compound,
the masses of one element that combine
with a fixed mass of the other are in a
ratio of small whole numbers. For
example using elements A and B, various
combinations between A and B happen
according to the mass ratios A to B
being 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 1, etc.19
Proust had shown in 1788 with the law
of definite proportions that compounds
only consist of elements in integer
ratios by weight, for example 4 to 1,
never 4.1 to 1 or 3.9 to 1. Dalton
finds this for methane
(carbon:hydrogen= 3:1) and ethylene
(carbon:hydrogen = 6:1) and with
various oxides of nitrogen.20

Dalton supposes that carbon monoxide
consists of one particle of carbon
united with one particle of oxygen, and
that the oxygen particle is 4/3 as
heavy as the carbon particle, while
carbon dioxide is composed of a
particle of carbon combined with two
oxygen particles. This will later be
proven to be true. Understanding the
similarity of this theory to that
advanced by Democritos (and Leukippos21
) 21 centuries earlier, he therefore
calls these tiny particles by
Democritos' own term "atoms". However,
where Democritos' theory was a logical
deduction based on speculation,
Dalton's theory is based on 150 years
of chemical experimentation. Dalton's
theory is a chemical theory not a
philosophical theory. Dalton is the
first to advance a quantitative atomic
theory, describing that all elements
are composed of tiny indestructible
atoms, and that all substances are
composed of combinations of these
atoms. One substance can be turned into
another by breaking up a particular
combination and forming a new one. All
the atoms of one element are identical
but differ from the atoms of other
elements only in mass.22

Knowing the ratios of each elements
mass cannot be used to determine the
actual number of elemental atoms in
each compound.23 For example, methane
contains twice as much hydrogen as
ethylene and so Dalton decides that
methane has one carbon and two hydrogen
atoms and ethylene has one carbon and
one hydrogen atom. Now people know that
the methane molecule (CH4) has one
carbon and 4 hydrogen atoms, while the
ethylene molecule (C2H4 has two carbons
and 4 hydrogen atoms.24 Since Dalton
does not understand that Hydrogen
usually exists as a two atom molecule,
Dalton views the mass ratio of methane
as 1 carbon to 2 (not 1 to 4), and
ethylene as 1 carbon to 1 hydrogen (not
2 to 4).25

Note that in giving the "ultimate
particles" (as Dalton describes them)
various masses, the concept of the atom
is applied to the elements Hydrogen,
and Oxygen, etc, instead of to the
light particles those elements are made
of, which are perhaps more accurately
called "atoms", being, in theory
indivisible. What we call "atoms" and
"subatomic particles" currently are
clearly compounds of light particles.26

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
2. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
3. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
5. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
6. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
7. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
8. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
9. ^ "John Dalton". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
10. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
13. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
14. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
15. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
16. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
17. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
18. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
19. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
23. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton (10/21/1803 (paper to
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society)
28. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
29. ^ John Dalton, "On the Absorption
of Gases by Water and Other Liquids."
Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester ,
Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1803)
(10/21/1803 (paper to Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society)
[4]
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html (1803)
Manchester, England27  
[1] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On the
Absorption of Gases by Water and Other
Liquids.'' Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester ,
Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259

[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
197 YBN
[11/24/1803 AD] 41 42 		2406) In terms of the double slit
experiment, I have not been able to
duplicate a double-slit causing
so-called interference, however I have
gotten a single slit to produce bands
of colors, using even a single piece of
aluminum or steel on one side of a
cardboard box hole, with scratches on
the metal clearly reflecting spectra of
colors from Sun light. In addition I
have never seen the double-slit light
interference performed, for example on
video. I was also unable to produce
light interference using a kit ordered
from a science hobby store. In the high
school I went to, this experiment was
demonstrated using water waves not
light. However, it seems clear that
what works for one slit (via a metal
with scratches and Sun light) should
also work for two or more slits. Again,
in my opinion this effect is an effect
of reflection of light off the inside
of the slit. For an experiment that
changed the popular paradigm for over a
century, like Fitzgerald, Lorentz's and
Einstein's theory of time-dilation,
there are surprisingly few examples of
video showing explicit proof of the
phenomena.25 Michelson will make great
use of so-called light interference.
Michelson's use of half-silvered
mirrors is evidence for the phenomenon
of light interference. But in terms of
the double-slit experiment, I think it
should be duplicated and shown to all
people on video. It may be that, like
me, people were unable to duplicate the
double-slit interference pattern, and
were too embarrassed to mention it, or
believed they simply did the experiment
incorrectly.26

Some interesting experiments that
result from this conclusion that light
particles reflect off the inside of the
slit are:
1) Try various machined
curves for the inside of the slits and
see how this effects the distribution
of photons/light (for example,
triangular cut, round cut, flat cut,
4-sided, 5-sided cuts, etc.).
2) Put
absorbing and reflecting material on
the sides of the slits, is there a
difference in the intensity of the
so-called "diffracted" light?27
3) Are
the "double intensity" lines actually
double the intensity or simply the
original intensity? If double then this
could be the result of two beams sent
to the same location by reflection like
the way a lens or mirror focuses light
to a higher intensity and smaller
space, but if the same, then clearly no
doubling is happening. have there been
experiments to verify this in the 200
years since Young first found this
(1803)?.28

This view of light as a wave and not a
particle, gains popular using the
double-slit experiment, and light
interference as proof, and eventually
the particle theory loses favor. This
will set back science for 200 years as
people reject the idea of light as a
particle until Planck (and secondarily
Einstein who still views light as
massless - Planck sees light as
massless too?). Currently my feeling is
that most likely light are beams of
particles with frequencies, point-waves
without amplitude, in other words
straight lines. I am one of the only
people to support a light as a particle
only theory, however there probably are
many people who secretly years before
me understood that light is most likely
a particle, is matter, and is the basis
of all matter in the universe, a view
rejected publicly by most people in
science even today. That all matter is
made of photons is claimed not only by
me. For example James H.L. Lawler at
http://users.owt.com/flesher/photonics/p
hoton1.html views the photon as the
basis of all matter, although Lawler
views photons as being made of two
different charged particles, and
supports an expanding universe theory.
Probably many people have figured out
over the years that light particles are
probably the basis of all matter,
although secretly, not publicly. In
addition finding the belief that the
photon is the basis of all matter is
very difficult to find on the Internet
or in archived publications.29

As an all encompassing statement about
this project. I don't have all the
answers, and in my view there are many
things in the universe and in science
that have yet to be explained
correctly. I think this is the case for
the double-slit experiment, and how
white light spreads into its component
frequencies (or colors). I think a
light-as-a-particle explanation will be
the most accurate explanation, but I
can only offer my computer simulations
which show that what Grimaldi named
diffraction is likely the result of
light reflection off the inside of the
walls of the opening which Grimaldi nor
Young accounted for in their diagrams.
In my own experiments, I produced a
colored band of light from Sun-light
reflected off a single piece of metal
covering part of a hole in a cardboard
box (Newton and others found a similar
result), Priestley's describes Dechales
experiment of finding colored bands
reflected off of scratches in polished
metal, and this is evidence that the
band of colors thought to be from light
bending is more likely reflection and
not diffraction or refraction, even as
far back as 1674.30 It seems clear
that the light is spread into colors
because of reflection on the inside
sides of the slits.31

But this question in particular still
needs to be fully explained and modeled
to the majority's satisfaction: What is
it about a physical groove, for example
on the back of a CD that causes beams
of white light to be spread into finer
beams of different frequencies of
particles? It seems to me that:
1) the
substance of the reflecting material is
important, it must be mirror like
(true?)
2) the shape of the substance is
important, it must have at least one
slit/groove, perhaps in a triangle or
other shape.
3) perhaps the reflection is due
to some characteristic of photons,
perhaps mass, velocity, and/or
frequency. We shouldn't rule these
things out.32

The mechanical reason why photons are
emitted and absorbed in the same
frequency by a certain atom or molecule
needs to be thoroughly explored and
explained in terms of light as beams of
particles.33

In addition, knowing that there has
been at least 100 years of secret
research into seeing, hearing and
sending thought images, sounds and
muscle movements, with what seems like
millions of microscopic lasers in
everybody's house and apartments, how
much has been learned about light but
kept secret? How divergent is the story
known to the most informed insiders
versus the story known to the outsider
public? Is this separation one of more
than 100 years?34

One question is: Are the photons that
separate into blue and red, always the
same photons that separate into blue
and red? Or can a photon that forms a
red frequency later be part of a blue
frequency? Clearly red and blue
shifted light is evidence that a photon
can be part of beams with a variety of
frequencies.35

Why do photons with a closer blue
frequency bend more than photon beams
with a more spread out red frequency?
Is light made of individual beams of
distinct frequencies?36

Is white light
composed of a variety of single
frequency beams that each occupy their
own line in space, separate from each
other and remain microscopically offset
from each other when spread out by a
prism or grating, or are all beams
combined into one line in space and
then spread out by a prism or grating?
It seems clear that even the most small
detectors could not be small enough to
detect a single beam of light particles
apart from adjacent neighborings
rays.37

A simple light that changes from yellow
to green is an example of how
individual beams must change frequency.
It's interesting to think that a single
beam might have an irregular frequency.
In other words a frequency that changes
every photon, it would probably look
like a constant changing of colors.
Star light, and sodium light appear to
be much more regular. Perhaps when a
photon is detected or received is not
important, only when the second photon
is received, and the beginning of a
frequency is what defines a color or
wavelength of light.38 Michelson wrote
about coherence, that some beams of
monochromatic light do not have exact
frequency over time.39
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical Optics",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
94, 1804,
pp1-16. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a
82481a8fe7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 {Young_Thom
as_1804_Experiments_and_Calculations.pdf
} (11/24/1803)
2. ^ John Charles Drury Brand,
Raymond Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The
Sources of Dispersive Spectroscopy,
1800-1930", CRC Press, 1995, p31.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0I
BC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=
web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1
3. ^ Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical Optics",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
94, 1804,
pp1-16. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a
82481a8fe7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 {Young_Thom
as_1804_Experiments_and_Calculations.pdf
} (11/24/1803)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp269-271.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ The History and Present
State of Discoveries Relating to
Vision, Light and Colours, Joseph
Priestley, 1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p181.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Thomas Young,
"The Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and
Calculations Relative to Physical
Optics", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 94, 1804,
pp1-16. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a
82481a8fe7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 {Young_Thom
as_1804_Experiments_and_Calculations.pdf
} (11/24/1803)
17. ^ John Charles Drury Brand,
Raymond Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The
Sources of Dispersive Spectroscopy,
1800-1930", CRC Press, 1995, p31.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0I
BC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=
web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1
18. ^ Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical Optics",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
94, 1804,
pp1-16. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a
82481a8fe7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 {Young_Thom
as_1804_Experiments_and_Calculations.pdf
} (11/24/1803)
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Record
ID2410. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ "thomas young". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
41. ^ Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical Optics",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
94, 1804,
pp1-16. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a
82481a8fe7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 {Young_Thom
as_1804_Experiments_and_Calculations.pdf
} (11/24/1803)
42. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the
Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young,
George Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p179.
{11/24/1803}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Color". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[4] Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[5] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979
[6]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf
[7] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959,1987
[8] The Last Man Who Knew
Everything, Robinson, 2005
[9] Thomas Young,
Philip Kelland, "A Course of Lectures
on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
[10] "astigmatism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online, p161.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
London, England40  
[1] Double-slit experiment and
interference fringes, as shown in
Young's Natural Philosophy - his most
celebrated discovery. [t Here you can
see no lines drawn for light that must
be reflected off inside of
openings.] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: The Last Man Who Knew
Everything, Robinson, 2005

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Thoma
s_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 6 		2125) In "Temple of Nature" Darwin
writes "Organic life beneath the
shoreless waves/Was born and nurs'd in
ocean's pearly caves;/ First forms
minute, unseen by spheric glass,/ Move
on the mud, or pierce the watery mass;/
These, as successive generations
bloom,/ New powers acquire and larger
limbs assume;/ Whence countless groups
of vegetation spring,/ And breathing
realms of fin and feet and wing."4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Erasmus Darwin".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9406/Erasmus-Darwin
6. ^ "Erasmus Darwin". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Darwin+?c
at=technology (1803)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Erasmus Darwin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Dar
win
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=lQcAAAA
AQAAJ&dq=Erasmus+Darwin&prev=http://www.
google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3DErasmu
s%2BDarwin%2B%26btnG%3DGoogle%2BSearch&s
a=X&oi=print&ct=result&cd=1&cad=author-n
avigational
Derby, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Darwin, Erasmus (1731
- 1802) Discipline(s): Medicine ;
Botany ; Engineering Print Artist:
Moses Haughton Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Rawlinson
Original Dimensions: PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Engineering
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 13 14 		2235) Cerium is the most abundant of
the rare-earth metals of the lanthanoid
series.7
Cerium rapidly reacts with
water to yield hydrogen, and burns
brilliantly when heated.8
Ceria, the
second rare earth to be discovered
(yttria was first), will be shown to be
a mixture of oxides from which seven
elements will be separated during the
course of the next century. These other
elements are the lighter rare-earth
metals, from lanthanum (atomic number
57) to gadolinium (atomic number 64),
with the exception of promethium.
Cerium
occurs in many minerals. Cerium is
also found among the fission products
of uranium, plutonium, and thorium.9
Cer
ium is named after the asteroid Ceres,
which was discovered in 1801.10
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "article 9022144". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2144
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p261.
4. ^ "Martin
Heinrich Klaproth". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
5. ^ "article 9022144". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2144
6. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
7. ^ "article 9022144". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2144
8. ^ "article 9022144". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2144
9. ^ "article 9022144". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2144
10. ^ "article 9022144". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2144
11. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology
12. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth
13. ^ "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5722/Martin-Heinrich-Klaproth (1803)
14. ^
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Martin+Heinrich+K
laproth+?cat=technology (1803)

MORE INFO
[1] "Martin Heinrich Klaproth".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hein
rich_Klaproth
[2] "Cerium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Cerium?cat=health

[4] "Ceria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceria
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)11 12  
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg

[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 4 5 		2244)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ "Lamarck".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
3. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck (1803)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228. (1803)
(1803)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé
dans le domaine public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 19 20 		2273) In the long preface to the French
translation of British chemist Thomas
Thomson's "System of Chemistry" (1809),
which explains atomic theory,
Berthollet (wrongly15 ) objects to the
view that all chemical reactions
constantly combine in definite
proportions.16

At Arcueil Berthollet equips a private
laboratory where he forms an informal
Société d'Arcueil where he invites
young scientists to meet with him and
his neighbor Pierre-Simon Laplace, and
which forms a center of chemical
research.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
2. ^ "Claude Louis
Berthollet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
3. ^ "Claude Louis Berthollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte
Berthollet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
6. ^ "Claude Louis Berthollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
7. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
9. ^ "law of mass action". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1286/law-of-mass-action
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Claude Louis
Berthollet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"Claude Louis Berthollet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
17. ^ "Claude Louis Berthollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
18. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234. (1803)
(1803)
20. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology (1803)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude Louis, Comte
Berthollet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Loui
s%2C_Comte_Berthollet
Arcueil, France18  
[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berthollet, Claude
Louis (1748 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist: Jean
Pierre Sudre, 1783-1866 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 28 x 19.5 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 6 		2314) It is interesting that gas
combustion guns like hand held laser
guns are not publicly acknowledged but
probably exist. Most gun powder guns
will be surpassed by the laser which
uses photons and is therefore the
fastest gun ever invented, although
photon guns, lasers cannot penetrate as
much as a more massive projectile can.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "William Murdock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
6. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock (1803)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Murdoch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mur
doch
[2] "coal gas". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
4503/coal-gas
England5  
[1] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 10 11 		2400) In 1808 Trevithick publicises his
steam railway locomotive expertise by
building a new locomotive called 'Catch
me who can' and charges one shilling
admission to the "steam circus" which
includes a ride which is intended to
show that rail travel is faster than by
horse.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
4. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p268.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p268.
7. ^ "Richard
Trevithick". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
8. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Tre
vithick
9. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
10. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick (1803)
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p268. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20
South Wales, England9  
[1] On the plaques is the following
text: ''This model was refurbished by
the combined efforts of: THE FRIENDS OF
TREVITHICK CENTRAL TRAINS EASTERN
GENERATION ABB-PCL ENGINEERING KUE
ENGINEERING Presented to Central Trains
by Frank Trevithick-Okuno on 17th April
1998. 1803 LOCOMOTIVE RICHARD
TREVITHICK This is a full scale
replica of the first steam railway
locomotive in the world, which preceded
Stephenson's 'Rocket' by 26 years. It
was designed by Richard Trevithick
(1771-1833), and built near Ironbridge
in Shropshire by the Coalbrookdale
Company in the winter of 1802/3. A near
identical engine ran the following year
at Pen-y-Darren. The replica was
built by Task Undertakings, a Manpower
Services Commission project in
Birmingham, under the guidance of Allen
Gulliver, to drawings made for the
Ironbridge Gorge Museum by Stewart
Johnson.'' This replica is located in
Telford Central Station, Telford,
Shropshire, UK. The photo was taken on
14 June 2005 by Mark Barker. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg

[2] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 32 		2416) Jean Baptiste Biot (BYO) (CE
1774-1862), French physicist,1 reports
on a meteorite fall which convinces
scientists for the first time that
rocks fall from the sky.2

Biot with
French physicist François Arago
measure properties of gases.3 (more
detail4 )
In 1793, after graduating from
the college of Louis-le-grand in Paris,
Biot joins the army.5
In 1795 Biot
takes part in a street riot6 (biot in
a riot?7 ) (as a royalist8 ) during
what is called the "White Terror"9
attempting to overthrow the
Convention10 (the group that
proclaimed the abolition of the
monarchy and the establishment of the
republic11 ), which is crushed by the
young general Napoleon Bonaparte on 13
Vendémiaire, year IV (October 5,
1795)12 . This marks the end of the
French Revolution.13 As a result Biot
is imprisoned for awhile.14 Monge
pleads successfully for the release of
Biot.15
In 1797, Biot is appointed
professor of mathematics at the
University of Beauvais.16
In 1800, Biot
becomes professor of mathematical
physics at the Collège de France in
1800.17
Biot obtains the favor from
Laplace of reading the proof sheets of
the "Mecanique celeste".18
According to
Asimov, Biot works out an ingenious
mathematical treatment of the particle
theory of light that greatly pleases
his old sponsor Laplace.19 (state
paper title20 )
From 1809-49, Biot is
professor of of astronomy at the
Sorbonne.21
Biot produces many works22
, the larger works being: "Traité de
géometrie analytique", 1802 (8th ed.,
1834); "Traité de physique
expérimentale et mathématique", 4
vols., 1816; "Précis de physique", 2
vols., 1817; "Traité d'astronomie
physique" ("Elementary Treatise on
Physical Astronomy"23 ), 6 vols. with
atlas, 1850; "Mélanges scientifiques
et littéraires", 3 vols., 1858 which
is a compilation of many of Biot's
critiques, biographies, and accounts of
voyages.24

Arago changes to support the wave
theory of light and Biot and Arago lose
their friendship.25
Biot is atheist
most of his life but returns to
Catholicism in 1846 (at age 7226 ).27

Biot is one of the last to uphold the
light is a particle (corpuscular)
theory until Planck and Einstein.28

It's interesting that corpuscular
supporters completely disappear at some
point around this time in history, as
far as I can see - either they do not
exist, do not publicly reveal their
belief in a corpuscular theory; or any
support of a corpuscular theory is not
published until Planck, and even then,
the corpuscular theory, of light as
matter is still not the majority view
and still not published.29

In fact, physics research in the field
of explaining light as particles and
explaining optics in terms of light
particles, for example, explaining how
particles of light enter into atomic
lattices, etc. for which progress was
being made (as Priestley, for example
describes in his history of optics),
completely stops until Planck.30
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Biot". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Biot.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "French Revolution". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
806/French-Revolution
10. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02576a.h
tm
11. ^ "French Revolution". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
806/French-Revolution
12. ^ "French Revolution". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
806/French-Revolution
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
15. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Biot.html
16. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
17. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
18. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Jean
Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Biot
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Jean
Baptiste Biot". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
22. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
23. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
24. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02576a.h
tm
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273. (1803)
(1803)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Biot
Paris, France31 (presumably) 
[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

[2] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an
altitude of 4000 metres Biot and
Gay-Lussac ascend in a hot air balloon,
1804. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 25 		2490) Berzelius is an early Swedish
supporter of the new chemistry proposed
a generation earlier by Lavoisier.10
Ber
zelius is one of first to accept
Dalton's atomic theory.11
Berzelius
does not appreciate Avogadro's
hypothesis, and has some confusion
distinguishing between atoms and
molecules.12
Berzelius develops
electrical theories of molecular
structure which are wrong, but will
maintain a hold on chemical thinking
for decades because of Berzelius'
popularity.13
Berzelius grows
conservative in his old age, and is on
the wrong side of almost all
controversies.14

Berzelius introduces many terms in
chemistry such as "catalysis",
"isomer", "polymer", "allotrope",
"halogen", "protein".15 (Berzelius
recognizes proteins?16 )

Over the course of his life, Berzelius
publishes more than 250 original papers
and many textbooks.17
Berzelius id the
son of a clergyman-school-master.18
From
1796-1802 Berzelius studies medicine
at Uppsala University.19
Berzelius then
studies chemistry at the Stockholm
School of Surgery.20
From 1807-1832
Berzelius is professor of medicine and
pharmacy at the Karolinska Institute21
, just outside Stockholm in Solna,
Sweden22 .
In 1835 at age 56 Berzelius
marries a fine-looking 24 year old
female.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to the
Perplexed Chemist Journal The Chemical
Educator Publisher Springer Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
18. ^ "Jöns Jakob Berzelius".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
19. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
20. ^ "Jöns Jakob Berzelius".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
21. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
22. ^ "Karolinska Institute".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
24. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289. (1803)
(1803)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Stokholm, Sweden24 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 5 		2502)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
2. ^ Berzelius, J. J.; Hisinger, W.
Neues allg. Journal der Chemie
1803, 1, 115 149.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
5. ^ Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
(1803)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
Stokholm, Sweden4 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
196 YBN
[01/01/1804 AD] 6 		1533)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Haiti". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti
2. ^ "History of democracy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy
3. ^ "Haiti". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti
4. ^ "History of democracy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy
5. ^ "History of democracy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy
6. ^ "History of democracy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
democracy (01/01/1804)
Haiti5  
[1] Unofficially leading the nation
politically during the revolution,
Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the
father of Haiti. Toussaint Louverture.
From a group of engravings done in
post-Revolutionary France. (1802) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Toussaint_L%27Ouverture.jpg

[2] Jean Jacques Dessalines became
Haiti's first emperor in
1804. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1760 -
1806). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dessalines.jpg
196 YBN
[02/22/1804 AD] 4 		3596) Don Francisco Sálva Campillo
reads a paper before the Academy of
Sciences at Barcelona, in which he
describes using the decomposition of
water with a voltaic pile for the
purpose of telegraphy.1

This paper is called "The Second
Treatise on Galvanism applied to
Telegraphy".2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA

2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA

3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA

4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
 {02/22/1804}
Barcelona, Spain3   
196 YBN
[04/??/1804 AD] 18 		2551) Audubon is the son of a French
merchant, planter, and slave trader and
a Creole woman of Saint-Domingue.5
In
1794, Audubon and his half sister are
legalized by a regular act of adoption
by his father and his wife.6
Audubon's
father fought at Yorktown in alliance
with George Washington.7
Audubon moves
to America to take care of his father's
farm8 and to avoid Napoleon's draft.9

Neither the farm nor any of Audubon's
other business interests succeed and
Audubon is declared bankrupt in 1819
and imprisoned.10
Audubon works as a
taxidermist for some amount of time,
makes portraits and teaches drawing,
while his wife works (in child care11
).12
By 1820 Audubon decides to publish
his own collection of animals and birds
and spends four years traveling through
Louisiana and Mississippi shooting
specimens.13
Audubon develops the new
technique of inserting wires into the
bodies of freshly killed birds in order
to manipulate them into natural
positions for his sketching.14
Critics
of Audubon's work have pointed to
certain fanciful (or even impossible)
poses and inaccurate details.15
In 1886
a bird preservation organization takes
Audubon's name and eventually evolved
into the National Audubon Society.16
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp299-300.
2. ^ "John James
Audubon". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp299-300.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp299-300.
5. ^ "John James
Audubon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1224/John-James-Audubon
6. ^ "John James Audubon". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp299-300.
8. ^ "John James
Audubon". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp299-300.
10. ^ "John James
Audubon". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "John James Audubon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1224/John-James-Audubon
13. ^ "John James Audubon". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
14. ^ "John James Audubon".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
15. ^ "John James Audubon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1224/John-James-Audubon
16. ^ "John James Audubon". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp299-300.
18. ^ "John James
Audubon". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology (04/1804)

MORE INFO
[1] "John James Audubon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_
Audubon
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania17  
[1] portrait of John James Audubon from
19th century book PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JJAudubon.JPG

[2] Same image, after cropping,
sharpening and applying autocontrast as
Image:Bolton-Audubon.jpg John James
Audubon. From: Sarah K. Bolton, Famous
Men of Science. New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell & Co., 1889. Copied from: A
Temple of
Worthies http://www.marcdatabase.com/~l
emur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-te
chnology/worthies/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Audubon01.jpg
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 24 		2362) Wollaston earns a medical degree
from Cambridge in 1793 and practiced
medicine until 1799 when Wollaston goes
into chemistry.12

In 1800 Wollaston forms a business
partnership with Smithson Tennant, a
friend of Wollaston's from Cambridge,
to create and sell chemical products.13


Wollaston incorrectly rejects Columbium
as a new element.14

In 1819 the royal commission Wollaston
is on disapproves of adopting the
decimal system of weights and measures
(the metric system15 ), and as a result
England and the USA will use the less
logical English or common system of
weights and measures. (Asimov states
that Britain adopts the metric system
but the USA holds out.)16

Wollaston supports Young's wave theory
of light.17

Wollaston creates the Wollaston annual
award from the interest on £100018
to be awarded annually by the
Geological Society, London, for
outstanding research19 into the
mineral structure of the Earth20 .

Wollastonite, a mineral compound of
calcium, silicon, and oxygen, is named
in his honor.21 22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
3. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
9. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
11. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
12. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
18. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
20. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
22. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
23. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1804)
24. ^ "John
Goodricke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke (1804)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England23  
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 13 14 		2363) Palladium has atomic number 46;
atomic weight 106.4; melting point
1,552°C; boiling point 3,140°C;
relative density 12.02 (20°C); valence
2, 3, 4.7

Palladium is a precious, silver-white
metal that resembles platinum
chemically, is extremely ductile and
easily worked and can be beaten into
thin leaf.8
Palladium has a
face-centered cubic crystalline
structure.9
Palladium dissolves in aqua
regia.10
Palladium forms many
compounds, including oxides, chlorides,
fluorides, sulfides, phosphides, and
several complex salts. Palladium has a
great ability to absorb hydrogen; when
finely divided, one volume of palladium
absorbs as many as 900 volumes of the
gas.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
2. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
3. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
5. ^ "Palladium".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium
6. ^ "Palladium (Chemistry)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Palladium (Chemistry)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Palladiu
m_(Chemistry)
7. ^ "palladium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/palladium?c
at=travel
8. ^ "palladium". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/palladium?c
at=travel
9. ^ "palladium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/palladium?c
at=travel
10. ^ "palladium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/palladium?c
at=travel
11. ^ "palladium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/palladium?c
at=travel
12. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
13. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1804)
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258. (1804)
(1804)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England12  
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 25 		2417) This shows a certain amount of
reckless and risky daring on the part
of Biot and Lussac to participate in
such a dangerous activity.22 23
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Biot". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
891/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
7. ^ Record ID2168. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record
ID2418. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Record ID2426.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://www.metric-conversions.org/cgi-bi
n/util/convert.cgi
15. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
891/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
16. ^
http://www.metric-conversions.org/cgi-bi
n/util/convert.cgi
17. ^ "Alps". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-343
84/Alps
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
19. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
891/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
891/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
24. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
25. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot (1804)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Biot
Paris, France24 (presumably) 
[1] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an altitude
of 4000 metres Biot and Gay-Lussac
ascend in a hot air balloon, 1804.
Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg

[2] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 8 9 10 		2440)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp278-279.
2. ^ "Bernard
Courtois". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard+Courtois?
cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ "Morphine# ref-9". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine#_r
ef-9
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp278-279.
7. ^ "Morphine#
ref-9". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine#_r
ef-9
8. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/2/2_08.htm
(1804)
9. ^ "Morphine# ref-9". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine#_r
ef-9 (1804)
10. ^ "morphine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3799/morphine (1804)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard Courtois".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6621/Bernard-Courtois
[2] "Bernard Courtois". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Cou
rtois
[3] "Morphine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine
[4] "Friedrich Sertürner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_S
ert%C3%BCrner
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Sert%C3%BCrner
{France and}Paderborn, Germany7  
[1] Raw Morphine (Opium) From the
Department of Justice website
[1]http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/photos/opium
/opium1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morphine1.jpg

[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 11 12 		3767)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aldini, Giovanni", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p14.
2. ^ Andre Parent, "Giovanni
Aldini: From Animal Electricity to
Human Brain Stimulation", The Canadian
Journal of Neurological Sciences, 2004,
31:
p576-584. http://people.clarkson.edu/~e
katz/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf {Aldin
i_Giovanni_Parent_Andre_2004.pdf}
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=japMAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA146&dq=Theoretical+and+Experi
mental+Essays+on+Galvanism&as_brr=1&ei=D
EhbSZ2xFZrukgSi5PHgBA
4. ^ Andre Parent, "Giovanni Aldini:
From Animal Electricity to Human Brain
Stimulation", The Canadian Journal of
Neurological Sciences, 2004, 31:
p576-584. http://people.clarkson.edu/~e
katz/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf {Aldin
i_Giovanni_Parent_Andre_2004.pdf}
5. ^ Giovanni Aldini, "Essai théorique
et expérimental sur le galvanisme.",
Paris, 1804. volume
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=M4s
JAAAAIAAJ volume
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=QcE
PAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=Essai+th%C3%A9oriq
ue+et+exp%C3%A9rimental+sur+le+galvanism
+inauthor:aldini&as_brr=1&ei=ckJbSZ6VJ4X
-kwTLlYlZ#PPP8,M1
and http://books.google.com/books?id=
MosJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA364&dq=Essai+th%C3%A9o
rique+et+exp%C3%A9rimental+sur+le+galvan
ism+inauthor:aldini&as_brr=1&ei=ckJbSZ6V
J4X-kwTLlYlZ#PPP9,M1 English
translation?: General Views on the
Application of Galvanism to Medical
Purposes: Principally in Cases of
Suspended Animation By Giovanni
Aldini, John Aldini Contributor
Giovanni Aldini, William Clowes, John
Callow, Archibald Constable, John and
co. (Glasgow) Smith, Burgess and Hill,
Smith & Son, Burndy Library Published
by Callow,
1819 http://books.google.com/books?id=O
EgVAAAAQAAJ
6. ^
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n18/histo
ry/stimulation_i.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ John Joseph
Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon, 1884,
p343. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA#PPA257,M
1
10. ^
http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=cala
is&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=geocode_result&
resnum=1&ct=title
11. ^ "Aldini, Giovanni", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p14. {1804}
12. ^ Andre Parent,
"Giovanni Aldini: From Animal
Electricity to Human Brain
Stimulation", The Canadian Journal of
Neurological Sciences, 2004, 31:
p576-584. http://people.clarkson.edu/~e
katz/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf {Aldin
i_Giovanni_Parent_Andre_2004.pdf}
{1804}

MORE INFO
[1] Aldini, "Account of late
Improvements in Galvanism, London,
1803, p.218
Calais9 , France10  
[1] Experiments by Aldini with
electrical stimulation of cadavers
using voltaic piles (1802). PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/electricalbodies.JPG

[2] Details from plate V in Aldini J.
Essai théorique et expérimental sur
le galvanisme. Paris: Fournier Fils,
1804. It illustrates Luigi Lanzarini
to whom galvanism is being applied on
the head. PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 3 		5975) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his Piano Sonata No. 21 in C major
("Waldstein") Opus 53.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1804}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
Vienna, Austria2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 5 		5977) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his Symphony 3.1 The work is to have
been dedicated to Napoleon, a hero to
Beethoven, but Beethoven strikes out
the dedication on hearing that Napoleon
takes the title of emperor. Outraged in
his republican principles, Beethoven
changes the title to "Eroica" and added
the words "for the memory of a great
man.".2

(Beethoven was apparently in favor of
majority rule and opposed to monarchy.3
)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
5. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>. {1804}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
[2] "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
Vienna, Austria4 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
195 YBN
[10/??/1805 AD] 12 13 		2411) In 1800 Banks recommends Brown
for the post of naturalist on the
Investigator in an expedition to survey
the coast of New Holland (Australia).6

From 1806 to 1822 Brown is librarian of
the Linnean Society.7
In 1810 Banks
appoints Brown as his librarian.8
In
1820 when Banks dies Brown is left in
charge of Banks' house, library and
collection of plants. In 1827, Brown
transfers everything to the British
Museum and remains head of a newly
formed botanical department9 .10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
3. ^ "Robert
Brown". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
6. ^ "robert
brown". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
7. ^ "robert brown". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
8. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
9. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
11. ^ "Robert Brown".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
12. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown (10/1805)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272. (1805)
(1805)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Brown (botanist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brow
n_%28botanist%29
London, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 11 		2364) Rhodium has atomic number 45;
atomic weight 102.905; melting point
1,966°C; boiling point 3,727°C;
relative density 12.41; valence 2, 3,
4, 5, 6.4

Rhodium is a transition metal and one
of the group of platinum metals
(ruthenium, osmium, rhodium, iridium,
palladium, and platinum) that share
similar chemical and physical
properties.5
The terrestrial abundance
of rhodium is exceedingly low; it is
estimated to be 0.4 parts per billion
in the Earth's crust. It is found as a
single isotope, 103Rh.6

Rhodium is a precious, silver-white
metal mainly used as an alloying agent
for platinum.7

Rhodium has a face-centered cubic
crystalline structure.8
Rhodium is
insoluble in most acids, including aqua
regia, but is dissolved in hot
concentrated sulfuric acid. Rhodium
compounds include halides, oxides,
sulfates, sulfites, a nitrate, and a
sulfide. The salts form rose-colored
aqueous solutions.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ "article 9063458". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3458
3. ^ "article 9063458". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3458
4. ^ "rhodium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/rhodium?cat=healt
h
5. ^ "rhodium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/rhodium?cat=healt
h
6. ^ "rhodium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/rhodium?cat=healt
h
7. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
8. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
9. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
10. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
11. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1805)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[3] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England10  
[1] Rhodium foil and wire. Image taken
by User:Dschwen on January 12th
2006. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhodium_foil_and_wire.jpg

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 5 		2468)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac (1805)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 14 		3223) Forsyth receives a patent in
April 1807.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
2. ^ "flintlock." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4591>.
3. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
4. ^ "Forsyth, Alexander John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4927>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Forsyth, Alexander
John." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4927>.
7. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
8. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
9. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/549308/small-arm>.
10. ^ "breech." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breech
11. ^ "muzzle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/muzzle
12. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
13. ^ "Forsyth, Alexander John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4927>.
14. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>. (1805)
Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland13
(presumably) 		 
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 4 		3389)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bloliverevans.htm
2. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
3. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
4. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
{1805}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Evans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evan
s
[2]
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3g
00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.jpg
Philadelphia, PA, USA3  
[1] 1805 Amphibious steam-powered
carriage and paddle boat designed by
American inventor Oliver Evans
(1775-1819) Source This image is
available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs Division under the digital
ID cph.3c10378 This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 1834 Author
Illustration from ''The Boston
mechanic and journal of the useful arts
and sciences'''' Boston : G.W. Light &
Co., July, 1834, p.
17. Permission (Reusing this image)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Oliver_Evans_-_Steam_
carriage.jpg

[2] Image of Evans' steam carriage PD

source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/cph/3c10000/3c10000/3c10300/3c10378v.j
pg
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 13 		6249)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bloliverevans.htm
2. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blrefrigerator.htm
3. ^ Oliver Evans, John Stevens, "The
abortion of the young steam engineer's
guide",
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 {Evans_Oliver_1805.pdf}
4. ^ Oliver Evans, John Stevens, "The
abortion of the young steam engineer's
guide",
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 {Evans_Oliver_1805.pdf}
5. ^ Oliver Evans, John Stevens, "The
abortion of the young steam engineer's
guide",
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 {Evans_Oliver_1805.pdf}
6. ^ Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, "Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false
7. ^ Oliver Evans, John Stevens, "The
abortion of the young steam engineer's
guide",
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 {Evans_Oliver_1805.pdf}
8. ^ "Cullen, William." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8153>.
9. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
10. ^ Essays and Observations, Physical
and Literary, vol 2, (Edinburgh, 1770).
11. ^
James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Philosophical
Magazine, Series Series 3, May 1845.
contained in: James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp172-189.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
12. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
13. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
{1805}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Evans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evan
s
[2]
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3g
00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.jpg
Philadelphia, PA, USA12  
[1] [t Note, I don't know if this is
the water cooler and ice making
machine.] Plate 1 from: Oliver
Evans, John Stevens, ''The abortion of
the young steam engineer's guide'',
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 PD
source: http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinT
homasProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URoche
sterCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.ht
m#ARTICLE9

[2] Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, ''Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2'',
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+a
nd+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 6 		2299)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
2. ^ "least squares". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/least-squar
es?cat=health
3. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
4. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
5. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adrien%20Marie%20
Legendre%20
6. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre (1806)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_Mari
e_Legendre
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "least squares approximation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-938
4411/least-squares-approximation
[5] "Least squares". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_squar
es
Paris, France4 5 (presumably) 
[1] The picture is an engraving by
J.S.Delpech. According to the file
Adrien Marie Legendre in the ''Institut
de France'' it shows a person with the
name Legendre, but not the
mathematician Adrien Marie Legendre. It
is older. It's Louis
Legendre (Legendre, detail of a
lithograph by F.-S. Delpech after a
portrait by Z. Belliard Courtesy of
the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris[2]) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adrien-Marie_Legendre.jpg

[2] Measuring the shape of the Earth
using the least squares
approximation The graph is based on
measurements taken about 1750 near Rome
by mathematician Ruggero Boscovich. The
x-axis covers one degree of latitude,
while the y-axis corresponds to the
length of the arc along the meridian as
measured in units of Paris toise
(=1.949 metres). The straight line
represents the least squares
approximation, or average slope, for
the measured data, allowing the
mathematician to predict arc lengths at
other latitudes and thereby calculate
the shape of the Earth. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''least squares
approximation: measuring the shape of
the Earth.'' Online Art. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2007 .
PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-70826/Measuring-the-shape-of-the-Earth-
using-the-least-squares?articleTypeId=1
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 9 		2301) Legendre finds a connection
between the question "Does the integer
p leave a square remainder on division
by q?" and the question "Does the
integer q leave a square remainder on
division by p?". Legendre finds that
when p and q are primes, both questions
have the same answer unless both primes
are of the form 4n - 1. Because this
observation connects two questions in
which the integers p and q play
mutually opposite roles, it becomes
known as the law of quadratic
reciprocity. (perhaps quadratic should
be replaced by "squared" or "second
order"4 ).5
Legendre also gave a method
of extending his law to cases when p
and q are not prime.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
3. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"mathematics#536420.hook". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-660
20/mathematics#536420.hook
6. ^ "mathematics#536420.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-660
20/mathematics#536420.hook
7. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
8. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adrien%20Marie%20
Legendre%20
9. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre (1806)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_Mari
e_Legendre
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "quadratic reciprocity law".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-48589
0/quadratic-reciprocity-law
[5] "Quadratic reciprocity law".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_r
eciprocity_law
Paris, France7 8 (presumably) 
[1] The picture is an engraving by
J.S.Delpech. According to the file
Adrien Marie Legendre in the ''Institut
de France'' it shows a person with the
name Legendre, but not the
mathematician Adrien Marie Legendre. It
is older. It's Louis
Legendre (Legendre, detail of a
lithograph by F.-S. Delpech after a
portrait by Z. Belliard Courtesy of
the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris[2]) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adrien-Marie_Legendre.jpg
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 3 		2346)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
2. ^ "Nicolas Louis
Vauquelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253. (1806)
(1806)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Nicol
as_Vauquelin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vau
quelin+?cat=technology
Paris, France2  
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 9 10 		2474) For this lecture Davy receives
the Napoleon Prize from the Institut de
France, despite the fact that England
and France are at war.5
Davy accepts
the award saying that the governments
may be at war but the scientists are
not.6 (An enlightened view, but
clearly scientists will start to keep
very important secrets in particular in
the early 1900s, of course the Pupin
seeing eyes, and CP remotely firing
neurons, secrets being the worst cases,
but clearly there must be many secrets,
generally kept more from the public
than government scientists, but as an
outsider, as to what happened, and what
is currently happening on the tiny
Earth we can only guess.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Sir Humphry
Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p285.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Humphry Davy". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
9. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1806)
10. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet (1806)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England8  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 8 		2488) Benjamin Silliman (CE 1779-1864)
US chemist, introduces Priestley's soda
water to America.1

Silliman's report on the potential uses
of crude-oil products gives impetus to
plans for drilling the first producing
oil well, near Titusville,
Pennsylviania.2
Silliman has a degree
in law, but is asked by the president
of Yale to teach chemistry since there
are no chemists to appoint. Silliman
accepts and gets training at the
University of Pennsylvania.3
In 1807
Silliman observes a meteorite fall with
a colleague, but (because of backward
religious view the majority of people
treat meteor stories as unrealistic4 ).
Thomas Jefferson states that it is
easier to believe that two Yankee
professors would lie than that stones
would fall from heaven.5 (Interesting
that English settlers had only been in
the USA for a century or two and
already there was territorial
division.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp287-288.
2. ^ "Benjamin
Silliman". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7788/Benjamin-Silliman
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp287-288.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp287-288.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Benjamin Silliman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Si
lliman
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp287-288. (1806)
(1806)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Sillim
an
New Haven, Connecticut, USA7  
[1] Scientist: Silliman, Benjamin
(1779 - 1864) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Geology Print Artist:
William G. Jackman, fl. 1841-1860
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 8.5 cm /
Sheet: 22.2 x 13.5
cm http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/displa
y_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Silliman.jpg
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 4 		2491)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1806)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
Stokholm, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 3 		2504) The vessel Nadezhda ("Hope")
commanded by Krusenstern, completes the
first Russian circumnavigation of the
Earth.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fabian Gottlieb von
Bellingshausen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Gott
lieb_von_Bellingshausen
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
(1803-1806) (1803-1806)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fabian Gottlieb von
Bellingshausen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5281/Fabian-Gottlieb-von-Bellingshausen
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Fabian%20Gottlieb
%20von%20Bellingshausen
?, Russia2  
[1] Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
. Source Can be downloaded from
e.g.
http://www.70south.com/resources/antarct
ic-history/explorers/bellingshausen The
portrait was also on a British postal
stamp (see
http://www.ivki.ru/kapustin/expedition/a
ntarctida/antarctida.htm) Date 19th
century portrait PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen.jp
g
193 YBN
[03/29/1807 AD] 5 		2333)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp249-250.
2. ^ "Vesta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5181/Vesta
3. ^ "Vesta". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5181/Vesta
4. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
5. ^ "Vesta". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5181/Vesta (03/29/1807)

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus
Olbers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wi
lhelm_Matth%C3%A4us_Olbers
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Bremen, Germany4  
[1] Vesta PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
Sect19_2.html

[2] To prepare for the Dawn
spacecraft's visit to Vesta,
astronomers used Hubble's Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2 to snap new images
of the asteroid. The image was taken on
May 14 and 16, 2007. Using Hubble,
astronomers mapped Vesta's southern
hemisphere, a region dominated by a
giant impact crater formed by a
collision billions of years ago. The
crater is 285 miles (456 kilometers)
across, which is nearly equal to
Vesta's 330-mile (530-kilometer)
diameter. If Earth had a crater of
proportional size, it would fill the
Pacific Ocean basin. The impact broke
off chunks of rock, producing more than
50 smaller asteroids that astronomers
have nicknamed ''vestoids.'' The
collision also may have blasted through
Vesta's crust. Vesta is about the size
of Arizona. Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2007/27/image/a/,
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2007/27/image/c/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesta-HST-Color.jpg
193 YBN
[08/17/1807 AD] 5 6 7 		2358) This is the first commercially
successful steamboat in the U.S.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Robert Fulton".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Fulton?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Robert Fulton". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Fulton?cat
=technology
4. ^ "Robert Fulton". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Fulton?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp255-256. (1807)
(1807)
6. ^ "Robert Fulton". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Fulton?cat
=technology (1807)
7. ^ "Robert Fulton".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Fulton?cat
=technology (journey is on 08/17/1807)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Fulton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5642/Robert-Fulton
[2] "Robert Fulton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fult
on
Albany, New York, USA4  
[1] Robert Fulton from
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/ which got it from Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fulton.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fulton, Robert (1765
- 1808) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist:
Ferdinand-Sebastien Goulu, b.1796
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Adele De Mancy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.9 x 8.4 cm / Sheet: 23.3 x
14.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
193 YBN
[10/06/1807 AD] 38 		2476) Potassium is a soft,
silver-white, highly or explosively
reactive metallic element that occurs
in nature only in compounds. Potassium
is obtained by electrolysis of its
common hydroxide and found in, or
converted to, a wide variety of salts
used especially in fertilizers and
soaps.25
Potassium has atomic number
19; atomic weight 39.098; melting point
63.65°C; boiling point 774°C;
relative density 0.862; valence 1.26

Potassium is extremely reactive, and
more reactive than sodium. Potassium
combines so readily with oxygen that
Potassium is usually stored submerged
in kerosene or some other hydrocarbon,
out of contact with air (Kerosene is
flammable, is that the safest liquid to
use?27 ). (Show chemical equation of
potassium and oxygen28 ). Potassium
reacts violently with water to form
potassium hydroxide, KOH, releasing
hydrogen, which usually ignites.29

Like the other alkali metals, potassium
reacts violently with water producing
hydrogen. The reaction is notably more
violent than that of lithium or sodium
with water, and is sufficiently
exothermic that the evolved hydrogen
gas ignites.30

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → H2(g) +
2KOH(aq) 31


Potassium combines directly with the
halogens, sulfur, and other nonmetallic
elements (except nitrogen).32

The metal has limited use since it so
closely resembles sodium, which is
readily available at lower cost.33

Potassium is the second least dense
metal; only lithium is less dense. It
is a soft, low-melting solid that can
easily be cut with a knife. Freshly cut
potassium is silvery in appearance, but
in air it begins to tarnish toward grey
immediately. Potassium must be
protected from air for storage to
prevent disintegration of the metal
from oxide and hydroxide corrosion.34

Potassium and its compounds emit a
violet color in a flame. This fact is
the basis of the flame test for the
presence of potassium in a sample.35
(Interesting that the atom emits the
same color perhaps after separating
from some compound molecule?36 )
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^ "Humphry
Davy". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Humphry Davy". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Humphry
Davy". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
"potash". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1047/potash
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
25. ^ "potassium". The New Dictionary
of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/potassium?cat=hea
lth
26. ^ "potassium". The New Dictionary
of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/potassium?cat=hea
lth
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "potassium".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/potassium?cat=hea
lth
30. ^ "Potassium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium
31. ^ "Potassium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium
32. ^ "potassium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/potassium?cat=hea
lth
33. ^ "potassium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/potassium?cat=hea
lth
34. ^ "Potassium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium
35. ^ "Potassium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
38. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
(10/06/1807) (10/06/1807)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "potassium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1048/potassium
London, England37  
[1] Image:Kmetal.jpg Size of this
preview: 800 × 600 pixels Full
resolution‎ (4,000 × 3,000
pixels, file size: 4.83 MB, MIME type:
image/jpeg) [t Does metal oxide? Is
volatile in water?] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kmetal.jpg

[2] Flame test Kalium,
violett Source: German Wikipedia,
original upload 24. Jan 2005 by Herge
(selfmade) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungK.png
193 YBN
[10/13/1807 AD] 14 		2477) Sodium is a soft, light,
extremely malleable silver-white
metallic element that reacts
explosively with water, is naturally
abundant in combined forms, especially
in common salt, and is used in the
production of a wide variety of
industrially important compounds.4
Sodiu
m has atomic number 11; atomic weight
22.99; melting point 97.8°C; boiling
point 892°C; relative density 0.971;
valence 1.5

Sodium is a dietary essential mineral,
whose requirements are usually
satisfied by the normal diet.6 Sodium
deficiency is rare, but it can occur if
losses from heavy sweating are not
replaced. A deficiency leads to nausea
and muscular cramps.7

Sodium oxidizes rapidly in air and
reacts violently with water, liberating
hydrogen (which may ignite) and forming
the hydroxide. Sodium must be stored
out of contact with air and water and
should be handled carefully. Sodium
combines directly with the halogens.
Sodium metal is usually prepared by
electrolysis of the fused chloride (the
Downs process); formerly, the chief
method of preparation was by
electrolysis of the fused hydroxide
(the Castner process). Metallic sodium
has limited use. Metallic sodium is
used in sodium arc lamps for street
lighting; pure or alloyed with
potassium, and is used as a
heat-transfer liquid, for example in
certain nuclear reactors.8 Sodium
compounds are used through many
industries.9 (Show equations for
oxygen and water10 )

Compared with other alkali metals,
sodium is generally less reactive than
potassium and more reactive than
lithium.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
4. ^ "sodium". The
New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy,
Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/sodium?cat=health

5. ^ "sodium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/sodium?cat=health

6. ^ "Humphry Davy". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Humphry Davy". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
8. ^ "sodium". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/sodium?cat=health

9. ^ "sodium". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/sodium?cat=health

10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/sodium?cat=health

12. ^ Prof. N. De Leon. Reactivity of
Alkali Metals. Indiana University
Northwest. Retrieved on 2007-12-07.
http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/
modern-atomic-theory/alkali-reac.html
13. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
(c10/13/1807) (c10/13/1807)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "article 9068494". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8494
[5] "Sodium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium
London, England13  
[1] Sodium metal from the Dennis s.k
collection. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nametal.JPG.jpg

[2] The flame test for sodium displays
a brilliantly bright yellow emission
due to the so called ''sodium D-lines''
at 588.9950 and 589.5924
nanometers. 13. jun 2005 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg
193 YBN
[11/23/1807 AD] 37 		2407) (probably put complete text from
light lecture here29 )
"THE nature of
light is a subject of no material
importance to the concerns of life or
to the practice of the arts, but it is
in many other respects extremely
interesting, especially as it tends to
assist our views both of the nature of
our sensations, and of the constitution
of the universe at large. The
examination of the production of
colours, in a variety of circumstances,
is intimately connected with the theory
of their essential properties, and
their causes; and we shall find that
many of these phenomena will afford us
considerable assistance in forming our
opinon (known error30 ) respecting the
nature and origin of light in general.
It is
allowed on all sides, that light either
consists in the emission of very minute
particles from luminous substances,
which are actually projected, and
continue to move with the velocity
commonly attributed to light, or in the
excitation of an undulatory motion,
analogous to that which constitutes
sound, in a highly light and elastic
medium pervading the universe; but the
judgments of philosophers of all ages
have been much divided with respect to
the preference of one or the other of
these opinions. There are also some
circumstances which induce those, who
entertain the first hypothesis, either
to believe, with Newton (Ph. Tr. vii.
5087), that the emanation of the
particles of light is always attended
by the undulations of an etherial
medium, accompanying it in its passage,
or to suppose, with Boscovich
(Dissertatio de Lumine, Part II. 1748;
and Theoria Philosophia Naturalis, 410,
Venice, 1763, p. 230.), that the minute
particles of light themselves receive,
at the time of their emission, certain
rotatory and vibratory motions, which
they retain as long as their projectile
motion continues. These additional
suppositions, however necessary they
may have been thought for explaining
some particular phenomena, have never
been very generally understood or
admitted, although no attempt has been
made to accommodate the in any other
manner to those phenomena.
We shall proceed to
examine in detail the manner in which
the two principal hypotheses respecting
light may be applied to its various
properties and affections; and in the
first place to the simple propagation
of light in right lines through a
vacuum, or a very rare homogeneous
medium. In this circumstance there is
nothing inconsistent with either
hypothesis; but it undergoes some
modifications, which require to be
noticed, when a portion of light is
admitted through an aperture, and
spreads itself in a slight degree in
every direction. In this case it is
maintained by Newton that the margin of
the aperture possesses an attractive
force, which is capable of inflecting
the rays: but there is some
improbability in supposing that bodies
of different forms and of various
refractive powers should possess an
equal force of inflection, as they
appear to do in the production of these
effects; effects and there is reason to
conclude from experiments, that such a
force, if it existed, must extend to a
very considerable distance from the
surfaces concerned, at least a quarter
of an inch, and perhaps much more,
which is a condition not easily
reconciled with other phenomena. In the
Huygenian system of undulation, this
divergence or diffraction is
illustrated by a comparison with the
motions of waves of water and of sound,
both of which diverge when they are
admitted into a wide space through an
aperture, so much indeed that it has
usually been considered as an objection
to this opinion, that the rays of light
do not diverge in the degree that would
be expected if they were analogous to
the waves of water. But as it has been
remarked by Newton, that the pulses of
sound diverge less than the waves of
water, so it may fairly be inferred,
that in a still more highly elastic
medium, the undulations, constituting
light, must diverge much less than
either. (Plate XX. Fig. 266.)

With respect, however, to the
transmission of light through perfectly
transparent mediums of considerable
density, the system of emanation
labours under some difficulties. It is
not to be supposed that the particles
of light can perforate with freedom the
ultimate atoms of matter, which compose
a substance of any kind ; they must,
therefore, be admitted in all
directions through the pores or
interstices of those atoms ; for if we
allow such suppositions as Boscovich's,
that matter itself is penetrable, that
is, immaterial, it is almost useless to
argue the question further. It is
certain that some substances retain all
their properties when they are reduced
to the thickness of the ten millionth
of an inch at most, and we cannot
therefore suppose the distances of the
atoms of matter in general to be so
great as the hundred millionth of an
inch. Now if ten feet of the most
transparent water transmits, without
interruption, one half of the light
that enters it, each section or stratum
of the thickness of one of these pores
of matter must intercept only about one
twenty thousand millionth, and so much
must the space or area occupied by the
particles be smaller than the
interstices between them, and the
diameter of each atom must be less than
the hundred and forty thousandth part
of its distance from the neighbouring
particles ; so that the whole space
occupied by the substance must be as
little filled as the whole of England
would be filled by a hundred men,
placed at the distance of about thirty
miles from each other. This astonishing
degree of porosity is not indeed
absolutely inadmissible, and there are
many reasons for believing the
statement to agree in some measure with
the actual constitution of material
substances ; but the Huygenian
hypothesis does not require the
disproportion to be by any means so
great, since the general direction and
even the intensity of an undulation
would be very little affected by the
interposition of the atoms of matter,
while these atoms may at the same time
be supposed to assist in the
transmission of the impulse, by
propagating it through their own
substance. Euler indeed imagined that
the undulations of light might be
transmitted through the gross substance
of material bodies alone, precisely in
the same manner as sound is propagated
; but this supposition is for many
reasons inadmissible.
A very striking circumstance,
respecting the propagation of light, is
the uniformity of its velocity in the
same medium. According to the
projectile hypothesis, the force
employed in the free emission of light
must he about a million million times
us great as the force of gravity at the
earth's surface ; and it must either
act with equal intensity on all the
particles of light, or must impel some
of them through a greater space than
others, if its action be less powerful,
since the velocity is the same in all
cases; for example, if the projectile
force is weaker with respect to red
light than with respect to violet
light, it must continue its action on
the red rays to a greater distance than
on the violet rays. There is no
instance in nature besides of a simple
projectile moving with a velocity
uniform in all cases, whatever may be
its cause, and it is extremely
difficult to imagine that so immense a
force of repulsion can reside in all
substances capable of becoming
luminous, so that the light of decaying
wood, or of two pebbles rubbed
together, may be projected precisely
with the same velocity as the light
emitted by iron burning in oxygen gas,
or by the reservoir of liquid fire on
the surface of the sun. Another cause
would also naturally interfere with the
uniformity of the velocity of light, if
it consisted merely in the motion of
projected corpuscles of matter ; Mr
Laplace has calculated (Zachs
Geographische Ephemeriden, iv. 1.),
that if any of the stars were 250 times
as great in diameter as the sun, its
attraction would be so strong as to
destroy the whole momentum of the
corpuscles of light proceeding from it,
and to render the star invisible at a
great distance ; and although there is
no reason to imagine that any of the
stars are actually of this magnitude,
yet some of them are probably many
times greater than our sun, and
therefore large enough to produce such
a retardation in the motion of their
light as would materially alter its
effects. It is almost unnecessary to
observe that the uniformity of the
velocity of light, in those spaces
which are free from all material
substances, is a necessary consequence
of the Huygenian hypothesis, since the
undulations of every homogeneous
elastic medium are always propagated,
like those of sound, with the same
velocity, as long as the medium remains
unaltered.
On either supposition, there is no
difficulty in explaining equality of
the angles of incidence and reflection
; for these angles are equal as well in
the collision of common elastic bodies
with others incomparably larger, as in
the reflections of the waves of water
and of the undulations of sound. And it
is equally easy to demonstrate, that
the sines of the angles of incidence
and refraction must be always in the
same proportion at the same surface,
whether it be supposed to possess an
attractive force, capable of acting on
the particles of light, or to be the
limit of a medium through which the
undulations are propagated with a
diminished velocity. There are however
some cases of the production of
colours, which lead Us to suppose that
the velocity of light must be smaller
in a denser than in a rarer medium ;
and supposing this fact to be fully
established, the existence of such an
attractive force could no longer be
allowed, nor could the system of
emanation be maintained by any one.
(Arago put this remark to the test,
Annales de Chimie, lxxi. 49.)
The partial
reflection from all refracting surfaces
is supposed by Newton to arise from
certain periodical retardations of the
particles of light, caused by
undulations, propagated in all cases
through an ethereal medium. The
mechanism of these supposed undulations
is so complicated, and attended by so
many difficulties, that the few who
have examined them have been in general
entirely dissatisfied with them ; and
the internal vibrations of the
particles of light themselves, which
Boscovich has imagined, appear scarcely
to require a serious discussion. It
may, therefore, safely be asserted,
that in the projectile hypothesis this
separation of the rays of light of the
same kind by a partial reflection at
every refracting surface, remains
wholly unexplained. In the undulatory
system, on the contrary, this
separation follows as a necessary
consequence. It is simplest to consider
the ethereal medium which pervades any
transparent substance, together with
the material atoms of the substance, as
constituting together a compound medium
denser than the pure ether, but not
more elastic ;(Some modern writers have
adopted the contrary hypothesis, that
the ethereal medium which pervades a
substance is of the same density as it
is in void space, but that its
elasticity is different. See Neumann,
Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, vol.
xxii. for 1835, and Annalen der Physik,
xxv. 418.) and by comparing the
contiguous particles of the rarer and
the denser medium with common elastic
bodies of different dimensions, we may
easily determine not only in what
manner, but almost in what degree, this
reflection must take place in different
circumstances. Thus, if one of two
equal bodies strikes the other, it
communicates to it its whole motion
without any reflection ; but a smaller
body striking a larger one is
reflected, with the more force as the
difference of their magnitude is
greater ; and a larger body, striking a
smaller one, still proceeds with a
diminished velocity ; the remaining
motion constituting, in the case of an
undulation falling on a rarer medium, a
part of a new series of motions which
necessarily returns backwards with the
appropriate velocity ; and we may
observe a circumstance nearly similar
to this last in a portion of mercury
spread out on a horizontal table ; if a
wave be excited at any part, it will be
reflected from the termination of the
mercury almost in the same manner as
from a solid obstacle.
The total reflection of
light, falling, with a certain
obliquity, on the surface of a rarer
medium, becomes, on both suppositions,
a particular case of refraction. In the
undulatory system, it is convenient to
suppose the two mediums to be separated
by a short space in which their
densities approach by degrees to each
other, in order that the undulation may
lie turned gradually round, so as to be
reflected in an equal angle ; but this
supposition is not absolutely
necessary, and the same effects may be
expected at the surface of two mediums
separated by an abrupt termination.

The chemical process of combustion may
easily be imagined either to disengage
the particles of light from their
various combinations, or to agitate the
elastic medium by the intestine motions
attending it : but the operation of
friction upon substances incapable of
undergoing chemical changes, as well as
the motions of the electric fluid
through imperfect conductors, afford
instances of the production of light in
which there seems to be no easy way of
supposing a decomposition of any kind.
The phenomena of solar phosphori appear
to resemble greatly the sympathetic
sounds of musical instruments, which
are agitated by other sounds conveyed
to them through the air : it is
difficult to understand in what state
the corpuscles of light could be
retained by these substances so as to
be reemitted after a short space of
time ; and if it is true that diamonds
are often found, which exhibit a red
light after having received a violet
light only, it seems impossible to
explain this property, on the
supposition of the retention and
subsequent emission of the same
corpuscles.
The phenomena of the
aberration of light agree perfectly
well with the system of emanation ; and
if the ethereal medium, supposed to
pervade the earth and its atmosphere,
were carried along before it, and
partook materially in its motions,
these phenomena could not easily be
reconciled with the theory of
undulation. But there is no kind of
necessity for such a supposition : it
will not be denied by the advocates of
the Newtonian opinion that all material
bodies are sufficiently porous to leave
a medium pervading them almost
absolutely at rest ; and if this be
granted, the effects of aberration will
appear to be precisely the same in
either hypothesis.
The unusual refraction of the
Iceland spar has been most accurately
and satisfactorily explained by
Huygens, on the simple supposition that
this crystal possesses the property of
transmitting an impulse more rapidly in
one direction than in another; whence
he infers that the undulations
constituting light must assume a
spheroidical instead of a spherical
form, and lays down such laws for the
direction of its motion, as are
incomparably more consistent with
experiment than any attempts which have
been made to accommodate the phenomena
to other principles. It is true that
nothing has yet been done to assist us
in understanding the effects of a
subsequent refraction by a second
crystal, (See additional remarks at the
end of this Lecture.) unless any person
can be satisfied with the name of
polarity assigned by Newton to a
property which he attributes to the
particles of light, and which he
supposes to direct them in the species
of refraction which they are to undergo
: but on any hypothesis, until we
discover the reason why a part of the
light is at first refracted in the
usual manner, and another part in the
unusual manner, we have no right to
expect that we should understand how
these dispositions are continued or
modified, when the process is repeated.

In order to explain, in the system of
emanation, the dispersion of the rays
of different colours by means of
refraction, it is necessary to suppose
that all refractive mediums have an
elective attraction, acting more
powerfully on the violet rays, in
proportion to their mass, than on the
red. But an elective attraction of this
kind is a property foreign to
mechanical philosophy, and when we use
the term in chemistry, we only confess
our incapacity to assign a mechanical
cause for the effect, and refer to an
analogy with other facts, of which the
intimate nature is perfectly unknown to
us. It is not indeed very easy to give
a demonstrative theory of the
dispersion of coloured light upon the
supposition of undulatory motion; but
we may derive a very satisfactory
illustration from the well known
effects of waves of different breadths.
The simple calculation of the velocity
of waves, propagated in a liquid
perfectly elastic, or incompressible,
and free from friction, assigns to them
all precisely the same velocity,
whatever their breadth may be : the
compressibility of the fluids actually
existing introduces, however, a
necessity for a correction according to
the breadth of the wave, and it is very
easy to observe, in a river or a pond
of considerable depth, that the wider
waves proceed much more rapidly than
the narrower. We may, therefore,
consider the pure ethereal medium as
analogous to an infinitely elastic
fluid, in which undulations of all
kinds move with equal velocity, and
material transparent substances, on the
contrary, as resembling those fluids,
in which we see the large waves advance
beyond the smaller; and by supposing
the red light to consist of larger or
wider undulations and the violet of
smaller, we may sufficiently elucidate
the greater refrangibility of the red
than of the violet light (See Cauchy,
Memoire sur la Dispersion de la
Lumiere, Prague, 1835. Powell, Ph. Mag.
vi. 16, 107, 189, 262. Ph. Tr. 1835, p.
249, &c.; and Essay on the Undulatory
Theory, as applied to the Dispersion of
Light. Challis. Ph. Mag. viii. Kelland,
Trans. Camb. Ph. Soc. vi. 153.
Difference of colour was referred to
difference of velocity by Melvil, Ph.
Tr. 1753, p. 262, and Essays, ii.
12.).
It is not, however, merely on the
ground of this analogy that we may be
induced to suppose the undulations
constituting red light to be larger
than those of violet light : a very
extensive class of phenomena leads us
still more directly to the same
conclusion; they consist chiefly of the
production of colours by means of
transparent plates, and by diffraction
or inflection, none of which have been
explained upon the supposition of
emanation, in a manner sufficiently
minute or comprehensive to satisfy the
most candid even of the advocates for
the projectile system; while on the
other hand all of them may be at once
understood, from the effect of the
interference of double lights, in a
manner nearly similar to that which
constitutes in sound the sensation of a
beat, when two strings forming an
imperfect unison, are heard to vibrate
together.
Supposing the light of any given
colour to consist of undulations of a
given breadth, or of a given frequency,
it follows that these undulations must
be liable to those effects which we
have already examined in the case of
the waves of water and the pulses of
sound. It has been shown that two equal
series of waves, proceeding from
centres near each other, may be seen to
destroy each other's effects at certain
points, and at other points to redouble
them ; and the beating of two sounds
has been explained from a similar
interference. We are now to apply the
same principles to the alternate union
and extinction of colours. (Plate XX.
Fig. 267.)
In order that the effects of two
portions of light may be thus combined,
it is necessary that they be derived
from the same origin, and that they
arrive at the same point by different
paths, in directions not much deviating
from each other. This deviation may be
produced in one or both of the portions
by diffraction, by reflection, by
refraction, or by any of these effects
combined ; but the simplest case
appears to be, when a beam of
homogeneous light falls on a screen in
which there are two very small holes or
slits, which may be considered as
centres of divergence, from whence the
light is diffracted in every direction.
In this case, when the two newly formed
beams are received on a surface placed
so as to intercept them, their light is
divided by dark stripes into portions
nearly equal, but becoming wider as the
surface is more remote from the
apertures, so as to subtend very nearly
equal angles from the apertures at all
distances, and wider also in the same
proportion as the apertures are closer
to each other. The middle of the two
portions is always light, and the
bright stripes on each side are at such
distances, that the light coming to
them from one of the apertures, must
have passed through a longer space than
that which comes from the other, by an
interval which is equal to the breadth
of one, two, three, or more of the
supposed undulations, while the
intervening dark spaces correspond to a
difference of half a supposed
undulation, of one and a half, of two
and a half, or more.
From a comparison of
various experiments, it appears that
the breadth of the undulations
constituting the extreme red light must
be supposed to be, in air, about one 36
thousandth of an inch, and those of the
extreme violet about one 60 thousandth;
the mean of the whole spectrum, with
respect to the intensity of light,
being about one 45 thousandth. From
these dimensions it follows,
calculating upon the known velocity of
light, that almost 500 millions of
millions of the slowest of such
undulations must enter the eye in a
single second. The combination of two
portions of white or mixed light, when
viewed at a great distance, exhibits a
few white and black stripes,
corresponding to this interval:
although, upon closer inspection, the
distinct effects of an infinite number
of stripes of different breadths appear
to be compounded together, so as to
produce a beautiful diversity of tints,
passing by degrees into each other. The
central whiteness is first changed to a
yellowish, and then to a tawny colour,
succeeded by crimson, and by violet and
blue, which together appear, when seen
at a distance, as a dark stripe; after
this a green light appears, and the
dark space beyond it has a crimson hue;
the subsequent lights are all more or
less green, the dark spaces purple and
reddish; and the red light appears so
far to predominate in all these
effects, that the red or purple stripes
occupy nearly the same place in the
mixed fringes as if their light were
received separately.
The comparison of the
results of this theory with experiments
fully establishes their general
coincidence; it indicates, however, a
slight correction in some of the
measures, on account of some unknown
cause, perhaps connected with the
intimate nature of diffraction, which
uniformly occasions the portions of
light proceeding in a direction very
nearly rectilinear, to be divided into
stripes or fringes a little wider than
the external stripes, formed by the
light which is more bent. (Plate XXX
Fig. 442, 443.)
When the parallel slits are
enlarged, and leave only the
intervening substance to cast its
shadow, the divergence from its
opposite margins still continues to
produce the same fringes as before, but
they are not easily visible, except
within the extent of its shadow, being
overpowered in other parts by a
stronger light; but if the light thus
diffracted be allowed to fall on the
eye, either within the shadow or in its
neighbourhood, the stripes will still
appear; and in this manner the colours
of small fibres are probably formed.
Hence if a collection of equal fibres,
for example a lock of wool, be held
before the eye when we look at a
luminous object, the series of stripes
belonging to each fibre combine their
effects, in such a manner, as to be
converted into circular fringes or
coronae. This is probably the origin of
the coloured circles or coronae
sometimes seen round the sun and moon,
two or three of them appearing
together, nearly at equal distances
from each other and from the luminary,
the internal ones being, however, like
the stripes, a little dilated. It is
only necessary that the air should be
loaded with globules of moisture,
nearly of equal size among themselves,
not much exceeding one two thousandth
of an inch in diameter, in order that a
series of such coronae, at the distance
of two or three degrees from each
other, may be exhibited. (Plate XXX.
Fig. 444.)
If, on the other hand, we remove
the portion of the screen which
separates the parallel slits from each
other, their external margins will
still continue to exhibit the effects
of diffracted light in the shadow on
each side; and the experiment will
assume the form of those which were
made by Newton on the light passing
between the edges of two knives,
brought very nearly into contact;
although some of these experiments
appear to show the influence of a
portion of light reflected by a remoter
part of the polished edge of the
knives, which indeed must unavoidably
constitute a part of the light
concerned in the appearance of fringes,
wherever their whole breadth exceeds
that of the aperture, or of the shadow
of the fibre.
The edges of two knives,
placed very near each other, may
represent the opposite margins of a
minute furrow, cut in the surface of a
polished substance of any kind, which,
when viewed with different degrees of
obliquity, present a series of colours
nearly resembling those which are
exhibited within the shadows of the
knives: in this case, however, the
paths of the two portions of light
before their incidence are also to be
considered, and the whole difference of
these paths will be found to determine
the appearance of colour in the usual
manner: thus when the surface is so
situated, that the image of the
luminous point would be seen in it by
regular reflection, the difference will
vanish, and the light will remain
perfectly white, but in other cases
various colours will appear, according
to the degree of obliquity. These
colours may easily be seen, in an
irregular form, by looking at any
metal, coarsely polished, in the
sunshine; but they become more distinct
and conspicuous, when a number of fine
lines of equal strength are drawn
parallel to each other, so as to
conspire in their effects. (Young's
Introduction to Medical Literature,
1813, p. 559.)
It sometimes happens
that an object, of which a shadow is
formed in a beam of light, admitted
through a small aperture, is not
terminated by parallel sides; thus the
two portions of light, which are
diffracted from two sides of an object,
at right angles with each other,
frequently form a short series of
curved fringes within the shadow,
situated on each side of the diagonal,
which were first observed by Grimaldi,
(Physico-Mathesis de Lumine, Coloribus
et Iride, Bonon. 1665.) and which are
completely explicable from the general
principle, of the interference of the
two portions encroaching
perpendicularly on the shadow. (Plate
XXX. Fig. 445.)
But the most obvious of all
the appearances of this kind is that of
the fringes which are usually seen
beyond the termination of any shadow,
formed in a beam of light, admitted
through a small aperture: in white
light three of these fringes are
usually visible, and sometimes four;
but in light of one colour only, their
number is greater; and they are always
much narrower as they are remoter from
the shadow. Their origin is easily
deduced from the interference of the
direct light with a portion of light
reflected from the margin of the object
which produces them, the obliquity of
its incidence causing a reflection so
copious as to exhibit a visible effect,
however narrow that margin may be; the
fringes are, however, rendered more
obvious as the quantity of this
reflected light is greater. Upon this
theory it follows that the distance of
the first dark fringe from the shadow
should be half as great as that of the
fourth, the difference of the lengths
of the different paths of the light
being as the squares of those
distances; and the experiment precisely
confirms this calculation, with the
same slight correction only as is
required in all other cases; the
distances of the first fringes being
always a little increased. It may also
be observed, that the extent of the
shadow itself is always augmented, and
nearly in an equal degree with that of
the fringes: the reason of this
circumstance appears to be the gradual
loss of light at the edges of every
separate beam, which is so strongly
analogous to the phenomena visible in
waves of water. The same cause may also
perhaps have some effect in producing
the general modification or correction
of the place of the first fringes,
although it appears to be scarcely
sufficient for explaining the whole of
it. (Plate XXX. Fig. 446.)
A still more
common and convenient method of
exhibiting the effects of the mutual
interference of light, is afforded us
by the colours of the thin plates of
transparent substances. The lights are
here derived from the successive
partial reflections produced by the
upper and under surface of the plate,
or when the plate is viewed by
transmitted light, from the direct beam
which is simply refracted, and that
portion of it which is twice {editor:
or more times} reflected within the
plate. The appearance in the latter
case is much less striking than in the
former, because the light thus affected
is only a small portion of the whole
beam, with which it is mixed; while in
the former the two reflected portions
are nearly of equal intensity, and may
be separated from all other light
tending to overpower them. In both
cases, when the plate is gradually
reduced in thickness to an extremely
thin edge, the order of colours may be
precisely the same as in the stripes
and coronae already described; their
distance only varying when the surfaces
of the plate, instead of being plane,
are concave, as it frequently happens
in such experiments. The scale of an
oxid (oxide- typo?31 ), which is often
formed by the effect of heat on the
surface of a metal, in particular of
iron, affords us an example of such a
series formed in reflected light; this
scale is at first inconceivably thin,
and destroys none of the light
reflected, it soon, however begins to
be of a dull yellow, which changes to
red, and then to crimson and blue,
after which the effect is destroyed by
the opacity which the oxid acquires.
Usually, however, the series of colours
produced in reflected light follows an
order somewhat different: the scale of
oxid is denser than the air, and the
iron below than the oxid; but where the
mediums above and below the plate are
either both rarer or both denser than
itself, the different natures of the
reflections at its different surfaces
appear to produce a modification in the
state of the undulations, and the
infinitely thin edge of the plate
becomes black instead of white, one of
the portions of light at once
destroying the other, instead of
cooperating with it. Thus when a film
of soapy water is stretched over a wine
glass, and placed in a vertical
position, its upper edge becomes
extremely thin, and appears nearly
black, while the parts below are
divided by horizontal lines into a
series of coloured bands; and when two
glasses, one of which is slightly
convex, are pressed together with some
force, the plate of air between them
exhibits the appearance of coloured
rings, beginning from a black spot at
the centre, and becoming narrower and
narrower, as the curved figure of the
glass causes the thickness of the plate
of air to increase more and more
rapidly. The black is succeeded by a
violet, so faint as to be scarcely
perceptible; next to this is an orange
yellow, and then crimson and blue. When
water or any other fluid, is
substituted for the air between the
glasses, the rings appear where the
thickness is as much less than that of
the plate of air, as the refractive
density of the fluid is greater; a
circumstance which necessarily follows
from the proportion of the velocities
with which light must, upon the
Huygenian hypothesis, be supposed to
move in different mediums. It is also a
consequence equally necessary in this
theory, and equally inconsistent with
all others, that when the direction of
the light is oblique, the effect of a
thicker plate must be the same as that
of a thinner plate, when the light
falls perpendicularly upon it; the
difference of the paths described by
the different portions of light
precisely corresponding with the
observed phenomena. (Plate XXX. Fig.
447...449.)
Sir Isaac Newton supposes the colours
of natural bodies in general to be
similar to these colours of thin
plates, and to be governed by the
magnitude of their particles. If this
opinion were universally true, we might
always separate the colours of natural
bodies by refraction into a number of
different portions, with dark spaces
intervening; for every part of a thin
plate which exhibits the appearance of
colour, affords such a divided
spectrum, when viewed through a prism.
There are accordingly many natural
colours in which such a separation may
be observed; one of the most remarkable
of them is that of blue glass, probably
coloured with cobalt, which becomes
divided into seven distinct portions.
It seems, however, impossible to
suppose the production of natural
colours perfectly identical with those
of thin plates, on account of the known
minuteness of the particles of
colouring bodies, unless the refractive
density of these particles be at least
20 or 30 times as great as that of
glass or water; which is indeed not at
all improbable with respect to the
ultimate atoms of bodies, but difficult
to believe with respect to any of their
arrangements constituting the
diversities of material substances.
The colours
of mixed plates constitute a distinct
variety of the colours of thin plates,
which has not been commonly observed.
They appear when the interstice hetween
two glasses nearly in contact, is
filled with a great number of minute
portions of two different substances,
as water and air, oil and air, or oil
and water; the light which passes
through one of the mediums, moving with
a greater velocity, anticipates the
light passing through the other; and
their effects on the eye being
confounded and combined, their
interference produces an appearance of
colours nearly similar to those of the
colours of simple thin plates, seen by
transmission; but at much greater
thicknesses, depending on the
difference of the refractive densities
of the substances employed. The effect
is observed by holding the glasses
between the eye and the termination of
a bright object, and it is most
conspicuous in the portion which is
seen on the dark part beyond the
object, being produced by the light
scattered irregularly from the surfaces
of the fluid. Here, however, the
effects are inverted, the colours
resembling those of the common thin
plates seen by reflection; and the same
considerations on the nature of the
reflections are applicable to both
cases. (Plate XXX. Fig. 450.)
The
production of the supernumerary
rainbows, which are sometimes seen
within the primary and without the
secondary bow, appears to be intimately
connected with that of the colours of
thin plates. We have already seen that
the light producing the ordinary
rainbow is double, its intensity being
only greatest at its termination, where
the common bow appears, while the whole
light is extended much more widely. The
two portions concerned in its
production must divide this light into
fringes; but unless almost all the
drops of a shower happen to be of the
same magnitude, the effects of these
fringes must be confounded and
destroyed; in general, however, they
must at least cooperate more or less in
producing one dark fringe, which must
cut off the common rainbow much more
abruptly than it would otherwise have
been terminated, and consequently
assist the distinctness of its colours.
The magnitude of the drops of rain,
required for producing such of these
rainbows as are usually observed, is
between the 50th and the 100th of an
inch; they become gradually narrower as
they are more remote from the common
rainbows, nearly in the same
proportions as the external fringes of
a shadow, or the rings seen in a
concave plate.(Young's Exp. and Obs.
relative to Physical Optics, Ph. Tr.
1804, p. 1. Potter, Math.
Considerations on the Rainbow, Tr.
Camb. Ph. Soc. vi. 141.). (Plate XXX.
Fig. 451.)
The last species of the colours
of double lights, which it will be
necessary to notice, constitutes those
which have been denominated, from
Newton's experiments, the colours of
thick plates, but which may be called,
with more propriety, the colours of
concave mirrors. The anterior surface
of a mirror of glass, or any other
transparent surface placed before a
speculum of metal, dissipates
irregularly in every direction two
portions of light, one before and the
other after its reflection. When the
light falls obliquely on the mirror,
being admitted through an aperture near
the centre of its curvature, it is easy
to show, from the laws of reflection,
that the two portions, thus dissipated,
will conspire in their effects,
throughout the circumference of a
circle, passing through the aperture;
this circle will consequently be white,
and it will be surrounded with circles
of colours very nearly at equal
distances, resembling the stripes
produced by diffraction. The analogy
between these colours and those of thin
plates is by no means so close as
Newton supposed it; since the effect of
a plate of any considerable thickness
must be absolutely lost in white light,
after ten or twelve alternations of
colours at most, while these effects
would require the whole process to
remain unaltered, or rather to be
renewed, after many thousands or
millions of changes. (Plate XXX. Fig.
452.)
It is presumed, that the
accuracy, with which the general law of
the interference of light has been
shown to be applicable to so great a
variety of facts, in circumstances the
most dissimilar, will be allowed to
establish its validity in the most
satisfactory manner. The full
confirmation or decided rejection of
the theory, by which this law was first
suggested, can be expected from time
and experience alone; if it be
confuted, our prospects will again be
confined within their ancient limits,
but if it be fully established, we may
expect an ample extension of our views
of the operations of nature, by means
of our acquaintance with a medium, so
powerful and so universal, as that to
which the propagation of light must be
attributed.".32


(very interesting comment that light
cannot penetrate an atom, my own view
is that light particles can penetrate
atoms and of course atoms are composed
strictly of light particles. Also the
reference to Laplace's calculation of a
star so massive that particles of light
emitted cannot escape, and the
comparison to light waves with would,
presumably, not be affected by gravity.
As pertains to a particle explanation
of color dispersal and light
interference, I think that possibly
particles of the same frequency may
collide with each other through
reflection, sending them in different
directions based on their frequencies.
In double refraction, passages in the
crystal may follow the cleavage and
also go straight through the crystal,
making two clear major pathways for
light particles to be transmitted
through the crystal and back which
explain why polarizer filter which may
only allow beams in one plane can be
used to filter each image. In some
sence the concept of diffraction may be
interpreted by later historians as a
comedy of errors in that Grimaldi
misinterpreted the reflection
phenomenon creating the very unlikely
concept of bending of light around the
slit, and then even Newton did not
recognize that this is reflection,
finally Young missed this simple
reflection, and this simple mistake
continues to this day. So interference
and color dispersion are real
phenomena, but I think diffraction is
probably only reflection - as is
interference, however for interference
I think photons may reflect off
themselves.33 )
========
ENERGY
In a later lecture describing energy
Young writes "The velocity of a body
descending along a given surface, is
the same as that of a body falling
freely through an equal height, not
only when the surface is a plane, but
also when it is a continued curve, in
which the body is retained by its
attachment to a thread, or is supported
by any regular surface, supposed to be
free from friction. (Principia, i. 40)
We may easily show, by an experiment on
a suspended ball, that its velocity is
the same when it descends from the same
height, whatever may be the form of its
path, by observing the height to which
it rises on the opposite side of the
lowest point. We may alter the form of
the path in which it descends, by
placing pins at different points, so as
to interfere with the thread that
supports the ball, and to form in
succession temporary centres of motion;
and we shall find, in all cases, that
the body ascends to a height equal to
that from which it descended, with a
small deduction on account of friction.
(Plate II. Fig. 23.)
Hence is derived the
idea conveyed by the term living or
ascending force; for since the height
to which a body will rise
perpendicularly, is as the square of
its velocity, it will preserve a
tendency to rise to a height which is
as the square of its velocity whatever
may be the path into which it is
directed, provided that it meet with no
abrupt angle, or that it rebound at
each angle in a new direction without
losing any velocity. The same idea is
somewhat more concisely expressed by
the term energy, which indicates the
tendency of a body to ascend or to
penetrate to a certain distance, in
opposition to a retarding force.".34
(So the modern concept of "energy" is
based on the example given by Leibniz
of a falling body reaching the same
height. The one flaw is that, the
return distance is not the same as the
fall distance, because on return, the
Earth's acceleration decelerates the
velocity of the object. However,
perhaps the view is that this loss of
energy is accounted for, being lost
because of the acceleration caused by
Earth. Does the Earth absorb this lost
energy?35 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Record ID3260. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Great
Experiments in Physics, Shamos,
1959,1987, p95.
3. ^ E. Scott Barr, "Men and
Milestones in Optics II. Thomas
Young". http://ao.osa.org/DirectPDFAcce
ss/AE1EBA4C-BDB9-137E-CB5BC2545C423232_1
3115.pdf?da=1&id=13115&seq=0&CFID=877539
2&CFTOKEN=45302504
4. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Thomas Young".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
7. ^ E. Scott Barr, "Men and Milestones
in Optics II. Thomas
Young". http://ao.osa.org/DirectPDFAcce
ss/AE1EBA4C-BDB9-137E-CB5BC2545C423232_1
3115.pdf?da=1&id=13115&seq=0&CFID=877539
2&CFTOKEN=45302504
8. ^ Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A
Course of Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts",
Taylor and Walton, 2vol, volume 2
(Plates), 1845.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bW8SA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:L
CCN07026143#PPT122,M1 and http://books
.google.com/books?id=DAlDAAAAIAAJ&prints
ec=frontcover&dq=editions:LCCN07026143#P
PT134,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845,
pp.359-374. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=%22A+course+of+lectures+on+natural+phi
losophy+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
11. ^ Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A
Course of Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts",
Taylor and Walton, 1845,
pp.359-374. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=%22A+course+of+lectures+on+natural+phi
losophy+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
12. ^ Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A
Course of Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts",
Taylor and Walton, 1845,
pp.359-374. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=%22A+course+of+lectures+on+natural+phi
losophy+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845,
pp.359-374. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=%22A+course+of+lectures+on+natural+phi
losophy+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
15. ^ Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A
Course of Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts",
Taylor and Walton, 1845,
pp.359-374. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=%22A+course+of+lectures+on+natural+phi
losophy+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
18. ^ Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A
Course of Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts",
Taylor and Walton, 2vol, volume 1
(Text, no plates), 1845. {Contains
lectures from 1807 edition - and
additional updated text from the editor
in
brackets} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
%22A+course+of+lectures+on+natural+philo
sophy+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
19. ^ "Young, Thomas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p744-745.
20. ^ Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845,
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=f
GMSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=thomas+young+%22o
n+collision%22#PPA59,M1
21. ^ "thomas young". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A
Course of Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts",
Taylor and Walton, 1845,
pp.359-374. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=%22A+course+of+lectures+on+natural+phi
losophy+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fGMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22A
+course+of+lectures+on+natural+philosoph
y+and+the+mechanical+arts%22
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ "thomas young". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
37. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a82481a8fe
7ab25edbdf256π=1 The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical
Optics Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 94 -
1804 Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1804.
0001 Young_Thomas_1804_Experiments_and_
Calculations.pdf {1807}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[3] "astigmatism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[4] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray
[5] "Color".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[6] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[7] Opticks, Isaac
NewtonCohen, Dover, 1979
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0π=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf
[9] The Last Man Who Knew Everything,
Robinson, 2005
[10]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy#Hist
ory
London, England36  
[1] Figure 442 Fig. 442. The manner in
which two portions of coloured light,
admitted through two small apertures,
produce light and dark stripes or
fringes by their interference,
proceeding in the form of hyperbolas;
the middle ones are however usually a
little dilated as at A. P. 365.
PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=edit
ions:LCCN07026143#PPT122,M1

[2] Figure 443 Fig 443 À séries of
stripes of all colours, of their
appropriate breadths, placed side by
side in the manner in which they would
be separated by refraction, and
combined together so as to form the
fringes of colours below them,
beginning from white. P. 365.
PD/Corel
source: same
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 4 		2313) Lighting by gas combustion will
be replaced by the electric light,
although gas is still used for heating
and cooking.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p245.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p245. (1807)
(1807)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Murdock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
[2] "William Murdock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mur
dock
London, England3  
[1] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] William Murdock, bust by an
unknown artist; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33699/William-Murdock-bust-by-an-unknow
n-artist-in-the-Science?articleTypeId=1
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 4 		2323)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "chaptal jean antoine". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaptal-jea
n-antoine?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp247-248.
3. ^ "chaptal jean
antoine". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaptal-jea
n-antoine?cat=technology , -248.
(1807)
4. ^ "chaptal jean antoine". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaptal-jea
n-antoine?cat=technology , -248.
(1790) (1807)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Antoine Claude, Comte
De Chante Chaptal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Claude,_Comte_De_Chante_Chaptal
[2] "Jean-Antoine Chaptal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Chaptal
Montpellier, France3
(presuambly) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Claude, comte Chaptal
de Chanteloup (1756-1832), French
chemist and statesman. This is a
faithful photographic reproduction of
an original two-dimensional work of
art. The original image comprising the
work of art itself is in the public
domain for the following
reason: Public domain This image (or
other media file) is in the public
domain because its copyright has
expired. This applies to the United
States, Canada, the European Union and
those countries with a copyright term
of life of the author plus 70
years. Faithful reproductions of
two-dimensional original works cannot
attract copyright in the U.S. according
to the rule in Bridgeman Art Library v.
Corel Corp. This photograph was taken
in the U.S. or in another country where
a similar rule applies (for a list of
allowable countries, see Commons:When
to use the PD-Art tag#Country-specific
rules). This photographic reproduction
is therefore also in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Antoine_Chaptal.jpg

[2] Scientist: Chaptal,
Jean-Antoine-Claude (1756 -
1832) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: G. Metzeroth Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12 x 10 cm / Sheet: 23 x 14
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 6 		2352)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
5. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
6. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce (1807)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Nicéphore
Niepce". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/
Chalon-sur-Saône, France5
(presumably) 
[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html

[2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 3 		2366)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
3. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1807)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[3] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England2  
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cameralucida01.jpg

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cameralucidadiagram.png
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 26 27 		2380) In 1798 Fourier with Monge and
others accompanies Napoleon on
Napoleon's invasion of Egypt.18 19 20

In 1808 Fourier is created a baron by
Napoleon.21

After the fall of Napoleon, Fourier's
opposition to Napoleon after Napoleon's
return from Elba offsets Fourier's long
service under Napoleon.22

Fourier believes heat to be essential
to health and always keeps his dwelling
place overheated and covers himself in
layer upon layer of clothes.23
Fourier
dies of a fall down stairs.24
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
8. ^ "Fourier series". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_ser
ies
9. ^ "Fourier series". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_ser
ies
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
12. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology
13. ^ "Fourier transform". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_tra
nsform
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Fourier transform".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_tra
nsform
16. ^ "Fourier transform". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_tra
nsform
17. ^ "fourier series". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fourier-ser
ies?cat=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
19. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Joseph Fourier". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology
20. ^ "Joseph Baron Fourier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
21. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology
22. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
25. ^ "Joseph
Baron Fourier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263. (1807)
(1807)
27. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Fourier
[2] "Fourier transform". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5045/Fourier-transform
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Fourier+transform
?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Fourier+integrals
?cat=technology
Grenoble, France25  
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm /
Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 4 		3270)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sewing machine." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "sewing machine." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
4. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine (1807)
England3   
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 4 		3385)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekl
y/aacarsgasa.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekl
y/aacarsgasa.htm
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekl
y/aacarsgasa.htm {1807}

MORE INFO
[1] "François Isaac de Rivaz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Isaac_de_Rivaz
[2] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
?, Switzerland3   
192 YBN
[06/21/1808 AD] 11 		2465) Following Humphry Davy's
isolation of minute amounts of sodium
and potassium, Gay-Lussac and Thénard
in 1808 prepare both sodium and
potassium metals in reasonable
quantities.6
During experiments with
potassium as a reagent Gay-Lussac blows
up his laboratory, temporarily blinding
himself.7
Boron has symbol B; atomic
number 5; atomic mass: 10.81; m.p.
about 2,300°C; sublimation point about
2,550°C; relative density 2.3 at
25°C; valence +3. Boron is a
nonmetallic element existing as a dark
brown to black amorphous powder or as
an extremely hard, usually jet-black to
silver-gray, brittle, lustrous,
metal-like crystalline solid.8

In the naturally occurring compounds,
boron exists as a mixture of two stable
isotopes with atomic weights of 10 and
11.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "article 9080773". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0773
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
6. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
7. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
8. ^ "boron". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/boron?cat=health
9. ^ "boron". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/boron?cat=health
10. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
(06/21/1808) (06/21/1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Boron". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] English: Boron sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:B%2C5.jpg

[2] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
192 YBN
[06/??/1808 AD] 9 10 		2393) Charles Darwin, among others
admires this work.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
2. ^ "Alexander
Humboldt". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
3. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
4. ^ "Alexander Humboldt".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
5. ^ "Alexander Humboldt".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
6. ^ "Alexander Humboldt".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
7. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
8. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
9. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt (1805)
10. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
[2] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_v
on_Humboldt
Paris, France7 8  
[1] * Description: Alexander von
Humboldt, oil paint on canvas, 126 x
92,5 cm * Author: Friedrich Georg
Weitsch, 1806 * Gallery:
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -
Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Alte
Nationalgalerie Berlin * Source:
http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatr
on/portrait.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 5 		1224)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
2. ^ Schauffler, Robert Haven.
Beethoven: The Man Who Freed Music.
Doubleday, Doran, & Company. Garden
City, New York. 1933; pg 211
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/symphony-no
-5-beethoven
4. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
5. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1808}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
[2] "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
Vienna, Austria4  
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 4 		2308)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p244.
3. ^ "William
Nicholson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5744/William-Nicholson
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (1808) (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Nicholson
(chemist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nic
holson_%28chemist%29
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nichol
son.html
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 4 		2371)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
3. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "William Hyde
Wollaston". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England3  
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 5 		2376)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dalton". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
4. ^ "John
Dalton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1808)
(1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Manchester, England4  
[1] Various atoms and molecules as
depicted in John Dalton's A New System
of Chemical Philosophy (1808). A scan
of the first page of John Dalton's ''A
New Sytem of Chemical Philosophy'',
published in 1808. Source
En.wiki Date 2006-11-20 Author
haade Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_f
p.jpg

[2] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 9 		2378) Bouvard is astronomer and
director of the Paris observatory.7
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp261-262.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Alexis
Bouvard". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
4. ^ "Alexis Bouvard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp261-262.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Alexis
Bouvard". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
8. ^ "Alexis Bouvard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
9. ^ "Alexis Bouvard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexis Bouvard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Bouv
ard
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Alexis Bouvard (1767-1843), French
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexis_Bouvard.jpg
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 5 		2382)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Joseph Fourier". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology
4. ^ "Joseph Baron Fourier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology (1808-1825)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Fourier
Paris, France4  
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm /
Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 29 		2428) Malus' father was an official in
the government before the French
Revolution.22
Malus is in the street
riot with Biot.23
Malus serves as a
military engineer in Napoleon's
expedition to Egypt and Syria.24
In
1811, despite the war between England
and France, Malus is awarded the
Rumford medal of the Royal Society of
London.25
Malus dies at 37 of
tuberculosis.26 27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276.
2. ^ "Étienne Louis
Malus". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Etienne Louis Malus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Etienne Louis Malus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Etienne_
Louis_Malus
15. ^ "Etienne Louis Malus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0384/Etienne-Louis-Malus
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "light". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258
421/light
20. ^ "Malus's law#Malus.27 law and
other properties's law#Malus.27 law and
other properties". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malus%27s_l
aw#Malus.27_law_and_other_properties
21. ^ "light". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258
421/light
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276.
24. ^ "Étienne
Louis Malus". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
25. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Malus.html
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276.
27. ^ "Etienne Louis
Malus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Etienne Louis Malus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Etienne_
Louis_Malus
28. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276. (1808)
(1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne Louis Malus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Louis_Malus
Paris, France28  
[1] Etienne-Louis Malus (1775-1812),
French officer, engineer, physicist,
and mathematician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Etienne-Louis_Malus.jpg

[2] Scientist: Malus, Etienne Louis
(1775 - 1812) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Arago Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.3 x 7.7 cm /
Sheet: 23.8 x 15 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 3 		2446)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1808)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
[4] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[6]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
Göttingen, Germany2  
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 23 		2478) Barium is a soft, silvery-white
alkaline-earth metal, used to deoxidize
copper and in various alloys. Barium
has atomic number 56; atomic weight
137.33; melting point 725°C; boiling
point 1,140°C; relative density 3.50;
valence 2.7
Barium is a chemically
active, poisonous metal with a
face-centered cubic crystalline
structure. Barium is an alkaline-earth
metal in Group 2 of the periodic table.
Barium's principal ore is barite
(barium sulfate); Barium also occurs in
the mineral witherite (barium
carbonate). The pure metal barium is
obtained by the electrolysis of fused
barium salts or, industrially, by the
reduction of barium oxide with
aluminum.8

Strontium is a soft, silver-yellow
metal9 , easily oxidized, that ignites
spontaneously in air when finely
divided. (Interesting that only when
finely divided10 ) Strontium is used in
pyrotechnic compounds and various
alloys. Strontium has atomic number 38;
atomic weight 87.62; melting point
769°C; boiling point 1,384°C;
relative density 2.54; valence 2.11
Stro
ntium has three allotropic crystalline
forms (see allotropy). It is an
alkaline-earth metal; in its physical
and chemical properties it resembles
calcium and barium, the elements above
and below it in Group 2 of the periodic
table. Since strontium reacts
vigorously with water and quickly
tarnishes in air, it must be stored out
of contact with air and water.
Strontium has many compounds.12
(Stronti
um is one product of uranium fission.13
)

Calcium is a silvery, moderately hard
metallic element that constitutes
approximately 3 percent of the earth's
crust and is a basic component of most
animals and plants. Calcium occurs
naturally in limestone, gypsum, and
fluorite, and its compounds are used to
make plaster, quicklime, Portland
cement, and metallurgic and electronic
materials. Calcium has atomic number
20; atomic weight 40.08; melting point
842 to 848°C; boiling point 1,487°C;
relative density 1.55; valence 2.14
Calc
ium is crucial to all physiological
function. It must be obtained from the
diet, but since an intake of only about
1 g per day is adequate, shortage is
rare.15 The average human body
contains just over 1 kg of calcium,
more than 99% of it in the skeleton
(and teeth).16
Calcium is a malleable,
ductile, silver-white, relatively soft
metal with face-centered, cubic
crystalline structure. Chemically
Calcium resembles strontium and barium;
calcium is classed with them as an
alkaline-earth metal in Group 2 of the
periodic table. Calcium is chemically
active; calcium tarnishes rapidly when
exposed to air and burns with a bright
yellow-red flame when heated, mainly
forming the nitride. Calcium reacts
directly with water, forming the
hydroxide. Calcium combines with many
other elements forming many
compounds.17

Lime (calcium oxide) has been known
since ancient times. Calcium metal is
usually prepared by electrolysis of
fused calcium chloride to which a
little calcium fluoride has been
added.18


Magnesium is a light, silvery-white,
moderately hard metallic element that
in ribbon or powder form burns with a
brilliant white flame. It is used in
structural alloys, pyrotechnics, flash
photography, and incendiary bombs.
Magnesium has atomic number 12; atomic
weight 24.305; melting point 649°C;
boiling point 1,090°C; relative
density 1.74 (at 20°C); valence 2.19
Ma
gnesium is an essential mineral;
present in all human tissues,
especially bone. Magnesium is involved
in the metabolism of ATP. Magnesium is
present in chlorophyll and so in all
green plant foods, and therefore
generally plentiful in the diet. A
magnesium deficiency in human beings
leads to disturbances of muscle and
nervous system; in cattle, to grass
tetany. Magnesium-deficient plants are
yellow (or chlorosed).20

Magnesium is a ductile, silver-white,
chemically active metal with a
hexagonal close-packed crystalline
structure. Magnesium is malleable when
heated. Magnesium is one of the
alkaline-earth metals in Group 2 of the
periodic table. magnesium reacts very
slowly with cold water. Magnesium is
not affected by dry air but tarnishes
in moist air, forming a thin protective
coating of basic magnesium carbonate,
MgCO3·Mg(OH)2. When heated, magnesium
powder or ribbon ignites and burns with
an intense white light and releases
large amounts of heat, forming the
oxide, magnesia, MgO. A magnesium fire
cannot be extinguished by water, since
water reacts with hot magnesium and
releases hydrogen. Magnesium reacts
with the halogens and with almost all
acids. It is a powerful reducing agent
and is used to free other metals from
their anhydrous halides. Magnesium
forms many compounds.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
4. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"barium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/barium?cat=health

8. ^ "barium". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/barium?cat=health

9. ^ "strontium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/strontium?cat=hea
lth
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "strontium". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/strontium?cat=hea
lth
12. ^ "strontium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/strontium?cat=hea
lth
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "calcium". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/calcium?cat=healt
h
15. ^ "calcium". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/calcium?cat=healt
h
16. ^ "calcium". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/calcium?cat=healt
h
17. ^ "calcium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/calcium?cat=healt
h
18. ^ "calcium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/calcium?cat=healt
h
19. ^ "magnesium". The New Dictionary
of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/magnesium?cat=hea
lth
20. ^ "magnesium". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/magnesium?cat=hea
lth
21. ^ "magnesium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/magnesium?cat=hea
lth
22. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286. (1808)
(1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "article 9013372". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3372
[5] "Barium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium
[6] "article 9069994". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9994
[7] "Strontium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium
[8] "article 9018627". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8627
[9] "Calcium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium
[10] "article 9050015". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0015
[11] "Magnesium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium
London, England22  
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Barium sample.GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ba%2C56.jpg

[2] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Strontium
sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sr%2C38.jpg
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 3 		2554) Alexander Wilson (CE 1766-1813)
starts publishing "American
Ornithology" (9 vol, 1808-14), drawings
of North American birds.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alexander Wilson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_W
ilson
2. ^ "Alexander Wilson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7116/Alexander-Wilson
3. ^ "Alexander Wilson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7116/Alexander-Wilson (1808)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20Wilso
n
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania2  
[1] Blue Jay Yellow Bird
(goldfinch) Baltimore
Bird PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://xroads.virginia.edu/~PUBL
IC/wilson/01b.html

[2] Alexander Wilson
(1766-1813) American illustrator,
poete, ornithologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilson_Alexander_1766-1813.jpg
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 3 		5978) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his 6th Symphony "Pastoral" in F opus
68.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1808}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
[2] "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
[3] Schauffler, Robert Haven.
Beethoven: The Man Who Freed Music.
Doubleday, Doran, & Company. Garden
City, New York. 1933; pg 211
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/symphony-no
-5-beethoven
Vienna, Austria2  
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
191 YBN
[11/16/1809 AD] 5 		6341)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
3. ^ William Hyde
Wollaston, "The Croonian Lecture",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London , Vol. 100, (1810),
pp.
1-15 http://books.google.com/books?id=2
xJGAAAAMAAJ
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
5. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "The
Croonian Lecture", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London , Vol. 100, (1810), pp.
1-15 http://books.google.com/books?id=2
xJGAAAAMAAJ

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston (1809)
[4]
"William Hyde Wollaston". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1809)
London, England4  
[1] Goniometers: 1. manual 2.
optical [t In 1. or 2. more like
Wollaston's?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Goniometr-1900.png

[2] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 21 22 		2240)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
4. ^ "Jean
Baptiste de Monet chevalier de
Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
5. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
6. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
7. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
9. ^ "Jean Baptiste
de Monet chevalier de Lamarck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
16. ^ Ted Huntington
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet
chevalier de Lamarck". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
20. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
21. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck (1809)
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228. (1809)
(1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France20 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 18 19 		2302) Appert uses the 12,000 francs to
establish the first commercial cannery
business, the "House of Appert", at
Massy, which operates from 1812 until
193315 , however Appert dies poor16 .
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Nicolas Appert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p242.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p242.
4. ^ "Nicolas
Appert". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
5. ^ "Nicolas Appert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p242.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p242.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p242.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p242.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p242.
13. ^ "Nicolas
Appert". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
14. ^ "Nicolas Appert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
15. ^ "Nicolas Appert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p242.
17. ^ "Nicolas
Appert". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p242. (1809) (1809)
19. ^
"Nicolas Appert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas François Appert".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Fra
n%C3%A7ois_Appert
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas%20Fran%C3
%A7ois%20Appert%20
[3] "Massy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massy
"Nicolas Appert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8071/Nicolas-Appert
Paris, France17 (presumably) 
[1]
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=5759&ren
dTypeId=4 Appert, lithograph by
Guffanli H. Roger-Viollet[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Appert.jpg
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 4 5 		2367)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
3. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston (1809)
5. ^
"William Hyde Wollaston". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England3  
[1] Goniometers: 1. manual 2.
optical [t In 1. or 2. more like
Wollaston's?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Goniometr-1900.png

[2] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 16 17 		2466) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) finds that in
forming compounds gases combine in
proportions by volume that can be
expressed in small whole numbers. For
example, two parts of hydrogen unite
with one part nitrogen to form ammonia.
This law is worked out with help from
Humboldt.12 This relationship by
volume of elements in a compound is
used to determine atomic weights, which
Berzelius goes on to do. Dalton refuses
to accept Gay-Lussac's results and
stays firmly to the principle of
composition be weight only and his
atomic weights continue to be wrong.
Avogadro's hypothesis will provide an
explanation for Gay-Lussac's law but is
ignored for 50 years.13

Dalton rejects this law and seeks to
discredit Gay-Lussac's experimental
methods.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
9. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
14. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
15. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1809)
(1809)
17. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
Paris, France15 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 8 		2481)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^ "Humphry
Davy". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
4. ^ "Humphry Davy". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Humphry Davy". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
8. ^ "Humphry Davy". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England7  
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 17 		2529) Magendie performs experiments
that prove wrong the prevailing view
that absorption takes place only
through the lymphatic system, by
introducing a poison into an animal's
system through either a blood vessel or
quill, Magendie demonstrates that
absorption is instead achieved through
the bloodstream and the skin.6
Magendie
is viewed as the founder of
experimental physiology.7
Magendie's
father is among the French
revolutionaries.8
Magendie is strongly
antivitalist.9
Magendie gains an
unpleasant reputation as a vivisector10
, for his use of live animals in his
experiments11 . On a visit to England
in 1824, for instance, his public
presentations of his experiments on the
cranial nerves of living dogs caused a
public outcry and a demand for the
protection of animals.12

In 1837, Magendie is president of the
Academy of Sciences.13
Magendie wrongly
believes cholera to not be
contagious.14
Magendie wrongly objects
to the use of ether as anesthetic.15
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "François Magendie". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
7. ^ "François Magendie". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
11. ^ "François
Magendie". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
12. ^ "François Magendie".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
16. ^ "François
Magendie". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
17. ^ "François Magendie".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20 (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francois Magendie".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie
[2] "François Magendie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Magendie
Paris, France16 (presumably) 
[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 6 		2669) The Munich Academy of Science
receives a paper from an inventor1
named Samuel Thomas von Sömmering (CE
1755-1830)2 that describes a telegraph
containing thirty-five wires, one for
each letter of the (German) alphabet
and one for each number. At the
transmitting end, arrangements are
provided for passing currents through
any one of the wires. At the receiving
end the electrodes are immersed in
acidulated water. Completing the
circuit causes bubbles of hydrogen to
form in tubes, each one corresponding
to a letter or a number.3

Don Francisco Salva Campillo read a
paper before the Academy of Sciences at
Barcelona, On February 22, 1804, in
which he describes using the
decomposition of water with a voltaic
pile for the purpose of telegraphy.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Thef
irstelectrictelegraphs/index.htm
2. ^ "Samuel Thomas von Sömmering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Thom
as_von_S%C3%B6mmering
3. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Thef
irstelectrictelegraphs/index.htm
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon, 1884,
p220-226.. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the
+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
5. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Thef
irstelectrictelegraphs/index.htm
6. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Thef
irstelectrictelegraphs/index.htm (1809)
Munich, Germany5  
[1] Samuel Thomas von Sömmering,
Graphic: 8 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 13 x 10
cm Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/S
IL14-S005-06a.jpg first upload to
de.wp as de:Bild:Samuel Thomas von
Soemmering.jpg original Timestamp:
20:32, 13. Aug. 2004 Date Author
Carl Wilhelm Bender [1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Thomas_von_Soemmering.jpg
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 4 		2369)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
3. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[2] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England3  
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 6 		2370)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258.
5. ^ "William Hyde
Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
6. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[2] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England5  
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 5 		2388)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Georges Baron Cuvier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
4. ^ "Georges Cuvier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Cuvier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuv
ier
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France4  
[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 13 14 		2412) Brown is disappointed by the low
sales of this first volume10 selling
only 24 of 250 printed copies and so
does not complete a second volume of
other plant families from Australia.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "robert brown". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Robert Brown".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "robert brown". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "robert brown". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
9. ^ "robert brown".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
10. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
11. ^ "robert brown". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
12. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
13. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown (1810)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272. (1810)
(1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Brown (botanist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brow
n_%28botanist%29
[2] "Gymnosperms". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gymnospe
rms
[3]
http://www.botanicus.org/Title.aspx?BibI
d=b1196408x
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 30 		2480)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
11. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286,
pp284-286.
14. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Record ID2469. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ "acid". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cid (is actual source?)
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Sir
Humphry Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "acid".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cid
26. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "acid". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
cid
29. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
30. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
[4] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. "Sir
Humphry Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
London, England29  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir
Humphry Davy by John A. Paris, London:
Colburn and Bentley, 1831. Engraving
from about 1830, based on a portrait by
Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 9 		2482) Davy publishes the first part of
the Elements of Chemical Philosophy,
which contains much of his own work,
however Davy's plan is too ambitious
and he doesn't print subsequent
volumes.4
Swedish chemist J.J.
Berzelius comments that had this book
been completed is would have "advanced
the science of chemistry a full
century".5
I am sure this book is
helpful to those studying chemistry,
although probably many ideas are
outdated, perhaps other advances kept
secret or mistaken later theories might
be exposed in this book. But also
probably a good book to understand the
historical context and foundation of
modern chemistry.6

This is an interesting and simple idea
that Davy mentions about a substance
gaining weight when gaining heat. For
the theory that heat is due to the
absorption of photons by atoms, photon
mass is very small, and difficult to
measure. For example, in increasing
volume, does mercury also increase
mass? But perhaps in increasing mass,
mercury then increases volume to
maintain the same density. It's
interesting.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
3. ^ Humphry Davy, "Elements of
Chemical Philosophy", part 1, Volume 1,
Bradford and Inskeep, 1812,
pp53-54. http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&id=0JcAAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22elements+of+
chemical+philosophy%22+davy&printsec=fro
ntcover&source=web&ots=m743zT2Nh-&sig=72
A_Y9MxONzpBwqJsxh_tTkfSgA
4. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
5. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
9. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1810)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England8  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 4 		5976)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
4. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1810}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
Vienna, Austria3 (presumably) 
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
189 YBN
[06/??/1811 AD] 5 		2396)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
2. ^ "Alexander von
Humboldt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_v
on_Humboldt
3. ^ "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
4. ^ "Alexander Humboldt".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
5. ^ "Alexander von Humboldt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_v
on_Humboldt (1811)
Paris, France4  
[1] * Description: Alexander von
Humboldt, oil paint on canvas, 126 x
92,5 cm * Author: Friedrich Georg
Weitsch, 1806 * Gallery:
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -
Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Alte
Nationalgalerie Berlin * Source:
http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatr
on/portrait.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 7 		658)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
(based on hints) {1811 (based on hints}
London, England6 (presumably)  
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 6 		2334)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
3. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers
6. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers (1811)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Heinrich Wilhelm
Matthäus Olbers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wi
lhelm_Matth%C3%A4us_Olbers
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Bremen, Germany5  
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg

[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 69 		2432) The concept of molecules.9

In this year Amedeo Avogadro (count of
Quaregna) (oVOGoDrO) (CE 1776-1856),
Italian physicist, publishes his famous
hypothesis in the Paris "Journal de
physique"10 under the title "Essai
d'une manière de déterminer les
masses relatives des molecules
élémentaires des corps, et les
proportions selon lesquelles elles
entrent dans ces combinaisons."11
("Essay on a Manner of Determining the
Relative Masses of the Elementary
Molecules of Bodies, and the
Proportions in Which They Enter into
These Compounds" Journal de Physique
73, 58-76 (1811) (Alembic Club Reprint
No. 4]12 ) in French.13 Northern Italy
is occupied by the French under
Napoleon at the time.14 Avogadro
hypothesizes that equal volumes of all
gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of
molecules.15

Avogadro is inspired from the finding
of Gay-Lussac that all gases expand to
the same extent with a rise in
temperature16 and Avogadro uses his
hypothesis to explain Gay-Lussac's law
of combining volumes.17

Avogadro beings by describing the
discovery by the French chemist Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac that when gases
combine, they combine in simple
integral proportions by volume.
Gay-Lussac shows that two volumes of
ammonia (NH3) are composed of one
volume of nitrogen and three volumes of
hydrogen, and cites many other examples
of similar cases of (gases combining
in18 ) simple, integral proportions.19


The basis of Avogadro's hypothesis is
that all gases contain the same number
of particles (atoms, molecules20 ,
ions, or other particles21 ) per unit
volume.22

Avogadro specifies that these particle
may not necessarily be atoms but might
be combinations of atoms (which
Avogadro calls "molecules"), and
Avogadro is the first to distinguish
between atoms and molecules.23

Avogadro does not actually use the word
"atom" and considered that there are
three kinds of "molecules," including
an "elementary molecule" (the modern
"atom").24
To distinguish between atoms
and molecules, Avogadro uses the terms
"molécule intégrante" (the molecule
of a compound (such as H2O25 )),
"molécule constituante" (the molecule
of an element (such as H226 )), and
"molécule élémentaire" (atom (such
as C27 )).28 Avogadro views gaseous
elementary molecules as predominantly
diatomic, but also recognizes the
existence of monatomic, triatomic, and
tetratomic elementary molecules.29
(What atoms are tetratomic?30 )(How
does Avogadro reach the conclusion
about diatomic molecules? What physical
observations cause Avogadro to conclude
that atoms of gas are diatomic?31 )

Avogadro concludes that the number of
"integrant molecules" in all gases is
always the same for equal volumes.32
Avo
gadro writes that it is very well
conceivable that the distance between
molecules does not vary, in other
words, that the number of molecules
contained in a given volume cannot
being different.33
Avogadro writes
(translated into English): "Setting out
from this hypothesis, it is apparent
that we have the means of determining
very easily the relative masses of the
molecules of substances obtainable in
the gaseous state, and the relative
number of these molecules in compounds;
for the ratios of the masses of the
molecules are then the same as those of
the densities of the different gases at
equal temperature and pressure, and the
relative number of molecules in a
compound is given at once by the ratio
of the volumes of the gases that form
it. For example, since the numbers
1.10359 and 0.07321 express the
densities of the two gases oxygen and
hydrogen compared to that of
atmospheric air as unity, and the ratio
of the two numbers consequently
represents the ratio between the masses
of equal volumes of these two gases, it
will also represent on our hypothesis
the ratio of the masses of their
molecules. Thus the mass of the
molecule of oxygen will be about 15
times that of the molecule of hydrogen,
or, more exactly as 15.074 to 1. In the
same way the mass of the molecule of
nitrogen will be to that of hydrogen as
0.96913 to 0.07321, that is, as 13, or
more exactly 13.238, to 1. On the other
hand, since we know that the ratio of
the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen in
the formation of water is 2 to 1, it
follows that water results from the
union of each molecule of oxygen with
two molecules of hydrogen. Similarly,
according to the proportions by volume
established by M. Gay-Lussac for the
elements of ammonia, nitrous oxide,
nitrous gas, and nitric acid, ammonia
will result from the union of one
molecule of nitrogen with three of
hydrogen, nitrous oxide from one
molecule of oxygen with two of
nitrogen, nitrous gas from one molecule
of nitrogen with one of oxygen, and
nitric acid from one of nitrogen with
two of oxygen."34

Avogadro's hypothesis allows for the
calculation of the molecular weights of
gases relative to some chosen standard.
Avogadro and his contemporaries
typically use the density of hydrogen
gas as the standard for comparison.
Therefore they use the relationship:

Weight of 1 volume of gas or vapor
Weight of 1 molecule of gas or vapor
--------
--------------------------- =
------------------------------------
Weight of 1 volume of hydrogen
Weight of 1 molecule of hydrogen

Using this hypothesis, Avogadro
determines the correct molecular
formula for water, nitric and nitrous
oxides, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and
hydrogen chloride.35

When Ritter (and Cavendish before
Ritter36 ) electrolyzed water and the
hydrogen and oxygen collected
separately, the volume of hydrogen is
always twice the volume of oxygen.37
Avogadro then uses his hypothesis to
explain that the water molecule
contains two hydrogen atoms for each
atom of oxygen. Then if oxygen weighs
eight times as much as hydrogen, the
individual oxygen atom is sixteen times
as heavy as the individual hydrogen
atom (not eight times as Dalton has
suggested).38

Later physicists and chemists
determined the value of "Avogadro's
Number," the number of gas molecules in
one mole (the atomic or molecular
weight in grams), as 6.022 x 1023.39
Th
e number of atoms or molecules present
in an amount of substance that has a
mass of its atomic (or molecular)
weight in grams is called "Avogadro's
number". For example, carbon dioxide
has a molecular weight of 44, therefore
44 grams of carbon dioxide contains
Avogadro's number of molecules, which
is 6.0221367×1023 (the number of
bodies usually atoms or molecules per
mole) (molecules or atoms/mole)40 41 .
(So
me people might think 44 grams of
anything should contain the same number
of atoms as 44 grams of anything else.
But because atomic masses {weights} are
different, an atom of hydrogen contains
only 1 proton, where an atom of iron
contains 44 protons. So 44 grams of
anything should equal the same number
of photons, and the same number of
nucleons {protons and neutrons} but not
the same number of atoms since each
atom represents a different mass in
other word each atom contains a
different number of protons. The
concept of an "atom" is simply a way of
containing protons into groups.42 )
Where Hydrogen has a molecular weight
of approximately of 1 g/mol43 and so
only 1 gram of Hydrogen = Avogadro's
number in atoms.44 (But the same
number of photons {and protons} are in
1 gram of Hydrogen as there are in 1
gram of Iron, or any other substance
{it is he number of atoms that is
different}.45 )

Avogadro's hypothesis is ignored for
the most part until after his death,
for one reason because the distinction
between atoms and molecules is not well
understood.46 In addition, the concept
of polyatomic elementary molecules
appears unlikely to contemporaries
because similar atoms are thought to
repel each another.47

Avogadro's hypothesis implies a
sequence of chemical reactions for
which there is no decisive evidence in
favor of at the time. For example,
Dalton postulated that water is formed
by the simple addition of the element
hydrogen to the element oxygen, in
other words H + O → HO, where
Avogadro's hypothesis describes this
reaction as 2H2+ O2 (in the molecular
form) → 2H2O.48

Ampère accepts this theory, but Dalton
rejects it and Berzelius ignores it.
Stanislao Cannizzaro49 will build on
this theory and reduce the confusion
between atoms and molecules50 in
185851 . (What are Dalton's reasons for
rejecting Avogadro's theory?52 )

Avogadro's hypothesis is now accepted
as true, and the value known as
"Avogadro's number" (6.0221367 x 1023),
the number of molecules in a gram
molecule, or mole, of any substance, is
a fundamental constant of science.53
Perhaps the first accurate calculation
of the quantity of molecules in a
gram-mole54 is made by Johann Josef
Loschmidt in 1865 who computes the
number of particles in one cubic
centimeter of gas in standard
conditions.55 56 (Did Avogadro
estimate a number for number of
particles per mole?57 )


(The question still remains as to
whether atomic size effects volume. I
think we should experiment with very
large molecules in gas and large
quantities to see if there can be
measured any difference in volume
between a gas with small particles and
a gas with large particles. It would
seem logical that molecules with more
mass would provide more surface area
for collisions and therefore more
pressure. I think the concept of
pressure is important in Avogadro's
hypothesis. For example, do gases of
different mass but same volume exert
different pressure? I tend to believe
that molecule size has little or no
effect in the volume of a gas, but then
volume of a gas is measured based on
the container since gas can take the
size and shape of any container.58 )

One important idea to understand
clearly is that: the same volume of
different gases have different masses.
Two different gases may occupy the same
space, in for example water, but those
quantities of gas weigh differently.59
(Who first showed this? Priestley?
Lavoisier? Cavendish? Dalton?60 ) (In
addition the question of, does the same
volume of two different mass gases
exert different pressure? If yes, that
might affect the volume of the gas.61
)

(In terms of the claim that all gases
contain the same number of particles
per unit volume: Apparently this claim
is extended to liquids and solid. Does
this same principle apply to liquids
and solids? Do all liquids and solids
contain the same number of atoms or
molecules per unit volume? If no, then
this hypothesis may not be true for
gases. Maybe particles are too small to
measure any difference. This conclusion
would be more logical if the particles
are all the same size.62 ) (As always,
with a new paradigm, I think it is very
important to thoroughly research,
understand, and explain every aspect of
the finding, hypothesis, experimental
data, etc. because such transitions are
very important in defining our
understanding of the universe.63 )

(Is Avogadro the first to use the word
"molecule"?64 ) (Avogadro certainly
coins the word "molecule"65 )(State
origin of word molecule. It is
interesting the way that matter is
clumped together with atoms and
molecules, what groupings are larger
than molecule? I guess: common
multi-molecules, radicals, perhaps then
there is just lattices, tissues, etc.66
)

(It's hard to believe that molecule
size and mass doesn't matter to volume
or pressure of a gas, liquid or solid,
because more mass must occupy more
space. Maybe an affect is only observed
for very compressed matter where space
is important and mostly occupied with
matter.67 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
11. ^
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekl
y/aa111602a.htm
12. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/Avogadro.
html (paper in English)
Avogadro_1811.html
13. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Avog
adro
14. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Avog
adro
15. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp277-278.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
21. ^
"Amedeo Avogadro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Avog
adro
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp277-278.
24. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Avog
adro
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
29. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ "Amedeo
Avogadro". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
33. ^
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekl
y/aa111602a.htm
34. ^
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekl
y/aa111602a.htm
35. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
38. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp277-278.
39. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
40. ^ "Avogadro's number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27
s_number
41. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ "Avogadro's number".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27
s_number
44. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
45. ^ Ted
Huntington.
46. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
47. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
48. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
49. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
50. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
51. ^
"Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
54. ^ "Joseph Loschmidt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9002/Joseph-Loschmidt
55. ^ "Avogadro's number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27
s_number
56. ^ "Joseph Loschmidt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9002/Joseph-Loschmidt
57. ^ Ted Huntington.
58. ^ Ted Huntington.
59. ^ Ted
Huntington.
60. ^ Ted Huntington.
61. ^ Ted Huntington.
62. ^ Ted
Huntington.
63. ^ Ted Huntington.
64. ^ Ted Huntington.
65. ^ "Amedeo
Avogadro". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
66. ^ Ted Huntington.
67. ^ Ted Huntington.
68. ^ "Amedeo
Avogadro". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
69. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Vercelli, Italy68  
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 28 		2441) Courtois is apprenticed to a
pharmacist and subsequently studies at
the Ecole Polytechnique under Antoine
Fourcroy.11
Courtois' father's
saltpeter business runs into
difficulties because saltpeter can be
manufactured more cheaply in India, and
Courtois returns to Dijon to help his
father.12
When the Napoleonic Wars end,
and the need for gunpowder decreases,
(the13 ) Coutois' salt-peter factory
fails. Courtois turns to producing
iodine but dies in poverty. (This shows
how sadly, provoking and conjuring war
is one evil way explosives and weapons
producing companies can use to stay in
business, although perhaps that is too
criminal for most weapons manufacturing
companies to involve themselves in, in
addition to simply being against war
even at the expense of going into
poverty or some other business.14 )

symbol I, atomic number 53, relative
atomic mass 126.9045, 15

Iodine is a nonmetallic element16 ,
with symbol I; atomic number 53; atomic
mass. 126.9045; m.p. 113.5°C; b.p.
184.35°C; sp. gr. 4.93 at 20°C;
valence −1, +1, +3, +5, or +7.
Iodine is a dark-gray to purple-black,
lustrous, solid, volatile17 element
with a rhombic crystalline structure.
iodine is the heaviest of the naturally
occuring halogens18 and least active
of the halogens, which are found in
Group 17 of the periodic table. Iodine
is normally diatomic (2 iodine atoms in
each molecule), in the solid, liquid
(is there a liquid state?19 ), and
vapor (gas20 ) states. When heated it
passes directly from the solid to the
vapor state (sublimation), the vapor 21
 having an intense violet color and a
characteristic irritating odor.22

Iodine occurs widely, although rarely
in high concentration and never in
elemental form. Despite the low
concentration of iodine in sea water,
certain species of seaweed can extract
and accumulate the element.23
Iodine is
an essential ingredient of thyroid
hormone, which helps to regulate
growth, development, and metabolic
rate. The Reference Nutrient Intake for
adults is 140 micrograms each day. An
excess of iodine can be poisonous; a
deficit leads to an underactive thyroid
gland.24 Goiter, a swelling of the
thyroid, is often a symptom of
inadequate iodine in the diet.25

When heat is applied, iodine crystals
sublime (change straight from a solid
to a gas). Any gas that settles on a
cold surface will crystallize as the
solid, because iodine cannot exist as a
liquid.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp278-279.
2. ^ "Bernard
Courtois". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard+Courtois?
cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Bernard Courtois". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard+Courtois?
cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp278-279.
6. ^ "Bernard
Courtois". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard+Courtois?
cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp278-279.
8. ^ "Bernard
Courtois". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6621/Bernard-Courtois
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Bernard Courtois". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard+Courtois?
cat=technology
12. ^ "Bernard Courtois". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Bernard+Courtois?
cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "iodine".
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
16. ^ "iodine". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
17. ^ "iodine". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
18. ^ "iodine". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ "iodine". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
23. ^ "iodine". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
24. ^ "iodine". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
25. ^ "iodine". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iodine?cat=
health
26. ^
http://pfs.tmspublisher.com/images/pfs/h
tml/energy/tp_nmetal.htm
27. ^ "Bernard Courtois". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6621/Bernard-Courtois
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp278-279. (1811)
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard Courtois".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Cou
rtois
[2] "Morphine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine
[3]
http://www.todayinsci.com/2/2_08.htm
[4] "Morphine# ref-9". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine#_r
ef-9
Dijon, France27  
[1] Pure iodine crystals, heated
slightly, showing some solid iodine
escaping directly to the air as obvious
violet colored vapors. Because of this
''sublimation'' property, exposures
include dermal contact with solid
crystals and inhalation of vapors which
may not be quite as visible as this at
room temperature. Photographer, Charles
Salocks. PD
source: http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SiteClean
up/ERP/Clan_Labs.cfm

[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 5 		2467)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1811)
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 6 		2510) Over the course of his life,
Braconnot publishes 112 works.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p292.
2. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
3. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
4. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p292. (1811) (1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
[2] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
[3]
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
Nancy, France5  
[1] Henri Braconnot French chemist and
pharmacist This image is from
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (copyright free). Permission
to copy content here was kindly granted
by the author, Claude Leray. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henri_Braconnot.jpg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 12 		2519) In 1808 Poisson publishes "Sur
les inégalités des moyens mouvements
des planètes" in which Poisson looks
at the mathematical problems which
Laplace and Lagrange had raised about
perturbations of the planets.3

Poisson's other publications include
"Théorie nouvelle de l'action
capillaire" (1831, "A New Theory of
Capillary Action") and "Théorie
mathématique de la chaleur" (1835,
"Mathematical Theory of Heat").4
In
1798 Poisson begins studying
mathematics at the École Polytechnique
in Paris under the mathematicians
Pierre-Simon Laplace and Joseph-Louis
Lagrange, who become Poisson's lifelong
friends.5
In 1802 Poisson becomes a
professor at the École Polytechnique.6

In 1808 Poisson is made an astronomer
at the Bureau of Longitudes.7
In 1809
Poisson is appointed a professor of
pure mathematics at the Faculty of
Sciences at the University of Paris8
when it is founded.9

Poisson writes more than 300 papers on
mathematics, physics, and astronomy.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p293.
2. ^ "Simeon Denis
Poisson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Poisson.html
4. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
5. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
6. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
7. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
8. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simeon+Denis+Pois
son?cat=technology
9. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
10. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simeon+Denis+Pois
son?cat=technology
11. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simeon+Denis+Pois
son?cat=technology
12. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson (1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_Deni
s_Poisson
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France11  
[1] From
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sou
rce: en:Image:Simeon Poisson.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simeon_Poisson.jpg

[2] Denis Poisson : le mathématicien
de Pithiviers PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.loiret.com/cgloiret/i
ndex.php?page=display&class=notrehistoir
e_figurespasse&object=r56_fig&method=h_d
isplay_full
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 28 29 30 31 		2522) Brewster starts studying for the
ministry at Edinburgh University but
after completing the course abandons
the Church for science.9
Brewster earns
his living by editing various journals
and spends much time popularizing
science.10
In 1807 Brewster is editor
of the newly projected Edinburgh
Encyclopaedia, of which the first part
appears in 1808, and the last not until
1830. The work is strongest in the
scientific department, and many of its
most valuable articles are from
Brewster himself. At a later period
Brewster is one of the leading
contributors to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica (seventh and eighth
editions), the articles on Electricity,
Hydrodynamics, Magnetism, Microscope,
Optics, Stereoscope, Voltaic
Electricity, and others being from
Brewster.11
Around 1815 Brewster
rediscovers12 the kaleidoscope, a
scientific toy13 .
Brewster wins the
Copley medal.14
In 1816 the French
Institute awards Brewster one-half of
the prize of three thousand francs for
the two most important discoveries in
physical science made in Europe during
the two preceding years.15
In 1818
Brewster receives the Rumford Medal16
for Brewster's Law17 .
In 1824 Brewster
starts the Edinburgh Journal of
Science.18
In 1831 Brewster helps found
the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.19
In 1831,
Brewster writes "A Treatise on Optics"
(1831).20
In 1855, Brewster writes
"Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and
Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton".21
In
1859 Brewster becomes principal of the
University of Edinburgh.22

Brewster publishes almost 300 papers,
mainly concerning optical
measurements.23

Brewster never fully accepts the wave
theory of light, and so finds his
experimental work marginalized.24
Brewst
er has a daughter after age 75.25
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Sir David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir David
Brewster". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
6. ^ John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "David Brewster". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
10. ^ "David Brewster". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
11. ^ "Sir David Brewster".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
12. ^ "Sir David Brewster".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
14. ^ "David
Brewster". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brews
ter
15. ^ "David Brewster". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brews
ter
16. ^ "Sir David Brewster".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
18. ^ "Sir David
Brewster". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Sir David Brewster".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
20. ^ "David
Brewster". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
21. ^ "David Brewster". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
22. ^ "Sir David Brewster".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6395/Sir-David-Brewster
23. ^ "David Brewster". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
24. ^ "David Brewster". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
26. ^ "Sir David
Brewster". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6395/Sir-David-Brewster
28. ^ "Brewsters law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6399/Brewsters-law (1811)
29. ^ "David
Brewster". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology (1813)
30. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294. (1815)
(1815)
{Report: 02/11/1815}




MORE INFO
[1] David Brewster, "On the Laws
which regulate the polarisation of
light by reflexion from transparent
bodies.", Phil. Trans., 1815,
p.125-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:ph
ilosophical+intitle:transactions+date:18
15-1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA125,M
1
Edinburgh, Scotland26 27  
[1] An illustration of the polarization
of light which is incident on an
interface at Brewster's angle. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:philos
ophical+intitle:transactions+date:1815-1
815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA128,M1

[2] Table containing the calculated
and observed polarising angles for
various bodies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bre
wster%27s_law
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 7 		2536)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Sir Charles
Bell". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5223/Sir-Charles-Bell
4. ^ "Sir Charles Bell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5223/Sir-Charles-Bell
5. ^ "Sir Charles Bell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5223/Sir-Charles-Bell
6. ^ "Sir Charles Bell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5223/Sir-Charles-Bell
7. ^ "Francois Magendie". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie (1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bel
l
London, England6  
[1] Sir Charles Bell, Scottish surgeon
and anatomist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles-bell.jpg

[2] Sir Charles Bell, detail of a
portrait by John Stevens, oil on
canvas, c. 1821; in the National
Portrait Gallery, London. Courtesy of
the National Portrait Gallery, London
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-21160/Sir-Charles-Bell-detail-of-a-port
rait-by-John-Stevens?articleTypeId=1
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 13 14 		2548) Other papers by Dulong are
concerned with "New determinations of
the proportions of water and the
density of certain elastic fluids"
(1820, with Berzelius); the property
possessed by certain metals of
facilitating the combination of gases
(1823 with Thenard); the refracting
powers of gases (1826); and the
specific heats of gases (1829). In 1830
Dulong publishes a research, undertaken
with Arago for the academy of sciences,
on the elastic force of steam at high
temperatures. For the purposes of this
determination Dulong creates a
continuous column of mercury,
constructed with 13 sections of glass
tube each 2 meters long and 5 mm in
diameter, in the tower of the old
church of St Genevieve in the College
Henri IV. The apparatus is first used
to investigate the variation in the
volume of air with pressure, and the
conclusion is that up to twenty-seven
atmospheres, the highest pressure
attained in the experiments, Boyle's
law is true (that the pressure and
volume of a gas are inversely related4
).5
Dulong begins as a doctor in one
of the poorest districts of Paris,6
where Dulong hands out medicine without
charge and treats the poor for free7 ,
but soon abandons (health for chemical8
) research.9
After acting as assistant
to Berthollet, Dulong becomes professor
of chemistry at the faculty of sciences
and the normal and veterinary schools
at Alfort.10
In 1820 Dulong is
professor of physics at the Ecole
Polytechnique, and appointed director
in 1830.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
5. ^ "Pierre
Louis Dulong". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_L
ouis_Dulong
6. ^ "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Pierre
Louis Dulong". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_L
ouis_Dulong
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Pierre
Louis Dulong". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_L
ouis_Dulong
10. ^ "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Pierre
Louis Dulong". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_L
ouis_Dulong
11. ^ "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Pierre
Louis Dulong". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_L
ouis_Dulong
12. ^ "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1416/Pierre-Louis-Dulong
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299. (1811)
(1811)
14. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Loui
s_Dulong
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-loui
s-dulong?cat=technology
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm Ostwald PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_Louis_Dulong.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dulong, Perre Louis
(1785 - 1838) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium:
Engraving PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 24 25 		2558) Arago is educated at the Ecole
Polytechnique in Paris.8
In 1809 Arago
is elected to the Académie des
Sciences and receives the chair of
analytical geometry at the Ecole
Polytechnique.9
In 1830 Arago succeeds
J. B. J. Fourier as the permanent
secretary of the Ecole Polytechnique.10

Arago is a vigorous defender of A. J.
Fresnel's wave theory of light against
the criticisms of Laplace and Biot, who
both supported the corpuscular
theory.11
Because Arago is converted to
the wave theory of light and Arago
loses Biot's friendship.12 (Rejecting
the idea of light as a particle in
favor of light as a wave in a medium is
not intuitive, but after Young had
shown how color is explained by
frequency, perhaps the wave theory
appeared to be more modern since the
corpuscular group fails to offer a
competing explanation for color such as
that color is determined by frequency
of corpuscle.13 )(A difference in
scientific opinion is no reason to
break a friendship.14 )
In 1838 Arago
describes an experiment to determine
the speed of light in air with the
speed of light in a denser medium.
Shortly before Arago's death, Léon
Foucault and Armand Fizeau will prove
that the speed of light is slower in a
denser medium, (and since Newton had
theorized that as a corpuscle, light
would move faster through water15 ),
many people think this fact supports a
wave interpretation for light.16
(Surprisingly, the idea that accepting
that Newton was wrong, and that
particles of light might be delayed
because of collisions in a denser
medium is either not argued or in any
event, does not win popularity if
argued.17 )
Arago is the first French
person to receive Royal Society's
Copley medal.18
Arago participates in
revolutions on the side of the
Republicans in 1830 and 1848.19
In the
Second Republic (1848-1852) Arago
serves in the cabinet and is
instrumental in having slavery
abolished in the French colonies.20
In
1852 Arago resigns his post when
President Napoleon makes himself
Emperor Napoleon II and demands an oath
of allegiance. But Napoleon refuses to
accept Arago's resignation, and does
not insist on an oath.21

(I wonder if this is from some
frequencies of light reflecting off the
last atom in one direction and others
in the opposite direction, since with
the light-as-a-particle theory it seems
possible that particles would bounce
off in at least two directions if
colliding inside a refractive object.
In this theory, double refraction is
the result of some photons reflecting
off atoms like a pachinko game, exiting
at two different angles depending on
the last reflection.22 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "fran ois arago". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
2. ^ David Brewster, "Observations on
the Polarization of the Atmosphere,
made at St. Andrews in 1841, 1842,
1843, 1844 and 1845.", The London,
Edinburge and Sublin Philosophical
Magazine and journal of Science, ser4,
vol30, 1865,
p.178. http://books.google.com/books?id
=4l4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA178&dq=brewster+1811+
intitle:edinburgh+polarization&lr=&as_br
r=1&ei=455xSa3oCoKGkATAstyFDg
3. ^ Arago, Oeuvres, vol. vii, p. 394.
4. ^
Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=UbMRmyx
CZmYC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=%22chromatic+p
olarization%22+1811&source=web&ots=spYzN
REmfh&sig=uya-5toougMzkucOfv8BKukmbR4
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "fran ois arago". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
9. ^ "fran ois arago". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
10. ^ "fran ois arago". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
11. ^ "fran ois arago". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "fran ois arago". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ "Francois Arago". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago
24. ^ "fran ois arago". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology (1811)
25. ^ William Tobin,
"The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, pp64-68. {1811}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dominique François Jean
Arago". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_F
ran%C3%A7ois_Jean_Arago
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/arago.
html
Paris, France23 (presumably) 
[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 31 32 33 		2564) Chevreul writes books on the
history and philosophy of science in
1860, 1866, and 1878.19
Chevreul
attends the Collège de France
(1803).20
In 1809 Chevreul is an
assistant to Antoine François de
Fourcroy.21
In 1810 Chevreul is
assistant at the Musée d'Histoire
Naturelle.22
From 1813 to 1830 Chevreul
is professor of physics at the Lycée
Charlemagne.23
In 1824 Chevreul becomes
director of the dyeworks for the
Gobelins Tapestry, where Chevreul
discovers hematoxylin in logwood,
quercetin in yellow oak, and prepares
the reduced colorless form of indigo.
Chevreul also investigates the science
and art of color with special
application to the production of massed
color by aggregations of small
monochromatic dots, as in the threads
of a tapestry.24
In 1830, Chevreul
succeeds Vauquelin as professor of
chemistry at the (French Academy of
Sciences25 ) Museum (in Paris26 ).27

Chevreul lives to 103 years old. Both
his father and mother live to be over
90.28 (Perhaps living to old age is
inherited. It would be naturally
selected for since the longer a person
lives the more chance of
reproduction.29 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
2. ^ "Michel Eugene
Chevreul". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
3. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
7. ^ "Michel Eugéne
Chevreul". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
13. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
14. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
15. ^ "esters". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/esters?cat=
health
16. ^ "saponification". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saponificat
ion?cat=health
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Michel Eugene
Chevreul". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
19. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
20. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
21. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
22. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
23. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
24. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ "Michel
Eugene Chevreul". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^
"Michel Eugene Chevreul". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
31. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul (starts in
1811)
32. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology (starts in
1810)
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302. (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michel Eugène Chevreul".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Chevreul
[2]
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm
Paris, France30 (presumably) 
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
188 YBN
[03/09/1812 AD] 14 15 		2520)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p293.
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Poisson.html
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ (Heilbron 1979:499)
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910, p59-66.
http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover& dq=a+histo
ry+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electri
city&ei=drw5SajbLoKGkASt0fDJBw
13. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simeon+Denis+Pois
son?cat=technology
14. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Poisson.html
(03/09/1812)
15. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910, p59-66.
http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover& dq=a+histo
ry+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electri
city&ei=drw5SajbLoKGkASt0fDJBw {1811}

MORE INFO
[1] "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_Deni
s_Poisson
Paris, France13  
[1] From
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sou
rce: en:Image:Simeon Poisson.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simeon_Poisson.jpg

[2] Denis Poisson : le
math�maticien de
Pithiviers PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.loiret.com/cgloiret/i
ndex.php?page=display&class=notrehistoir
e_figurespasse&object=r56_fig&method=h_d
isplay_full
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 3 		1241) Benjamin Rush (December 24, 1745
- April 19, 1813) publishes "Medical
Inquires and Observations Upon the
Diseases of the Mind", the first
psychology book to be printed in the
USA.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
3. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
Pennsylvania, PA2  
[1] Dr. Benjamin Rush painted by
Charles Wilson Peale in 1783 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.
jpg

[2] Dr. Benjamin Rush, painted by
Charles Wilson Peale, c.
1818 ''Benjamin Rush'' painted by
Charles Wilson Peale, c. 1818.
Independence National Historical Park.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 5 		1242) Joseph Mason Cox (1763-18181 ) in
his "Practical Observations on
Insanity", promotes the use of his
invention the "swinging chair" as a
treatment for insanity. Humans are
rotated until obedient. These devices
will be banned by people in a number of
European governments.2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://hpy.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/16/1/
73.pdf
2. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
3. ^
http://mchip00.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-d
b/webdocs/webdescrips/dickens12156-des-.
html
4. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
5. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
Pennsylvania, PA4   
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 7 8 		2316)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p246.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p246.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p246.
5. ^ "James
Parkinson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Parki
nson
6. ^
http://www.parkinsons.org.uk/about-parki
nsons/dr-james-parkinson-1755-1824.aspx
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p246. (1812) (1812)
8. ^ "".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.nndb.com/people/591/000096303
/ (1812)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-parki
nson?cat=health
[2]
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/392
.html
London, England5 6  
[1] James Parkinson Born:
11-Apr-1755 Birthplace: London,
England Died: 21-Dec-1824 Location of
death: London, England Cause of death:
unspecified Copyright ©2007 Soylent
Communications [t must be early
photograph, this is the first
photograph of a scientist yet in going
through asimov] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/591/0
00096303/
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 		2347) Glucose (also called Dextrose),
is one of a group of carbohydrates
known as simple sugars
(monosaccharides). Glucose (from Greek
glykys; "sweet") has the molecular
formula C6H12O6. Glucose is found in
fruits and honey and is the major free
sugar circulating in the blood of
higher animals. Glucose is the source
of energy in cell function, and the
regulation of glucose in a body is very
important. Molecules of starch, the
major carbohydrate of plants, are made
of thousands of glucose units, as are
molecules of cellulose. Glycogen, the
reserve carbohydrate in (most10 ) cells
is also made of glucose.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p253.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p253.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p253.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/catalyst-1?
cat=biz-fin
12. ^ "1811". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/1811?cat=te
chnology

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/R
EG/causeries/dates_1800.html
[2] "glucose". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7084/glucose
St Petersburg?, Russia?12   
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 22 		2389)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
2. ^ "Georges Baron
Cuvier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
7. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "Georges Cuvier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
20. ^ "". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Georges Cuvier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
22. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier (1812)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Cuvier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuv
ier
Paris, France21  
[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 7 8 9 		2402) Mohs studies at Halle and at the
Freiberg Mining Academy under Abraham
Werner.3
In 1812 Mohs becames curator
of the mineral collection at the
Johanneum in Graz.4
(It seems logical
to me that there is a relationship
between molecular and or atomic density
and hardness. This relates back to
Leukippos and Demokritos naming the
atom as some object that is too dense
to be cut; some densest uncuttable
object.5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p269.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p269.
3. ^ "Friedrich
Mohs". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Mohs+?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Friedrich Mohs". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Mohs+?c
at=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Friedrich Mohs". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Mohs+?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Mohs hardness". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3205/Mohs-hardness (1812)
8. ^ "Friedrich
Mohs". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Mohs+?c
at=technology (1812) (1822) (1812)
9. ^ Ted
Huntington. (1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Mohs". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_M
ohs
Graz, (Austria now:) Germany6  
[1] Friedrich Mohs, 1832. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_Mohs.jpg

[2] The scale is not linear (corundum
is actually 4 times as hard as
quartz), COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.visionlearning.com/li
brary/modules/mid130/Image/VLObject-3337
-050515120556.gif
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 4 		2518)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "article 9001800". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1800
2. ^ "article 9001800". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1800
3. ^ "article 9001800". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1800
4. ^ "article 9001800". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1800 (1812)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Blenkinsop". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Blenki
nsop
Yorkshire, England3  
[1] Blenkinsop's steam locomotive
Salamanca PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Salamanca_von_John_Blenkinsop.jpg
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 3 		5979)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
2. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1812}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
[2] "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
[3] Schauffler, Robert Haven.
Beethoven: The Man Who Freed Music.
Doubleday, Doran, & Company. Garden
City, New York. 1933; pg 211
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/symphony-no
-5-beethoven
Vienna, Austria2  
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 4 		2453)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "louis jacques th nard". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-jacqu
es-th-nard
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
3. ^ "louis jacques
th nard". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-jacqu
es-th-nard
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281. (1813)
(1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Jacques Thenard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1979/Louis-Jacques-Thenard
[2] "Louis Jacques Thénard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Jacqu
es_Th%C3%A9nard
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Thénard, Louis Jacques
(1777 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7.5 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
15.3 cm Louis Jacques Thénard,
uploaded to English Wikipedia by
en:User:Magnus Manske on 17th June
2004. Claimed source: [1]. As of today
(20th November 2005) the source URL is
[2]. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcolle
ctions/hst/scientific-identity/CF/displa
y_results.cfm?alpha_sort=T PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Jacques_Th%C3%A9nard.jpg

[2] Louis Jacques Thénard
(1777-1857). Collection Edgar Fats
Smith. PD
source: http://www.inrp.fr/she/cours_mag
istral/expose_thenard/expose_thenard_com
plet.htm
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 14 15 		2458) In 1796 Candolle arrives in Paris
and becomes friends with the French
naturalists Georges Cuvier and
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck.6
In 1802
Candolle becomes an assistant to Cuvier
at the Collège de France.7
Candolle
prepares revisions of Lamarck's "Flore
française" (1805, 1815).8
From
1806-1812, at the request of the French
government Candolle makes a botanical
and agricultural survey of France.9
Can
dolle also writes monographs (scholarly
essays) of 100 plant families.10
In
1808 Candolle becomes professor of
botany at the University of
Montpellier.11
From 1817-41 Candolle is
the chair of natural history at the
Université de Genève (1817-41), where
Candolle is the first director of the
botanical gardens.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
2. ^ "Augustin Pyrame
de Candolle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
4. ^ "Augustin Pyrame
de Candolle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
5. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Pyrame+d
e+Candolle?cat=technology
6. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
7. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
8. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
9. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Pyrame+d
e+Candolle?cat=technology
10. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Pyrame+d
e+Candolle?cat=technology
11. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
12. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
13. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
14. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle (1813)
15. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282. (1813) (1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Pyrame de
Candolle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Py
rame_de_Candolle
[2]
http://www.botanicus.org/creator.asp?cre
atorid=13
Montpellier, France13
(presumably) 
[1] Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(1778-1841) Work : swiss
botanist. Source : Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Candolle_Augustin_Pyrame_de_1778-1841
.jpg
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 4 5 		2459) Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(KonDOL) (CE 1778-1841)1 , publishes
"Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale" (2
vol, 1818-21, "Natural Classification
for the Plant Kingdom") which develops
Candolle's system of classification.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
2. ^ "Augustin Pyrame
de Candolle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
3. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
4. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle (1813)
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282. (1813) (1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Pyrame de
Candolle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Py
rame_de_Candolle
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Pyrame+d
e+Candolle?cat=technology
Montpellier, France3
(presumably) 
[1] Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(1778-1841) Work : swiss
botanist. Source : Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Candolle_Augustin_Pyrame_de_1778-1841
.jpg
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 11 12 		2460)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
2. ^ "Augustin Pyrame
de Candolle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
3. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Pyrame+d
e+Candolle?cat=technology
4. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Pyrame+d
e+Candolle?cat=technology
5. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Pyrame+d
e+Candolle?cat=technology
6. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
7. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://www.botanicus.org/creator.asp?cre
atorid=13
10. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle
11. ^ "Augustin Pyrame de Candolle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
9965/Augustin-Pyrame-de-Candolle (1813)
12. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282. (1813) (1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Pyrame de
Candolle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Py
rame_de_Candolle
Montpellier, France10
(presumably) 
[1] Prodromus Systematis Naturalis
Regni Vegetabilis page
1 PD/COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.botanicus.org/title/b
11905840

[2] Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(1778-1841) Work : swiss
botanist. Source : Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Candolle_Augustin_Pyrame_de_1778-1841
.jpg
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 5 6 		2475)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^ "Sir Humphry
Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
4. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet (1813)
6. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286. (1813)
(1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England4  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir
Humphry Davy by John A. Paris, London:
Colburn and Bentley, 1831. Engraving
from about 1830, based on a portrait by
Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 10 11 		2492)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Jons
Jacob Berzelius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
6. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
9. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289. (1813)
(1813)
11. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[3] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[4] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
Stokholm, Sweden9 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 5 		2503)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
2. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
5. ^ Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
(1813)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[3]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
Stokholm, Sweden4 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 3 		2531) François Magendie (mojoNDE) (CE
1783-1855), demonstrates the largely
passive role of the stomach in vomiting
in addition to describing the the
mechanism of swallowing.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "François Magendie".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
2. ^ "François Magendie". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
3. ^ "François Magendie". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20 (1813)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Francois Magendie".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie
[3] "François Magendie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Magendie
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 5 		2596)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
2. ^ Corpuscular
Optics and the Wave Theory of Light:
The Science and Politics of a
Revolution in Physics Eugene
Frankel Social Studies of
Science, Vol. 6, No. 2. (May, 1976),
pp. 141-184, p169.
Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
3. ^ "Sir David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir David
Brewster". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
4. ^ "Sir David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6395/Sir-David-Brewster
5. ^ Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science, Vol. 6, No. 2. (May, 1976),
pp. 141-184, p169.
Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
(1813) (1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "David Brewster". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brews
ter
[2]
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
[3] "Brewsters law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6399/Brewsters-law
Edinburgh, Scotland4  
[1] David Brewster [t Early
photograph] 19th century photograph.
public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dbrewster.jpg

[2] Scientist: Brewster, David (1781
- 1868) Discipline(s): Optics Print
Artist: W. Holl Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Henry Raeburn,
1756-1823 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
17.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Optics
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 16 		2739) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 first has the
idea of mechanically calculating
mathematical tables.2 3

From 1820-1822, Babbage makes a small
calculator that can perform certain
mathematical computations to six or
eight decimals.4 5
Charles Babbage is
the son of Benjamin Babbage, a wealthy
banking partner of the Praeds who owns
the Bitton Estate in Teignmouth and
Betsy Plumleigh Babbage.6
Babbage
receives instruction from several elite
schools and teachers during the course
of his elementary education.7
In 1814,
Babbage graduates from St Peter's
College, Cambridge.8
In 1812 Babbage
helps found the Analytical Society,
along with Sir John Herschel, George
Peacock (and Whewell9 ) who labor to
raise the standard of mathematical
instruction in England, and especially
endeavor to supersede the Newtonian by
the Leibnizian notation in the
infinitesimal calculus.10
In 1814, the
same year he takes his degree, Babbage
marries Georgiana Whitmore. They have
eight children, only three of whom
survive to maturity.11
From 1828 to
1839 Babbage serves as Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics at the
University of Cambridge.12
In 1830
Babbage writes a controversial book
which denounces the Royal Society as
having grown moribund.13
(Notice how
Babbage works with people in the
Government as Morse did, which may
imply development of secret technology
for government military.14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
3. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, vol 11, p31.
4. ^
"Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
5. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, vol 11, p31.
6. ^
http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
7. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
8. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
10. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
11. ^ "Charles Babbage". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
12. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
"Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
16. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage (1812 or 1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England15
(presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 18 		2818)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Society of Arcueil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_
Arcueil
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276.
3. ^
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V70-4HF5KMF-4&_user=4
422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&v
iew=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=1658db485facb9e
3bce968dbdb29340e#bfn2
4. ^ Cornell, 1938 E.S. Cornell, The
radiant heat spectrum from herschel to
Melloni-I. The Work of Herschel and his
contemporaries, Annals of Science 3
(1938), pp. 119-137. Full Text via
CrossRef http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/content?content=10.1080/0003379380020
0801 Infrared_Herschel_Melloni.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ann. de Chim., 1813, 85,
309, p15.
7. ^ Ann. de Chim., 1813, 85,
309, p16.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ann. de Chim.,
1813, 85, 309, p16.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp247-248.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
13. ^ Ann. de
Chim., 1813, 85, 309.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V70-4HF5KMF-4&_user=4
422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&v
iew=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=1658db485facb9e
3bce968dbdb29340e#bfn2
16. ^ Cornell, 1938 E.S. Cornell, The
radiant heat spectrum from herschel to
Melloni-I. The Work of Herschel and his
contemporaries, Annals of Science 3
(1938), pp. 119-137. Full Text via
CrossRef, p17.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content
?content=10.1080/00033793800200801 Infr
ared_Herschel_Melloni.pdf
17. ^ "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Claude+Louis%2C+C
omte+Berthollet+?cat=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp233-234. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude Louis Berthollet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8896/Claude-Louis-Berthollet
[2] "Claude Louis, Comte Berthollet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Loui
s%2C_Comte_Berthollet
Paris, France17 (presumably) 
[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berthollet, Claude
Louis (1748 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist: Jean
Pierre Sudre, 1783-1866 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 28 x 19.5 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 12 		2846)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
2. ^ "Divergence
theorem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_
theorem
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Divergence theorem".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_
theorem
5. ^ "Gausss law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6224/Gausss-law
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Divergence theorem".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_
theorem
8. ^ "Divergence theorem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_
theorem
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Divergence theorem".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_
theorem
11. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
12. ^ "Divergence theorem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_
theorem (1813)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[6]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
[7] The Mechanical Universe, Chapter
29, The Electric Field
[8] The Mechanical
Universe, Chapter 34, Magnetism
[9] The
Mechanical Universe, Chapter 37,
Electromagnetic Induction
[10] "Gauss' law".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%27_la
w
[11]
http://www.answers.com/topic/gauss-s-law
?cat=technology
[12] "principles of physical science".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-148
55/principles-of-physical-science
Göttingen, Germany11
(presumably) 
[1] Gauss' Law [t i: there is also a
differential form see 13 wiki ] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau
ss%27_law

[2] Gauss' Law (applied to magnetic
field by Maxwell) [t possibly these
equations should wait until
Maxwell] [t there is also a form for
gravity see 13 wiki ] GNU
source: same
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 7 		3235) Howard turns down an offer of
40,000 pounds and instead licenses his
process.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Greenberg, Arthur (2000). A
Chemical History Tour. John Wiley &
Sons, 198-203. ISBN 0-471-35408-2.
{Howard_Edward.pdf}
2. ^ E. C. Howard, "Preparing and
Refining Sugar", British Patent 3754
(20 November 1813).
3. ^ Greenberg, Arthur
(2000). A Chemical History Tour. John
Wiley & Sons, 198-203. ISBN
0-471-35408-2. {Howard_Edward.pdf}
4. ^ Greenberg, Arthur
(2000). A Chemical History Tour. John
Wiley & Sons, 198-203. ISBN
0-471-35408-2. {Howard_Edward.pdf}
5. ^ Greenberg, Arthur
(2000). A Chemical History Tour. John
Wiley & Sons, 198-203. ISBN
0-471-35408-2. {Howard_Edward.pdf}
6. ^ Greenberg, Arthur
(2000). A Chemical History Tour. John
Wiley & Sons, 198-203. ISBN
0-471-35408-2. {Howard_Edward.pdf}
7. ^ Greenberg, Arthur
(2000). A Chemical History Tour. John
Wiley & Sons, 198-203. ISBN
0-471-35408-2. {Howard_Edward.pdf}
(1813)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person
.asp?LinkID=mp02292
[2] "Fulminates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminates
[3] "fulminate." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
02 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
ulminate>.
[4] Rifled Breach Loader.
Globalsecurity.org.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/s
ystems/ground/rifle-history.htm
[5] Edward Howard, "On a New
Fulminating Mercury.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 90,1,
(1800),pp204-238. http://links.jstor.or
g/sici?sici=0261-0523%281800%2990%3C204%
3AOANFMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L
{Howard_Edward_1800_107053.pdf}
London, England6  
[1] Figure 5. Howard's vacuum pan for
evaporating sugar solutions. Figure 6.
''Test stick'' for withdrawing samples
of liquid from the closed vacuum
pan. PD/Corel
source: Howard_Edward.pdf

[2] Edward Charles Howard PD/Corel
source: Howard_Edward.pdf
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 7 		3323)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
2. ^ Thomas
Young, George Peacock, John Leitch,
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young ...",
pp343-358. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CPAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=
%22cohesion+of+fluids%22+young&source=we
b&ots=5p5e2xGWkK&sig=fhKLyk0CMPbUdB-rJHw
MT32eA1A&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnu
m=3&ct=result#PPA343,M1
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Young_Thomas.html
4. ^ Thomas Young, George Peacock, John
Leitch, "Miscellaneous Works of the
Late Thomas Young ...",
pp343-358. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CPAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=
%22cohesion+of+fluids%22+young&source=we
b&ots=5p5e2xGWkK&sig=fhKLyk0CMPbUdB-rJHw
MT32eA1A&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnu
m=3&ct=result#PPA343,M1
5. ^ Thomas Young, George Peacock, John
Leitch, "Miscellaneous Works of the
Late Thomas Young ...",
pp343-358. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CPAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=
%22cohesion+of+fluids%22+young&source=we
b&ots=5p5e2xGWkK&sig=fhKLyk0CMPbUdB-rJHw
MT32eA1A&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnu
m=3&ct=result#PPA343,M1
6. ^ "thomas young". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
7. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Young_Thomas.html
{1813}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Color". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[4] Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[5] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979
[6]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf
[7] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959,1987
[8] The Last Man Who Knew
Everything, Robinson, 2005
[9] Thomas Young,
Philip Kelland, "A Course of Lectures
on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
[10] "astigmatism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online, p161.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[11] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978, p181.
[12] "Miscellaneous
Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas
Young, George Peacock, 1855 John
Murray, p179. {11/24/1803}
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Double-slit experiment and
interference fringes, as shown in
Young's Natural Philosophy - his most
celebrated discovery. [t Here you can
see no lines drawn for light that must
be reflected off inside of
openings.] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: The Last Man Who Knew
Everything, Robinson, 2005

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Thoma
s_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg
186 YBN
[03/27/1814 AD] 3 		2485)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
2. ^ "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
3. ^ "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y (03/27/1814 (presumably 1814)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Sir Humphry Davy
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "nitrous oxide". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5956/nitrous-oxide
[6]
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/davy.htm
Florence, Italy2  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 6 		2262)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
4. ^ "Giuseppe
Piazzi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology (1814)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giuseppe Piazzi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9895/Giuseppe-Piazzi
[2] "Giuseppe Piazzi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Pi
azzi
Palermo, Sicily5  
[1] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 5 6 		2409) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829)
begins studying the Rosetta stone.1
After obtaining additional hieroglyphic
writings from other sources, Young
succeeds in providing a nearly accurate
translation within a few years and this
contributes heavily to deciphering the
ancient Egyptian language.2 Young will
write an an authoritative article on
Egypt in 1818, laying the ground work
for Champollion.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
2. ^ "Thomas Young".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
4. ^ "thomas young".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
5. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young {1814}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271. {1814}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[4] "astigmatism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[5] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
peacocl, 1855 John Murray
[6] "Color".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[7] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[8] Opticks, Isaac
NewtonCohen, Dover, 1979
[9]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf
[10]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a82481a8fe
7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical
Optics Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 94 -
1804 Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1804.
0001 Young_Thomas_1804_Experiments_and_
Calculations.pdf
[11] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959,1987
[12] Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845.
{Contains the lectures which form vol.
I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
London, England4  
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 10 11 		2433)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
2. ^ "Amedeo
Avogadro". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
3. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
5. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekl
y/aa111602a.htm
9. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
10. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro (1814)
11. ^ "Amedeo
Avogadro". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology (1814)

MORE INFO
[1] "Amedeo Avogadro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Avog
adro
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Avogadro's number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27
s_number
[4] "Joseph Loschmidt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9002/Joseph-Loschmidt
[5]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/Avogadro.
html (paper in English)
Avogadro_1811.html
Vercelli, Italy9  
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 55 		2571) Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR
or HOFR) (CE 1787-1826), German
physicist and optician, invents a
spectroscope (using a theodolite) by
using a telescope as opposed to paper
and maps 57615 spectral lines.16
Theodolites were designed and used
exclusively for surveying before
this.17

In testing glasses to measure the index
of refraction (to make achromatic
lenses), Fraunhofer finds that the
solar spectrum contains numerous dark
lines. Fraunhofer finds that even
slight imperfections in the prism would
have reduced the sharpness of the image
enough to blur out the lines (and
perhaps this explains why Newton may
have missed seeing these lines (I have
never seen these lines with the tiny
prisms I own18 ). Wollaston had
observed only seven lines, 12 years
earlier (1802)19 , but Fraunhofer
observes nearly six hundred. People now
have identified about ten thousand
lines (including beyond the narrow
visible region of light20 ). Fraunhofer
maps these lines (using the letter A to
K to describe the main lines21 , (a
system still used today) and determines
their wavelength.22 (How does
Fraunhofer determine wavelength?23 )

Fraunhofer puts a prism at the focal
point of a telescope and finds that
light from a star has dark lines in the
spectrum that do not match the pattern
of those in sunlight. (Kirchhoff will
develop the understanding of these
spectrum lines further.)24

Fraunhofer plots hundreds of spectral
lines, and by measuring their
wavelengths (or photon intervals -
however there is no calculation of
wavelength but only position on
spectrum25 ) Fraunhofer finds that the
relative positions of the lines in the
spectra of elements are constant,
whether the spectra are produced by the
direct rays of the Sun, by the
reflected light of the Moon and
planets, by a gas (flame26 ), or by
(the light of27 ) a heated metal in the
laboratory.28

Fraunhofer's first assignment at the
Untzschneider Optical Institute is
making achromatic lenses for
telescopes. This work requires the
production of highly homogeneous
silicates. Fraunhofer's communication
on the results of his research appears
in the Denkschriften (Memoirs) for
1814-1815 of the Academy of Sciences in
Munich. The paper contains a
description of the first use of the
dark lines of the solar spectrum as
reference points for the measurement of
refraction indexes.29

These lines are (sometimes referred to
as30 ) Fraunhofer lines.31 (may only
be dark lines in Sun according to EB
verify32 )

This work sets the stage for the
development of spectroscopy.33

50 years later Gustav Kirchhoff will
determine the elementary composition of
the stars by showing that lines in the
solar spectrum result from
characteristic absorption by elements
in the atmosphere of the Sun.34
(Kirchhoff will show that these lines
are from absorption as opposed to
simply absence of light in the
frequency. It seems logical that there
must be some very tiny frequencies as a
person divides time into smaller units,
which would not contain photons emitted
by the Sun.35 )

(Understanding the concept that light
moves in beams of many different
frequencies is important to isolating
specific wavelengths of light as
Michael Pupin will do in 1910 in seeing
thought; the first image of a human
memory.36 )

Fraunhofer publishes these findings in
the journal "Denkschriften der
Königlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu München", (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226. This work is
translated from German into English as
"On the Refractive and Dispersive Power
of different Species of Glass in
reference to the improvement of
Achromatic Telescopes with an Account
of the Lines or Streaks which cross the
Spectrum By JOSEPH FRAUENHOFER" in two
parts in the "Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal", (1823) vol IX, pp296 and in
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1824), vol X, p26.37 38 39 40

(It is interesting that the atoms in
the prisms or gratings apparently do
not influence the spectra of the
source. Perhaps for the prism the
photons are not absorbed but
transmitted or more likely reflected
through with many collisions, and for
the grating they are not absorbed but
reflected.41 )
Fraunhofer writes that
"In every case, the white light which
passed through (the refracting medium42
) was still decomposed into all its
colours, with this difference only,
that in the spectrum, the colour
peculiar to the glass or the fluid was
more brilliant than the rest. Even the
coloured flames obtained by burning
alcohol, sulphur, &c, seen through a
prism, do not yield a homogeneous light
corresponding to the colour. These
flames, however, such as that of a
lamp, particularly that of a candle,
and in general, the light produced by
the flame of a fire, exhibit between
the red and yellow of the spectrum a
clear and well marked line, which
occupies the same place in all the
spectra. This line will become more
important in the sequel, and it was one
of great utility to me. It appears to
be formed by rays which are not
decomposed by the prism, and which
consequently are homogeneous. In the
green space we perceive a similar line,
but it is weaker, and less distinct, so
that it is often very difficult to
find.".43
Fraunhofer finds a double
yellow line in the light of a flame
(which kind?44 ) that corresponds
exactly to the spectrum of the Sun
(later shown to be from sodium45 ).46


Fraunhofer writes "As the lines of the
spectrum are seen with every refracting
substance of uniform density, I have
employed this circumstance for
determining the index of refraction of
any substance for each coloured ray.
This could be done with the greater
exactness, as most of the lines are
very distinct and well marked. For this
purpose, I selected the largest lines,
because with substances of low
refractive power, or with prisms of
small refracting angles, the lines of
less magnitude could scarcely be
perceived with a strong magnifying
power. The lines which I chose were
those marked B, C, D, E, F, G, H, in
Fig. 5 of Plate VII. (Vol. IX.) I made
no use of the line b, because it is too
near F, and I endeavoured to use the
middle one between D and F.".47


So in this way Fraunhofer creates a
detailed map of the newly discovered
lines in the spectrum of the Sun.
Fraunhofer goes on to explain that the
lines disappear if the aperture
(opening) is too large. If the angle of
the width of the aperture is greater
than that of the width of the line then
the image of the same line will be
projected several times parallel to
itself will become indistinct and
disappear when the aperture is too
large. Fraunhofer thinks that the lines
may be the result of an illusion caused
by "inflection" (diffraction48 ) by the
narrow opening of the slit, and
performs an experiment to verify that
(diffraction or49 ) interference is not
the cause of the spectral lines.
Fraunhaofer states "Various experiments
and changes to which I have submitted
these lines convince me that they have
their origin in the nature of the light
of the sun, and that they cannot be
attributed to illusion, to aberration,
or any other secondary cause.".

Fraunhofer examines the spectra of
planet Venus writing: "In the spectrum
formed by this light I found the same
lines such as they appeared in the
light of the sun. That of Venus
however, having little intensity
compared with that of the sun reflected
from a mirror, the brightness of the
violet and the exterior red rays is
very feeble. On this account we
perceive even the strongest lines in
these two colours with some difficulty,
but in the other colours they are
easily distinguished. I have seen the
lines D E b F (Fig 6) very well
terminated and I have recognised that
those in b are formed of two, namely a
fine and a strong line. The weakness of
the light however prevented me from
seeing that the strongest of these two
lines consisted of two and for the same
reason the other finer lines could not
be distinguished. By an approximate
measure of the lines DE and EF I am
convinced that the light of Venus is in
this respect of the same nature as that
of the sun."

Fraunhofer observes the spectra of
other stars writing "With the same
apparatus I have also made several
observations on some of the brightest
fixed stars. As their light was much
fainter than that of Venus, the
brightness of their spectra was
consequently still less. I have
nevertheless seen without any illusion
in the spectrum of the light of Sirius
three large lines which apparently have
no resemblance with those of the sun's
light. One of them is in the green, and
two in the blue space. Lines are also
seen in the spectrum of other fixed
stars of the first magnitude."
Fraunhofe
r examines the spectra of electric
light and the light from burning
hydrogen, alcohol and sulfur.
Fraunhofer writes "The electric light
is, in relation to the lines of the
spectrum, very different from the light
of the sun and of a lamp (must be
alcohol lamp50 ). In this spectrum, we
meet with several lines, party very
clear, and one of which, in the green
space, seems very brilliant, compared
with the other parts of the spectrum.
Another line, which is not quite so
bright, is in the orange, and appears
to be of the same colour as that in the
spectrum of the light of a lamp; but,
in measuring its angle of refraction, I
find that its light is much more
strongly refracted, and nearly as much
as the yellow rays of the light of a
lamp.".51 Fraunhofer describes the
spectral lines of flames of various
substances writing: "Whether the
aperture through which the light of the
lamp passes is wide or narrow, if we
cover the point of the flame, and the
lower blue extremity of it, the red
line appears less clear, and is more
difficult to be distinguished. hence it
appears that this line derives its
origin principally from the light of
the two extremities of the flame,
particularly the inferior one.
The reddish
line is, in relation to the other parts
of the spectrum, very bright in the
spectra of light produced by the flame
of hydrogen gas and alcohol. In the
spectrum of the flame of sulphur, it is
seen with difficulty."52


Fraunhofer examines the spectra of
light produced by electricity writing
"In order to obtain a continuous
electrical light I brought to within
half an inch of each other two
conductors and I united them by a very
fine glass thread. One of the two was
connected with an electrical machine
and the other communicated with the
ground. In this manner the light
appeared to pass continuously along the
glass fibre which consequently formed a
fine and brilliant line of light."
"The
electric light is in relation to the
lines of the spectrum very different
from the light of the sun and of a
lamp. In this spectrum we meet with
several lines partly very clear and one
of which in the green space seems very
brilliant compared with the other parts
of the spectrum. Another line which is
not quite so bright is in the orange
and appears to be of the same colour as
that in the spectrum of the light of a
lamp, but in measuring its angle of
refraction, I find that its light is
much more strongly refracted, and
nearly as much as the yellow rays of
the light of a lamp. Towards the
extremity of the spectrum we perceive
in the red a line of very little
brightness, yet its light has the same
refrangibility as that of the clear
line of the light of a lamp. In the
rest of the spectrum we may still
easily distinguish other four lines
sufficiently bright."53

Fraunhofer publishes this as
(translated from German) "DETERMINATION
OF THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE
POWER OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES."
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
2. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
3. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
4. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
5. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
8. ^ "Joseph von
Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
12. ^ Norman
Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun,
Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "josef von
fraunhofer". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
17. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=_6tBxNa
k1lkC&pg=PT31&dq=fraunhofer+theodolite+1
821+used+surveying&as_brr=0&sig=Q8JiqnSM
ykBH28mm1bU5S9o9W3Q
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Record ID2365.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "josef von fraunhofer".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Joseph von
Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
29. ^ "Fraunhofer". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fraunhofer
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
34. ^ "josef von fraunhofer". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Norman
Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun,
Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
38. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226. This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX, pp288-299 and "Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal" (1824), vol X,
p26. In addition this is printed in:
Vol. 56, pp. 264-313. Gilberts Annalen
der Physik. (1817) (Apparently the
figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
39. ^ "Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal", (1824), vol X,
pp26-40. http://books.google.com/books?
id=1BYAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:OCLC01567491&lr=#PPR1,M1 {Fraun
hofer_1824_volX_The_Edinburgh_Philosophi
cal_Journal.pdf}
40. ^ "Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal", (1823) vol IX,
pp288-299. Fraunhofer_1823.pdf
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ "Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal", (1823) vol IX,
pp288-299. Fraunhofer_1823.pdf
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ Thomas Preston, The
Theory of Light, Macmillan and Co.,
1895,
p463. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JxoJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA463&lpg=PA463&dq=%22do
uble+yellow+line%22+spectrum&source=web&
ots=ublje85a5i&sig=ZgJQ4RRxJRh1tTnAzqkSX
AK57Yo&hl=en
46. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
47. ^ "Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal", (1824), vol X,
pp26-40. http://books.google.com/books?
id=1BYAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:OCLC01567491&lr=#PPR1,M1 {Fraun
hofer_1824_volX_The_Edinburgh_Philosophi
cal_Journal.pdf}
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Ted
Huntington.
51. ^ "Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal", (1824), vol X,
pp26-40. http://books.google.com/books?
id=1BYAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:OCLC01567491&lr=#PPR1,M1 {Fraun
hofer_1824_volX_The_Edinburgh_Philosophi
cal_Journal.pdf}
52. ^ "Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal", (1824), vol X,
pp26-40. http://books.google.com/books?
id=1BYAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:OCLC01567491&lr=#PPR1,M1 {Fraun
hofer_1824_volX_The_Edinburgh_Philosophi
cal_Journal.pdf}
53. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
54. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
55. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304. (1814)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany54
 
[1] Figures from Frauhofer's 1823
paper PD/Corel
source: Fraunhofer_1823.pdf

[2] Fraunhofer's Theodolite
spectroscope [t verify that this is
in Fraunhofer's 1814 paper]
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mpwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=fraunhofer+1814
&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA14,M1
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 23 		2609) In 1805 Cauchy finds a simple
solution to the problem of Apollonius;
to describe a circle touching three
given circles.4
In 1811 Cauchy
discovers his generalization of Euler's
theorem on polyhedra.

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica Cauchy's greatest
contributions to mathematics,
characterized by the clear and rigorous
methods that he introduces, are
embodied predominantly in his three
great treatises: "Cours d'analyse de
l'École Royale Polytechnique" (1821,
"Courses on Analysis from the École
Royale Polytechnique"); "Résumé des
leçons sur le calcul infinitésimal"
(1823, "Résumé of Lessons on
Infinitesimal Calculus"); and "Leçons
sur les applications du calcul
infinitésimal à la géométrie"
(1826-28, "Lessons on the Applications
of Infinitesimal Calculus to
Geometry").5 6 (This needs more info
about specific contributions7 )

In optics, Cauchy develops the wave
theory, and Cauchy's name is associated
with the simple dispersion formula.
(show8 ) In elasticity, Cauchy
originates the theory of stress, and
Cauchy's results are nearly as valuable
as those of S. D. Poisson.9
Augustin
Louis Cauchy was born in Paris in 1789,
38 days after the fall of the Bastille.
Cauchy's father, Louis François, was a
parliamentary lawyer, lieutenant of
police, and ardent royalist. Sensing
the political wind, Cauchy's father
moves the family to his country cottage
at Arcueil, where they lived for nearly
11 years. Here young Cauchy receives a
strict religious education from his
mother and an elementary classical
education from his father, who writes
his own textbooks in (poetic?10 )
verse.11
By 1800 the political
situation is stabilized and the family
moved back to Paris.12
In 1816, when
Gaspard Monge is expelled from the
Academy of Sciences (because of Monge's
close friendship with Napoleon13 )14 ,
Cauchy is appointed to fill the
vacancy. The same year Cauchy wins the
grand prix of the Institute of France
for a paper on wave propagation, now
accepted as a classic in
hydrodynamics.15

The Revolution of 1830 sends Charles X
into exile and Cauchy refuses to give
an oath of allegiance to the new king,
Louis Philippe, is stripped of all his
positions, and moves to Switzerland,
leaving his family in Paris until they
join him in Prague in 1834.16
After the
Revolution of 1848, the oath is
abolished, and Cauchy resumes his old
professorship at the Polytechnique.
Louis Napoleon reinstates the oath in
1852, but Cauchy is specifically
exempted.17

Among Cauchy's nearly 800 publications
are works on the theory of waves
(1815), algebraic analysis (1821),
elasticity (1822), infinitesimal
calculus (1823, 1826-28), differential
calculus (1827), and the dispersion of
light (1836).18

Cauchy's collected works, "Oeuvres
complètes d'Augustin Cauchy"
(1882-1970), are published in 27
volumes.19

According to Asimov Cauchy is
aggressively ultraconservative both in
politics and religion.20
Answers
biography writes that Cauchy, is as
rigidly ultraroyalist in politics as
Cauchy is ultra-Catholic in religion.21

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp310-311.
2. ^ "Augustin Louis
Baron Cauchy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Augustin Louis, Baron
Cauchy". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Augustin Louis, Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Louis,_Baron_Cauchy
5. ^ "Augustin Louis Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
6. ^ "Augustin Louis, Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Augustin Louis, Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Louis,_Baron_Cauchy
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Augustin Louis,
Baron Cauchy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Augustin Louis, Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Louis,_Baron_Cauchy
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Augustin Louis
Cauchy". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Louis+Ca
uchy?cat=technology
12. ^ "Augustin Louis Cauchy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Louis+Ca
uchy?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Record ID2259.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ "Augustin Louis Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
16. ^ "Augustin Louis Cauchy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Louis+Ca
uchy?cat=technology
17. ^ "Augustin Louis Cauchy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Louis+Ca
uchy?cat=technology
18. ^ "Augustin Louis Cauchy". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Louis+Ca
uchy?cat=technology
19. ^ "Augustin Louis Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp310-311.
21. ^ "Augustin Louis
Cauchy". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Louis+Ca
uchy?cat=technology
22. ^ "Augustin Louis Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
23. ^ "Augustin Louis Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy (1814)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Louis Cauchy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Lo
uis_Cauchy
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Cauchy.html
[4]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/notice?N=FRBNF3020
7318
Paris, France22  
[1] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin Louis
(1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca.1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.5 x 21.5 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin Louis
(1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: C. H.
Reutlinger Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.5 x 11.5 cm
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
185 YBN
[01/03/1815 AD] 13 		3837)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
2. ^ David Brewster,
"On the Production of regular double
Refraction in the molecules of bodies
by simple Pressure; with Observations
on the origin of the doubly refracting
Structure.", Phil Trans,
1830. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yUYEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=%22On+the+Produ
ction+of+regular+double+refraction%22&as
_brr=1&ei=7cFvSYXyF4jiNPu4kO0M
3. ^ David Brewster, "On the Laws which
regulate the polarisation of light by
reflexion from transparent bodies.",
Phil. Trans., 1815,
p.125-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:ph
ilosophical+intitle:transactions+date:18
15-1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA125,M
1
4. ^ "isinglass." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isinglass
5. ^ David Brewster, "On the Laws which
regulate the polarisation of light by
reflexion from transparent bodies.",
Phil. Trans., 1815,
p.125-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:ph
ilosophical+intitle:transactions+date:18
15-1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA125,M
1
6. ^ David Brewster, "On the Laws which
regulate the polarisation of light by
reflexion from transparent bodies.",
Phil. Trans., 1815,
p.125-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:ph
ilosophical+intitle:transactions+date:18
15-1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA125,M
1
7. ^ David Brewster, "Experiments on
the depolarisation of light as
exhibited by various mineral, animal,
and vegtable bodies, with a reference
of the phenomena to the general
principles of polarisation.", Phil.
Trans., 1814, p29-53.
8. ^ David Brewster, "On
the effects of simple pressure in
producing that species of
crystallization which forms two
oppositely polarised images, and
exhibits the complimentary colours by
polarised light.", Phil. Trans., 1815,
p60-64. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:transactions+date:1815-
1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA60,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Sir David
Brewster". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6395/Sir-David-Brewster
12. ^ David Brewster, "On the Laws
which regulate the polarisation of
light by reflexion from transparent
bodies.", Phil. Trans., 1815,
p.125-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:ph
ilosophical+intitle:transactions+date:18
15-1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA125,M
1
13. ^ David Brewster, "On the Laws
which regulate the polarisation of
light by reflexion from transparent
bodies.", Phil. Trans., 1815,
p.125-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:ph
ilosophical+intitle:transactions+date:18
15-1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA125,M
1 {paper 2: 01/03/1815}

MORE INFO
[1] "Brewsters law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6399/Brewsters-law (1811)
[2] "David
Brewster". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology (1813)
[3] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294. (1815)
(1815)
[4] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[5] David Brewster, "On the
communication of the structure of
doubly refracting crystals to glass,
muriate of soda, fluor spar, and other
substances, by mechanical compression
and dilation.", Phil. Trans., 1816,
p156-178. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eRxGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP13&dq=brewster+int
itle:philosophical+date:1816-1816&ei=Y81
vSZ7OMaTGMr3U3Hs#PPA156,M1
Edinburgh, Scotland11 12  
[1] An illustration of the polarization
of light which is incident on an
interface at Brewster's angle. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:philos
ophical+intitle:transactions+date:1815-1
815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA128,M1

[2] Table containing the calculated
and observed polarising angles for
various bodies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bre
wster%27s_law
185 YBN
[07/08/1815 AD] 		2597)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/hundred-day
s
2. ^ "hundred days". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hundred-day
s
Paris, France2   
185 YBN
[10/??/1815 AD] 49 		2589) Fresnel starts studying optics in
1814 and is one of the major supporters
of the wave theory of light. Fresnel
works on interference, at first being
unaware of the work of Thomas Young,
and produces a number of devices for
giving interference effects. Fresnel's
biprism is a single prism formed of two
identical narrow-angled prisms
base-to-base. Placed in front of a
single source Fresnel's biprism splits
the beam into two parts, which can
produce interference fringes.24 (This
claim of interference I would like to
verify on video for all.25 )

Initially, Fresnel believes that light
is a longitudinal wave motion (like
sound26 ), but later decides that light
must be a transverse wave to account
for the phenomenon of polarization.27

I think that because the frequency of
light determines color, and that this
find came from those who viewed light
as a wave (starting with Nicolas
Malebranche (CE 1638-1715) in 1699 28 )
makes the wave interpretation look more
accurate or modern to contemporary
people. The corpuscular supporters
completely fail to theorize that
frequency of corpuscle determines
color, thinking color is determined by
corpuscle size, mass or density. Then
the speed of light not being faster in
a denser medium as Newton had predicted
set back faith in the corpuscular
theory even though in my mind
corpuscles taking more time in a denser
medium seems logical since there is
more matter to collide with. Another
interesting point is that wave
functions and equations work for light
beams for either particle or wave
interpretation because of the periodic
nature of light rays, which are
composed of either evenly spaced
particles or evenly spaced vibrations.]
(What is the current wave view? I think
it is that of Maxwell but minus the
ether. So presumably the light wave is
composed only of light energy in a sine
wave shape? This is like having a
conversation with an old person that
cannot hear well, because, I want to
say...for a wave interpretation...the
prevailing popular theory...you need
the medium...and that appears to have
been removed back in early 1900....do
you have some kind of medium for the
light? The current view of light is
very mixed up as there has been a
compromise between particle and wave
groups. The Encyclopedia Britannica
defines light as "electromagnetic
radiation"29 stating that " In its
simplest form, quantum theory describes
light as consisting of discrete packets
of energy, called photons. However,
neither a classical wave model nor a
classical particle model correctly
describes light; light has a dual
nature that is revealed only in quantum
mechanics. This surprising
wave-particle duality is shared by all
of the primary constituents of nature
{e.g., electrons have both
particle-like and wavelike aspects}". I
think this is basically what Planck
left in place in the 1940s. In my
opinion, although I have never used any
of Planck's equations, I think the
quantum can probably be interpreted as
a photon and the basis of all matter.
For a wave interpretation there needs
to be a medium, and Michelson-Morley
showed that there simply is no
detectable medium. My own vote is for a
particle-only interpretation, and
recognizing that a wave interpretation
functions as a mathematical equivalent,
but probably does not represent the
true phenomena.30 )

(Wouldn't it seem reasonable to believe
that scientists would actively put
forward experimental tests to
demonstrate both views and attempt to
settle the debate between particle and
wave? Perhaps creating incentives such
as monetary rewards for best
experimental evidence for either side.
But this was not done.31 )

(One thing that is interesting is that
an atomic lattice reflects its shape in
light. if it has horizontal rows, light
reflecting off it has horizontal rows,
if it has a series of V shapes, photons
are reflected in V shapes, etc. A sine
wave structure creates a reflected sine
wave shaped beam.32 )
Perhaps
coincidence that: Fresnel is born in
Broglie, France33 , and years later
Louis-Victor-Pierre-Raymond, 7th duc de
Broglie34 35 will show how an electron
can be represented mathematically using
wave equations, in a way uniting the
wave theory to all matter as particle
theories.36 The wave theory may appeal
to those who rejected the theory of
atoms, in particular after Dalton. In
the view I support the ultimate atom is
a particle of light.37

Fresnel enters the École Polytechnique
at age 16.38
In 1814, when Napoleon
returns from Elba (03/01/181439 )40 ,
Fresnel supports the royalists and
loses his job as a result.41
Fresnel
uses a period of house arrest in 1814
to develop the mathematics of light
waves, polarization, birefringence, and
diffraction and therefore prepares the
ground for Maxwell's work on
electromagnetism.42
In 1817 Arago
obtains for Fresnel a permanent
assignment in Paris which gives Fresnel
the time and resources to pursue his
research on the wave theory.43
Fresnel
is awarded the Rumford medal from the
Royal Society.44
Brewster rejects the
wave theory based on the necessity of
an ether.45
Cauchy will promote the
wave theory of light.46
Fresnel dies at
the age of 39 of tuberculosis.47
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
3. ^, p159.
http://books.google.com/books?id=O1RbpcE
wkvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fresnel+Aug
ustin+Jean "WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT",
MEMOIRS BY HUYGENS YOUNG AND FRESNEL
EDITED BY HENRY CREW PHD PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
4. ^ Fresnel
Oeuvres vol1-3, p81.
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf
5. ^ Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science, Vol. 6, No. 2. (May, 1976),
pp. 141-184.
Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
6. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Augustin Jean
Fresnel". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ "Augustin
Jean Fresnel". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
28. ^ Record ID2008. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "light".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0443/light
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
35. ^
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Polarized_Light/Fresnels_Rhomb/Fresnels
_Rhomb.html
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ "Augustin
Jean Fresnel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
39. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/1800-1833.html
40. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5384/Augustin-Jean-Fresnel
41. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
42. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
43. ^, p159.
http://books.google.com/books?id=O1RbpcE
wkvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fresnel+Aug
ustin+Jean "WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT",
MEMOIRS BY HUYGENS YOUNG AND FRESNEL
EDITED BY HENRY CREW PHD PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
44. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
45. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
46. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
47. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/1800-1833.html
48. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
49. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology (10/1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Je
an_Fresnel
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Jean_Fresnel
[4] "Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
[5] "polarization". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0596/polarization
[6] "De Broglie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie
[7]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Printonly/Fresnel.html
[8]
http://www.polarization.com/history/hist
ory.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=GBrXTRv
FOcsC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=fresnel+1815+p
aper&source=web&ots=MU6hjPmvp7&sig=-yGWV
G_WpPR9_aefvNE_I4nGwI8
Paris, France48  
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Mus�e national de la marine in
Paris, France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD] 6 7 		2241)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
de Monet chevalier de Lamarck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck
3. ^ "Lamarck". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228.
5. ^ "Lamarck".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lamarck?cat=healt
h
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste de Monet chevalier
de Lamarck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6919/Jean-Baptiste-de-Monet-chevalier-de
-Lamarck (1815)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp226-228. (1815)
(1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lamarck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarck
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 9 		2324) McAdam recommends that roads
should be raised for good drainage and
covered with large rocks, then with
smaller stones, and finally with fine
gravel or slag,3 then the road is
compacted with a roller.{4 spotlight}
McAdam
manages the British Tar Company.4 (but
doesn't use tar on road?5 )
Paving of a
road is still sometimes called to
"macadamize".6

McAdam documents his work in "Remarks
on the Present System of Road-Making"
(1816) and "Practical Essay on the
Scientific Repair and Preservation of
Roads" (1819).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p248.
2. ^ "John Loudon
McAdam". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9596/John-Loudon-McAdam
3. ^ "John Loudon McAdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9596/John-Loudon-McAdam
4. ^ "John Loudon McAdam". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Loudon%20M
cAdam
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p248.
7. ^ "John Loudon
McAdam". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9596/John-Loudon-McAdam
8. ^ "John Loudon McAdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9596/John-Loudon-McAdam
9. ^ "John Loudon McAdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9596/John-Loudon-McAdam (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Loudon McAdam".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Loudon
_McAdam
[2] "road". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3836/road
Bristol, England8  
[1] John Loudon McAdam (1756 - 1836),
Scottish engineer and road-builder. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Loudon_McAdam.jpg

[2] John Loudon McAdam (1756-1836), by
unknown artist, c.1830 nasty copyright
notice: All rights reserved. Rights in
this image are owned by the rights
holder(s) named above. You are not
permitted to download or reproduce this
image from the Oxford DNB Online web
site: see legal notice. (but Bridgeman
decision implies this is public domain
since duplication of public domain 2D
image) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/
themes/95/95272-content.html?articleid=9
5272&back=&backToResults=
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 7 8 		2419)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^, p152.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/11?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular Optics and
the Wave Theory of Light: The Science
and Politics of a Revolution in
Physics, by Eugene Frankel Social
Studies of Science © 1976 Sage
Publications,
Ltd. Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273. (1815)
(1815)
8. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Biot
[2] "Jean Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Biot
[3] J. B. Biot, 'Me'moire sur les
rotations que certaines substances
impriment aux axes de polarisation des
rayons lumineux', ~ k m o i r e s de
I'Acadeinie des Sciences, Vol. I1
(1818), 41-136.
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

[2] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an
altitude of 4000 metres Biot and
Gay-Lussac ascend in a hot air balloon,
1804. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 12 		2469)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
2. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
7. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
8. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
9. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
12. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France11 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 4 		2470)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
2. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 5 		2471)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Joseph
Louis Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 18 		2479) The Davy lamp is the result of
Davy's efforts after being asked by a
group of clergymen to study the problem
of providing illumination in coal mines
without exploding the methane found in
mines.12

This lamp will save many lives.13

Stephenson will claim priority in the
invention.14

Davy writes in 1816 (in response to an
inquiry about patenting his invention15
): "No, my good friend, I never thought
of such a thing; my sole object was to
serve the cause of humanity, and if I
succeeded I am amply rewarded in the
gratifying of having done so".16
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Barium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium
12. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
13. ^ "Humphry Davy". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"Barium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium
17. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286. (1815)
(1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England17  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 7 		2511) Henri Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE
1781-1855)1 , describes that fats are
formed of a solid part ("absolute
tallow") and an oily compound
("absolute oil"). Braconnot reaches
this conclusion after pressing fats in
the cold between filter papers (Ann
Chimie 1815, 93, 225). Furthermore,
after saponification and acidification
Braconnot separates a solid fraction
similar to "adipocire" described by
Fourcroy (1806), but Braconnot does not
observed the solid fraction's acid
properties which leads Chevreul to
discover stearic acid in 1820.2
Saponification is a reaction in which
an ester is heated with an alkali, such
as sodium hydroxide, producing a free
alcohol and an acid salt, especially
alkaline hydrolysis of a fat or oil to
make soap.3 Saponification is
hydrolysis of fat into its constituent
glycerol and fatty acids by boiling
with alkali. The fatty acids will be
present as the sodium salts or soaps.4
(state founder of saponification
process5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p292.
2. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
3. ^ "saponification". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
4. ^ "saponification". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
7. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
[2] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
Nancy, France6  
[1] Henri Braconnot French chemist and
pharmacist This image is from
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (copyright free). Permission
to copy content here was kindly granted
by the author, Claude Leray. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henri_Braconnot.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 6 		2515) Because Stephenson's curiosity is
aroused by the Napoleonic war news, he
enrolls in night school in order to
learn to read and write.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
3. ^ "George
Stephenson". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/George%20Stephens
on%20
4. ^ "George Stephenson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
5. ^ "George Stephenson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293. (1815)
(1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Stephenson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Step
henson
Newcastle, England5 (presumably) 
[1] George Stephenson
(1781-1848) Source Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/
portraits/index.html?img=362 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson.jpg

[2] George Stephenson - Project
Gutenberg etext 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson_-_Project_Gutenberg
_etext_13103.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 8 		2532)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "François Magendie".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Francois
Magendie". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie (1815)
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 23 24 		2544) Prout is the son of a tenant
farmer.19
In 1811, Prout graduates with
a medical degree from the University of
Edinburgh.20
Prout's life is spent as a
practising physician in London, but he
also occupies himself with chemical
research.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
4. ^ "William Prout".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Prout
5. ^ "William Prout". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
6. ^ "William Prout". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
8. ^ "William Prout".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
9. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/prout.htm
l (text of actual 1815 article)
10. ^
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/prout.htm
l (text of actual 1815 article)
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"William Prout". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "William Prout".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout
19. ^ "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout
20. ^ "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout
21. ^ "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "William Prout".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Prout
22. ^ "William Prout". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298. (1815)
(1815)
24. ^ "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pro
ut
[2]
http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/hi
story99/4RadicalsTypes/Analysis/Liebigan
al.html
London, England22 (presumably) 
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 13 		2565)
Chevreul attends the Collège de
France (1803).3
In 1809 Chevreul is an
assistant to Antoine François de
Fourcroy.4
In 1810 Chevreul is
assistant at the Musée d'Histoire
Naturelle.5
From 1813 to 1830 Chevreul
is professor of physics at the Lycée
Charlemagne.6
In 1830, Chevreul
succeeds Vauquelin as professor of
chemistry at the (French Academy of
Sciences7 ) Museum (in Paris8 ).9

Chevreul lives to 103 years old. Both
his father and mother live to be over
90.10 (Perhaps living to old age is
inherited. It would be naturally
selected for since the longer a person
lives the more chance of
reproduction.11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
3. ^ "Michel
Eugéne Chevreul". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
6. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Michel Eugene
Chevreul". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Michel Eugene Chevreul". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302. (1815)
(1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michel Eugène Chevreul".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Chevreul
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esters?cat=
health
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/saponificat
ion?cat=health
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 25 		2634) George Peacock (PEKoK) (CE
1791-1858), English mathematician, with
Babbage, and John Herschel use the
nomenclature of Leibniz, (instead of
the notion of Newton's fluxions for
calculus1 ).2

This group translates and publishes S.
F. Lacroix's "Differential Calculus" in
1816.3
While still an undergraduate
Peacock forms a league (society?4 )
with John Herschel and Charles
Babbage,5 which they call the
Analytical Society6 , to support the
use of the continental calculus
notation of Leibniz in the famous
struggle of "d-ism versus dot-age",
(the battle between notation to use for
calculus, that of Leibniz {d'ism7 , (a
play on "Deism"?8 )} or Newton {dotism9
}10 ). This ends in the introduction
into Cambridge of the continental
notation (that of Leibniz11 ) in the
infinitesimal calculus to the exclusion
of the fluxional notation of Isaac
Newton.12 I think, like the fonetik
alphabet, the more logical, more simple
notation and/or nomenclature will
eventually win, or will eventually be
more popular. Only having used
Leibniz's notation I cannot give my own
opinion about which is easier to use.
One question is why "exclude" the
Newton notation as opposed to
personally not using or teaching it?
Perhaps these three simply advised
using Leibniz's notation? A person can
reject the notation of fluxions and
still accept Newton's other
contributions, however, many people
have binary yes/no true/false
philosophies where all the works of a
single person are rejected because of
political or scientific differences.
Again I think an important idea is that
differences in scientific opinion
should not result in anger but simply a
difference in opinion.13

(Some14 )
mathematicians follow J. L. Lagrange in
using both these notations. The
analytical society formed in 1813
publishes various memoirs, and
translates S. F. Lacroix's
"Differential Calculus" in 1816.15

One Encyclopedia Britannica article
describes this as replacing the
cumbersome symbolism of Newton with the
more efficient type invented by
Leibniz.16

Asimov states that English math had
suffered because of the popularity of
Newton,17 however, I think in
retrospect, knowing that Newton's view
of light being a particle, made of
matter, is probably the more accurate
when compared to light as a wave which
dominates during the 1800s and 1900s
and even now in the 2000s. Peacock is a
vigorous supporter of Thomas Young's
work, publishing a memoir of Thomas
Young (1855)18 , and the first two
volumes of Young's collected works in
three volumes19 . Perhaps relevant is
that Peacock's father is an Anglican
clergyman that might express
conservative religious and traditional
views. Certainly some credit is due to
Thomas Young for computing the
frequencies of various colors of light.
So I am left to wonder if there was a
philosophical opposition to Newton,
perhaps a jealousy, perhaps a political
opposition, a religious opposition, or
all of these factors combined to cover
the truth of light as a particle and
the basis of all matter. It seems like
almost an anti-Newton backlash happens
around this time in history, and this
backlash lasts until Planck but is
still being felt. Perhaps this
anti-Newton backlash is part of a
larger battle between science and
religion, which dates back to the
debate of the existence of deities, and
then to the divinity of Moses, Jesus
and Muhammad, that is being played out
still even now.20
In 1809 Peacock
enters Trinity College, Cambridge,
where Peacock is "second wrangler"
(places second in exams21 ) in 1812
(Sir J. F. W. Herschel being senior).22
Peacock is elected fellow of his
college in 1814, becomes assistant
tutor in 1815 and full tutor in 1823.23

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314.
3. ^ "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
6. ^ "George Peacock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peac
ock
7. ^ "George Peacock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peac
ock
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "George Peacock".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peac
ock
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
16. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314.
18. ^ "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
19. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Peacock.html
22. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
23. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
24. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
25. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Peacock.html (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-44782
5/George-Peacock
Cambridge, England24  
[1] George Peacock (1791-1858), English
mathematician. Source en.wikipedia
(see there the description page) Date
XIX century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Peacock.jpg

[2] George Peacock PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Peacock.html
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 13 		2784) Borax (also called Tincal5 ), is
a soft and light, colorless crystalline
substance. Borax is used as a cleaning
compound, hydrated sodium borate,
(sodium tetraborate decahydrate6 )
Na2B4O7·10H2O, and as an anhydrous
sodium borate in the manufacture of
glass and various ceramics.7

Borax is used as a component of glass
and pottery glazes in the ceramics
industry, as a solvent for metal-oxide
slags in metallurgy, as a flux in
welding and soldering, and as a
fertilizer additive, a soap supplement,
a disinfectant, a mouthwash, and a
water softener.8
The American Chemical
Society's Cellulose and Renewable
Materials Division has established an
annual award in his honor, the Anselme
Payen Award.9 10
In 1835, Payen becomes
professor of industrial and
agricultural chemistry at the Central
School of Arts and Manufactures,
Paris.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
2. ^ "Anselme Payen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
3. ^ "Dutch east indies". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_east_
indies
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
5. ^ "borax".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0702/borax
6. ^ "borax". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0702/borax
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borax?cat=t
echnology
8. ^ "borax". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0702/borax
9. ^ "Anselme Payen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselme_Pay
en
10. ^
http://membership.acs.org/C/CELL/apayen.
htm
11. ^ "Anselme Payen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
12. ^ "Anselme Payen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329. (c1815)
(c1815)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2]
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89309/payen_anselme.html
[3] "Borax". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borax
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] Taken by Aram Dulyan
(User:Aramgutang) Date: 22'FEB
2005 Borax crystals from Kramer,
California, USA. Photograph taken at
the Natural History Museum, London. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borax_crystals.jpg

[2] Description French chemist
Anselme Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 7 		3224)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "small arm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
5. ^ "machine gun." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9742>.
6. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
7. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>. (1815)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA6
(presumably) 		 
184 YBN
[02/29/1816 AD] 9 		3838)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
2. ^ David Brewster,
"Experiments on the depolarisation of
light as exhibited by various mineral,
animal, and vegtable bodies, with a
reference of the phenomena to the
general principles of polarisation.",
Phil. Trans., 1814, p29-53.
3. ^ David
Brewster, "On the communication of the
structure of doubly refracting crystals
to glass, muriate of soda, fluor spar,
and other substances, by mechanical
compression and dilation.", Phil.
Trans., 1816,
p156-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eRxGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP13&dq=brewster+int
itle:philosophical+date:1816-1816&ei=Y81
vSZ7OMaTGMr3U3Hs#PPA156,M1
4. ^ David Brewster, "Experiments on
the depolarisation of light as
exhibited by various mineral, animal,
and vegtable bodies, with a reference
of the phenomena to the general
principles of polarisation.", Phil.
Trans., 1814, p29-53.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Sir David Brewster".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6395/Sir-David-Brewster
9. ^ David Brewster, "Experiments on
the depolarisation of light as
exhibited by various mineral, animal,
and vegtable bodies, with a reference
of the phenomena to the general
principles of polarisation.", Phil.
Trans., 1814, p29-53. {read:02/29/1816}

MORE INFO
[1] "Brewsters law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6399/Brewsters-law (1811)
[2] "David
Brewster". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology (1813)
[3] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294. (1815)
(1815)
[4] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[5] David Brewster, "On the Laws which
regulate the polarisation of light by
reflexion from transparent bodies.",
Phil. Trans., 1815,
p.125-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:ph
ilosophical+intitle:transactions+date:18
15-1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA125,M
1
[6] David Brewster, "On the effects of
simple pressure in producing that
species of crystallization which forms
two oppositely polarised images, and
exhibits the complimentary colours by
polarised light.", Phil. Trans., 1815,
p60-64. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:transactions+date:1815-
1815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA60,M1
[7] David Brewster, "On the Production
of regular double Refraction in the
molecules of bodies by simple Pressure;
with Observations on the origin of the
doubly refracting Structure.", Phil
Trans,
1830. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yUYEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=%22On+the+Produ
ction+of+regular+double+refraction%22&as
_brr=1&ei=7cFvSYXyF4jiNPu4kO0M
[8] "isinglass." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isinglass
[9] (original footnote:) See Quarterly
Review, Vol. II. {ULSF: I think this
refers to this article and possibly
Newton? as the eminent English
philosopher: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=vuMRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&
dq=intitle:quarterly+intitle:review+date
:1805-1810&ei=EtNvSf7OMYKGkATAstyFDg#PPA
327,M1
Edinburgh, Scotland8
(presumably) 
[1] Figures from Brewster's 1816
paper. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eRxGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP13&dq=brewster+intitl
e:philosophical+date:1816-1816&ei=Y81vSZ
7OMaTGMr3U3Hs#PPA179,M1

[2] Figures from Brewster's 1816
paper. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eRxGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP13&dq=brewster+intitl
e:philosophical+date:1816-1816&ei=Y81vSZ
7OMaTGMr3U3Hs#PPA179-IA2,M1
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 17 		2351) In 1813 lithography becomes
popular in France. Lithography is the
process of printing from a plane
surface (such as a smooth stone or
metal plate) on which the image to be
printed is ink-receptive and the blank
area ink-repellent usually because it
is painted with an oil-based material
which repels the water-based ink. In
1813, Niépce begins to experiment with
lithography. Unskilled in drawing, and
unable to get lithographic stone
locally, Niépce tries to find a way to
create images automatically (from
light8 ). Niépce coats pewter with
various light-sensitive substances to
try and capture an image from
superimposed engravings in sunlight.9
In
April 1816, Niépce starts
experimenting with photography using a
camera. Niépce calls photography
"heliography" (sundrawing). Niépce
records a view from his workroom window
on paper covered with silver chloride
but can only partially fix the image.10

Niépce then tries the light-sensitive
material "bitumen of Judea", a kind of
asphalt that hardens on exposure to
light. Using this material Niépce
succeeds in 1822, in making a
photographic copy of an engraving
superimposed on glass. In 1826/27,
using a camera, Niépce makes a view
from his workroom on a pewter plate and
this is the first permanently fixed
image (on Earth11 ).12
In 1826 Niépce
makes another heliograph from an
engraved portrait by the Paris engraver
Augustin-François Lemaître. Lemaitre
who makes two prints. So Niépce not
only solves the problem of reproducing
nature by light, but invents the first
photomechanical reproduction process.13


In 1829 Niépce, unable to reduce the
exposure times, gives in to the
repeated requests of
Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, a
Parisian painter, to form a partnership
to perfect heliography.14

Niépce died without seeing any further
advance, but, building on his
knowledge, and working with his
materials,
Daguerre will eventually
succeeded in reducing the exposure time
by discovering a chemical process for
developing (making visible) the latent
(invisible) image formed from a brief
exposure.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp254-255.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp254-255.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp254-255.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp254-255.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp254-255.
6. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
7. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Nicephore Niepce".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
10. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Nicephore Niepce".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
13. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
14. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
15. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
16. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
17. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology (1816)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[2]
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/
[3] "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
Chalon-sur-Saône, France16  
[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html

[2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 15 16 		2384) Smith has to sell his fossil
collection to the British Museum for
money11 and in 1819 Smith spends 10
weeks in debtor's prison.12
In 1831
Smith is the first recipient of the
Wollaston medal from the Geological
Society of London13 .14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp263-264.
2. ^ "William Smith".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp263-264.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "william smith". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-smi
th?cat=technology
8. ^ "William Smith". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith
9. ^ "William Smith". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith
10. ^ "William Smith". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp263-264.
12. ^ "William
Smith". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith
13. ^ "William Smith". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp263-264.
15. ^ "William
Smith". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith (1815)
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp263-264. (1816)
(1816)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Smith (geologist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Smi
th_%28geologist%29
 
[1] William Smith, from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sci
entist: Smith, William (1769 -
1839) Discipline(s):
Geology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.2 x 10.3 cm / [t looks
like early photo in history of
photography - first photo in 1816 and
not permanent until 1822 and 1826
(oldest existing photo. Smith dies in
1839, it shows that photography spread
fast within 13 years.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Smith.g.jpg
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 7 		2487) Oken (not to be confused with
William of Ockham (oKuM) (CE
c1285-1349)3 4 ) is originally named
Ockenfuss.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287.
3. ^ Record ID1427.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287.
6. ^ "Lorenz Oken".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_Oken

7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287. (1816) (1816)
Rudolstadt, Germany6  
[1] : de:Lorenz Oken, (1759 - 1851),
Naturforscher und Arzt PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lorenz_Oken.jpg
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 21 		2509) Laënnec writes "In 1816, I was
consulted by a young woman labouring
under general symptoms of diseased
heart, and in whose case percussion and
the application of the hand were of
little avail on account of the great
degree of fatness. The other method
just mentioned {the application of the
ear to the chest} being rendered
inadmissible by the age and (gender11 )
of the patient, I happened to recollect
a simple and well-known fact in
acoustics, and fancied, at the same
time, that it might be turned to some
use on the present occasion." Laennec's
recollection alluded to the way in
which sound is amplified when
transmitted through certain solid
objects. Laënnec proceeds to roll up
a quire (24 sheets of paper) into a
cylindrical tube and place one end of
it to the woman's chest. Laënnec
writes, " 12 was not a little
surprised and pleased to find that I
could thereby perceive the action of
the heart in a manner much more clear
and distinct than I had ever been able
to do by immediate application of the
ear."13

Laënnec names the new instrument
"stethoscope," based on the Greek words
"stethos" (meaning chest) and "skopos"
(observer).14
Laënnec is a pupil of
Jean-Nicolas Corvisart des Marets, whom
he succeeds (1823) as physician at the
Hôpital de la Charité in Paris.15
In
1822, Laënnec is appointed professor
at the Collège de France.16
Laënnec
dies (at age 4517 ) from Tuberculosis,
probably from person he was treating.18

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp291-292.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp291-292.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Laënnec". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/La%C3%ABnnec?cat=
health
6. ^ "Rene Theophile Hyacinthe
Laennec". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6808/Rene-Theophile-Hyacinthe-Laennec
7. ^ "Rene Theophile Hyacinthe
Laennec". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6808/Rene-Theophile-Hyacinthe-Laennec
8. ^ "Laënnec". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/La%C3%ABnnec?cat=
health
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp291-292.
10. ^ "Laënnec".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/La%C3%ABnnec?cat=
health
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Laënnec".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/La%C3%ABnnec?cat=
health
13. ^ "Laënnec". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/La%C3%ABnnec?cat=
health
14. ^ "Rene Theophile Hyacinthe
Laennec". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6808/Rene-Theophile-Hyacinthe-Laennec
15. ^ "Rene Theophile Hyacinthe
Laennec". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6808/Rene-Theophile-Hyacinthe-Laennec
16. ^ "Laënnec". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/La%C3%ABnnec?cat=
health
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp291-292.
18. ^ "Laënnec".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/La%C3%ABnnec?cat=
health
19. ^ "Necker Hospital". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necker_Hosp
ital
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp291-292. (1816)
21. ^
"Robert Hare". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert%20Hare
(1816)

MORE INFO
[1] "René Laennec". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_L
aennec
(Hospital Necker) Paris, France19 20
 
[1] René Théophile Hyacinthe
Laënnec PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rene_Laennec.jpg

[2] The invention of the stethoscope
by René Laënnec in 1816 contributed
to of the revolution in medicine which
occurred in Paris in the first decades
of the nineteenth century. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/icons_of_invention/medicine/1820-
1880/IC.100/
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 13 		2611) In December 1813, the French
Académie des Sciences announces a
mathematical prize competition on
surface wave propagation on liquid of
indefinite depth. In July 1815,
25-year-old Augustin-Louis Cauchy
submits his entry, and, in August,
Siméon D. Poisson, one of the judges,
deposits a memoir of his own to record
his independent work (Dalmedico 1988).
Cauchy is awarded the prize in 1816,
Poisson's memoir is published in 1818,
and Cauchy's work eventually appears in
1827, with an astonishing 188 pages of
additional notes.9

(People of this time should have
realized that in the absence of an
aether than can be seen or measured,
they should not presume that an aether
exists.10 )

(Generally, certainly in France at the
time of the change from corpuscular to
wave theory, it appears that
conservatives support the erroneous
wave theory, while liberals support the
more accurate corpuscular theory. There
are clear sides, the conservatives that
support a religion, are either fooled
by the ridiculous claims of a religion,
or dishonestly play along to be
accepted, and the other side which
understands that the ridiculous claims
of religions are probably wrong and is
more interested in truth and progress.
So there is probably no coincidence
that people who support the lies of
religion, are comfortable supporting a
scientific lie. So it perhaps should
not be a surprise that like many
unintuitive theories, such as
intelligent design versus the theory of
evolution, the big bang versus an
infinite universe, time-dilation versus
time everywhere the same, that people
with corrupted values and inaccurate or
dishonest beliefs support the less
accurate scientific theory or claim.11
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/epri
nt/ntKxUcsyXeywpgFQRASc/full/10.1146/ann
urev.fluid.36.050802.122118?cookieSet=1
4. ^
http://gallica.bnf.fr/Catalogue/noticesI
nd/FRBNF30207318.htm#top
5. ^ http://babelfish.altavista.com/tr
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Augustin Louis,
Baron Cauchy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Louis,_Baron_Cauchy
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/epri
nt/ntKxUcsyXeywpgFQRASc/full/10.1146/ann
urev.fluid.36.050802.122118?cookieSet=1
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Augustin
Louis Baron Cauchy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
13. ^ "Augustin Louis, Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Louis,_Baron_Cauchy (1816)
Paris, France12  
[1] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin Louis
(1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca.1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.5 x 21.5 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin
Louis (1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: C. H.
Reutlinger Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.5 x 11.5 cm
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 7 		2668)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp49-50.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.theiet.org/about/libarc/archi
ves/featured/francis-ronalds.cfm
4. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp49-50.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p50.
7. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p49. (1816)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Ronalds". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Ron
alds
[2] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
London, England6  
[1] Sir Francis Ronalds 1788-1873 PD
source: http://www.theiet.org/about/liba
rc/archives/featured/francis-ronalds.cfm


[2] NPG 1095 Sir Francis Ronalds by
Hugh Carter oil on canvas, circa
1870 24 1/4 in. x 20 in. (616 mm x 508
mm) Given by Hugh Carter,
1897 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.theiet.org/about/liba
rc/archives/biographies/ronalds.cfm
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 4 		5984)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gioachino Rossini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gioachino-r
ossini
2. ^ "Gioachino Rossini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gioachino-r
ossini
3. ^ "Gioachino Rossini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gioachino-r
ossini
4. ^ "Gioachino Rossini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gioachino-r
ossini {1816}
Naples, Italy3  
[1] Description Gioachino Antonio
Rossini (1792-1868), composer Date
n.d. (c. 1855?) Source
Ransom Humanities Research Center,
The Univ. of Texas at Austin Author
Anonymous
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain Other versions
scanned from: Parker, Roger (ed.),
''The Oxford History of Opera'' Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1996. illus.
7(ii). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Rossini_7.jpg

[2] Description Gioachino
Rossini Date Source Own
work Author Giorces PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/GiorcesRossini1.jpg
183 YBN
[02/10/1817 AD] 6 		2594) The Academy of Sciences in Paris
creates a prize contest for the best
paper to explain the phenomenon of
inflexion (diffraction).1 Fresnel will
win this award in March 1819 for a
paper that uses a wave theory for
light, even though many of the people
on the judging commission, Biot,
Laplace, Poisson, Arago and Gay-Lussac
are corpuscular theory supporters.2

After the Institute had pronounced in
favor of Fresnel's wave theory, the
interference explanation of diffraction
has to be acknowledged by French
corpuscular supporters. Hauy in the
1821 edition of his "Traite'de
physique", and Biot in the third
edition of his "Pre'cis expe'rimentale
de Physique" in 1824, both give a wave
explanation of diffraction where
neither had in earlier editions.3

(I think one key component of
believability in a theory is strictly
if there is a math formula to explain
the phenomenon that is said to express
some theoretical concept of what is
actually happening. So in that sense,
applying math to the diffraction
phenomena or interpreting the wave math
from a corpuscular view might move
science ahead in understanding physical
phenomena. My feeling is that Biot and
other corpuscular supporters didn't
take the time or have the creativity
necessary to understand the so-called
double-slit experiment. I know I do not
have the time or money to pursue a
particle explanation, and to study the
interference phenomenon in as much
detail as I want to.4 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics, by
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science © 1976 Sage Publications, Ltd,
p160.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/18?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel
_1976.pdf
2. ^ Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics, by
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science © 1976 Sage Publications, Ltd,
p161.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/18?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel
_1976.pdf
3. ^ Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics, by
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science © 1976 Sage Publications, Ltd,
p162.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/18?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel
_1976.pdf
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Corpuscular Optics and
the Wave Theory of Light: The Science
and Politics of a Revolution in
Physics, by Eugene Frankel Social
Studies of Science © 1976 Sage
Publications,
Ltd. http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127
/ap010006/01a00020/18?frame=noframe&user
ID=80c3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa3
9&dpi=3&config=jstor Corpuscular_Wave_F
rankel_1976.pdf
6. ^ Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics, by
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science © 1976 Sage Publications, Ltd,
p160.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/18?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel
_1976.pdf (02/10/1817)
Paris, France5   
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 3 		2284)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology (1817-1827)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Delambre". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Delambre
Pairs, France2  
[1] Scientist: Delambre, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1749 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist:
Attributed to Julien Leopold Boilly,
1796-1874 and Benjamin Holl, 1808-1884
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 25.8 x 17.5 cm Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Delambre - French mathematician
and astronomer. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-D2-17a.jpg Date 1820 Author Julien
Leopold Boilly (1796-1874) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre.jpg

[2] Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Delambre Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
DelambreBorn: 19-Sep-1749 Birthplace:
Amiens, France Died:
19-Aug-1822 Location of death: Paris,
France Cause of death:
unspecified PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/404/0
00097113/
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 4 		2294)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
2. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
3. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
4. ^ "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Abraham Gottlob
Werner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6563/Abraham-Gottlob-Werner
[3] "Abraham Gottlob Werner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Got
tlob_Werner
Leipzig, Germany3  
[1] Abraham Gottlob Werner [t a rare
smiling portrait] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_Gottlob_Werner.jpg

[2] Abraham Werner, engraving by
Johann Friedrich Rossmäsler after a
portrait by Carl Demiani Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin # MLA
style: ''Werner, Abraham Gottlob.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Dec. 2007 .
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15183/Abraham-Werner-engraving-by-Johan
n-Friedrich-Rossmasler-after-a-portrait?
articleTypeId=1
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 4 		2317)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p246.
2. ^
http://www.parkinsons.org.uk/about-parki
nsons/dr-james-parkinson-1755-1824.aspx
3. ^
http://www.parkinsons.org.uk/about-parki
nsons/dr-james-parkinson-1755-1824.aspx
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p246. (1817) (1817)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-parki
nson?cat=health
[2] "James Parkinson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Parki
nson
[3]
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/392
.html
London, England3  
[1] Frontespiece of James Parkinson's
Essay on Shaking Palsy (the first
description of Parkinson's disease. In
the public domain. PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/591/0
00096303/

[2] James Parkinson Born:
11-Apr-1755 Birthplace: London,
England Died: 21-Dec-1824 Location of
death: London, England Cause of death:
unspecified Copyright ©2007 Soylent
Communications [t must be early
photograph, this is the first
photograph of a scientist yet in going
through asimov] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Shaking-palsy-essay.gif
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 18 		2387)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
2. ^ "Georges
Cuvier". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp264-266.
4. ^ "Georges Baron
Cuvier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
5. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Georges Cuvier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Georges Cuvier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Georges Cuvier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Georges Baron Cuvier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8345/Georges-Baron-Cuvier
17. ^ "Georges Cuvier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
18. ^ "Georges Cuvier". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Cuvier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuv
ier
Paris, France17  
[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 9 10 		2408)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
2. ^, p14.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Thomas Young".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp269-271.
8. ^ "thomas young".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
9. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young {1817}
10. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
{1809}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[3] "astigmatism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[4] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
peacocl, 1855 John Murray
[5] "Color".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[6] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[7] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a82481a8fe
7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical
Optics Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 94 -
1804 Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1804.
0001 Young_Thomas_1804_Experiments_and_
Calculations.pdf
[9] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959,1987
[10] Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845.
{Contains the lectures which form vol.
I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
London, England8  
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 23 24 		2431) Cadmiun is a silvery-white
ductile metal with a faint bluish
tinge. Cadmium is softer and more
malleable than zinc, but slightly
harder than tin.10
Cadmium is a
relatively rare element.11
Cadmiun has
symbol Cd, atomic number 48, closely
related to zinc, with which it is
usually associated in nature.12
Cadmium
has an atomic weight of 112.40 and a
relative density of 8.65 at 20°C
(68°F). Cadmium's melting point of
321°C (610°F) (this seems a low
melting point for a metal13 ) and
boiling point of 765°C (1410°F) are
lower than those of zinc. There are
eight naturally occurring stable
isotopes, and eleven artificial
unstable radio isotopes have been
reported. Cadmium is the middle member
of group 12 (zinc, cadmium, and
mercury) in the periodic table.14

At one time an important commercial use
of cadmium was as an electrodeposited
coating on iron and steel for corrosion
protection. Nickel-cadmium batteries
are the second-largest application,
with pigment and chemical uses third.15
Cadmium is used in alkaline
nickel-cadmium electric storage cells
(interesting name for batteries16 ),
which have a greater storage capacity
than an equal weight of lead-acid
storage cells.17 ultimately one goal
of battery making is the lightest
battery for the most and longest
prolonged emission of electrons.18

Because of cadmium's great
neutron-absorbing capacity, especially
the isotope 113, cadmium is used in
control rods and shielding for nuclear
reactors.19

Cadmium is reportedly toxic, and
cadmium poisoning is a recognized
industrial disease.20 (More info, what
is evidence of toxicity? It must be
tough to prove, but perhaps other
species have been tested on.21 )
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp276-277.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp276-277.
4. ^ "Friedrich
Strohmeyer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_S
trohmeyer
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e
/elem/e04800.html
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp276-277.
8. ^ "Friedrich
Strohmeyer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_S
trohmeyer
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "cadmium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
11. ^ "cadmium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
12. ^ "cadmium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "cadmium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
15. ^ "cadmium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "cadmium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "cadmium". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
20. ^ "cadmium". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cadmium?cat=healt
h
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Owuv-c9
L_IMC&pg=PA158&lpg=PA158&dq=cadmium+stro
hmeyer+g%C3%B6ttingen&source=web&ots=zUx
24phKhc&sig=X6rLwzOk1kLla_4p5Y-ZSCavdWQ
, -277. (1817)
23. ^ "Friedrich Strohmeyer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_S
trohmeyer (1817)
24. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9018500".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8500
[2] "Cadmium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium
Göttingen, Germany22  
[1] Cadmium metal PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg

[2] Friedrich Stromeyer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_Strohmeyer.jpg
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 22 23 		2493) Selenium exhibits allotropy,
appearing in a number of forms10 The
three most important forms are the
amorphous (noncrystalline), which is
red when in powder form and black when
in vitreous (glassy) form; the red
crystalline; and the gray metallic,
which is also crystalline. Of the
three, the metallic form is the most
stable under ordinary conditions; the
other forms very slowly convert to the
metallic form at room temperature.11

Selenium has atomic number 34; atomic
weight 78.96; melting point (of gray
selenium) 217°C; boiling point (gray)
684.9°C; relative density (gray) 4.79;
(vitreous) 4.28; valence 2, 4, or 6.12


Selenium is directly below sulfur in
Group 16 of the periodic table. In
chemical activity and physical
properties it resembles sulfur and
tellurium.13

Selenium is a metalloid (an element
intermediate in properties between the
metals and the nonmetals) that is
widely distributed throughout the
world, but only in small quantities.14
(Selenium is also a semiconductor.15 )

Selenium occasionally occurs
uncombined, usually in conjunction with
free sulfur. (Again elements found
together that are not only a neutron or
helium nucleus away, but are directly
above and below each other.16 )
Selenium is more commonly found
together with the sulfides as the
selenides in ores of such metals as
iron, lead, silver, and copper. When
any of the selenium-containing sulfide
minerals is roasted, selenium appears
as a by-product in the flue dusts.
Selenium is also extracted from the
anode slimes that remain after the
electrolytic refining of copper.17

A remarkable property (discovered by
Willoughby Smith in 1873) of the gray
metallic form of selenium is that its
electrical conductivity is greater in
light than in darkness, and the
electrical conductivity increases as
the illumination increases. This
property has led to use of the metallic
form in the junction rectifier and as a
cathode in the photoelectric cell
rectifier.18

Electrical conductivity of metallic
selenium increases when light collides
with it and selenium can also convert
light directly into electricity. For
these reason selenium is used in
photoelectric cells, solar cells, and
photographic exposure meters. Selenium
is also used extensively in rectifiers
because selenium can convert
alternating electric current to direct
current.19

(Selenium is the first element used in
the invention of the electric camera.
The electric camera {using the cathode
ray tube display} will greatly reduce
the size of cameras, in addition to the
time and effort needed to retrieve and
develop film. Selenium therefore plays
a large role in the secret history of
cameras that see thought and secretly
distributed throughout many people's
houses.20 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
2. ^ Berzelius JJ.
Lettre de M. Berzelius à M.Berthollet
sur deux métaux nouveaux. Ann Chim
Phys 1817;7:199–207.
3. ^ Berzelius JJ. Chemische
Entdeckungen im Mineralreiche gemacht
zu Fahlun in Schweden: Selenium, ein
neuer metallartiger Körper, Lithon,
ein neues Alkali, Thorina, eine neue
Erde. Ann Physik 1818;29:229–54.
4. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
(Selènè)
6. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
7. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "selenium". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/selenium?cat=heal
th
11. ^ "selenium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6662/selenium
12. ^ "selenium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/selenium?cat=heal
th
13. ^ "selenium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/selenium?cat=heal
th
14. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "selenium".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6662/selenium
18. ^ "selenium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/selenium?cat=heal
th
19. ^ "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
22. ^ Berzelius JJ. Lettre de M.
Berzelius à M.Berthollet sur deux
métaux nouveaux. Ann Chim Phys
1817;7:199–207.
23. ^ Berzelius JJ. Chemische
Entdeckungen im Mineralreiche gemacht
zu Fahlun in Schweden: Selenium, ein
neuer metallartiger Körper, Lithon,
ein neues Alkali, Thorina, eine neue
Erde. Ann Physik 1818;29:229–54.
{1817}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[5] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
[6] "Selenium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289. (1818)
(1818)
Stokholm, Sweden21 (presumably) 
[1] Selenium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Se%2C34.jpg

[2] black, grey and red Selene Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:S
elen_1.jpg Date 03/2006 Author
http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Benutzer:Tomihahndorf&action=edit
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Selen_1.jpg
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 3 		2533)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "François Magendie".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
2. ^ "François Magendie". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
3. ^ "François Magendie". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20 (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Francois Magendie".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie
[3] "François Magendie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Magendie
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 9 		2537) Bessel uses a "heliometer", which
Bessel designs and Fraunhofer builds to
measure the tiny displacements of 61
Cygni.2 A heliometer is an instrument
designed for measuring the apparent
diameter of the Sun.3
In 1804 the
young Bessel writes a paper on Halley's
Comet in which Bessel calculates the
orbit from observations made in 1607.
Bessel sends this paper to the
astronomer Wilhelm Olbers, who is so
impressed that Olbers arranges for the
paper to be published in the important
German technical journal "Monatliche
Correspondenz" and proposes Bessel as
assistant at the Lilienthal observatory
of the celebrated lunar observer J.H.
Schröter.4

Bessel is appointed by King Frederick
William III of Prussia to supervise the
construction of the observatory at
Königsberg and Bessel remains as
director of this observatory5 from
18106 until he dies.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
3. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
4. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
6. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
8. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
9. ^ "Bessel function". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8932/Bessel-function (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Bessel
[2] "Bessel functions". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessel_func
tions
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany8
 
[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Library
of Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bes
sel_functions

[2] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 12 13 		2584) Pelletier studies and teaches at
the Ecole de Pharmacie8 in Paris9
until his retirement in 184210 .
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p330.
3. ^ "Pierre
Joseph Pelletier". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9006/Pierre-Joseph-Pelletier
5. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
6. ^ "Emetine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emetine
7. ^ "Joseph Bienaimé Caventou".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bien
aim%C3%A9_Caventou
8. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
9. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9006/Pierre-Joseph-Pelletier
10. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
11. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305. (1817) (1817)
13. ^
"Pierre Joseph Pelletier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9006/Pierre-Joseph-Pelletier (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jose
ph_Pelletier
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Bienaim%C3%A9+Cav
entou?cat=technology
[3] "Ipecacuanha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipecacuanha

Paris, France11  
[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 15 		2590)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
2. ^ "Augustin Jean
Fresnel". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
3. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Je
an_Fresnel
4. ^ "Fresnel rhomb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_rho
mb
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"polarization". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0596/polarization
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/1800-1833.html
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Augustin
Jean Fresnel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
15. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/1800-1833.html (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5384/Augustin-Jean-Fresnel
[2]
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[3] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Jean_Fresnel
[4] "light". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0443/light
[5] "Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
[6] "De Broglie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie
[7]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Polarized_Light/Fresnels_Rhomb/Fresnels
_Rhomb.html
Paris, France14  
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

183 YBN
[1817 AD] 20 21 22 		2600) This book will be translated into
English for the Cavendish Society from
1848 to 1859.14
Gmelin's great uncle
was the German explorer Johann Georg
Gmelin (GumAliN) (CE 1709-1755).15 16
Gm
elin studies medicine and chemistry at
Göttingen, Tubingen and Vienna.17
From
1817-1851 Gmelin is the first chair of
chemistry at Heidelberg.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p213-214.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
3. ^ "Leopold
Gmelin". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology
4. ^ "Gmelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Gmelin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
7. ^ E. Newton
Harvey, "History of Luminescence From
the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p213-214.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"Gmelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Gmelin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
16. ^ Record ID2023.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ "Gmelin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Gmelin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin
18. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology
19. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308. (1817)
(1817)
21. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology (1817)
22. ^ "Gmelin (1817)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Gmelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin
(1817) (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leopold Gmelin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Gme
lin
Heidelberg, Germany19  
[1] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 15 16 17 		2783) Pander investigates Palaeozoic
rock strata and is the first to
describe the remains of the ancient,
primitive creatures known as
conodonts.10

The research begun by Pander is
continued by his associate, another
Baltic scientist Karl Ernst von Baer
(1792-1876).11
Pander works on his
estate at Carnikava, near Riga.12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p328.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^
pander.pdf http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin
/jstor/printpage/00335770/dm994565/99p00
366/0?frame=noframe&dpi=3&userID=80c3dcc
b@uci.edu/01c0a8347300501c0466b&backcont
ext=page&backurl=/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem
/00335770/dm994565/99p00366/25%3fframe%3
dnoframe%26dpi%3d3%26userID%3d80c3dccb@u
ci.edu/01c0a8347300501c0466b%26config%3d
jstor%26PAGE%3d25&action=download&config
=jstor The Non-Specificity of the
Germ-Layers Jane M. Oppenheimer
The Quarterly Review of Biology,
Vol. 15, No. 1. (Mar., 1940), pp. 1-27.
8. ^
"Christian Pander". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_P
ander
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
10. ^
http://www.li.lv/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39
11. ^
http://www.li.lv/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39
12. ^
http://www.li.lv/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39
13. ^
http://www.li.lv/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39
14. ^ "Riga". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riga
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328. (1817) (1817)
16. ^
"embryology". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1635/embryology (1817)
17. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinz Christian Pander".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Chris
tian_Pander
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/pander-chri
stian-heinrich?cat=health
[3] "Karl Ernst Von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Ern
st_Von_Baer
Carnikava (near Riga)13 , Latvia14
 
[1] Embrión de pollo mostrando los
primeros síntomas de circulación
sanguínea. Dibujado por D'Alton para
ilustrar la obra de Pander Beiträge
zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des
Hühnchens im Eye, Brönner, Würzburg
(1817) PD
source: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gen:Pander_chick_embryo.png

[2] Founder of embryology Christian
Heinrich Pander (1794-1865) PD/Corel
source: http://www.li.lv/index.php?optio
n=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 11 		3307) Döbereiner is a coachman's son
an so (does not receive6 ) formal
schooling, but is apprenticed to an
apothecary, reads widely, and attends
science lectures.7
Döbereiner attends
the University of Jena.8
In 1810,
Döbereiner becomes an assistant
professor at the University of Jena.9
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
2. ^ "Element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record ID2507. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Element". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
{1817}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Johann Wolfgang
Dobereiner". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
8. ^ "Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
9. ^ "Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
10. ^ "Element". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
11. ^ "Element". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
{1817}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wolfgang
Döbereiner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolf
gang_D%C3%B6bereiner
[2] "Furfural". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furfural
[3]
http://www.answers.com/vapor?cat=health
[4] "furfural". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/furfural
[5] "johann wolfgang d bereiner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-wolf
gang-d-bereiner?cat=technology (1823)
Jena, Germany10  
[1] * Title: Johann Wolfgang
D�bereiner * Year: unknown
* Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg
182 YBN
[11/26/1818 AD] 8 9 		2340)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Enckes Comet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2594/Enckes-Comet
2. ^ "Enckes Comet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2594/Enckes-Comet
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp251-252.
4. ^ "Enckes Comet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2594/Enckes-Comet
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp251-252.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp251-252.
7. ^ "Jean Louis
Pons". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Louis+Pons+?
cat=technology
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp251-252. (1818)
(1818)
9. ^ "Jean Louis Pons". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Louis_
Pons (11/26/1818)
Marseilles, France7  
[1] Jean-Louis
Pons 1761-1831 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/m
useum/esim.asp?c=300468
182 YBN
[11/26/1818 AD] 7 8 		2341)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pierre Mechain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1698/Pierre-Mechain
2. ^ "Pierre Méchain". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_M%C3
%A9chain
3. ^ "Enckes Comet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2594/Enckes-Comet
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Pierre Mechain".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1698/Pierre-Mechain
6. ^ "Comet Encke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Encke

7. ^ "Pierre Mechain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online, pp251-252.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1698/Pierre-Mechain (1818)
8. ^ "Enckes
Comet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2594/Enckes-Comet (11/26/1818)
Marseilles, France6  
[1] # subject: Pierre Méchain #
source:
http://www.kunstgeografie.nl/nulstandaar
dmeter.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pie
rre_M%C3%A9chain

[2] Kitt Peak Telsecope Image of Comet
Encke taken January 5, 1994. {Public
Domain image taken from:
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/encke.htm
l) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Comet2PEncke.jpg
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 12 		2391) In 1793 Geoffroy becomes
professor of vertebrate zoology at the6
 National Museum of Natural History7 ,
the chair of invertebrate zoology is
held by Lamarck.8 (This shows that the
French Revolution may have contributed
a stimulus to the theory of evolution,
and to the sciences of anatomy, and
paleontology.9 )

In 1798 Geoffroy accompanies Napoleon
on his conquest of Egypt and
contributes to the 24 volumes of the
"Description de l'Egypte" (1809-28,
"Description of Egypt").10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Étienne Geoffroy Saint
Hilaire". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Geof
froy+Saint-Hilaire?cat=technology
2. ^ "Etienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6459/Etienne-Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire
3. ^ "Étienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Geof
froy+Saint-Hilaire?cat=technology
4. ^ "Georges Cuvier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georges+Cuvier+?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Etienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6459/Etienne-Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire
6. ^ "Étienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Geof
froy+Saint-Hilaire?cat=technology
7. ^ "Etienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6459/Etienne-Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire
8. ^ "Étienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Geof
froy+Saint-Hilaire?cat=technology
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Étienne Geoffroy Saint
Hilaire". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Geof
froy+Saint-Hilaire?cat=technology
11. ^ "Étienne Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire
12. ^ "Étienne Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire (1818)
Paris, France11  
[1] * Scientist: Geoffroy Saint
Hilaire, Etienne (1772 - 1844) *
Discipline(s): Zoology * Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
* Medium: Engraving * Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.5 x 8.6 cm /
Sheet: 21.4 x 14.7 cm * source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_resu
lts.cfm?alpha_sort=G PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geoffroy_Saint_Hilaire%2C_Etienne.jpg

182 YBN
[1818 AD] 4 		2447)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
3. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
4. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss (1818)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
Hannover, Germany3  
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 3 		2452)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281.
2. ^ "louis jacques
th nard". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-jacqu
es-th-nard
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp280-281. (1818)
(1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Jacques Thenard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1979/Louis-Jacques-Thenard
[2] "Louis Jacques Thénard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Jacqu
es_Th%C3%A9nard
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Thénard, Louis Jacques
(1777 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7.5 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
15.3 cm Louis Jacques Thénard,
uploaded to English Wikipedia by
en:User:Magnus Manske on 17th June
2004. Claimed source: [1]. As of today
(20th November 2005) the source URL is
[2]. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcolle
ctions/hst/scientific-identity/CF/displa
y_results.cfm?alpha_sort=T PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Jacques_Th%C3%A9nard.jpg

[2] Louis Jacques Thénard
(1777-1857). Collection Edgar Fats
Smith. PD
source: http://www.inrp.fr/she/cours_mag
istral/expose_thenard/expose_thenard_com
plet.htm
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 3 		2489) Benjamin Silliman (CE 1779-1864)
founds the "American Journal of Science
and Arts" which is influential in
developing American science.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp287-288.
2. ^ "Benjamin
Silliman". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Si
lliman
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp287-288. (1818)
(1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Silliman".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7788/Benjamin-Silliman
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Sillim
an
New Haven, Connecticut, USA2
(presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Silliman, Benjamin
(1779 - 1864) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Geology Print Artist:
William G. Jackman, fl. 1841-1860
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 8.5 cm /
Sheet: 22.2 x 13.5
cm http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/displa
y_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Silliman.jpg
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 6 		2512)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p292.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
6. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
[2] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
[3]
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
Nancy, France5  
[1] Henri Braconnot French chemist and
pharmacist This image is from
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (copyright free). Permission
to copy content here was kindly granted
by the author, Claude Leray. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henri_Braconnot.jpg
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 4 		2538)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
3. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297. (1818)
(1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Bessel
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany3
 
[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology

[2] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel PD
source: http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Bessel
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 6 		2547)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^ "William Prout".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout
3. ^ "William Prout". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "William Prout". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
6. ^ "William Prout". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology (1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pro
ut
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 11 12 		2549)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "popup?va=specific heat".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=s
pecific%20heat
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ (Dulong and Petit, quoted in
Crosland 1976:241)
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
10. ^ "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1416/Pierre-Louis-Dulong
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299. (1818)
(1818)
12. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Louis Dulong".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Loui
s_Dulong
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-loui
s-dulong?cat=technology
[3] "Pierre Louis Dulong". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_L
ouis_Dulong
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm Ostwald PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_Louis_Dulong.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dulong, Perre Louis
(1785 - 1838) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium:
Engraving PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 9 		2585) The nux vomica tree of India is
the main commercial source of
strychnine. Strychnine has a molecular
formula of C21H22N2O2. Strychnine is
practically insoluble in water and is
soluble only with difficulty in alcohol
and other common organic solvents.
Strychnine has an exceptionally bitter
taste.5

Strychnine has been used in rodent
poisons and in smaller doses as a
stimulant in veterinary practice.
Strychnine increases the reflex
irritability of the spinal cord, which
results in a loss of normal inhibition
of the body's motor cells, causing
severe contractions of the muscles;
arching of the back is a common symptom
of poisoning. Strychnine rapidly enters
the blood, whether taken orally or by
injection, and symptoms of poisoning
usually appear within 20 minutes. The
symptoms begin with cramps and soon
culminate in powerful and agonizing
convulsions that subside after a minute
but recur at a touch, a noise, or some
other minor stimulus. Death is usually
due to asphyxiation resulting from
continuous spasms of the respiratory
muscles.6 (In my opinion death by
strychnine sounds too painful and long
in duration to be a form of murdering
an organism, in particular when neuron
activation and other painless quick
methods must exist.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p330.
3. ^ "Pierre
Joseph Pelletier". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
4. ^ "strychnine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0014/strychnine
5. ^ "strychnine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0014/strychnine
6. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9006/Pierre-Joseph-Pelletier
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Pierre Joseph
Pelletier". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
9. ^ "strychnine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0014/strychnine (1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jose
ph_Pelletier
[2] "Joseph Bienaimé Caventou".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bien
aim%C3%A9_Caventou
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Bienaim%C3%A9+Cav
entou?cat=technology
[4] "Strychnine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strychnine
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Strychnine?cat=he
alth
Paris, France8  
[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 6 		2593) Biot publishes this in "Me'moire
sur les rotations que certaines
substances impriment aux axes de
polarisation des rayons lumineux", with
the Academie des Sciences.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^, p152.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/11?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular Optics and
the Wave Theory of Light: The Science
and Politics of a Revolution in
Physics, by Eugene Frankel Social
Studies of Science © 1976 Sage
Publications,
Ltd. Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^, p180.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/11?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular Optics and
the Wave Theory of Light: The Science
and Politics of a Revolution in
Physics, by Eugene Frankel Social
Studies of Science © 1976 Sage
Publications,
Ltd. Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
6. ^, p152.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/11?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular Optics and
the Wave Theory of Light: The Science
and Politics of a Revolution in
Physics, by Eugene Frankel Social
Studies of Science © 1976 Sage
Publications,
Ltd. Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
(1818)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Biot
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
[4] "Jean Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Biot
[5] J. B. Biot, 'Me'moire sur les
rotations que certaines substances
impriment aux axes de polarisation des
rayons lumineux', Memoires de
I'Academie des Sciences, Vol. I1
(1818), 41-136.
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

[2] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an
altitude of 4000 metres Biot and
Gay-Lussac ascend in a hot air balloon,
1804. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 4 		2712) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)1
begins a series of successful
experiments on alloys of steel. Later
work on steel alloys is based on
Faraday's work.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[7] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[8] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[9]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[11]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[12] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1b&pi=1
(Royal Institution in) London, England3
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 6 		2790) This find is published in
Ehrenberg's doctoral thesis3 , which
describes 250 species of fungi from the
Berlin district, of which sixty-two
were new to science4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p329.
2. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind
â€" a second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf
3. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind
â€" a second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf
4. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
5. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
6. ^, p2.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind
â€" a second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf (1818) (1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_G
ottfried_Ehrenberg
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/christian-g
ottfried-ehrenberg?cat=technology
[3] "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg
Berlin, Germany5  
[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â€" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 4 		5981) Nicolò Paganini (CE 1782-1840),
Italian violinist and composer,
composes "Caprice No. 24 in A minor",
Op. 1.1 2 (verify)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolò Paganini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niccol-paga
nini
2. ^ "List of compositions by Niccolò
Paganini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini
3. ^ "Niccolò Paganini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niccol-paga
nini
4. ^ Robin Stowell, "The Cambridge
companion to the violin", 1992, p231.
http://books.google.com/books?id=p_mxeQY
3KVsC&pg=PA231

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Niccolò Paganini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini
Italy3  
[1] Description Coal drawing by
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, c.
1819. Date Source English
Wikipedia Author [show]Jean Auguste
Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) Link
back to Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/NiccoloPaganini.jpeg
181 YBN
[12/??/1819 AD] 13 14 15 16 		2768) In 1821 Mitscherlich becomes
professor of chemistry at the
University of Berlin.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
2. ^ "isomorphism".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isomorphism
?cat=technology
3. ^ "isomorphism". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isomorphism
?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
9. ^ "Eilhardt
Mitscherlich". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
10. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Eilhardt Mitscherlich". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eilhardt
_Mitscherlich
11. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
12. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
13. ^ "1819)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eilhardt
_Mitscherlich (12/1819)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327. (1819)
(1819)
15. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich (1819)
16. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilhardt_Mi
tscherlich
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Eilhardt+Mitscher
lich+?cat=technology
[3]
http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingaleev/scilog
y/#Mitscherlich
Berlin, Germany12  
[1] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg

[2] Mitscherlich, Eilhardt (January
17, 1794 - August 28, 1863) German
chemist who discovered the Law of
Isomorphism. He also made other
important discoveries, including
selenic acid (1827) and the monoclinic
crystal form of sulfur (1823), named
benzene, became the first to synthesize
nitrobenzene in 1832, and was one of
the first to recognize contact action,
now known as catalytic action. PD
source: http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingalee
v/scilogy/Mitscherlich.jpg
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 4 		2212) Thomas Jefferson (CE 1743-1826),
American statesman and scholar1 ,
founds the University of Virginia and
designs its initial buildings.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp221-222.
2. ^ "University of
Virginia". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5476/University-of-Virginia
3. ^ "University of Virginia".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5476/University-of-Virginia
4. ^ "University of Virginia".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5476/University-of-Virginia (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Jefferson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6454/Thomas-Jefferson
[2] "Thomas jefferson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_jeff
erson
[3]
http://www.answers.com/thomas%20jefferso
n
[4]
http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/quot
es/jefferson.htm
Charlottesville, Virginia, USA3  
[1] Cropped version of Thomas
Jefferson, painted by Charles Willson
Peale. Philadelphia, 1791. Source
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/jefferson
/jefffed.html [1] Date 1791 Author
Charles Willson Peale PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_
1791_2.jpg

[2] Th. Jefferson, photomechanical
print, created/published [between 1890
and 1940(?)]. Library of Congress,
Prints and Photographs Division,
Presidential File. Reproduction Number:
LC-USZC4-2474. This print is a
reproduction of the 1805 Rembrandt
Peale painting of Thomas Jefferson held
by the New-York Historical
Society. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/coll
ections/jefferson_papers/jefferson1.html

181 YBN
[1819 AD] 6 		2429) Naphthalene is a white
crystalline compound, C10H8, derived
from coal tar or petroleum and used in
manufacturing dyes, moth repellents,
and explosives and as a solvent.
Naphthalene is also called tar
camphor.2

Kidd is appointed professor of
chemistry at Oxford two years after
getting his MD there.3 This shows how
health and chemistry were linked for
many years, a link that is no longer
apparent.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p276.
2. ^ "naphthalene".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4808/naphthalene
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p276.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "John
Kidd". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kidd
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p276. (1819) (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Kidd". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Kid
d
[2]
http://www.answers.com/naphthalene?cat=h
ealth
London, England5 (presumably)  
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 23 		2430) As a female, the main higher
education institutions are closed to
Germain, however she gets the lecture
notes of the mathematician J. L.
Lagrange, which he had delivered at the
newly founded Ecole Polytechnique.5
Germ
ain also begins to correspond with
prominent mathematicians using the
pseudonym Le Blanc and allows them to
assume that she is a man.6
Germain
sends in a report using a male
pseudonym, (M. Le Blanc7 ) Lagrange is
astonished at the value of the report
and even after finding that the author
is a woman sponsors (more detail8 )
Germain's work from then on.9
In 1804
Germain initiates a correspondence with
Gauss under her male pseudonym. Gauss
learns of Germain's true identity when
a family friend locates Gauss to verify
his safety at Germain's request during
the French occupation of Hannover in
1807.10

In 1809 the French Academy of Sciences
offers a prize for a mathematical
account of the phenomena of vibrating
plates described by the German
physicist Ernst F.F. Chladni (and Hooke
before Chladni11 ).12 Germain submits
a paper each of three times, and
finally wins on the third try in
1816.13
Germain publishes her work (on
the vibrating plates14 ) privately in
1821 as "Recherches sur la théorie des
surfaces élastiques" ("Researches on
the Theory of Elastic Surfaces").15

Germain is the first woman not related
to a member by marriage to attend
Academie des Sciences meetings, and is
also the first woman invited to
sessions at the Institut de France.16

Gauss arranged for Germain to be
awarded an honorary degree from
Göttingen but Germain dies before the
degree can be awarded.17

Fermat's last theorem states that there
is no solution for the equation xn + yn
= zn if n is an integer greater than 2
and x, y, and z are nonzero integers.
Germain proves the special case in
which x, y, z, and n are all relatively
prime (have no common divisor except
for 1 (and self, needs more
explanation18 )) and n is a prime
smaller than 100.19
Germain does not
publish her work and her result will
first appear in 1825 in a supplement to
the second edition of Legendre's
"Théorie des nombres".20
Fermat's last
theoren will be proved for all cases by
the English mathematician Andrew Wiles
in 1995.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p276.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
5. ^ "Sophie Germain". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Sophie+Germain?ca
t=technology
6. ^ "Sophie Germain". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Sophie+Germain?ca
t=technology
7. ^ "Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p276.
10. ^ "Sophie
Germain". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Sophie Germain".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
13. ^ "Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Sophie Germain". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Sophie+Germain?ca
t=technology
16. ^ "Sophie Germain". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Sophie+Germain?ca
t=technology
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p276.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^
"Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
20. ^ "Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
21. ^ "Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
22. ^ "Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain
23. ^ "Sophie Germain". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6561/Sophie-Germain (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sophie Germain". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Germ
ain
Paris, France22 (presumably) 
[1] SOPHIE GERMAIN COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen
/germain.html

[2] Sophie Germain [t somebody
deleted from wikipedia because no
info] PD?
source: http://www.answers.com/Sophie+Ge
rmain?cat=technology
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 7 		2513)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p292.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p292.
4. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
6. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
7. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
[2] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
[3]
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
Nancy, France6  
[1] Henri Braconnot French chemist and
pharmacist This image is from
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (copyright free). Permission
to copy content here was kindly granted
by the author, Claude Leray. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henri_Braconnot.jpg
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 14 		2574) In 1819 Purkinje earns an MD from
the University of Prague.8
From
1823-1850 Purkinje is chair of
physiology and pathology at the
University of Breslau, Prussia.9
In
1832, Purkinje acquires a compound
microscope.10
At the University of
Breslau, Purkinje creates the planet's
first independent department of
physiology in 1839 and the first
official physiological laboratory,
known as the Physiological Institute in
1842.11
From 1850-1869 Purkinje is
professor of physiology at the
University of Prague.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305.
2. ^ "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Jan
Evangelista Purkinje". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Jan
Evangelista Purkinje". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
9. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
10. ^ "jan evangelista purkinje".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
11. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
12. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
13. ^
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
14. ^
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Prague, (now:) Czech Republic13  
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 12 		2586) Pierre Joseph Pelletier (PeLTYA)
(CE 1788-1842)1 and Bienaimé Caventou
(KoVoNTU2 (1795-1877)3 , isolate
brucine, C23H26N2044 , an alkaloid from
"false Angustura" bark.5 Brucine
crystallizes in prisms with four
molecules of water; when anhydrous
brucine melts at 178° (C6 ). Brucine
is very similar to strychnine, both
chemically and physiologically.7

Brucine, a poisonous white crystalline
alkaloid, (is most commonly, like
strychnine8 ) derived from the seeds of
nux vomica and closely related plants
and used to denature alcohol.9
Brucine
is named after the Scottish explorer
James Bruce (1730-1794).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p330.
3. ^ "Pierre
Joseph Pelletier". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Brucine". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Brucine?cat=healt
h
5. ^ "Brucine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Brucine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Brucine
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Brucine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Brucine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Brucine
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Brucine". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Brucine?cat=healt
h
10. ^ "Brucine". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Brucine?cat=healt
h
11. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
12. ^ "Brucine (1819)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Brucine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Brucine
(1819) (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9006/Pierre-Joseph-Pelletier
[2] "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jose
ph_Pelletier
[3] "Joseph Bienaimé Caventou".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bien
aim%C3%A9_Caventou
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Bienaim%C3%A9+Cav
entou?cat=technology
Paris, France11  
[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 14 15 16 		2598)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.polarization.com/history/hist
ory.html
4. ^ Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3, p147.
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3,
p147.
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3,
p81.
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf
9. ^ Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3, p88.
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf
10. ^ Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3, p94.
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Augustin
Jean Fresnel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
14. ^ Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf (1819)
15. ^
http://www.polarization.com/history/hist
ory.html (1811)
16. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1816)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5384/Augustin-Jean-Fresnel
[2] "Augustin Jean Fresnel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Je
an_Fresnel
[3] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Jean_Fresnel
[4] "light". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0443/light
[5] "Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
[6] "polarization". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0596/polarization
[7] "De Broglie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie
[8]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Polarized_Light/Fresnels_Rhomb/Fresnels
_Rhomb.html
[9]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Printonly/Fresnel.html
[10]
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/1800-1833.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=GBrXTRv
FOcsC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=fresnel+1815+p
aper&source=web&ots=MU6hjPmvp7&sig=-yGWV
G_WpPR9_aefvNE_I4nGwI8
[12] Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science, Vol. 6, No. 2. (May, 1976),
pp. 141-184.
Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
[13] A. Fresnel, 'Considerations
mecaniques sur la polarisation de la
lumiere', Oeuvres, Vol. I, 629-49;
Annales de chimie et de physique, Vol.
XVII (cahier de juin 1821), 167 ff.
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=O1RbpcE
wkvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fresnel+Aug
ustin+Jean "WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT",
MEMOIRS BY HUYGENS YOUNG AND FRESNEL
EDITED BY HENRY CREW PHD PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY About
this book Read this bookThe Wave Theory
of Light: Memoirs of Huygens, Young and
Fresnel By Christiaan Huygens, Thomas
Young, Augustin Jean Fresnel,
François
Arago Fresnel_The_Wave_Theory_of_Light.
pdf
Paris, France13  
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Musee
Marine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 13 14 		2719) In 1835 Encke's comet passes
close enough to Mercury to allow the
mass of Mercury to be determined for
the first time. t: Since the mass of
the comet has only a little effect on
Mercury being much smaller than
Mercury, the equation is simply the
a=GMmerc/r^2, although how is the
distance between the two calculated?
Perhaps the distance between was
extrapolated according to
perspective?)

Encke establishes methods for
calculating the orbits of minor planets
and orbits of double stars.10
Encke is
educated at Hamburg and the University
of Göttingen, where Encke works under
the direction of Carl Friedrich
Gauss.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p320.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p320.
3. ^ "Johann
Franz Encke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2592/Johann-Franz-Encke
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p320.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p320.
7. ^ "Johann
Franz Encke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Johann Franz Encke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_F
ranz_Encke
8. ^ "Johann Franz Encke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Johann Franz
Encke". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_F
ranz_Encke
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Johann Franz Encke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2592/Johann-Franz-Encke
11. ^ "Johann Franz Encke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2592/Johann-Franz-Encke
12. ^ "Johann Franz Encke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2592/Johann-Franz-Encke
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p320. (1819) (1819)
14. ^
"Johann Franz Encke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2592/Johann-Franz-Encke (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Franz Encke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Fran
z_Encke
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johann+Franz+Enck
e?cat=technology
(Seeberg Observatory near) Gotha,
Germany12  
[1] Johann Franz Encke (1791-1865),
German astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Franz_Encke.jpg
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 8 		2720)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp298-299.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p320.
4. ^ "Dulong Petit
law". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1417/Dulong-Petit-law
5. ^ "Dulong Petit law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1417/Dulong-Petit-law
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
7. ^ "Alexis Thérèse Petit". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexis+Th%C3%A9r%
C3%A8se+Petit+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Dulong Petit law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1417/Dulong-Petit-law (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexis Thérèse Petit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Th%C
3%A9r%C3%A8se_Petit
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France7
(presumably) 
[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm
Ostwald Permission (Reusing this
image) See below. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_Louis_Dulong.jpg
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 16 		2728) John Herschel is the only child
of William Herschel.9
In 1809 Herschel
enters the University of Cambridge in
the company of Charles Babbage,
mathematician and inventor of the
computer, and George Peacock, also a
mathematician and later a theologian.10
In 1812 Herschel, Babbage and Peacock
found the Analytical Society of
Cambridge to introduce continental
methods of mathematical calculus into
English practice.11
Also in 1812,
Herschel submits his first mathematical
paper to the Royal Society.12
In 1813
Herschel earns first place in the
university mathematical examinations.13

In 1820 Gerschel is among the founders
of the Royal Astronomical Society.14
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p322.
3. ^ "John
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/hypo-1?cat=
health
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "John Herschel". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
8. ^ "John Herschel". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
9. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
10. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
11. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
12. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
13. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
14. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
15. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
16. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1819)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[3] "Herschel, John Frederick William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p416-417.
London, England15 (presumably) 
[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel_1846.png
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 8 		3682)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ William Crookes,
"On Radiant Matter...", American
Journal of Science and Arts,
p241-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radia
nt+matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs
0cSSDw#PPA241,M1
3. ^ Record ID3681. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Plasma
(physics)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(phy
sics)
5. ^
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928PNAS..
.14..627L
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Bence Jones, Michael
Faraday, "The Life and Letters of
Faraday", Lippincott, 1870,
p307. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=YzuCdNmu5soC&dq=life+and+letters+o
f+faraday&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=cCnNrNK7KV&sig=yWhM1Lh_fN29Af9LvxNr
0SEs7NE#PPA307,M1
8. ^ Bence Jones, Michael Faraday, "The
Life and Letters of Faraday",
Lippincott, 1870,
p307. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=YzuCdNmu5soC&dq=life+and+letters+o
f+faraday&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=cCnNrNK7KV&sig=yWhM1Lh_fN29Af9LvxNr
0SEs7NE#PPA307,M1 {1819}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
Faraday_chlorine_carbon_compound.pdf ht
tp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/u
89447v6341n8226/?p=ea7f4699ac384834ae4fe
6fff6b0036cπ=38 On a New Compound of
Chlorine and
Carbon Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 111 -
1821 Pages 392-397 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
21.0028
[4] "Michael Faraday". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[5] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[6] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (1820)
(Royal Institution in) London, England7
 (presumably) 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
180 YBN
[01/01/1820 AD] 		1248) Forty psychiatric hospitals
(mad-houses) are in business in London,
up from twenty, 32 years before in
1788, and this shows the rising
popularity of this trade.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Whitaker, "Mad in America:
Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the
Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally
Ill", (Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2001).
  
180 YBN
[04/21/1820 AD] 41 42 43 44 45 46 		2454) (In what has become a classic
story in the history of science11 ),
Ørsted is lecturing during a class,
and decides to demonstrate the
experimental evidence in support of his
conjecture of the possible electric
discharge on a magnetic needle placed
near the circuit.12 During this
experiment is when Ørsted notices that
the compass needle moves under a wire
with current.13
This is the first
connection between electricity and
magnetism. This is the beginning of the
study of electromagnetism (electricity
and magnetism joined together14 ).15


According to Asimov, Scientists had
long suspected that there might be some
connection between electricity.16

When this finding is announced in 1820,
(like many initial science advances17 )
it sets off an explosion of activity.18
 From this Michael Faraday will create
the electric motor, and electric
generator, Carl Gauss and independently
Joe Henry will create the telegraph
from this finding.19

Ørsted shows that the force of the
current on the needle makes itself felt
through glass, metals, and other
nonmagnetic substances.20


In 1823 Ampere theorizes that magnetism
may in fact be electricism, and that a
permanent magnet has a constant current
running through it that causes an
electric field. This logical view that
magnetism (a magnetic field) is simply
the result of electric current (is an
electric field) is surprisingly
rejected by the majority of people in
science even to this day.21 22 It
seems clear that ultimately, the entire
concept of magnetism, including
electromagnetism, will remain in the
past, replaced by the more simple and
accurate concept of electricity.23

In an 1812 book Oersted publishes in
Berlin, Oersted proposes experiments
with galvanic electricity to find out
"whether electricity in its most latent
state has any action on a magnet".24

Ørsted will publish a condensed
account of his of his experiments in
Latin on 07/21/1820.25 26 27 Ørsted
writes (translated from Latin (give
title in Latin28 )):
"Experiments on the
Effect of a Current of Electricity on
the Magnetic Needle

The first experiments respecting the
subject which I mean at present to
explain, were made by me last winter,
while lecturing on electricity,
galvanism, and magnetism, in the
University. It seemed demonstrated by
these experiments that the magnetic
needle was moved from its position by
the galvanic apparatus, but that the
galvanic circle must be complete, and
not open, which last method was tried
in vain some years ago by very
celebrated philosophers. But as these
experiments were made with a feeble
apparatus, and were not, therefore,
sufficiently conclusive, considering
the importance of the subject, I
associated myself with my friend
Esmarck to repeat and extend them by
means of a very powerful galvanic
battery, provided by us in common. Mr.
Wleugel, a Knight of the Order of
Dannebord, and at the head of the
Pilots, was present at, and assisted
in, the experiments. There were present
likewise Reinhardt, Professor of
Natural History, Mr. Jacobsen,
Professor of Medicine, and that very
skillful chemist, Mr. Zeise, Doctor of
Philosophy. I had often made
experiments by myself; but every fact
which I had observed was repeated in
the presence of these gentlemen.
The galvanic
apparatus which we employed consists of
twenty copper troughs, the length and
height of each of which was 12 in.; but
the breadth scarcely exceeded 2 1/2 in.
Every trough is supplied with two
plates of copper, so bent that they
could carry a copper rod, which
supports the zinc plate in the water of
the next trough. The water of the
troughs contained one-sixtieth of its
weight of sulphuric acid, and an equal
quantity of nitric acid. The portion of
each zinc plate sunk in the water is a
square whose side is about 10 in. in
length. A smaller apparatus will answer
provided it be strong enough to heat a
metallic wire red hot.
The opposite ends
of the galvanic battery were joined by
a metallic wire, which, for shortness
sake, we shall call the uniting
conductor, or the uniting wire. To the
effect which takes place in this
conductor and in the surrounding space,
we shall give the name of the conflict
of electricity.
Let the straight part of this wire
be placed horizontally above the
magnetic needle, properly suspended,
and parallel to it. If necessary, the
uniting wire is bent so as to assume a
proper position for the experiment.
Things being in this state, the needle
will be moved, and the end of it next
the negative side of the battery will
go westward.
If the distance of the uniting
wire does not exceed three-quarters of
an inch from the needle, the
declination of the needle makes an
angle of about 45°. If the distance is
increased, the angle diminishes
proportionally. The declination
likewise varies with the power of the
battery.
The uniting wire may change its
place, either towards the east of west,
provided it continue parallel to the
needle, without any other change of the
effect than in respect to its quantity.
Hence the effect cannot be ascribed to
attraction; for the same pole of the
magnetic needle, which approaches the
uniting wire, while placed on its east
side, ought to recede from it when on
the west side, if these declinations
depended on attractions and repulsions.
The uniting conductor may consist of
several wires, or metallic ribbons,
connected together. The nature of the
metal does not alter the effect, but
merely the quantity. Wires of platinum,
gold, silver, brass, iron, ribbons of
lead and tin, a mass of mercury, were
employed with equal success. The
conductor does not lose its effect,
though interrupted by water, unless the
interruption amounts to several inches
in length.
The effect of the uniting wire
passes to the needle through glass,
metals, wood, water, resin, stoneware,
stones; for it is not taken away by
interposing plates of glass, metal or
wood. Even glass, metal, and wood,
interposed at once, do not destroy, and
indeed scarcely diminish the effect.
The disc of the electrophorus, plates
of prophyry, a stoneware vessel, even
filled with water, were interposed with
the same result. We found the effects
unchanged when the needle was included
in a brass box filled with water. It is
needless to observe that the
transmission of effects through all
these matters has never before been
observed in electricity and galvanism.
The effects, therefore, which takes
place in the confluct of electricity
are very different from the effects of
either of the electricities.
If the uniting wire be
placed in a horizontal plane under the
magnetic needle, all the effects are
the same as when it is above the
needle, only they are in an opposite
direction; for the pole of the magnetic
needle next the negative end of the
battery declines to the east.
That these
facts may be the more easily retained,
we may use this formula-the pole above
which the negative electricity enters
is turned to the west; under which, to
the east.
If the uniting wire is so turned
in a horizontal plane as to form a
gradually increasing angle with the
magnetic meridian, the declination of
the needle increases, if the motion of
the wire is towards the place of the
disturbed needle; but it diminishes if
the wire moves further from that
place.
When the uniting wire is situated in
the same horizontal plane in which the
needle moves by means of the
counterpoise, and parallel to it, no
declination is produced either to the
east or west; bu an inclination takes
place, so that the pole, next which the
negative electricity enters the wire,
is depressed when the wire is situated
on the west side, and elevated when
situated on the east side.
If the uniting
wire be placed perpendicularly to the
plane of the magnetic meridian, whether
above or below it, the needle remains
at rest, unless it be very near the
pole; in that case the pole is elevated
when the entrance is from the west side
of the wire, and depressed, when from
the east side.
When the uniting wire is
placed perpendicularly opposite to the
pole of the magnetic needle, and the
upper extremity of the wire receives
the negative electricity, the pole is
moved towards the east; but when the
wire is opposite to a point between the
pole and the middle of theneedle, the
pole is moved towards the west. When
the upper end of the wire receives
positive electricity, the phenomena are
reversed.
If the uniting wire is bent so as to
form two legs parallel to each other,
it repels or attracts the magnetic
poles according to the different
conditions of the case. Suppose the
wire placed opposite to either pole of
the needle, so that the plane of the
parallel legs is perpendicular to the
magnetic meridian, and let the eastern
leg be united with the negative end,
the western leg with the positive end
of the battery in that case the nearest
pole will be repelled either to the
east or west according to the position
of the plane of the legs. The eastmost
leg being united with the positive, and
the westmost with the negative side of
the battery, the nearest pole will be
attracted. When the plane of the legs
is placed perpendicular to the place
between the pole and the middle of the
needle, the same effects recur, but
reversed.
A brass needle, suspended like a
magnetic needle, is not moved by the
effect of the uniting wire. Likewise
needles of glass and of gum lac remain
unacted on.
We may now make a few
observations towards explaining these
phenomena.
The electric conflict acts only on
the magnetic particles of matter. All
non-magnetic bodies appear penetrable
by the electric conflict, while
magnetic bodies, or rather their
magnetic particles, resist the passage
of this conflict. Hence they can be
moved by the impetus of the contending
powers.
It is sufficiently evidence from the
preceding facts that the electric
conflict is not confined to the
conductor, but dispersed pretty widely
in the circumjacent space.
From the
preceding facts we may likewise infer
that this conflict performs circles;
for without this condition it seems
impossible that the one part of the
uniting wire, when placed below the
magnetic pole, should drive it towards
the east, and when placed above it
towards the west; for it is the nature
of a circle that the motions in
opposite parts should have an opposite
direction. Besides, a motion in
circles, joined with a progressive
motion, according to the length of the
conductor, ought to form a conchoidal
or spiral line; but this; unless I am
mistaken, contributes nothing to
explain the phenomena hitherto
observed.
All the effects on the north pole
above-mentioned are easily understood
by supposing that negative electricity
moves in a spiral line bent towards the
right, and propels the north pole, but
does not act on the south pole. The
effects on the south pole are explained
in a similar manner, if we ascribe to
positive electricity a contrary motion
and power of acting on the south pole,
but not upon the north. The agreement
of this law with nature will be better
seen by a repetition of the experiments
than by a long explanation. The mode of
judging of the experiments will be much
facilitated if the course of the
electricities in the uniting wire be
pointed out by marks or figures.
I shall
merely add to the above that I have
demonstrated in a book published 5
years ago that heat and light consist
of the conflict of the electricities.
From the observations now stated, we
may conclude that a circular motion
likewise occurs in these effects. This
I think will contribute very much to
illustrate the phenomena to which the
appellation of polarization of light
has been given.".29

Oersted leaves three accounts of how he
made his famous discovery which all
agree but conflict other accounts in
which the discovery is described as an
accident. The first account of the
discovery as an accident is given in
German by Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert, the
editor of the Annalen der Physik who
writes "What every search and effort
had not produced, came to Professor
Oersted in Copenhagen by an accident
during his lectures on electricity and
magnetism in the past winter".30
Another account describing the
discovery as an accident is given in a
letter to Michael Faraday by Professor
Hansteen's 37 years after the
discovery. Hansteen writes that
"...Once, after the end of his lecture,
as he had used a strong galvanic
battery in other experiments he said,
'Let us now once, as the battery is in
activity, try to place the wire
parallel to the needle'; as this was
made, he was quite struck with
perplexity by seeing the needle making
a great oscillation (almost at right
angles with the magnetic meridian).
Then he said: 'Let us now invert the
direction of the current' and the
needle deviated in the contrary
direction. Thus the great detection was
made; and it has been said, not without
reason, that 'he tumbled over it by
accident'. He had not before any more
idea than any other person that the
force should be transversal. But, as
Lagrange has said of Newton on a
similar occasion, 'Such accidents only
meet persons who deserve them'.".31

Oersted reviews the background of his
discovery in his historical sketch of
1821 in order to express his explicit
denial that the discovery was made by
accident. This account from Oersted is
sometimes ignored in favor of the two
other versions which historian R. C.
Stauffer states cannot survive critical
scrutiny.32 Oersted writes in his
first of three accounts as follows:
" Since for
a long time i had regarded the forces
which manifest themselves in
electricity as the general forces of
nature, I had to derive the magnetic
effects from them also. As proof that I
accepted this consequence completely, I
can cite the following passage from my
Recherches sur l'identite des forces
chimiques et electriques printed in
Paris 1813. 'It must be tested whether
electricity in its most latent state
has any action on the magnet as such.'
I wrote this during a journey so that I
could not easily undertake the
experiments; not to mention that the
way to make them was not at all clear
to me at that time, all my attention
being applied to the development of a
system of chemistry. I still remember
that, somewhat inconsistently, I
expected the predicted effect
particularly from the discharge of a
large electric battery and, moreover,
only hoped for a weak magnetic effect.
Therefore I did not pursue with proper
zeal the thoughts I had conceived; I
was brought back to them through my
lectures on electricity, galvanism and
magnetism in the spring of 1820. The
auditors were mostly men already
considerably advanced in science; so
these lectures and the preparatory
reflections led me on to deeper
investigations than those which are
admissible in ordinary lectures. Thus
my former conviction of the identity of
electrical and magnetic forces
developed with new clarity, and I
resolved to test my opinion by
experiment. The preparations for this
were made on a day in which I had to
give a lecture the same evening. I
therefore showed Canton's experiment on
the influence of chemical effects on
the magnetic state of iron. I called
attention to the variations of the
magnetic needle during a thunderstorm,
and at the same time I set forth the
conjecture that an electric discharge
could act on a magnetic needle placed
outside the galvanic circuit. I then
resolved to make the experiment. Since
I expected the greatest effect from a
discharge associated with
incandescence, I inserted in the
circuit a very fine platinum wire above
the place where the needle was located.
The effect was certainly unmistakable,
but it seemed to me so confused that I
postponed further investigation to a
time when I hoped to have more
leisure.33 At the beginning of July
these experiments were resumed and
continued without interruption until I
arrived at the results which have been
published.".34 (Notice the use of the
word "thought", possibly evidence,
although very weak, of seeing eyes by
this time.35 )


Gian Domenico Romagnosi (1761-1835) had
published an account of a relationship
between electricity and magnetism in
1802.36 37 38

The unit of magnetic field strength is
named the "oersted" in his honor in
1934.39
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Hans Christian Oersted,
(title in Latin?), "Experiments on the
Effect of a Current of Electricity on
the Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Hans Christian Oersted,
(title in Latin?), "Experiments on the
Effect of a Current of Electricity on
the Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
5. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
7. ^ "Hans Christian
Orsted". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "hans christian rsted".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
Record ID2425. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ R. C.
Stauffer, "Persistent Errors regarding
Oersted's Discovery of
Electromagnetism", Isis, History of
Science Society, v.44, n. 4, 1953,
p307-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/p
dfplus/226995.pdf {Oersted_Isis_1953.pd
f}
25. ^ "Hans christian rsted". History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
26. ^ R. C. Stauffer, "Persistent
Errors regarding Oersted's Discovery of
Electromagnetism", Isis, History of
Science Society, v.44, n. 4, 1953,
p307-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/p
dfplus/226995.pdf {Oersted_Isis_1953.pd
f}
27. ^ Cf. Oersted, Skrifter, 2, pp.
357-8, i.e., article Thermo-Electricity
in Edinburgh Enc.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Hans
Christian Oersted, (title in Latin?),
"Experiments on the Effect of a Current
of Electricity on the Magnetic
Needle.", Annals of Philosophy, Vol.
16, pp. 274-75, October 1820.
Translated from a printed account drawn
up in Latin by the author and
transmitted by hum to the Editor of the
Annals of Philosophy. reprint is in:
Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
30. ^ R. C. Stauffer, "Persistent
Errors regarding Oersted's Discovery of
Electromagnetism", Isis, History of
Science Society, v.44, n. 4, 1953,
p307-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/p
dfplus/226995.pdf {Oersted_Isis_1953.pd
f}
31. ^ Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p11-13.
32. ^ R. C. Stauffer, "Persistent
Errors regarding Oersted's Discovery of
Electromagnetism", Isis, History of
Science Society, v.44, n. 4, 1953,
p307-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/p
dfplus/226995.pdf {Oersted_Isis_1953.pd
f}
33. ^ {original footnote:} All my
auditors are witnesses that I mentioned
the result of the experiment
beforehand. The discovery was therefore
not made by accident, as Professor
Gilbert has wished to conclude from the
expressions I used in my first
announcement.
34. ^ Oersted, Skrifter, 2, pp.
223-225, i.e., Betrachtungen uber den
Elektromagnetismus, Journal fur Chemie
und Physik, 32 (1821), 199-202. Trans.,
On Electromagnetism, Annals of
Philosophy, N.S. 2 (1821), 321-323.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ "Gian Domenico Romagnosi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian_Domeni
co_Romagnosi
37. ^
http://www.lincei.it/pubblicazioni/rendi
contiFMN/rol/pdf/S2000-02-03.pdf
romagnosi_S2000-02-03.pdf *
Romagnosi and the discovery of
electromagnetism
38. ^
http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Pages/Libri/
Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4/4.pdf
* Romagnosi and Volta"s pile: Early
difficulties in the interpretation of
voltaic electricity romagnosi_4.pdf
39. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
40. ^ Hans Christian
Oersted, (title in Latin?),
"Experiments on the Effect of a Current
of Electricity on the Magnetic
Needle.", Annals of Philosophy, Vol.
16, pp. 274-75, October 1820.
Translated from a printed account drawn
up in Latin by the author and
transmitted by hum to the Editor of the
Annals of Philosophy. reprint is in:
Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
41. ^ "Hans Christian Ørsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christ
ian_%C3%98rsted (04/21/1820)
42. ^ "Hans Christian
Orsted". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted (04/1820)
43. ^ "hans
christian rsted". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
44. ^ "hans
christian rsted". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
45. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282. (1819)
(1819)
46. ^ "hans christian rsted". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1819)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "electromagnetic radiation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-113
56/electromagnetic-radiation
Copenhagen, Denmark40  
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
180 YBN
[07/21/1820 AD] 4 		2457)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
2. ^ "hans christian rsted".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
3. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
4. ^ "hans christian rsted". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (07/21/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Hans Christian
Ørsted". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christ
ian_%C3%98rsted
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Copenhagen, Denmark3
(presumably) 
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
180 YBN
[09/18/1820 AD] 18 19 20 21 22 		2423) French mathematician and
physicist, André Marie Ampère (oMPAR)
(CE 1775-1836) relates direction of
current in a wire to magnetic force.11
12 13 14

Ampère (oMPAR) creates the "right hand
screw rule". The right hand is imagined
holding the wire with the thumb
pointing in the direction of the
current. The fingers then indicate the
direction in which the north pole of a
magnet will be deflected. One can
imagine a magnetic force circling the
wire. This is the beginning of the
concept of "lines of force" that
Faraday will generalize. The direction
of current had to be determined and
Ampère decides wrongly to use
Franklin's guess of an excess of
"electrical fluid" moving from positive
to negative, which is now known to be
backward; electrical fluid (electrons)
moves from negative to positive.15 So
technically in terms of current, this
rule should be the "left hand screw
rule".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
2. ^ "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
3. ^ L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
5. ^ "Analyse des
Memoires lus par M. Ampere a l'Academie
des sciences, dans les seances des
18 et 25 septembre, des 9 et 30
octobre 1820," Annales générales des
sciences physiques (published only
1819-1821), 1820, 6:238-257
("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
6. ^ "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
7. ^ L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
12. ^ "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
13. ^ L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
18. ^ "Hans Christian Oersted."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (within one
week of Oersted's report: 07/21)
19. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm (but this source has
09/04 in Paris)
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (so by: 09/11/1820
according to this source)
21. ^ "1820)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re (hears 9/11
reports:)09/18/1820)
22. ^ "1820)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "1820)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Andre_Ma
rie_Ampere (hears 9/11
reports:)09/18/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "André Marie Ampère".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] http://gallica.bnf.fr/
Paris, France17  
[1] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg

[2] Scientist: Ampère, André-Marie
(1775 - 1836) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: L. Deymarie
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 42.5 x 31.5 cm
/ PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=A
180 YBN
[09/25/1820 AD] 46 47 48 		2424) In this way, Ampère shows that
attraction and repulsion in a current
carrying wire does not need a magnet or
iron fillings to be visualized.20

Ampère also works with magnetic fields
made by currents flowing through a
circular wire.21 Ampère and Arago
both recognize that in theory, wire in
a spiral (helix) shape, a wire curved
into a spring shape will behave like a
bar magnet.22 23 Ampère calls this
kind of helix a solenoid. Sturgeon will
put this into practice (inventing the
first inductor24 ), and Henry will
refine this idea.25 (chronology26 )
This property of a spiral of wire will
fuel many of the inventions such as the
telegraph, electric motor, and
telephone.27

Ampère's experiments names the science
of electric currents in motion as
"electrodynamics" and introduces the
term "electrostatics" for the older
study of stationary electric charges.28
 (Although, in my mind, there is
basically the field of electronics or
electricity, also known as electrical
science or electrical engineering.29 )
(chronology30 )

(Who is first to measure force of
attraction or repulsion between moving
current in a wire and static
electricity? Perhaps Weber and
Kohlrausche in measuring a ratio of
static to moving {dynamic} electric
charge {or the measure of force causing
mechanical movement} in 1854.31 )

Biot and Savart had interpreted
Oersted's discovery as showing that the
electric current had magnetized the
wire it was moving in and then
interacted with the magnetic needle in
a similar way of two usual magnets.
Ampere viewed Oersted's discovery
differently as being the interaction
between currents, which means that
there should exist microscopic currents
within permanent magnets. To prove this
point, only a week after Arago had
demonstrated Oersted's discovery,
Ampere shows at the Academy, that two
parallel wires carrying currents
attract one another if the currents are
in the same direction, and repel each
other if the currents are in the
opposite directions. Ampere then spends
7 years immersed in experimental
research to identify the correct
mathematical expression describing the
force between current elements.32

Ampère theorizes that a magnet owes
its power to elementary current loops
perpendicular to its axis, in other
words that all magnetism can be
attributed to electric currents.33 So
current flowing forward in a spiral
direction is viewed to be the reason
for a magnetic field in a current
carrying wire. In modern terms, the
magnetic field is made of electrons in
the current extending outside the
visible wire.34

According to Asimov, contemporaries of
Ampère are very skeptical of this
idea.35 Augustin Jean Fresnel (FrAneL)
(CE 1788-1827)36 claims that the
materials that can be made into
magnets, iron and steel are poor
conductors, and current moving through
a poor conductor causes heat and so all
magnets would always be warm.37 (find
original source38 )(But possibly the
current is so small that the heating is
not noticeable.39 )

This is the first understanding that a
magnetic field is the same as an
electric field, and that a magnetic
field is probably caused by current
moving in a permanent magnet, which
eliminates the concept of "magnetism"
and a "magnetic field" altogether as
being "electrism" and an "electric
field". However, Maxwell and others
still view a magnetic field as a
separate phenomenon, different from an
electric field. This mistaken belief of
magnetism (or magneticity) being
different from electrism (or
electricity) has lasted even to this
day.40

If this theory is true, even a needle
deflected by a permanent magnetic field
is measuring the strength of a
current.41

(EX: Perhaps a permanent magnet can be
created by wiring a very long complete
circuit insulated wire around a
cylinder of wood with a hole running
through the center.42 )

The historian R. Tricker writes of this
paper:
"At this stage Ampere is
obviously thinking of macroscopic
currents rather than the molecular
currents which he later proposed. The
particles of the steel bar of a magnet
acted like the elements of an electric
pile and drove a current round the bar
producing a solenoidal electric
current. He had arrived at this idea
from a similar postulate about the
earth's currents by means of which he
explained terrestrial magnetism. In
this case he imagined that the
different rocks and minerals in the
earth's crust acted like a pile
generating currents in planes parallel
to the equator.
he even suggested that
the heat of earth might be caused by
such currents.". Ampere will later
theorize that the currents in a magnet
must be distributed throughout its
volume, describing these currents as
molecular currents.43 (I think this is
similar to my own view - that the
currents flow in a helix, perhaps with
an excess of negative particles at one
pole and an excess of positive
particles at the other pole.44 )
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
2. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
4. ^ R. A. R.
Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics",
Pergamum Press, 1965, p140-154.
5. ^ AMPERE,
André-Marie. Mémoire présenté é
l'Académie royale des Sciences, le 2
octobre 1820, oé se trouve compris le
résumé de ce qui avait été lu é la
méme Académie les 18 et 25 septembre
1820, sur les effets des courans
électriques. Annales de chimie et de
physique, 1820, vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
12. ^ "André
Marie Ampère". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
18. ^ R. A. R.
Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics",
Pergamum Press, 1965, p140-154.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
23. ^ "André Marie
Ampère". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^
"André Marie Ampère". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p78-83.
33. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ The
Mechanical Universe, Episode 35, The
Magnetic Field, :10.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted
Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ Ted
Huntington.
43. ^ R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p28-29.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
46. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. "Mémoire
présenté à l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, où se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu à la même Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.",
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1 {1820) 10/02/1820}
47. ^ R. A. R.
Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics",
Pergamum Press, 1965, p140-154.
{10/20/1820 (mistake}
48. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm c09/30/1820) (before
the end of September) c09/30/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andre Marie Ampere".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7234/Andre-Marie-Ampere
[2] "André Marie Ampère". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22The+mutual+
action+of+two+electric+currents%22&sourc
e=web&ots=RDi1vlMrpC&sig=gi8URXRfofk0H64
F6rtiHIYWarw&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=4&ct=result#PPA70,M1
[5] L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
[6] "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
[7] "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
Paris, France45  
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
180 YBN
[10/30/1820 AD] 13 14 		2418)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record ID2168.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Record ID2418. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID2426. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Biot and Savart, "Note on the
Magnetism of Volta's Battery.", Ann.
Chim. Phys. 15, 222-3. Translated
from French by O. M. Blunn in
: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p118-119.
10. ^ Biot, J. B., 1824, Précis
Elémentaire de Physique
Expérimentale, 3rd ed. (Deterville,
Paris), Vol. 2, pp. 707-723. Partially
translated from French by O. M. Blunn
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p119-139.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
13. ^ Biot and Savart, "Note on the
Magnetism of Volta's Battery.", Ann.
Chim. Phys. 15, 222-3. Translated
from French by O. M. Blunn in
: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p118-119. {10/30/1820}
14. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Biot
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] [t Figure from Biot book] PD/Corel

source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p120.

[2] [t Table from Biot book] PD/Corel

source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p130.
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 5 		2455)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
3. ^ "Hans Christian
Orsted". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
4. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282. (1820)
(1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Christian Ørsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christ
ian_%C3%98rsted
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Copenhagen, Denmark4
(presumably) 
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 7 		2486)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p286.
3. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p286.
5. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
6. ^ "Johann Salomo Christoph
Schweigger". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salo
mo_Christoph_Schweigger
7. ^ "Johann Salomo Christoph
Schweigger". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salo
mo_Christoph_Schweigger (1820)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/schwei
gger.html
[2]
http://www.answers.com/galvanometer?cat=
technology
Halle, Germany6  
[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm

[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 8 		2505) After Bellingshausen's voyage,
the world's ice-free ocean is
completely explored, all that remains
is the frozen polar wastes and
continental interiors.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
2. ^ "Fabian Gottlieb
von Bellingshausen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5281/Fabian-Gottlieb-von-Bellingshausen
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290. (1820)
(1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fabian Gottlieb von
Bellingshausen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Gott
lieb_von_Bellingshausen
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Fabian%20Gottlieb
%20von%20Bellingshausen
Antarctica7  
[1] Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
. Source Can be downloaded from
e.g.
http://www.70south.com/resources/antarct
ic-history/explorers/bellingshausen The
portrait was also on a British postal
stamp (see
http://www.ivki.ru/kapustin/expedition/a
ntarctida/antarctida.htm) Date 19th
century portrait PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen.jp
g
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 5 		2559)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
2. ^ "Francois
Arago". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Francois Arago".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago
5. ^ "Francois Arago". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Dominique François Jean
Arago". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_F
ran%C3%A7ois_Jean_Arago
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 14 15 		2587) Asimov explains that around this
time chemistry is moving from analysis
of naturally occurring molecules to
analysis of synthetic molecules.6

Quinine (KWIniN, KWInEN7 ) is a white
crystalline alkaloid with a bitter
taste. Quinine has the chemical
formula: C20H24N2O2.8 Quinine is
obtained from cinchona bark and is used
as a drug mainly in the treatment of
malaria.9 The treatment of malaria
with quinine will mark the first
successful use of a chemical compound
in combating an infectious disease.10

Cinchonine, like quinine, is an
alkaloid, C19H22N2O, derived from the
bark of various cinchona trees and used
as an antimalarial agent.11

Colchicine is a poisonous, pale-yellow
alkaloid, C22H25NO6, obtained from the
autumn crocus and used in plant
breeding to induce chromosome doubling
and in medicine to treat gout.12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p330.
3. ^ "Pierre
Joseph Pelletier". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p305.
7. ^ "quinine".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/quinine?cat=healt
h
8. ^ "quinine". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/quinine?cat=healt
h
9. ^ "quinine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2289/quinine
10. ^ "quinine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2289/quinine
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/cinchonine?cat=he
alth
12. ^
http://www.answers.com/colchicine?cat=he
alth
13. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305. (1820) (1820)
15. ^
"Pierre Joseph Pelletier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9006/Pierre-Joseph-Pelletier (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jose
ph_Pelletier
[2] "Joseph Bienaimé Caventou".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bien
aim%C3%A9_Caventou
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Bienaim%C3%A9+Cav
entou?cat=technology
[4] "Quinine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinine
Paris, France13  
[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 15 		2591) In 1819 Fresnel was nominated a
commissioner of lighthouses for which
Fresnel was the first to construct
compound lenses as substitutes for
mirrors.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
4. ^ "Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
5. ^ "Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
6. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Fresnel lens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
11. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Augustin Jean
Fresnel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Jean_Fresnel
14. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
15. ^ "Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5384/Augustin-Jean-Fresnel
[2] "Augustin Jean Fresnel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Je
an_Fresnel
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "light". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0443/light
Paris, France14  
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

180 YBN
[1820 AD] 12 13 		2628) John Frederic Daniell (CE
1790-1845), English chemist,1 invents
a dew-point hygrometer (a device that
indicates atmospheric humidity) (Quar.
Journ. Sci., 18202 ), which is widely
used.3

Daniell's "Essay on Artificial Climate
Considered in Its Applications to
Horticulture" shows the importance of
humidity in greenhouses.4

Danielle's hygrometer is made with two
thin glass bulbs that are hung from a
base and joined with a glass tube. One
of the glass bulbs holds ether and a
thermometer that collects and
dissipates dew when the other bulb is
slowly cooled and reheated. The
condensing temperature is produced by
evaporation of the ether. Daniell's
hygrometer, as it is called, enables
the easy determination of vapor that
exists in a given mass of atmosphere.
The average temperature recorded by the
device is the dew point.5 (make
clearer6 )

In 1831 Daniell becomes the first
professor of chemistry at the newly
founded King's College in London.7

In 1839 Daniell publishes "Introduction
to the Study of Chemical Philosophy".8


In 1841, Daniell becomes a founding
member and vice president of the
Chemical Society of London.9

Daniell authors many papers that are
published in journals of science.10
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314.
2. ^ "John Frederic
Daniell". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Fre
deric_Daniell
3. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
4. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
8. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
9. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
11. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314. (1820)
(1820)
13. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Frederic Daniell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Freder
ic_Daniell
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Frederic+Dan
iell+?cat=technology
London, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Daniell's hygrometer, from
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Thermodynamics/Hygrometer/Hygrometer.ht
ml COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/daniell.htm

[2] John Frederic Daniell British
chemist & physicist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Daniell_chemist_b.jpg
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 3 		2635) George Peacock (PEKoK) (CE
1791-1858), publishes "A Collection of
Examples of the Application of the
Differential and Integral Calculus"
which aids the movement to use the
"Continental" calculus notion of
Leibniz as opposed to the fluxion
notion of Newton.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
2. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
3. ^ "George Peacock (1820)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock (1820) (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-44782
5/George-Peacock
[3] "George Peacock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peac
ock
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Peacock.html
Cambridge, England2 (presumably) 
[1] George Peacock (1791-1858), English
mathematician. Source en.wikipedia
(see there the description page) Date
XIX century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Peacock.jpg

[2] George Peacock PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Peacock.html
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 66 		2698) Faraday has an electrical unit of
charge named after him (a Faraday is an
amount of electricity measured during
electrolysis)4 and the unit of
capacitance, the farad is named after
Faraday5 .

Faraday wears no wig as wigs had passed
out of popularity by the beginning of
the 1800s. Instead Faraday wears a
black neck tie, vest and blazer every
day, the neck tie and blazer are still
popular today.6
Faraday is one of
four7 children of a blacksmith who
moves with his family to London8 in
1791 to look for work9 .
Faraday later
recalls being given one loaf of bread
that had to last him for a week.10
Farad
ay's family belongs to a Christian sect
called the Sandemanians11 , a sect that
no longer exists12 .
Faraday receives
only the rudiments of an education,
learning to read, and write in a church
Sunday school.13
At an early age
Faraday earns money by delivering
newspapers for a book dealer and
bookbinder.14
In 1805, at age 1415 ,
Faraday is apprenticed to the
bookbinder16 and bookseller17 , and
Faraday is therefore exposed to many
books.18 Faraday is particularly
fascinated by the article on
electricity in the third edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica19 and reads
Lavoisier's textbook on chemistry.20
(there are other examples of people
working with books that go on to
achieve in science. (name examples) I
think there is the potential for a
relationship between access to books
(and videos, etc) and wisdom. Now with
the Internet, we should see collective
wisdom grow much faster and larger in
scale.21 ) (In some sense we can thank
the public science lecture for the
electric motor.22 )
Faraday uses old
bottles and lumber to make a crude
electrostatic generator with which
Faraday does simple experiments.
Faraday also builds a weak voltaic pile
with which he performs experiments in
electrochemistry.23
In 1812 a customer
gives Faraday tickets to attend the
lectures of Humphry Davy at the Royal
Institution. Faraday takes careful
notes with colorful diagrams. Faraday
ends with 386 pages which he binds in
leather and sends to Banks, the
president of the Royal Society, in the
hope of getting a job that will bring
him into closer contact with science.
Getting no answer he sends others (he
made copies?24 ) to Davy himself along
with an application for a job as an
assistant. Davy is enormously
impressed, and when Davy fires his
assistant for brawling (brawling? those
are some tough assistants.25 ), Davy
offers Faraday the job. Davy follows
the advice of a trustee of the Royal
Institution who says "Let him wash
bottles. If he is any good, he will
accept the work; if he refuses, he is
not good for anything.".26
In 1813
Faraday accepts Davy's offer of a job
as assistant at a salary smaller than
the one Faraday is getting as a
bookbinder and washes bottles.27
Farada
y's first assignment is to accompany
Davy and his wife on a tour of Europe,
during which Faraday sometimes has to
be a personal servant to the wife of
Davy.28
There is a saying that "Faraday
was Davy's greatest discovery"29 ,
however I think Davy's contributions to
science (identifies and isolates
potassium, sodium, barium, strontium,
calcium and magnesium, chlorine, that
chlorine support combustion, that
hydrochloric acid contains no oxygen
and so hydrogen not oxygen is
characteristic of acids) place Davy
near the top of best scientists of
history although Faraday probably ranks
higher and Davy's jealousy and/or anger
towards Faraday is stupid30 .
Faraday as
Davy's assistant sees Napoleon, Volta
and Vauquelin.31
In 1820 Faraday's
second apprenticeship, under Davy,
ends, and by this time Faraday has
learned chemistry as thoroughly as
anyone alive.32
In a court of law,
under oath, Faraday points out some
flaws in Davy's invention of the
miner's safety lamp.33
In 1821 Faraday
married Sarah Barnhard.34
In 1825
Faraday becomes director of the
laboratory.35
In 1833 Faraday becomes
professor of chemistry at the Royal
Institution.36
Faraday gives
enormously popular lectures in the
style of Davy.37
Faraday's reputation
as an analytical chemist leads to his
being called as an expert witness in
legal trials and to the building up of
clients whose fees help to support the
Royal Institution.38 (Royal
Institution must have taken part of
Faraday's fees or rented Faraday out?39
)
In 1839 the Encyclopedia Britannica
states that Faraday's "health broke
down" and Faraday for six years does
little creative science.40 Asimov
claims that Faraday suffers a nervous
breakdown, which is in my view an
inaccurate/fraudulent theory.41 The
theories of psychology, I think are
highly doubtful. I think that people
have moments of stress, but there is no
single thing that makes a person
suddenly get some kind of disease of
the kinds claimed in psychology, and
always the disease or "breakdown" is
not easily described, seldom are
specific "symptoms" given and then many
times symptoms given are indicative
only of an unusual view or behavior,
many times only mildly unusual but
inflated to appear more important. The
most I can guess is that a person
changes dramatically, and adopts a very
inaccurate view of the universe. I
doubt the phenomenon of "nervous
breakdown", but I can accept the
phenomenon of extreme stress resulting
in passing out, temporary
unconsciousness, and I can accept that
people have periods of belief in a
theory with highly inaccurate claims.42

In 1824 Faraday is elected into the
Royal Society with Davy casting the
only negative vote.43
Faraday strongly
favors a more important role for
science in education, but is too gentle
to say anything. Babbage is more
vocal.44
In 1825 Faraday becomes
director of the laboratory.45
In 1833
Faraday is made Fullerian professor of
chemistry at the Royal Institution.46
In
1844 Faraday, after agonizing, decides
to accept the invitation to have dinner
with Queen Victoria on a Sunday when he
is due at the small church he attends.
The congregation excommunicates him and
he can not be reinstated until
undergoing considerable penance.47
(what could that involve?48 )
In the
1850s when asked to head a project to
prepare poisonous gas for use on the
battlefield, Faraday admits that the
project is feasible but wants nothing
to do with it.49
Faraday keeps a daily
record of his 42 years of scientific
labors (1820-62) which is published in
1932 in 7 volumes.50

Every year on Christmas Day, Faraday
presents his "Faraday Lectures for
Children" which are crowded with
interested listeners. The Royal
Institution Christmas lectures for
children, begun by Faraday, continue to
this day.51

In 1855, According to Asimov, Faraday
loses his ability to think clearly some
postulate because of chronic mercury
poisoning.52
The Encyclopedia
Britannica authors expresses a similar
view stating "From about 1855,
Faraday's mind began to fail. He still
did occasional experiments, one of
which involved attempting to find an
electrical effect of raising a heavy
weight, since he felt that gravity,
like magnetism, must be convertible
into some other force, most likely
electrical. This time he was
disappointed in his expectations, and
the Royal Society refused to publish
his negative results. More and more,
Faraday began to sink into senility."53
 (The concept that all forces are the
result of a single force is a logical
theory, and certainly one worth
exploring experimentally and
theoretically. I happen to think all
forces are the result of gravity,
matter occupying space, and
collision.54 )
(Faraday is up there with
Newton for best in science. Galileo
too, Aristarchos, Edison and many
others.55 )

In 1857 Faraday declines the presidency
of the Royal Society.56
Queen Victoria
rewards Faraday's lifetime of devotion
to science by granting Faraday the use
of a house at Hampton Court and and a
knighthood. Faraday accepts the cottage
but rejects the knighthood; saying that
he would remain plain Mr. Faraday to
the end.57 That Faraday rejects
knighthood may imply that he is against
the concept of royalty and possibly
monarchy or singular rule by heredity.
To me, many knighthoods, baronships,
etc are all based on wealth, many
times, without significant contribution
to science or life, and represent an
empty distinction other than "wealthy
person" in that sense, although clearly
there are exceptions where people do
deserve a societal reward for their
contribution to life, but then I think
simply a monetary award is better than
a change in name. Maybe Faraday had a
similar opinion. It would be
interesting to see Faraday's recorded
reasons if any.58


In 1865 Faraday writes about psychic
phenomena "They who say these things
are not competent witnesses of facts".
To an invitation to attend the first
séance of the Davenport brothers
Faraday returns the answer, "If spirit
communications, not utterly worthless,
should happen to start into activity, I
will trust the spirits to find out for
themselves how they can move my
attention. I am tired of them.".59

When Sir William Crookes asks Faraday
how Faraday reconciles science with
religion, Faraday replies that he keeps
his science and religion strictly
apart.60

Some of Faraday's works are collected
as "Experimental Researches in
Electricity" (3 vol., 1839-55) and
"Experimental Researches in Chemistry
and Physics" (1859).61

Tyndall, says of Faraday, "Taking him
for all and all, I think it will be
conceded that Michael Faraday was the
greatest experimental philosopher the
world has ever seen; and I will add the
opinion, that the progress of future
research will tend, not to dim or to
diminish, but to enhance and glorify
the labours of this mighty
investigator."62

The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
states: "We have given a few examples
of the concentration of his efforts in
seeking to identify the apparently
different forces of nature, of his
far-sightedness in selecting subjects
for investigation, of his persistence
in the pursuit of what he set before
him, of his energy in working out the
results of his discoveries, and of the
accuracy and completeness with which he
made his final statement of the laws of
the phenomenon."63

In my own opinion, Michael Faraday is
perhaps the number one contributor to
science in the entire history of Earth,
or perhaps second to Isaac Newton.
There are certainly other excellent
people, but no other person in science
discovered and explained as many great
and important truths.64
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ "Michael Faraday". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
9. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
10. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
11. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
13. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
14. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
15. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
16. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
17. ^ "Michael Faraday". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
19. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
27. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
28. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
29. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
32. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
34. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
36. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
37. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
38. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
44. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
45. ^ "Michael
Faraday". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
46. ^ "Michael Faraday". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
47. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
50. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
51. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
52. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
53. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
54. ^ Ted Huntington.
55. ^ Ted Huntington.
56. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
57. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
58. ^ Ted Huntington.
59. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
60. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
61. ^ "Michael Faraday". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
62. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
63. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
64. ^ Ted Huntington.
65. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
66. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
Faraday_chlorine_carbon_compound.pdf ht
tp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/u
89447v6341n8226/?p=ea7f4699ac384834ae4fe
6fff6b0036c&pi=38 On a New Compound
of Chlorine and
Carbon Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 111 -
1821 Pages 392-397 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
21.0028
(Royal Institution in) London,
England65  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 20 		3374) To me it is very interesting that
Reverend Cecil sees part of his role in
life as building and explaining devices
such as combustion engines, in other
words, for actively participating in
science, engineering and education, in
some sense, to understanding the
principles of the universe, which
appears to be for Cecil a natural
inclination, but is perhaps an unusual
interpretation of purpose for many and
perhaps most reverends.16

(Perhaps the gas combustion is more
accurately called the gas explosion
engine. The gas combustion phenomenon,
like many explosive phenomena form a
similar group of reactions where
molecules and/or atoms are separated
into their source light particles - the
force comes from the escaping light
particles, as far as I understand it.
These are all "exothermic" phenomena,
far more particles are emitted than
absorbed.17 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
4. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
5. ^ Record ID3380. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID3382. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Gas Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
8. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
9. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/engine.html
10. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Cambridge Philosophical
Society, "Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society", University
Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFA
AAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Cambridge Philosophical
Society, "Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society", University
Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFA
AAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
15. ^ Cambridge Philosophical Society,
"Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society", University
Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFA
AAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Cambridge
Philosophical Society, "Transactions of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
University Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFA
AAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
19. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
20. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1820}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>
(Magdalen College18 ) Cambridge,
England19  
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg

[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
179 YBN
[06/??/1821 AD] 24 25 		2595)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
3. ^ A. Fresnel,
'Considerations mecaniques sur la
polarisation de la lumiere', Oeuvres,
Vol. I, 629-49; Annales de chimie et de
physique, Vol. XVII (cahier de juin
1821), 167 ff, p168.
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=O1RbpcE
wkvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fresnel+Aug
ustin+Jean "WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT",
MEMOIRS BY HUYGENS YOUNG AND FRESNEL
EDITED BY HENRY CREW PHD PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY The
Wave Theory of Light: Memoirs of
Huygens, Young and Fresnel By
Christiaan Huygens, Thomas Young,
Augustin Jean Fresnel, François Arago
5. ^
Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
7. ^ "Augustin Jean
Fresnel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
8. ^ Record ID2408. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
12. ^ A. Fresnel,
'Considerations mecaniques sur la
polarisation de la lumiere', Oeuvres,
Vol. I, 629-49; Annales de chimie et de
physique, Vol. XVII (cahier de juin
1821), 167 ff, p183.
13. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=O1RbpcE
wkvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fresnel+Aug
ustin+Jean "WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT",
MEMOIRS BY HUYGENS YOUNG AND FRESNEL
EDITED BY HENRY CREW PHD PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY The
Wave Theory of Light: Memoirs of
Huygens, Young and Fresnel By
Christiaan Huygens, Thomas Young,
Augustin Jean Fresnel, François Arago
14. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307.
15. ^ A. Fresnel,
'Considerations mecaniques sur la
polarisation de la lumiere', Oeuvres,
Vol. I, 629-49; Annales de chimie et de
physique, Vol. XVII (cahier de juin
1821), 167 ff, p169.
16. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=O1RbpcE
wkvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fresnel+Aug
ustin+Jean "WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT",
MEMOIRS BY HUYGENS YOUNG AND FRESNEL
EDITED BY HENRY CREW PHD PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY The
Wave Theory of Light: Memoirs of
Huygens, Young and Fresnel By
Christiaan Huygens, Thomas Young,
Augustin Jean Fresnel, François Arago
17. ^
A. Fresnel, 'Considerations mecaniques
sur la polarisation de la lumiere',
Oeuvres, Vol. I, 629-49; Annales de
chimie et de physique, Vol. XVII
(cahier de juin 1821), 167 ff, p169.
18. ^
"Augustin Jean Fresnel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ "polarization". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0596/polarization
23. ^ "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Jean+Fre
snel?cat=technology
24. ^ A. Fresnel, 'Considerations
mecaniques sur la polarisation de la
lumiere', Oeuvres, Vol. I, 629-49;
Annales de chimie et de physique, Vol.
XVII (cahier de juin 1821), 167 ff,
p168. (06/1821) (06/1821)
25. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=O1RbpcE
wkvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fresnel+Aug
ustin+Jean "WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT",
MEMOIRS BY HUYGENS YOUNG AND FRESNEL
EDITED BY HENRY CREW PHD PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY The
Wave Theory of Light: Memoirs of
Huygens, Young and Fresnel By
Christiaan Huygens, Thomas Young,
Augustin Jean Fresnel, François Arago
(06/1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5384/Augustin-Jean-Fresnel
[2] "Augustin Jean Fresnel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Je
an_Fresnel
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Augustin Jean Fresnel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Jean_Fresnel
[5] "light". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0443/light
[6] "Fresnel lens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5385/Fresnel-lens
[7] "De Broglie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie
[8]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Polarized_Light/Fresnels_Rhomb/Fresnels
_Rhomb.html
[9]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Printonly/Fresnel.html
[10]
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/1800-1833.html
[11]
http://www.polarization.com/history/hist
ory.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=GBrXTRv
FOcsC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=fresnel+1815+p
aper&source=web&ots=MU6hjPmvp7&sig=-yGWV
G_WpPR9_aefvNE_I4nGwI8
[13] Corpuscular Optics and the Wave
Theory of Light: The Science and
Politics of a Revolution in Physics
Eugene Frankel Social Studies of
Science, Vol. 6, No. 2. (May, 1976),
pp. 141-184.
Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
[14] Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf
Paris, France23  
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

179 YBN
[07/05/1821 AD] 11 		2883) Davy writes "Imperfect conducting
fluids do not give (magnetic4 )
polarity to steel when electricity is
passed through them; but electricity
passed through air produces this
effect. Reasoning on this phaenomenon,
and on the extreme mobility of the
particles of air, I concluded, as M.
Arago had likewise done from other
considerations, that the voltaic
current in air would be affected by the
magnet. I failed in my first trial,
which I have referred to in a note to
my former paper, and in other trials
made since by using too weak a magnet;
but I have lately had complete success;
and the experiment exhibits a very
striking phaenomenon.
Mr. Pepys having had the
goodness to charge the great battery of
the London Institution, consisting of
two thousand double plates of zinc and
copper, with a mixture of 1168 parts of
water, 108 parts of nitrous acid, and
25 parts of sulphuric acid, the poles
were connected by charcoal, so as to
make an arc, or column of electrical
light, varying in lenth from one to
four inches, according to the state of
rarefaction of the atmosphere in which
it was produced; and a powerful magnet
being presented to this arc or column,
having its pole at a very acute angle
to it, the arc, or column, was
attracted or repelled with a rotatory
motion, or made to revolve, by placing
the poles in different positions,
according to the same law as the
electrified cylinders of platinum
described in my last paper, being
repelled when the negative pole was on
the right hand by the north pole of the
magnet, and attracted by the south
pole, and vice versa.
It was proved by
several experiments that the motion
depended entirely upon the magnetism,
and not upon the electrical inductive
power of the magnet, for masses of soft
iron, or of other metals, produced no
effect.
The electrical arc or column of flame
was more easily affected by the magnet,
and its motion was more rapid when it
passed through a dense than through
rarified air; and in this case, the
conducting medium or chain of aeriform
particles was much shorter.
I tried
to gain similar results with currents
of common electricity sent through
flame, and in vacuo. They were always
affected by the magnet; but it was not
possible to obtain so decided a result
as with voltaic electricity, because
the magnet itself became electrical by
induction, and that whether it was
insulated, or connected with the
ground."5

It's not clear that Davy observes the
illuminated glow produced by a high
electric differential through a vacuum
and the deflection of that florescent
beam by a magnet as Gassiot, Plucker
and others will illuminate. The battery
Davy uses is large for the time with
2000 copper-zinc plate pairs (but what
voltage is that?6 ). Clearly enough to
produce an arc four inches long.7

Davy publishes this in "Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and Temperature"
(1821).

This is related to using magnets to
move beams of electrons in a Cathode
Ray Tube, which leads to the
television.8

(Does static electricity move the
electrical current in air?9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^, p427.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd34c1f976
f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^, p427.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd34c1f976
f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^, pp427-428.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd34c1f976
f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
11. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd34c1f976
f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf
(07/05/1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England10  
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
179 YBN
[09/03/1821 AD] 7 		2607) Redfield helps to found the
American Association for the
Advancement of Science.4 (chronology5
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p310.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p310.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p310.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Meteorology". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Meteorology". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Meteorol
ogy
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p310. (09/03/1821)
(09/03/1821)
New York, USA6   
179 YBN
[09/07/1821 AD] 4 		1535)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "1821". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1821
2. ^ "1821". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1821
3. ^ "1821". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1821
4. ^ "1821". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1821
(09/07/1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simón Bolívar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_
Bol%C3%ADvar
 
[1] Simón Bolívar. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar.jpg
179 YBN
[09/11/1821 AD] 47 48 		2701) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)8
invents the first electric motor9 ,
which creates sustained mechanical
motion from electricity10 . An electric
motor is a device that converts
electrical energy to mechanical
energy.11 The electric motor is based
on the principle that like poles of a
magnet repel one another.12

In 1820 Hans Christian �rsted had
announced the discovery that the flow
of an electric current through a wire
produces a magnetic field around the
wire. Andr�-Marie Amp�re
showed that the magnetic force is a
circular one, producing a cylinder of
magnetism around the wire. Faraday
understands that if a magnetic pole can
be isolated, it ought to move
constantly in a circle around a
current-carrying wire because of this
circular force.13

Davy and William Hyde Wollaston had
tried to design an electric motor but
had failed.14 Faraday, discusses the
problem with Davy and Wollaston.15
Faraday publishes his results without
acknowledging his debt to Wollaston and
Davy (and this causes controversy16
).17

In 1821, a year after Oersted deflected
a magnetic needle with an electric
current, Faraday creates an electric
motor. Faraday converts electrical and
magnetic force into continuous
mechanical movement.(again most likely
the same phenomenon, although not
overwhelmingly proven or popularly
accepted yet.18 ) Faraday uses two
vessels filled with mercury, each
attached to a battery by a metal rod
entering from the bottom of each
vessel. The upper levels of the mercury
are connected by a curved metal bar
which forms a complete circuit. (note
that mercury is a liquid metal that
conducts electricity.19 ) One end of
the curved bridge is fixed in the
center of the Mercury container and on
the lower rod a movable magnet (bar or
circular magnet?20 ) is attached that
can rotate around the fixed upper rod.
On the other end of the curved bridge
the upper rod ends in a hinged wire
(which can move freely in a circle21 )
that hangs into the mercury and is able
to rotate around the bottom fixed rod
which extends a fixed magnet upward.
When Faraday turns on the current the
movable wire rotates around the fixed
magnet while the movable magnet rotates
around the fixed wire. (I will need a
visual image for this.22 )

Faraday successfully converts
electrical and magnetic forces into
continuous mechanical movement.23

Faraday publishes this in 1821 as
"History of the Progress of
Electro-Magnetism".24

Davy claims that Faraday got the idea
from a conversation between Davy and
Wollaston, but Faraday claims that the
conversation only turned his attention
to the problem and that his device is
nothing like the one discussed. In
addition, Wollaston had expected the
wire to rotate on an axis rather than
rotate around another wire.25

The electric generator would be useless
without some way of putting it to work
which the electric motor provides.26
The electric motor is like the opposite
of the electric generator. In an
electric generator mechanical force
turns a wheel and produces electricity.
In a motor, electricity turns a wheel
and produces mechanical force. The
electric motor is used in vacuum
cleaners, refrigerators, computers,
robots, video cameras, windshield
wipers, windows, doors, thousands of
devices.27 (The electric motor is even
now still being applied to make many
things in life automated.28 )

In 1821 Faraday shows a simple case of
rotation produced between a magnet and
a current of electricity.29 Some
historians credit Anianus Jedlik,
Hungarian priest and teacher, with the
first electromagnet armature motor and
commutator by 1928.30 31 In 1831
Henry32 , and 1833 Ritchie33 also
constructs a motor with an
electromagnet armature.34 William
Sturgeon will build a motor with a
commutator in 1832.35 In 1839 Jacobi
will propel a boat on the Neva river at
2 1/4 miles per hour with an
electromagnetic engine of about 1
horse-power, using a battery of 64
large Grove's cells.36 In 1883 Nikola
Tesla will invent an alternating
current motor (Induction motor).37 38
39

In a simple form of electric motor, a
wire-wound armature, in which a
magnetic field can be induced by an
electric current, is mounted on a
rotating shaft and balanced next to a
magnet (the "field" magnet). As one
pole of the magnet repels the similarly
induced pole of the armature, the
opposite pole on the similar side of
the armature will likewise be repelled
by the similar pole of the magnet. This
repulsion will produce a torque on the
the armature and it will start
revolving. The repulsion between like
poles is supplemented by the attraction
between unlike poles, and the armature
will continue revolving in an effort to
bring its north pole in line with the
south pole of the field magnet, and its
south pole in line with the north pole
of the field magnet. . Just as this
conjunction is reached, the action of
the commutator - a conductor on the
rotating armature shaft- reverses the
current in the armature windings. The
north and south poles in the armature
are then reversed. Momentum carries the
armature past the dead center and the
reversed forces of attraction and
repulsion send the armature around to
its former position, where the
commutator again reverses the current
continuing the motion.40

(Describe later progress to more
practical electric motors, including
the AC motor and step motor.41 )

(EX: Prove that a permanent magnet has
current running through it. Maybe
increase resistance and look for change
in magnetic strength? 42 )

(It may be that an electric motor is
only transferring motion from particles
in electric current to a rotor by
particle collision.43 )

(A magnetic field is a "dynamic" or
moving electric field, which is
different from a static of unmoving
electric field.44 )

(Was the electric motor actually found
much earlier and kept secret, like
neuron reading? If true then Faraday
was either an excluded who reinvented
the motor, or an included who got
permission to go public with the motor.
Perhaps the electric motor is one of
the rare cases where a scientific
invention or innovation is made public
very close to the time of it's
creation.45 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
2. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
4. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
6. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
9. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "electric motor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/182667/electric-motor>.
12. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p50.
13. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
14. ^ "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
15. ^ "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p317.
24. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p337.
27. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p337.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^
Silvanus Phillips Thompson, "Elementary
lessons in electricity & magnetism",
1889,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZfUKAQAAIAAJ
30. ^ "Anianus Jedlik", Nature, Volume
53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
31. ^ Amédée Guillemin, tr: Silvanus
P. Thompson, "Electricity and
magnetism", London, MacMillan, 1891,
p765. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QznSAAAAMAAJ
32. ^ Joseph Henry, "On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion", American Journal of
Science, vol 20, 1831,
p340 http://books.google.com/books?id=G
xQeAQAAMAAJ
33. ^ William Ritchie,
"Experimental Researches in
Electro-Magnetism and
Magneto-Electricity", Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. January 1, 1833 123:313-321;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1833.0017 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/123.t
oc
and http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/123/313.full.pdf+html
34. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary lessons in electricity &
magnetism", 1889,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZfUKAQAAIAAJ
35. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
36. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary lessons in electricity &
magnetism", 1889,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZfUKAQAAIAAJ
37. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
38. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
39. ^ Tesla patent 391,968 10/12/1887
40. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p50.
41. ^ Ted
Huntington.
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ Ted
Huntington.
45. ^ Ted Huntington.
46. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
47. ^ Michael Faraday, "On some new
Electro-Magnetical Motions, and on the
Theory of Magnetism", Royal Institution
Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts.
Volume XII, (1822), pp74-96.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=%22on+some
+new+electro-magnetical+motions%22&sourc
e=web&ots=VKIy3FqaNj&sig=YybSGqm9Q6m-Wqj
9LSQTTX8JGDk&hl=en {Faraday_1821_motor.
pdf} (09/11/1821)
48. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[5]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10] Institution of Engineering and
Technology, London Archives, Michael
Faraday
(Royal Institution in) London,
England46  
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
179 YBN
[12/20/1821 AD] 9 		2882) Davy states "few sagacious
reasoners, who think that our present
data are sufficient to enable us to
decide on such very abstruse and
difficult parts of corpuscular
philosophy."6 (clearly showing a
preference for corpuscular versus
undulatory theory in 18217 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa44704d8db4a
1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the Electrical
Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf
3. ^, p69.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa44704d8db4a
1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the Electrical
Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf
4. ^, p72.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa44704d8db4a
1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the Electrical
Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf
5. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa44704d8db4a
1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the Electrical
Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf
6. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa44704d8db4a
1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the Electrical
Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
9. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa44704d8db4a
1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the Electrical
Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf
(12/20/1821) (12/20/1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England8  
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa447
04d8db4a1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the
Electrical Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf p74

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 11 12 		2379)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp261-262.
2. ^ "Alexis
Bouvard". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp261-262.
4. ^ "Alexis
Bouvard". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Alexis Bouvard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp261-262.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Alexis Bouvard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard
11. ^ "Alexis Bouvard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5992/Alexis-Bouvard (1821)
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp261-262. (1821)
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexis Bouvard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Bouv
ard
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Alexis Bouvard (1767-1843), French
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexis_Bouvard.jpg
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 19 		2397) In 1802 Seebeck earns an MD from
the University of Göttingen but
prefers scientific research.17
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268.
2. ^ "Thomas Johann
Seebeck". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Johann+See
beck?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6564/Thomas-Johann-Seebeck
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6564/Thomas-Johann-Seebeck
7. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Johann+See
beck?cat=technology
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/seebec
k.html
9. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Joha
nn_Seebeck
10. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Joha
nn_Seebeck
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268.
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/seebec
k.html
14. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/seebec
k.html
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Thomas
Johann Seebeck". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Johann+See
beck?cat=technology
18. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Johann+See
beck?cat=technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268. (1821)
(1821)
Berlin, Germany18  
[1] Thomas Seebeck Source
Originally from de.wikipedia; Hans
Wahl, Anton Kippenberg: Goethe und
seine Welt, Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1932
S.204 Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ThomasSeebeck.jpg

[2] Seebeck's instrument COPYRIGHTED

source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/seebeck.html
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 7 		2427)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"William Hyde Wollaston". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "William Hyde
Wollaston". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7358/William-Hyde-Wollaston
[3] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[4] Francis Wollaston, "The secret
history of a private man",
1795. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=vCUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=The+Secret+History
+of+a+Private+Man&printsec=frontcover&so
urce=web&ots=lMwgXnBmu7&sig=JiY5flaqsad7
lmMEp0aw3Smzu-c&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=1&ct=result
London, England6  
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 4 		2434)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
2. ^
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekl
y/aa111602a.htm
3. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
4. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Amedeo Avogadro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Avog
adro
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Avogadro's number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27
s_number
[5] "Joseph Loschmidt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9002/Joseph-Loschmidt
[6]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/Avogadro.
html (paper in English)
Avogadro_1811.html
Turin, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 4 		2534)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "François Magendie".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "François Magendie".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
4. ^ "François Magendie". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20 (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Francois Magendie".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie
[3] "François Magendie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Magendie
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 14 		2572) In this paper Fraunhofer
comments: "T Young had already observed
that the colored fringes which are seen
in the interior of the shadow of a hair
vanish if one edge is covered so that
the beams of light going by both edges
must combine to produce the interior
color bands.".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
2. ^ "Joseph von
Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
3. ^ "josef von fraunhofer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology (1821)
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
6. ^ "josef von
fraunhofer". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology
7. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
8. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
9. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
10. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
11. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
12. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
13. ^ John Charles Drury Brand, Raymond
Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The Sources
of Dispersive Spectroscopy, 1800-1930",
CRC Press, 1995, pp37-47.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0I
BC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=
web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1
14. ^ Howard-Duff, I., "Joseph
Fraunhofer (1787-1826)", Journal of the
British Astronomical Association,
vol.97, no.6, p.339-347.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//fu
ll/1987JBAA...97..339H/0000343.000.html
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany13
 (presumably) 
[1] English: Joseph von Fraunhofer was
a German physicist. Quelle: Engraving
in the Small Portraits collection,
History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fraunhofer_2.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fraunhofer, Joseph von
(1787 - 1826) Discipline(s): Physics
; Scientific Instruments Print Artist:
Christian Gottlob Scherff, b. ca.1793
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17.7 x 14.6 cm /
Sheet: 25.2 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 4 		2583)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "glacial landform". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-497
63/glacial-landform
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p305.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305. (1821) (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ignaz Venetz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz_Venet
z
Switzerland3  
[1] Figure 4. Ignace Venetz
(1788-1859). PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://planet-terre.ens-lyon.fr/
planetterre/XML/db/planetterre/metadata/
LOM-histoire-glaciation.xml
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 11 		2588) Caffeine is a bitter white
alkaloid, C8H10N4O26 . Alkaloids are
substances that have marked
physiological effects. Caffeine occurs
in tea, coffee, guarana, maté, kola
nuts, and cacao.7

Caffeine has a stimulating effect on
the central nervous system, heart,
blood vessels, and kidneys. It also
acts as a mild diuretic (increases the
excretion of urine8 ).9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p305.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p330.
3. ^ "Pierre
Joseph Pelletier". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Pierre Joseph
Pelletier". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
7. ^ "caffeine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8535/caffeine
8. ^ "popup?va=diuretic". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=d
iuretic
9. ^ "caffeine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8535/caffeine
10. ^ "Pierre Joseph Pelletier". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Joseph+Pel
letier+?cat=technology
11. ^ "Joseph Bienaimé Caventou".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bien
aim%C3%A9_Caventou (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9006/Pierre-Joseph-Pelletier
[2] "Pierre Joseph Pelletier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jose
ph_Pelletier
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Bienaim%C3%A9+Cav
entou?cat=technology
[4] "Caffeine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine
[5]
http://www.answers.com/caffeine?cat=heal
th
Paris, France10  
[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 8 		2610) Cauchy tries to provide the
logical foundations for calculus.
Bishop Berkeley had criticized
Newton-Leibniz calculus by suggesting
that the faulty reasoning of the
calculus leads to correct results
because of compensating errors.
Maclaurin and Lagrange accepted this
criticism and made efforts to construct
a logical justification for the methods
of the differential calculus
unsuccessfully. Cauchy is also
unsuccessful, but approaches the
problem by examining the concept of
limit. Cauchy defines "limit" as: "When
the values successively assigned to the
same variable indefinitely approach a
fixed value, so as to end by differing
from it as little as desired, this
fixed value is called the limit of all
the others.".5 (In this work?6 )
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp310-311.
2. ^ "Augustin Louis
Baron Cauchy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ "Augustin Louis Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
5. ^ "Augustin Louis Cauchy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Augustin+Louis+Ca
uchy?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Augustin Louis Baron
Cauchy". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1867/Augustin-Louis-Baron-Cauchy
8. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Augustin Louis Cauchy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Lo
uis_Cauchy
[2] "Augustin Louis, Baron Cauchy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustin
_Louis,_Baron_Cauchy
Paris, France7  
[1] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin Louis
(1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca.1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.5 x 21.5 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin Louis
(1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: C. H.
Reutlinger Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.5 x 11.5 cm
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 6 		2907) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON1 ) (CE 1802-1875),2 exhibits
the "enchanted lyre".3

This acoustical trick features a lyre
suspended by a thin steel wire from the
soundboard of pianos and other
instruments in the room above, and
which appears to play 'of itself' by
sound conduction and sympathetic
resonance of its strings.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
6. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone (1821)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone (1821) (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] This illustration shows a
demonstration of Wheatstone's
''Enhanced Lyre'', ca. 1821. Musicians
played on a piano or harp in the room
above the lyre, and the vibrations
passed down a brass wire made the lyre
appear to play by itself. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 7 		2909) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON1 ) (CE 1802-1875),2 builds
the human speech device describe by
Wolfgang von Kempelen (CE 1734-1804) in
1791.3 4

(This shows clearly that people were
looking at reproducing human speech,
which ultimately evolves into the
telephone, reproducing sound in the
neurons of brains directly using
lasers, and robots that talk by shaping
air.5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ Record ID2908.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
7. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone (1821)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone (1821) (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] In 1791 Wolfgang von Kempelen built
a device for generating speech
utterances. An improved version of the
machine was built from von Kempelen's
description by Sir Charles Wheatstone.
Briefly, the device was operated in the
following manner. The right arm rested
on the main bellows and expelled air
though a vibrating reed to produce
voiced sounds.'' (This is illustrated
in the lower half of the figure). ''The
fingers of the right hand controlled
the air passages for the fricatives
/sh/ and /s/, as well as the 'nostril'
openings and the reed on-off control.
For vowel sounds, all the passages were
closed and the reed turned on. Control
of vowel resonances was effected with
the left hand by suitably deforming the
leather resonator at the front of the
device. Unvoiced sounds were produced
with the reed off, and by a turbulent
flow through a suitable passage. In the
original work, von Kempelen claimed
that approximately 19 consonant sounds
could be made passably well. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html

[2] This illustration shows a
demonstration of Wheatstone's
''Enhanced Lyre'', ca. 1821. Musicians
played on a piano or harp in the room
above the lyre, and the vibrations
passed down a brass wire made the lyre
appear to play by itself. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html
178 YBN
[03/??/1822 AD] 7 		3535)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Barlow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53519/Peter-Barlow>.
2. ^
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S010
2-47442007000200012&script=sci_arttext&t
lng=ene
3. ^
http://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/co
ntent/fachbereich_physik/didaktik_physik
/publikationen/high_tech_low_cost.pdf
4. ^ "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
5. ^
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Electricity/Barlows_Wheel/Barlows_Wheel
.html
6. ^ Peter Barlow, "On the Temporary
Magnetic Effect Induced in Iron Bodies
by Rotation", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 115, 1825,
p317-327. {Barlow_Peter_1825.pdf}
7. ^
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S010
2-47442007000200012&script=sci_arttext&t
lng=ene {03/1822}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter barlow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_barlo
w
[2] "Barlow, Peter", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p60-61
[3]
"Peter Barlow". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Peter_Ba
rlow
[4] Thomas Commerford Martin, Joseph
Wetzler, Louis Bell, "The Electric
Motor and Its Applications", The W.J.
Johnston company, ltd,
1892. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AcsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11&dq=Pacinotti&as_brr
=1#PPA8,M1
[5] Peter Barlow, "On the Temporary
Magnetic Effect Induced in Iron Bodies
by Rotation", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 115, 1825,
p317-327.
[6]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/barlow
.html
[7]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[8]
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tuto
rials/java/barlowswheel/index.html
[9] "Barlow's Wheel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow%27s_
Wheel
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Diagram_of_barlow's_wheel.jpg‎
(375 × 298 pixels, file size: 21 KB,
MIME type: image/jpeg) barlow's
wheel - diagram from the 1842 edition
of the Manual of Magnetism, pg
94 From website:
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Daniel_Davis_Apparatus/Barlows_Wheel/Ba
rlows_Wheel.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/99/Diagram_of_barlow%27s_whee
l.jpg

[2] Peter Barlow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Peter_Barlow.jpg
178 YBN
[06/14/1822 AD] 9 		2757)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
8. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
9. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
(06/14/1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[3] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England8 (presumably) 
[1] [t Babbage's first Difference
Engine, apparently from The Mechanic's
Magazine 1833] PD
source: http://babbagedifferenceengine.g
ooglepages.com/Babbage_DE1_timbs.jpg/Bab
bage_DE1_timbs-full.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg
178 YBN
[07/??/1822 AD] 5 6 7 		2354)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
2. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology
3. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
4. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
5. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology (1822)
6. ^
"Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce (1822)
7. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html (07/1822)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Nicéphore
Niepce". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[3]
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/
[4] "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
Chalon-sur-Saône, France4  
[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html

[2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
178 YBN
[09/01/1822 AD] 3 		1251)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993),
pp22-23.
2. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
France2   
178 YBN
[11/??/1822 AD] 4 		5986) Franz Peter Schubert (CE
1797-1828), Austrian composer, composes
his "Symphony in B Minor"
("Unfinished").1

Schubert bridges the transition from
Classical and Romantic music, and is
noted for the melody and harmony in his
songs (lieder) and chamber music.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Franz Schubert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528336/Franz-Schubert>.
2. ^ "Franz Schubert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528336/Franz-Schubert>.
3. ^ "Franz Schubert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528336/Franz-Schubert>.
4. ^ "Franz Schubert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528336/Franz-Schubert>. {11/1822}
Vienna, Austria3 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Oil
painting of Franz Schubert, after an
1825 watercolor Date 1875 Source
Original is in Historisches Museum
der Stadt Wien Author Wilhelm
August Rieder (1796–1880) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Franz_Schubert_by_Wil
helm_August_Rieder_1875.jpg
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 3 		1246)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
2. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
3. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000).
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania2   
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 3 		2210)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
2. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
3. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology (1822)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Rene Just Hauy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9573/Rene-Just-Hauy
[3] "René Just Haüy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_J
ust_Ha%C3%BCy
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

[2] Scientist: Haüy, René Just
(1743 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Geology Print Artist: Riedel
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Felix Massard, 1773- Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9 x 7.2 cm /
Sheet: 20.5 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=H
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 14 		2381)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Baron Fourier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
3. ^ "Joseph Baron
Fourier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Joseph Baron Fourier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Fourier?cat=technology
7. ^ "Joseph Baron Fourier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
8. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
9. ^ "boundary value". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5936/boundary-value
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "boundary
value". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5936/boundary-value
13. ^ "Joseph Baron Fourier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263. (1822)
(1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Fourier
Paris, France13  
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm /
Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 9 		2530) Magendie proves this through the
use of young dogs.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
2. ^ "Francois
Magendie". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
8. ^ "François
Magendie". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
9. ^ "Francois Magendie". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie (1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "François Magendie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Magendie
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 10 		2592) Jean Victor Poncelet (PoNSlA) (CE
1788-1867), French mathematician1 ,
publishes "Traité des propriétés
projectives des figures" (1822,
"Treatise on the Projective Properties
of Figures"), a book on projective
geometry.2

Poncelet is considered one of the
founders of modern projective
geometry.3
In 1812 As a lieutenant of
engineers, Poncelet takes takes part in
Napoleon's Russian campaign, in which
Poncelet is abandoned as dead at
Krasnoy and then imprisoned at Saratov,
returning to France in 1814.4

From 1815 to 1825 Poncelet does
military engineering at Metz.5
From
1825 to 1835 Ponmcelet is a professor
of mechanics at the École
d'Application at Metz.6
From 1838 to
1848 Poncelet is a professor at the
Faculty of Sciences in Paris.7
From
1848 to 1850 Poncelet is commandant of
the École Polytechnique, with the rank
of general.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p307.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p307.
3. ^ "Jean Victor
Poncelet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0765/Jean-Victor-Poncelet
4. ^ "Jean Victor Poncelet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0765/Jean-Victor-Poncelet
5. ^ "Jean Victor Poncelet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0765/Jean-Victor-Poncelet
6. ^ "Jean Victor Poncelet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0765/Jean-Victor-Poncelet
7. ^ "Jean Victor Poncelet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0765/Jean-Victor-Poncelet
8. ^ "Jean Victor Poncelet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0765/Jean-Victor-Poncelet
9. ^ "Jean Victor Poncelet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0765/Jean-Victor-Poncelet
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p307. (1822) (1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Victor Poncelet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Victor
_Poncelet
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jean%20Victor%20P
oncelet%20
Metz, France9  
[1] Scientist: Poncelet, Jean Victor
(1788 - 1867) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Engineering Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9.9 x 9.5 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 14.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=p

[2] Jean-Victor Poncelet, detail of a
lithograph by Patout, 1849. Courtesy
of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13539/Jean-Victor-Poncelet-detail-of-a-
lithograph-by-Patout-1849?articleTypeId=
1
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 7 		2601) Potassium ferrocyanide has a
formula of K4Fe(CN)6·3H2O. Potassium
ferrocyanide forms yellow crystals with
saline taste; soluble in water,
insoluble in alcohol; loses water at
60°C; used in medicine, dry colors,
explosives, and as an analytical
reagent. Potassium ferrocyanide is also
known as yellow prussiate of potash.3

Although many salts of cyanide are
highly toxic, ferro- and ferricyanides
are less toxic because they tend not to
release free cyanide.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308.
3. ^ "Potassium
ferrocyanide". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Potassium+ferrocy
anide?cat=technology
4. ^ "Ferrocyanide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocyanid
e
5. ^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.
"Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press:
San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
6. ^ "Leopold
Gmelin". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308. (1822)
(1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leopold Gmelin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Gme
lin
[2] "Gmelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin
[3] "Potassium ferrocyanide".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_f
errocyanide
[4]
http://www.answers.com/ferrocyanide?cat=
health
Heidelberg, Germany6  
[1] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Potassium-ferrocyanide-trihydrate-sam
ple.jpg

[2] Small yellow crystals of
K4[Fe(CN)6]·3H2O PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 16 17 		2621) Mantell is a British physician,
geologist, and paleontologist. 7
Mantell
studied the paleontology of the
Mesozoic Era (about 245,000,000 to
66,400,000 years ago), particularly in
Sussex, a region he made famous in the
history of geological discovery.8 9
Man
tell's most remarkable discoveries are
made in the Wealden formations. Mantell
demonstrates the fresh-water origin of
the strata, and from them brings to
light and describes the remarkable
Dinosaurian reptiles known as
Iguanodon, Hylaeosaurus, Pelorosaurus
and Regnosaurus.10

For these researches Mantell is awarded
the Wollaston medal by the Geological
Society and a Royal medal by the Royal
Society.11

Among other contributions is Mantell's
description of the Triassic reptile
Telerpeton elginense.12

Dr Mantell authors "Illustrations of
the Geology of Sussex" (1827); "Geology
of the South-east of England" (1833);
"The Wonders of Geology", 2 vols.
(1838; ed. 7,1857); "Geological
Excursions round the Isle of Wight, and
along the Adjacent Coast of
Dorsetshire" (1847;(1847; ed. 3, 1854);
"Petrifactions and their Teachings"
(1851); and "The Medals of Creation" (2
vols., 1854).13

According to Asimov Mantell's wife had
originally found the tooth and some
bones in a pile of stones by the
road.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
2. ^ "Gideon Algernon
Mantell". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Gideon
Algernon Mantell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0633/Gideon-Algernon-Mantell
7. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0633/Gideon-Algernon-Mantell
8. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0633/Gideon-Algernon-Mantell
9. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Gideon
Algernon Mantell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gideon_A
lgernon_Mantell
10. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Gideon
Algernon Mantell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gideon_A
lgernon_Mantell
11. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Gideon
Algernon Mantell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gideon_A
lgernon_Mantell
12. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Gideon
Algernon Mantell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gideon_A
lgernon_Mantell
13. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Gideon
Algernon Mantell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gideon_A
lgernon_Mantell
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
15. ^ "Gideon
Algernon Mantell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0633/Gideon-Algernon-Mantell
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313. (1822) (1822)
17. ^
"Gideon Algernon Mantell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology (1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon_Alge
rnon_Mantell
[2] "Pelorosaurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelorosauru
s
Sussex, England15 (presumably) 
[1] Figure of fossil iguanadon teeth
and iguana jaw that Gideon Mantell
included in his 1825 paper naming
iguanadon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mantell_iguanadon_teeth.jpg

[2] Foto tomada de wikipedia en
inglés: Image of Gideon Mantell (1790
- 1852) to illustarte the Wikipedia
article on him. Uploaded from
http://www.strangescience.net/mantell.ht
m PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gideonmantell2.jpg
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 4 		2742) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 writes in a
letter to Sir H. Davy on the
application of machinery to the
calculation and printing of
mathematical tables, Babbage discusses
the principles of a calculating
engine.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
3. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
4. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage (1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 8 		2785)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
2. ^ "activated
charcoal". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc. "activated
charcoal". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ctivated%20charcoal
3. ^ "Anselme Payen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
5. ^ "activated
charcoal". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc. "activated
charcoal". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ctivated%20charcoal
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
7. ^ "Anselme Payen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329. (1822)
(1822)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anselme Payen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselme_Pay
en
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89309/payen_anselme.html
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Description French chemist Anselme
Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg

[2] [t page on Cellulose in
paper] PD
source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif
178 YBN
[1822 AD] 4 		3467)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
2. ^ John Arthur
Thomson, Progress of Science in the
Century, W. & R. Chambers, 1903, p.213.
3. ^
"Sir David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6395/Sir-David-Brewster
4. ^ John Arthur Thomson, Progress of
Science in the Century, W. & R.
Chambers, 1903, p.213. {1822}

MORE INFO
[1] "David Brewster". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brews
ter
[2]
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
[3] "Brewsters law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6399/Brewsters-law
[4] "Sir David Brewster (1849-1850)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster (1849-1850) (1849-1850)
Edinburgh, Scotland3
(presumably) 
[1] David Brewster [t Early
photograph] 19th century photograph.
public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dbrewster.jpg

[2] Scientist: Brewster, David (1781
- 1868) Discipline(s): Optics Print
Artist: W. Holl Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Henry Raeburn,
1756-1823 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
17.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Optics
177 YBN
[03/06/1823 AD] 6 		3534)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Humphry Davy, On a New Phenomenon
of Electro-Magnetism, Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 113, 1823,
p153-159. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/14q7643265846413/?p=1679d9f9
1e734bd3b89efac2f8e184f3π=14 {Davy_Hum
phry_1823_rotating_mercury.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Humphry Davy, On a New
Phenomenon of Electro-Magnetism,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
113, 1823,
p153-159. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/14q7643265846413/?p=1679d9f9
1e734bd3b89efac2f8e184f3π=14 {Davy_Hum
phry_1823_rotating_mercury.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Humphry Davy, On a New
Phenomenon of Electro-Magnetism,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
113, 1823,
p153-159. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/14q7643265846413/?p=1679d9f9
1e734bd3b89efac2f8e184f3π=14 {Davy_Hum
phry_1823_rotating_mercury.pdf}
6. ^ Humphry Davy, On a New Phenomenon
of Electro-Magnetism, Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 113, 1823,
p153-159. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/14q7643265846413/?p=1679d9f9
1e734bd3b89efac2f8e184f3π=14 {Davy_Hum
phry_1823_rotating_mercury.pdf}
{03/06/1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
[5], pp427-428.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd34c1f976
f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf
[6] "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
[7]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd34c1f976
f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf
(07/05/1821)
(Royal Institution) London, England5
 
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
177 YBN
[03/13/1823 AD] 7 8 9 10 		2699)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
Faraday_On_Liquid_Chlorine.pdf On
Fluid Chlorine Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 160-165 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0016, p163.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/9l617r7521421107/?p=433de43af2714785898
fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=1
2. ^ Faraday_On_Liquid_Chlorine.pdf On
Fluid Chlorine Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 160-165 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0016, p163.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/9l617r7521421107/?p=433de43af2714785898
fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
Faraday_On_Liquid_Chlorine.pdf On
Fluid Chlorine Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 160-165 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0016, pp162-164.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/9l617r7521421107/?p=433de43af2714785898
fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=1
6. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
7. ^ Faraday_On_Liquid_Chlorine.pdf On
Fluid Chlorine Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 160-165 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0016, p160.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/9l617r7521421107/?p=433de43af2714785898
fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=1 (read:) 03/13/1823
(and then: 04/10/1823) (read:)
03/13/1823 (and then: 04/10/1823)
8. ^ On the
Condensation of Several Gases into
Liquids Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 189-198 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0019, p189.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/a740615281378155/?p=433de43af2714785898
fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=0 Faraday_1823_On_the_
Condensation_of_Several_Gases_into_Liqui
ds.pdf (read:) 03/13/1823 (and then:
04/10/1823) (read:) 03/13/1823 (and
then: 04/10/1823)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320. (1823)
(1823)
10. ^ Faraday_liquefaction_gases.pdf,
p540.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/x07r701827118256/?p=a167b1626d1d497183b
292c1aca6f83b&pi=27 On the
Liquefaction and Solidification of
Bodies Generally Existing as
Gases. Journal Abstracts of the Papers
Communicated to the Royal Society of
London (1843-1854) Issue Volume 5 -
1843/1850 Pages 540-542 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1843.0034 (reported:) 01/16/1845)
(reported:) 01/16/1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] "Charles Thilorier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Thi
lorier
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
115/01a00040/0
(Royal Institution in) London, England6
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
177 YBN
[04/1/1823 AD] 5 		2709)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ On the Condensation of Several
Gases into
Liquids Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 189-198 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0019, p189.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/a740615281378155/?p=433de43af2714785898
fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=0 Faraday_1823_On_the_
Condensation_of_Several_Gases_into_Liqui
ds.pdf
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
4. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
5. ^ On the Condensation of Several
Gases into
Liquids Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 189-198 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0019, p189.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/a740615281378155/?p=433de43af2714785898
fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=0 Faraday_1823_On_the_
Condensation_of_Several_Gases_into_Liqui
ds.pdf (read:) 04/10/1823) (read:)
04/10/1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6]
Faraday_liquefaction_gases.pdf http://j
ournals.royalsociety.org/content/x07r701
827118256/?p=a167b1626d1d497183b292c1aca
6f83b&pi=27 On the Liquefaction and
Solidification of Bodies Generally
Existing as Gases. Journal Abstracts
of the Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London
(1843-1854) Issue Volume 5 -
1843/1850 Pages 540-542 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1843.0034
[7] "Charles Thilorier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Thi
lorier
[8]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010
115/01a00040/0
[9] Faraday_On_Liquid_Chlorine.pdf On
Fluid Chlorine Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 113 -
1823 Pages 160-165 DOI 10.1098/rstl.18
23.0016 http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/9l617r7521421107/?p=433de43af2
714785898fbb0bede5fdf0&pi=1
(Royal Institution in) London, England4
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
177 YBN
[06/14/1823 AD] 19 		3297)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fraunhofer, Jos., "Kurzer Bericht
von den Resultaten neurer Versuche
über die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben", Annalen der Physik,
v74, i8, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/andp.1823074
0802 Excerpts in English translation
"SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW
EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND
THEIR THEORY" : J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828.
2. ^ Howard-Duff, I.,
"Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826)",
Journal of the British Astronomical
Association, vol.97, no.6, p.339-347.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//fu
ll/1987JBAA...97..339H/0000343.000.html
3. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ast
rophysics.html
4. ^ Kurzer Bericht von den Resultaten
neurer Versuche über die Gesetze des
Lichtes, und die Theorie derselben,
"Annalen der Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp.
337-378. Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828.
5. ^ Howard-Duff, I.,
"Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826)",
Journal of the British Astronomical
Association, vol.97, no.6, p.339-347.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//fu
ll/1987JBAA...97..339H/0000343.000.html
6. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ast
rophysics.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p209.
9. ^
Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of Short
Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
10. ^ Record ID4404. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304.
12. ^ Kurzer Bericht
von den Resultaten neurer Versuche
über die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben, "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
Excerpts in English translation
"SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW
EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND
THEIR THEORY" : J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828.
13. ^ Joseph von
Fraunhofer, "Neue Modifikation des
Lichtes durch gegenseitige Einwirkung
und Beugung der Strahlen, und Gesetze
derselben", Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der Munchen der
Wissenschaften zu München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
14. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
15. ^ Joseph von Fraunhofer, "Neue
Modifikation des Lichtes durch
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der
Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben",
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Munchen der Wissenschaften zu
München, VIII, 1821,
pp1-76. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=k-EAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:LCCN49058746#PRA1-PA3,M1 Excerpt
s in English translation "NEW
MODIFICATION OF LIGHT BY THE MUTUAL
INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFRACTION OF THE
RAYS AND THE LAWS OF THIS
MODIFICATION": J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
11-38. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Kurzer
Bericht von den Resultaten neurer
Versuche über die Gesetze des Lichtes,
und die Theorie derselben, "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
Excerpts in English translation
"SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW
EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND
THEIR THEORY" : J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828.
19. ^ Kurzer Bericht von
den Resultaten neurer Versuche über
die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben, "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
Excerpts in English translation
"SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW
EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND
THEIR THEORY" : J. S. Ames (ed.),
Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New
York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. {06/14/1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
[2] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
[3] "josef von fraunhofer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology (1821)
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany18
 (presumably) 
[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1

[2] English: Joseph von Fraunhofer was
a German physicist. Quelle: Engraving
in the Small Portraits collection,
History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fraunhofer_2.jpg
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 5 		2335)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus
Olbers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 20 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox
2. ^ "Olbers' paradox." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 20 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-para
dox
3. ^ "Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus
Olbers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 20 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Olbers' paradox."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 20 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-para
dox {1823}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Heinrich Wilhelm
Matthäus Olbers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wi
lhelm_Matth%C3%A4us_Olbers
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers (1811)
Bremen, Germany[1 (presumably) 
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg

[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 22 		2506) Döbereiner uses this phenomenon
to invent an automatic lighter called
the Döbereiner lamp. In this lamp a
jet of hydrogen catches fire from
contact with platinum powder.13 (A
spark from a flint can ignite gas, so I
question the value of such an
invention. I don't understand why there
were never any hydrogen gas lamps or
lighters. Igniting hydrogen is easy to
do with a spark from a high voltage or
from flint. Perhaps hydrocarbons are
less expensive to obtain.14 )

The decomposition of potassium chlorate
using manganese dioxide is a favorite
demonstration of oxygen production in
elementary chemistry courses.15

Furfural is from the Latin for "bran",
has chemical formula C4H3OCHO, is a
viscous, colorless liquid that has a
pleasant aromatic odor; upon exposure
to air furfural turns dark brown or
black. Furfural boils at about
160�C. Furfural is commonly used
as a solvent; furfural is soluble in
ethanol and ether and somewhat soluble
in water. Furfural is prepared
commercially by dehydration of pentose
sugars obtained from cornstalks and
corncobs, husks of oat and peanut, and
other waste products.16
Döbereiner is
a coachman's son an so (does not
receive17 ) formal schooling, but is
apprenticed to an apothecary, reads
widely, and attends science lectures.18

Döbereiner attends the University of
Jena.19
In 1810, Döbereiner becomes an
assistant professor at the University
of Jena.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
2. ^ "johann wolfgang
d bereiner". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-wolf
gang-d-bereiner?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/vapor?cat=health
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Johann Wolfgang
Dobereiner". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
16. ^ "furfural". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/furfural
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Johann Wolfgang
Dobereiner". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
19. ^ "Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
20. ^ "Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
21. ^ "johann wolfgang d bereiner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-wolf
gang-d-bereiner?cat=technology
22. ^ "johann wolfgang d bereiner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-wolf
gang-d-bereiner?cat=technology (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wolfgang
Döbereiner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolf
gang_D%C3%B6bereiner
[2] "Furfural". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furfural
Jena, Germany21 (presumably) 
[1] * Title: Johann Wolfgang
D�bereiner * Year: unknown
* Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 6 		2566)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
2. ^ "Michel Eugene
Chevreul". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
3. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm
4. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
6. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michel Eugène Chevreul".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Chevreul
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esters?cat=
health
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/saponificat
ion?cat=health
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 7 		2743) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 gets
government (funding2 ) for the design
of a projected machine with a
20-decimal capacity.3

Charles Babbage converts one of the
rooms in his home to a workshop and
hires Joseph Clement to oversee
construction of the engine. Every part
has to be formed by hand using custom
machine tools, many of which Babbage
himself designs. Babbage takes
extensive tours of industry to better
understand manufacturing processes.4

With the government grants Babbage
begins work on the "Difference Engine",
but decides later that scrapping the
difference engine for a new design, the
"Analytical Engine" would be easier.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
4. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
5. ^ "Charles Babbage". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
7. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 11 12 		2769)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
2. ^ "Eilhardt
Mitscherlich". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
3. ^
http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingaleev/scilog
y/#Mitscherlich
4. ^ "popup?va=allotropy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=a
llotropy
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Allotropy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy
7. ^ "Sulfur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur
8. ^ Ralf Steudel, Bodo Eckert (2003).
"Solid Sulfur Allotropes Sulfur
Allotropes". Topics in Current
Chemistry 230: 1-80.
doi:10.1007/b12110. 
9. ^ "oxygen group element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-810
46/oxygen-group-element
10. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
11. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich (1823)
12. ^
http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingaleev/scilog
y/#Mitscherlich (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilhardt_Mi
tscherlich
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Eilhardt+Mitscher
lich+?cat=technology
[3] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eilhardt
_Mitscherlich
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/isomorphism
?cat=technology
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany10  
[1] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg

[2] Mitscherlich, Eilhardt (January
17, 1794 - August 28, 1863) German
chemist who discovered the Law of
Isomorphism. He also made other
important discoveries, including
selenic acid (1827) and the monoclinic
crystal form of sulfur (1823), named
benzene, became the first to synthesize
nitrobenzene in 1832, and was one of
the first to recognize contact action,
now known as catalytic action. PD
source: http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingalee
v/scilogy/Mitscherlich.jpg
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 10 11 		2917)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p350.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p350.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p350.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Janos
Bolyai". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0524/Janos-Bolyai
7. ^ "Bolyai, János (Johann)", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p116.
8. ^ "Janos Bolyai".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0524/Janos-Bolyai
9. ^
http://library.thinkquest.org/06aug/0090
5/eng/bolyai.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p350. (1823)
11. ^ "Bolyai,
János (Johann)", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p116.
{1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Janos Bolyai". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janos_Bolya
i
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Janos+Bolyai?cat=
technology
[3] "Geometry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Geometry

Temesvár, Romania9 (presumably) 
[1] Unauthentic portrait of
Bolyai Hungarian mathematician János
Bolyai Comment: ''The picture of him
is taken from a stamp issued by the
Hungarian Post Office to celebrate the
centenary of his death. It is not
believed to be authentic and no
authentic picture exists.'' cited from
J J O'Connor, E F Robertson: János
Bolyai, The MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive, March 2004 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JanosBolyai.jpg

[2] János Bolyai, Hungarian
mathematician. Reconstructed portrait
made by Attila Zsigmond (painter living
in Marosvásárhely), using Bolyai
contemporary texts and other sources.
Picture can be found in the Bolyai
Museum, Marosvásárhely. Own photo.
Gubbubu 07:39, 31 July 2006 (UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bolyai-arck%C3%A9p.JPG
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 12 13 		3383)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
3. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
4. ^ Record ID3380. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Gas Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
6. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
7. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
8. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
9. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
10. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
11. ^
http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.
aspx?compid=50019
12. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1823}
13. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html {1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Brown (engineer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Brow
n_(engineer)
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekl
y/aacarsgasa.htm
London, England10 11  
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 5 		3464)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^
http://www.europa.com/~telscope/histspec
.txt
3. ^ John Herschel, "On the absorption
of light by coloured media.", Trans R
Soc Edinburgh, 1823;9:445–460.
4. ^ "Sir John Herschel
1st Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
5. ^ John Herschel, "On the absorption
of light by coloured media.", Trans R
Soc Edinburgh, 1823;9:445–460.

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
[3] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[4] "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1824)
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel_1846.png
177 YBN
[1823 AD] 7 		3684)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Barlow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53519/Peter-Barlow>.
2. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p256-257.
3. ^ William Sturgeon,
"Scientific Researches, Experimental
and Theoretical, in Electricity,
Magnetism, Galvanism,
Electro-magnetism, and
Electro-chemistry:, T. Crompton,
1850 {12/18/08 sadly, another
important science book not yet scanned
by
books.google.com} http://books.google.c
om/books?id=_h-AHQAACAAJ&dq=intitle:scie
ntific+intitle:researches+date:1850-1850
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=PPVKSce0
HJj4MOnD4asK
4. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p256-257.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Peter
Barlow, "On the Temporary Magnetic
Effect Induced in Iron Bodies by
Rotation", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 115, 1825,
p317-327. {Barlow_Peter_1825.pdf}
7. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p256-257. {1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter barlow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_barlo
w
[2] "Barlow, Peter", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p60-61
[3]
"Peter Barlow". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Peter_Ba
rlow
[4] Thomas Commerford Martin, Joseph
Wetzler, Louis Bell, "The Electric
Motor and Its Applications", The W.J.
Johnston company, ltd,
1892. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AcsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11&dq=Pacinotti&as_brr
=1#PPA8,M1
[5] Peter Barlow, "On the Temporary
Magnetic Effect Induced in Iron Bodies
by Rotation", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 115, 1825,
p317-327.
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Peter Barlow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Peter_Barlow.jpg
176 YBN
[12/09/1824 AD] 8 9 10 		4022) Roget is instrumental in founding
the University of London (1828).5

Roget is best known for his Thesaurus
of English Words and Phrases (1852), a
comprehensive classification of
synonyms or verbal equivalents which he
assembles during his retirement.6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Brian Coe, "William Friese Greene
and the Origins of Cinematography", The
Photographic Journal,
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/2/25.pdf
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/3/72.pdf http://screen.oxford
journals.org/cgi/reprint/10/4-5/129.pdf
{Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Brian_part1_
1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Br
ian_part2_1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_Will
iam_Coe_Brian_part3_1969.pdf}
2. ^ "Peter Mark Roget." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
11 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-roget

3. ^ Roget, "Explanation of an Optical
Deception in the Appearance of the
Spokes of a Wheel Seen through Vertical
Apertures", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1825 115:131-140;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1825.0007
http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/115/131.full.pdf+html {Roget_P
eter_M_1824.pdf}
4. ^ Roget, "Explanation of an Optical
Deception in the Appearance of the
Spokes of a Wheel Seen through Vertical
Apertures", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1825 115:131-140;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1825.0007
http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/115/131.full.pdf+html {Roget_P
eter_M_1824.pdf}
5. ^ "Peter Mark Roget." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 11
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-roget

6. ^ "Peter Mark Roget." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 11
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-roget

7. ^ "Peter Mark Roget." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
11 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-roget

8. ^ Roget, "Explanation of an Optical
Deception in the Appearance of the
Spokes of a Wheel Seen through Vertical
Apertures", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1825 115:131-140;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1825.0007
http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/115/131.full.pdf+html {Roget_P
eter_M_1824.pdf} {12/09/1824}
9. ^ Brian Coe,
"William Friese Greene and the Origins
of Cinematography", The Photographic
Journal,
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/2/25.pdf
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/3/72.pdf http://screen.oxford
journals.org/cgi/reprint/10/4-5/129.pdf
{Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Brian_part1_
1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Br
ian_part2_1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_Will
iam_Coe_Brian_part3_1969.pdf} {1824}
10. ^
"Peter Mark Roget." Who2? Biographies.
Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 11 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-roget
 {1824}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Mark Roget".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Mark_
Roget
(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)7  
[1] Description Roget P M.jpg Black
and white print of a Roget
portrait Date 1834(1834) Source
Medical Portrait Gallery Author
Thomas Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Roget_P_M.jpg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 25 		2494) Pure silicon is a hard, dark gray
solid with a metallic luster and with a
crystalline structure the same as that
of the diamond form of carbon, to which
silicon shows many chemical and
physical similarities. A brown, powdery
form of silicon has been described that
also has a microcrystalline structure.8

Silicon has atomic number 14; atomic
weight 28.086; melting point 1,410°C;
boiling point 2,355°C; relative
density 2.33; valence 4.9

Silicon is the element directly below
carbon and above germanium in Group 14
of the periodic table. Silicon is more
metallic in its properties than carbon.
Silicon has two allotropic forms, a
brown amorphous form, and a dark
crystalline form.10

Silicon is the most abundant
electropositive (having a positive
electric charge11 ) element in the
Earth's crust.12

Silicon is the second most abundant
element of the earth's crust; it makes
up about 28% of the crust by weight.
Oxygen, most abundant, makes up about
47%. Aluminum, third in abundance,
makes up about 8%.13

Silicon does not occur uncombined in
nature; but is found in practically all
rocks as well as in sand, clays, and
soils, combined either with oxygen as
silica (SiO2, silicon dioxide) or with
oxygen and other elements (e.g.,
aluminum, magnesium, calcium, sodium,
potassium, or iron) as silicates.14

Silicon is prepared commercially by
reducing (removing the oxygen from) the
oxide by its reaction with coke in
electric furnaces. On a small scale,
silicon can be obtained from the oxide
by reduction with aluminum.15

A purified silicon is used in the
preparation of silicones. Silicon of
very high purity is prepared by thermal
decomposition of silanes; it is used in
transistors and other semiconductor
devices. Silica is widely used in the
production of glass. Silicates in the
form of clay are used in pottery,
brick, tile, and other ceramics.
Silicon is found in many plants and
animals; it is a major component of the
test (cell wall) of diatoms.16

Photovoltaic cells for direct
conversion of solar energy to
electricity use wafers sliced from
single crystals of electronic-grade
silicon.17 (So like selenium, does
silicon become more conductive with
light, and also generate current when
light collides with silicon?18 )

Silicon dioxide is used as the raw
material for making elementary silicon
and for silicon carbide. Sizable
crystals of silicon are used for
piezoelectric crystals.19

Silicon is commercially prepared by the
reaction of high-purity silica with
wood, charcoal, and coal, in an
electric arc furnace using carbon
electrodes. (Just any kind of wood,
that seems kind of primitive. Silicon
is not obtained more cheaply through
electrolysis? Describe the arc
furnace.20 ) At temperatures over 1900
°C, the carbon reduces the silica to
silicon according to the chemical
equation:21

SiO2 + C → Si + CO2.

SiO2 + 2C → Si + 2CO.

Liquid silicon collects in the bottom
of the furnace, and is then drained and
cooled. The silicon produced via this
process is called metallurgical grade
silicon and is at least 98% pure.22

The use of silicon in semiconductor
devices demands a much greater purity
than afforded by metallurgical grade
silicon. Historically, a number of
methods have been used to produce
high-purity silicon.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
2. ^ "article
9067764". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7764
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
5. ^ "article
9067764". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7764
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "silicon". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
8. ^ "article 9067764". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
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7764
9. ^ "silicon". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
10. ^ "silicon". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
11. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/electroposi
tive
12. ^ "silicon". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
13. ^ "silicon". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
14. ^ "article 9067764". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7764
15. ^ "article 9067764". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7764
16. ^ "silicon". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
17. ^ "silicon". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "silicon". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silicon?cat=healt
h
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Silicon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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22. ^ "Silicon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
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23. ^ "Silicon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
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24. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289. (1824)
(1824)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[2] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[3]
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erzelius+?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
Stokholm, Sweden24 (presumably) 
[1] Close up photo of a piece purified
silicon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SiliconCroda.jpg

[2] Date: 02.04.1998 Title:
SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR FINISH
Description: SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR
FINISH ID: C-1998-00319
Credit: NASA Glenn Research Center
(NASA-GRC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1998_00319L.jpg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 4 		2501)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
2. ^ "article 9078405". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8405
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1824)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
Stokholm, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 6 		2545)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
3. ^ "William
Prout". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Prout
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
5. ^ "William Prout".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298. (1824)
(1824)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout
[2] "William Prout". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pro
ut
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/hi
story99/4RadicalsTypes/Analysis/Liebigan
al.html
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 5 		2560)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francois Arago". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Francois
Arago". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago
5. ^ "Francois Arago". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago (1824)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Dominique François
Jean Arago". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_F
ran%C3%A7ois_Jean_Arago
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 6 7 		2567) Michel Eugéne Chevreul (seVRuL)
(CE 1786-1889)1 publishes
"Considérations générales sur
l'analyse organique" (1824, Paris), a
general treatise on organic2
chemistry3 .
(Organic chemistry is any
chemistry from a living object, but is
now taken to mean anything that has
carbon. Still the distinction of
"organic" is misleading since there is
no difference between the chemistry of
living things and nonliving things.
However, sometimes knowing that some
molecule is commonly found in a living
object or originates from a living
object is useful.4 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
2. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302. (1824)
(1824)
7. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm (1824)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
[2] "Michel Eugène Chevreul".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Chevreul
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esters?cat=
health
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/saponificat
ion?cat=health
Paris, France5  
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 5 		2729) This catalog is compiled between
1821 and 1823 and published in the
"Philosophical Transactions" in 1824.
For
this catalog Herschel and South are
awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal
Astronomical Society and the Lalande
Prize in 1825 from the Paris Academy of
Sciences.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ "Sir John
Herschel 1st Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
3. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
4. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
5. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1824)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
[3] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[4] "Herschel, John Frederick William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p416-417.
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
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ge:John_Herschel_1846.png
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 23 		2797) Eventually Carnot's views are
incorporated by the thermodynamic
theory as developed by Rudolf Clausius
in Germany (1850) and William Thomson
(later Lord Kelvin) in Britain
(1851).17

Carnot accepts the caloric heat theory
of Lavoisier.18
In 1814, Carnot
graduates from the École
Polytechnique.19
Sadi remains an army
officer for most of his life.20
In
1832, Carnot dies, at age 36, in a
cholera epidemic in Paris.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp331-332.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp331-332.
3. ^ "Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+L%C3%A9on
ard+Sadi+Carnot?cat=technology
4. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
5. ^ "Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+L%C3%A9on
ard+Sadi+Carnot?cat=technology
6. ^ "Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+L%C3%A9on
ard+Sadi+Carnot?cat=technology
7. ^ "Sadi Carnot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp331-332.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p416.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+L%C3%A9on
ard+Sadi+Carnot?cat=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp331-332.
15. ^ "Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+L%C3%A9on
ard+Sadi+Carnot?cat=technology
16. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
17. ^ "Sadi Carnot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp331-332.
19. ^ "Sadi Carnot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot
20. ^ "Sadi Carnot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot
21. ^ "Sadi Carnot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot
22. ^ "Sadi Carnot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot
23. ^ "Sadi Carnot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot (1824)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Léonard Sadi
Carnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_L%C
3%A9onard_Sadi_Carnot
[2] "Sadi Nicolas Leonhard Carnot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sadi_Nic
olas_Leonhard_Carnot
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry
Crew, 1937
[5] Buchwald 1976:378 "Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+L%C3%A9on
ard+Sadi+Carnot?cat=technology
[6] "Sadi Carnot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Sadi Carnot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0417/Sadi-Carnot
Paris, France22  
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:de. La originala priskribo
estas: Sadi Carnot aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Carnot_Sadi.html,
public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sadi_Carnot.jpeg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 18 19 		2912) Integral equations are classified
according to three different
dichotomies:
Limits of integration
both fixed: Fredholm
equation
one variable: Volterra equation
Placement of
unknown function
only inside integral: first
kind
both inside and outside integral:
second kind
Nature of known function f

identically zero: homogeneous
not identically
zero: inhomogeneous 15
Abel dies of
Tuberculosis at age 26.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp348-349.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp348-349.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Niels Henrik Abel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3311/Niels-Henrik-Abel
5. ^ "integral equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2519/integral-equation
6. ^ "Integral equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_eq
uation
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp348-349.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Niels
Henrik Abel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Niels+Henrik+Abel
+?cat=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Niels Henrik Abel".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Niels+Henrik+Abel
+?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Niels Henrik Abel".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Niels+Henrik+Abel
+?cat=technology
15. ^ "Integral equation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_eq
uation
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp348-349.
17. ^ "Niels Henrik
Abel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Niels+Henrik+Abel
+?cat=technology
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp348-349. (1824)
(1824)
19. ^ "Niels Henrik Abel (1824)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Niels
Henrik Abel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Niels_He
nrik_Abel (1824) (1824)

MORE INFO
[1] "Niels Henrik Abel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Henri
k_Abel
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Kristiania (Oslo) )Oslo,
Norway17 (presumably) 
[1] Description Niels Henrik
Abel Source Originally uploaded to
English wikipedia by en:User:Pladask,
http://www.math.uio.no/div/abelkonkurran
sen/ Date PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_Henrik_Abel.jpg

[2] Description Photo of the famous
Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik
Abel, with his signature Source
English Wikipedia (en:Image:Niels
Henrik Abel2.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_Henrik_Abel2.jpg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 5 		3390)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sdrm.org/history/timeline/
2. ^ "The Plough, the Loom, and the
Anvil", J.S. Skinner & Son, 1855,
p159-160. http://books.google.com/books
?id=V2AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&lpg=PA159&dq=%
22david+gordon%22+legs+steam&source=web&
ots=IPFcx9W_U_&sig=nfIzZr2cCYwRzjjC7MI66
ozVM8M&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
1&ct=result#PPA159,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.sdrm.org/history/timeline/
5. ^
http://www.sdrm.org/history/timeline/
{1824}

MORE INFO
[1] "Humanoid robot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanoid_ro
bot
?, England4  
[1] DAVID GORDON - 1824: PD/Core;
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129489831_david_g
ordon___1824.jpg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 6 		5980)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
2. ^ "Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No
._9_%28Beethoven%29
3. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58473/Ludwig-van-Beethoven>.
6. ^ "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven {1824}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Ludwig van Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Ludwig_van_Beethoven
[2] "Ludwig van Beethoven." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-van-
beethoven
[3] Schauffler, Robert Haven.
Beethoven: The Man Who Freed Music.
Doubleday, Doran, & Company. Garden
City, New York. 1933; pg 211
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/symphony-no
-5-beethoven
Vienna, Austria5  
[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg
175 YBN
[03/17/1825 AD] 4 		4838)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Everard Home, "On the influence
of nerves and ganglions in producing
animal heat.", Phil. Trans. of the
Royal Society of London, V115, 1825,
p257-268. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
07744
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Everard Home, "On the
influence of nerves and ganglions in
producing animal heat.", Phil. Trans.
of the Royal Society of London, V115,
1825,
p257-268. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
07744
4. ^ Everard Home, "On the influence of
nerves and ganglions in producing
animal heat.", Phil. Trans. of the
Royal Society of London, V115, 1825,
p257-268. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
07744 {03/17/1825}

MORE INFO
[1] "Everard Home". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everard_Hom
e
[2] N. G. Coley, ‘Home, Sir Everard,
first baronet (1756–1832)’, Oxford
Dictionary of National Biography,
Oxford University Press, 2004; online
edn, May 2005, accessed 10 Feb
2010 http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/arti
cle/13639
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Home, Sir Everard, first baronet
(1756–1832), by Thomas Phillips,
1829 Picture credit © Royal Society
PD
source: http://www.oxforddnb.com/images/
article-imgs/13/13639_1_300px.jpg
175 YBN
[04/14/1825 AD] 7 		3533)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Barlow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53519/Peter-Barlow>.
2. ^ Peter Barlow, "On the Temporary
Magnetic Effect Induced in Iron Bodies
by Rotation", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 115, 1825,
p317-327. {Barlow_Peter_1825.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID2705. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Peter Barlow,
"On the Temporary Magnetic Effect
Induced in Iron Bodies by Rotation",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
115, 1825,
p317-327. {Barlow_Peter_1825.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Peter Barlow, "On the
Temporary Magnetic Effect Induced in
Iron Bodies by Rotation", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 115, 1825,
p317-327. {Barlow_Peter_1825.pdf}
7. ^ Peter Barlow, "On the Temporary
Magnetic Effect Induced in Iron Bodies
by Rotation", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 115, 1825,
p317-327. {Barlow_Peter_1825.pdf}
{04/14/1825}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter barlow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_barlo
w
[2] "Barlow, Peter", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p60-61
[3]
"Peter Barlow". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Peter_Ba
rlow
[4] Thomas Commerford Martin, Joseph
Wetzler, Louis Bell, "The Electric
Motor and Its Applications", The W.J.
Johnston company, ltd,
1892. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AcsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11&dq=Pacinotti&as_brr
=1#PPA8,M1
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Peter Barlow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Peter_Barlow.jpg
175 YBN
[07/??/1825 AD] 11 12 		2461) In 1815, Bretonneau gets his M.D.
degree in Paris.8
In 1816, Bretonneau
is the chief physician of the hospital
at Tours.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
2. ^ "Pierre Fidele
Bretonneau". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau
3. ^ "bretonneau pierre". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bretonneau-
pierre?cat=health
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p282.
8. ^ "Pierre
Fidele Bretonneau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau
9. ^ "Pierre Fidele Bretonneau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau
10. ^ "Pierre Fidele Bretonneau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282. (07/1825)
(07/1825)
12. ^ "Pierre Fidele Bretonneau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau (1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Bretonneau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bret
onneau
Tours, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/
175 YBN
[09/27/1825 AD] 13 		2516) In 1813 George Stephenson visited
a neighboring colliery (a coal mine and
connected buildings) to examine a
"steam boiler on wheels" constructed by
John Blenkinsop to haul coal out of the
mines. Blenkinsop mistakenly believed
that the train could not gain traction
on smooth wooden rails, and so used a
ratchet wheel running on a cogged third
rail, an arrangement that creates
frequent breakdowns.9

In 1821 Stephenson heard of a project
for a railroad, employing draft horses,
to be built from Stockton to Darlington
to facilitate exploitation of a rich
vein of coal (in Stockton?10 ). At
Darlington Stephenson interviews the
promoter, Edward Pease, and so
impresses Pease that Pease commissions
Stephenson to build a steam locomotive
for the line.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "George Stephenson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
4. ^ "George
Stephenson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
7. ^ "George
Stephenson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "George Stephenson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "George Stephenson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
12. ^ "George Stephenson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
(09/27/1825) (09/27/1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Stephenson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Step
henson
[2]
http://www.answers.com/George%20Stephens
on%20
Darlington (and Stockdon), England12
 
[1] George Stephenson
(1781-1848) Source Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/
portraits/index.html?img=362 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson.jpg

[2] George Stephenson - Project
Gutenberg etext 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson_-_Project_Gutenberg
_etext_13103.jpg
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 5 		1243) The "runnelling shield" is first
used in the building of the Thames
tunnel.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marc Isambard Brunel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Isamba
rd_Brunel
2. ^ "Tunnelling shield". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnelling_
shield
3. ^ "Tunnelling shield". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnelling_
shield
4. ^ "Marc Isambard Brunel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Isamba
rd_Brunel
5. ^ "Marc Isambard Brunel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Isamba
rd_Brunel
England4  
[1] Diagram of the tunnelling shield
used to construct the Thames Tunnel,
London. Contemporary image (19th
century), probably from the Illustrated
London News. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thames_tunnel_shield.png

[2] Marc Isambard Brunel, engraving by
G. Metzeroth, circa 1880 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marc_isambard_brunel.jpg
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 5 6 		2300)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adrien%20Marie%20
Legendre%20
2. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
3. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre
4. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adrien%20Marie%20
Legendre%20
5. ^ "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7635/Adrien-Marie-Legendre (1825-37)
6. ^ "Adrien
Marie Legendre". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adrien%20Marie%20
Legendre%20 (1825-1832)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Adrien Marie Legendre".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_Mari
e_Legendre
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France3 4 (presumably) 
[1] The picture is an engraving by
J.S.Delpech. According to the file
Adrien Marie Legendre in the ''Institut
de France'' it shows a person with the
name Legendre, but not the
mathematician Adrien Marie Legendre. It
is older. It's Louis
Legendre (Legendre, detail of a
lithograph by F.-S. Delpech after a
portrait by Z. Belliard Courtesy of
the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris[2]) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adrien-Marie_Legendre.jpg
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 5 		2413)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "robert brown". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
2. ^ "robert brown". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
3. ^ "Gymnosperms". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Gymnosperms".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gymnospe
rms
4. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
5. ^ "Gymnosperms (1825)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Gymnosperms".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gymnospe
rms (1825) (1825)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Brown
(botanist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brow
n_%28botanist%29
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 8 		2456)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
3. ^ "article
9005954". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5954
4. ^ "hans christian rsted". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
6. ^ "article
9005954". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5954
7. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282. (1825)
(1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Christian Ørsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christ
ian_%C3%98rsted
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Copenhagen, Denmark7
(presumably) 
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 39 40 41 		2526) Sturgeon's father is a
shoemaker.34
1802-1820 Sturgeon is in
the army.35
In 1824 Sturgeon becomes
lecturer in science at the East India
Company's Royal Military College at
Addiscombe in Surrey.36 37
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p295.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^, p341.
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA343,M1
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
10. ^ "William
Sturgeon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
19. ^ "William
Sturgeon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
24. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
25. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
27. ^
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^, p341.
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA343,M1
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ "William Sturgeon". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Sturgeon?
cat=technology
35. ^ "William Sturgeon". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Sturgeon?
cat=technology
36. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
37. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/sturge
on.html
38. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
39. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/sturge
on.html (1825)
40. ^ "William Sturgeon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon (1825)
41. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295. (1823) (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Sturgeon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stu
rgeon
Surrey, England38 (presumably) 
[1] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html

[2] [t presumably the 1825
electromagnet] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: same
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 4 		2568)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
3. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302. (1825)
(1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
[2] "Michel Eugène Chevreul".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Chevreul
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esters?cat=
health
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/saponificat
ion?cat=health
Paris, France3  
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 4 		2576) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), identifies the germinal
vesicle, or nucleus of the unripe ovum,
that now bears his name (1825). (more
info1 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
3. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
4. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje (1825)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland2
3  
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 14 		2700) Benzene is a colorless,
flammable, liquid aromatic hydrocarbon,
C6H6, derived from petroleum and used
in or to manufacture a wide variety of
chemical products, including DDT,
detergents, insecticides, and motor
fuels.11

Benzene is the chemical that leads to
understanding all the aromatics (a
molecule that produces a smell and
contains benzene).12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "Benzene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene
4. ^ M. Faraday (1825). "On New
Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, and
on Certain Other Products Obtained
during the Decomposition of Oil by
Heat". Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 115:
440-466.
5. ^ R. Kaiser (1968). "Bicarburet of
Hydrogen. Reappraisal of the Discovery
of Benzene in 1825 with the Analytical
Methods of 1968". Angewandte Chemie
International Edition in English 7 (5):
345-350. doi:10.1002/anie.196803451.
6. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
7. ^ "Benzene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene
8. ^ M. Faraday (1825). "On New
Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, and
on Certain Other Products Obtained
during the Decomposition of Oil by
Heat". Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 115:
440-466.
9. ^ R. Kaiser (1968). "Bicarburet of
Hydrogen. Reappraisal of the Discovery
of Benzene in 1825 with the Analytical
Methods of 1968". Angewandte Chemie
International Edition in English 7 (5):
345-350. doi:10.1002/anie.196803451.
10. ^ "benzene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8683/benzene
11. ^ "benzene". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/benzene?cat=techn
ology
12. ^ "Michael Faraday". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
13. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320. (1825)
(1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
(Royal Institution in) London,
England13  
[1] Chemical structure of
benzene Selfmade by cacycle, uploaded
on 9 November 2004. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benzene_structure.png

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 8 		2788) (Surprisingly,4 ) Ehrenberg does
not accept the theory of the cell or of
evolution.5

Ehrenberg publishes more than 300
scientific papers and books in his
lifetime.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p329.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p329.
6. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind - a
second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) Journal Aerobiologia Publi
sher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf
7. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
8. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
(1820-1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_G
ottfried_Ehrenberg
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/christian-g
ottfried-ehrenberg?cat=technology
[3] "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg
Berlin, Germany7  
[1] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ehrenberg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-18
76.png

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative
anatomist, geologist, and
microscopist, was one of the most
famous and productive scientists of his
time PD/Corel
source: http://arkadien.org/biologists.h
tm
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 12 		2886) Müller, is a shoemaker's son
from Koblenz (a cobbler from Koblenz?4
) in Germany.5
In 1822, Müller
graduates in medicine from the
University of Bonn.6
In 1824 Müller is
granted a lectureship in physiology and
comparative anatomy at the University
of Bonn.7
In 1833 Müller is called to
Berlin to succeed Rudolphi, where
Müller has access to the vast Berlin
anatomical collection.8
(In Berlin9 ),
Müller's students include the renowned
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Helmholtz and the cellular pathologist
Rudolf Virchow.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p346.
2. ^ "Johannes Peter
Müller". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
3. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
6. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
7. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
8. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
11. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
12. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology (1825)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Peter Müller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Pe
ter_M%C3%BCller
[2] "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Peter_Muller
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Müllerian duct". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCller
ian_duct
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany11
 
[1] Tail end of human embryo, from
eight and a half to nine weeks old. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray993.png

[2] Urogenital sinus of female human
embryo of eight and a half to nine
weeks old. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray1109.png
174 YBN
[03/??/1826 AD] 11 12 		3454) Talbot obtains a monochromatic
yellow light burning a cotton wick
soaked in salt water, dried and then
lit in an alcohol lamp4 5 .

Talbot publishes these findings in
"Some experiments on Coloured Flames.",
in the Edinburgh Journal of Science.6 7


Talbot writes "...I would further
suggest, that whenever the prism shows
a homogeneous ray of any colour to
exist in a flame, this ray indicates
the formation or the presence of a
definite chemical compound...." and
concludes "...The bright line in the
yellow is caused, without doubt, by the
combustion of the sulphur, and the
others may be attributed to the
antimony, strontia, &c. which enter
into this composition. For instance,
the orange ray may be the effect of the
strontia, since Mr Herschel found in
the flame of muriate of strontia a ray
of that colour. If this opinion should
be correct and applicable to the other
definite rays, a glance at the
prismatic spectrum of a flame may show
it to contain substances, which it
would otherwise require a laborious
chemical analysis to detect.".8

Talbot's paper in full reads:
"GREAT progress
has recently been made in investigating
the properties of light, and yet many
of them are still unexamined, or
imperfectly explained. Among these are
the colours of flames which not only
appear very various to common
observation, but are shown, by the
assistance of a prism, to be entirely
different in nature one from another;
some being homogeneous, or only
containing one kind of light; others
consisting of an infinite variety of
all possible shades of colour.
1. It was
discovered by Dr Brewster, that the
flame of alcohol, diluted with water,
consists chiefly of homogeneous yellow
rays. On this principle, he proposed
the construction of a monochromatic
lamp, and pointed out its advantages
for observations with the microscope.
This must be considered a very valuable
discovery. The light of such a lamp,
however, is weak, unless the alcohol
flame is very large. I have, therefore,
made several attempts to obtain a
brighter light, and I think the
following is the most convenient
method. A cotton wick is soaked in a
solution of salt, and when dried,
placed in a spirit lamp. It gives an
abundance of yellow light for a long
time. A lamp with ten of these wicks
gave a light little inferior to a wax
candle; its effect upon all surrounding
objects was very remarkable, especially
upon such as were red, which became of
different shades of brown and dull
yellow. A scarlet poppy was changed to
yellow, and the beautiful red flower of
the Lobelia fulgens appeared entirely
black. The wicks were arranged in a
line, in order to unite their effect
for a microscope. A common blue glass
has the property of absorbing the
yellow light of this lamp, however
brilliant, while it transmits the
feeble violet rays. If these are also
stopped by a pale yellow glass, the
lamp becomes absolutely invisible,
though a candle is seen distinctly
through the same glasses. But the most
remarkable quality of this light is its
homogeneity, which is perfect as far as
I have been able to ascertain. I speak
of the yellow rays, which form the mass
of the light, and quite overpower the
feeble effect of the blue and green.
The origin of this homogeneous light
appears to me difficult to explain. I
have found that the same effect takes
place whether the wick of the lamp is
steeped in the muriate, sulphate, or
carbonate of soda, while the nitrate,
chlorate, sulphate, and carbonate of
potash, agree in giving a blueish white
tinge to the flame. Hence, the yellow
rays may indicate the presence of soda
but they, nevertheless, frequently
appear where no soda can be supposed to
be present.
2. Mr Herschel discovered that
sulphur, when burning intensely, gives
a homogeneous yellow light. To examine
it, I inflame a mixture of sulphur and
nitre behind a screen, having a narrow
vertical slit through which the flame
could be seen. This opening, examined
with a prism, gave a spectrum in which
there was a very bright yellow line,
indicating the combustion of the
sulphur. I thought it a point of
considerable interest to determine,
whether this yellow ray was identical
with that afforded by the flame of
alcohol containing salt, and with that
view, I placed such a flame behind the
other, their light passing through the
same opening; so that, if the rays were
of a different nature, two yellow lines
should be seen in the spectrum; but if
identical, then only one. I found, upon
trial, that the rays coincided; and I
obtained a further confirmation of
this, by inflaming the nitre and
sulphur, mixed up with a quantity of
salt; the effect of which was, not to
produce a second yellow line in the
spectrum, but to increase greatly the
brilliancy of the original one. The
result of this experiment points out a
very singular optical analogy between
soda and sulphur, bodies hitherto
supposed by chemists to have nothing in
common.
3. There are other means of procuring
the same light which I shall briefly
mention If a clean piece of platina
foil is held in the blue or lower part
of a gas flame, it produces no change
in the flame, but if the platina has
been touched by the hand, it gives off
a yellow light which lasts a minute or
more. If it has been slightly rubbed
with soap, the light is much more
abundant, while wax, on the contrary,
produces none. Salt sprinkled on the
platina, gives yellow light while it
decrepitates, and the effect may be
renewed at pleasure by wetting it. This
circumstance led me to suppose that the
yellow light was owing to the water of
crystallization, rather than to the
soda, but then it is not easy to
explain why the salts of potash, &c.
should not produce it likewise. Wood,
ivory, paper, &c. when placed in the
gas flame, give off (besides their
bright flame) more or less of this
yellow light which I have always found
the same in its characters. The only
principle which these various bodies
have in common with the salts of soda,
is water; yet I think that the
formation or presence of water cannot
be the origin of this yellow light,
because ignited sulphur produces the
very same, a substance with which water
is supposed to have no analogy. {It may
be worth remark, though probably
accidental, that the specific gravity
of sulphur is 1.99, or almost exactly
twice that of water.} It is also
remarkable that alcohol burnt in an
open vessel, or in a lamp with a
metallic wick, gives but little of the
yellow light; while, if the wick be of
cotton, it gives a considerable
quantity, and that for an unlimited
time. (I have found other instances of
a change of colour in flames owing to
the mere presence of a substance which
suffers no diminution in consequence.
Thus, a particle of muriate of lime on
the wick of a spirit lamp will produce
a quantity of red and green rays for a
whole evening, without being itself
sensibly diminished.) The bright flame
of a candle is surrounded by the same
homogeneous yellow light, which becomes
visible when the flame itself is
screened. The following experiment
shows its nature more evidently: If
some oil is dropped on the wick of a
spirit lamp, the flame assumes the
brilliancy of a candle surrounded by an
exterior yellow flame. This appearance
only lasts until the oil is consumed.
4. The
flame of sulphur and nitre contains a
red ray, which appears to me of a
remarkable nature. While examining the
yellow line in the spectrum of this
flame, I perceived another line
situated beyond the red end of the
spectrum, from the termination of which
it is separated by a wide interval of
darkness. In colour it nevertheless
differs but little from the rays which
usually terminate the spectrum. It
arises, I believe, from the combustion
of the nitre, as the yellow ray does
from that of the sulphur, for I have
since observed it in the flame of a
spirit lamp, whose wick had been soaked
in nitre or chlorate of potash. It
appeared to me that this ray was so
distant from the rest, that it might be
less refrangible than any in solar
light; and I have been since informed
by Mr Herschel, that he had already
observed it in a similar experiment,
and was impressed with the same idea.
With
the hope of establishing this, I
admitted candle light, and that of the
nitre lamp which I have just mentioned,
through the same aperture, and noticed
how far this isolated red ray appeared
beyond the spectrum of the candle. I
then compared, in the same way the
light of the candle with that of the
sun, and I found that the great
intensity of the solar light lengthened
the red end of the spectrum about as
far, so that I was obliged to leave the
question undecided, as the faintness of
the lamp prevented my comparing it
directly with the sun. This red ray
appears to possess a definite
refrangibility, and to be
characteristic of the salts of potash,
as the yellow ray is of the salts of
soda, although, from its feeble
illuminating power, it is only to be
detected with a prism. If this should
be admitted, I would further suggest,
that whenever the prism shows a
homogeneous ray of any colour to exist
in a flame, this ray indicates the
formation or the presence of a definite
chemical compound. An excellent prism
is, however, requisite to determine the
perfect homogeneity of a ray.
5. Phosphorus
inflamed with nitre gives a very
brilliant spectrum, in which no colour
appears to be predominant or deficient.
It therefore resembles the spectra of
ignited lime, platina, and other solid
bodies, and differs totally from the
solar spectrum in which there are now
known to be innumerable interruptions
of light. And it is worthy of remark,
that no light has been hitherto
discovered at all resembling that of
the sun, (when analyzed with a prism)
except the light of the other celestial
bodies.
6. The red fire of the theatres
examined in the same way, gave a most
beautiful spectrum with many light
lines or maxima of light. In the red,
these lines were numerous and crowded,
with dark spaces between, besides an
exterior ray greatly separated from the
rest, and, probably the effect of the
nitre in the composition. In the orange
was one bright line, one in the yellow,
three in the green, a very bright one
in the blue, and several that were
fainter. The bright line in the yellow
is caused, without doubt, by the
combustion of the sulphur, and the
others may be attributed to the
antimony, strontia, &c. which enter
into this composition. For instance,
the orange ray may be the effect of the
strontia, since Mr Herschel found in
the flame of muriate of strontia a ray
of that colour. {Edinburgh
Transactions, vol ix, p. 456.} If this
opinion should be correct and
applicable to the other definite rays,
a glance at the prismatic spectrum of a
flame may show it to contain
substances, which it would otherwise
require a laborious chemical analysis
to detect.".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some
Experiments on Coloured Flames,"
Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
3. ^ W. H. F. Talbot,
"Some Experiments on Coloured Flames,"
Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
4. ^ William Allen Miller, "Elements of
chemistry", s.n., 1863,
p167. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OWUDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1835+
wheatstone+on+the+prismatic+electric+lig
ht&source=web&ots=uNEuKxvNh4&sig=8ctnmGV
BA1QA07Gk8nX14MpIid4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA167,M1
5. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames," Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
6. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law"', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
}
7. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames," Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
8. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames," Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
9. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames," Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
10. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some
Experiments on Coloured Flames,"
Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
11. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some
Experiments on Coloured Flames,"
Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
{03/1826}
12. ^ William Allen Miller, "Elements
of chemistry", s.n., 1863,
p167. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OWUDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1835+
wheatstone+on+the+prismatic+electric+lig
ht&source=web&ots=uNEuKxvNh4&sig=8ctnmGV
BA1QA07Gk8nX14MpIid4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA167,M1
{1826}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[3] Philosophical Magazine, series 3,
volume 14, number 88, March 1839,
pp196-209. {talbot001.pdf}
[4]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[5]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
[6] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot (1835)
[7]
"William Henry Fox Talbot". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
London, England10  
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
174 YBN
[07/05/1826 AD] 15 16 		3440)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Thomas K. Simpson,
"Maxwell and the Direct Experimental
Test of His Electromagnetic Theory",
Isis, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 1966),
pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
3. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827,
34:54-56. http://books.google.com/books
?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54 {Savary_1827.p
df}
4. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Savary.html
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Savart.html
6. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
7. ^Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827,
34:54-56. http://books.google.com/books
?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54 {Savary_1827.p
df}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827,
34:54-56. http://books.google.com/books
?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54 {Savary_1827.p
df}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Savary.html
14. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827,
34:54-56. http://books.google.com/books
?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54 {Savary_1827.p
df}
15. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827,
34:54-56. http://books.google.com/books
?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54 {Savary_1827.p
df} {07/05/1826}
16. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827,
34:54-56. http://books.google.com/books
?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54 {Savary_1827.p
df}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Savart.html
[2] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry
Crew, Williams & Wilkens Company, 1928,
p271
[3] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry
Crew, Williams & Wilkens Company, 1935,
p270
[4] Tapan K. Sarkar, "History of
Wireless",
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
BLEAA6QKYkC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=felix+sa
vary+france+academy&source=web&ots=1G-Qe
rT8pr&sig=svebXMDBkxIt9XuFntMm0NDttMU&hl
=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=resu
lt
(Bureau des Longitudes13 ) Paris,
France14 (presumably) 		 
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 8 9 10 		2355) (Text messages sent
electronically over metal wires will be
called "telegrams", and possibly
thought images, visual memories of
light captured in eyes and stored in
neurons, may be called "thoughtgrams"
or "thoughtgraphs" or "psychograms" as
Andre Maurois refers to them in his
book "The Thought Reading Machine" or
simply "thought image", "thought
photo", "eye image", or "eye movie"6 )
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
2. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
3. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
4. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
5. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Nicephore Niepce".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
8. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology (1826)
9. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html (1826/7)
10. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce (1826/7)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Nicéphore
Niepce". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[3] "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
Chalon-sur-Saône, France7  
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg

[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 3 		2422)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p273.
2. ^ "Christian
Leopold von Buch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_L
eopold_von_Buch
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p273. (1826) (1826)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leopold Baron von Buch".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
7860/Leopold-Baron-von-Buch
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christian%20Leopo
ld%20von%20Buch
[3] "Leopold von Buch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_von
_Buch
Berlin?, Germany2  
[1] Leopold von buch PD
source: http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afb
eelding:Leopold_von_buch.jpg

[2] Christian Leopold von Buch,
erfolgreicher Geologe PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uckermark.city-map.de
/city/db/081801092800.html
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 6 7 		2462)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"bretonneau pierre". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bretonneau-
pierre?cat=health
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
5. ^ "Pierre Fidele
Bretonneau". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau
6. ^ "bretonneau pierre". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bretonneau-
pierre?cat=health (1826)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p282. (1826)
(1826)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Bretonneau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bret
onneau
Tours, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 		2524)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Freiherr von Biela".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5091/Wilhelm-Freiherr-von-Biela
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p294.
3. ^ "Bielas Comet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9133/Bielas-Comet
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p294.

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Freiherr von Biela".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fre
iherr_von_Biela
 
[1] Wilhelmvonbiela.jpg‎ (136 ×
200 Pixel, Dateigréisst: 6 KB,
MIME-Typ: image/jpeg) * Sujet:
Wilhelm, Freiherr von Biela *
Source: khalisi.com * Lizenz: PD
source: http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wil
helm_von_Biela
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 4 		2541) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE
1784-1846), makes a correction to the
(length of the?1 ) seconds pendulum,
the length of which is precisely
calculated so that it requires exactly
one second for a swing.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
3. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
4. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel (1826)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Bessel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany3
 
[1] The image of Sirius A and Sirius B
taken by Hubble Space Telescope. The
white dwarf can be seen to the lower
left.[47] (Credit:NASA) [47] ''The Dog
Star, Sirius, and its Tiny Companion'',
Hubble News Desk, 2005-12-13. Retrieved
on 2006-08-04.
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsd
esk/archive/releases/2005/36/image/a PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg

[2] This Hubble Space Telescope image
shows Sirius A, the brightest star in
our nighttime sky, along with its
faint, tiny stellar companion, Sirius
B. Astronomers overexposed the image of
Sirius A [at centre] so that the dim
Sirius B [tiny dot at lower left] could
be seen. The cross-shaped diffraction
spikes and concentric rings around
Sirius A, and the small ring around
Sirius B, are artifacts produced within
the telescope's imaging system. The two
stars revolve around each other every
50 years. Sirius A, only 8.6
light-years from Earth, is the fifth
closest star system known. Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/
html/heic0516a.html Date 15 Oct.,
2003 Author NASA, ESA Credit: H.
Bond (STScI) and M. Barstow (University
of Leicester) PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 8 		2744) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 publishes "A
Comparative View of the Various
Institutions for the Assurance of
Lives" (1826, London: J. Mawman).2 (In
which Babbage3 ) compiles the first
reliable actuarial tables (tables that
reflect the probability of a person
living to a certain age4 ).5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
6. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, vl6.
7. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
8. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage (1826)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 14 		2847) Among Dumas' works are "Traité
de chimie appliquée aux arts" (8 vol.,
1828-45).9
Dumas is the one of the
first people in France to realize the
importance of experimental laboratory
teaching.10
Student of Dumas include
many French chemists, including Auguste
Laurent, Charles-Adolphe Wurtz, and
Louis Pasteur.11
During Napoleon III,
Dumas serves as minister of
agriculture, senator, master of the
French mint, and the equivalent of
mayor of Paris, until the fall of
Napoleon.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p342.
7. ^ "Jean
Baptiste André Dumas". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Jean Baptiste André
Dumas". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
10. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Jean
Baptiste Andre Dumas". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
11. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
13. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
14. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1826)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[2]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05189a.h
tm
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France13
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 5 6 		2887) This analysis of nerves, in
particular of the eye will be one focus
of a student of Müller's, Helmholz,
whose student Michael Pupin will be the
first to see thought, that is external
images seen by the brain in addition to
internal images produced by the brain.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p346.
2. ^ "Johannes Peter
Müller". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
5. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology (1826)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p346. (1826) (1826)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Peter Müller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Pe
ter_M%C3%BCller
[2] "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Peter_Muller
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany4
 
[1] Description Johannes Peter
Müller Source
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/edtech/entom
ology_slides/images/31063-johannes-muell
er.jpg Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mueller.Joh..jpg
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 7 		2888) Johannes Peter Müller (MYUlR)
(CE 1801-1858), German physiologist1 ,
publishes the voluminous "ur
vergleichenden Physiologie des
Gesichtssinnes ..." (1826, "Comparative
Physiology of the Visual Sense ...")2 .


This work contains a wealth of new
material on human and animal vision,
including the results of analyses of
human expressions and research on the
compound eyes of insects and
crustaceans.3

In this year Müller also publishes "On
Imaginary Apparitions" in which Müller
theorizes that the eye as a sensory
system not only reacts to external
optical stimuli but can also be excited
by internal stimuli generated by the
imagination. Therefore, people who
report seeing religious visions,
ghosts, or phantoms may actually be
experiencing optical sensations and
believe them to be of external origin,
even though the images are not from
external stimulus.4 (Interesting as
relates to the modern phenomenon of
images beamed directly onto the neurons
of people's brains without them knowing
of their external origin.5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p346.
2. ^ "Johannes Peter
Muller". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
3. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
4. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
7. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller (1826)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Peter Müller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Pe
ter_M%C3%BCller
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
[3] "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Peter_Muller
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany6
 
[1] Description Johannes Peter
Müller Source
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/edtech/entom
ology_slides/images/31063-johannes-muell
er.jpg Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mueller.Joh..jpg
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 21 22 		2915) Bromine has symbol Br, atomic
number 35, atomic weight 79.909,
usually exists as Br2, a dark-red,
low-boiling but high-density liquid of
intensely irritating odor12 , with
melting point 7.2°C; boiling point
58.78°C; valence 1, 3, 5, 713 .

Bromine is the only nonmetallic element
that is liquid at normal temperature
and pressure. Bromine is very reactive
chemically; one of the halogen group of
elements, it has properties
intermediate between those of chlorine
and iodine.14 (Mercury appears to me
to be the only other element that is a
liquid at room temperature. Perhaps
some elements melt at warm
temperatures.15 )

Bromine is almost instantaneously
injurious to the skin, and it is
difficult to remove quickly enough to
prevent a painful burn that heals
slowly. Bromine vapor is extremely
toxic, but its odor gives good
warning.16

Bromine has many uses including as
petroleum additives (ethylene
dibromide), in photographic emulsions
(silver bromide), as sedatives, and in
flour (potassium bromate).17

Bromine is soluble in water to some
extent; the aqueous solution, called
bromine water, acts as an oxidizing
agent. Bromine is also soluble in
alcohol, ether, and carbon disulfide.
Bromine is less active chemically than
chlorine or fluorine but is more active
than iodine. Bromine forms compounds
similar to those of the other halogens.
Oxides of bromine are unstable, but two
acids, hypobromous acid, HBrO, and
bromic acid, HBrO3, are known.
Hydrobromic acid is the aqueous
solution of hydrogen bromide, HBr.
Bromine does not occur uncombined in
nature but is found in combination with
other elements, notably sodium,
potassium, magnesium, and silver. In
compounds bromine is present in
seawater, in mineral springs, and in
common salt deposits.18
Balard has
Berthelot first as pupil, then as
assistant and finally as colleague.19
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Jerome Balard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1906/Antoine-Jerome-Balard
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp349-350.
3. ^ "Antoine Jerome
Balard". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1906/Antoine-Jerome-Balard
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp349-350.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp349-350.
6. ^ "Antoine
Jerome Balard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1906/Antoine-Jerome-Balard
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp349-350.
8. ^ "Antoine
Jérôme Balard". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+J%C3%A9r%
C3%B4me+Balard+?cat=technology
9. ^ "Antoine Jerome Balard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1906/Antoine-Jerome-Balard
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp349-350.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"bromine". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bromine?cat
=technology
13. ^ "bromine". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bromine?cat
=technology
14. ^ "bromine". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bromine?cat
=technology
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "bromine". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bromine?cat
=technology
17. ^ "bromine". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bromine?cat
=technology
18. ^ "bromine". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bromine?cat
=technology
19. ^ "Antoine Jerome Balard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Antoine Jerome Balard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Antoine_
Jerome_Balard
20. ^ "Antoine Jerome Balard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1906/Antoine-Jerome-Balard
21. ^ "Antoine Jerome Balard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1906/Antoine-Jerome-Balard (1826)
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp349-350. (1826)
(1826)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Jérôme Balard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_J%C
3%A9r%C3%B4me_Balard
[2] "bromine". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6596/bromine
[3] "Bromine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromine
(Montpellier École de Pharmacie)
Montpellier, France20  
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Bromine sample
(liquid). Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Br%2C35.jpg

[2] Description Foto des Chemikers
de:Antoine-Jérôme Balard
(1802-1876) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/586/000114
244/balard-1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine-Jerome_Balard.jpg
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 9 		3384)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas
Engine", Scientific American Supplement
(Vol. 19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
4. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
5. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
6. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
7. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
8. ^
http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.
aspx?compid=50019
9. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1826}

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Brown (engineer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Brow
n_(engineer)
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekl
y/aacarsgasa.htm
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911
London, England7 8  
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
173 YBN
[04/07/1827 AD] 8 		6242)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "match." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/368955/match>.
2. ^ "match." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/368955/match>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p37.
5. ^ "match."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/368955/match>.
6. ^ "match." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/368955/match>.
7. ^ "match." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/368955/match>.
8. ^ "match." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/368955/match>. {04/07/1827}
England7  
[1] This image was selected as a
picture of the day for 1 January 2007.
It was captioned as follows: English:
A paper match igniting. Description
Deutsch: Ein brennendes
Streichholz. English: Lighting a
match. Français : Une allumette
enflammée. Dansk: En tændt
tændstik. Magyar: Egy gyufa
meggyulladása. ‪Norsk (nynorsk)‬:
Ei tent fyrstikke. Polski: Zapłon
zapałki Date 2 January
2006 Source Own work Author
Sebastian Ritter (Rise0011) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Streichholz.jpg
173 YBN
[05/01/1827 AD] 32 33 		2606) Ohm is the son of a self-taught
master mechanic interested in
science.24
Ohm draws his own wires.25

In 1817, Ohm becomes professor of
mathematics at the Jesuits' College at
Cologne.26
From 1826 to 1833 Ohm
teaches at the Military Academy in
Berlin.27
In 1833, Ohm accepts a
position at the Polytechnic School of
Nürnberg.28
In 1841, Ohm is awarded
the Copley Medal of the Royal Society
of London.29
In 1849, Ohm is appointed
a professor at the University of
Munich.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
2. ^
http://itp.nyu.edu/~nql3186/electricity/
pages/ohm.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp309-310.
8. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Simon+Ohm+?
cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Georg Simon
Ohm". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6864/Georg-Simon-Ohm
14. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische
Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr.
G. S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
15. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Simon+Ohm+?
cat=technology
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Simon+Ohm+?
cat=technology
18. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
19. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische
Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr.
G. S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
20. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p259-260.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
22. ^
"Georg Simon Ohm". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Simon+Ohm+?
cat=technology
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp309-310.
26. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6864/Georg-Simon-Ohm
27. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Simon+Ohm+?
cat=technology
28. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6864/Georg-Simon-Ohm
29. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6864/Georg-Simon-Ohm
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
31. ^ Georg
Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische Kette
mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr. G. S.
Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
32. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische
Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr.
G. S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
{05/01/1827}
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
(1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Simon Ohm". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simon
_Ohm
Berlin, Germany31 (written in
Cologne?) 
[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf

[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif
173 YBN
[12/08/1827 AD] 6 		2356)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
2. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/15568725/ap050
001/05a00040/0
3. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/15568725/ap050
001/05a00040/0
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Nicephore Niepce".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
6. ^
http://www.jstor.org/view/15568725/ap050
001/05a00040/0 (12/08/1827)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Joseph Nicéphore
Niepce". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/
[5] "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
[6]
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
Chalon-sur-Saône, France5  
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg

[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 17 18 		2415)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Robert Brown".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "robert brown". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Robert Brown".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"robert brown". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "robert
brown". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Robert Brown".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272. (1827)
(1827)
18. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown (1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Brown (botanist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brow
n_%28botanist%29
[2] "Gymnosperms". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gymnospe
rms
London, England16 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 41 42 		2425)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "André Marie Ampère". History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "André Marie Ampère".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
4. ^ "Andre Marie Ampere". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7234/Andre-Marie-Ampere
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p28-29.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Record ID2168. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^
André-Marie Ampére: Théorie des
phénoménes électro-dynamiques,
uniquement déduite de l'expérience.
Méquignon-Marvis, 1826 Mémoires de
L'Académie Royale des Sciences de
L'Institut de France,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200.
11. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p78-117.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p78-117.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^
André Marie Ampère, "Théorie
mathématique des phénomènes
électro- dynamiques uniquement
déduite de l'expérience.",
MÉMOIRES DE L'ACADÉMIE ROYALE DES
SCIENCES DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200.
20. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p78-117.
21. ^ H. Grassman,
"Neue Theorie der Elektrodynamik",
Annalen der Physik, Vol. 64, 1845,
p1-18. English translation as "A new
theory of electrodynamics" in
Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p201-214.
22. ^ (original footnote:) This paper
has not been published separately, but
the principal results are included in
vol. XV of the "Annales de Chimie et de
Physique" (1820).
23. ^ (original footnote:)
See "Journal des Savants", p233, April
1821.
24. ^ André Marie Ampère, "Théorie
mathématique des phénomènes
électro- dynamiques uniquement
déduite de l'expérience.",
MÉMOIRES DE L'ACADÉMIE ROYALE DES
SCIENCES DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200.
25. ^ (note by R.A.R. Tricker:) Here
Ampere is considering mainly the
interaction between the fixed conductor
AB and the two pieces of the suspended
conductor, de and d'e' which lie
nearest to it.
26. ^ (original footnote:)
These tubes are used to prevent flexure
of the enclosed wires by holding them
at equal distances from the two
conductors bc, kl, so that their
actions on GH, which reduce that of
these two conductors, should reduce
them equally.
27. ^ André Marie Ampère,
"Théorie mathématique des
phénomènes électro- dynamiques
uniquement déduite de l'expérience.",
MÉMOIRES DE L'ACADÉMIE ROYALE DES
SCIENCES DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200.
28. ^ André Marie Ampère, "Théorie
mathématique des phénomènes
électro- dynamiques uniquement
déduite de l'expérience.",
MÉMOIRES DE L'ACADÉMIE ROYALE DES
SCIENCES DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200.
29. ^ André Marie Ampère, "Théorie
mathématique des phénomènes
électro- dynamiques uniquement
déduite de l'expérience.",
MÉMOIRES DE L'ACADÉMIE ROYALE DES
SCIENCES DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ {original footnote:} I
believe I must here introduce the
following note which is taken from the
analysis of the works of the Academie
in the year 1821, published 8 April
1822. "The principal difference
between the manner in which a magnet
acts and the action of a conductor of
which one part is rolled in a helix
round the other, is that the poles of
the magnet are situated nearer to the
mid-point of the magnet than its
extremities, whereas the points which
present the same properties in the
helix occur exactly at the extremities
of this helix: this is what must take
place as the intensity of the currents
of the magnet diminishes outwards from
the mid-point to its extremities. But
M. Ampere has since recognized that
another factor can also this effect.
Having concluded from his more recent
experiments that the electrical
currents of a magnet exist round each
one of its particles, it was easier for
him to see that it is unnecessary to
assume, as he had done at first, that
the planes of these currents are
everywhere perpendicular to the axis of
the magnet. Their interaction, however,
must tend to incline the planes to the
axis, particularly towards the
extremities, so that the poles, instead
of being exactly situated there, as
they ought to be according to the
calculations by the formulae of M.
Ampere for the case when all the
currents are assumed to be the same in
intensity and in planes perpendicular
to the axis, must be closer to the
mid-point of the magnet according as
the planes of a larger number of
currents are thus inclined, and yet
more so with greater inclination. That
is to say, the thicker the magnet in
relation to its length the greater this
effect, which agrees with experiments.
In helical conductors, where one part
returns along the axis to cancel the
effect of the part of the currents of
each turn which acts as though they
were parallel to the axis, the two
circumstances which, from the foregoing
remarks, do not necessarily occur in
magnets, must on the contrary exist in
the conductors; it may also be observed
in experiments that helices have poles
similar to those of magnets, but placed
exactly at their extremities as
calculated." It will be seem from
this note that after 1821 I concluded
from the phenomena associated with
magnets: (1) that in regarding each
particle of a bar magnet as a magnet,
the axes of these elementary magnets
must be, not parallel to the axis of
the tital magnet as was supposed at the
time, but inclined to this axis in
direcitons determined by their
interaction; (2) that this is one
reason why the poles of a bar magnet
are not at the extremities, but in
between the extremities and its
mid-point. Both these conclusions have
already been demonstrated by the
results of M. Poisson using the
formulae by which he represented the
distribution of the forces emanating
from each particle of a magnet. These
formulae are based on Coulomb's law
and, in consequence, nothing is changed
by adopting my approach to the
explanation of magnetic phenomena,
since this law is a corollary of my
formula, as has been seen in the course
of this paper.
32. ^ (Original footnote:)
Precis elementaire de physique, vol.
II, p. 122, 2nd edit.
33. ^ (Original
footnote:) Since the latter memoire has
not been published separately, the
formula for the force is only known to
me from the following passage in the
second edition of Precis elementaire de
physique, vol. II, pp. 122-3. "By
imagining the length of the connecting
wire Z'C' (fig. 34) to be divided into
infinitely many very fine sections, it
is seen that each section must act on
the needle with a different energy
according to its distance and
direction. Now, these elementary forces
are just the simple result which it is
especially important to know; for the
total force exerted by the complete
wire is nothing other than the sum of
their individual actions. However,
calculation is sufficient to analyse
from the resultant the simple action.
This is what Laplace did. He deduced
from our observation that the
individual law of the elementary forces
exerted by each section of the
connecting wire was in the inverse
ratio of the square of the distance,
that is to say, it is precisely the
same as what is known to exist in
ordinary magnetic actions. The analysis
showed that to complete our knowledge
of the force, it remained to determine
whether the action of each section of
the force was the same in all
directions at the same distance, or
whether the energy was greater in some
directions than in others. To decide
this question, in the vertical plane I
bent a long copper wire ZMC at M (Fig.
34) in such a way that the two arms Zm,
MC were at the same angle of the
horizon MH. In front of this wire I
stretched another piece Z'M'C' of the
same material, the same in diameter and
of the same grade; this piece I set up
vertically, being separated from the
first piece at MM only by a strip of
very fine paper. I then suspended the
magnetized needle AB in front of this
system at the height of the points M,
M' and observed the oscillations at
various distances whilst passing
current successively through the bent
and straight wires. In this way I found
that the action was reciprocal for both
wires to the distance to the points M,
M'; but the absolute intensity was
weaker for the oblique wire than for
the straight wire in the same
proportion that the angle ZMH is to
unity. An analysis of this result
appears to indicate that the action of
each element μ of the oblique wire on
each molecule M of austral or boreal
magnetism is reciprocal to the square
of its distance μm to this molecule
and proportional to the sine of the
angle MμM between the distance μm and
length of the wire." It is
remarkable that this law, which is a
corollary of the formula by which I
have represented the interaction of two
elements of conducting wires when,
according to my theory, each magnetic
element is replaced by a very small
electrodynamic solenoid, was first
found through a mathematical error;
indeed, for the law to be valid, the
absolute intensity ought to have been
proportional, not to the angle ZMH, but
to the tangent of half this angle, as
demonstrated later by M. Savary in his
dissertation at the Academie, 3
February 1823, and which has meanwhile
been published in the Journal de
physique, vol. XCVI, pp. 1-25 cont'd.
It appears that M. Biot later
discovered the error himself, for in
the third edition which has just
appeared, he describes, without
reference to the Memoire where it had
first been corrected, new experiments
where the intensity of the total force
is, in accordance with the calculation
of M. Savary, proportional to the
tangent to half the angle ZMH, and he
concludes therefrom, with more reason
than he had with his first experiments,
that the force which he calls
elementary, is proportional for equal
distance to the sine of the angle
between the direction of the element of
conducting wire and the direction of
the straight line joining its mid-point
to the magnetic molecule. (Precis
elementaire de physique experimentale,
3rd edit., vol. II, pp. 740-5).
34. ^ (Original
footnote? apparently not footnoted at
same place in original:) It seems at
first that the effects produced by
magnets, or by sets of solid and closed
circuits, ought only to be identical
for closed circuits of very small
diameter; but it may readily be seen
that it is also true of circuits of
arbitrary magnitude since, as we have
seen, they may be replaced by magnetic
elements distributed uniformly over
surfaces terminated by these circuits,
whilst the number of surfaces that a
particular circuit circumscribes can be
multiplied as you please. The set of
surfaces may be regarded as a 'system'
of magnets which are equivalent to the
circuit. The same consideration proves
that without in any way affecting the
resulting forces, the infinitesimal
currents which encircle the particles
of a bar magnet can always be replaced
by currents of finite dimension, these
currents forming closed circuits about
the axis of the bar when those of the
particles are distributed symmetrically
about this axis. For this it is
sufficient to imagine surfaces within
the bar terminating at the surface of
the magnet and cutting the lines of
magnetization everywhere at right
angles and passing through the magnetic
elements which can always be assumed to
be placed at the points where these
lines are met by the surfaces. Then, if
all the elements of a particular
surface are of equal intensity on equal
areas, they can be replaced by a single
current flowing along the curve formed
by the intersection of this surface and
that of the magnet. If they should
vary, increasing in intensity from the
surface to the axis of the magnet, they
would first be replaced by a current at
this intersection such as it ought to
be according to the minimum intensity
of the particular currents of the
surface normal to the lines of
magnetization under consideratino, and
then, for each line circumscribing the
portions of this surface where the
little currents become more intense, a
new current should be imagined which is
concentric to the previous one as
required by the difference in intensity
of the adjacent currents, some outward
and the others inward of this line. if
the intensity of the particular
currents decreases from the surface to
the axis of the bar, a corresponding
concentric current should be imagined
on the separation line in the opposite
sense. Finally, an increase of
intensity which might follow the
decrease would require a new concentric
current directed as in the first
case. These comments are only given
here so as not to omit a remarkable
conclusion which may be drawn from the
results of this paper; they are in no
way intended to corroborate the
supposition that the electric currents
of magnets form closed circuits about
their axes. Having at first hesitated
between this supposition and the other
way of regarding currents as encircling
the particles of magnets, I have
recognized for a long time that this
latter concept best fitted all the
facts and in this respect my opinion
has not changed at all. Moreover,
this conclusion is useful in that it
identifies the actions produced by an
electrodynamic helix, on the one hand,
or by a magnet, on the other, just as
completely from the point of view of
theory as when verified by experiments.
35. ^ This
last sentence I translated myself with
the help of Google translate and Alta
Vista BabelFish, so it may be
inaccurate.
36. ^ André Marie Ampère, "Théorie
mathématique des phénomènes
électro- dynamiques uniquement
déduite de l'expérience.",
MÉMOIRES DE L'ACADÉMIE ROYALE DES
SCIENCES DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted
Huntington.
40. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
41. ^ André Marie Ampère, "Théorie
mathématique des phénomènes
électro- dynamiques uniquement
déduite de l'expérience.",
MÉMOIRES DE L'ACADÉMIE ROYALE DES
SCIENCES DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE,
1827. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice
_math.php?typebookDes=Oeuvres&bdd=ampere
&bookId=23
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
29046v A partial English translation
is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p155-200. {issued in:)1827}
42. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275. (1823)
(1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "André Marie Ampère".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp305-307
[4] The Mechanical
Universe, Episode 35, The Magnetic
Field, :10
[5] L. Pearce Williams, "What
Were Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
[6] "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
[7] "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
Paris, France40  
[1] [t One form of Ampere's equation
for force between two wires with moving
current.] PD/Corel
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k29046v/f36.chemindefer

[2] [t Figures 1-16 of 1823
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/amp-theorie_math/215.j
pg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 8 		2450)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
2. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Carl
Friedrich Gauss". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
7. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
8. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[6]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
Göttingen, Germany7
(presumably) 
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 		2472) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850)1 invents the
"Gay-Lussac tower" in which oxides of
nitrogen arising from the preparation
of sulfuric acid by the lead-chamber
process, which formerly escaped into
the atmosphere, are absorbed by passing
them up a chimney packed with coke,
over which concentrated sulfuric acid
is trickled. This tower and its
modifications are used in many
chemically-based industries today.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
2. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 7 		2546) This (naming system4 ) is quickly
adopted by other biochemists.5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout
6. ^ "William Prout". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298. (1827)
(1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pro
ut
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 10 		2552) John James Audubon (oDUBoN) (CE
1785-1851), starts publishing "Birds of
America" (4 vol, 1827-381 ) which when
done 11 years later will contain 435
hand-colored plates.2

William MacGillivray helped write the
accompanying text, "Ornithological
Biography", (5 vol, octavo, 1831-39),
and "A Synopsis of the Birds of North
America" (1 vol, 1839), which serves as
an index.3
The first hint that
Audubon's skills as an artist and
naturalist could be combined to make
money come in 1810 when Alexander
Wilson passes through Louisville,
Louisiana, where Audubon is operating a
general store. Wilson is looking for
subscribers to his lavishly illustrated
American Ornithology (9 vols;
1808-14).4

In 1824 Audubon goes to Philadelphia to
find a publisher, but encounters the
opposition of friends of Alexander
Wilson, the other pioneer American
ornithologist, with whom Audubon has a
bitter rivalry with.5

(When published6 ) sets of five plates
are sold to subscribers for 2 guineas
to finance the next set. In this way
200 full sets of Birds of America
(1827-38) are published in Britain in
87 parts with 435 plates. (In modern
times7 ), full sets are rarely
available for sale and when auctioned
are raise at least a million dollars.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John James Audubon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1224/John-James-Audubon
2. ^ "John James Audubon". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
3. ^ "John James Audubon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1224/John-James-Audubon
4. ^ "John James Audubon". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
5. ^ "John James Audubon". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John James
Audubon". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
9. ^ "John James Audubon". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
10. ^ "John James Audubon".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John James Audubon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_
Audubon
London, England9  
[1] portrait of John James Audubon from
19th century book PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JJAudubon.JPG

[2] Same image, after cropping,
sharpening and applying autocontrast as
Image:Bolton-Audubon.jpg John James
Audubon. From: Sarah K. Bolton, Famous
Men of Science. New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell & Co., 1889. Copied from: A
Temple of
Worthies http://www.marcdatabase.com/~l
emur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-te
chnology/worthies/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Audubon01.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 		2553) John James Audubon (oDUBoN) (CE
1785-1851), publishes "Viviparous
Quadrupeds of North America" (2 vols.,
1842-1845) and the accompanying text (3
vol., 1846-53) is completed with the
aid of Audubon's sons and the
naturalist John Bachman.1
Audubon
himself completes only about half the
drawings in this last work, Audubon's
son contributed the remainder.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "John James Audubon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1224/John-James-Audubon
2. ^ "John James Audubon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1224/John-James-Audubon
3. ^ "John James Audubon". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology
4. ^ "John James Audubon". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+James+Audubo
n?cat=technology (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "John James Audubon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_
Audubon
London, England3  
[1] portrait of John James Audubon from
19th century book PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JJAudubon.JPG

[2] Same image, after cropping,
sharpening and applying autocontrast as
Image:Bolton-Audubon.jpg John James
Audubon. From: Sarah K. Bolton, Famous
Men of Science. New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell & Co., 1889. Copied from: A
Temple of
Worthies http://www.marcdatabase.com/~l
emur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-te
chnology/worthies/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Audubon01.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 11 		2614) Bright's disease, also called
Glomerulonephritis, or Nephritis, is an
inflammation of the structures in the
kidney that produce urine: the
glomeruli and the nephrons.6

The kidney is an organ found in some
invertebrates and all vertebrates that
maintains water balance and expels
metabolic wastes.7

Bright's subsequent papers on renal
(located or relating to the location of
the kidneys8 ) disease are published in
a second volume of reports (1831) and
in the first volume of Guy's Hospital
Reports of 1836.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p311.
2. ^ "Richard
Bright". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6454/Richard-Bright
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p324.
5. ^ "Richard
Bright". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6454/Richard-Bright
6. ^ "Brights disease". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6458/Brights-disease
7. ^ "kidney". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5392/kidney
8. ^ "popup?va=renal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=r
enal
9. ^ "Richard Bright". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6454/Richard-Bright
10. ^ "Richard Bright". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6454/Richard-Bright
11. ^ "Richard Bright". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6454/Richard-Bright (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Bright (physician)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bri
ght_%28physician%29
[2]
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/198
4.html
[3]
http://cdm.lib.uiowa.edu/cdm4/index_jmrb
r.php?CISOROOT=/jmrbr
[4] "appendicitis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
8065/appendicitis
[5] "Bright's disease". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright%27s_
disease
[6]
http://www.answers.com/topic/bright-s-di
sease?cat=health
London, England10  
[1] Richard Bright PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Bright.gif

[2] Title Bright's Reports of medical
cases, plate 01 Publisher Longman,
Rees, Orme, and Green Place of
Publication England--London Creator Bri
ght, Richard (1789-1858) Date
Original 1827-1831 Description ''Plate
I. Kidney in Dropsy'' Subject Bright's
disease InfoHawk ID 002452390 File
Name plate1.jpg Contributing
Institution University of Iowa
Libraries. John Martin Rare Book
Room Collection Title Images From The
John Martin Rare Book
Room Subcollection Richard Bright's
Reports of medical cases Object
Description 1 print : lithograph,
color; 25 x 16 cm Digital
Format image/jpeg Digital Format
Extent 362.914 KB Digitization
Specifications Scanned with Epson 1680
at 300 dpi and reduced to 96 dpi Date
Digital 2005-01-05 Relation - Is Part
of Bright, Richard, 1789-1858. Reports
of medical cases : selected with a view
of illustrating the symptoms and cure
of diseases by a reference to morbid
anatomy / by Richard Bright. London :
Longman, Rees, Orme, and Green,
1827-1831. Link to Catalog
Record http://infohawk.uiowa.edu/F?func=
direct&doc_number=002452390&local_base=u
iowa Rights Management This digital
image may be used for educational
purposes, as long as it is not altered
in any way, and appropriate
atttribution to the source is made. For
printed reproduction or distribution of
this file, please see,
http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/rbr/useo
fthecollection.htm Language eng Type s
till image : colored
lithograph Contact Information Contact
The John Martin Rare Book Room at the
Hardin Library for the Health Sciences,
University of Iowa Libraries:
http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/rbr
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cdm.lib.uiowa.edu/cdm4/it
em_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/jmrbr&CISOPTR=28
7&CISOBOX=1&REC=2
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 19 20 		2724) Baer contributes to the Academy
at St. Petersburg by establishing an
extensive skull collection.12
Baer is
responsible for the founding of the
Russian Geographical Society and the
Russian Entomological Society, of which
Baer is the first president.13

Baer rejects Darwinism.14 (Surprising
for something as simple and logical for
somebody in biology. But then religion
is a powerful force against the theory
of evolution.15 )
Although Baer believes
that some very similar animals, such as
goats and antelopes, might be related,
Baer is vehemently against the concept
expressed in Darwin's "Origin of
Species" that all living creatures
might have evolved from one or a few
common ancestors.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
2. ^ "Karl Ernst
Ritter von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
3. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
4. ^ "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Ernst+von+Ba
er?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
6. ^ "Karl Ernst
Ritter von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
7. ^ "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Ernst+von+Ba
er?cat=technology
8. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Ernst+von+Ba
er?cat=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von
Baer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
13. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Karl
Ernst Ritter von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
17. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
18. ^ "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Ernst+von+Ba
er?cat=technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322. (1827)
(1827)
20. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ernst_
von_Baer
[2] "Karl Ernst Von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Ern
st_Von_Baer
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Königsberg now) Kaliningrad, Russia17
18  
[1] Subject : Karl von Baer
(1792-1876) German biologist, father
of embryology. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Baer_Karl_von_1792-1876.jpg

[2] Karl Ernst von
Baer http://www.zbi.ee/baer/vonbaer.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vonbaer.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 		2745) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 publishes
"Tables of Logarithms" (1827).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
4. ^ "Charles Babbage". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 6 7 		2770) Selenic acid is prepared by
oxidation of selenium dioxide with
hydrogen peroxide:
SeO2 + H2O2 →
H2SeO4
To obtain the anhydrous acid as a
crystalline solid, the resulting
solution is evaporated at temperatures<140 °C in vacuum.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
2. ^ "Eilhardt
Mitscherlich". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
3. ^ "Selenic acid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenic_aci
d
4. ^ Seppelt, K. "Selenoyl difluoride"
Inorganic Syntheses, 1980, volume XX,
pp. 36-38. ISBN 0-471-07715-1. The
report describes the synthesis of
selenic acid.
5. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
6. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich (1827)
7. ^
http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingaleev/scilog
y/#Mitscherlich (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilhardt_Mi
tscherlich
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Eilhardt+Mitscher
lich+?cat=technology
[3] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eilhardt
_Mitscherlich
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
 
[1] Selenic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel
enic_acid

[2] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 23 24 		2774) Babinet improves the valves of
the air-pump, attaining a very high
vacuum.12
Babinet constructs a
hygrometer and a goniometer (an optical
instrument for measuring crystal
angles, as between crystal faces13 (a
compass?14 )).15
Babinet invents the
"Babinet compensator", a double quartz
wedge used in the study of elliptically
polarized light.16 (more info and
image17 )
Babinet studies in Paris at
the Ecole Polytechnique.18
In 1820
Babinet is a professor at the Collège
Louis le Grand19 in Paris20 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p327.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Jacques Babinet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Babinet?c
at=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p327.
5. ^ "Jacques
Babinet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Babinet?c
at=technology
6. ^
http://www.bipm.org/en/si/history-si/evo
lution_metre.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Jacques
Babinet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Babinet?c
at=technology
10. ^ "Babinet's principle's
principle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babinet%27s
_principle
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02178b.h
tm
13. ^ "Jacques Babinet". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Babinet?c
at=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02178b.h
tm
16. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02178b.h
tm
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "02178b.htm". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02178b.h
tm
19. ^ "02178b.htm". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02178b.h
tm
20. ^ "Collège Louis le Grand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8g
e_Louis_le_Grand
21. ^ "02178b.htm". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02178b.h
tm
22. ^ "Collège Louis le Grand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8g
e_Louis_le_Grand
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p327. (1827) (1827)
24. ^
"Jacques Babinet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Babinet?c
at=technology (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Babinet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Bab
inet
Paris, France21 22  
[1] Description French physicist
Jacques Babinet (1794-1872) Source
[1]http://www.molecularexpressions.com/
optics/timeline/people/babinet.html Dat
e 19th century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Babinet.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 11 		2856) Wöhler studies with the famous
Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius.7

In the first few years teaching at
Göttingen, Wöhler (in parallel with
Liebig at Giessen) pioneers a new
pattern of science education and
scientific research. Instead of the
traditional lecturing and performing
selected demonstrations for them,
Wöhler and Liebig require that all
students fulfill a laboratory practice
in which they carry out laboratory
manipulations themselves. This
innovation is rapidly adopted
throughout Germany and then in other
nations and is the basis of modern
laboratory-based university education
today.8
Wöhler's works on chemistry
are widely used as texts, and include
"Outlines of Organic Chemistry" (1840,
tr. 1873).9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
2. ^ "Friedrich
Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
3. ^ "Friedrich Wöhler". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
5. ^ "Aluminum".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Friedrich Wohler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
8. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
9. ^ "Friedrich Wöhler". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
10. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
11. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[2] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany10  
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Aluminum
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al%2C13.jpg

[2] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 12 13 		2892) (Airy supervises expeditions to
(measure the parallax of Venus
(relative to the edge of the Sun?)3 )
when Venus crosses the face of the sun,
but the mission fails because the
atmosphere of Venus makes determining
the time of contact difficult. 4
Airy
is the son of a poor farmer, who
distinguishes himself as Senior
Wrangler at Cambridge, where Airy is
elected fellow of Trinity College
(1824) and appointed professor (1826).5
 (This is an example of how a poor
person through success in education can
rise to a well paid employment.6 )
In
1835 Airy is appointed Astronomer Royal
(director of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory7 ), and holds this post for
46 years.8
In September 1845, John
Adams comes to Airy, with news of the
position of a new planet, Airy unwisely
ignores Adams9 , and delays the
discovery of planet Neptune10 .
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp346-347.
2. ^ "Sir George
Biddell Airy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp346-347.
5. ^ "George Biddell
Airy". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/George+Biddell+Ai
ry?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Royal Greenwich
Observatory". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4281/Royal-Greenwich-Observatory
8. ^ "George Biddell Airy". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/George+Biddell+Ai
ry?cat=technology
9. ^ "George Biddell Airy". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/George+Biddell+Ai
ry?cat=technology
10. ^ "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy
11. ^ "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy
12. ^ "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy (1827)
13. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp346-347. (1827)
(1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Biddell Airy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bidd
ell_Airy
[2] "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Biddell_Airy
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Greenwich, England11
(presumably) 
[1] George Biddell Airy (British
Astronomer), from en, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 17 18 19 20 		2999) Hamilton writes "By a Ray, in
this
Essay, is meant a line along which
light is propagated; and by a System of
Rays is meant
an infinite number of such
lines, connected by any analytic law,
or any common property.
Thus, for example, the
rays which proceed from a luminous
point in a medium of uniform
density, compose
one system of rays; the same rays,
after being reflected or refracted,
compose
another system. And when we represent a
ray analytically by two equations
between its three
coordinates, the
coefficients of those equations will be
connected by one or more relations
depending on
the nature of the system, so that they
may be considered as functions of one
or
more arbitrary quantities. These
arbitrary quantities, which enter into
the equations of the
ray, may be called its
Elements of Position, because they
serve to particularise its situation
in the
system to which it belongs. And the
number of these arbitrary quantities,
or elements
of position, is what I shall take
for the basis of my classification of
systems of rays; calling a
system with
one element of position a system of the
First Class: a system with two
elements
of position, a system of the Second
Class, and so on.".6 (More clearly
explain "elements - are they variables?
dimensions?7 )

Hamilton writes "
(D) dp + dp' = 0.

This equation (D) is called the
Principle of least Action, because it
expresses that if the
coordinates of the
point of incidence were to receive any
infinitely small variations consistent
with the
nature of the mirror, the bent path (dp
+ dp') would have its variation
nothing; and if
light be a material
substance, moving with a velocity
unaltered by reflection, this bent
path
dp + dp' measures what in mechanics is
called the Action, from the one assumed
point to the
other. Laplace has deduced the
formula (D), together with analogous
formulae for ordinary
and extraordinary
refraction, by supposing light to
consist of particles of matter, moving
with
certain determined velocities, and
subject only to forces which are
insensible at sensible
distances. The manner in
which I have deduced it, is independent
of any hypothesis about
the nature or the
velocity of light; but I shall continue
to call it, from analogy, the
principle
of least action.".8

Hamilton writes "The formula (D)
expresses, that if we assume any two
points, one on each ray, (the incident
and reflected ray9 ) the
sum of the
distances of these two assumed points
from the point of incidence, is equal
to
the sum of their distances from any
infinitely near point upon the
mirror.".10


Hamilton concludes by writing: "The
preceding pages contain the execution
of the first part of our plan; being an
attempt
to establish general principles
respecting the systems of rays produced
by the ordinary re-
flexion of light, at
any mirror or combination of mirrors,
shaped and placed in any manner
whatsoever;
and to shew that the mathematical
properties of such a system may all be
de-
duced by analytic methods from the form
of ONE CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION: as, in
the
application of analysis to geometry,
the properties of a plane curve, or of
a curve surface,
may all be deduced by uniform
methods from the form of the function
which characterises its
equation. It
remains to extend these principles to
other optical systems; to shew that in
every
such system, whether the rays be
straight or curved, whether ordinary or
extraordinary, there
exists a Characteristic
Function analogous to that which we
have already pointed out for the
case of
the systems produced by the ordinary
reflexion of light; to simplify and
generalise
the methods that we have given, for
calculating from the form of this
function all the other
properties of the
system; to integrate various equations
which present themselves in the de-
terminat
ion of mirrors, lenses, and crystals
satisfying assigned conditions; to
establish some
more general principles in
the theory of Systems of Rays, and to
terminate with a brief review of our
own results, and of the discoveries of
former writers."11
Hamilton is a child
prodigy, not only in mathematics, but
in languages too.12 13
At age 17
Hamilton astonishes the royal
astronomer in Ireland by communicating
an error found in Laplace's "Celestial
Mechanics".14
In 1823, Hamilton takes
the entrance examination for Trinity
College and (scores highest15 ) of 100
candidates.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp392-394.
2. ^ Transactions of the Royal
Irish Academy, 15 (1828),
{Hamilton_1828_Theory_of_System_of_Rays.
pdf}
3. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Rowan_Hamilton
4. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp392-394.
5. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), pp312-314.
6. ^
Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 15 (1828), pp. 69-174.
{Hamilton_1828_Theory_of_System_of_Rays.
pdf (page 13)}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Transactions of
the Royal Irish Academy, 15 (1828), pp.
69-174.
{Hamilton_1828_Theory_of_System_of_Rays.
pdf (page 13)}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Transactions
of the Royal Irish Academy, 15 (1828),
pp. 69-174.
{Hamilton_1828_Theory_of_System_of_Rays.
pdf (page 13)}
11. ^ Transactions of the
Royal Irish Academy, 15 (1828),
{Hamilton_1828_Theory_of_System_of_Rays.
pdf}
12. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
13. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p358.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Sir
William Rowan Hamilton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
17. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton (1827)
18. ^ "William Rowan
Hamilton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton (1827)
19. ^ "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Rowan_Hamilton (1828)
20. ^ "William Rowan
Hamilton", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp392-394. (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] Sir William Rowan Hamilton
(1805-1865): Mathematical Papers
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Hamilton/Papers.html
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland16  
[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 		3391)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Goldsworthy Gurney."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/249695/Sir-Goldsworthy-Gurney>.
2. ^ "Sir Goldsworthy Gurney."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/249695/Sir-Goldsworthy-Gurney>.
3. ^ "Sir Goldsworthy Gurney."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/249695/Sir-Goldsworthy-Gurney>.
4. ^
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12496/124
96-h/12496-h.htm {1827}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goldsworthy Gurney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldsworthy
_Gurney
[2]
http://www.hevac-heritage.org/victorian_
engineers/sir_goldsworthy_gurney/sir_gol
dsworthy_gurney.htm
London, England3  
[1] The Goldsworthy Gurney steam
carriage, in an 1827
illustration Goldsworthy Gurney steam
carriage - Project Gutenberg eText
12496 From The Project Gutenberg
eBook, The Mirror of Literature,
Amusement, and Instruction, Vol. 10,
No. 287, December 15, 1827, by
Various http://www.gutenberg.org/etex
t/12496 Explanation of the
References. 1. The Guide and Engineer,
to whom the whole management of the
machinery and conduct of the carriage
is intrusted. Besides this man, a guard
will be employed. 2. The handle which
guides the Pole and Pilot Wheels. 3.
The Pilot Wheels. 4. The Pole. 5. The
Fore Boot, for luggage. 6. The
''Throttle Valve'' of the main
steam-pipe, which, by means of the
handle, is opened or closed at
pleasure, the power of the steam and
the progress of the carriage being
thereby regulated from 1 to 10 or 20
miles per hour. 7. The Tank for Water,
running from end to end, and the full
breadth of the carriage; it will
contain 60 gallons of water. 8. The
Carriage, capable of holding six
inside-passengers. 9. Outside
Passengers, of which the present
carriage will carry 15. 10. The Hind
Boot, containing the Boiler and
Furnace. The Boiler is incased with
sheet-iron, and between the pipes the
coke and charcoal are put, the front
being closed in the ordinary way with
an iron door. The pipes extend from the
cylindrical reservoir of water at the
bottom to the cylindrical chamber for
steam at the top, forming a succession
of lines something like a horse-shoe,
turned edgeways. The steam enters the
''separators'' through large pipes,
which are observable on the Plan, and
is thence conducted to its proper
destination. 11. ''Separators,'' in
which the steam is separated from the
water, the water descending and
returning to the boiler, while the
steam ascends, and is forced into the
steam-pipes or main arteries of the
machine. 12. The Pump, by which the
water is pumped from the tank, by means
of a flexible hose, to the reservoir,
communicating with the boiler. 13. The
Main Steam Pipe, descending from the
''separators,'' and proceeding in a
direct line under the body of the coach
to the ''throttle valve'' (No. 6,) and
thence, under the tank, to the
cylinders from which the pistons
work. 14. Flues of the Furnace, from
which there is no smoke, coke and
charcoal being used. 15. The Perches,
of which there are three, conjoined, to
support the machinery. 16. The
Cylinders. There is one between each
perch. 17. Valve Motion, admitting
steam alternately to each side of the
pistons. 18. Cranks, operating on the
axle: at the ends of the axle are
crotches (No. 21,) which, as the axle
turns round, catch projecting pieces of
iron on the boxes of the wheels, and
give them the rotatory motion. The hind
wheels only are thus operated
upon. 19. Propellers, which, as the
carriage ascends a hill, are set in
motion, and move like the hind legs of
a horse, catching the ground, and then
forcing the machine forward, increasing
the rapidity of its motion, and
assisting the steam power. 20. The
Drag, which is applied to increase the
friction on the wheel in going down a
hill. This is also assisted by
diminishing the pressure of the
steam—or, if necessary, inverting the
motion of the wheels. 21. The Clutch,
by which the wheel is sent round. 22.
The Safety Valve, which regulates the
proper pressure of the steam in the
pipe. 23. The Orifice for filling the
Tank. This is done by means of a
flexible hose and a funnel, and
occupies but a few seconds. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/Goldsworthy_Gurney_st
eam_carriage_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_1
2496.png

[2] Goldsworthy Gurney PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/vi
ctorian_engineers/sir_goldsworthy_gurney
/sir_goldsworthy_gurney_2.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 16 		3591) Dyar writes in 1848:
"I invented
a plan of a telegraph, which should be
independent of day, or night, or
weather, which should extend from town
to town, or city to city, without any
intermediary agency, by means of an
insulated wire, suspended on poles, and
through which I intended to send
strokes of electricity, in such a
manner as that the diverse distances of
time separating the divers sparks
should represent the different letters
of the alphabet, and stops between the
words, &c. This absolute, or this
relative, difference of time between
the several sparks I intended to take
off from an electric machine by a
little mechanical contrivance,
regulated by a pendulum; while the
sparks themselves were intended to be
recorded upon a moving, or revolving,
sheet of moistened litmus paper, which
by the formation of nitric acid by the
spark in its passage through the paper,
would leave {show} a red spot for each
spark. These so-produced red spots,
with their relative interspaces, were,
as I have said, taken as an equivalent
for the letters of the alphabet, &c, or
for other signs intended to be
transmitted, whereby a correspondence
could be kept up through one wire of
any length, either in one direction, or
back and forwards, simultaneously or
successively. In addition to this use
of electricity I considered that I had,
if wanted, an auxiliary resource in the
power of sending impulses along the
same wire, properly suspended, somewhat
like the action of a common bell-wire
in a house.
Now you will perceive that this
plan is like that known as Morse's
telegraph, with the exception that his
is inferior to mine, inasmuch as he and
others now make use of
electro-magnetism, in place of the
simple spark, which requires that they
should, in order to get dots, or marks,
upon paper, make use of mechanical
motions, which require time; whereas my
dots were produced by chemical action
of the spark itself, and would be, for
that reason, transmitted and recorded
with any required velocity.
In order to carry
out my invention I associated myself
with a Mr. Brown, of Providence, who
gave me certain sums of money to become
my partner. We employed a Mr. Connel,
of New York, to aid in getting the
capital wanted to carry the wires to
Philadelphia. This we considered as
accomplished; but, before beginning on
the long wire, it was decided that we
should try some miles of it on Long
Island. Accordingly I obtained some
fine card wire, intending to run it
several times around the Old Union
Racecourse. We put up this wire at
different lengths, in curves and
straight lines, by suspending it {with
glass insulators} from stake to stake,
and tree to tree, until we concluded
that our experiments justified our
undertaking to carry it from New York
to Philadelphia. At this moment our
agent brought a suit, or summons,
against me for 20,000 dollars, for
agencies and services, which I found
was done to extort a concession of a
share of the whole project.
I appeared before
Judge Irving, who, on hearing my
statement, dismissed the suit as
groundless. A few days after this, our
patent agent (for, being no longer able
to keep our invention a secret, we had
applied for a patent) came to Mr. Brown
and myself and stated that Mr. Connel
had obtained a writ against us, under a
charge of conspiracy for carrying on
secret communication from city to city,
and advised us to leave New York until
he could settle the affair for us. As
you may suppose, this happening just
after the notorious bank-conspiracy
trials, we were frightened beyond
measure, and the same night slipped off
to Providence. There I remained some
time, and did not return to New York
for many months, and then with much
fear of a suit. This is the
circumstance which put an end {to our
project}, killing effectually all
desire to engage further on such a
dangerous enterprise. I think that, on
my return to New York, I consulted
Charles Walker, who thought that,
however groundless such a charge might
be, it might give me infinite trouble
to stand a suit. From all this the very
name of electric telegraph has given me
pain whenever I have heard it
mentioned, until I received your last
letter, stimulating me to come out with
my claims; and even now I cannot
overcome the painful association of
ideas which the name excites."7 (This
story sounds somewhat unlikely, in
particular knowing that shasiastafb has
been kept secret for so long. There is
a hint of some kind of pain being given
- perhaps depending on how much Dyar
chooses to makes public? Kind of a
bizarre law against "secret messages",
perhaps similar to the equally free
info violating espionage laws.8 )

Beccaria had used an electric spark to
decompose the sulphuret of mercury and
recovered the metal.9 (chronology10 )

(This shows that clearly by 1827, the
technology existed to print images,
although possibly capturing an image
might have to wait for selenium.11 )

(There must be millions of red dot
images in the telegraph/telephone
company archives. Why have no people
tried to access these and force them to
be made public?12 )

(The author of the 1884 book "A History
of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year
1837" ends a paragraph on page 156 with
"Cooke and Morse" which is "cam"era.13
)

(It is kind of curious that, which this
kind of red-dot printer, that the
electro-mechanical system stays in use
for so long, at least as far as the
public knows.14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ John Joseph
Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A
History of Electric Telegraphy, to the
Year 1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ John Joseph
Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
16. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1827}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
alIXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=john
+j+fahie&ei=8xfYSLjYNKGutgP_lpXeDg
New York City NY15 (presumably)  
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 9 		4001)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ Charles
Wheatstone, "Experiments on Audition",
Quarterly Journal of Science, 1827, pt
2. http://books.google.com/books?id=vBl
WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=Experiment
s+on+audition&source=bl&ots=_qRIe4cWmV&s
ig=tpaMqCNB6Wb_A7jkdOvKbGhRuaI&hl=en&ei=
MTmgSpe5ApPqsQOYrZWNDw&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=Experi
ments%20on%20audition&f=false
4. ^ "The Microphone", Nature,
08/01/1878, p.
355-356. http://books.google.com/books?
id=5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA356&lpg=PA356&dq=wh
eatstone+1827+microphone&source=bl&ots=L
Fal_zrDLM&sig=YNQx88raFFaRy5MbMxPGs8XtrE
8&hl=en&ei=AzmgSpLUH4TOsgPUn6yNDw&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepa
ge&q=wheatstone%201827%20microphone&f=fa
lse
5. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part2.html
6. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part2.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
9. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "Experiments
on Audition", Quarterly Journal of
Science, 1827, pt
2. http://books.google.com/books?id=vBl
WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=Experiment
s+on+audition&source=bl&ots=_qRIe4cWmV&s
ig=tpaMqCNB6Wb_A7jkdOvKbGhRuaI&hl=en&ei=
MTmgSpe5ApPqsQOYrZWNDw&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=Experi
ments%20on%20audition&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Sir Charles Wheatstone (1821)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone (1821) (1821)
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Wheatstone's microphone
(stethoscope) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vBlWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=Experi
ments+on+audition&source=bl&ots=_qRIe4cW
mV&sig=tpaMqCNB6Wb_A7jkdOvKbGhRuaI&hl=en
&ei=MTmgSpe5ApPqsQOYrZWNDw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=Ex
periments%20on%20audition&f=false

[2] This illustration shows a
demonstration of Wheatstone's
''Enhanced Lyre'', ca. 1821. Musicians
played on a piano or harp in the room
above the lyre, and the vibrations
passed down a brass wire made the lyre
appear to play by itself. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
172 YBN
[02/??/1828 AD] 18 19 		2857) German chemist, Friedrich Wöhler
(VOElR) (CE 1800-1882)6 , is the first
to produce an "organic" (or biotic)
compound {molecule} from an "inorganic"
(or abiotic) compound, the compound
"urea", which forms crystals when
ammonium cyanate is heated.7

Wöhler finds that urea has the same
composition as ammonium cyanate, and
Berzelius will call these "isomers".8
(Isomers must be molecules made of the
same ratio of atoms but in different
structure. What explains isomerism?9 )

Urea is the primary nitrogenous waste
of the mammalian body, found in urine.
This is the first experiment to show
the theory of vitalism wrong. The
theory of vitalism, first put forward
by Stahl, is that organic molecules are
different from inorganic molecules and
require a "vital force" to be created.
Berzelius had separates all chemicals
(molecules10 ) into organic and
inorganic, depending on if the are
created in living tissue or not. Gmelin
accepted this, however Chevreul doubted
this erroneous theory.11
(In addition,
Wöhler reinforces the idea that life
is made of molecules that are no
different from non-living matter in the
rest of the universe, This supports the
idea that life was not created by a
deity, is magical, or different from a
natural process.12 )

Berzelius eventually concedes.
Berzelius and others argue that
Ammonium cyanate is an organic
compound. However, Berthelot 25 years
later will remove all doubt.13

Wöhler also finds that urea has
exactly the same composition as a
different substance, ammonium
cyanate.14
This discovery is equally
important in the history of isomerism
as for vitalism, since, at the time,
very few cases of two distinct
compounds having identical compositions
are known.15 Two years after Wöhler's
synthesis of urea, Berzelius defines
the concept and introduces the new word
"isomerism".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
8. ^ "Friedrich
Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
14. ^ "Friedrich
Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
15. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
16. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
17. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
18. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler (02/1828)
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343. (1828)
(1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
[3] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany17  
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg

[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
172 YBN
[06/??/1828 AD] 42 43 44 		2805) Henry is one of the first great
American scientists after Benjamin
Franklin16 and also the first in
America to experiment with electricity
in an important way after Franklin 75
years before.17
Henry's life parallels
Faraday's life in many ways.18
Henry is
from a poor family.19
Henry has little
schooling, and is forced to work when
young.20
At age 13 Henry is
apprenticed to a watchmaker.21
At age
16 Henry finds a book titled "Lectures
on Experimental Philosophy" in a church
he enters through a broken floor board.
This inspires him to go to school, and
he enters the Albany Academy.22 (It
shows the possibility of a person
simply being exposed to ideas of
science.23 )
Henry teaches at country
schools and tutors on the side to earn
his tuition.24
From 1826 to 1832 Henry
teaches mathematics and science at
Albany Academy.25 26
In 1832 as a
result of his electromagnets, Henry
gets hired as27 professor of natural
philosophy at the College of New Jersey
(later Princeton University)28 .
When
Henry comes to Princeton he had been
promised at first a salary of $1000 (a
year29 ), which is later raised to
$1500 and a house. Henry remarks,
however, that sometimes he receives no
more than $600 a year because the
university does not have the funds
needed to pay him.30
In 1846 Henry is
elected first secretary of the newly
formed Smithsonian Institution. Henry
makes the Smithsonian a clearing house
of scientific knowledge and encourages
scientific communications on a
worldwide scale.31
Henry is one of
Lincoln's chief technical advisers
during the U.S. Civil War32 and
recommends the building of ironclads
(iron ships).33
Henry is one of the
founders of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States34 and
its second president.35

(Henry is evidence that people in the
USA are catching up at this time in
terms of scientific skills with those
in England and the rest of Europe. This
advancing of people in the USA in
science will be clear when Pupin is the
first to see thought at Columbia, and
of course, with the drain of all
Europe's best minds before and during
World War II. {Part of the success of
the US may be that freethinking people
flea to the USA for political and
religious freedom. For example, Pupin
was an immigrant from Europe. Perhaps
this mixing of cultures, or the
advanced view of religious freedom
{including no religion}, is what gives
the USA a competitive advantage over
other older more settled nations.}. But
this dominance of the USA fails with a
resurgence of religion and violence
after World War II in particular with
the rise of the murderers of JFK and
the ending of the Moon program. For
example, people in the Asian nations
are the first to go public with a
walking robot, and are the main
producers of cars, video devices, while
the people in the USA and Europe trail
behind, stuck in fanatical religion,
hostile to science, and sharing of
information. One exception is the
recent rocket plane {star ships one and
two, the X prize, etc.} development in
the USA.36 )

In 1893 the International Electrical
Congress agrees37 to name the standard
electrical unit of inductive resistance
the "henry" in honor of Joseph Henry.38


The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
describes Henry as the foremost of
American physicists, by general
concession, and a man with a liberality
of views, of generous impulses, of
great gentleness and courtesy of
manner, combined with equal firmness of
purpose and energy of action.39
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^ "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9
pages), 6.
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
5. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
9. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
11. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
13. ^
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9
pages), p8.
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
14. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
15. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
16. ^ "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
26. ^ "Joseph
Henry". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
28. ^ "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/58/1/1.p
df
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
32. ^ "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
34. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
35. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
38. ^ "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
39. ^ "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
40. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
41. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
42. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm (06/1828)
43. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1829)
(1829)
44. ^
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
(published: 01/1931) (published:
01/1931)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[4]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[5]
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1963/1/1963_1_24.shtml
[6]
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/5/31245/
01454584.pdf The Electric Motor, the
Telegraph, and Joseph Henry‘s Theory
of Technological Progress ARTHUR P.
MOLELLA Henry_Motor_Telegraph_01454584.
pdf
Albany, NY, USA40 41  
[1] Henry's Albany magnet. Image
copied from old photograph, N.M.A.H.
Cat. No. 181,451c. Smithsonian neg.
no. 39,040. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/39040.gif

[2] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 12 		2383) (I disagree with the current view
that polarization is a wave phenomenon.
I think that polarized light are beams
of light particles that have no
horizontal or vertical component
(relative to the plane of the
polarizing surface). Materials that
polarize probably only allow light in
one plane to be transmitted, reflecting
(or absorbing) the rest, so moving two
objects at 90 degrees cancels out beams
of light moving in any other direction
than i,j,k=(0,0,1). In any event, I
think the phenomenon of polarization is
a particle phenomenon, and I view light
beams as being beams of particles
without amplitude where frequency is
defined by frequency of photons.9 )

Nicol lectures in natural philosophy at
the University of Edinburgh where James
Clerk Maxwell is probably one of
Nicol's pupils.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p263.
2. ^ "William Nicol".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Nicol?cat
=technology
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p263.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p263.
6. ^ "William
Nicol". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Nicol?cat
=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "William Nicol". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Nicol?cat
=technology
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "William Nicol". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Nicol?cat
=technology
11. ^ "William Nicol". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Nicol?cat
=technology
12. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Nicol". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nic
ol
Edinburgh, Scotland11
(presumably) 
[1] William Nicol [t this must be an
early photo in the history of
photography] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.queensu.ca/secretaria
t/History/bldgs/nicol.html
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 13 14 		2725)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
3. ^ "Karl Ernst
von Baer". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Ernst+von+Ba
er?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
5. ^ "Karl Ernst
Ritter von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
7. ^ "Karl Ernst
Ritter von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322.
10. ^ "Karl Ernst von
Baer". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Ernst+von+Ba
er?cat=technology
11. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
12. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322. (1828)
(1828)
14. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer (1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ernst_
von_Baer
[2] "Karl Ernst Von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Ern
st_Von_Baer
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Königsberg now) Kaliningrad, Russia12
 (presumably) 
[1] Subject : Karl von Baer
(1792-1876) German biologist, father
of embryology. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Baer_Karl_von_1792-1876.jpg

[2] Karl Ernst von
Baer http://www.zbi.ee/baer/vonbaer.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vonbaer.jpg
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 6 		2859)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
2. ^ "Friedrich
Wöhler". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
3. ^ "Beryllium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium
4. ^ "Yttrium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium
5. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
6. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler (1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany5  
[1] Description Small circular
beryllium foils in a plastic bag, blue
background. Unsharp mask and
autocontrast applied in
photoshop. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Be
_foils.jpg Date Author
en:User:Deglr6328 Permission (Reusi
ng this image) GFDL content from
English Wikipedia GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Be_foils.jpg

[2] * Bildbeschreibung: Yttrium *
Quelle: Foto aus meiner
Elementesammlung *
Fotograf/Zeichner: Tomihahndorf *
Datum: März 2006 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Yttrium_1.jpg
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 3 		6028)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Maurice Ravel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/492226/Maurice-Ravel>.
2. ^ "Maurice Ravel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/492226/Maurice-Ravel>.
3. ^ "Maurice Ravel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/492226/Maurice-Ravel>. {1828}
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Description Portrait de
Maurice Ravel (1875 - 1937) Date
1912 Source
www.durand-salabert-eschig.com,
libre d'utilisation pour usage
promotionnel. Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Photo ancienne sans mention
d'auteur exploitable, droits d'auteurs
(pour une publication anonyme)
expirés. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/Maurice_Ravel_1912.jp
g
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 7 		6246)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anianus Jedlik", Nature, Volume
53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
2. ^ Amédée Guillemin, tr: Silvanus
P. Thompson, "Electricity and
magnetism", London, MacMillan, 1891,
p765. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QznSAAAAMAAJ
3. ^ Joseph Henry, "On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion", American Journal of
Science, vol 20, 1831,
p340 http://books.google.com/books?id=G
xQeAQAAMAAJ
4. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Anianus Jedlik",
Nature, Volume 53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
7. ^ "Anianus Jedlik", Nature, Volume
53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
{1927-1928} {1827-1828}
Pannonhalma, Hungary (presumably)6
 
[1] Description English: The first
Jedlik motor Date Source
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ Auth
or
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Jedlik_motor.jpg

[2] Description: Ányos Jedlik
Note: from Hungarian Wikipedia, there
uploaded by hu:User:Mihalyia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Jedlikanyos.jpg
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 6 		6256)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anianus Jedlik", Nature, Volume
53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
2. ^ Amédée Guillemin, tr: Silvanus
P. Thompson, "Electricity and
magnetism", London, MacMillan, 1891,
p765. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QznSAAAAMAAJ
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinve
ntions/a/History-Of-Electric-Vehicles.ht
m
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Anianus Jedlik",
Nature, Volume 53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinve
ntions/a/History-Of-Electric-Vehicles.ht
m {1828}

MORE INFO
[1] Joseph Henry, "On a
Reciprocating motion produced by
Magnetic Attraction and Repulsion",
American Journal of Science, vol 20,
1831,
p340 http://books.google.com/books?id=G
xQeAQAAMAAJ
[2] "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
[3] "Anianus Jedlik", Nature, Volume
53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
Pannonhalma, Hungary (presumably)5
 
[1] Description English: Jedlik's
electric car in 1828, Hungary. Date
1958 Source Own work Author
Stears81 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Jedlik%27s_electric-c
ar.PNG

[2] Description English: The first
Jedlik motor Date Source
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ Auth
or
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Jedlik_motor.jpg
171 YBN
[03/05/1829 AD] 3 		3392) James Anderson transports 15
passengers in a steam road vehicle.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Elijah Galloway, Luke Hebert,
"History and Progress of the Steam
Engine: With a Practical Investigation
of ...", T. Kelly, 1829,
p556-557. http://books.google.com/books
?id=xv7-ubNiL2gC&pg=PA556&lpg=PA556&dq=%
22JAMES+ANDERSON%22+steam+engine&source=
web&ots=CrMRsESIda&sig=2wNwQWemybjImAYDS
LUjx7T5tsA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=1&ct=result#PPA556,M1
2. ^ Elijah Galloway, Luke Hebert,
"History and Progress of the Steam
Engine: With a Practical Investigation
of ...", T. Kelly, 1829,
p556-557. http://books.google.com/books
?id=xv7-ubNiL2gC&pg=PA556&lpg=PA556&dq=%
22JAMES+ANDERSON%22+steam+engine&source=
web&ots=CrMRsESIda&sig=2wNwQWemybjImAYDS
LUjx7T5tsA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=1&ct=result#PPA556,M1
3. ^ Elijah Galloway, Luke Hebert,
"History and Progress of the Steam
Engine: With a Practical Investigation
of ...", T. Kelly, 1829,
p556-557. http://books.google.com/books
?id=xv7-ubNiL2gC&pg=PA556&lpg=PA556&dq=%
22JAMES+ANDERSON%22+steam+engine&source=
web&ots=CrMRsESIda&sig=2wNwQWemybjImAYDS
LUjx7T5tsA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=1&ct=result#PPA556,M1 {03/05/1829}
Epping Forest, England2  
[1]
http://www.forum-auto.com/uploads/200510
/gv_creations_1129489954_l__avant_train_
de_gurney___1829.jpg Transport JAMES
ANDERSON - 1829 : PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490008_transpo
rts_james_anderson___1829.jpg
171 YBN
[03/27/1829 AD] 42 		2844) In 1830, Zantedeschi performs
experiments that show that prolonged
exposure to Sun light increases the
strength of unpolished permanent
magnets.30

Here is a translation with many
mistakes:
PS. I add in the form of an appendix to
the experience 1. and 2. Of Part 1.
Another fact I observed at times in
this month, which is my duty to
discuss, because it tends to connect
and unite the different electromagnetic
facts that arise. I have taken an iron
horse-shoe magnet that weighs
approximately a French pound, that can
support a weight of approximately 4 to
5 pounds, and around each pole I have
closely wrapped the thinnest wire of
copper so that, placing the magnet at a
distance of 15 to 16 Parisian feet, I
can verify/test the other extremity of
the wire. Now I take a multiplier to
two magnets, I have looped wire in the
same way (that of the copper surrounded
by silk) attached to two well polished
small thin copper plates, in between
two wooden rods, in order not to alter
the temperature, join the wires that I
have said to be in communication with
poles of the magnet, I have seen that
the magnetic needle turns from its
natural position declining towards the
east {when} the above pole (of the coil
of wire31 ) enters the magnetic action
of the North Pole, and towards the
West, if this (the coil32 ) enters
below it, otherwise of that which
passes with the ordinary electrical.
The declination was from 8� to
10�. My opinion is that this
phenomenon cannot be ascribed to the
electromotive faculty (force), because
the copper is found between two equal
and contrary forces. And data also, as
I have been experimenting in the
liquids, that the electrical currents,
have any direction; not defeated, like
the light and the radiant caloric,
would not have the multiplier give some
sign, as it does clearly. It seems
therefore that such effect must be
ascribed to the magnetic, and however
that the North Pole is equivalent to
the zinc pole of a voltaic apparatus. I
hope that others experimenting with
delicate multiplier pins, like with the
sideroscope of (M33 ) Lebaillif (a kind
of galvanometer34 ), can obtain greater
effects than I heard when they are at
their pleasure.35 36 37 38
(Interesting to end on the word
"pleasure", perhaps a partially
admitted pro-pleasurist.39 )

(Much of the parallel claims may be due
to people of different nations who have
known about the identify of magnetism
and electricity for years finally
making it public, perhaps even through
remote neuron writing on excluded
people or partial direct-to-brain
windows people.40 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francesco Zantedeschi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Z
antedeschi
2. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
3. ^)
4. ^ "Francesco Zantedeschi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Z
antedeschi
5. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
6. ^)
7. ^ "Francesco Zantedeschi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Z
antedeschi
8. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
9. ^)
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Francesco
Zantedeschi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Z
antedeschi
12. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
13. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
14. ^)
15. ^)
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.liceofoscarini.it/storia/bio/
zantedeschi.html
18. ^ http://babelfish.altavista.com/
19. ^ "Francesco Zantedeschi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Z
antedeschi
20. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
21. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
22. ^)
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Biblioteca
Italiana, o sia Giornale di
letteratura, scienze ed arti,1829,vol
53,pp398-402, p398.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
25. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
26. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Record
ID2972. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
30. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=fxsAAAA
AQAAJ&pg=RA6-PA44&lpg=RA6-PA44&dq=lebail
lif+scope&source=web&ots=36wpS-5ksg&sig=
A7KVLfh8fg1hdDtoB5Kr81UzNAw&hl=en#PRA6-P
A43,M1 (for a description of a
sideroscope of M Lebaillid)
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^)
36. ^ Ted
Huntington.
37. ^
http://www.liceofoscarini.it/storia/bio/
zantedeschi.html
38. ^ http://babelfish.altavista.com/
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^
Biblioteca Italiana, o sia Giornale di
letteratura, scienze ed arti,1829,vol
53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
42. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf (03/27/1829)

MORE INFO
[1] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantedeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[2] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantedeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
[5] http://www.wordreference.com/
Pavia, Italy41  
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html

[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
171 YBN
[11/19/1829 AD] 5 		2710) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)1
produce a glass of very high refractive
index that will lead him, in 1845, to
the discovery of diamagnetism.2
Faraday finds this while completing an
assignment from the Royal Society of
London to improve the quality of
optical glass for telescopes.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
4. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
5. ^ The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1b&pi=1 (11/19/1829)
(11/19/1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[7] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[8] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[9]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[11]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(Royal Institution in) London, England4
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 18 		2495) Thorium is a radioactive3
silvery white but turns gray or black
on exposure to air (oxygen or
nitrogen?4 ). It is about half as
abundant as lead and is three times
more abundant than uranium in the
Earth's crust. Thorium is commercially
recovered from the mineral monazite and
occurs also in thorite and thorianite.
Thorium has been produced in commercial
quantities by reduction of the fluoride
(ThF4) and dioxide (ThO2) and by
electrolysis of the chloride (ThCl4).5


Thorium's longest-lived isotope, the
only one that occurs naturally, is Th
232 with a half-life of 1.41 × 1010
years.6 Thorium has 26 known
radioactive isotopes, only 12 of which
have half-lives greater than 1 sec.7

Thorium has atomic number 90; atomic
weight 232.038; approximate melting
point 1,750°C; approximate boiling
point 4,500°C; approximate specific
gravity 11.7; valence 4.8

At ordinary temperatures thorium has a
face-centered cubic crystalline
structure. Thorium is a member of the
actinide series in Group 3 of the
periodic table and is sometimes classed
as one of the rare-earth metals. When
pure, Thorium metal is stable and
resists oxidation, but it is usually
contaminated with small amounts of the
oxide, which cause it to tarnish
rapidly. Thorium reacts slowly with
water and is attacked only by
hydrochloric acid among the common
acids. The finely divided thorium metal
readily ignites when heated, burning
with a brilliant white flame; the
thorium oxide formed has the highest
melting point of all oxides. Thorium
forms numerous compounds with other
elements.9

Thorium-232 undergoes natural
disintegration and eventually is
converted through a 10-step chain of
isotopes to lead-208, a stable isotope;
alpha and beta particles are emitted
during this decay. One intermediate
product is the gas radon-220, also
called thorium emanation or thoron.
Thorium and its decay products are
sometimes used in radiotherapy.10
Although not a nuclear reactor fuel
itself, thorium-232 can be used in
breeder reactors because, on capturing
slow-moving neutrons, (thorium11 )
decays into fissionable uranium-233.12

(Because of this13 ) thorium is
expected to become increasingly
important for conversion into the
fissionable fuel uranium-233.14

Thorium-232 can react with a thermal
(slow) neutron to form thorium-233,
emitting (a quantity of photons with
gamma frequency15 ).16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"thorium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "article 9072236".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2236
6. ^ "thorium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
7. ^ "thorium". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
8. ^ "thorium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
9. ^ "thorium". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
10. ^ "thorium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "thorium". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "thorium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "thorium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
17. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp288-289. (1829)
(1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[2] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[3]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
[7] "Thorium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
Stokholm, Sweden17 (presumably) 
[1] Thorium metal foil (approximately
0.5 mm thick) sealed in a glass ampoule
under an argon atmosphere to prevent
oxidation. Sample is from the personal
collection of Justin Urgitis. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thorium.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 11 		2507)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp290-291.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Element". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
8. ^ Record ID3307. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Element".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
10. ^ "johann wolfgang d bereiner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-wolf
gang-d-bereiner?cat=technology
11. ^ "johann wolfgang d bereiner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-wolf
gang-d-bereiner?cat=technology (1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0738/Johann-Wolfgang-Dobereiner
[2] "Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolf
gang_D%C3%B6bereiner
[3]
http://www.answers.com/vapor?cat=health
Jena, Germany10 (presumably) 
[1] * Title: Johann Wolfgang
Döbereiner * Year: unknown *
Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 5 		2575)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305.
2. ^ "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
3. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
4. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
5. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje (1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland3
4  
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 4 		2577) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), describes the experimental
effects on humans of camphor, opium,
belladonna, and turpentine and the
visual images produced by poisoning
with digitalis and belladonna.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
2. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
3. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
4. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje (1829)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland2
3  
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 12 		2735) From 1816 to 1838 Coriolis is an
assistant professor of analysis and
mechanics at the École Polytechnique,
Paris.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
2. ^ "Gustave Gaspard
Coriolis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
6. ^ "Gustave
Gaspard Coriolis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
11. ^ "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323. (1829)
(1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Coriolis Effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_Ef
fect
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gustave+Gaspard+d
e+Coriolis+?cat=technology
[3] "Coriolis force". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6305/Coriolis-force
[4] "Coriolis Effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_Ef
fect "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
Paris, France11  
[1] Gustave Coriolis [Coriolis, detail
of a portrait by Zéphirin Belliard,
19th century, after a painting by Jean
Roller; in the Académie des Sciences,
Paris Courtesy of the Archives de
l'Academie des Sciences de Paris;
photograph, J. Colomb-Gerard, Paris
[2]] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustave_coriolis.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 5 6 		2761) Thomas Addison (CE 1793-1860),
English physician1 with John Morgan,
publishes "An Essay on the Operation of
Poisonous Agents upon the Living Body"
(1829), the first English book on
toxicology.2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p324.
2. ^ "Thomas
Addison". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3700/Thomas-Addison
3. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
4. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
5. ^ "Thomas Addison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3700/Thomas-Addison (1829)
6. ^ "Thomas
Addison". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health (1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Addison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Addi
son
[2] "Addison's Disease". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Addison'
s_Disease
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Guy's Hospital) London, England4
 
[1] Thomas Addison,
1795-1870 PD/Corel
source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 64 65 		2767) In 1802 Lobachevsky lives in
Kazan, studying on a government
scholarship at the Gymnasium.41
After
1807 Lobachevsky attends Kazan State
University, which had been opened by
Tsar Alexander I in 1804.42
(At Kazan
State University43 ), Lobachevsky's
teachers are German professors invited
to the university, in particular the
mathematician Martin Bartels, a friend
of Gauss noted for his encyclopedic
knowledge of mathematics.44
In 1812
Lobachevsky earns a master's degree
from the university.45
In 1814
Lobachevsky earns the degree of adjunct
of pure mathematics and permission to
teach independently.46
From 1816
Lobachevsky is professor
extraordinarius.47
In 1819 the Kazan
regional board of education institutes
a xenophobic (undo fear of all things
foreign in particular people48 )
policy, and the German faculty
leaves.49
The resulting shortage of
professors leads to a rapid advancement
in Lobachevsky's career.50
In 1823
Lobachevsky publishes a gymnasium
textbook in geometry.51
In 1824,
Lobachevsky publishes an algebra
textbook.52
In 1827 Lobachevsky is
rector of (Kazan53 ) University.54
Lobac
hevsky encourages the dissemination of
education in the extensive Kazan
district.55
In 1830-1831 Lobachevsky is
instrumental in stopping the spread of
a virulent cholera epidemic among the
teachers and students of the university
by means of a rigid quarantine.56
In
order to inform Western scientists
about his new ideas, in 1837
Lobachevsky publishes an article in
French ("Geometrie imaginaire") and in
1840 a small book in German
(Geometrische Untersuchungen zur
Theorie der Parallellinien).
Lobachevsky's article "Pangeometry"
appears in Russian in 1855 and in
French in 1856, the year of his
death.57
In 1842, Lobachevsky saves
the university from a devastating fire
that sweeps through Kazan.58
Despite
his efficient and devoted service, in
1846 he was relieved by the government
of his posts of professor and rector.59
 No reason is given.60
Carl Friedrich
Gauss helps to get Lobachevsky's
election as an honorary member of the
Gottingen Scientific Society.61
Apart
from geometry, Lobachevsky also does
important work in the theory of
infinite series, algebraic equations,
integral calculus, and probability.62
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
3. ^ NI
Lobachevsky, (translated from Russian)
"On the foundations of geometry", Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, "Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.
4. ^ Lobachevski, tr:
Halsted "The Theory of the Parallels",
1914, p3.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ A History of
Non-Euclidean Geometry, Evolution of
the Concept of a Geometric Space, B. A.
Rosenfeld, 1988, p208.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
11. ^ "Lobachevsky".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
17. ^ "Nikolay
Ivanovich Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
18. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
19. ^ "Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia of
Russian History. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
20. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ A History of
Non-Euclidean Geometry, Evolution of
the Concept of a Geometric Space, B. A.
Rosenfeld, 1988, p206.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^
"Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
25. ^ "Lobachevsky". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=UhgPAAA
AIAAJ&dq=euclid+elements&as_brr=1&pg=PA2
02&ci=21,171,899,265&source=bookclip">Th
e Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements
By Euclides, Johan Ludvig Heiberg
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ "Lobachevsky". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich
Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
41. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich
Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
44. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
45. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
46. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
47. ^ "popup?va=xenophobic".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=x
enophobic
48. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
49. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
50. ^ "Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia of
Russian History. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
51. ^ "Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia of
Russian History. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich
Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
54. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
55. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
56. ^ "Lobachevsky". Encyclopedia of
Russian History. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
57. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
58. ^ "Lobachevsky". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
59. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p326.
60. ^ "Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia of Russian History. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
61. ^ "Lobachevsky". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology
62. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8666/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobachevsky
63. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326. (1829)
64. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1826 announces) (1829)
65. ^ "Lobachevsky".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology (1826 announces)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lobachevsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobachevsky

[2] "Kazan State University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan_State
_University
[3]
http://www.answers.com/parallel+postulat
e?cat=technology
[4] "Euclid's Elements". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_
Elements
Kazan, Russia63  
[1] Figure 8, p19. From German
translation of: NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) ''On the
foundations of geometry'', Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, ''Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen''
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972. PD
source: N I Lobachevskii; Friedrich
Engel, "Zwei geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.

[2] Description Pic of a 19th
century painting. Public domain, from
en wiki image Source
en:Image:Nikolay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsk
y.jpeg Date 19th century PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Nikol
ay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky.jpeg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 5 		2771) Eilhardt Mitscherlich (miCRliK)
(CE 1794-1863), German chemist1 ,
publishes "Lehrbuch der Chemie, which
embodies many original observations2 ,
and is a successful and well regarded
textbook of chemistry.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
2. ^ "Eilhardt
Mitscherlich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilhardt_Mi
tscherlich
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
4. ^ "Eilhardt
Mitscherlich". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327. (1829)
(1829)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Eilhardt+Mitscher
lich+?cat=technology
[2] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eilhardt
_Mitscherlich
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingaleev/scilog
y/#Mitscherlich
[5] "Selenic acid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenic_aci
d
[6] Seppelt, K. �Selenoyl
difluoride� Inorganic Syntheses,
1980, volume XX, pp. 36-38. ISBN
0-471-07715-1. The report describes the
synthesis of selenic acid.
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg

[2] Mitscherlich, Eilhardt (January
17, 1794 - August 28, 1863) German
chemist who discovered the Law of
Isomorphism. He also made other
important discoveries, including
selenic acid (1827) and the monoclinic
crystal form of sulfur (1823), named
benzene, became the first to synthesize
nitrobenzene in 1832, and was one of
the first to recognize contact action,
now known as catalytic action. PD
source: http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingalee
v/scilogy/Mitscherlich.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 6 		2789) German naturalist (Baron von)
Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander
Humboldt (CE 1769-1859)1 is funded by
Russian Czar Nicolas I to explore lands
owned by Russia in Central Asia and
Siberia.2 3

Humboldt is accompanied by another
German naturalist, Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (IreNBRG) (CE 1795-1876)4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
2. ^ "Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p329.
5. ^ "Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
6. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
(1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
[2] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_v
on_Humboldt
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
Siberia, Russia5  
[1] * Description: Alexander von
Humboldt, oil paint on canvas, 126 x
92,5 cm * Author: Friedrich Georg
Weitsch, 1806 * Gallery:
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -
Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Alte
Nationalgalerie Berlin * Source:
http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatr
on/portrait.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 16 		2898) Wheatstone shows that every
Chladni figure is the resultant of two
or more sets of isochronous parallel
vibrations.9 (chronology10 )
In 1834
Wheatstone is made professor of
experimental philosophy at King's
College, London.11
Wheatstone can never
become a lecturer on account of his
shyness. Therefore many of Wheatstone's
investigations are first described by
Faraday in his Friday evening
discourses at the Royal Institution.12

Wheatstone invents the "Playfair
cipher", which is based on substituting
different pairs of letters for paired
letters in the message.13

Wheatstone manufactures musical
instruments.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p348.
4. ^ Charles
Wheatstone, "On The Prismatic
Decomposition of Electrical Light",
Report of the British Association,
1835. From Charles Wheatstone,
Physical Society (Great Britain,
Physical Society of London, "The
Scientific Papers of Sir Charles
Wheatstone",
p223-224. http://books.google.com/books
?id=rD4GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=%
22The+Prismatic+Decomposition+of+Electri
cal+Light%22&source=web&ots=7rsYFoucm2&s
ig=rWtP_eDtKGqNf4Tk9ISirTCOe7Q&hl=en#PPA
222-IA1,M1
5. ^ Charles Wheatstone,
"Contributions to the Physiology of
Vision. Part the First. On Some
Remarkable, and Hitherto Unobserved,
Phenomena of Binocular Vision",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
128, 1838,
p371-394. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/40487007n6mk4u22/?p=520c19de
31f041f8958151754f6b5a92π=9
6. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "Contributions
to the Physiology of Vision.Part II. On
Some Remarkable, and Hitherto
Unobserved, Phaenomena of Binocular
Vision,(Continued).", Abstracts of the
Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London (1843-1854), Volume 6
- 1850/1854,
p138-141. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/d30g05382168460j/?p=a06b335b
5a234f89af9d58b9b1e29284π=8
7. ^ "Charles Wheatstone", "Obituary
Notices of Fellows Deceased",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 24,
1875/1876, p
i-xl. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/x136l16rmk207v78/?p=b5bd57d44dfb
4da0a0f4f5d206ec12c2π=1 {Wheatstone_ob
ituary.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
12. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
13. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
15. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348. (1829) (1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England15  
[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to right:
Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry Huxley,
Charles Wheatstone, David Brewster,
John Tyndall Deutsch: Charles
Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 14 		2946) In 1825, Jacobi converts to
Christianity, and a position opens for
him at the University of Berlin.11
Asimo
v relates that because Jacobi is
Jewish, it is unusual that he gets a
teaching position at an important
school.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ "Carl Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp348-349.
4. ^ "Elliptic
functions". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_fu
nctions
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/elliptic+function
s?cat=technology
6. ^ "Elliptic functions". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_fu
nctions
7. ^ "Elliptic functions". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_fu
nctions
8. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
9. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Carl Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp348-349.
13. ^ "Carl Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
14. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi (1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav
_Jacob_Jacobi
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-gustav
-jakob-jacobi?cat=technology
[3] "Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Gus
tav_Jacob_Jacobi
[4] "Complex plane". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_pla
ne
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Jacobi.html
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany13  
[1] Complex Plane GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com
plex_plane#cite_note-0

[2] Carl Jacobi (1804-1851) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Jacobi_%282%29.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 21 22 23 24 		3009) Graham's father is determined
that Thomas should enter the ministry
and when Thomas persists with his
scientific studies, his father
withdraws financial support.14
Graham
is the first president of the Chemical
Society of London, and of the Cavendish
Society, which Graham founds.15
Graham
is the first to suggest that alcohol
intended for nondrinking use by
adultereated with poison ("denatured
alcohol") to prevent or punish
unauthorized drinking. (This seems so
destructive and dangerous. This is like
practically arranging a potential
poisoning. What is alcohol denatured
with? I think people should rely on
education to lower alcohol addiction
without the use of poisons.16 )
Graham
became an enthusiastic supporter of the
atomic theory first suggested by John
Dalton.17
Graham also devised the sand
tray for heating flasks.18 (chronology
and more info on usefulness19 )
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
2. ^ "Thomas Graham".
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
6. ^ "Thomas
Graham". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "effusion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/effusion
9. ^ "Thomas Graham". A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
11. ^ "Thomas
Graham". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
12. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Thomas Graham". A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
15. ^ "Thomas Graham". A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
18. ^
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Thomas Graham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
21. ^ "Thomas Graham". A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am (1829)
22. ^ "Graham, Thomas".
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>. (1829)
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360. (1831)
24. ^
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html (1833)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%27s_
Law
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Grah
am_%28chemist%29
(Mechanics' Institute) Glasgow,
Scotland20  
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 16 		3107) Galois' collected works are
published, in "Journal de Liouville"
(1846), pp. 381-444, about fifty of
these pages being occupied by
researches on the resolubility of
algebraic equations by radicals. Galois
is credited with the notion of a group
of substitutions.9

When Galois writes a vigorous article
expressing pro-republican views, he is
promptly expelled from the École
Normale Supérieure. Subsequently,
Galois is arrested twice for republican
activities; Galois is acquitted the
first time but spends six months in
prison on the second charge.10
In
1815, during the Hundred Days regime
that followed Napoleon's escape from
Elba, Galois' father is elected mayor
of the Paris suburb of
Bourg-la-Reine.11

Augustin-Louis Cauchy loses a memoir on
the solvability of algebraic equations
that Galois had submitted in 1829 to
the French Academy of Sciences.12

Galois fails in two attempts (1827 and
1829) to gain admission to the École
Polytechnique,13

Galois is shot and killed by a gun
before the age of 21 in a duel.14
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377-378.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Galois, Évariste." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Galois, Évariste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
6. ^ "radical." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 15
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radical-in-
mathematics
7. ^ "Galois, Évariste." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Evariste Galois".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Evariste
_Galois
10. ^ "Galois, Évariste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
11. ^ "Galois, Évariste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
12. ^ "Galois, Évariste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
13. ^ "Galois, Évariste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377-378.
15. ^ "Galois,
Évariste." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>.
16. ^ "Galois, Évariste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5928>. (1829 (paper to Cauchy)

MORE INFO
[1] "Evariste Galois". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evariste_Ga
lois
[2] "Évariste Galois." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/evariste-ga
lois
[3] "Évariste Galois." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/evariste-ga
lois
[4] "Galois theory". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_theo
ry
[5] http://www.galois-group.net/
[6]
http://eom.springer.de/R/r077110.htm
[7] "Galois and group theory." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/galois-and-
group-theory
[8] "Evariste Galois", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p273
Paris, France15  
[1] Évariste Galois
(1811–1832) PD/Corel
source: http://matematica.unibocconi.it/
interventi/galois/Evariste_galois.jpg

[2] Évariste Galois, detail of an
engraving, 1848, after a drawing by
Alfred Galois. Courtesy of the
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
11616&rendTypeId=4
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 3 		5985)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gioachino Rossini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gioachino-r
ossini
2. ^ "Gioachino Rossini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gioachino-r
ossini
3. ^ "Gioachino Rossini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gioachino-r
ossini {1829}
Paris, France2  
[1] Description Gioachino Antonio
Rossini (1792-1868), composer Date
n.d. (c. 1855?) Source
Ransom Humanities Research Center,
The Univ. of Texas at Austin Author
Anonymous
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain Other versions
scanned from: Parker, Roger (ed.),
''The Oxford History of Opera'' Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1996. illus.
7(ii). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Rossini_7.jpg

[2] Description Gioachino
Rossini Date Source Own
work Author Giorces PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/GiorcesRossini1.jpg
170 YBN
[09/15/1830 AD] 4 5 		2517) When the Liverpool-Manchester
line is nearing completion in 1829, a
competition is held for locomotives;
Stephenson's new engine, the Rocket,
which he built with his son, Robert,
won with a speed of 36 miles (58 km)
per hour. Eight locomotives, all built
in Stephenson's Newcastle works, are
used when the Liverpool-Manchester line
opens on Sept. 15, 1830. From this time
on, railroad building spreads rapidly
throughout Britain, Europe, and North
America, and George Stephenson
continues as the chief guide of the
railroad revolution solving problems
such as roadway construction, bridge
design, and locomotive manufacture, in
addition to building other railways.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293.
2. ^ "George
Stephenson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
3. ^ "George Stephenson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson
4. ^ "George Stephenson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9612/George-Stephenson (09/15/1830)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp292-293. (1830)
(1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Stephenson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Step
henson
[2]
http://www.answers.com/George%20Stephens
on%20
Liverpool (and Manchester), England3
 
[1] George Stephenson
(1781-1848) Source Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/
portraits/index.html?img=362 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson.jpg

[2] George Stephenson - Project
Gutenberg etext 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson_-_Project_Gutenberg
_etext_13103.jpg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 		1210)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine
2. ^ "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine
  
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 9 		2527)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "William Sturgeon". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Sturgeon?
cat=technology
8. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295. (1830) (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Sturgeon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stu
rgeon
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/sturge
on.html
Surrey, England8 (presumably) 
[1] William Sturgeon PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html

[2] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: same
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 3 		2535)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296.
2. ^ "François
Magendie". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Fran%C3%A7ois%20M
agendie%20
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp295-296. (1830)
(1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francois Magendie".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9982/Francois-Magendie
[2] "François Magendie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Magendie
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 8 		2556) In 1830 Lister beings grinding
his own lenses and develops techniques
that Lister teaches to optical
instrument makers in London.5
Lister is
the father of the surgeon Joseph
Lister.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p300.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Joseph Jackson Lister".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8499/Joseph-Jackson-Lister
6. ^ "Joseph Jackson Lister".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8499/Joseph-Jackson-Lister
7. ^ "Joseph Jackson Lister".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8499/Joseph-Jackson-Lister
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p300. (1830) (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Jackson Lister".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Jack
son_Lister
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
london, England7 (presumbly) 
[1] Photocopy from 1917 biography of
Lord Lister's Autobiography by Sir
Rickman Godlee (died in 1925) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lister.jpg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 10 		2562) Amici makes microscopes that can
examine objects with 6000 times
magnification.3

Using an improved micrometer of his own
design, Amici makes accurate
measurements of the polar and
equatorial diameters of the Sun.4

Amici builds lenses, mirrors and
spectroscopic prisms for use in
telescopes.5 )

Amici invents a combination of three
prisms that is still used in
spectroscopy and is known as the Amici
prism.6
From 1815 to 1825 Amici is
professor of mathematics at the
University of Modena.7
In 1831 Amici
is invited by the grand duke of
Florence to head the observatory and
Museum of Natural History in Florence.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p301.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p301.
4. ^ "Giovanni
Battista Amici". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6170/Giovanni-Battista-Amici
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p301.
6. ^ "Giovanni
Battista Amici". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni%20Battis
ta%20Amici
7. ^ "Giovanni Battista Amici".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6170/Giovanni-Battista-Amici
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p301.
9. ^ "Giovanni
Battista Amici". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6170/Giovanni-Battista-Amici
10. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Battista Amici".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Amici
Modena, Italy9 (presumably) 
[1] Subject : Giovanni Battista Amici
(1786-1863) Specialist : italian
astronom and microscopist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amici_Giovanni_Battista_1786-1863.png

170 YBN
[1830 AD] 9 		2573) The English chemist Henry Enfield
Roscoe are the first to isolate
vanadium metal in 1867 by hydrogen
reduction of vanadium dichloride, VCl2,
and the American chemists John Wesley
Marden and Malcolm N. Rich will obtain
vanadium in 99.7 percent purity in 1925
by reduction of vanadium pentoxide,
V2O5, with calcium metal.6
Sefström
studies under Jöns Berzelius in
Stockholm, graduating in 1813.7
Starting
in 1820 Sefström teaches chemistry at
the School of Mines.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p304.
2. ^ "article
9074783". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4783
3. ^ "nils gabriel sefstr m". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nils-gabrie
l-sefstr-m?cat=technology
4. ^ Record ID2349. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p304.
6. ^ "article
9074783". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4783
7. ^ "nils gabriel sefstr m". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nils-gabrie
l-sefstr-m?cat=technology
8. ^ "nils gabriel sefstr m". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nils-gabrie
l-sefstr-m?cat=technology
9. ^ "article 9074783". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4783 (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nils Gabriel Sefström".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nils_Gabrie
l_Sefstr%C3%B6m
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
 
[1] Nils Gabriel Sefström: Swedish
chemist, physician. June 2, 1787 -
November 30, 1845. Sefström was
Professor at the Caroline Institute of
Medicine and Surgery and at the School
of Mines in Sweden. He discovered
vanadium at the Taberg
mine. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/lab
/PTL/ptl/CHEMISTS/sefstrom.html
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 8 		2624) Hall's other works include "The
Diagnosis of Diseases" (1817) and
"Memoirs on the Nervous System"
(1837).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
2. ^ "Marshall Hall".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marshall%20Hall%2
0
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
4. ^ "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Marshall Hall". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marshall%20Hall%2
0
7. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
8. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marshall Hall
(physiologist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Ha
ll_%28physiologist%29
London, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 4 5 		2636) George Peacock (PEKoK) (CE
1791-1858), publishes "Treatise on
Algebra" which attempts to give algebra
a logical treatment comparable to
Euclid's "Elements". Peacock (defines1
) two types of algebra, arithmetical
algebra and symbolic algebra. Peacock
describes symbolic algebra as "the
science which treats the combinations
of arbitrary signs and symbols by means
defined through arbitrary laws." (and
arithmetical algebra as...2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314. (1830) (1830)
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Peacock.html (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-44782
5/George-Peacock
[2] "George Peacock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peac
ock
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] George Peacock (1791-1858), English
mathematician. Source en.wikipedia
(see there the description page) Date
XIX century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Peacock.jpg

[2] George Peacock PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Peacock.html
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 6 		2746) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 publishes
"Reflections on the Decline of Science
in England, and on Some of Its Causes"
(1830, London, B. Fellowes).2

This work is directed almost
exclusively at the Royal Society. One
improvement Babbage suggests is
biannual elections for president as
opposed to lifetime Presidency.3

Babbage blames "the party" which
governs the Royal Society and not the
members, and near the end of his
preface uses the expression "by
ratifying it" which may imply that
those who inform the public about the
growing number of technological secrets
may be frowned on as "rats", although
perhaps this is simply coincidence.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
3. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, vol7.
4. ^ The works of
Charles Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, vol7.
5. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
6. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage (1830)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 8 		2779) In 1817 Mädler graduates from a
Gymnasium and teaches in a seminary in
Berlin.5
In Berlin Mädler befriends
Wilhelm Beer (1797-1850), a banker and
amateur astronomer who owns a private
observatory.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
2. ^ "Johann Heinrich
von Madler". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
5. ^ "Johann Heinrich
von Madler". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
6. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
7. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
8. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Heinrich Mädler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_M%C3%A4dler
[2] "Wilhelm Beer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
4105/Wilhelm-Beer
[3] "Wilhelm Beer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Bee
r
Berlin, Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Handbook of astronomy By Dionysius
Lardner Published 1860 Walton and
Maberly Original from Oxford
University Digitized Sep 7,
2006 p210 (p271) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=AjQDAAAAQAAJ

[2] ibid p210 (p273) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=AjQDAAAAQAAJ
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 35 		2802) At age 15 Lyell reads Robert
Bakewell's "Introduction to Geology"
(1813), which arouses Lyell's interest
in geology.17
In 1819, Lyell gets a
bachelor's degree from Exeter College,
Oxford.18
Lyell joins the Geological
Society, becoming its secretary in 1823
and later president for two terms.19
In
1825, Lyell is admitted to the bar
(certified to work as a lawyer20 ).21
Ly
ell works as a lawyer intermittently
for 3 years.22
From May 1828 to
February 1829 Lyell explores the
geology of Europe.23
From 1831 to 1833,
Lyell serves as the first professor of
geology at King's College, London.24
In
1832 and 1833 Lyell delivers
well-received lectures at King's
College, London, afterward resigning
the professorship as too
time-consuming.25
In 1833, Lyell meets
Cuvier and Humboldt in Paris.26
The
young Darwin is friends with and will
be influenced by Lyell.27
In the 1840s
Lyell visits America and see many
important geological sites.28
Lyell's
lectures at the Lowell Institute in
Boston attract thousands of people of
both genders and every (income level29
).30
Lyell long objects to church
domination of British colleges and
helps to begin educational reform at
Oxford university.31
Lyell will be one
of the first converts to Darwin's
theory of evolution.32
Lyell is a
strong proponent of the North in the US
Civil War, while most others of the
upper class of England were
pro-Southern.33
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
2. ^ "Charles Lyell".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp193-194.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
5. ^ "Charles
Lyell". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
6. ^ Record ID2069. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Record
ID36. Universe, Life, Science, Future.
Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
13. ^ "Charles Lyell". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
17. ^ "Charles
Lyell". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
18. ^ "Charles Lyell". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
19. ^ "Charles Lyell". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
22. ^ "Charles Lyell". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
23. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
24. ^ "Charles Lyell". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
25. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
28. ^ "Sir
Charles Lyell Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
31. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
34. ^ "Sir
Charles Lyell Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
35. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Lyell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lye
ll
[2] "Sir Charles Lyell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Lyell
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=3DyGni3
-5jsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Geological+
Evidences+of+the+Antiquity+of+Man++lyell
#PPP1,M1 actual text
London, England34 (presumably) 
[1] The frontispiece from Charles
Lyell's Principles of Geology (second
American edition, 1857), showing the
origins of different rock
types. [edit] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lyell_Principles_frontispiece.jpg

[2] Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ *
05:04, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
350x392 (23,102 bytes) (from meta;
Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here Date
Commons upload by Magnus Manske
14:47, 9 May 2006 (UTC) Author User
Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell.jpg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 5 		2848) Oxymide is a white crystalline
neutral substance (C2O2(NH2)2) obtained
by treating ethyl oxalate with ammonia.
Oxymide is the acid amide of oxalic
acid.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^ "oxamide". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oxamide
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[3] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
[4] "Oxamide". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxamide
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France4
(presumably) 
[1] Oxamide C2O2N2H4 PD French
chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa
mide

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 6 		3271) This is an early instance of
people using violence because of anger
that machines has taken their jobs. A
similar event happens in England with
the Spinning Jenny. The walking robots
will ultimately take many jobs away
from humans, but like all technological
advances, ultimately the majority
benefits from the increased production
of the robots. Ultimately the robots
will be unpaid labor seeding, growing,
harvesting, packaging and distributing
for to the humans for less cost while
humans get the rewards without having
to work, clean, or do unthinking
low-skill labor.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sewing machine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/536932/sewing-machine>.
2. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "sewing
machine." How Products are Made. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 14
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
6. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "sewing machine." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine (1790)
France5  
[1] Thimonnier�s first machine
� now in the Lyon Museum PD
source: http://www.ismacs.net/sewing_mac
hine_articles/images/thimonniers_first_s
ewing_machine.jpg

[2] Portreto de Barthélemy
Thimonnier PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Thimonnier_portreto.j
pg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 16 17 18 19 		4003) Wilhelm Weber is the brother of
the noted scientists Ernst Heinrich
Weber and Eduard Friedrich Weber, both
of whom worked in anatomy and
physiology.10

In 1825, with his elder brother Weber
publishes a well known treatise on
waves, "Die Wellenlehre auf Experimente
gegrundet"11 ("Wave teachings based on
experiments"12 ).
In 1833 With his younger
brother, the physiologist Eduard
Friedrich Weber (1806-1871), Weber
publishes an investigation into the
mechanism of walking.13

In 1837, a new King began his reign in
Hanover. He suspends the constitution
and this creates vigorous protests from
several of the professors at the
University, Weber among them. To punish
them, seven Professors are dismissed
from their chairs, and three are even
banished from the country. Weber is
forced into retirement for some
years.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der
akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
4. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
5. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
6. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
7. ^ Schilling musikalisches
Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in
English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article
Acoustics by William Weber.
8. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology
11. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Wilhelm Eduard Weber". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
12. ^ http://babelfish.altavista.com/tr
13. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Wilhelm Eduard Weber". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
14. ^ Wilhelm Eduard Weber (obituary),
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, v.27 (1891-92),
p449-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oLcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449&dq=wilhelm+web
er&ei=3aP_SNOrKJH2sQPRr9S3DA#PPA449,M1
15. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
16. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false {1830}
17. ^
Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false {1830}
18. ^ edited
by Clarence John Blake, "The American
journal of otology, Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
19. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1837)
(University of) Göttingen, Germany15
 
[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 4 		4699)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {1830 (guess}
London, England3 (guess)  
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 4 		5987) (Louis-)Hector Berlioz (CE
1803-1869), French composer, critic,
and conductor of the Romantic period,
composes his "Symphonie fantastique".1
2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hector Berlioz." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hector-berl
ioz
2. ^ "Hector Berlioz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62247/Hector-Berlioz>.
3. ^ "Hector Berlioz." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hector-berl
ioz
4. ^ "Hector Berlioz." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hector-berl
ioz {1830}
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Photo of en:Hector
Berlioz (1803 – 1869) Date n.d.
(ca. 1855); after [1] taken between
summer 1864 and July 1865 by Franck
[2] Source Berkshire Fine Arts:
http://www.berkshirefinearts.com/show_ar
ticle.php?article_id=151&category=Music
Author cabinet card, stamped
''Franck, Phot(ographer)'' (Paris);
François-Marie-Louis-Alexandre Gobinet
de Villecholle) (pseudonym Franck) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Hector_Berlioz_Crop.j
pg
169 YBN
[01/03/1831 AD] 12 		2806)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph Henry, "On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion", American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879). New
Haven: Jan 3, 1831. Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p.
340 (4 pages)
books.google.com/books?id=GxQeAQAAMAAJ
and http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?ind
ex=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&sid=8&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&aid=1 {H
enry_1831_Electric_motor_reciprocating.p
df}
2. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary lessons in electricity &
magnetism", 1889,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZfUKAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
4. ^ Joseph Henry,
"On a Reciprocating motion produced by
Magnetic Attraction and Repulsion",
American Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 3, 1831.
Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p. 340 (4 pages)
books.google.com/books?id=GxQeAQAAMAAJ
and http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?ind
ex=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&sid=8&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&aid=1 {H
enry_1831_Electric_motor_reciprocating.p
df}
5. ^ Joseph Henry, "On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion", American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879). New
Haven: Jan 3, 1831. Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p.
340 (4 pages)
books.google.com/books?id=GxQeAQAAMAAJ
and http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?ind
ex=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&sid=8&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&aid=1 {H
enry_1831_Electric_motor_reciprocating.p
df}
6. ^ Joseph Henry, "On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion", American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879). New
Haven: Jan 3, 1831. Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p.
340 (4 pages)
books.google.com/books?id=GxQeAQAAMAAJ
and http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?ind
ex=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&sid=8&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&aid=1 {H
enry_1831_Electric_motor_reciprocating.p
df}
7. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary lessons in electricity &
magnetism", 1889,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZfUKAQAAIAAJ
8. ^ "Anianus Jedlik", Nature, Volume
53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
9. ^ Amédée Guillemin, tr: Silvanus
P. Thompson, "Electricity and
magnetism", London, MacMillan, 1891,
p765. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QznSAAAAMAAJ
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
11. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
12. ^ Joseph Henry, "On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion", American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879). New
Haven: Jan 3, 1831. Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p.
340 (4 pages)
books.google.com/books?id=GxQeAQAAMAAJ
and http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?ind
ex=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&sid=8&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&aid=1 {H
enry_1831_Electric_motor_reciprocating.p
df} (01/03/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[3] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[6]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[7]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
Albany, NY, USA10 11  
[1] [t Two wires on one side are dipped
in the mercury cups to make a
connection which causes the bar on top
to have a magnetic field that pushes
down the other side, which then dips in
the other side creating an opposite
magnetic field, and the bar moves back
and forth on the axis in the center.
Presumably the closed circuit is made
by the two wires on each
side.] PD/Corel
source: Henry_1831_Electric_motor_recipr
ocating.pdf http://proquest.umi.com/pqd
link?index=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&s
id=8&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309
&VName=HNP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&a
id=1 ART. XVII.--On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion; JOSEPH HENRY. American
Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 3, 1831.
Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p. 340 (4 pages)

[2] same as above but with Henry's
text PD/Corel
source: Henry_1831_Electric_motor_recipr
ocating.pdf http://proquest.umi.com/pqd
link?index=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&s
id=8&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309
&VName=HNP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&a
id=1 ART. XVII.--On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion; JOSEPH HENRY. American
Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 3, 1831.
Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p. 340 (4 pages)
169 YBN
[02/17/1831 AD] 113 		2702) The transformer makes use of the
important principle of dynamic
electromagnet induction, how moving
electrical particles can induce other
electrical particles to move in an
unconnected conductor.48 Static
electric induction was first described
in 1753 by John Canton (CE 1718-1772).
Electrostatic induction is how an
electrified object can induce an
opposite charge in a second object
without touching by being close to the
electrified object.49

Faraday reports his production of
electric current from magnetism
initially on February 17, 1831, which
is reported in the April edition of the
"Annals of Philosophy" under
"Proceedings of the Royal
Institution"50 and then gives a more
detailed account which is published on
August 29, 183151 52 .

In the spring of 1831 Faraday began
working with Charles Wheatstone on the
theory of sound. Faraday is
particularly fascinated by the Chladni
figures formed in light powder spread
on iron plates when these plates are
vibrated by a violin bow. Faraday
observes that such patterns can be
induced in one plate by bowing another
plate nearby. According to the
Encyclopedia Britannica, this acoustic
induction is apparently what lay behind
Faraday's most famous experiment which
results in the discovery of magnetic
induction of electrical current.53


Why is there only a change in current
and not a similar current as Faraday
had expected? I think the explanation
for this is that if a current is made
of photons, or even electrons, or other
particles, photon particles spill-out,
outside of the wire and surround it.
Current appears to move in a spiral
shape like water going down a drain,
and this may reflect the movement of
photons through the atomic structure of
metals. This spiral shape is reflected
in the electric field around a wire
which current is moving through. The
photons outside the wire are less in
quantity and less dense than in the
wire. So I think that as the current in
the first wire is initiated, a hole in
the battery is caused, which starts a
chain of particles (I think are photons
but could be electrons) moving in a
spiral within and around the first
wire. These first photons collide with
the coiled wire on the other side, and
these photons fill holes in the second
coiled wire which causes the photons to
flow in the second wire, however once
these holes or channels are filled
(there is no where else for the photons
to go except out as heat), photons
simply bounce off (or replace those
lost as heat), until the current in the
first wire is stopped and photons stop
bombarding the second wire, as the
current trails to an end in the first
wire, the photons end in sequence,
which allows the holes or channels in
the second wire to clear with the
remaining photons (perhaps because they
are emitted as heat?) photons in the
rest of the wire then using these new
holes to move in the opposite
direction, temporarily filling the
newly emptied channel. (I'm not sure
about what explains the reverse motion,
the holes are filled on one side, and
then emptied on the other, and it
doesn't circle forever because it is
dissipated as heat. If true a
superconductor might sustain the
current longer.)54

In this view metals are filled with
empty spiral channels that photons
fill, the photons then move through
empty holes because of gravity, and
perhaps collision which is electrical
current.55


Faraday presents his results in a
four-part paper read to the Royal
Society on November 24, December 8 and
15, 1831. The paper appears in print in
May 1832 in the "Philosophical
Transactions" and forms the first
series of Faraday's famous
"Experimental Researches in
Electricity".56 57

In the first section Faraday describes
the induction of momentary currents
induced in a wire when either an
adjacent primary wire is connected and
disconnected to a battery, or when the
position of the primary wire carrying a
current is moved relative to the wire.
In the second section Faraday describes
the increased inductive effect obtained
by inserting iron in the helices of
wire in which current is induced, in
addition to how currents are induced
from the movement of permanent magnets
when brought near the helices of wire.
Faraday labels the effect of induced
current from batteries as
"volta-electric induction" and current
induced from magnets as
"magneto-electric induction". Faraday
describes an experiment where a needle
in the center of an induced helix
remains magnetized after the primary
circuit is disconnected. Faraday
dedicates the third section to
outlining his concept of an
"electro-tonic state", which Faraday
proposes as a "new electrical
condition" established in matter when
in the presence of magnets and
current-carrying wires.58

In his paper, Faraday mentions Ampere's
experiments of bring a copper disc near
to a flat spiral, Ampere's repeating
Arago's experiments (describe), and
Ampere's finding that every electric
current is accompanied by a
corresponding magnetic action at right
angles to the current. Faraday goes on
to say that he would be surprised if a
good conductor within the sphere of
this magnetic action should not have
any current induced through it.59

Initially, a number of experiments to
cause a current in a second wire from a
first that has a current that Faraday
performs fail to produce any current in
the second wire. Faraday rolls 26 feet
of 1/20 inch diameter copper wire
around a cylinder of wood (diameter?
perhaps an inch) as a helix. Each
spiral is separated from the next by a
thin twine so they do not touch. This
helix is covered with calico (cotton
cloth60 which serves as an insulator61
) and a second wire and thread wound
over the first. In this way 12 helices
are layered around a cylinder of wood.
Each alternate coil (the first, third,
fifth, seventh, ninth and eleventh) is
connected at each end to form a single
helix, and the second coil is also
connected in a similar way. So two
helices are closely intertwined, having
the same direction, not touching
anywhere, and each containing 155 feet
in length of wire. One helix is
connected to a galvanometer the other
to a voltaic batter of 10 pairs of
plates four inches square (one of
zinc62 and double coppers). This
experiment fails to produce any
movement in the galvanometer. A similar
compound helix with six lengths of
copper and six of soft iron wire
containing even more wire, 208 feet per
helix, fails to produce an induced
current in the secondary helix in
either the copper or iron helix when
current was passed through the other
helix. Similar other experiments fail,
however when Faraday uses a battery
with 100 pairs of 4 inch square plates
(10 times more than the earlier
mentioned 10 pairs of plates (what are
equivalent voltages?63 )), with each of
the two helices 203 feet of copper
wire, and metal contact everywhere
prevented by twine, when contact
(between the primary coil and the
battery64 ) is made, Faraday reports "a
sudden and very slight effect at the
galvanometer" and "also a similar
slight effect when the contact with the
battery was broken". But while the
voltaic current is continuing to pass
through the one helix, the needle of
the galvanometer does not move,
indicating that no current is flowing
in the second helix even though,
Faraday observes, current continues to
pass through the primary helix,
resulting in heat from the helix.65
Faraday repeats this experiments with a
battery of 120 pairs of plates, which
produces no other effects, but Faraday
notices that the movement of the needle
when the battery is connected is always
in one direction, and that the equally
slight deflection produced when the
battery disconnected is in the other
direction. Faraday describes this flash
of current as being more like that
produced by a Leyden jar than by a
voltaic battery. This causes Faraday to
wonder if this induced current might
magnetize a steel needle (because
Leyden jars must have been used to
magnetize needles and other bars of
metal66 ). Faraday substitutes a small
hollow helix for the galvanometer and
places a steel needle (in the middle of
this new coil that has replaced the
galvanometer in the secondary circuit67
). When Faraday connects the battery
and primary coil and removes the needle
before the battery is disconnected,
Faraday finds that the needle is
magnetized.68 When the battery contact
is first made, and an unmagnetized
needle is then put into the center
(touching or insulated?69 ) of the
small indicating helix, and the battery
then disconnected, the needle is
magnetized to in equal strength as the
first, but with opposite poles. When an
unmagnetized needle is put into the
indicating helix, before the battery is
connected and remains there until the
battery is disconnected, the needle has
little or no magnetism, Faraday
concluding that the first effect must
be nearly neutralized by the second.
Faraday finds that the induced current
when the battery is connected is larger
than when disconnected and explains
this as the possible result of an
accumulation at the poles of the
unconnected pile which makes current
stronger when first connected.70
Faraday states that there is no induced
current in the second coil when the
second coil connected from an open
circuit after the battery is connected
to the primary coil. Similarly, a
needle is not magnetized when the
second circuit is connected after the
first, although a needle is magnetized
when the battery is disconnected in the
direction of the current induced.71
Faraday then stretches several feet of
copper wire on a board in the letter W,
with a second similar board with a
sheet of thick paper in between the
wires of each. One of these wires is
connected to a galvanometer and the
other with a voltaic battery. Faraday
finds that when the first wire is moved
towards the second, as the wire
approaches the needle is deflected, and
when removed the needle is deflected in
the opposite direction. By making the
wires approach and then recede
simultaneously with the movement of the
needle, the needle moves (often72 ),
but when the wires do not move towards
or away from each other, the
galvanometer shows no current.73 When
the wires are brought together the
induced current is in the opposite
direction to the inducing current, and
when the wires are receding the induced
current is in the same direction as the
inducing current. When the wires remain
stationary there is no induced
current.74 (20) When a small voltaic
battery is connected to the secondary
circuit so a smaller current runs
through it, and a 100 plate pairs
battery is connected to the primary
circuit, the galvanometer needle moved
in the usual way, but the resumed its
position measuring the constant
current. (21) Faraday concludes that
the induced extra current exert no
permanent inducing power on the
existing current. (24) Faraday uses a
Leyden jar in place of a batter which
magnetizes an iron needle. (25) Faraday
comments that separating the effect
when the charge begins and ends is
impossible because the charge happens
too quickly. (have people since
confirmed the same effect of current
passing both ways on start and end of
charge/current?75 ) (26) Faraday
defines the action of a current from a
voltaic battery "volta-electric
induction", and views the property of
the secondary wire after the brief
initial current, while the current
flows through the primary circuit, as
having a peculiar electric condition.
(I think the analogy of an empty spiral
channel running through wire which is
filled by (photon) particles from the
primary current until full and then no
more particles can enter the channel,
or simply replace those particles
already in the channel fits the
phenomenon too. (EX) If true, perhaps
there is some way to extract that
current temporarily into a second
closed loop of wire (to fill a second,
extended coil off the secondary coil
while the current is already flowing in
the primary coil)76 ). Faraday titles
part 2 "Evolution of Electricity from
Magnetism", using the word Evolution in
1832, (Darwin formulates the theory of
evolution from 1837-1839, and publishes
"Origin of Species" in 185977 , perhaps
evolution was a code word for the early
Lamarkian evolution theory or perhaps
just coincidence. Now of course, the
minority of evolution supporters use
the word "evolution" to reveal
themselves as theory-of-evolution
supporters usually.)78
(27) A welded
(how79 ) ring, six inches in diameter,
is made of round 7/8 inch thick soft
iron bar. On one side of this ring
Faraday wraps three helices, each with
24 feet of 1/20th inch copper wire,
insulated from the iron and each other.
These helices, connected end to end,
occupy about 9 inches in length on the
ring. (see image). On the other side of
the ring sixty feet of copper wire in 2
pieces are applied forming helix B in
the same direction as the helices of A,
but separated from each other by about
1/2 and inch of uncovered iron. (28)
Helix B is connected by copper wire
with a galvanometer 3 feet away. The
wires of A are connected to a battery
with 10 pairs of plates four inches
square. When Faraday connects the
battery, the galvanometer needle is
immediately affected, and to a degree
far beyond that produced by a battery
of 10 times the power produced by
helices without iron. Again the effect
is not permanent and the needle soon
returns to rest in its natural
position, similarly when breaking the
connection with the battery, the needle
is again powerfully deflected, but in
the opposite direction to that induced
when the battery was connected.
(Presumably if there is a channel in
the wire, more particles are entering
it which shows that the weak current
without the iron bar was not filling it
completely but yet no more particles
could enter. Did Faraday try with the
wires intertwined? Perhaps the effect
is from the secondary coil being
farther away. It seems likely that the
extra particles come from the iron
atoms. Similar to an electromagnet,
perhaps a larger channel is created
in/extended into the iron bar. Perhaps
the particles in the coil push the
particles in the iron along, since they
apparently do not move on their own, or
perhaps they do.80 ) (32) Faraday uses
the larger 100 paired plates battery
and by using charcoal at the ends of
the B helix creates a tiny spark when
the battery connected to A is
connected, and a spark is rarely seen
(in the opposite direction?81 ) on
breaking contact. (Is charcoal needed,
or is an open circuit enough?82 ) (34)
Faraday again comments on how adding a
soft iron cylinder 7/8" thick and 12"
long into the coil produces a much
larger movement on the galvanometer,
and adds that this makes magnets with
more energy, apparently, than when no
iron cylinder is present. (35)
Replacing the iron cylinder with an
equal cylinder of copper produces no
magnified effect, and only produces a
feeble current similar to a hollow
coil. (What other metals besides iron
can be magnetized? Do alloys stop the
magnetic (electric field) properties of
iron?83 ) (36) Faraday finds that
ordinary permanent magnets can produce
current in the same way as a battery
can. Faraday connects two bar magnets
with opposite poles on one end, with
the other ends connecting on either
side of an iron cylinder (around the
iron cylinder with the helix around it
connected to the galvanometer84 ) which
converts it for a time into a magnet
(explain how magnets are created85 ).
By connecting and disconnecting one of
the bar magnets, or reversing them,
"the magnetism of the iron cylinder can
be destroyed or reversed at pleasure"
(and therefore the induced current86 )
(see figure 2). (37) When making
magnetic contact the needle is
deflected, however, quickly resumes its
initial position, and on breaking
contact the needle is again deflected,
but in the opposite direction. When the
magnetic contacts are reversed, the
deflections are reversed.87 (38) When
magnetic contact is made the deflection
indicates an induced current in the
opposite direction than the current
(see figure 3) that is used to make a
magnet with the same polarity as the
bar magnet. This current is in the
opposite direction of the theory
proposed by Ampere as existing in a
permanent magnet or as current in an
electromagnet of similar polarity. (Is
this because electrons flow from
negative to positive? - so the
left-hand rule applies in terms of flow
of electrons from negative to
positive.88 ) (This part is not exactly
clear to me.89 ) In figure 3, P is the
wire going to the positive pole of the
batter (which the zinc plates face) and
the N the negative wire.(39) Faraday
finds that when a cylindrical magnet
3/4" in diameter and 8.5 inches in
length is inserted into a hollow helix
connected to a galvanometer, the needle
is deflected, and when the magnet is
removed, the needle again is deflected,
but in the opposite direction. The
effect is small, but by introducing and
withdrawing the magnet so that the
impulse each time should be added to
those previously causes the needle to
vibrate through an arc of 180 degrees
or more.90 (41) Faraday finds that
when the magnet is inserted, the needle
is deflected in the same direction, and
when withdrawn the needle is deflected
in the opposite direction. (figure 4)
(43) Moving the magnet outside the
helix has no effect on the galvanometer
needle. (44) Faraday uses a large
compound (bar?91 ) magnet owned by the
Royal Society for his experiments.
(what kind? How manufactured?92 ) This
magnet is made of 450 bar magnets each
15 inches long, 1 inch wide, and half
inch thick. When a soft iron cylinder
3/4 inch in diameter and 12 inches long
is put across this magnet a force of
100 pounds is required to break the
contact. (see figure 5) (46) When a
soft iron cylinder 13 inches long is
put through the compound hollow helix
connected to the galvanometer, and the
iron cylinder brought in contact with
the two poles of this magnet (figure
5), a very powerful rush of electricity
takes place causing the needle to whirl
around many times (47) before coming to
rest. Breaking the magnetic contact
causes the needle to whirl around in
the opposite direction with an equal
force as the first.93 Using an armed
(?94 ) loadstone capable of lifting 30
pounds, a frog leg is powerfully
convulsed each time magnetic contact is
made, but only after separating the
battery with a blow does the frog leg
muscle convulse, which shows that the
more instantaneous the connection or
disconnection is the more powerful the
convulsion (and current95 ). (57) These
experiments show conclusively that,
although weak and quantity small,
permanent magnets can be used to
produce electricity. Faraday thinks
that powerful electromagnets can be
used to produce a brighter spark,
ignite wires, and by being passed
through liquid chemical action can be
produced with such electric current.
(58) Faraday importantly states "The
similarity of action, almost amounting
to identity (any difference perhaps
because of the difference in direction
of current96 ), between common magnets
and either electro-magnets or
volta-electric currents, is strikingly
in accordance with and confirmatority
of M. Ampere's theory, and furnishes
powerful reasons for believing that the
action is the same in both cases".
Faraday defines the words
"magneto-electric" or "magnelectric"
induction to describe current induced
by permanent, or as he describes
ordinary magnets.97 (59) Faraday finds
the olny difference between
volta-electric and magneto-electric
induction as the suddenness of the
volta-electric effect and the larger
time required by magneto-electric
induction, but states that
circumstances indicate that this
difference will disappear with more
investigation.98 (So Faraday is
basically agreeing with the theory put
forward by Ampere that a magnetic field
is an electric field caused by electric
current in permanent magnets.99 )
In the
third section "New Electrical State or
Condition of Matter", Faraday
hypothesizes about an electro-tonic
state, but notes that later
investigations (73,76,77) induce him to
think that these phenomena can be fully
explained without any electro-tonic
state.100 (60) Faraday states that
when a wire is subject to induction it
resists the formation of an electrical
current in it, where if in a common
condition, a current would be produced.
(Clearly a current can still flow
through the induced wire, as Faraday
has shown. Faraday most likely means
that the magnetic field does not cause
a constant current as would be
expected.101 ) (67) Faraday explains
that this hypothesized state begins
when the effect of induction starts and
ends when the inductive force is
removed. (My own view is that particles
fill holes in the iron and when filled
with particles no current flows,
however that an additional current
flows during induction makes that seem
unlikely. Possibly the lines of
particles fill holes once, and then
since not moved, collide with the same
filled holes, while current flowing
through from a different source pull a
chain of particles. In fact with a
current flowing, possibly more
particles from the electric field might
be accepted, but I doubt it since the
hole in current is produced at the
battery. But yet, even with a current,
the field adds those initial particles.
An alternative explanation is that the
field {as a force that originates from
the primary source} causes particles of
current to flow. Clearly more particles
of force are produced by the mass of
the iron bar, but not that of a copper
bar, which implies that the atomic
structure, and not the mass of the iron
is responsible to the addition.102 )

(77) Faraday recounts an interesting
story of M.A. De La Rive who found that
a metallic conductor in a liquid
connected to a battery can produce a
current in the fluid after the battery
is disconnected and another finding of
electricity of two metals in contact
that remains after their separation by
M.A. Van Beek.103 (78) Faraday
describes Ampere's experiment where a
disc of copper is suspended by a silk
thread and surrounded by a helix of
wire, when a current is sent through
the helix and a strong magnet moved
towards the disc, the disc turns at the
moment to take a position of
equilibrium, exactly as the helix would
have turned (in response to the
magnet104 ) if the helix was free to
move. Faraday cannot reproduce this
experiment and explains that this is
probably because the induction effect
is too fast or to the power of Ampere's
electro-magnet apparatus. Ampere
proposed that "a current of electricity
tends to put the electricity of
conductors near which it passes in the
same direction" where Faraday finds
that current of electricity produce
current in nearby conductors in the
opposite direction, and that this
effect is only momentary.105

Faraday first experimented in an effort
to induce a current from a helix on
November 28, 1825 quoting from his
notes: "Experiments on induction by
connecting wire of voltaic battery:-a
battery of four troughs, ten pairs of
plates, each arranged side by side- the
poles connected by a wire about four
feet long, parallel to which was
another similar wire separated from it
only by two thicknesses of paper, the
ends of the latter were attached to a
galvanometer:- exhibited no action, &c,
&c, &c,-Could not in any way render any
induction evidence from the connecting
wire." Faraday then writes that the
cause of failure at that time is now
evident.106 (Presumably that either
the battery was not strong enough for
the number of hollow coils used, or
that a soft iron bar was needed to
increase the induced current.107
)(Possibly penis symbol used by Faraday
":-" I notice because I can imagine the
suspicion created if I used such a
symbol. Generally the smartest people
understand the massive injustice done
to physical pleasure.108 )

On his discovery of magneto-electricity
Faraday abandons the commercial work
which adds to his small salary, in
order to devote all his time for
research. This financial loss is made
up in part later by a pension of 300
pounds a year from the British
Government.109

James Clerk Maxwell will create
"Faraday's law of induction" giving a
mathematical interpretation based on
this work.110

(Can static electricity induce
current?111 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
2. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ The Mechanical Universe, Episode
37. Electromagnetic Induction
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
7. ^ "Francesco Zantedeschi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco
_Zantedeschi
8. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
9. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
10. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
11. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
18. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^
"Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^
"Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Ted
Huntington.
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ Ted
Huntington.
46. ^ Ted Huntington.
47. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Record ID2972.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
52. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
53. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
54. ^ Ted Huntington.
55. ^ Ted Huntington.
56. ^ Biblioteca
Italiana, o sia Giornale di
letteratura, scienze ed arti,1829,vol
53,pp398-402
57. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p243.
58. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
59. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp125-126.
60. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
61. ^ Ted Huntington.
62. ^ Ted Huntington.
63. ^ Ted
Huntington.
64. ^ Ted Huntington.
65. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp126-127.
66. ^ Ted Huntington.
67. ^ Ted Huntington.
68. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p127.
69. ^ Ted Huntington.
70. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p128.
71. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p128.
72. ^ Ted Huntington.
73. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp128-129.
74. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p129.
75. ^ Ted Huntington.
76. ^ Ted Huntington.
77. ^ Ted
Huntington.
78. ^ Ted Huntington.
79. ^ Ted Huntington.
80. ^ Ted
Huntington.
81. ^ Ted Huntington.
82. ^ Ted Huntington.
83. ^ Ted
Huntington.
84. ^ Ted Huntington.
85. ^ Ted Huntington.
86. ^ Ted
Huntington.
87. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p133.
88. ^ Ted Huntington.
89. ^ Ted Huntington.
90. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p134.
91. ^ Ted Huntington.
92. ^ Ted Huntington.
93. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p137.
94. ^ Ted Huntington.
95. ^ Ted Huntington.
96. ^ Ted
Huntington.
97. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp138-139.
98. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p139.
99. ^ Ted Huntington.
100. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p139.
101. ^ Ted Huntington.
102. ^ Ted Huntington.
103. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p145.
104. ^ Ted Huntington.
105. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp145-146.
106. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p162.
107. ^ Ted Huntington.
108. ^ Ted Huntington.
109. ^ Biblioteca
Italiana, o sia Giornale di
letteratura, scienze ed arti,1829,vol
53,pp398-402
110. ^ Ted Huntington.
111. ^ Ted Huntington.
112. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism (02/17/1831
{more full account published:}
08/29/1831)
113. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (02/17/1831 {more
full account published:} 08/29/1831)
{02/17/1831 (more full account
published:) 08/29/1831}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[7]
http://www.rigb.org/heritage/faradaypage
.jsp
[8]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
[9] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantadeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[10] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantadeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fxsAAAA
AQAAJ&pg=RA6-PA44&lpg=RA6-PA44&dq=lebail
lif+scope&source=web&ots=36wpS-5ksg&sig=
A7KVLfh8fg1hdDtoB5Kr81UzNAw&hl=en#PRA6-P
A43,M1 (for a description of a
sideroscope of M Lebaillid)
[13] "Faradays law of
induction". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3718/Faradays-law-of-induction
[14] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf, p243.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[15] "calico". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[16] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Charles Darwin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[17]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
(Royal Institution in) London,
England112  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
169 YBN
[06/01/1831 AD] 12 		2835)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir James Clark Ross".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4134/Sir-James-Clark-Ross
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p341.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p341.
4. ^
http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/brow
se/CXJ.HTM
5. ^ "North Pole#207484.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6216/North-Pole#207484.hook
6. ^ "geomagnetic reversal". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/geomagnetic
-reversal?cat=technology
7. ^ "North Magnetic Pole". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Magne
tic_Pole
8. ^ "North Magnetic Pole". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Magne
tic_Pole
9. ^ "James Clark Ross". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Clark%20R
oss
10. ^ "Boothia Peninsula". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boothia_Pen
insula
11. ^ "Boothia Peninsula". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0683/Boothia-Peninsula
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p341. (06/01/1831)
(06/01/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clark Ross".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clark
_Ross
[2] "Sir James Clark Ross".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Clark_Ross
Boothia Peninsula,9 Nunavut, Canada10
11  
[1]
http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slika:James
_Clark_Ross.jpg James Clark Ross PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Clark_Ross.jpg

[2] James Clark Ross circa 1845:
British explorer Captain Sir James
Clark Ross (1800 - 1862). He discovered
the north magnetic pole in 1831. (Photo
by Hulton Archive/Getty Images) *
by Hulton Archive * Wednesday
December 31st, 1969 * reference:
3315250 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3315
250?partner=Google&epmid=1
169 YBN
[06/01/1831 AD] 9 		2837) Part of the "Carta Marina" of
1539 by Olaus Magnus, depicts the
location of magnetic north vaguely
conceived as "Insula Magnetu1 " (Latin
for "Magnetic Island") off modern day
Murmansk. The man holding the rune
staffs is the Norse hero Starkad.2

The Scottish explorer, James Clark Ross
(CE 1800-1862)3 will be the first to
reach the North Magnetic Pole in 1831.4
5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "North Magnetic Pole". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Magne
tic_Pole
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p341.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p341.
4. ^
http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/brow
se/CXJ.HTM
5. ^ "James Clark Ross". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Clark%20R
oss
6. ^ "Boothia Peninsula". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boothia_Pen
insula
7. ^ "Boothia Peninsula". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0683/Boothia-Peninsula
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p341. (06/01/1831)
9. ^ "James
Clark Ross". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Clark%20R
oss (06/01/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir James Clark Ross".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4134/Sir-James-Clark-Ross
[2] "James Clark Ross". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clark
_Ross
[3] "Sir James Clark Ross".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Clark_Ross
[4] "North Pole#207484.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6216/North-Pole#207484.hook
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/geomagnetic
-reversal?cat=technology
Boothia Peninsula,6 Nunavut, Canada7 8
 
[1] cropped from
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/e/ea/Carta_Marina.jpeg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Starkad.jpg

[2]
http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slika:James
_Clark_Ross.jpg James Clark Ross PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Clark_Ross.jpg
169 YBN
[08/??/1831 AD] 12 13 		2525) Guthrie invents and first
manufactured percussion pills, also
inventing the punch lock for exploding
them. This lock takes the place of the
old flint lock in firearms, and will be
in turn superseded, after Dr. Guthrie's
death, by the percussion cap. In the
course of Guthrie's experiments Guthrie
sustains lasting injuries and nearly
loses his life from an accidental
explosion.9

In 1830 Guthrie invents a process for
the rapid conversion of potato starch
into molasses, which he published in
Silliman's "American Journal of
Science," to which he contributed
occasional papers on scientific
subjects.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nndb.com/people/793/000166295/
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp294-295.
3. ^
http://nndb.com/people/793/000166295/
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp294-295.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://nndb.com/people/793/000166295/
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp294-295.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://www.famousamericans.net/samuelgut
hrie/
10. ^
http://www.famousamericans.net/samuelgut
hrie/
11. ^
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A08
22205.html
12. ^
http://nndb.com/people/793/000166295/
(summer 1831)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp294-295. (1831)
Sackets Harbor, NY, USA11  
[1] Dr. Samuel Guthrie (1782-1848),
chemist, one of the discoverers of
chloroform, and inventor of the
percussion compound for firearms, which
superseded flints, resided at Sackets
Harbor. Samuel Guthrie, made
chloroform in 1830 prior to the
independent discoveries by Soubeiran in
France (1831) and Liebig in Germany
(1832). It was used first in
amputations at Sackets Harbor.
His home, pictured above, was in the
old Jewettsville section of town, and
is still occupied as a private
residence today. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/c
ounty/jefferson/hounsfield/guthriehome.h
tml
169 YBN
[09/??/1831 AD] 58 		2705) The first electrical generator
was the static electricity generator of
Guericke, in which mechanical movement
is used to create a static electric
potential. In 166318 , Volta invented
the first constant electricity
generator, the electric battery
(voltaic pile), which creates
electricity from molecular combination
(chemical reaction), in 180019 .
Faraday builds the first electrical
generator, which creates constant
electric current from mechanical motion
in 1831. The electrical generator
allows any source of mechanical
movement, such as the force of wind,
water, or a steam (coal burning), or
gas burning engine to create a constant
stream of electricity.20

Faraday reports his experiments which
lead to the first electric generator in
part 4 of his famous "Experimental
Researches in Electricity".21

In Part 4 "Explication of Arago's
Magnetic Phenomena", Faraday describes
Arago's experiment (81) in which a
plate of copper is revolved close to a
magnetic needle or magnet which is
suspended so that it may rotate in a
plane parallel to the plate. (more
detail about how suspended? Perhaps
from a similar copper plate with both
on different axes. Perhaps new record
for Arago's experiment22 ) When the
copper plate is revolved, the magnetic
needle or magnet tends to follow the
motion of the plate and similarly if
the magnet is revolved, the plate tends
to follow the motion of the magnet.
Arago states that this effect happens
with all solids, liquids and even
gases.23 (82) Babbage and John
Herschel repeat this experiment and can
only obtain the effect for excellent
conductors of electricity. Babbage and
Herschel explain the effect as
magnetism induced in the plate by the
magnet, the pole of the magnet causes
an opposite pole in the nearest part of
the plate. Arago and Ampere reject this
theory because there is no attraction
when the magnet and metal are at
rest.24 (83) Having already obtained
electricity from magnets, Faraday hopes
to make Arago's experiment a new source
of electricity. In addition, Faraday
intends to offer the correct
interpretation of the magnet following
phenomenon found by Arago. (84) Faraday
uses two iron or steel bars about
6x1x1/2 inches in size connected to the
opposite poles of the large magnet of
the Royal Society's at Christie's
house. (85) Faraday mounts a disc of
copper 12" in diameter and 1/5 inch
thick on a brass axis so the disc can
rotate either vertically or
horizontally. The edge of this disc is
placed between the two magnetic poles
(see figure 7). (86) Faraday uses
copper and lead conductors 4x1/3x1/5
inch in size which contact the edge of
the copper disc and are connected to a
galvanometer. (87) Faraday makes his
own galvanometer of copper wire covered
with silk coiled into 16-18 turns. Two
sewing-needles are magnetized and put
through a stem of dried grass parallel
to each other but in opposite
directions about held an inch apart.
This system is suspended by a fiber of
unspun silk (see figure 8). The entire
instrument is protected in a glass jar.
The wires are shown in the figures as A
and B. (88) The edge of the copper disc
is inserted in between the magnetic
poles which are 1/2 inch apart. One
galvanometer wire is connected to the
brass axis and the other to the
conductor which is held at the edge of
the disc at the part between the
magnetic poles. In this position, the
galvanometer shows no effect, but the
instant the plate is moved the
galvanometer needle moves, and by
rotating the copper plate quickly, the
needle can be deflected 90 degrees or
more. 89) After more experimenting
Faraday can sustain a permanent
deflection of the needle of nearly 45
degrees by rotating the disk. (90)
Faraday writes "Here therefore was
demonstrated the production of
permanent current of electricity by
ordinary magnets (57.).". (This is the
invention of the first electrical
generator {also called a dynamo}, a
device that can convert mechanical
movement into a sustained electrical
current.25 ) (91) When the motion of
the disc is reversed, the galvanometer
is deflected with equal power but on
the opposite side, and the current of
electricity is created in the reverse
direction as in the initial direction.
(92) Faraday finds that even when the
conductor is placed to the right or
left (see figure 9) of the poles, even
as much as 50-60 degrees, the current
is still passed through the
galvanometer, but gradually weakens any
farther than 50-60 degrees away from
the magnetic poles. (94) Faraday finds
that even if the conductor moves along
with the disc, current flows when the
disc is moved. (95) When the
galvanometer wires are connected to two
conductors on the edge of the disc,
Faraday finds that when in the position
in figure 11 a current is produced, and
when shifted in figure 12 a current in
the opposite direction is produced
(when turning the disc in either
direction?26 ) Faraday describes this
as in figure 11 a strong current at A
and a weak current at B, and the
opposite for figure 12. (96) So when
the two conductors are equally distant
from the magnetic poles, as in figure
13, no current at the galvanometer is
measured, no matter which direction the
disc is rotated. When the galvanometer
is connected to a conductor and the
disc axis, then the galvanometer shows
a current according to the direction of
disc rotation. (98) Faraday makes an
effort to make sure that these results
are independent of the Earth's
magnetism. (This is an interesting
point, because, can the Earth's
magnetic field be used against an
opposite pole to produce electricity,
only needing one magnet? Probably the
Earth field is too weak? State how
strong the Earth magnetic field is.
Does this represent particles per
volume space per unit time?27 ) (99)
Faraday describes the relation of
current of electricity produced to the
magnetic pole and the direction of
rotation of the plate. 28 Faraday uses
the terms "marked and unmarked pole".
This is an important point. The marked
end is the end with an "N" marked on
it. Since we call the arctic pole of
Earth the North pole, the side of a
magnet with the letter N, the "marked"
end, is actually a South pole since it
points to the North Pole of the
Earth.29 30 Particles appear to flow
from South Pole to North Pole, so all
North Poles are receivers of particles
and South Poles emitters of particles.
Placing a compass over a magnet shows
that the compass needle points to the
magnet's South Pole, when the compass
is aligned to point to the Earth's
North pole. A compass needle can have
its magnetic field reversed by a magnet
simply by changing the field around the
needle before the needle has time to
move, and so people should be aware of
this too.31 If the unmarked magnetic
pole is under the edge of the plate and
the plate rotated clockwise, the
current is positive at the edge and
negative at the center (see figure 15).
(In other words particles flow from the
edge of the disk to the center.32 )
(100) If the unmarked magnetic pole is
placed above the disc and the disc
rotated clockwise, the electricity is
reversed. (The current flows from the
center of the disk to the edge, the
edge being considered the ground and
source of electrons.33 ) (101) Faraday
states that the rotating plate is
merely another form of the more simple
experiment of passing a piece of metal
between the magnetic poles in a
rectilinear direction which produces
currents of electricity at right angles
to the direction of motion, reversing
when crossing the place of the magnetic
pole or poles. This is shown by the
simple experiment: (see figure 16) a
piece of copper plate 12x1.5x0.2 inches
is placed between the magnetic poles
while the two conductors from the
galvanometer are held in contact with
the edges of the copper plate. When the
plate is then drawn through in the
direction of the arrow the galvanometer
needle is deflected, its unmarked end
passing eastward, indicating that wire
A received negative and wire B positive
electricity. Since the unmarked pole of
the magnet is above, the result is the
same as the effect obtained by the
rotating plate (99).34 (102) Reversing
the motion of the plate causes the
galvanometer needle to be deflected in
the opposite direction, showing an
opposite current. (103) To determine
the nature of the electrical current in
various parts of the moving copper
plate, Faraday connects one conductor
is connected to the copper plate near
the pole of the magnet with the other
connected to the end of the copper
plate. In figure 17, B gets positive
electricity, but on the opposite side
(figure 18) gets negative electricity.
Reversing the motion (figure 19) B gets
negative electricity, and (figure 20) B
gets positive electricity. (104)
(Figure 21) The same effects are
produced when the plate is not directly
aligned with the polar axis of the
magnet, although not as strongly. (105)
When the two magnet poles are put
together and the copper plate drawn
between the conductors near the plate,
there was only little effect produced.
When the poles are separated by the
width of a card, the effect is more,
but still small. (106) A copper wire
1/8 inch thick moved between the
conductors and magnet poles produces an
effect although not as much as the
plates. (108) (Figure 22) The results
are the same when the conductors are
connected to the ends of the copper
plate and the plate moved in a
direction transverse to their length.35
 (109) Even simply the wire from the
galvanometer connected to form a
complete circuit, passed through
between the magnet poles causes the
galvanometer to move. Passing the wire
back and forth to correspond with the
vibrations of the needle can cause the
needle to be increased by 20 or 30
degrees on each side. (110) (Figure
23) With the ends of a plate of metal
connected to the galvanometer, and the
plate then moved between the poles from
end to end in either direction, no
effect is produced on the galvanometer.
Only when the motion is transverse is
the needle deflected. (111) These
effects are also obtained with
electromagnetic poles, resulting from
the use of copper helices or spirals,
either alone or with iron cores. The
directions of the motions are precisely
the same, but the action is much
greater when the iron cores are used,
than without. (112) When a flat spiral
is passed through long-side first
between the poles, a curios action at
the galvanometer results; the needle
first moves strongly one way, but then
suddenly stopped, as if the needle
struck against some solid obstacle, and
immediately returns. When the spiral is
moved up or down the motion of the
needle is the same, suddenly stopping
and reversing, but on turning the
spiral around 180 degrees the
directions of needle motions are
reversed, but still are suddenly
interrupted and inverted. (This is
difficult to visualize and I may be
describing it incorrectly.36 ) This
double action depends on the halves of
the spiral which is divided by a line
passing through it's center
perpendicular to the direction of its
motion. So although this effect is
curious, it is explainable to the
action of single wires.37 (113)
Faraday writes that although the
experiments with the rotating plate,
wires and plates of metal are first
successfully made with the large magnet
belonging to the Royal Society, they
were all repeated with a couple of bar
magnets two feet long, 1.5 inches wide
and 0.5 inch thick, and by making the
galvanometer (87) more delicate.
Ferro-electro-magnets like those of
Moll, henry, etc (57) are very
powerful. It is very important when
making experiments on different
substances that thermo-electric effects
produced by contact of the fingers,
etc, be avoided or accounted for. (114)
Faraday describes the relation that
holds between the magnetic pole, the
moving wire or metal and the direction
of current evolved, that is, the law
that governs the evolution of
electricity by magneto-electric
induction, stating that this relation
is simple, although difficult to
express. In figure 24, PN represents a
horizontal wire passing by a south
(marked) magnetic pole so that the
direction of its motion coincides with
the curved line proceeding from below
upwards then the current of electricity
in the wire is from P to N. This is
also the case no matter what the motion
so long as the wire cuts the magnetic
curves in the same direction. By
magnetic curves, Faraday is referring
to the lines of force that would be
shown by iron filings or with which a
small magnetic needle would form a
tangent with. If the wire is moved in
the reverse directions, the electric
current is from N to P. Alternatively,
if the wire is in position shown by P'
and N' and viewed as tangent to the
curved surface of the cylindrical
magnet, the wire moved with the dotted
horizontal curve causes current to flow
from P' to N'.38 (115) This same
relation holds true for the unmarked
pole of the magnet but the current
directions are reversed. (116) (Figure
25) So the current of electricity which
is excited in metal when moving in the
neighborhood of a magnet depends on the
relation of the metal to the magnetic
curves. In figure 25, let AB represent
a cylinder magnet, A is the marked pole
and B the unmarked pole. Let PN be a
silver knife-blade resting across the
magnet with its edge upward, and with
its marked or notched side towards the
pole A, then, no matter what direction
the knife is moved edge first in,
either around the marked or unmarked
pole, the current of electricity
produced is from P to N, so long as the
intersected curves from A contact the
notched side of the knife, and those
from B on the unnotched side. When the
knife is moved with its back first,
current flows from N to P. Faraday
explains, as if instructing a child
that "A little model is easily
constructed, by using a cylinder of
wood for a magnet, a flat piece for the
blade, and a piece of thread connecting
one end of the cylinder with the other,
and passing through a hole in the
blade, for the magnetic curves: this
readily gives the result of any
possible direction." (Although I don't
understand how direction is determined
readily with this kind of model, and
why not just use a real magnet? Perhaps
magnets were expensive at the time?)
(177) In a wire with induced current
that passes an electro-magnetic pole,
the direction of the current in the
approaching wire is the same with the
direction of current in the side of the
spirals nearest, and in a receding
wire, the direction of current is the
reverse in the spirals nearest. (need
3D animation39 ) (118) All these
results show that induced electric
current is created by circumferential
magnetism, just as circumferential
magnetism is created by electric
current.40 (119) These experiments
show that when a piece of metal (and
the same may be true of all conducting
matter) is passed before a single pole,
or between opposite poles of a magnet,
or near electromagnetic poles,
electrical currents are produced across
the metal transverse to the direction
of motion. In Arago's experiments, this
transverse direction is in the
direction of the radii of the disc.
(Interesting that not in straight
lines.41 ) If the copper disc is viewed
like a wheel with many spokes, and
these spokes rotated near the pole,
each radius will have a current
produced in it as it passes the pole.
(12) Now that the existence of these
currents is known, Arago's phenomena
can be viewed without the need to
create a magnetic pole in the copper
disk. (121) Faraday states that the
effect is the same as the
electro-magnetic rotations which
Faraday discovered in 1821 with the
invention of the first electric motor.
(Figure 26)
If a wire PN is connected
with the positive and negative ends of
a battery, so the positive electricity
passes from P to N, and a marked
magnetic pole N is placed near the wire
between the wire and the viewer, the
pole will move to the right, and the
wire will move to the left (as shown by
the arrows). This is exactly what takes
place in the rotation of a plate
beneath a magnetic pole. (Figure 27)
Let N be a marked pole above the
circular plate, the plate being rotated
in the direction of the arrow.
Immediately currents of positive
electricity flow from the central part
in the direction of the radii by the
pole to the parts of the circumference
(a) on the other side of that pole, and
are therefore exactly in the same
relation to the pole as the current in
the wire, and therefore the pole in the
same manner moves to the right.42
(122) If the rotation of the disc is
reversed the electric currents are
reversed and the pole therefore moves
to the left. So in this way the
direction of motion is explained. (123)
Faraday states that these currents are
discharged or return in the parts of
the plate on each side of and more
distant from the place of the pole
where the magnetic induction is weaker,
and when collecters are applied a
current of electricity is carried away
to the galvanometer, where the
deflection there is merely a repetition
by the same current or part of it, of
the effect of rotation in the the
magnet over the plate. (Interesting
that Faraday addresses the issue of the
circuit of current when not drawn off.
This applies to a permanent magnet too,
where current must flow through the
center.43 ) (126) The unusual fact that
all movement stops when the magnet and
metal are stopped can now be explained
because the electrical currents that
cause (and are caused by44 ) the motion
stop. (127) This also explains the
finding of Babbage and Herschel
(Philosophical Transactions, 1825, p.
481) who found that when the copper
plate is cut, the power of the effect
is diminished, but when the cuts filled
with metallic substances, even though
deficient in the power of influencing
magnets, the power is restored. (Figure
29) Therefore if a fifth of the outside
is cut off a copper plate and then
reattached with the thickness of a
paper between, the magnetic currents
will greatly interfered with and the
plate probably will lose much of its
effect. Faraday notes that this
experiment has been performed by Mr.
Christie and is correct (Philosophical
Transactions 1827, p82). (Figure 28)
Faraday performs a similar experiment:
when two pieces of thick copper are
connected and passed between the poles
of a magnet in a direction parallel to
the center edges, a current is urged
through the wires attached to the outer
angles, and the galvanometer is
strongly effected, however when a
single film of paper is put between the
two copper pieces and the experiment
repeated, no effect is measured. (This
would be a nice experiment to repeat.45
) (I don't understand 128, "A section
of this kind could not interfere much
with the induction of magnetism,
supposed to be of the nature ordinarily
received by iron." A section clearly is
a cut. Is Faraday claiming that cutting
an iron magnet in a similar way has no
effect on the magnetic field's ability
to cause current in metals?46 ) (129)
The effect of rotation or deflection of
a needle, which Arago obtained using
permanent magnets, and that Ampere
obtained by using electromagnets can be
used in this experiment. By using flat
spirals of copper wire, through which
electric currents are sent in place of
permanent magnetic poles, Faraday is
able to measure the actual induced
current of electricity from the plate
itself with the galvanometer (which was
apparently too small to measure with
permanent magnets47 ). Faraday finds
this effect using a single
electromagnet on one side, and two on
opposite sides. (130) The explanation
for the rotation in Arago's experiment
of the production of electrical
currents, seems clear for all metals,
and perhaps even other conductors, but
in terms of glass, resins, and gases
for which it seems impossible that
currents of electricity could be
generated in them, experiments Faraday
performs convince him that any motion
effect does not happen for
non-conducting materials. (132)
Copper, iron, tin, zinc, lead, mercury,
and all metals tried by Faraday produce
electrical currents when passed between
magnetic poles (the mercury put into a
glass tube for the purpose). The dense
carbon placed in coal gas retorts also
produce current, but ordinary charcoal
does not. Faraday finds no current in
salt water, sulphuric acid, saline
solutions, whether rotated in basin or
includes in tubes and passed between
the poles. (133) Faraday states that he
has never been able to produce any
sensation on his tongue, heat a fine
plantinum wire, produce a spark, or
convulse the limbs of a frog from the
electric current produced through the
conductors on the edges of the rotating
metal plate. (The current and voltage
must be very small.48 ) (Wasn't Faraday
able to feel electricity and create a
spark with the copper disk with both
permanent and electric magnets? Clearly
Faraday did measure current with the
Galvanometer.49 ) (134) Faraday states
the the electric current in the
rotating copper plate only occupies a
small space, moving by the poles and
being discharged right and left at very
small distances, but even so, large
currents can be drawn off that are
strong enough to pass through narrow
wires even 100 feet long; it is evident
that the current existing in the plate
itself must be a very powerful one when
the rotation is rapid and the magnet
strong. This is also proved by how a
magnet 12 pounds in weight follows the
motion of the plate and twists up the
cord from which the magnet is
suspended. (135) Faraday makes 2 rough
trials with the intention of
constructing magneto-electric
(magnet-electric50 ) machines. In one,
a ring cut from a thick copper plate,
1.5 inches wide and 12 inches in
external diameter is mounted to rotate
between the poles of a magnet. The
inner and outer edges are amalgamated
(covered with mercury?51 ), and the
conductors applied, one to each edge,
at the place of the magnetic poles (so
that the disk slides over the
stationary conductors52 ). The current
evolved does not appear to be stronger
than the current created by the
circular plate. (136) In the second
trial, a small thick disk of copper or
other metal, half an inch in diameter
are rotated rapidly near the poles, but
with the axis of rotation out of the
polar axis. The electricity evolved is
collected by conductors applied to the
edges. Currents are created but far
smaller than the currents produced by
the circular plate.53 (137) This last
experiment is analogous to those made
by Mr. Barlow with a rotating iron
shell, subjected to the magnetic field
of the Earth. (Philosophical
Transactions, 1825, p. 317) Messrs.
Babbage and Herschel give the same
explanation to the effects of Barlow's
experiment as they do for Arago's
experiment. (Philosophical
Transactions, 1825, p.485) (Did Barlow
produce a sustained or temporary
current from the Earth's magnetic
field?54 ) Faraday notes that the
rotation of a copper shell might decide
the point and even throw light on the
more permanent, although analogous
effects obtained by Mr. Christie. (138)
Faraday uses an iron plate in place of
the copper plate (101) which is passed
between the magnetic poles. While the
experiments on the induction of
electric currents (9) show no
difference between iron and other
metals, the iron plate produces less
power than the copper plate in the
rotating plate experiment. Faraday
states that with iron, the larger part
of the effect is due to ordinary
magnetic action, and that there is no
doubt that Babbage's and Herschel's
explanation of Arago's phenomenon is
true when iron is the metal used. (So
an opposite magnetic pole is created in
the iron disk?55 ) (139) Faraday
comments that Mr. Harris found that
bismuth and antimony effect a suspended
magnet disproportionately to their
conducting power, but that Faraday has
been able to explain these differences
and prove with several metals, the the
effect is based on the order of the
conducting power, because Faraday has
produced currents of electricity that
are proportionate in strength to the
conducting power of the bodies
experimented with.56
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
3. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
5. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
7. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
9. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
10. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
11. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
17. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
18. ^ Record ID2247. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Record
ID2250. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Michael
Faraday, "Experimental Researches in
Electricity", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp147-148.
24. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p147.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p151.
29. ^, p208.
http://books.google.com/books?id=qjcAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA208&dq=marked+and+unmarked+ma
gnetic+poles+earth By Alfred Payson
Gage Published 1897 Ginn &
co. Physics Original from Harvard
University Digitized Mar 5, 2007
30. ^,
p323.
http://books.google.com/books?id=g8IXAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA323&dq=marked+and+unmarked+ma
gnetic+poles&lr= By Balfour
Stewart Published
1873 Macmillan Physics 376 pages
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp151-152.
35. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp152-153.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp153-154.
38. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp154-155.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p155.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp156-157.
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ Ted
Huntington.
46. ^ Ted Huntington.
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Ted
Huntington.
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ Ted
Huntington.
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
p160.
54. ^ Ted Huntington.
55. ^ Ted Huntington.
56. ^
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006,
pp161-162.
57. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
58. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm (09/??/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
(Royal Institution in) London,
England57  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 12 13 		2414) Robert Brown (CE 1773-1858)
identifies and names the cell
"nucleus".7

While dealing with the fertilization of
flowers, Brown notes the existence of a
structure within the cells of orchids
as well as many other plants that brown
terms the "nucleus" of the cell (from
the Latin word meaning "little nut"8
).9

This description is embedded in a
pamphlet which focuses on the sexual
organs of orchids.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
5. ^ "Robert
Brown". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
6. ^ "robert brown". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272.
9. ^ "Robert
Brown". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
10. ^ "robert brown". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-brow
n?cat=technology
11. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp271-272. (1831)
(1831)
13. ^ "Robert Brown". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6693/Robert-Brown (1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Brown (botanist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brow
n_%28botanist%29
[2] "Gymnosperms". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gymnospe
rms
London, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 3 		2496)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1831)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
[7] "article 9072236". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2236
[8] "Thorium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
[9]
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
Stokholm, Sweden2 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 4 		2608) William C. Redfield (CE
1789-1857), publishes his evidence that
storm winds rotate counterclockwise
about a center that moves in the
direction of the prevailing winds.1 (I
think hurricanes rotate
counterclockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern hemisphere?2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p310.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Meteorology". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Meteorology". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Meteorol
ogy
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p310. (1831) (1831)
New York, USA3 (presumably)  
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 5 		2625)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
2. ^ "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
5. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall (1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marshall Hall
(physiologist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Ha
ll_%28physiologist%29
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Marshall%20Hall%2
0
[3] "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marshall
_Hall
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 9 		2629) John Frederic Daniell (CE
1790-1845)1 invents a pyrometer (a
device for measuring relatively high
temperatures, such as found in
furnaces2 ) Phil. Trans., 18303 ).4
(describe design5 )
Daniell receives the
Rumford Medal of the Royal Society (in
18326 ) for his invention of a
pyrometer and his papers detailing the
uses for the pyrometer.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314.
2. ^ "pyrometer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2062/pyrometer
3. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "John
Frederic Daniell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Fre
deric_Daniell
4. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "John Frederic
Daniell". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
8. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314. (1831)
(1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Frederic Daniell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Freder
ic_Daniell
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Frederic+Dan
iell+?cat=technology
[3]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] John Frederic Daniell British
chemist & physicist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Daniell_chemist_b.jpg
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 22 		2809)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ "Joseph
Henry". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
4. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
5. ^
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/5/31245/
01454584.pdf
6. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Record
ID2658. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Record ID2665.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Record ID2669. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Record ID2449. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Record ID2674. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Record
ID1837. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
18. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
19. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
21. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1831)
(1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[2] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[5]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[6]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[7]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[8]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[9] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
Albany, NY, USA20 21  
[1] Sketch of ''telegraph'' Henry
showed his classes at the Albany
Academy. From Smithsonian annual
report for 1857, p. 105. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph20.htm

[2] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 6 		2889)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p346.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Johannes Peter Müller". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
6. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology (1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Peter Müller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Pe
ter_M%C3%BCller
[2] "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Peter_Muller
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany5
 
[1] Description Johannes Peter
Müller Source
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/edtech/entom
ology_slides/images/31063-johannes-muell
er.jpg Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mueller.Joh..jpg
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 8 		2895) When little more than 20 years
old, Boussingault goes to South America
as a mining engineer on behalf of an
English company.4
During the
insurrection of the Spanish colonies
Boussingault is attached to the staff
of General Bolivar, and travels widely
in the northern parts of the
continent.5
Boussingault is professor
of chemistry at the University of Lyon,
and professor of agricultural chemistry
at the Conservatory of Arts and Crafts,
Paris (1839-1887).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp347-348.
2. ^ "Boussingault".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Boussingault?cat=
entertainment
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp347-348.
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste Boussingault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5984/Jean-Baptiste-Boussingault
7. ^ "Jean Baptiste Boussingault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5984/Jean-Baptiste-Boussingault
8. ^ "Boussingault". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Boussingault?cat=
entertainment (1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Boussingault". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boussingaul
t
Lyon, France7 (presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean-Baptiste
Boussingault (1802-1887) Source
[1]http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioner
os/boussingault.htm Date 19th
century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Baptiste_Boussingault.jpg
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 26 		2919) While in Paris, working under
Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac (1822-1824),
Liebig investigates the dangerous
explosive silver fulminate, a salt of
fulminic acid. At the same time, the
German chemist Friedrich Wöhler is
analyzing cyanic acid. Liebig and
Wöhler realize that cyanic acid and
fulminic acid represent two different
compounds that have the same
composition, the same number and kind
of atoms, but have different chemical
properties. The Swedish chemist, Jöns
Jacob Berzelius8 refers to such
compounds as isomers (from the Greek
words meaning "equal parts")9 . This
shared finding leads to a lifelong
friendship and collaborative research
partnership between Liebig and
Wöhler.10

This finding of isomers shows that the
molecule of a compound is more than a
(singular11 ) collection of atoms, but
that these atoms have particular (three
dimensional12 ) positions. Kekulé will
create a structural formula for
molecules.13

Liebig creates a laboratory for general
student use.14

Liebig succeeds in institutionalizing
the independent teaching of chemistry,
which German universities had been
taught as an adjunct to pharmacy for
apothecaries and physicians.15

Liebig determines the oxygen content of
the air by quantifying its adsorption
in an alkaline solution of pyrogallol
(benzene-1,2,3-triol).16 (chronology17
)
Liebig is the son of a pigment and
chemical manufacturer whose shop has a
small laboratory.18
Liebig publishes an
average of 30 papers a year between
1830 and 1840.19
In 1832 Liebig takes
over the "Annalen der Pharmacie"
("Annals of Pharmacy") and renames it
in 1840 the "Annalen der Chemie"
("Annals of Chemistry").20
At Giessen,
Liebig produces chloroform and chloral,
and discovers hippuric acid.21
So many
students are drawn to Liebig that he
has to expand his facilities and
systematize his training procedures. A
considerable number of his students,
some 10 per semester, are from other
nations.22
Liebig's former laboratories
in Giessen are now the Liebig Museum.23

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^ "Justus baron
von Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
5. ^ "Justus baron
von Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
6. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
7. ^ "Justus von Liebig". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
10. ^ "Justus baron
von Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
15. ^ "Justus baron
von Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
16. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Justus baron von
Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
19. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
20. ^ "Justus von Liebig". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
21. ^ "Justus von Liebig". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
22. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
23. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
24. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
25. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
26. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig (1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany24 25  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 6 7 8 		2992)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://ppp.unipv.it/MUSEI/pagine/Biograf
ie/biobelliIng.htm
2. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
3. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
4. ^
http://ppp.unipv.it/MUSEI/pagine/Biograf
ie/biobelliIng.htm
5. ^ Annali delle scienze del regno
Lombardo Veneto: opera periodica di
alcuni ..., edited by Ambrogio
Fusinieri,
(1831). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DVMEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA111&lpg=PA111&dq=%22
Di+una+nuova+maniera+di+Macchina+elettri
ca%22&source=web&ots=vYkCwHAWuY&sig=MmwH
DtJhXdB8dv_yDkcnZI2xaAg&hl=en
(description of machine)
6. ^ "Electrical".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al (1831)
7. ^ G. Belli, "Di una nuova maniera
de Macchina elettrica," Annali delle
scienze del regno Lombardo Veneto, I,
pp. 111, 1831. (Reprint in "La Fisica a
Pavia Nell'800 e '900, Scritti de
Giuseppe Belli", Università degli
Studi di Pavia, 1988.)
8. ^ Annali delle
scienze del regno Lombardo Veneto:
opera periodica di alcuni ..., edited
by Ambrogio Fusinieri,
(1831). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DVMEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA111&lpg=PA111&dq=%22
Di+una+nuova+maniera+di+Macchina+elettri
ca%22&source=web&ots=vYkCwHAWuY&sig=MmwH
DtJhXdB8dv_yDkcnZI2xaAg&hl=en
(description of machine)
Pavia, Italy4 5 (possibly) 
[1] Belli's Doubler. PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electrical

[2] Giuseppe Belli PD/Corel
source: http://ppp.unipv.it/MUSEI/pagine
/Biografie/biobelliIng.htm
168 YBN
[01/03/1832 AD] 22 		2808)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
8. ^ "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Joseph
Henry". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
9. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
10. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
18. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
21. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (reports
his first observing an electromagnet
inducing current:) 08/1830) (reports
his first observing an electromagnet
inducing current:) 08/1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[5]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[6]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[7]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[8] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
Albany, NY, USA20 21  
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
168 YBN
[06/08/1832 AD] 9 10 		2747) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 publishes
"Economy of Machines and Manufactures"
(18322 ) which is the result of
Babbage's travels through several of
the countries of Europe, examining
different systems of machinery.3 In
this work, Babbage describes what is
now called the Babbage principle, which
describes certain advantages with
division of labor. Babbage notes that
highly skilled, and therefore generally
higher paid, workers spend parts of
their job performing tasks that are
'below' their skill level. If the labor
process can be divided among several
workers, it is possible to assign only
high-skill tasks to high-skill and
high-cost workers and leave other
working tasks to less-skilled and paid
workers, which lowers labor costs. This
principle is criticized by Karl Marx
who argues that it causes labor
segregation and contributes to
alienation. The Babbage principle is an
inherent assumption in Frederick
Winslow Taylor's scientific
management.4 (I think the differences
between high and low skill are many
times hard to define. It seems clear
that walking robots will fill low skill
jobs first, such as picking fruit,
order taking, food serving, cleaning,
driving, grocery shopping, filming, and
this would imply that any job which a
robot cannot perform is a higher skill
job. We are heading to a society where
walking robots perform almost all of
the work, while humans and other
species live off the products of that
work. I see full and constant democracy
as the future of government and
society. The hope is that the majority
will be well informed and educated and
form a civilization full of pleasure
and freedom and free of pain and
violence.5 )

In this work6 Babbage publishes his
finding that the cost of collecting and
stamping a letter for various sums
depending on the distance it is to
travel costs more in labor than using
some small sum charged independently of
distance. The British government will
adopt this practice in 1840.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ The works of
Charles Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p337.
3. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
4. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ The works of Charles
Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p337.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
8. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
9. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, v11 p337.
06/08/1832) (first edition) 06/08/1832)
10. ^
"Charles Babbage (1834)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage (1834) (1834)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
168 YBN
[07/??/1832 AD] 6 		2807)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^
Henry_electromagnet_2000lbs.pdf http://
proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=338
985691&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt=10&VInst=PRO
D&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1205049
124&clientId=1568&aid=1 APPENDIX.; An
account of a large Electro-Magnet, made
for the Laboratory of Yale
College; JOSEPH HENRY, TEN EYCKA E.
American Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jul 1831. Vol.
20, Iss. 1; p. 201 (4 pages)
3. ^
Henry_electromagnet_2000lbs.pdf http://
proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=338
985691&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt=10&VInst=PRO
D&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1205049
124&clientId=1568&aid=1 APPENDIX.; An
account of a large Electro-Magnet, made
for the Laboratory of Yale
College; JOSEPH HENRY, TEN EYCKA E.
American Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jul 1831. Vol.
20, Iss. 1; p. 201 (4 pages)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
5. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
6. ^
Henry_electromagnet_2000lbs.pdf http://
proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=338
985691&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt=10&VInst=PRO
D&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1205049
124&clientId=1568&aid=1 APPENDIX.; An
account of a large Electro-Magnet, made
for the Laboratory of Yale
College; JOSEPH HENRY, TEN EYCKA E.
American Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jul 1831. Vol.
20, Iss. 1; p. 201 (4 pages) (07/1831)
(07/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[3] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[6]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[7]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
Albany, NY, USA4 5  
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jospeh_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
168 YBN
[10/??/1832 AD] 15 		3002) Hamilton describes the
confirmation of conical refraction:
"Aft
er making this communication
to the Academy, in
October, 1832, I requested Professor
Lloyd to examine the question
experimentally,
and to try whether he could perceive
any such phenomena in biaxial
crystals,
as my theory of conical refraction had
led me to expect. The experiments of
Professor Lloyd,
confirming my
theoretical expectations, have been
published by him in the numbers of the
Londo
n and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine,
for the months of February and March,
1833;10 11
and they will be found with
fuller details in the present Volume of
the Irish Transactions."


In this paper, Hamilton changes from
his earlier neutrality to support the
wave theory12 : Hamilton writes: "
The latter theory was deduced, by my
general methods, from the hypothesis of
transver-
sal vibrations in a luminous ether,
which hypothesis seems to have been
first proposed by
Dr. Young, but to
have been independently framed and far
more perfectly developed by
Fresnel; and
from Fresnel"s other principle, of the
existence of three rectangular axes of
elas
ticity within a biaxal crystallised
medium. The verification,
therefore, of this theory of
conical
refraction, by the experiments of
Professor Lloyd, must be considered as
affording a
new and important
probability in favour of Fresnel"s
views: that is, a new encouragement
to reason from
those views, in combining and
predicting appearances."

(Interesting that a single material can
have more than one index of refraction.
To me this implies that refraction has
to do with crystal and or molecular
structure (and shape) and less to do
with kind of material (atom or
molecule). Who first found this?13 )
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Third Supplement to an Essay on
the Theory of Systems of
Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 17 (1837), pp. 1-144)
{Hamilton_William_1832_Third_Supplement.
pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Hamilton/Rays/#ThirdSupplement
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p358.
5. ^ "Sir William
Rowan Hamilton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
6. ^ "optical crystallography".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7228/optical-crystallography
7. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp312-314.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/HLloyd/ConicalRefraction/
11. ^ Humphrey Lloyd, "On the
Phænomena presented by Light in its
Passage along the Axes of Biaxal
Crystals.", the Philosophical Magazine,
3rd series, volume 2 (1833), pp.
112-120. {Lloyd_Humphrey_1833.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
15. ^ Third Supplement to an Essay on
the Theory of Systems of
Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 17 (1837), pp. 1-144)
{Hamilton_William_1832_Third_Supplement.
pdf} (10/1832)

MORE INFO
[1] Sir William Rowan Hamilton
(1805-1865): Mathematical Papers
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Hamilton/Papers.html
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 15 (1828), pp. 69-174.
{Hamilton_1828_Theory_of_System_of_Rays.
pdf (page 13)}
[4] "William Rowan Hamilton."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton (1827)
[5] "William Rowan
Hamilton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton (1827)
[6] "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Rowan_Hamilton (1828)
[7] "William Rowan
Hamilton", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp392-394. (1827)
[8] Third Supplement to an
Essay on the Theory of Systems of
Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 17 (1837), pp. 1-144)
{Hamilton_William_1832_Third_Supplement.
pdf p.1}
(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland14  
[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg
168 YBN
[12/15/1832 AD] 18 19 		2448)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
2. ^
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/tr
anslations/gaussMagnetic.pdf by Carl
Friedrich Gauss (Translated from the
German by Susan P. Johnson, July
1995) {Gauss_1852_Magnetic.pdf}
3. ^ Felix Klein, Robert Hermann,
"Development of Mathematics in the 19th
Century", Math Sci Press, 1979,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
M36hgqmOLkC&pg=PA17&dq=wilhelm+weber&lr=
&as_brr=1&ei=dKb_SJ6eJIjutAPDyO2SDA#PPA1
9,M1
4. ^ Felix Klein, Robert Hermann,
"Development of Mathematics in the 19th
Century", Math Sci Press, 1979,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
M36hgqmOLkC&pg=PA17&dq=wilhelm+weber&lr=
&as_brr=1&ei=dKb_SJ6eJIjutAPDyO2SDA#PPA1
9,M1
5. ^
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/tr
anslations/gaussMagnetic.pdf by Carl
Friedrich Gauss (Translated from the
German by Susan P. Johnson, July
1995) {Gauss_1852_Magnetic.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ The Mechanical Universe,
Chapter 37, Electromagnetic Induction,
p20:00.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ The Mechanical Universe, Chapter
29, The Electric Field, p15:51.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
18. ^, p1.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/tr
anslations/gaussMagnetic.pdf by Carl
Friedrich Gauss (Translated from the
German by Susan P. Johnson, July
1995) Gauss_1852_Magnetic.pdf
(12/15/1832) (12/15/1832)
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280. (1832)
(1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[6]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
[7] The Mechanical Universe, Chapter
34, Magnetism
[8] "Gausss law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6224/Gausss-law
[9] "Gauss' law". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%27_la
w
[10]
http://www.answers.com/topic/gauss-s-law
?cat=technology
[11] "principles of physical science".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-148
55/principles-of-physical-science
[12] "Divergence theorem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_
theorem
[13]
http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/21st-Ce
ntury-V15-p40-48(2002).pdf A. K. T.
Assis, K. Reich and K. H. Wiederkehr,
"Gauss and Weber's creation of the
absolute system of units in physics,"
21st Century, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 40-48
(2002).
Gauss_21st-Century-V15-p40-48(2002).pd
f
[14] The Mechanical Universe, Chapter
34, Magnetism
Göttingen, Germany17
(presumably) 
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 29 		2514) Plastic. (Nitrocellulose).19 20
21

Braconnet creates a flammable22
product he names "xyloidine" by
treating starch, sawdust, and cotton
with nitric acid. Braconnot finds that
this material is soluble in wood
vinegar and attempts to make coatings
(varnish23 ), films, and shaped
articles from it.24 (What kind of
shaped articles? Solid-plastic
objects?25 )

This substance may be considered the
first polymer or plastic material
created by a chemist.26

Henri Bracconet is the first to prepare
cellulose nitrate in 1833, by mixing
sawdust cellulose with nitric acid. In
1855 Christian Schönbein, a professor
at Basel University, copies Bracconet's
method in treating simple paper made
from wood cellulose with nitrite acid.
The result is a transparent, highly
flammable substance, which Schönbein
names "cellulose nitrate" and markets
as an explosive. Parkes will use
cellulose nitrate as the basis of
Parkesine, an early plastic.27
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
2. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
3. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
4. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
6. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
7. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
8. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
9. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
10. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
11. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
12. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
13. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p292.
15. ^ "Alexander
Parkes." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 20 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
16. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
17. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
18. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
19. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
20. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
21. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
22. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
23. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
24. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
27. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
28. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
29. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
Nancy, France28  
[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg

[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 10 11 		2528)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
2. ^ "William
Sturgeon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
3. ^ "Anianus Jedlik", Nature, Volume
53 Number 1379
p516-517. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v53/n1379/pdf/053516a0.pdf
4. ^ Amédée Guillemin, tr: Silvanus
P. Thompson, "Electricity and
magnetism", London, MacMillan, 1891,
p765. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QznSAAAAMAAJ
5. ^ Joseph Henry, "On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion", American Journal of
Science, vol 20, 1831,
p340 http://books.google.com/books?id=G
xQeAQAAMAAJ
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "William
Sturgeon". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Sturgeon?
cat=technology
9. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
10. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon (1832)
11. ^ "William
Sturgeon". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Sturgeon?
cat=technology (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Sturgeon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stu
rgeon
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/sturge
on.html
[3] William Sturgeon, Scientific
Memoires, 1850.
Surrey, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Simplest practical
commutator This has three segments,
and the rotor has three poles. The left
image shows the three rotor poles with
their windings. The commutator is near
the end of the shaft, as it points up
and to the left. It is a metal cylinder
(note the yellowish reflection) with
three equally spaced cuts parallel to
the shaft, and has white plastic discs
on both ends. Each segment connects to
the nearest junction between two of the
three rotor coils. In the middle
illustration, the brushes (in this
instance, flat metal springs; carbon
brushes are not needed at the low
voltages used by such motors as these)
are the two straight horizontal pieces;
when assembled, the brushes are under
tension, slightly away from each other,
to stay in contact with the commutator.
Power connects to two solder terminals
on the outside of the end disc shown in
this image. Those terminals are likely
to be the same pieces of metal as the
brushes themselves. Inside the
exterior metal cylinder (see image at
right for the complete motor) is a
hollow cylindrical permanent magnet
with its south pole opposite its north
pole. Interaction between the rotor and
that magnet's field is what makes the
motor spin. This motor's diameter is
greater than its length, something
uncommon in motors of this sort. In
other sorts of motors, it is typical.
Considering that it was used to spin
the disc in a CD drive, short length
was quite important. Description
English: Close-up view of 3-pole
rotor on a ruler Date Source
Own work Author DMahalko,
Dale Mahalko, Gilman, WI, USA -- Email:
dmahalko@gmail.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e4/Simplest_Possible_Com
mutator_-_Rotor_View.JPG

[2] Description English: Closeup
view of the brushes in this tiny
commutated DC motor Date Source
Own work Author DMahalko,
Dale Mahalko, Gilman, WI, USA -- Email:
dmahalko@gmail.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Simplest_Possib
le_Commutator_-_Brushes.JPG/1124px-Simpl
est_Possible_Commutator_-_Brushes.JPG
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 4 		2623)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hylaeosaurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylaeosauru
s
2. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Hylaeosaurus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylaeosauru
s
4. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Gideon Algernon
Mantell". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0633/Gideon-Algernon-Mantell
[3] "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon_Alge
rnon_Mantell
[4] "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gideon_A
lgernon_Mantell
Tilgate Forest, England3  
[1] Hylaeosaurus by Benjamin Waterhouse
Hawkins (1807-1889) from Johnsons
Natural History 1871 United
States Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/early
image/prehistoriclifebeforekt/hylaeosaur
us_jnh_1871_hawkins_1889.html Date
1871 Author Benjamin Waterhouse
Hawkins PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hylaeosaurus_jnh_1871_hawkins_1889.gi
f

[2] Figure of fossil iguanadon teeth
and iguana jaw that Gideon Mantell
included in his 1825 paper naming
iguanadon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mantell_iguanadon_teeth.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 7 8 		2659)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Baron Schilling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_Schil
ling
3. ^ "telegraph". The Oxford Companion
to American Military History. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2000.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/telegraph?cat=tec
hnology
4. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Thef
irstelectrictelegraphs/index.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.answers.com/telegraph?cat=tec
hnology
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/telegraph?cat=tec
hnology (1832)
8. ^ "Baron Schilling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_Schil
ling (1832)
St. Petersburg, Russia6  
[1] English: USSR stamp, P. L.
Shilling, 1982, 6
k. Русский:
Марка СССР,
П. Л.
Шиллинг, 1982, 6
коп. Source Personal
collection Date 2007-10-16
(original upload date) Author
Processed by Andrei Sdobnikov PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:USSR_stamp_P.L.Shilling_1982_6k.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 20 21 		2704) The quantity of electricity
required to liberate 23 grams of
sodium, or 108 grams of silver, or 32
grams of copper, in other words to
liberate the "equivalent weight" (named
by Wollaston) of an element, is named
the Faraday.16

Faraday invents the voltameter, a
device for measuring electrical
charges, which was the first step
toward the later standardization of
electrical quantities.17 The
voltameter is not to be confused with
the voltmeter which measures electric
potential. The voltameter measures
quantity of electricity. The voltameter
is an electrolytic cell and the
measurement is made by weighing the
element deposited or released at the
cathode in a specified time.18
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp327-328.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
17. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
18. ^ "Voltameter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltameter
19. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320. (1832)
21. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1834 {in seventh series})

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[5]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[11] Faraday_e7_electrolysis.pdf
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Seventh Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0008 htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/52
6145013443q040/?p=8083e5a3390d443eb3a9fe
1efa3140ab&pi=1
(Royal Institution in) London,
England19  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 8 		2717) Antoine-Hippolyte Pixii lives a
very short life, only 27 years.6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Hellemans and Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", 1988, p299.
2. ^
Hellemans and Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", 1988, p299.
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
7. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Pixii". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolyte_P
ixii
Paris, France7  
[1] The machine contained a permanent
magnet which was rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet was
positioned so that its north and south
poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii found that the
spinning magnet produced a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. Furthermore, the north
and south poles of the magnet induced
currents in opposite directions. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html

[2] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 7 		2718) Antoine-Hippolyte Pixii lives a
very short life, only 27 years.5
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
7. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Pixii". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolyte_P
ixii
Paris, France6  
[1] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg

[2] Later that same year Pixii
produced a second machine, at Ampère's
suggestion, with a commutator to
rectify the alternative current
currents. Pixii's first device was
improved upon in 1833 by Joseph Saxton
of Philadelphia who used a rotating
electromagnet, the inverse of Pixii's
design. The resulting magneto-electric
''shock machine'' was regarded for many
years as a toy, but later found
widespread use as the crank telephone
bell ringer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 12 		2740)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Charles Babbage". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Charles Babbage". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
8. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
11. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
12. ^ "Charles Babbage". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England11
(presumably) 
[1] [t Babbage's first Difference
Engine, apparently from The Mechanic's
Magazine 1833] PD
source: http://babbagedifferenceengine.g
ooglepages.com/Babbage_DE1_timbs.jpg/Bab
bage_DE1_timbs-full.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 5 6 7 		2773) Nitrobenzene is a poisonous
organic compound, C6H5NO2, either
bright yellow crystals or an oily
liquid, having the odor of almonds and
used in the manufacture of aniline,
insulating compounds, and polishes.3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
3. ^
"nitrobenzene". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrobenzen
e?cat=technology
4. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
5. ^
http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingaleev/scilog
y/#Mitscherlich (1832)
6. ^ "Eilhardt
Mitscherlich". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich (1832)
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327. (1834)
(1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilhardt_Mi
tscherlich
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Eilhardt+Mitscher
lich+?cat=technology
[3] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eilhardt
_Mitscherlich
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Benzene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene
[6] "jlac.18340090103". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. E. Mitscherlich
(1834). "Ueber das Benzol und die
Säuren der Oel- und Talgarten".
Annalen der Pharmacie 9 (1): 39-48.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18340090103. http
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liebigs_Annalen
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jlac.183400901
03
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Nitrobenzene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nit
robenzene

[2] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 27 28 		2775) John Wycliffe (WIKLIF1 )
(c1330-1384), English theologian, and
church reformer2 initiates3 the first
complete translation of the Bible into
English.4

The New Testament seems to have been
completed about 1380, the Old Testament
between 1382 and 1384. Exactly how much
of it was done by Wyclif's own hand is
uncertain.5

About 30 copies of this book have
survived. Some are large folio volumes,
written and illuminated in the style of
the period. Others are plain copies of
ordinary size, intended for private
persons or monastic libraries. Clearly,
in spite of official disfavor and
eventual prohibition, Wycliff's Bible
is welcome in many places in England.6


Wycliff dies on December 31, 1384 and
is buried, but on May 4, 1415 by a
decree of the council of Constance,
Wycliff's remains are ordered to be dug
up and burned, an order which is
carried out, at the command of Pope
Martin V, by Bishop Fleming in 1428.7
W
ycliff writes a political treatises on
divine and civil dominion "De dominio
divino libri tres and Tractatus de
civili dominio", in which Wycliff
states that, as the church is in sin,
the church should give up its
possessions and return to evangelical
poverty.8

Wycliff criticizes the belief in
transubstantiation, that the substance
of the bread and wine used in
(religious ceremony9 ) is changed into
the body and blood of Christ. As a
Realist philosopher, Wycliff criticizes
this belief because in the destruction
of the bread and wine, the end of being
is involved.10

In May 1382, at the synod held at
Blackfriars, London, many of his
Wycliff's works are condemned. At
Oxford Wycliff's (supporters11 ) also
give in, and all Wycliff's writings are
banned.12

As an example of the english of this
time Wycliff's Bible begins:
"1 In the
bigynnyng God made of nouyt heuene and
erthe.
2 Forsothe the erthe was idel and
voide, and derknessis weren on the face
of depthe; and the Spiryt of the Lord
was borun on the watris.
3 And God seide, Liyt
be maad, and liyt was maad.
4 And God seiy
the liyt, that it was good, and he
departide the liyt fro derknessis; and
he clepide the liyt,
5 dai, and the
derknessis, nyyt. And the euentid and
morwetid was maad, o daie."13


According to the Columbia Encyclopedia,
this first and literal translation of
the Latin Vulgate Bible into English is
mainly the work of Wycliff's followers,
notably Nicholas Hereford; the smoother
revision of c.1395 is directed by
Wyclif's follower John Purvey. In
England the Lollards form the link
between Wyclif and the Protestant
Reformation. On the Continent Wycliff
is a chief forerunner of the
Reformation, through his influence on
Jan Huss, the Bohemian reformer, and
through Huss on Martin Luther and the
Moravians.14
Wycliffe received his
formal education at Oxford
University.15
In 1361 Wycliff is made
rector at Fillingham.16
In 1368 Wycliff
is rector at Ludgershall.17
In 1369
Wycliffe earns a bachelor of
divinity.18 (presumably from Oxford19
)
In 1372 Wycliffe earns a doctor of
divinity.20
In 1374 Wycliff is rector
at Lutterworth.21
Wycliff's early
associates himself with the
anticlerical party in the nation.22
In
1374 Wycliff is sent to Bruges to
represent the English crown in
negotiations over payment of tribute to
the Holy See.23 (notice "Holy See" from
Columbia.24 )
From 1377 Wycliff makes
many vigorous attacks in both Latin and
English on orthodox church doctrines,
especially that of transubstantiation.
Through his own preaching in the
vernacular at Oxford and London and the
teaching of his "poor priests", Wycliff
spreads the doctrine that the
Scriptures are the supreme authority
over the church. Wycliff is condemned
as a heretic in 1380 and again in 1382,
and Wycliff's followers are persecuted,
but Wycliff is not disturbed in his
retirement at Lutterworth, where he
dies in 1384.25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Wycliff". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wyclif
f
2. ^ "John Wycliffe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
3. ^ "john wycliffe". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
4. ^ "John Wycliffe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
5. ^
http://www.bible-researcher.com/wyclif3.
html
6. ^
http://www.bible-researcher.com/wyclif3.
html
7. ^ "Wycliffe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Wycliffe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wycliffe

8. ^ "John Wycliffe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "John Wycliffe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "John Wycliffe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
13. ^
http://wesley.nnu.edu/biblical_studies/w
ycliffe/ (actual text of Wycliff's
Bible)
14. ^ "john wycliffe". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
15. ^ "John Wycliffe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
16. ^ "john wycliffe". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
17. ^ "john wycliffe". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
18. ^ "John Wycliffe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "John Wycliffe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
21. ^ "john wycliffe". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
22. ^ "john wycliffe". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
23. ^ "john wycliffe". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "john wycliffe". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-wyclif
fe
26. ^ "John Wycliffe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-804
0/John-Wycliffe
27. ^ "John Wycliff". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wyclif
f (1832-1834)
28. ^
http://www.bible-researcher.com/wyclif3.
html (1832-1834)
Oxford, England26  
[1] John Wycliffe Born
c.1320s Ipreswell, England Died 31
December 1384 (aged about
64) Lutterworth, England PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jwycliffe.gif

[2] John Wycliffe speaking to Lollard
preachers. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brief_1.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 8 		2849) Cymene is any of three colorless
isomeric liquid hydrocarbons, C10H14,
obtained chiefly from the essential
oils of cumin and thyme and used in the
manufacture of synthetic resins.3

Cymene is a naturally occurring
aromatic organic compound.4

Anthrecene, C14H10, is a solid organic
compound derived from coal tar.5
The
molecular structure of anthracene
consists of three benzenelike rings
joined side by side; it is therefore an
aromatic compound. Cymene is the first
member of the anthracene series, a
group of aromatic hydrocarbons that are
structurally related to it and have the
general formula CnH2n−18.6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^ "cymene". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/cymene?cat=techno
logy
4. ^ "Cymene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymene
5. ^ "anthracene". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/anthracene?cat=te
chnology
6. ^ "anthracene". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/anthracene?cat=te
chnology
7. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
8. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[3] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
[4] "Anthracene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthracene
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France7
(presumably) 
[1] cymene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cym
ene

[2] Anthracene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant
hracene
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 13 14 		2860)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
3. ^ "Justus
baron von Liebig". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
4. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
6. ^ "Friedrich
Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Justus von Liebig". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
9. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
10. ^ "Friedrich Wöhler". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
11. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
12. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
13. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig (1832)
14. ^
"Justus von Liebig". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[2] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Justus von Liebig". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[5] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[6] "University of Giessen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany11 (and (University of
Giessen), Giessen, Germany12 ) 
[1] * Description: Chemical structure
of Benzoyl chloride * Author, date
of creation: selfmade by Shaddack, 0
November 2005 * Source:
self-made * Copyright: Public
Domain (PD) * Comments: b/w hires
PNG; ChemDraw PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benzoyl_chloride.png

[2] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 5 		2925) (Baron) Justus von Liebig (lEBiK)
(CE 1803-1873), German chemist1
discovers chloral, a sedative/hypnotic
substance.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^ "Chloral".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloral
3. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
4. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
5. ^ "Chloral". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloral
(1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
[3] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany3 4  
[1] Chloral, also known as
trichloroacetaldehyde or
trichloroethanal PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//University_
of_Giessen

[2] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Justu
sLiebig.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 8 		2947) Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (YoKOBE)
(CE 1804-1851), German mathematician1
discovers hyperelliptic functions2 3 .

Jacobi shows that just as elliptic
functions can be obtained by inverting
elliptic integrals, hyperelliptic
functions can also be obtained by
inverting hyperelliptic integrals.4

This thinking leads Jacobi to the
theory of Abelian functions, which are
complex functions of several
variables.5 (more info6 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ "Carl Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
3. ^ "carl gustav jakob jacobi". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-gustav
-jakob-jacobi?cat=technology
4. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
5. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Carl Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
8. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav
_Jacob_Jacobi
[2] "Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Gus
tav_Jacob_Jacobi
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany7  
[1] Carl Jacobi (1804-1851) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Jacobi_%282%29.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 11 		3046) Joseph Liouville (lYUVEL) (CE
1809-1882), French mathematician,1
creates his theory of integration in
finite terms (1832â€"33). The main
goals of Liouville's work in this
period is to decide whether given
algebraic functions have integrals that
can be expressed in finite (or
elementary) terms.2
In analysis
Liouville is the first to deduce the
theory of doubly periodic functions
(functions with two distinct periods
whose ratio is not a real number) (what
are doubly periodic functions whose two
periods ration is real called?3 ) from
general theorems (including his own)
(Liouville's theorem4 5 ) in the theory
of analytic functions of a complex
variable (also known as holomorphic
functions or regular functions; a
complex-valued function defined and
differentiable over some subset of the
complex number plane).6 (See 7 for
related info)

In 1836 Liouville founds and becomes
editor of the "Journal des
Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées"
("Journal of Pure and Applied
Mathematics").8

Altogether, Liouville's publications
comprise about 400 memoirs, articles,
and notes.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp368-369.
2. ^ "Liouville,
Joseph". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&from=ob
jects&id=1145
5. ^
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LiouvillesB
oundednessTheorem.html
6. ^ "Liouville, Joseph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>.
7. ^ Record ID2946. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Liouville,
Joseph". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>.
9. ^ "Liouville, Joseph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>.
10. ^ "Liouville, Joseph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>.
11. ^ "Liouville, Joseph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>. (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Liouville".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Liou
ville
[2] "Joseph Liouville", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p547
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France10
 
[1]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Liouville.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/20/Liouville.jpeg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 4 		3343)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Plateau, Joseph Antoine
Ferdinand", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p708-709.
2. ^ "animation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7644>.
3. ^ "Plateau, Joseph Antoine
Ferdinand", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p708-709.
4. ^ "animation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7644>. {1832}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Plateau". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Plat
eau
[2]
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_E
ncyclopedia_(1913)/Joseph-Antoine_Platea
u
(Institut Gaggia) Brussels, Belgium3
 
[1] English: Plateau's
phenakistiscope. Wikipédia nl, depuis
Joseph Plateau, Corresp.Math.Phys.
1832, VII, p. 291 Date 1832 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/35/Phenakistiscope.jpg

[2] [t Presumably a drawing of
Plateau's phenakistiscope] PD?
source: http://profspevack.com/animation
/tech_support/history/Phantascope.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 3 		3910)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
2. ^
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/22
8495-overview
3. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
{1832}

MORE INFO
[1] Bizo, B. (1832) Biblioteca
Ital. di. Lett. Sci ed. Arti. 30. 275.
[2]
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
[3] Loeffler, F. (1884) Mittheil.
Kaiserl. Gesunheitsante. 2. cited in
Brock, T. (1998) Robert Koch: a life in
medicine and bacteriology. Science
Technical Publications. Madison, WI,
USA
[4]
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
[5] Schroeter, J. "Ueber einige durch
Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."Beitr. Z.
Biol. D. Pflanzen1:2, 1870, 109-126.
[6] "Joseph
Schröter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr
%C3%B6ter
Padua, Italy2 (verify) 
[1] Bartolomeo Bizio PD
source: http://giandri.altervista.org/Ba
rtolomeoBizio/Ritratto.JPG
167 YBN
[07/07/1833 AD] 6 7 		2931) Asimov describes Lenz as being
third in investigating electrical
induction behind Faraday and Henry.4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p354.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p354.
3. ^, p4.
http://cse.unl.edu/~jtooker/Files/Lenz.p
df Lenz.pdf
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p354.
5. ^ "Heinrich
Friedrich Emil Lenz". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Heinrich+Friedric
h+Emil+Lenz?cat=technology
6. ^, p4.
http://cse.unl.edu/~jtooker/Files/Lenz.p
df Lenz.pdf (07/07/1833)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p354. (1833)
(1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lenzs law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7780/Lenzs-law
[2] "Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Fr
iedrich_Emil_Lenz
[3] Stine, Wilbur Morris. H. F. E. Lenz
to Electromagnetism. Philadelphia: The
Acorn Press, 1923
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia5 (presumably) 
[1] Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
(1804-1865) Source Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Die Abbildung
stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist.) Date 2004-08-13 (original
upload date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emil_Lenz.jpg
167 YBN
[11/29/1833 AD] 15 		2932) Lenz's law must be taken into
account in the design of electrical
equipment.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p354.
2. ^, p6.
http://cse.unl.edu/~jtooker/Files/Lenz.p
df Lenz.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p354.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Heinrich+Friedric
h+Emil+Lenz?cat=technology
7. ^, p5.
http://cse.unl.edu/~jtooker/Files/Lenz.p
df Lenz.pdf
8. ^, p6.
http://cse.unl.edu/~jtooker/Files/Lenz.p
df Lenz.pdf
9. ^ "Lenzs law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7780/Lenzs-law
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Lenzs law".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7780/Lenzs-law
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p354.
14. ^ "Heinrich
Friedrich Emil Lenz". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Heinrich+Friedric
h+Emil+Lenz?cat=technology
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p354. (1834) (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Friedrich Emil
Lenz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Fr
iedrich_Emil_Lenz
[2] "Lenz's law". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz%27s_la
w
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/lenz-s-law?
cat=technology
[4] A brief video demonstrating Lenz's
Law is at EduMation
http://msdaif.googlepages.com/demo_lenz
[5] A neat device made by William J.
Beaty levitates a magnet above two
spinning rollers.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glCNP6qH_
Dc
[6] A dramatic demonstration of the
effect with an aluminium block in an
MRI, falling very slowly.
http://youtube.com/watch?v=fxC-AEC0ROk
[7] Stine, Wilbur Morris. H. F. E. Lenz
to Electromagnetism. Philadelphia: The
Acorn Press, 1923
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia14
(presumably) 
[1] Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
(1804-1865) Source Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Die Abbildung
stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist.) Date 2004-08-13 (original
upload date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emil_Lenz.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 10 11 		2449) Much of electricity and in
particular the telegraph marks a major
turn to secrecy in science, perhaps
because of the nature of using
technology to record the private
message of people without their
knowledge, and the strategic use that
may provide.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280.
2. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Carl+Friedrich+Ga
uss?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
4. ^ "Carl Friedrich
Gauss". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
5. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Thef
irstelectrictelegraphs/index.htm
6. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, ? 51.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9423/Carl-Friedrich-Gauss
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp279-280. (1833)
(1833)
11. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Friedrich Gauss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedr
ich_Gauss
[2] "algebraic equation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5687/algebraic-equation
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial?
cat=health
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Galois+theory?cat
=technology
(University of) Göttingen, Germany9
 
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gem�lde von C. F. Gauss *
Source: evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 7 8 		2555) William Beaumont (BOmoNT) (CE
1785-1853), American surgeon1
publishes "Experiments and Observations
on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology
of Digestion" (1833)2 , in which
Beaumont lists 238 experiments that he
does on a person who survives a gunshot
wound that leaves a hole (a fistula)
into his stomach. Beaumont suggests
using artificial fistulas (holes) in
animals for further research.3
Beaumont
is a US Army surgeon.4
Alexis St.
Martin, a 19-year-old French-Canadian
trapper has a wound from a shotgun
blast. As a result of the healing of
the wound, a gastric fistula, or
passage, remains which, when pressed
with the finger allows Beaumont to see
the activities occurring within St.
Martin's stomach.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p300.
2. ^ "William
Beaumont". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William%20Beaumon
t
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p300.
4. ^ "William
Beaumont". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
4002/William-Beaumont
5. ^ "William Beaumont". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
4002/William-Beaumont
6. ^ "William Beaumont". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William%20Beaumon
t
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p300. (1833) (1833)
8. ^
"William Beaumont". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William%20Beaumon
t (1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Beaumont".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bea
umont
Washington DC, USA6  
[1] Dr. William Beaumont
(1785-1853) en:William Beaumont From:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
rev/gillett1/default.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Beaumont.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 4 		2578)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
2. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
3. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
4. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje (1833)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland2
3  
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 5 		2772) Eilhardt Mitscherlich (miCRliK)
(CE 1794-1863), German chemist1 names
Benzene, after producing it using the
distillation of benzoic acid (from gum
benzoin) and lime. Mitscherlich gives
the compound the name "benzin".2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp326-327.
2. ^ "Benzene".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene
3. ^ "jlac.18340090103". Annalen der
Pharmacie 9 (1): 39-48.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18340090103. http
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liebigs_Annalen
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jlac.183400901
03
4. ^ "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3054/Eilhardt-Mitscherlich
5. ^ "Benzene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene
(1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilhardt_Mi
tscherlich
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Eilhardt+Mitscher
lich+?cat=technology
[3] "Eilhardt Mitscherlich".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eilhardt
_Mitscherlich
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingaleev/scilog
y/#Mitscherlich
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg

[2] Mitscherlich, Eilhardt (January
17, 1794 - August 28, 1863) German
chemist who discovered the Law of
Isomorphism. He also made other
important discoveries, including
selenic acid (1827) and the monoclinic
crystal form of sulfur (1823), named
benzene, became the first to synthesize
nitrobenzene in 1832, and was one of
the first to recognize contact action,
now known as catalytic action. PD
source: http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingalee
v/scilogy/Mitscherlich.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 8 		2786)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Anselme Payen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
5. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89309/payen_anselme.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
7. ^ "Anselme Payen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329. (1833)
(1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anselme Payen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselme_Pay
en
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Description French chemist Anselme
Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg

[2] [t page on Cellulose in
paper] PD
source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 6 		2850) Urethane is a colorless or white
crystalline compound, CO(NH2)OC2H5,
used in organic synthesis.3

Urethane is not a component of
polyurethanes.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/urethane?cat=tech
nology
4. ^ "Ethyl carbamate". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_carba
mate
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[3] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France5
(presumably) 
[1] Ethyl carbamate (also called
urethane) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
yl_carbamate

[2] French chemist Jean Baptiste
André Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 9 		2901)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
4. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
5. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/j017652388l7087m/?p=6554e01ce6ee4c5d8d7
30a99d33d3b3a&pi=2
6. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/j017652388l7087m/?p=6554e01ce6ee4c5d8d7
30a99d33d3b3a&pi=2
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
9. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2] "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
[3]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/40487007n6mk4u22/?p=6554e01ce6ee4c5d8d7
30a99d33d3b3a&pi=6
[4]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/952v2lu532035141/?p=2d5ea0bcdb8f442dab2
bfe3ce1db9f9f&pi=13
[5]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/k03778g2r962p276/?p=2d5ea0bcdb8f442dab2
bfe3ce1db9f9f&pi=11
(King's College) London, England8
 
[1] We've all enjoyed 3D movies and
stared at 3D pictures (stereograms) on
walls - well, the first real
stereographer was Sir Charles
Wheatstone, who made geometric 3-D
drawings and a device to view them
called a reflecting mirror stereoscrope
in 1838. This proved that stereo
perception was a result of binocular
vision. Wheatstone's actual stereoscope
is preserved at the Science Museum in
London. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 3 		2906)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Samuel Hunter Christie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Hunt
er_Christie
2. ^ "Samuel Hunter Christie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Hunt
er_Christie
3. ^ "Samuel Hunter Christie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Hunt
er_Christie (1833)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
[3] "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[5] "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] S. Hunter Christie, "The Bakerian
Lecture: Experimental Determination of
the Laws of Magneto-electric Induction
in different masses of the same metal,
and its intensity in different
metals.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, vol. 123,
1833, pp. 95-142.
[8] Charles Wheatstone, "The
Bakerian Lecture: An Account of Several
New Instruments and Processes for
Determining the Constants of a Voltaic
Circuit", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, vol. 133,
1843, pp. 303--327.
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
England2  
[1] Description Wheatstone's bridge
circuit diagram. Source
self-made Date
2007-10-09 Author Rhdv [t
Notice that Rx is the unknown
resistor] GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Wheatstonebridge.svg

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 14 		2935) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist1
publishes "Memoir on the Pearly
Nautilus" (London, 1832)2 .

Owen discovers the pearly nautilus
which is a mollusk.3

In the late 1830s4 (chronology5 ), Owen
distingushes between 'homology' and
'analogy'. Homology is any similarity
between characters that is due to their
shared ancestry. An example is that
ovaries and testicles are homologous;
they evolve through the same pathway.
Analogy is similar structures which
evolved through different developmental
pathways, in a process known as
convergent evolution. An example is
that the wings of insects, birds and
bats are analogous; they perform the
same function but evolved through
different pathways.6

Owen is the first to identify the
recently extinct moas of New Zealand.7
8

Owen is the first to describe the
sponge "Venus' flower basket" or
Euplectella (1841, 1857).9
Owen
refuses knighthood in 1842 but accepts
in 1884.10
Owen shows aggressive
animosity for the theory of evolution
by natural selection.11
Owen writes a
very long anonymous review of Darwin's
"Origin of Species" (The Edinburgh
Review, 1860) to discredit Darwin.12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ "Sir Richard
Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
3. ^ "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir Richard Owen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/homology-bi
ology?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Sir
Richard Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-356.
12. ^ "Sir
Richard Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
13. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
14. ^ "Richard Owen". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
(1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England13  
[1] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG

[2] Sir Richard Owen and Dinornis
(Moa) skeleton from The Book of
Knowledge, The Grolier Society,
1911 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Dinor
nis1387.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 4 		2941) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist1
publishes "Descriptive and Illustrated
Catalogue of the Physiological Series
of Comparative Anatomy" (5 vol.,
1833-40) which is considered to be
Owen's monumental work2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ "Richard Owen".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
3. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
4. ^ "Richard Owen". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
(1833)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Richard Owen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
[2] "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
[3] "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
[6]
http://www.answers.com/topic/homology-bi
ology?cat=technology
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England3  
[1] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG

[2] Sir Richard Owen and Dinornis
(Moa) skeleton from The Book of
Knowledge, The Grolier Society,
1911 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Dinor
nis1387.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 19 20 		3003) Lloyd writes: "Here then are two
singular and unexpected consequences of
the undulatory theory, not
only unsupported
by any phaeomena hitherto noticed, but
even opposed to all the analogies
derived from
experience. If confirmed by experiment,
they would furnish a new and almost
convincing
proof of the truth of that theory; and
if disproved, on the other hand, it is
evident
that the theory must be abandoned or
modified.
Being naturally anxious to submit
the theory of waves to this delicate
test, and to ascer-
tain how far these new
theoretical conclusions were in
accordance with actual phaenomena,
Professor
Hamilton requested me to undertake a
series of experiments with that view. I
ac-
cordingly applied myself to this
experimental problem with all the
attention which the subject
so well deserved,
and have fortunately succeeded in
verifying the first-mentioned species
of
conical refraction. I hope before long
to be able to make similar researches
on the second*.

The editor comments: "to this direction
was made by subsequent trial. The
phaenomenon which presented itself,
* Since
we received this paper, we have been
informed by the author that he has now
obser
ved phaenomena corresponding to the
second species of conical refraction,
and of which
an account will be given in our
next Number. -Edit."8

Lloyd continues: " The mineral I
employed in these experiments was
arragonite, which I selected partly on
acco
unt of the magnitude of the cone which
theory indicated in this instance, and
partly
because the three elasticities in this
mineral have been determined,
apparently with great
care, by Professor
Rudberg, and therefore the results of
theory could be applied to it at once
without
further examination. The specimen I
used was one of considerable size and
purity,
procured for me by Mr. Dollond, and cut
with its parallel faces perpendicular
to the line
bisecting the optic axes. If we
suppose a ray of common light to pass
in both directions out
of such a crystal,
along the line connecting the two cusps
in the wave, it is evident that it
must
emerge similarly at both surfaces:
consequently the ray which passes along
this line, and
forms a diverging cone of
rays at emergence at the second surface
of the crystal, must arise
from a converging
cone incident upon the first surface.
Having therefore nearly ascertained
the direction
of the optic axis by means of the
rings, I placed a lens of short focus
at the
distance of its own focal length
from the first surface, and in such a
position that the central
rays of the pencil
might after refraction pass along the
axis. Then looking through the crystal
at the
light of a lamp placed at a
considerable distance, I observed, in
the expected direction, a
point more
luminous than the space immediately
about it, and surrounded by something
like
a stellar radiation. Fearing that this
appearance might have arisen from some
imperfection
in the crystal, I examined it with
polarized light, and was happy to find
the system of rings
in the same direction.
This was afterwards confirmed by
numerous observations on different
parts of the
crystal."9

(Perhaps using a lens causes the
circular outline. This must be the
proof of the first claim by Hamilton
that the incident in the shape of a
cone with the point reaching the
surface will be refracted as a
cylinder. I think this theory is based
strictly on a transverse wave, and
cannot fit an equivalent particle
interval beam, and therefore seems
doubtful in my mind.10 )

Lloyd publishes "Elementary Treatise on
the Wave-theory of Light" in 185711
and a second edition in 187312 .

In this work Lloyd describes how
crystalline bodies are divided into 3
classes, with respect to their action
of light:
"I Single refracting crystals
II Uniaxal
crystals or those which have one axis
of double refraction
III Biaxal
crystals or those which have two such
axes"

In this work Lloyd gives his account of
confirming the two theoretical
refractions:
"Being naturally anxious to submit the
wave theory to this test and to
establish or disprove its new results
Sir William Hamilton requested the
author to examine the subject
experimentally. The result of this
examination has been to prove the
existence of both species of conical
refraction. The first case of conical
refraction is that called by Sir
William Hamilton external conical
refraction and was expected to take
place as we have seen when a single ray
passes within the crystal in the
direction of either of the lines of
single ray velocity. These lines
coincide nearly but not exactly with
the optic axes of the crystal, and in
the case of arragonite, the crystal
submitted to experiment contain an
angle of nearly 20degrees. The plate of
arragonite employed has its faces
perpendicular to the line bisecting the
optic axes, consequently the lines
above mentioned were inclined to the
perpendicular at an angle of about
10degrees on either side. Let these
lines be represented by OM and ON,
equally inclined to the perpendicular
OP. A ray of common light traversing
the crystal in the direction OM or MO
should emerge in a cone of rays as
represented in the figure, the angle of
this cone depending on the relative
magnitude of the three elasticities of
the crystal a2 b2 c2. In the case of
arragonite this angle is considerable
and amounts to 3degrees very nearly.
A thin
metallic plate perforated with a very
minute aperture was placed on each face
of the crystal and these plates were so
adjusted that the line connecting the
two apertures should coincide with the
line MO or any parallel line within the
crystal. The flame of a lamp was then
brought near one of the apertures, and
in such a position that the central
part of the beam converging from its
several points to the aperture should
have an incidence of 15 or 16degrees.
When the adjustment was completed a
brilliant annulus of light appeared on
looking through the aperture in the
second surface. (see image13 ) When the
aperture in the second plate was ever
so slightly shifted so that the line
connecting the two apertures no longer
coincided with the line MO, the
phenomenon rapidly changed and the
annulus resolved itself into two
separate pencils.
The incident converging cone
was also formed by a lens of short
focus placed at the distance of its own
focal length from the surface, and in
this case the lamp was removed to a
distance and the plate on the first
surface dispensed with. The same
experiments were repeated with the
sun's light and the emergent rays were
even thrown on a screen and thus the
section of the cone observed at various
distances from its summit.
...
The rays that compose the emergent cone
are all polarized in different planes.
It was discovered by observation that
these planes are connected by the
following law; namely the angle between
the planes of polarization of any two
rays of the cone is half the angle
between the planes containing the rays
themselves and the axis. This law was
found to be in accordance with theory.
...
(191) The other case of conical
refraction called internal conical
refraction by Sir William Hamilton was
expected to take place when a single
ray has been incident externally upon a
biaxal crystal in such a manner that
one of the refracted rays may coincide
with an optic axis (see image14 ). The
incident ray in this case should be
divided into a cone of rays within the
crystal the angle of which in the case
of arragonite is equal to 1degree 55'.
The rays composing this cone will be
refracted at the second surface of the
crystal in directions parallel to the
ray incident on the first so as to form
a small cylinder of rays in air whose
base is the section of the cone made by
the surface of emergence. This is
represented in the annexed diagram in
which NO is the incident ray, aOb the
cone of refracted rays within the
crystal and aa'b'b the emergent
cylinder.
The minuteness of this
phenomenon, and the perfect accuracy
required in the incidence, rendered it
much more difficult to observe than the
former. A thin pencil of light
proceeding from a distant lamp was
suffered to fall upon the crystal, and
the position of the latter was altered
with extreme slowness, so as to change
the incidence very gradually. When the
required position was attained, the two
rays suddenly spread out into a
continuous circle whose diameter was
apparently equal to their former
interval. The same experiment was
repeated with the sun's light, and the
emergent cylinder was received on a
small screen of silver paper at various
distances from the crystal, and no
sensible enlargement of the section was
observable on increasing the distance.
The angle of this minute cone within
the crystal was found to agree within
very narrow limits with that deduced
from theory the observed angle being
1degree 50' and the theoretical angle 1
degree55'.
The rays composing the
internal cone are all polarized in
different planes and the law connecting
these planes is the same as in the case
of external conical refraction."15

(My own feeling about double refraction
is that (see video) light is reflected
off the crystal plane and this
reflected beam causes the second
extraordinary beam being refracted
differently after reflection. The
example is holding a plate of glass,
such as a slide, and shining a laser
beam through it, and turning the glass
slide to see the "extraordinary image"
rotate with the slide. In fact, there
may be many surfaces that reflect light
inside crystals.16 )
Lloyd is a
reverend.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.tcd.ie/Physics/history/hamilt
on_lloyd/conical_refraction.php
2. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/HLloyd/ConicalRefraction/
3. ^ Humphrey Lloyd, "On the Phaenomena
presented by Light in its Passage along
the Axes of Biaxal Crystals.", the
Philosophical Magazine, 3rd series,
volume 2 (1833), pp. 112-120.
{Lloyd_Humphrey_1833.pdf}
4. ^ Humphrey Lloyd, "Elementary
Treatise on the Wave-theory of Light",
Longmans, Green,
(1857) http://books.google.com/books?id
=NX4PAAAAYAAJ
5. ^ Humphrey Lloyd and George Sarton,
"Discovery of Conical Refraction by
William Rowan Hamilton and Humphrey
Lloyd", Isis, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1932),
pp. 154-170.
http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-17
53(1932)17%3A1%3C154%3ADOCRBW%3E2.0.CO%3
B2-D {Lloyd_Sarton_1932.pdf}
6. ^ Humphrey Lloyd, "Further
Experiments on the Phænomena presented
by Light in its Passage along the Axes
of Biaxal Crystals", Philosophical
Magazine, 3rd series, volume 2 (1833),
pp.
207-210. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/Hi
stMath/People/HLloyd/ConicalRefraction/
 {Lloyd_FurExp.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Humphrey Lloyd, "On the
Phaenomena presented by Light in its
Passage along the Axes of Biaxal
Crystals.", the Philosophical Magazine,
3rd series, volume 2 (1833), pp.
112-120. {Lloyd_Humphrey_1833.pdf}
9. ^ Humphrey Lloyd, "On the
Phaenomena presented by Light in its
Passage along the Axes of Biaxal
Crystals.", the Philosophical Magazine,
3rd series, volume 2 (1833), pp.
112-120. {Lloyd_Humphrey_1833.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Humphrey
Lloyd, "Elementary Treatise on the
Wave-theory of Light", Longmans, Green,
(1857) http://books.google.com/books?id
=NX4PAAAAYAAJ
12. ^ Humphrey Lloyd, "Elementary
Treatise on the Wave-theory of Light",
Longmans, Green,
(1873) http://books.google.com/books?id
=3ZUIAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_other_versions_
sidebar_s&cad=5
{Lloyd_Elementary_Treatise_on_the_Wave_t
heory_o.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Humphrey
Lloyd, "Elementary Treatise on the
Wave-theory of Light", Longmans, Green,
(1857) http://books.google.com/books?id
=NX4PAAAAYAAJ
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Humphrey Lloyd and
George Sarton, "Discovery of Conical
Refraction by William Rowan Hamilton
and Humphrey Lloyd", Isis, Vol. 17,
No. 1 (1932), pp. 154-170.
http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-17
53(1932)17%3A1%3C154%3ADOCRBW%3E2.0.CO%3
B2-D {Lloyd_Sarton_1932.pdf}
18. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/HLloyd/ConicalRefraction/
19. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/HLloyd/ConicalRefraction/ (1833)
20. ^
Humphrey Lloyd, "On the Phaenomena
presented by Light in its Passage along
the Axes of Biaxal Crystals.", the
Philosophical Magazine, 3rd series,
volume 2 (1833), pp. 112-120.
{Lloyd_Humphrey_1833.pdf}
(Trinity College) Dublin, Ireland18
 
[1] Elementary Treatise on the
Wave-theory of Light By Humphrey
Lloyd p176
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3ZUIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA191&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_0#PPA176,M1

[2] Elementary Treatise on the
Wave-theory of Light By Humphrey
Lloyd p176
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3ZUIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA191&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_0#PPA176,M1
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 3 		3004) (Sir) William Rowan Hamilton (CE
1805-1865) publishes "On a General
Method of Expressing the Paths of Light
and of the Planets by the Coefficients
of a Characteristic Function" (1833),
in which Hamilton attempts to apply his
characteristic function, based on the
principle of least action, to mechanics
as well as to light.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp312-314.
2. ^ "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
3. ^ Third Supplement to an Essay on
the Theory of Systems of
Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 17 (1837), pp. 1-144)
{Hamilton_William_1832_Third_Supplement.
pdf} (10/1832) (1833)

MORE INFO
[1] Sir William Rowan Hamilton
(1805-1865): Mathematical Papers
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Hamilton/Papers.html
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 15 (1828), pp. 69-174.
{Hamilton_1828_Theory_of_System_of_Rays.
pdf (page 13)}
[4] "William Rowan Hamilton."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton (1827)
[5] "William Rowan
Hamilton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton (1827)
[6] "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Rowan_Hamilton (1828)
[7] "William Rowan
Hamilton", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp392-394. (1827)
[8] Third Supplement to an
Essay on the Theory of Systems of
Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, 17 (1837), pp. 1-144)
{Hamilton_William_1832_Third_Supplement.
pdf p.1}
[9] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p358
(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland2  
[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 9 		3014) Prior to 1833 when Graham
published his work on phosphate
compounds, it was thought that there
were two forms of phosphoric acid which
produced a variety of salts. The common
form, what we now know is Na2HPO4, gave
a yellow precipitate with silver
nitrate and left the solution acidic.
The second form resulted from heating
the phosphate salt (Na2HPO4) above 350
degrees C. This form gave a white
precipitate with silver nitrate and a
neutral solution. Graham finds that
when crystals of the neutral phosphate
are heated, all but one of the water
molecules in the crystal are readily
lost (these are the water of hydration)
and the last unit of water is not lost
until the temperature is much higher.
The salt that is formed from the
pyrophosphate gives the white
precipitate with silver nitrate. The
difference between the two phosphate
salts is the one water molecule. Graham
then concludes that the water might
play the role of a base in a salt.
Continuing in this way Graham
determines that there are really three
phosphate salts of sodium (Na3PO4,
Na2HPO4, NaH2PO4) as well as sodium
pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7) and sodium
metaphosphate (NaPO3).5 (needs visual6
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
2. ^ "Thomas Graham",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp368-369.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
5. ^
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Thomas Graham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
8. ^ "Graham, Thomas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>. (1829)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360. (1833)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Grah
am_%28chemist%29
[2] "Thomas Graham". A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
[3]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html (1833)
(Andersonian Institution7 ) Edinburgh,
Scotland8  
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 24 25 26 		3026) This book is produced with 1,000
francs of financial help from Alexander
von Humboldt, who Asimov describes as
the dean of Europe's scientists.5

Turning his attention to other extinct
animals found with the fishes, Agassiz
publishes in two volumes on the fossil
echinoderms of Switzerland (from
1838�42), and later "�tudes
critiques sur les mollusques fossiles"
(from 1841�42).6

Agassiz's "Contributions to the Natural
History of the United States" (4 vols.
1857â€"62) remains uncompleted at his
death.7
A monograph on the fishes of
Brazil brings Agassiz to the attention
of Georges Cuvier.8 Cuvier supported
catastrophism, and neptunism rejecting
Larmarck's theory of evolution.9 The
supporters of catastrophism seek to try
to accommodate the inaccurate creation
story of the Christian Bible, where all
species are created at one time.10
Agas
siz does not accept Darwin's view of a
gradual evolution of species, but, like
Cuvier, considers that there have been
repeated separate creations and
extinctions of species, this theory
explaining changes and the appearance
of new forms.11 Agassiz, supporting
the theory of catastrophism, views ice
ages as catastrophes (which they were
for many species12 ). Agassiz imagines
as many as 20 repeated creations.13

In 1836 the Wollaston medal is awarded
to Agassiz for his work on fossil
ichthyology.14

Agassiz pronounces that there are
several species of humans, an argument
used by pro-slavery supporters to
justify their subjugation of Negroid
people as an inferior species.15
Asimov states that Agassiz is "firmly
convinced of the inherent inferiority
of blacks".16 This view, that a race
of humans is somehow inferior to
another race is erroneous and elitist
in my opinion.17

Agassiz is the most prominent biologist
in the USA to oppose evolution.18

In 1859 as professor of zoology and
geology at Harvard, Agassiz establishes
the Museum of Comparative Zoology.19

(It is difficult when people with bad
ethics have contributions to science.
The contributions we love, but their
ethics we do not. Such is the case with
Louis Alvarez with his support for the
fraudulent single-bullet theory, and
numerous others, even Darwin wrongly
believed the Negroid race to be
inferior to the Caucasian race. The
history of science is filled with
people making science contributions
that have terrible or shockingly
inaccurate beliefs or ethics. What is
clear to me is that accurate truths
should be accepted no matter how
unpleasant the source, because truth
exists independently of the source of
information, something is either true
or false based only on physical
evidence, not based on the ethics of
the person making the scientific claim.
Although, certainly, poor ethics, a
history of dishonesty and/or inaccurate
views, certainly does and no doubt
should, effect a person's willingness
to explore the claims of people who are
consistently dishonest or inaccurate.20
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
2. ^ "Louis Agassiz."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
4. ^ "Agassiz,
Louis." Encyclop�dia Britannica.
2008. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. 29 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3993>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
6. ^ "Agassiz,
Louis." Encyclop�dia Britannica.
2008. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. 29 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3993>.
7. ^ "Louis Agassiz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz
8. ^ "Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Lou
is_Rodolphe_Agassiz
9. ^ Record ID2389. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Louis Agassiz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
14. ^ "Louis
Agassiz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "Louis Agassiz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Agassiz, Louis."
Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 29
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3993>.
21. ^ "Louis Agassiz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
(1833-1834)
23. ^ "Agassiz, Louis."
Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 29
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3993>. (1833-1834)
24. ^ "Louis Agassiz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz (1833-1834)
25. ^ "Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp8-9.
(1833-1834)
(1833-1834)
(University of Neuch�tel21 )
Neuch�tel, Switzerland22 23  
[1] Louis Agassiz, Lithograph, Mid 19th
Century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Louis_Agassiz-2.jpg

[2] Louis Agassiz giving a
lecture PD/Corel
source: http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/
A/AGA/agassiz-2b.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 14 15 16 		3027) Arnold Henry Guyot (GEO) (CE
1807-1884), the person whom Harry
Hammond Hess names flat-topped sea
mountains for9 , studies the structure
and movement of glaciers in
Switzerland, spending time testing the
new theories of Louis Agassiz10 .
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
2. ^ "Agassiz,
Louis." Encyclop�dia Britannica.
2008. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. 29 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3993>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
9. ^ "Arnold Henry
Guyot." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnold-henr
y-guyot
11. ^ "Agassiz, Louis."
Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 29
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3993>.
12. ^ "Louis Agassiz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp362-363.
(1833-1834)
14. ^ "Agassiz, Louis."
Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 29
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3993>. (1833-1834)
15. ^ "Louis Agassiz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-agass
iz (1833-1834)
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p363. (1833-1834)

(University of Neuch�tel11 )
Neuch�tel, Switzerland12 13  
[1] Louis Agassiz, Lithograph, Mid 19th
Century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Louis_Agassiz-2.jpg

[2] Louis Agassiz giving a
lecture PD/Corel
source: http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/
A/AGA/agassiz-2b.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 4 		3393) Walter Hancock's (CE 1799-1852)
steam bus ("The Enterprise").1
By this
time several steam coaches drive the
roads in England.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Walter Hancock, "Narrative of
Twelve Years' Experiments, (1824-1836)
Demonstrative of the
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=R
U01AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Walte
r+Hancock&as_brr=1
2. ^ Walter Hancock, "Narrative of
Twelve Years' Experiments, (1824-1836)
Demonstrative of the
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=R
U01AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Walte
r+Hancock&as_brr=1
3. ^ Walter Hancock, "Narrative of
Twelve Years' Experiments, (1824-1836)
Demonstrative of the
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=R
U01AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Walte
r+Hancock&as_brr=1
4. ^ Walter Hancock, "Narrative of
Twelve Years' Experiments, (1824-1836)
Demonstrative of the
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=R
U01AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Walte
r+Hancock&as_brr=1 {1833}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Hancock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Hanc
ock
[2] Elijah Galloway, Luke Hebert,
"History and Progress of the Steam
Engine: With a Practical Investigation
of ...",
p564. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xv7-ubNiL2gC&pg=PA556&lpg=PA556&dq=%22JA
MES+ANDERSON%22+steam+engine&source=web&
ots=CrMRsESIda&sig=2wNwQWemybjImAYDSLUjx
7T5tsA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
1&ct=result#PPA564,M1
London, England3  
[1] L'entreprise de WALTER HANCOCK -
1833: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490138_l__ente
rprise_de_walter_hancock___1833.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 6 		5989) Of a distinguished intellectual,
artistic and banking family in Berlin,
Mendelssohn grows up in a privileged
environment (the family converts from
Judaism to Christianity in 1816, taking
the additional name "Bartholdy").2 (Is
seems to me absurd to have a religion,
to change religion, or to change your
name when you change religion. But
those are all, of course, personal
nonviolent activities that people must
be allowed.3 )

Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel, Felix's older
sister, also composes music.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Felix Mendelssohn." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-mende
lssohn
2. ^ "Felix Mendelssohn." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-mende
lssohn
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A
History of Music in Western Culture",
2010, p424.
5. ^ "Felix Mendelssohn." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-mende
lssohn
6. ^ "Felix Mendelssohn." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-mende
lssohn {1833}

MORE INFO
[1] "Felix Mendelssohn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374785/Felix-Mendelssohn>
[2] "A Midsummer Night’s Dream."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/381659/A-Midsummer-Nights-Dream>
[3] "A Midsummer Night's Dream
(Mendelssohn)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Midsummer
_Night%27s_Dream_%28Mendelssohn%29
London, England5  
[1] Description English: The
Portrait of Felix Mendelssohn Date
1839 Source watercolor
painting Author Creator:James
Warren Childe Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Mendelssohn_Bartholdy
.jpg
166 YBN
[01/01/1834 AD] 		1247) Mechanical reaper.6


A reaper is any farm machine that cuts
grain. Early reapers simply cut the
crop and drop it unbound, but modern
machines include harvesters, combines,
and binders, which also perform other
harvesting operations.7

Cyrus McCormick builds a practical
mechanical harvester.8

The Roman historian Pliny the Younger
(62-113 CE) describes a harvesting
machine that is in use by Celtic people
in Gaul in 100 CE, but this machine is
not adapted elsewhere and seems to
disappear from use after the year 500.9

A patent for a reaper was issued in
England to Joseph Boyce in 1800.10 In
1826 Patrick Bell builds a plane reaper
which cuts and gathers wheat with
serrated rotary blades.11 In the 1830s
Jeremiah Bailey of the United States
patents a mower-reaper, and Obed Hussey
and Cyrus McCormick both develop
reapers with guards and reciprocating
(back-and-forth-moving) cutting blades.
McCormick’s reaper has the several
advantages over Hussy's in having a
divider to separate cut and standing
grain and a revolving reel to topple
the cut grain onto the rear of the
machine, where it can be raked off onto
the ground and later tied.12 Robert
McCormick attempts to build an
automatic horse-drawn reaper that can
be mass produced, but abandons the
project. However, Robert inspired his
son Cyrus (1809-1884) who invents a
practical mechanical harvester in 1831
and patents it in 1834.13

(Note that all moving parts are driven
by the movement of the wheel on the
ground, pulled by the horses. Imagine
cutting grain by hand with a scythe. In
the future walking robots will probably
do almost all the work required in
planting, growing, harvesting,
packaging and distributing food to
humans. Walking robots and tiny
machines may even target insects that
feed on plants meant for humans.14 )
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
2. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
3. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
4. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p47.
6. ^
"reaper." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
7. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p47.
9. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p47.
10. ^
"reaper." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
11. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p47.
12. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
13. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p47.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Robert Hall
McCormick". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hall
_McCormick

MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus McCormick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_McCor
mick
Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA15
 
[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg

[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 3 		2497) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848) reports finding organic
matter, "humic acid", in a meteorite,
in "Annalen der physikalisches Chemie".
Such meteorites are called
"carbonaceous chondrites".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1834)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
[7] "article 9072236". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2236
[8] "Thorium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
[9]
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
Stokholm, Sweden2 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 6 		2539) Asimov comments that around this
time astronomers are moving from
exploring the solar system as Laplace
and others had done, and exploring the
outer stars.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
5. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297. (1834)
(1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Bessel
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany5
 
[1] The image of Sirius A and Sirius B
taken by Hubble Space Telescope. The
white dwarf can be seen to the lower
left.[47] (Credit:NASA) [47] ''The Dog
Star, Sirius, and its Tiny Companion'',
Hubble News Desk, 2005-12-13. Retrieved
on 2006-08-04.
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsd
esk/archive/releases/2005/36/image/a PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg

[2] This Hubble Space Telescope image
shows Sirius A, the brightest star in
our nighttime sky, along with its
faint, tiny stellar companion, Sirius
B. Astronomers overexposed the image of
Sirius A [at centre] so that the dim
Sirius B [tiny dot at lower left] could
be seen. The cross-shaped diffraction
spikes and concentric rings around
Sirius A, and the small ring around
Sirius B, are artifacts produced within
the telescope's imaging system. The two
stars revolve around each other every
50 years. Sirius A, only 8.6
light-years from Earth, is the fifth
closest star system known. Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/
html/heic0516a.html Date 15 Oct.,
2003 Author NASA, ESA Credit: H.
Bond (STScI) and M. Barstow (University
of Leicester) PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 3 		2557)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p300.
2. ^ "Joseph Jackson
Lister". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8499/Joseph-Jackson-Lister
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p300. (1834) (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Jackson Lister".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Jack
son_Lister
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
london, England2 (presumbly) 
[1] Photocopy from 1917 biography of
Lord Lister's Autobiography by Sir
Rickman Godlee (died in 1925) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lister.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 10 		2570)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp302-303.
2. ^ "Rhône River".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_
River
3. ^ "Johann von Charpentier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2644/Johann-von-Charpentier
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp302-303.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Jean
de Charpentier". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+de+Charpenti
er?cat=technology
7. ^ "Johann von Charpentier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2644/Johann-von-Charpentier
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Johann von Charpentier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2644/Johann-von-Charpentier
10. ^ "Johann von Charpentier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2644/Johann-von-Charpentier (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean de Charpentier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Cha
rpentier
Rhône River valley, Switzerland9
 
[1] Johann von Charpentier (1786 -
1855), German geologist and
glaciologist http://www.pyrenees-passio
n.info/allemands_pyreneistes.php PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_von_Charpentier.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 4 		2622) Gideon Mantell (maNTeL) (CE
1790-1852) buys the skeleton for £25.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0633/Gideon-Algernon-Mantell
4. ^ "Gideon Algernon Mantell". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gideon+Algernon+M
antell+?cat=technology (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Gideon Algernon
Mantell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon_Alge
rnon_Mantell
[3] "Gideon Algernon Mantell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gideon_A
lgernon_Mantell
Sussex, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Figure of fossil iguanadon teeth
and iguana jaw that Gideon Mantell
included in his 1825 paper naming
iguanadon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mantell_iguanadon_teeth.jpg

[2] Foto tomada de wikipedia en
inglés: Image of Gideon Mantell (1790
- 1852) to illustarte the Wikipedia
article on him. Uploaded from
http://www.strangescience.net/mantell.ht
m PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gideonmantell2.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 19 		2741) In 1842, following repeated
failures to obtain funding from the
First Lord of the Treasury, Babbage
approaches Sir Robert Peel for funding.
Peel refused, and offers Babbage a
knighthood instead which Babbage
refuses. Babbage continues to modify
and improve the design of his
Analytical Engine for many years to
come.15

The principles of the Analytical Engine
will be later realized
electronically.16

It is interesting to think about the
electrical engineers perspective on
this clearly all mechanical approach,
as clearly electric computers will
evolve from these early mechanical
machines. With the invention of walking
robots, there is an integration of
electronics (and the nervous system)
and mechanical design (as the muscular
system).17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^
http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
8. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
9. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
10. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
11. ^
http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
15. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
16. ^ "Charles Babbage". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
19. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
Cambridge, England18
(presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 60 		2758) Lovelace has been called the
first computer programmer.26

Mathematics for Lady Byron, Ada Byron's
mother, is first a mode of moral
discipline. Accordingly, Lady Byron
arranges a full study schedule for her
child, emphasizing music and
arithmetic-music to be put to purposes
of social service, arithmetic to train
the mind.27
Lovelace goes against
traditional Victorian society by
studying mathematics which is a
(skill28 ) few women attempt.29


Biographers debate the extent of
Lovelace's original contributions, with
some holding that the programs were
written by Babbage himself.30 31 32
Babbage writes in his "Passages from
the Life of a Philosopher" (1846):33 34

"I then suggested that she add some
notes to Menabrea's memoir, an idea
which was immediately adopted. We
discussed together the various
illustrations that might be introduced:
I suggested several but the selection
was entirely her own. So also was the
algebraic working out of the different
problems, except, indeed, that relating
to the numbers of Bernoulli, which I
had offered to do to save Lady Lovelace
the trouble. This she sent back to me
for an amendment, having detected a
grave mistake which I had made in the
process. The notes of the Countess
Lovelace extend to about three times
the length of the original memoir.
Their author entered fully into almost
all the very difficult and abstract
questions connected with the
subject."35 36 37

Lovelace labels her seven "Notes" with
the letters A through G.38

"Note A" distinguishes between
Babbage's Difference Engine and his
Analytical Engine. This note describes
a general purpose computer that will
not be invented for more than 100 years
(although much of this technology has
been kept secret from the public and
must be investigated39 ).40 In "Note
B", Lovelace looks at the concept of
computer memory and the ability to
insert statements to indicate what is
happening to the person looking at the
program. This idea is similar to the
current practice of using REM or
non-executable remark statements in a
program.41

Lovelace expands on a method called
"backing" in "Note C". This allows for
the operation cards to be put back in
the correct order so that they could be
used again and again like a loop or
subroutine.42 "Note D" is a very
complex explanation of how to write a
set of instructions or a program to
accomplish a set of operations. "Note
E", Baum a biographer of Lovelace,
clearly states "emphasize43 the
versatility of the Analytical Engine
and suggests, in its brief description
of operation cards which designate
cycles, modern-day function keys".44

"Note F" explains how the Analytical
Engine can solve difficult problems and
eliminate error. This allows for the
solving of problems that were
prohibitive due to the constraints of
time, labor and funds. Baum also notes
that Lovelace wonders "if the engine
might not be set to investigate
formulas of no apparent practical
interest … as computers are used
today, to find problems rather than to
solve them".45

The last and probably the most
mathematically complex and most quoted
of Lovelace's notations is "Note G". In
this note, Lovelace states what some
have referred to as "Lady Lovelace's
Objection" or, in the more modern
phrasing, "garbage in, garbage out".
Basically, that the computer's output
is only as good as the information it
is given. "Note G" also includes an
actual illustration of how the engine
can produce a table of Bernoulli
numbers.46
Lovelace, originally
Augusta Ada Byron47 , is the daughter
of the notorious English Romantic poet,
Lord Byron.48
Five weeks after
Lovelace's birth, her mother, Lady
Byron, left her abusive husband and
Lady Byron takes control of her
daughter's upbringing.49
Lovelace is
educated privately by tutors and then
self-educated but is helped in her
advanced studies by
mathematician-logician Augustus De
Morgan, the first professor of
mathematics at the University of
London.50
De Morgan describes Ada as
"an original mathematical investigator,
perhaps of first-rate eminence".51

On July 8, 1835, Ada Byron marries
William King who is then the eighth
Baron King. In 1838, King becomes the
1st Earl of Lovelace and Ada becomes
the Countess of Lovelace. Ada's husband
is 11 years older than she and
considered to be somewhat reserved. He
does, however, take pride in his wife's
mathematical talents and supported her
endeavors. His approval is quite
fortunate for Ada Byron Lovelace as few
women of her station in Victorian
England are encouraged to pursue
academic interests of any kind. In
fact, those of the aristocracy consider
practicing a profession to be beneath
them. For that reason, Lovelace only
signs the initials, "A.A.L." to her
"Notes". So Lovelace is limited by her
class status as much as by her gender
with regard to her passion for
mathematics.52

Lovelace first meets Babbage when she
is 18 at a dinner party hosted by Mary
Fairfax Somerville, the 1800s most
prominent woman scientist. Despite the
fact that Babbage is 23 years older,
Babbage becomes Lovelace's good friend
and intellectual mentor. Lovelace is
immediately intrigued when she first
sees Babbage's Difference Engine and
plans for the Analytical Engine in
1834.53

"ADA", a computer programming language,
is named for Ada Lovelace.54 55

Ada Lovelace was bled to death at the
age of 36 by her physicians, while
trying to cure her uterine cancer.56 57


Lovelace will not obtain widespread
recognition until the historian, Lord
B.V. Bowden, rediscovers her "Notes" in
1952 and has them reprinted the
following year, 110 years after their
original publication.58
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Ada King
countess of Lovelace". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
4. ^ "Ada King
countess of Lovelace". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
5. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
6. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
7. ^ "ada lovelace". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
8. ^ "Charles Babbage". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
9. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
10. ^ "ada lovelace". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
11. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
12. ^ "ada lovelace". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
13. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
14. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
15. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
16. ^ "Ada lovelace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_lovelac
e
17. ^ (from an excerpt found in
Perspectives on the Computer Revolution
(1970), edited by Zenon Pylyshyn)
18. ^ "Ada
lovelace". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_lovelac
e
19. ^ (from an excerpt found in
Perspectives on the Computer Revolution
(1970), edited by Zenon Pylyshyn)
20. ^ "Ada
lovelace". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_lovelac
e
21. ^ (from an excerpt found in
Perspectives on the Computer Revolution
(1970), edited by Zenon Pylyshyn)
22. ^ The works
of Charles Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p102.
23. ^ "Ada King countess of
Lovelace". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
24. ^ "ada lovelace". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
25. ^ "Bernoulli numbers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_n
umbers
26. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
27. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "ada lovelace". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
30. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
31. ^ "Ada lovelace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_lovelac
e
32. ^ (from an excerpt found in
Perspectives on the Computer Revolution
(1970), edited by Zenon Pylyshyn)
33. ^ "Ada
lovelace". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_lovelac
e
34. ^ (from an excerpt found in
Perspectives on the Computer Revolution
(1970), edited by Zenon Pylyshyn)
35. ^ "Ada
lovelace". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_lovelac
e
36. ^ (from an excerpt found in
Perspectives on the Computer Revolution
(1970), edited by Zenon Pylyshyn)
37. ^ The works
of Charles Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p102.
38. ^ "ada lovelace". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ "ada lovelace". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
41. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
42. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
43. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
44. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
45. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
46. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
47. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
48. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
49. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
50. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
51. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
52. ^ "Charles Babbage". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
53. ^ "ada lovelace". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
54. ^ "ada lovelace". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
55. ^ "Ada lovelace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_lovelac
e
56. ^ Joan Baum,The Calculating Passion
of Ada Byron, Archon Books, 1986, ISBN
0208021191 p.99-100
57. ^ "ada lovelace".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ada+lovelace?cat=
technology
58. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
59. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1834)
60. ^ Ted Huntington. (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
Cambridge, England59
(presumably) 
[1] Español: Ada King, Condesa de
Lovelace (1838) From The Ada Picture
Gallery. Evelyn Silva scanned this
from a picture she found ''in the
trash'' in Lousianna, USA, and
submitted it to the Ada Picture Gallery
in October 2000. She wrote: On the
bottom of the picture it says ''LONDON
PUBLISHED NOV 1 1838 FOR THE
PROPRIETORS, No 18 & 19 SOUTHAMPTON
PLACE, EUSTON SQUARE, NEW ROAD''. In
the lower left corner it says
''Printered by Mc Queen''. On the lower
right of the picture its ''Engraved By
W. H. Mote''. On the left ''Drawn by
A.E. Chaton R.A.''. There was also a
page with a bio on it. This was not in
a book when I found it, it was loose
along with some other Ladies of the
Queens court. So I don't have any other
info on it. It is an orginal print from
its time, not a reproduction. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace_1838.jpg

[2] Español: Ada Augusta Byron
King Ada Lovelace, 19th century
British mathematician. Source:
National Physical Gallery,
Teddington. Copied from
en:Image:Ada_Lovelace.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 14 		2787) Cellulose is now known to be the
main constituent of cell walls in most
plants, and is important in the
manufacture of numerous products with
fibrous components, such as paper,
textiles, pharmaceuticals, and
explosives.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
2. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89309/payen_anselme.html
3. ^ "Anselme Payen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselme_Pay
en
4. ^ Crawford, R. L. (1981). Lignin
biodegradation and transformation. New
York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN
0-471-05743-6.
5. ^ Young, Raymond (1986). Cellulose
structure modification and hydrolysis.
New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471827614.
6. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89309/payen_anselme.html
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89309/payen_anselme.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329.
12. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89309/payen_anselme.html
13. ^ "Anselme Payen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8831/Anselme-Payen
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp328-329. (1834)
(1834)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "Cellulose". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose
Paris, France13 (presumably) 
[1] Description French chemist Anselme
Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg

[2] [t page on Cellulose in paper] PD

source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 13 		2793) Ernst Heinrich Weber (VABR) (CE
1795-1878), German physiologist1
determines that there was a threshold
of sensation that must be passed before
an increase in the intensity of any
(nervous system2 ) stimulus 3 (such as
different shades of light, or different
weights4 ) can be detected5 . Weber
publishes this finding in "De Tactu"
(1834, "Concerning Touch").6

Weber describes a terminal threshold
for all senses, the maximum stimulus
beyond which no further sensation can
be (detected7 ).8

Weber formulates what will be called
"Weber's law", that the increase in
stimulus necessary to produce an
increase in sensation is not fixed but
depends on the strength of the
preceding stimulus.9 (I have doubts
about this, but perhaps.10 )

This examining of the nervous system
will result in Michael Pupin
researching the possibility of seeing
what eyes see from behind the brain,
which leads to Pupin successfully
seeing what the eye sees, and images
the brain produces in 1910.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp329-330.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Ernst
Heinrich Weber". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6386/Ernst-Heinrich-Weber
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp329-330.
5. ^ "Ernst Heinrich
Weber". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6386/Ernst-Heinrich-Weber
6. ^ "Ernst Heinrich Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6386/Ernst-Heinrich-Weber
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Ernst Heinrich Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6386/Ernst-Heinrich-Weber
9. ^ "Ernst Heinrich Weber". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ernst+Heinrich+We
ber+?cat=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Ernst
Heinrich Weber". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6386/Ernst-Heinrich-Weber
13. ^ "Ernst Heinrich Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6386/Ernst-Heinrich-Weber (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Heinrich Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Heinr
ich_Weber
[2] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany12  
[1] English: Ernst Heinrich Weber
(1795â€''1878), German physiologist
and anatomist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ernst_Heinrich_Weber.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 19 		2822) Clapeyron emphasizes the fact,
already contained in Carnot"s work,
that the efficiency of a reversible
engine depends only on the temperatures
of the source and sink. In the
introduction to his paper Clapeyron
writes that one of the basic ideas
contained in Carnot"s work is that "it
is impossible to create motive power or
heat out of nothing", and that from
here one can conclude, for example,
that the difference in the heat
capacities of a gas is the same for all
gases.7 (Is it true that all gases
absorb the same amount of heat? Because
different gases absorb different
frequencies of light.8 )

This is before the concept of absolute
temperature is established.9 Instead
of absolute temperature, Clapeyron uses
the Mariotte-Gay-Lussac law in this
form (see image).10

Clapeyron writes the relation (see
image) (v super L is volume of liquid,
and v super G is volume of gas, dP over
dt is change in pressure over a unit of
time, and C is the number of calories
of heat?11 ) where k is the latent heat
vaporization (which he calls latent
caloric) per unit volume of vapor.
Clapeyron remarks that k is never
infinite but can be zero when both
phases have the same density (critical
point).12

This equation is essentially the same
as (the current form of the equation13
) if C is taken as the absolute
temperature multiplied by the
conversion factor between heat and
mechanical work units. In his paper
Clapeyron indicates that no
experimental data are available to
determine the value of C except for t =
0. Using the value CP/CV = 1.412 found
by Dulong, Clapeyron calculates 1/C to
be 1.41 at 0 °C and therefore the
value 386 as the mechanical equivalent
kg.m kcal-1. Although this equation has
been determined using a cycle in the
liquid-vapor (transition14 ), it is
clear that the same result would be
obtained if the cycle is performed
either in the solid-gas or in the
solid-liquid (transitions15 ).16
Clapey
ron designs and constructs locomotives
and metal bridges.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp338-339.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp338-339.
3. ^ "clausius
clapeyron equation". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clausius-cl
apeyron-equation?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Benoît Paul Émile
Clapeyron". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt
_Paul_%C3%89mile_Clapeyron
6. ^ "Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt
_Paul_%C3%89mile_Clapeyron
7. ^, p85.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n515
8252w07450r5/fulltext.pdf Benoit Paul
Emile Clapeyron: A Short
Bibliographical Sketch Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 2 / April,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897990370a Page
s 83-87 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 Clapeyron_biography.pdf
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^, p86.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n515
8252w07450r5/fulltext.pdf Benoit Paul
Emile Clapeyron: A Short
Bibliographical Sketch Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 2 / April,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897990370a Page
s 83-87 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 Clapeyron_biography.pdf
10. ^, p85.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n515
8252w07450r5/fulltext.pdf Benoit Paul
Emile Clapeyron: A Short
Bibliographical Sketch Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 2 / April,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897990370a Page
s 83-87 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 Clapeyron_biography.pdf
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^, p86.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n515
8252w07450r5/fulltext.pdf Benoit Paul
Emile Clapeyron: A Short
Bibliographical Sketch Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 2 / April,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897990370a Page
s 83-87 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 Clapeyron_biography.pdf
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^, p85.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n515
8252w07450r5/fulltext.pdf Benoit Paul
Emile Clapeyron: A Short
Bibliographical Sketch Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 2 / April,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897990370a Page
s 83-87 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 Clapeyron_biography.pdf
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp338-339.
18. ^ "Benoît Paul
Émile Clapeyron". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt
_Paul_%C3%89mile_Clapeyron
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp338-339. (1834)
(1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "thermodynamics".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258
559/thermodynamics
[2] "Vaporization". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Vaporiza
tion
[3] Clapeyron E. (1834), Puissance
motrice de la chaleur, Journal de
l'École Royale Polytechnique,
Vingt-troisième cahier, Tome XIV,
153-190.
Paris, France18  
[1] Benoît-Paul-Emile CLAPEYRON
(1799-1864) Photo ENSMP PD/Corel
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/clapeyron.html

[2] Clapeyron equation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/n5158252w07450r5/fulltext.pdf
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 13 		2851) Methanol, once produced by
destructive distillation of wood, is
now usually made from the methane in
natural gas.7 Methanol is produced
commercially from a mixture of carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2).8
Methanol is an important industrial
material; its derivatives are used in
great quantities for making a vast
number of compounds, among them many
important synthetic dyes, resins,
drugs, and perfumes. Methanol is also
used in automotive antifreezes, rocket
fuels, and as a solvent. Methanol is
flammable and explosive. A
clean-burning fuel, methanol may
substitute (in part) for gasoline.
Methanol is also used to denature of
ethanol (for sale without the
regulations of drinking alcohol (ethyl
alcohol)9 ). A violent poison, methanol
causes blindness and eventually death
when drunk.10 (Perhaps not the best
idea to mix with ethyl alcohol and sell
to the public, but prohibition is not
known for its logic. It rings of the
vindicative "serves them right" violent
nature of many prohibitionists and
conservatives in general.11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
7. ^ "methanol". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/methanol?cat=tech
nology
8. ^ "methanol". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/methanol?cat=tech
nology
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "methanol". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/methanol?cat=tech
nology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Jean Baptiste André
Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
13. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
[3] "Methanol". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France12
(presumably) 
[1] Methanol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hanol

[2] French chemist Jean Baptiste
André Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 9 10 		2853)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste André
Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
9. ^ "Auguste Laurent." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/auguste-lau
rent (1834)
10. ^ "Jean Baptiste André
Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1837,
presumably, needs to be verified) (1837
(presumably) (needs to be verified)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France8
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 5 		2890) Johannes Peter Müller (MYUlR)
(CE 1801-1858), German physiologist1 ,
publishes "Handbuch der Physiologie des
Menschen" (2 vols., 1834-40, "Handbook
of Human Physiology")2 .

This book becomes the leading textbook
in human physiology and is revised and
re-published many times.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p346.
2. ^ "Johannes Peter
Müller". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
3. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
4. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
5. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Peter Müller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Pe
ter_M%C3%BCller
[2] "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Peter_Muller
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Description Johannes Peter
Müller Source
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/edtech/entom
ology_slides/images/31063-johannes-muell
er.jpg Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mueller.Joh..jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 8 9 		2896)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp347-348.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp347-348.
4. ^ "Boussingault".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Boussingault?cat=
entertainment
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp347-348.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Jean
Baptiste Boussingault". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5984/Jean-Baptiste-Boussingault
8. ^ "Boussingault". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Boussingault?cat=
entertainment (starts around 1834)
9. ^
"Boussingault". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boussingaul
t (starts 1836)
Lyon, France7 (presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean-Baptiste
Boussingault (1802-1887) Source
[1]http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioner
os/boussingault.htm Date 19th
century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Baptiste_Boussingault.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 47 		2899) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON21 ) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist22 uses a revolving mirror to
measure the speed of electricity in a
conductor.23 (more info, describe
experiment24 )

The same revolving mirror, by
Wheatstone's suggestion, is later used
in measurements of the speed of
light.25

Wheatstone measures the speed of
electricity to be 576,000 miles in a
second (one fluid theory) or 288,000
miles in a second (two fluid theory),
and concludes that "...the velocity of
electricity through a copper wire
exceeds that of light through the
planetary space.".26

The great velocity of electrical
transmission suggests the possibility
of utilizing electricity for sending
messages.27

The mirror's rotation is powered by a
cord and pulley28 in order to count
the exact rate of mirror turning29 .

In order to measure the velocity of
electricity through a wire, Wheatstone
uses 0.8km (half a mile) of wire.30
Wheatstone cuts the wire at the middle,
to form a gap which a spark leaps
across, and connects the ends of the
wire to the poles of a Leyden jar
filled with electricity. Three sparks
are therefore produced, one at either
end of the wire (when the Leyden jar
discharges to the two ends of the
wire31 ), and another at the middle
(when the electric current has passed
through each of the two segments of
wire32 ). (needs visual33 ) Wheatstone
mounts a tiny mirror on the works of a
watch, so that the mirror revolves at a
high velocity (800 rotations per
second34 ), and observes the
reflections of the three sparks in it.
The points of the wire are so arranged
that if the sparks are instantaneous,
their reflections appear in one
straight line; but the middle one is
seen to lag behind the others, because
it is an instant later. The electricity
takes a certain time to travel from the
ends of the wire to the middle. This
time is found by measuring the amount
of lag, and comparing it with the known
velocity of the mirror.35 Any
difference in time between the sparks
is converted into an angular
separation, since the mirror turns
slightly during the tiny interval
between the sparks, resulting in
slightly displaced reflections. The
smearing of light in the reflected
images indicate the duration of the
sparks and their relative displacement
gives a value for the speed of
electricity.36 Having the time,
Wheatstone can compare that with the
length of half the wire, and he can
find the velocity of electricity.
However experimental or calculation
error leads Wheatstone to conclude that
this velocity is 288,000 miles per
second, an impossible value as it is
faster than the speed of light.37

Until this time, many people had
considered the electric discharge to be
instantaneous; but it was afterwards
found that its velocity depended on the
nature of the conductor, its
resistance, and its electro-static
capacity (by Ohm who uses the same law
as Fourier for heat38 ). Michael
Faraday (goes on to show39 ), for
example, that the velocity of electric
current in an underwater wire, coated
with insulator, is only 144,000 miles
per second (232,000 km/s), or still
less. Arago is in Britain for the 1834
Edinburgh meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of
Science and may learn of Wheatstone's
mirror then. Arago suggests to his
fellow Academicians using a rotating
mirror to test the speed of light.40
On the advice of Arago41 , Wheatstone's
rotating mirror device is used by Léon
Foucault and Hippolyte Fizeau to
measure the velocity of light.42

William Watson had tried to measure the
speed of electricity in 1748.43

This experiment is important to
electronic telegraphy, (which
Wheatstone is invested in, in England44
) because the thought is that if
electrical propagation is a diffusion
phenomenon, like heat, long distance
communication might be impractical.45
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
2. ^ An Account of Some Experiments to
Measure the Velocity of Electricity and
the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
http://books.google.com/books?id=rD4GAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=wheatstone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=velocity&f=false W
heatstone_velocity.pdf
3. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
4. ^ An Account of Some Experiments to
Measure the Velocity of Electricity and
the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
http://books.google.com/books?id=rD4GAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=wheatstone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=velocity&f=false W
heatstone_velocity.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
7. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
8. ^ An Account of Some Experiments to
Measure the Velocity of Electricity and
the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
http://books.google.com/books?id=rD4GAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=wheatstone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=velocity&f=false W
heatstone_velocity.pdf
9. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
10. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003
17. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
18. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
19. ^ "Charles
Wheatstone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
20. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
23. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
26. ^ An Account of Some Experiments to
Measure the Velocity of Electricity and
the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
http://books.google.com/books?id=rD4GAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=wheatstone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=velocity&f=false W
heatstone_velocity.pdf
27. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
28. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003
35. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
36. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
37. ^ "Charles
Wheatstone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003
41. ^ Record ID3281. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
42. ^ "Charles
Wheatstone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
43. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_WATSON.H
TM
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ William Tobin, "The
life and science of Léon Foucault: the
man who proved the earth rotates",
Cambridge University Press, 2003
46. ^ "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
47. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone (1834)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5iw5AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=faraday+velo
city+of+electricity&source=web&ots=5NZWU
d1EhA&sig=NK0D0pm5FFvHZpV7lB3JamIKhoo&hl
=en#PPA311,M1
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=0qSDQld
RTFMC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=velocity+of+
electricity&source=web&ots=HZUnerxDqB&si
g=XJ1gYT3wGhkgfzjTLNa99vSFNrQ&hl=en#PPA1
32,M1
(King's College) London, England46
 
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591

[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 5 		2913) Germain Henri Hess (CE
1802-1850), Swiss-Russian chemist1 ,
publishes a chemistry textbook that is
the standard for Russia until the
textbook by Mendeléev2 .
Hess finds
that the oxidation of sugars yields
saccharic acid.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p349.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p349.
3. ^ "Germain
Henri Hess". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess
4. ^ "Germain Henri Hess". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess
5. ^ "Germain Henri Hess". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Germain Henri Hess".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germain_Hen
ri_Hess
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Germain+Henri+Hes
s+?cat=technology
[3] "Jeremias Benjamin Richter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jeremias
_Benjamin_Richter
(University of Saint Petersberg) Saint
Petersberg, Russia4 (presumably) 
[1] Description Picture of German
chemist Germain Henri Hess (who died in
1850) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before 1850 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hess_Germain_Henri.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 5 		2916) Antoine Jérôme Balard (BoloR)
(CE 1802-1876), French chemist 1
discovers (1834) discovered dichlorine
oxide (Cl2O) and chloric(I) acid
(HClO)2 (a strongly oxidizing unstable
chlorine acid that exists only in
solution and as chlorates3 ).

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp349-350.
2. ^ "Antoine
Jérôme Balard". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+J%C3%A9r%
C3%B4me+Balard+?cat=technology
3. ^ "chloric acid". The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/chloric+acid?cat=
technology
4. ^ "Antoine Jerome Balard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1906/Antoine-Jerome-Balard
5. ^ "Antoine Jérôme Balard". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+J%C3%A9r%
C3%B4me+Balard+?cat=technology (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Jérôme Balard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_J%C
3%A9r%C3%B4me_Balard
[2] "Antoine Jerome Balard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Antoine_
Jerome_Balard
[3] "Chloric acid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloric_aci
d
(Montpellier École de Pharmacie)
Montpellier, France4  
[1] Chloric acid, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
oric_acid

[2] Description Foto des Chemikers
de:Antoine-Jérôme Balard
(1802-1876) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/586/000114
244/balard-1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine-Jerome_Balard.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 14 		3000)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Rowan_Hamilton
2. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
3. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ Prigogine, Ilya. 1996 5. ^. The
End of Certainty: Time, Chaos, and the
New Laws of Nature. New York: Simon and
Schuster, p133.
6. ^ "William Rowan
Hamilton", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp312-314.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "William Rowan Hamilton",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), pp312-314.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "William Rowan
Hamilton", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp312-314.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
14. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
(10/16/1843) (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Rowan Hamilton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p358
(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland13  
[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 9 		3061) Valentin is the first Jewish
human to be hired as a professor in a
German-language university (although
the University (of Bern5 ) is not in
Germany itself), and the first Jewish
person to be granted citizenship of the
city of Bern.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp370-371.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp370-371.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp370-371.
7. ^ "VALENTIN,
GABRIEL GUSTAV",
JewishEncyclopedia.com, (2002).
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view
.jsp?artid=6&letter=V
8. ^ "Wroclaw." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wroclaw
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp370-371. (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Gustav Valentin",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp896-897
(Breslau now:) Wrocław, Poland7 8
(presumably) 
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 15 		3076) Bunsen's father, Christian
Bunsen, is chief librarian and
professor of modern philology at the
University of Göttingen.4
In 1830,
Bunsen takes his Ph.D. in chemistry at
the University of Göttingen.5
Bunsen
never marries.6
Bunsen does not allow
organic research in his lab.7
Chemists
who come to study with Bunsen at
Heidelberg include Adolph Kolbe, Edward
Frankland, Victor and Lothar Meyer,
Friedrich Beilstein, Johann Baeyer8
and Dmitri Mendeleev9 . Bunsen makes
the University of Heidelberg one of the
major world centers of chemical
research.10

In 1860, Bunsen is awarded the Copley
Medal.11
In 1877, Bunsen and Kirchhoff
receive the first Davy Medal.12
In 1898
the Albert Medal in awarded to Bunsen
in recognition of Bunsen's many
scientific contributions to industry.13

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
3. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154.
4. ^ "Robert
Wilhelm Von Bunsen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
5. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
6. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
7. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
8. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
9. ^
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
11. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
12. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
13. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
14. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
15. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
(University of Göttingen), Göttingen,
Germany14  
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 9 		3085)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Robert Bunsen."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
4. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1834)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
7. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
8. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
9. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[5] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
(University of Göttingen), Göttingen,
Germany8  
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 7 		3272)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/279.h
tml
2. ^ "sewing machine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9066989>
.
3. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/279.h
tml
6. ^ "sewing machine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9066989>
.
7. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "sewing machine." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine (1790)
New york City, NY, USA6  
[1] Walter Hunt Born July 29 1796 –
Died June 8, 1859 PD/Corel
source: http://www.invent.org/images/ima
ges_hof/induction/lores/Hunt_sil10-4962-
28190h.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 5 		3453)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
2. ^ William Allen
Miller, "Elements of chemistry", s.n.,
1863,
p167. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OWUDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1835+
wheatstone+on+the+prismatic+electric+lig
ht&source=web&ots=uNEuKxvNh4&sig=8ctnmGV
BA1QA07Gk8nX14MpIid4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA167,M1
3. ^ William Allen Miller, "Elements of
chemistry", s.n., 1863,
p167. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OWUDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1835+
wheatstone+on+the+prismatic+electric+lig
ht&source=web&ots=uNEuKxvNh4&sig=8ctnmGV
BA1QA07Gk8nX14MpIid4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA167,M1
4. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
5. ^ William Allen Miller, "Elements of
chemistry", s.n., 1863,
p167. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OWUDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1835+
wheatstone+on+the+prismatic+electric+lig
ht&source=web&ots=uNEuKxvNh4&sig=8ctnmGV
BA1QA07Gk8nX14MpIid4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA167,M1
{1834}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[3] Philosophical Magazine, series 3,
volume 14, number 88, March 1839,
pp196-209. {talbot001.pdf}
[4]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[5]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
[6] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot (1835)
[7]
"William Henry Fox Talbot". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
[8] "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
Wiltshire, England4 (presumably) 
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
165 YBN
[01/29/1835 AD] 5 		3459)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Records of General Science,
"Abstract of a Paper on the Refraction
and Polarization of Heat. By Professor
Forbes.".
p.394. http://books.google.com/books?id
=RVcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA478&lpg=PA478&dq=%22O
n+the+Refraction+and+Polarization+of+Hea
t%22&source=web&ots=Ssxgizc13b&sig=aStch
RDJCXwSmEk_7OHFpBm9hF8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA394,M1
2. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
3. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
4. ^ Records of General Science,
"Abstract of a Paper on the Refraction
and Polarization of Heat. By Professor
Forbes.".
p.394. http://books.google.com/books?id
=RVcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA478&lpg=PA478&dq=%22O
n+the+Refraction+and+Polarization+of+Hea
t%22&source=web&ots=Ssxgizc13b&sig=aStch
RDJCXwSmEk_7OHFpBm9hF8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA394,M1
5. ^ Records of General Science,
"Abstract of a Paper on the Refraction
and Polarization of Heat. By Professor
Forbes.".
p.394. http://books.google.com/books?id
=RVcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA478&lpg=PA478&dq=%22O
n+the+Refraction+and+Polarization+of+Hea
t%22&source=web&ots=Ssxgizc13b&sig=aStch
RDJCXwSmEk_7OHFpBm9hF8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA394,M1
{01/29/1835}
(University of Edinburgh3 ) Edinburgh,
Scotland4  		 
165 YBN
[02/06/1835 AD] 22 23 		2810) Henry becomes an unwilling
participant in the protracted
litigation over the scope and validity
of Morse's patents. Between 1849 and
1852 the defendants in three
infringement suits subpoena Henry in
the hopes that his statements would
weaken or invalidate Morse's claims,
and Henry's testimony proves crucial to
the Supreme Court's 1854 split decision
that strikes down Morse's broadest
claim.18 Henry claims that he does not
want to become a party to this
controversy and that he gives his
statement unwillingly, only under
subpoena.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
7. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1963/1/1963_1_24.shtml
8. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1963/1/1963_1_24.shtml
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A
History of Electric Telegraphy, to the
Year 1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p349-378.. http://books.google.com
/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+t
o+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOB
A#PPA257,M1
18. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1963/1/1963_1_24.shtml
19. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1963/1/1963_1_24.shtml
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
21. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
22. ^, p1.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00659746/ap030
013/03a00120/0 "Contributions to
Electricity and Magnetism. By Joseph
Henry, Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the College of New Jersey,
Princeton, Late of the Albany Academy.
No. II. On the Influence of a Spiral
Conductor in Increasing the Intensity
of Electricity from a Galvanic
Arrangement of a Single Pair, &c."
Joseph Henry Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society, New
Ser., Vol. 5. (1837), pp. 223-231.
Henry_1835_relay.pdf (02/06/1835)
(02/06/1835)
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1835)
(1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[3] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[6]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[7]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[8]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[9]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[10] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
Princeton, NJ, USA20 21  
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
165 YBN
[08/12/1835 AD] 20 21 		2900)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
4. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
6. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "On The
Prismatic Decomposition of Electrical
Light", Report of the British
Association, 1835. From Charles
Wheatstone, Physical Society (Great
Britain, Physical Society of London,
"The Scientific Papers of Sir Charles
Wheatstone",
p223-224. http://books.google.com/books
?id=rD4GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=%
22The+Prismatic+Decomposition+of+Electri
cal+Light%22&source=web&ots=7rsYFoucm2&s
ig=rWtP_eDtKGqNf4Tk9ISirTCOe7Q&hl=en#PPA
222-IA1,M1 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Lw4A
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
UOM39015066715445&lr=#v=onepage&q=wheats
tone&f=false
7. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "On the
Prismatic Decomposition of the
Electric, Voltaic, and Electro-Magnetic
Sparks". The Chemical News and Journal
of Industrial Science, 1861,
p198-201. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2
-PA201,M1
8. ^ "Charles Wheatstone", "Obituary
Notices of Fellows Deceased",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 24,
1875/1876, pi-xl.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/x136l16rmk207v78/?p=b5bd57d44dfb4da0a0f
4f5d206ec12c2π=1
{Wheatstone_obituary.pdf}
9. ^ Anders Jonas Ångström, Annalen
der Physik, v94, 1855,
p141-165 http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k15179x.image.r=angstrom.f161.la
ngEN English version: A. J.
Angström, "Optical Researches",
Philosophical Transactions, v9, 1857,
p327-342
(p333). {Angstrom_English_1857.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "On the
Prismatic Decomposition of the
Electric, Voltaic, and Electro-Magnetic
Sparks". The Chemical News and Journal
of Industrial Science, 1861,
p198-201. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2
-PA201,M1
14. ^ Henry Enfield Roscoe, Arthur
Schuster, "Spectrum analysis",
Macmillan, 1885,
pp144-145. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=weIIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=
light+from+electrode+gas+angstrom+two+ma
sson&source=web&ots=jHT9Vlb39R&sig=eIxJS
q1t20gwU6cl2o1PKM5LZhI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA145,M1
15. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "On the
Prismatic Decomposition of the
Electric, Voltaic, and Electro-Magnetic
Sparks". The Chemical News and Journal
of Industrial Science, 1861,
p198-201. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2
-PA199,M1 {08/12/1835}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Charles
Wheatstone, "On the Prismatic
Decomposition of the Electric, Voltaic,
and Electro-Magnetic Sparks". The
Chemical News and Journal of Industrial
Science, 1861,
p198-201. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2
-PA199,M1 {08/12/1835}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
20. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "On the
Prismatic Decomposition of the
Electric, Voltaic, and Electro-Magnetic
Sparks". The Chemical News and Journal
of Industrial Science, 1861,
p198-201. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2
-PA199,M1 {08/12/1835}
21. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone
(1835)". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Sir Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone (1835) (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(King's College) London, England19
 
[1] Table of the Bright Lines in the
Spectrum of the Magneto-Electric Spark,
taken from different melted Metals, and
observed with the Prismatic
Telescope. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2-PA
199,M1

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 9 10 		2420) For this work Biot was awarded
the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society
in 1840.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Biot". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273.
7. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Biot". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
8. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273. (1835)
(1835)
10. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Biot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
[3] "hydrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1741/hydrolysis
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

[2] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an
altitude of 4000 metres Biot and
Gay-Lussac ascend in a hot air balloon,
1804. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 3 		2498)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1835)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
[7] "article 9072236". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2236
[8] "Thorium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
[9]
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
Stokholm, Sweden2 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 9 		2550) Sedgwick strongly opposes
Darwin's theory of evolution, although
Sedgwick is the first to recognize
Darwin's talent.4

In 1818 Sedgwick is elected to the
Woodwardian Chair of Geology (at
Cambridge5 ), a post Sedgwick holds
until his death.6

In 1829 Sedgwick is president of the
Geological Society.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p299.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Adam
Sedgwick". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adam+Sedgwick?cat
=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p299.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Adam
Sedgwick". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adam+Sedgwick?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Adam Sedgwick". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adam+Sedgwick?cat
=technology
8. ^ "Adam Sedgwick". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Adam+Sedgwick?cat
=technology
9. ^ "Adam Sedgwick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6551/Adam-Sedgwick (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Adam Sedgwick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Sedgwi
ck
[2] "Adam Sedgwick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Adam_Sed
gwick
Cambridge, England8  
[1] # Description of picture: The
painting shows Adam Sedgwick
(1785-1873), one of the founders of
modern geology #
Source:[1] http://www.amphilsoc.org/lib
rary/mole/s/sedgwick.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adam_Sedgwick.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 44 45 		2638) In October 1832 Morse returns to
the United States from Italy6 aboard
the packet-ship7 Sully. On the voyage
Morse meet Charles Thomas Jackson, a
doctor and inventor and the two discuss
electromagnetism.8 Morse learns about
Ampère's idea for the electric
telegraph.9 Jackson assured Morse that
an electric impulse can be carried
along even a very long wire. Morse
later recalls that he reacted to this
news with the thought that "if this be
so, and the presence of electricity can
be made visible in any desired part of
the circuit, I see no reason why
intelligence might not be
instantaneously transmitted by
electricity to any distance." Morse
immediately makes some sketches of a
device to accomplish this purpose.10
Morse's shipboard sketches of 1832 have
clearly laid out the three major parts
of the telegraph: a sender which opens
and closes an electric circuit, a
receiver which used an electromagnet to
(convert the electronic signal back
into mechanical movement11 ), and a
code which translates the signal into
letters and numbers.12 These notes,
made aboard the Sully are still in the
Morse papers in the Library of Congress
in Washington, D.C..13

Morse works for the next 12 years, with
the aid of the chemist Leonard Gale,
physicist Joseph Henry, and machinist
Alfred Vail to perfect his own version
of the instrument. So many phases of
the telegraph, however, have already
been anticipated by other inventors,
especially in Great Britain, Germany,
and France, that Morse's originality as
the inventor of telegraphy has been
questioned; even the Morse code does
not differ greatly from earlier codes,
including the semaphore.14

The first telegraphs were in the form
of optical telegraphs which include
smoke signals and beacons.15

One of the most successful of the
visual telegraphs was the semaphore
developed in France by the Chappe
brothers, Claude and Ignace, in 1791.
This system consisted of pairs of
movable arms mounted at the ends of a
crossbeam on hilltop towers. Each arm
of the semaphore could assume seven
angular positions 45° apart, and the
horizontal beam could tilt 45°
clockwise or counterclockwise. In this
manner it was possible to represent
numbers and the letters of the
alphabet. Chains of these towers were
built to permit transmission over long
distances. The towers were spaced at
intervals of 5 to 10 kilometres (3 to 6
miles), and a signaling rate of three
symbols per minute could be achieved.16
 Even from stars in a globular cluster
to other stars in the plane of the
Milky Way galaxy, perhaps there are
transmitting and receiving stations
because if the message is emitted in
all directions, a very intense light is
needed, like a star, we only see a few
photons of the many that a star emits,
but if the signals are directed to a
specific direction which is much more
efficient, the longer the distance
between a sender and receiver the more
complex the calculation of all the many
pieces of matter in between that
influence the two points, their
positions and velocities, in particular
the sender and receiver positions, and
where the receiving object will be when
the photons finally arrive at the
receiver. So there probably needs to be
relatively short range relay stations
even between star clusters and their
exploring voyagers.17

The invention of the voltaic cell in
1800 by Alessandro Volta of Italy helps
to make the electric telegraph (and so
many other electric inventions18 ) a
reality.19

The word telegraphy comes from Greek.
"Tele" means distant and "graphein" to
write. So the meaning is "writing at a
distance".20

This telegraph is believed by many to
this day to have been the scientific
work of Joseph Henry, which Morse
exploits.21
Morse's father Jedediah
Morse is a Congregational Pastor and
author of "Geography Made Easy", the
first book on geography printed in the
United States.22

Morse's mother is the daughter of the
man who founded Shrewsbury, New
Jersey.23

Morse attends Yale from 1808 to 1810,
attends lectures on electricity, and
spends a vacation assisting with
electrical experiments.24
After 1825,
Morse settles in New York City and
paints portraits.25

As part of a campaign against the
licentiousness (sexually unrestrained
or going beyond customary limits
nature26 ) of the theater (stage27 ),
Morse helps launch, in 1827, the New
York Journal of Commerce, which refuses
theater advertisements.28

On 10/02/1832 Morse is hired as the
professor of the literature of arts and
design at the University of the City of
New York (now New York University),
which had been founded one year
earlier. Morse receives no salary and
must depend on fees from his students
and the occasional sale of a
portrait.29
Both Morse and John Draper
are instrumental in introducing the
daguerreotype in the United States.30

Morse enters politics31 , for mayor of
New York (City32 )33 as a member of
the "Native American" party, a group of
anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant
people.34

Morse does not acknowledge Henry's
help.35
In 1837 Morse receives a
patent on a telegraph in the USA.36

Morse's patent is rejected in England,
where a similar device has already been
developed.37
In 1854, a U.S. Supreme
Court decision established Morse's
patent rights.38
During the Civil War,
Morse sympathizes with the South, even
though he is a Northerner because of
his belief that Negro slavery is
justified.39

Morse is made a charter member of the
Hall of Fame for Great Americans on the
campus of New York University, but the
authentically great American Henry is
not elected until 1915.40

In his old age Morse is a founder and
trustee of Vassar College, donates
money to his alma mater, Yale College;
and to churches, theological
seminaries, Bible societies, mission
societies, and temperance societies
(people that want to jail those who use
alcohol41 ), as well as to poor
artists.42
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
2. ^ "Samuel FB
Morse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p56.
5. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p57.
6. ^
http://www2.hs-esslingen.de/telehistory/
1840-.html
7. ^ "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Samuel
Finley Breese Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
8. ^ "samuel f b morse". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
9. ^ "samuel f b morse". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
10. ^ "samuel f b morse". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "samuel f b morse".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
13. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p56.
14. ^ "samuel f b
morse". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
15. ^ "Telegraph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph
16. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "telegraph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
20. ^
http://www2.hs-esslingen.de/telehistory/
1840-.html
21. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
22. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p55.
23. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p55.
24. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p55.
25. ^ "Samuel FB
Morse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
26. ^ "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
29. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p56.
30. ^ "samuel f b
morse". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^
"samuel f b morse". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
36. ^
"telegraph". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
37. ^ "samuel f b morse". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
38. ^ "Samuel FB Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
39. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
40. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
41. ^ Ted
Huntington.
42. ^ "Samuel FB Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
43. ^ "Samuel FB Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
44. ^ "Samuel FB Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse (1835)
45. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p56. (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
New York City, New York, USA43  
[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 3 		2671) The first railway is constructed
in Germany, between Nuremberg and
Furth.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52. (1835)
Nuremberg (and Furth), Germany2   
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 4 		2673)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Samuel Thomas von Sömmering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Thom
as_von_S%C3%B6mmering
2. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p54.
3. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p54.
4. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p54. (1835)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Thef
irstelectrictelegraphs/index.htm
Bonn, Germany3  
[1] Samuel Thomas von Sömmering,
Graphic: 8 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 13 x 10
cm Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/S
IL14-S005-06a.jpg first upload to
de.wp as de:Bild:Samuel Thomas von
Soemmering.jpg original Timestamp:
20:32, 13. Aug. 2004 Date Author
Carl Wilhelm Bender [1] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Samue
l_Thomas_von_Soemmering.jpg

[2] Schilling's five needle
telegraph COPYRIGHTED?
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 54
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 3 		2736) Gustave Gaspard de Coriolis
(KOrYOlES) (CE 1792-1843), French
physicist, 1 publishes "Théorie
mathématique des effets du jeu de
billiard" (1835, "Mathematical Theory
of the Game of Billiards").

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
2. ^ "Gustave Gaspard
Coriolis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
3. ^ "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Coriolis Effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_Ef
fect
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gustave+Gaspard+d
e+Coriolis+?cat=technology
[3] "Coriolis force". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6305/Coriolis-force
Paris, France2  
[1] Gustave Coriolis [Coriolis,
detail of a portrait by Zéphirin
Belliard, 19th century, after a
painting by Jean Roller; in the
Académie des Sciences, Paris Courtesy
of the Archives de l'Academie des
Sciences de Paris; photograph, J.
Colomb-Gerard, Paris [2]] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustave_coriolis.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 12 		2738) The Coriolis "force", is an
example of how a natural cumulative
effect of motion of many particles due
to gravity and collision can be
described as a separate distinct force.
This is why I prefer to call this an
"effect" or "phenomenon", although
"force" is fine, but people should
recognize that this is a cumulative
effect of a more fundamental force of
gravity.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
6. ^ "Gustave Gaspard
de Coriolis". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gustave+Gaspard+d
e+Coriolis+?cat=technology
7. ^ "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Gustave Gaspard
Coriolis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Gustave Gaspard
Coriolis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323. (1835)
(1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Coriolis Effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_Ef
fect
[2] "Coriolis force". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6305/Coriolis-force
Paris, France11  
[1] Coriolis Effect The rotation of
the Earth on its axis deflects the
atmosphere toward the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and toward the left
in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting
in curved paths. The deflection of the
atmosphere sets up the complex global
wind patterns which drive surface ocean
currents. This deflection is called the
Coriolis effect. It is named after the
French mathematician Gaspard Gustave de
Coriolis (1792-1843), who studied the
transfer of energy in rotating systems
like waterwheels. (Ross, 1995). PD
source: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/edu
cation/kits/currents/media/supp_cur05b.h
tml

[2] English: Illustration of the
coriolis force Deutsch: Zur
Corioliskraft (Kugel auf Drehteller),
Animation Source German
Wikipedia Date November
2003 Author
Hubi Permission (Reusing this
image) GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Corioliskraftanimation.gif
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 13 		2796) Adolphe Quetelet (full: Lambert
Adolphe Jacques Quetelet) (KeTlA) (CE
1796-1874), Belgian astronomer and
statistician1 applies statistical
analysis to humans.2

In 1830, Quetelet is supervisor of
statistics for Belgium where he
develops many of the rules governing
modern census taking and stimulates
statistical activity in other
countries.3
For the Dutch and Belgian
governments, Quetelet collects and
analyzes statistics on crime,
mortality, and other subjects and
devises improvements in census taking.4

Quetelet records various measurements
of human properties, for example height
and then graphs the results which shows
that the results fit a bell-shaped
curve.5
Queteley uses these statistics
to social phenomena, and develops the
concept of the "average man".6 In this
way Queteley establishes the
theoretical foundations for the use of
statistics in social physics or what is
now called sociology. Therefore
Queteley is considered by many to be
the founder of modern quantitative
social science.7

Quetelet publishes this analysis in
"Sur l'homme et le développement de
ses facultés, ou essai de physique
sociale" (1835, tr Eng 18428 , "A
Treatise on Man and the Development of
His Faculties").9
In 1828 Quetelet is
the first director of the Royal
Observatory at Brussels10 , a position
held until his death in 187411 .
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p331.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p331.
3. ^ "Lambert
Adolphe Jacques Quetelet". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lambert+Adolphe+J
acques+Quetelet?cat=technology
4. ^ "Adolphe Quetelet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2246/Adolphe-Quetelet
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p331.
6. ^ "Lambert Adolphe
Jacques Quetelet". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lambert+Adolphe+J
acques+Quetelet?cat=technology
7. ^ "Lambert Adolphe Jacques
Quetelet". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lambert+Adolphe+J
acques+Quetelet?cat=technology
8. ^ "Lambert Adolphe Jacques
Quetelet". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lambert+Adolphe+J
acques+Quetelet?cat=technology
9. ^ "Adolphe Quetelet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2246/Adolphe-Quetelet
10. ^ "Lambert Adolphe Jacques
Quetelet". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lambert+Adolphe+J
acques+Quetelet?cat=technology
11. ^ "Lambert Adolphe Jacques
Quetelet". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lambert+Adolphe+J
acques+Quetelet?cat=technology
12. ^ "Lambert Adolphe Jacques
Quetelet". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lambert+Adolphe+J
acques+Quetelet?cat=technology
13. ^ "Adolphe Quetelet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2246/Adolphe-Quetelet (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lambert Adolphe Jacques
Quetelet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Ado
lphe_Jacques_Quetelet
Brussels, Belgium12  
[1] Quetelet, was a Belgian who
studied mathematics under Joseph Fouier
and Pierre Laplace, statistics,
astronomy, and sociology. Quetelet is
famous for utilizing statistics in the
social sciences, geophysics, and
meteorology. He found new uses for the
normal curve and created the Quetelet
index. This index is still used today
to measure obesity. PD/Corel
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/PictDisplay/Quetelet.html

[2] same as above PD/Corel
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/PictDisplay/Quetelet.html
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 16 		2829) Talbot writes: "(In) October,
1833, I was amusing myself on the
lovely shores of the Lake of Como in
Italy, taking sketches with a Camera
Lucida, or rather, I should say,
attempting to make them; but with the
smallest possible amount of success...
After
various fruitless attempts I laid aside
the instrument and came to the
conclusion that its use required a
previous knowledge of drawing which
unfortunately I did not possess.
I then
thought of trying again a method which
I had tried many years before. This
method was to take a Camera Obscura and
to throw the image of the objects on a
piece of paper in its focus - fairy
pictures, creations of a moment, and
destined as rapidly to fade away...
It was
during these thoughts that the idea
occurred to me... how charming it would
be if it were possible to cause these
natural images to imprint themselves
durably and remain fixed on the
paper!"13

Talbot describes how he captures a
paper negative: ".. I constructed {a
camera obscura} out of a large box, the
image being thrown upon one end of it
by a good object-glass fixed at the
opposite end. The apparatus being armed
with a sensitive paper, was taken out
in a summer afternoon, and placed about
one hundred yards from a building
favourably illuminated by the sun. An
hour or so afterwards I opened the box
and I found depicted upon the paper a
very distinct representation of the
building, with the exception of those
parts of it which lay in the shade. A
little experience in this branch of the
art showed me that with a smaller
camera obscura the effect would be
produced in a smaller time. Accordingly
I had several small boxes made, in
which I fixed lenses of shorter focus,
and with these I obtained very perfect,
but extremely small pictures ..."14
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
2. ^ "William Henry
Fox Talbot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Talbot.html
4. ^ February 21,
1839 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/01123385452g1020/?p=630e2e7f8d3c4
7829e665b62274c0b82π=20 An Account of
the Processes Employed in Photogenic
Drawing. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 124-126 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0055 Talbot_An_Account_Photogen
ic.pdf
5. ^ Philosophical Magazine, series 3,
volume 14, number 88, March 1839,
pp196-209. {talbot001.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ February 21,
1839 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/01123385452g1020/?p=630e2e7f8d3c4
7829e665b62274c0b82π=20 An Account of
the Processes Employed in Photogenic
Drawing. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 124-126 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0055 Talbot_An_Account_Photogen
ic.pdf
8. ^
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
13. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
14. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Talbot.html
15. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
16. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[3] "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
[4] "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
Wiltshire, England15
(presumably) 
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 7 		2864)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p344.
2. ^ "Felix
Dujardin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1392/Felix-Dujardin
3. ^
http://www.webref.org/scientists/dujardi
n.htm
4. ^ "Felix Dujardin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1392/Felix-Dujardin
5. ^ "Félix Dujardin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_
Dujardin
6. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=qCclAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA479-IA4&dq=felix+dujardin
&as_brr=1
7. ^ "Felix Dujardin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1392/Felix-Dujardin (1835)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/F%C3%A9lix+Dujard
in+?cat=technology
Paris?, France6 (verify)  
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 6 		2865)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p344.
2. ^ "Felix
Dujardin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1392/Felix-Dujardin
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p344.
5. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=qCclAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA479-IA4&dq=felix+dujardin
&as_brr=1
6. ^ "Felix Dujardin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1392/Felix-Dujardin (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Félix Dujardin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_
Dujardin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/F%C3%A9lix+Dujard
in+?cat=technology
Paris?, France5 (verify)  
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 6 		2939)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ "Richard Owen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
4. ^ "Sir Richard
Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
5. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
6. ^ "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n (1835)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
[2] "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
[5] "parathyroid gland". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8433/parathyroid-gland
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England4 5  
[1] 1. Bél-Trichinella (Trichinella
spiralis Owen) hím és
nőstény. COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03408/h
tml/img/brehm-18-008-1.jpg

[2] Thyroid and parathyroid
glands source:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds2_thyroid.html
PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Illu_
thyroid_parathyroid.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 5 		3017)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Graham, Thomas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Thomas Graham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
4. ^ "Graham, Thomas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>. (1835)
5. ^ "Graham, Thomas".
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>. (1835)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Grah
am_%28chemist%29
[2] "Thomas Graham". A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
[3]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html (1833)
[4] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
[5] "Thomas Graham",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp368-369.
[6]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
[7]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html
(Andersonian Institution3 ) Edinburgh,
Scotland4  
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 29 30 31 		3028) Other achievements of Laurent
include discovering anthracene, 1832;
obtaining phthalic acid from
napthalene, 1836; and showing that
carbolic acid is phenol, 1841.17

The collected papers of Laurent are
published posthumously in "Methode de
Chimie" (1854; "Method of
Chemistry").18

Liebig, Gmelin, and Beilstein come to
accept Laurent's view, Wöhler sides
with Berzelius.19

Laurent presents three-dimensional
models of molecules.20

In 1844 Laurent is one of the first
chemists to embrace Avogadro's law.21
La
urent sees that chemists must
distinguish clearly between atoms,
molecules, and equivalents. Laurent
regards the molecules of hydrogen,
oxygen, and others as consisting of two
atoms, forming what he calls a
"homogeneous compound", which, by
double decomposition, could form
"heterogeneous compounds". This
provides a basis for the accurate
determination of atomic weights.22

In 1892 Laurent's suggestion for naming
organic chemicals forms the basis of
the Geneva nomenclature adopted for
organic chemistry.23
In 1850 Laurent
is the best-qualified candidate for the
chair of chemistry at the Collège de
France, but his appointment was vetoed
by the Academy of Sciences, some of
whose members are worried by Laurent's
radical republican views in the tense
atmosphere of conservative reaction
that had set in after the Revolutions
of 1848.24

Laurent dies of
tuberculosis at age 44.25

(Perhaps an argument can be made for
atoms holding together by the force of
gravity or because of collision.
Currently the view is that valence
electrons hold atoms together in
molecules, which seems a development of
Berzelius' view of oppositely
electrically charged atoms holding
together. This may involve how
electrons are gained or lost on atoms,
or shared between atoms in a molecule,
for example, where chlorine is thought
to have 7 outer orbiting electrons, and
is viewed as more likely to accept an
eighth electron, hydrogen is seen as
having only one electron and more
likely to donate the electron. If a
stable hydrogen shell is 2 electrons,
perhaps adding an electron to hydrogen
is a stable configuration for hydrogen.
In this sense, hydrogen might be viewed
as being just an atom that can gain an
electron just as easily as lose an
electron, however, the most common form
of hydrogen is the single electron
hydrogen and a second electron would
cause a negative hydrogen ion which I
don't think has ever been observed.
Bromine is under Chlorine and is a
similar single electron accepter, NO2
may also be a similar single electron
accepter. If true, perhaps other
molecules show the same property of
Hydrogen and Chlorine being electron
accepters. Are there any other known
examples that violate the idea of atoms
with opposite electrically balanced
outer shells of atoms (1 electron
versus 7, etc) bonding? The current
view is that atoms are electrically
neutral unless in the form of ions. The
current view is also that an atom
attaches to a molecule based on what
makes the number of electrons in its
outer (valence) electron shell most
stable.26 )

(Atoms and molecules are so small, and
there are so many pieces of matter put
together, that I think humans should
keep an open mind about the physical
structure of atoms without yet or
perhaps ever physically seeing all the
objects involved.27 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364.
2. ^ "Laurent,
Auguste." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Laurent, Auguste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Laurent, Auguste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Auguste Laurent",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p523.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364.
12. ^ "Auguste
Laurent." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/auguste-lau
rent
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364.
14. ^ "Laurent,
Auguste." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://chemistry.cua.edu/may/month/Novem
berchem.htm
18. ^ "Auguste Laurent." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/auguste-lau
rent
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364.
21. ^ "Laurent,
Auguste." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>.
22. ^ "Auguste Laurent." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/auguste-lau
rent
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364.
24. ^ "Laurent,
Auguste." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>.
25. ^ "Laurent, Auguste." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Auguste
Laurent", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p523.
29. ^ "Laurent, Auguste." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-259
717>. (1835)
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp363-364. (1836
(provides evidence against Berzelius
theory)
31. ^ "Auguste Laurent", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p523. (formulates theories
1835-1837)
Paris, France28 (presumably) 
[1] b. 1807 Auguste Laurent discovered
anthracene, 1832; obtained phthalic
acid from napthalene, 1836; showed that
carbolic acid is phenol, 1841;
constructed a saccharimeter; evolved
the nucleus theory of organic radicals
(with Charles F. Gerhardt); Laurent's
acid.
source: http://chemistry.cua.edu/may/mon
th/Novemberchem_files/image012.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 4 		3226)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "mitrailleuse." The Oxford
Companion to Military History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitrailleus
e-3
2. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
72>. p15.
3. ^ "mitrailleuse." The Oxford
Companion to Military History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitrailleus
e-3
4. ^ Brent Nosworthy, "The Bloody
Crucible of Courage: Fighting Methods
and Combat Experience of ...", Carroll
& Graf Publishers, 2005, p73.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vn9GX
WIJOx4C&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=Joseph+Monti
gny&source=web&ots=hpgTe7xH2x&sig=bX1D6U
n4rn1izBISeD_0ULejm-g&hl=en#PPA73,M1
(1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Mitrailleuse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitrailleus
e
Belgium3  
[1] Front view of mitrailleuse at Les
Invalides,
Paris Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Image:Mitrailleuse_front.jpg Image
by ChrisO GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Mitrailleuse_front.jp
g

[2] A Bollée mitrailleuse and crew in
action From Illustrated London News
circa 1870 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mitrailleuse_bollee.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 6 7 		3300)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^ William Tobin,
"The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p201,325.
3. ^ Leibig, J., (1835) Annalem
der Pharmacie, 14, 131-67.
4. ^ William Hodson
Brock, Justus Von Liebig: The Chemical
Gatekeeper, Cambridge
University Press, 1997,
p136. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VugoemP2th0C&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=%22Th
omas+Drayton%22+silvering&source=web&ots
=M509-977E-&sig=5fuhVSfJVAFjZyXxAKErgi5o
oHI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&c
t=result
5. ^ "Liebig, Justus Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p543-544.
6. ^ William Tobin, "The life
and science of Léon Foucault: the man
who proved the earth rotates",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p201,325. {1835}
7. ^ Leibig, J., (1835)
Annalem der Pharmacie, 14, 131-67.

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "University of Giessen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany5  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 3 		3781)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.academie-sciences.fr/presenta
tion/historique_gb.htm
2. ^
http://www.academie-sciences.fr/presenta
tion/historique_gb.htm
3. ^
http://www.academie-sciences.fr/presenta
tion/historique_gb.htm {1835}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dominique François Jean
Arago". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_F
ran%C3%A7ois_Jean_Arago
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
[4] "Francois Arago".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago (1820)
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 6 		3896)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bassi, Agostino Maria", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p65.
2. ^ "Agostino Bassi."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agostino-ba
ssi
3. ^ "Agostino Bassi." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 17
Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agostino-ba
ssi
4. ^ "Bassi, Agostino Maria", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p65.
5. ^ "Agostino Bassi."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agostino-ba
ssi
6. ^ "Bassi, Agostino Maria", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p65. {1835}

MORE INFO
[1] "Agostino Bassi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Ba
ssi
Lodi, Italy5 (verify) 
[1] Bassi Agostino (1773-1856) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Bassi_Agostino_1773-1
856.png

[2] Agostino Bassi PD
source: http://www.dmipfmv.ulg.ac.be/bac
vet/images/original/ABassi.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 4 		5982) Nicolò Paganini (CE 1782-1840),
Italian violinist and composer,1
composes "Moto Perpetuo" ("Perpetual
Motion").2 (verify)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolò Paganini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niccol-paga
nini
2. ^ "List of compositions by Niccolò
Paganini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini
3. ^ "Niccolò Paganini." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niccol-paga
nini
4. ^ "List of compositions by Niccolò
Paganini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini
{1835 (verify}
Parma, Italy3  
[1] Description Coal drawing by
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, c.
1819. Date Source English
Wikipedia Author [show]Jean Auguste
Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) Link
back to Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/NiccoloPaganini.jpeg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 4 		5993)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fr-d-ric-ch
opin
2. ^ "List of compositions by
Frédéric Chopin by opus number".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin_b
y_opus_number
3. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/114362/Frederic-Chopin>.
4. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/114362/Frederic-Chopin>. {1835
(verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/nohant-vic
[2] "Minute Waltz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_Walt
z
[3] "List of compositions by Frédéric
Chopin by opus number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin_b
y_opus_number
Paris, France3  
[1] Description Frédéric Chopin
1846 or 1847 daguerreotype Date
1846/47 Source Fryderyk
Chopin Society, Warsaw, as reproduced
at
http://jackgibbons.blogspot.com/2010/03/
chopins-photograph.html Author
unknown Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Chopin_1846_daguerreo
type.JPG

[2] Description English: The only
known photograph of Frédéric Chopin,
often incorrectly described as a
daguerreotype Español: La única
fotografía conocida de Frédéric
Chopin Français : L'unique
photographie connue de Frédéric
Chopin, souvent incorrectement décrite
comme un daguerréotype Date ca.
1849 Source
http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/Cho
ir/5479/chopin2.jpg Author
Louis-Auguste Bisson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Frederic_Chopin_photo
.jpeg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 4 		2579)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
2. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
3. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
4. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland2
3  
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 10 11 12 		2605)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christian Jurgensen Thomsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2198/Christian-Jurgensen-Thomsen
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p309.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p36.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p309.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Christian Jurgensen Thomsen". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian%20Jurge
nsen%20Thomsen
8. ^ "Christian Jurgensen Thomsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2198/Christian-Jurgensen-Thomsen
9. ^ "Christian Jurgensen Thomsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2198/Christian-Jurgensen-Thomsen
10. ^ "Christian Jurgensen Thomsen".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian%20Jurge
nsen%20Thomsen (published: 1836)
11. ^
"Christian Jurgensen Thomsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2198/Christian-Jurgensen-Thomsen
(published: 1836)
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p309. (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Jurgensen
Thomsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_J
urgensen_Thomsen
Copenhagen, Denmark9  
[1] Christian Jürgensen Thomsen
(1788-1865), Danish archaeologist.
Illustration from P. Hansen:
Illustreret dansk Litteraturhistorie,
volume 3 (1902) (at runeberg.org).
Because of the age this picture is now
Public Domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christianj%C3%BCrgensenthomsen.png

[2] Christian Thomsen, oil painting
by an unknown artist Courtesy of the
Royal Danish Embassy, London
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14787/Christian-Thomsen-oil-painting-by
-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=1
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 4 		2670)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52.
4. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52. (1836
{within a year of 1835})

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl August von Steinheil".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_August
_von_Steinheil
Göttingen, Germany3  
[1] * Title: Carl August Steinheil
* Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Carl_
August_Steinheil.jpg

[2] Electromagnetic telegraph of
Steinheil COPYRIGHTED
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 4 		2672) Carl August von Steinheil (CE
1801-1870) erects a single insulated
wire on wooden poles parallel to the
railway track and uses the rails and
Earth as return conductors.1 (Was this
a telegraph? Was this done with railway
and government participation?2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp52-53.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52.
4. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52. (1836
{within a year of 1835}) {1836 (within
a year of 1835}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl August von Steinheil".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_August
_von_Steinheil
Göttingen, Germany3  
[1] * Title: Carl August Steinheil
* Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Carl_
August_Steinheil.jpg

[2] Electromagnetic telegraph of
Steinheil COPYRIGHTED
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 10 		2703) In 1836 Michael Faraday observes
that the charge on a charged conductor
is located only on its exterior and has
no influence on anything enclosed
within it. To demonstrate this fact
Faraday builds a room (size?3 ) coated
with metal foil and allows high-voltage
discharges from an electrostatic
generator to strike the outside of the
room. He uses an electroscope to show
that there is no electric charge
present on the inside of the room's
walls.4

The same effect was predicted earlier
by Francesco Beccaria (1716-1781) at
the University of Turin, a student of
Benjamin Franklin, who stated that "all
electricity goes up to the free surface
of the bodies without diffusing in
their interior substance.". Later, the
Belgian physicist Louis Melsens
(1814-1886) applied the principle to
lightning conductors.5 Another
researcher of this concept was Gauss
(Gaussian surfaces).6 7

A metal mesh cage also stops photon
radio signals.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
2. ^ "Faraday cage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cag
e
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Faraday cage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cag
e
5. ^ "Faraday cage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cag
e
6. ^ "Faraday cage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cag
e
7. ^ The Mechanical Universe, Chapter
29, The Electric Field,
video.google.com, :00.
8. ^ The Mechanical
Universe, Chapter 29, The Electric
Field, video.google.com, :11.
9. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
10. ^ "Faraday cage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cag
e (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Michael Faraday".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[4] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[7] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[8]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[9] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[10] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[11]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[13]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(Royal Institution in) London, England9
 
[1] An external electrical field causes
the charges to rearrange which cancels
the field inside. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Faraday_cage.gif

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 13 		2780) This map is the first lunar map
to be divided into quadrants.10
In
1878, J.F. Julius Schmidt's lunar map
will surpass this map in detail.11
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
2. ^ "Johann Heinrich
von Madler". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Johann Heinrich von
Madler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
6. ^
http://www.fullbooks.com/History-of-Astr
onomy2.html
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p333.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
11. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
12. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
13. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Heinrich Mädler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_M%C3%A4dler
[2] "Wilhelm Beer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
4105/Wilhelm-Beer
[3] "Wilhelm Beer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Bee
r
[4] "List of mountains on the Moon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mou
ntains_on_the_Moon
[5]
http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/jsp/Fe
atureTypes2.jsp?system=Earth&body=Moon&s
ystemID=3&bodyID=11
[6]
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunar_
orbiter/
[7] "Clementine mission". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clementine_
mission
Berlin, Germany12 (presumably) 
[1] from [1]
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N Sou
rce Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here *
12:23, 28 July 2004 Magnus Manske
1000x869 (79,491 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske
17:30, 26 May 2006 (UTC) Author
User Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia
source: http://www.stellarum.de/TEST%20B
eer%20Maedler.jpg

[2] Beer/Mädler: Mappa
Selenographica (höhere Auflösung auf
der DVD zusätzlich
enthalten) PD/Corel
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Heinrich_M%C3%A4dler.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 16 		2813) It is possible that people were
murdered with high voltage from this
point on, although an autopsy might
reveal burned tissue.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
9. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/ruhmko
rff.htm
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
15. ^ "Maynooth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth
16. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicholas Callan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Ca
llan
[2]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Electricity/Induction_Coil/Induction_Co
il.html
[3]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/page.html
Maynooth14 , Ireland15  
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 5 		2852)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean
Baptiste André Dumas". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[3] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France4
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 13 		2863) Pure acetylene is a colorless gas
with a pleasant odor; as prepared from
calcium carbide it usually contains
traces of phosphine that cause an
unpleasant garliclike odor.6
Pure
acetylene under pressure in excess of
about 15 pounds per square inch or in
liquid or solid form explodes with
extreme violence.7

Davy first makes acetylene from a
compound produced during the
manufacture of potassium from potassium
tartrate and charcoal, which under
certain conditions yields a black
compound decomposed by water with
considerable violence and the evolution
of acetylene. This compound is
afterwards fully investigated by J. J.
Berzelius, who shows it to be potassium
carbide. Davy also makes the
corresponding sodium compound and shows
that it evolves the same gas. In 1862
F. Wohler will first makes calcium
carbide, and find that water decomposes
it into lime and acetylene. Not until
1892 T. L. Wilson in America and H.
Moissan in France independently find
that if lime and carbon are fused
together at the temperature of the
electric furnace, the lime is reduced
to calcium, which unites with the
excess of carbon present to form
calcium carbide. The cheap production
of this material and the easy
liberation by its aid of acetylene at
once gaives the gas a position of
commercial importance.8
Edmund Davy is
cousin and lab assistant of Humprey
Davy.9
Starting in 1813 Edmund Davy is
professor of Chemistry at Cork
Institution.10
Starting in 1826 Edmund
Davy is professor of chemistry at the
Royal Dublin Society.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/D/Davy_Edmund/
DavyEdmundBio.htm
2. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
3. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
4. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/D/Davy_Edmund/
DavyEdmundBio.htm
5. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/D/Davy_Edmund/
DavyEdmundBio.htm
6. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
7. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
8. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir Humphry Davy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Hump
hry_Davy
9. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir Humphry Davy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Hump
hry_Davy
10. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/D/Davy_Edmund/
DavyEdmundBio.htm
11. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/D/Davy_Edmund/
DavyEdmundBio.htm
12. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/D/Davy_Edmund/
DavyEdmundBio.htm
13. ^
http://www.todayinsci.com/D/Davy_Edmund/
DavyEdmundBio.htm (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Friedrich Wohler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
[3] "Friedrich Wöhler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
[5] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Calcium carbide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_car
bide
[8]
http://www.answers.com/calcium+carbide?c
at=technology
[9] "carbide8". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0238/carbide8
[10] "Acetylene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene
[11] "Acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Acetylen
e
(Royal Dublin Society) Dublin,
Ireland12 (presumably) 
[1] Acetylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Description English: Calcium
Carbide after exposure to air. Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Date
2005-12-28 (original upload
date) Author Original uploader was
Rjb uk at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cac2.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 5 		2867)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
2. ^ "edouard armand
isidore hippolyte lartet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy
3. ^ "Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
4. ^ "Pliopithecus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliopithecu
s
5. ^ "edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Édouard Lartet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d_Lartet
[2] "Edouard Lartet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edouard_
Lartet
Auch?3 , France4  
[1] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 7 8 		2926)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353.
5. ^ "John
Ericsson". The Oxford Companion to
American Military History. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2000.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Ericsson
6. ^ "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2896/John-Ericsson
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353. (1836)
(1836)
8. ^ "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2896/John-Ericsson (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ericsson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ericss
on
[2] "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Eri
csson
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] John Ericsson (1803 - 1889),
Swedish-born inventor. Original print
in possession of National Archives. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Ericsson_2.jpg

[2] Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=97184&articleTypeId=0
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 		3066) Asa Gray (CE 1810-1888), US
botanist1 , publishes "Elements of
Botany" (1836).2
In 1842 Gray if
professor of natural history at Harvard
University.3

In 1851 Gray meets Darwin.4

In 1865, Gray donates the thousands of
books and plants he has collected at
his own expense to Harvard, and this
results in the establishment of the
botany department at Harvard.5

On Sept. 5, 1857, Darwin writes Gray a
famous letter in which Darwin outlines
his theory of the evolution of species
by natural selection.6

Gray reviews Darwin's "Origin of
Species" (1859) in the "American
Journal of Science", of which Gray is a
coeditor.7

Gray supports Darwin's theory of
evolution in the United States (with
Agassiz opposing) and writes numerous
popular botanical books on North
American plants.8

Gray boldy supports Darwinism in the
United States against the objections of
religious leaders and debates the point
vigorously with the antievolutionist
Agassiz. As a prominent religious
person, Gray cannot be dismissed as an
atheist (which is stupid anyway, since
ultimately the truth of a theory should
be the important thing, not the
religious or political beliefs of the
source9 ), and this gives Gray's
support more influence. Gray argues
that natural selection is guided by a
God, which Darwin disagrees with.10
(po
ssibly move to chronological11 )
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp371-372.
2. ^ "Gray, Asa."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
3. ^ "Gray, Asa." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp371-372.
5. ^ "Gray, Asa."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
6. ^ "Asa Gray." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray
7. ^ "Asa Gray." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp371-372.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp371-372.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Asa
Gray." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/asa
/ASABIO.html
[2] "Asa Gray." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray
New York City, NY, USA12  
[1] Asa Gray (1810-1888) PD/Corel
source: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libra
ries/asa/gray.jpg

[2] Asa Gray 1886 [t verify date of
photo] PD/Corel
source: http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/200
1/PSCF9-01MilesFig1.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 13 14 		3070) Schwann is an assistant to the
physiologist Johannes Peter Müller
(1834–38) at the University of
Berlin.8
The last 40 years of Schwann's
life he dedicates to mysticism and
religious meditation. (How can people
go backwards like that? In accumulating
information, I think most people must
get smarter and more well informed as
they age.9 )

After leaving the influence of Müller,
Schwann's productivity practically
ceases; in Belgium Schwann only
publishes one paper, on the use of
bile.10

In 1845 Schwann receives the Copley
Medal.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
2. ^ "Schwann,
Theodor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
4. ^ "Theodor
Schwann." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
5. ^ "Schwann, Theodor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
6. ^ "Theodor Schwann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
7. ^ "Schwann cell." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/schwann-cel
l
8. ^ "Schwann, Theodor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Theodor Schwann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
11. ^ "Theodor Schwann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
12. ^ "Theodor Schwann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373. (1836)
14. ^
"Schwann, Theodor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>. (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Theodor Schwann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theodor_
Schwann
[2] "Theodor Ambrose Hubert Schwann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp790-791
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany12  
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 13 14 15 16 17 		3071)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
2. ^ "Schwann,
Theodor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
3. ^ "Theodor Ambrose Hubert Schwann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp790-791.
4. ^ "Theodor
Schwann". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theodor_
Schwann
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Theodor Schwann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Theodor Ambrose Hubert Schwann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp790-791.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Schwann, Theodor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Theodor Ambrose Hubert
Schwann", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp790-791. (1836)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
(1838(verify)
15. ^ "Theodor Schwann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann (1836)
16. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1837)
17. ^ Ted Huntington. (verify)
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium11 (verify12 ) 
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 4 		3590)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.theiet.org/about/libarc/archi
ves/featured/edward-davy.cfm
2. ^ "Edward Davy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152895/Edward-Davy>.
3. ^
http://www.theiet.org/about/libarc/archi
ves/featured/edward-davy.cfm
4. ^ "Edward Davy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152895/Edward-Davy>. {c1836}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Davy

London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] [t Notice clear;y the ''talking on
the telephone'' pose - figure out date
of photo is <1885] While Cooke and Wheatstone were developing their telegraph and attempting to interest various rail companies in it, Edward Davy was developing an electric telegraph with a relay system. Davy however, unlike Cooke and Wheatstone or Morse, is completely unknown today. PD/Corel
source: http://www.theiet.org/about/liba
rc/images/faraday-image/edward-davy.jpg

[2] DAVY, EDWARD (1806-1885), one of
the inventors of the electric
telegraph, PD/Corel
source: http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog
/davy1.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 6 		3897)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred Swaine Taylor, Thomas
Stevenson, "The principles and practice
of medical jurisprudence", vol 1,
Edition: 3, Published by J.&A.
Churchill,
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yecvaBH2rMoC&pg=PA734&dq=Alfred+Donn%C3%
A9&as_brr=1&ei=WLK_Sa38H6SOkQS02YD0DA
2. ^ Alfred Swaine Taylor, Thomas
Stevenson, "The principles and practice
of medical jurisprudence", vol 1,
Edition: 3, Published by J.&A.
Churchill,
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yecvaBH2rMoC&pg=PA734&dq=Alfred+Donn%C3%
A9&as_brr=1&ei=WLK_Sa38H6SOkQS02YD0DA
3. ^ Alfred Swaine Taylor, Thomas
Stevenson, "The principles and practice
of medical jurisprudence", vol 1,
Edition: 3, Published by J.&A.
Churchill,
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yecvaBH2rMoC&pg=PA734&dq=Alfred+Donn%C3%
A9&as_brr=1&ei=WLK_Sa38H6SOkQS02YD0DA
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A L Thorburn, "Alfred
François Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer
of Trichomonas vaginalis and of
leukaemia.", Br J Vener Dis
1974;50;377-380. http://sti.bmj.com/cgi
/reprint/50/5/377.pdf
6. ^ A L Thorburn, "Alfred François
Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer of
Trichomonas vaginalis and of
leukaemia.", Br J Vener Dis
1974;50;377-380. http://sti.bmj.com/cgi
/reprint/50/5/377.pdf {1836}

MORE INFO
[1] Donné, (translated from
French) "Animalculi observed in
purulent fluids and secretions of
genital organs from Men and Women",
Academy of Sciences, 1836.
(Charite Hospital) Paris, France5
 
[1] drawing of trichomonas vaginae from
Donne 'Cours de Micros', Planche IX PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=fhgDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA455&dq=alfred+donne+t
richomonas&as_brr=1&ei=PbG_SZ6CNqXqkQTo4
oHeCw#PPA455,M1

[2] Photographs of Donne, his wife,
and children. PD
source: http://sti.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/5
0/5/377.pdf
163 YBN
[06/12/1837 AD] 16 		2647) In this same year Samuel Morse
demonstrates an electric telegraph that
produces coded written messages and so
the era of electric telegraphy starts
in 1837 almost simultaneously in Great
Britain and the United States.12

(Those people who own the telegraph
companies, store and read the telegraph
messages of people, and this informs
them of what is going on. This system
of recording public communications is
adopted by the telephone companies who
record phone calls, and even extend the
system by putting microphones and
cameras to see visible and infrared
light, and even deadly lasers inside
the majority of people's houses under
the excuse of national security and in
the interest of data collection and
crime solving, however, the system is
ultimately used to facilitate violence
and protect powerful violent criminal
people. This is done, presumably, in
all nations with electrical
communications systems.13 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "telegraph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
4. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp54-55.
5. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p54.
6. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp54-55.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
12. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p55.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Fresnel Oeuvres vol1-3
Fresnel_Oeuvres_v1-3.pdf fresnel_young_
transverse_priority.pdf (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[2] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[4] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6]
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
[7] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
[8] "Telegraph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph
[9] The Scientific Papers of Sir
Charles Wheatstone
(1879) http://books.google.com/books?id
=rD4GAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=whe
atstone&as_brr=1
England14 (presumably) (more
specific15 ) 
[1] A Wheatstone-Cooke five-needle
telegraph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.hs-esslingen.de/tele
history/1840-.html

[2] Cooke-Wheatstone Double-Needle
Telegraph ca. 1840's COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/TELEG
RAPH.HTM
163 YBN
[07/??/1837 AD] 13 14 15 		3995)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles Grafton Page"
(obituary), The American journal of
science and arts, Series 2, vol 48, Num
142, July 1869,
p1://books.google.com/books?id=BmsWAAAAY
AAJ&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=charles+grafton+page&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=charles%20grafton%20
page&f=false
2. ^ The American journal of science
and arts,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kWoWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
American+journal+of+science+and+arts+dat
e:1868-1868#v=onepage&q=grafton&f=false
3. ^ "The Production of Galvanic
Music", The American journal of science
and arts, Volume 32, Number 2, July,
1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=%22galvanic+music%22
#v=onepage&q=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=fa
lse
4. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879,p3,11. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+mic
rophone#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone
&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
5. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties", 1878,
p110. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22ga
lvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1
&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&e
i=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22g
alvanic%20music%22&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The Production of
Galvanic Music", The American journal
of science and arts, Volume 32, Number
2, July, 1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=%22galvanic+music%22
#v=onepage&q=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=fa
lse
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du
Moncel, "The telephone, the microphone,
and the phonograph",
1879,p3,11. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+mic
rophone#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone
&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
10. ^ Dr. Charles G. Page, "Experiments
in Electro-Magnetism", American Journal
of Science and Arts, Vol 33,
p118. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xj0PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
American+journal+of+science+and+arts+dat
e:1838-1838#v=onepage&q=page&f=false
11. ^ Record ID2966. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Dr. Charles
G. Page, "Experiments in
Electro-Magnetism", American Journal of
Science and Arts, Vol 33,
p118. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xj0PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
American+journal+of+science+and+arts+dat
e:1838-1838#v=onepage&q=page&f=false
13. ^ "The Production of Galvanic
Music", The American journal of science
and arts, Volume 32, Number 2, July,
1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=%22galvanic+music%22
#v=onepage&q=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=fa
lse {07/1837}
14. ^ George Bartlett Prescott,
"The speaking telephone, talking
phonograph, and other novelties", 1878,
p110. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22ga
lvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1
&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&e
i=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22g
alvanic%20music%22&f=false {07/1837}
15. ^
Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel, "The
telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879,p3,11. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+mic
rophone#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone
&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false {1837}

MORE INFO
[1] Charles Grafton Page,
"Psychomancy: Spirit-rappings and
table-tippings exposed",
1853. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kQFTqlVjfhUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=char
les+grafton+page&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[2] "Charles Grafton Page". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Gra
fton_Page
[3]
http://www.americanartifacts.com/smma/pa
ge/page.htm
[4]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/page.html
[5]
http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/291.h
tml
[6] Charles Grafton Page, "History of
induction: The American claim to the
induction coil and its ...",
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lrzn9ZX79jAC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=charles
+grafton+page+1837+electromagnet&source=
bl&ots=ZLXiJtW6Fe&sig=hAiExWZPt8GnGhnTGy
xCOCIDnhc&hl=en&ei=M8aeSp61L43atgO0gfEs&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
Salem, Massachusetts, USA12  
[1] Charles Grafton Page PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/page1.jpg
163 YBN
[09/04/1837 AD] 5 		2674) Samuel Morse (CE 1791-1872)1
sends a telegraph message on a wire
550m long in his classroom.2 This
demonstration results in the
partnership of Morse, Gale and Alfred
Vail. Vail's wealthy father finances
the development of the telegraph,
including paying for Morse's patent.
Alfred Vail builds the instrument and
receives 25% interest in the
invention.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p58.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp58-59.
4. ^ "Samuel FB
Morse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
5. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p56. (09/04/1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[3] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
[6] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
[7] "Telegraph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph
[8] "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
[9]
http://www2.hs-esslingen.de/telehistory/
1840-.html
[10]
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
New York City, New York, USA4  
[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg
163 YBN
[10/17/1837 AD] 4 5 		4008)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jacobi, Moritz Hermann Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p457.
2. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=ztQoAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA181&dq=galvano-plastic#v=onep
age&q=galvano-plastic&f=false
3. ^ "Jacobi, Moritz Hermann Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p457.
4. ^ Das erste
genügende Resultat von Jacobi's
Arbeiten (in Galvano-plastic),
10/17/1837, Akad d. Wissensch. in
Petersburg, Martin and Pogg i. 1177.
{10/17/1837 (presumably}
5. ^ "Jacobi, Moritz
Hermann Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p457.
{1838}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=YmYEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA577&dq=Moritz+von+Jacobi+1838
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Moritz%20von%20Jac
obi%201838&f=false
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ivEEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PT514&dq=Moritz+von+Jacobi+1838
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Moritz%20von%20Jac
obi%201838&f=false
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/jacobi
.html
[4] "Moritz von Jacobi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moritz_von_
Jacobi
St. Petersburg, Russia3
(presumably) 
[1] * Title: Moritz Hermann von Jacobi,
Erfinder der Galvanoplastik *
Year: 1856 * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Moritz_Hermann_von_Ja
cobi_1856.jpg
163 YBN
[11/16/1837 AD] 9 		3663)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ Edmund Taylor
Whittaker, "A History of the Theories
of Aether and Electricity from the Age
of Descartes to the Close of the
Nineteenth Century: from the age of
Descartes to the close of the
nineteenth century", Longmans, Green
and co., 1910, p206-207.
http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+history
+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electrici
ty&ei=drw5SajbLoKGkASt0fDJBw
3. ^ Experimental Researches in
Electricity. Eleventh Series.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
128, 1838,
pp1-40. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/p06h3442841r7002/?p=9ec48e6be8
614672ab5da9055e4f1d07π=30 {Faraday_e1
1_1838.pdf}
4. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910, p206-207.
http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+history
+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electrici
ty&ei=drw5SajbLoKGkASt0fDJBw
5. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910, p206-207.
http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+history
+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electrici
ty&ei=drw5SajbLoKGkASt0fDJBw
6. ^ Phil. Trans. 1839, p97.
7. ^ Edmund
Taylor Whittaker, "A History of the
Theories of Aether and Electricity from
the Age of Descartes to the Close of
the Nineteenth Century: from the age of
Descartes to the close of the
nineteenth century", Longmans, Green
and co., 1910, p206-207.
http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+history
+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electrici
ty&ei=drw5SajbLoKGkASt0fDJBw
8. ^ Experimental Researches in
Electricity. Eleventh Series.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
128, 1838,
pp1-40. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/p06h3442841r7002/?p=9ec48e6be8
614672ab5da9055e4f1d07π=30 {Faraday_e1
1_1838.pdf}
9. ^ Experimental Researches in
Electricity. Eleventh Series.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
128, 1838,
pp1-40. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/p06h3442841r7002/?p=9ec48e6be8
614672ab5da9055e4f1d07π=30 {Faraday_e1
1_1838.pdf} {11/16/1837}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[13] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1bπ=1
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=p4Ea260
3drgC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=Pl%C3%BCcker
+gassiot&source=web&ots=b7PMvMi_AB&sig=a
0dkHs_DPE50nMMJqTiMt-AYEL4&hl=en#PPA128,
M1
[15] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
[16]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/4516710872647h28/?p=28e1ab05ce014028a76
a6b89d3a0d9e7π=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity Thirteenth
Series. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 54-56 DOI 10.1098/rspl
.1837.0020 Faraday_e13.pdf
(02/22/1838) (02/22/1838)
(Royal Institution in) London, England8
 
[1] [t Figures from Exp. Researches
11th] PD
source: Experimental Researches in
Electricity. Eleventh Series.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
128, 1838,
pp1-40. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/p06h3442841r7002/?p=9ec48e6be8
614672ab5da9055e4f1d07π=30 {Faraday_e1
1_1838.pdf}

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 6 		2435)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
2. ^ "Amedeo
Avogadro". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
6. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Amedeo+Avogadro?c
at=technology (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Amedeo Avogadro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Avog
adro
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Avogadro's number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27
s_number
[4] "Joseph Loschmidt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9002/Joseph-Loschmidt
[5]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/Avogadro.
html (paper in English)
Avogadro_1811.html
[6]
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekl
y/aa111602a.htm
Turin, Italy5 (presumably) 
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 6 		2521)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p293.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p293.
4. ^ "Simeon
Denis Poisson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson
5. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Simeon+Denis+Pois
son?cat=technology
6. ^ "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0562/Simeon-Denis-Poisson (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simeon Denis Poisson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_Deni
s_Poisson
[2] (Heilbron 1979:499)
[3]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Poisson.html
Paris, France5  
[1] From
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sou
rce: en:Image:Simeon Poisson.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simeon_Poisson.jpg

[2] Denis Poisson : le
math�maticien de
Pithiviers PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.loiret.com/cgloiret/i
ndex.php?page=display&class=notrehistoir
e_figurespasse&object=r56_fig&method=h_d
isplay_full
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 17 		2580)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "jan
evangelista purkinje". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
6. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
7. ^ "microtome." The American Heritage
Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com 06
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microtome
8. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
9. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
14. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
15. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
16. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
17. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(University of Bresslau) Bresslau,
Prussia13 (now: Wroclaw, Poland14 15
)|Delivered before the Congress of
Physicians and Scientists in Prague16
 
[1] Purkinje is, however, most famous
for discovering the cerebellar cells
which bear his name. Because these
cells are among the largest in the
vertebrate brain, they were the first
neurons to be identified. The low
magnification and poor resolution of
the microscope used by Purkinje is
evident in the crude (yet beautiful)
drawing that he presented to the
Congress of Physicians and Scientists
in Prague, in 1837. PD/Corel
source: http://neurophilosophy.files.wor
dpress.com/2006/08/neuron2purkinje.JPG?w
=205&h=480

[2] Transverse section of a cerebellar
folium. (Purkinje Cell labeled at
center top.) [t from Gray's
anatomy] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray706.png
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 9 		2602) Boucher de Perthes is the
director of the customhouse (a building
where customs and duties are paid or
collected and where vessels are entered
and cleared5 ) at Abbeville, near the
mouth of the Somme River, and devotes
his leisure to archaeological searches
in the Somme valley.6 (So de Perthes
is not employed in a university, but
has a natural interest in science and
archeology.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p308.
2. ^ "Jacques Boucher
de Perthes". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5889/Jacques-Boucher-de-Perthes
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p308.
4. ^ "Jacques Boucher
de Perthes". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5889/Jacques-Boucher-de-Perthes
5. ^ "popup?va=customhouse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=c
ustomhouse
6. ^ "Jacques Boucher de Perthes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5889/Jacques-Boucher-de-Perthes
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p308.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p308. (1837)
(1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Boucher de
CrèvecÅ"ur de Perthes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Bou
cher_de_Cr%C3%A8vec%C5%93ur_de_Perthes
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-bou
cher-de-cr-vec-ur-de-perthes
Abbeville, France8  
[1] Description J. Boucher de
Perthes Source Originally from
fr.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-01-18 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was 120 at
fr.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boucher_de_Perthes.jpg

[2] Una foto di Jacques Boucher de
Perthes scattata nel sito preistorico
di Saint-Acheul, nell''aprile
1859. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sapere.it/tc/arte/per
corsi/DP/AO/Mestiere_archeologo/Archeo_v
estiti.jsp
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 9 		2626) This research serves as the basis
for Hall's theory of reflex action,
which states that the spinal cord is
made of a chain of units and that each
of these units functions as an
independent reflex (unit which Hall
calls an "arc"4 ); that the function of
each arc arises from the activity of
sensory and motor nerves and the
segment of the spinal cord from which
these nerves originate; and that the
arcs are interconnected, interacting
with one another and the brain to
produce coordinated movement.5
(explain more nature of units - or
arcs, are these nerve
ganglions/bundles?6 ) Hall theorizes
that reflex actions such as pulling a
finger away from something hot before
knowing it is hot, is from nerve
impulses to and from the spinal chord
(without going all the way to the
brain).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
2. ^ "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
3. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
8. ^ "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
9. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marshall Hall
(physiologist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Ha
ll_%28physiologist%29
[2] "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 51 		2630) In the early 1830s, Daniell
becomes deeply interested in the work
of his friend Michael Faraday and so
turned to electrochemistry for his main
research interest at that time. A major
problem with the Volta pile is that it
can not provide current for a sustained
period of time. (William6 ) Sturgeon
(the inventor of the electromagnet7 )
worked on the problem and in 1830
produced a battery with longer life
than that of Volta by amalgamating the
zinc (to blend with another metal8
(which metal?9 )). Contributing to the
major problem with batteries is a thin
film of hydrogen bubbles that forms
over the positive electrode. The thin
film of hydrogen causes increased
internal resistance of the battery that
reduces the battery's effective
electromotive force (voltage). This
process of a thin film of hydrogen
collecting on the electrode is known as
polarization.10 Daniell begins
experiments in 1835 in an attempt to
improve the Voltaic battery with its
problem of being unsteady and as a weak
source of electrical current. Daniell
soon achieves remarkable results. In
1836, Daniell invents a primary cell in
which hydrogen is eliminated in the
generation of the electricity and this
solves the problem of polarization. In
his laboratory Daniell learns to alloy
the amalgamated zinc of Sturgeon with
mercury. Daniell's battery is the first
of the two-fluid class battery and the
first battery that produces a constant
reliable source of electrical current
over a long period of time. That is,
the power remains constant with this
type of battery upon repeated
application without removing the metals
which is a source of weakness in all
single fluid batteries. Until now the
current of other batteries rapidly
declines. Daniell's placement of a
barrier between the copper and zinc
plates stops the hydrogen from
forming.11 The Volta battery (or pile)
emits free hydrogen by the electrolyte
which then migrates to the positive
copper pole. The hydrogen accumulates
on the pole to form a barrier that soon
stops the flow of the current. Both
single fluid and two-fluid batteries
use solutions to create the
electricity. Daniell's battery consists
of a cylindrical copper vessel that
serves as the passive plate (or pole).
A porous earthenware container or
partition that holds a zinc rod or
active plate (or pole) is placed inside
the outer copper vessel. The space
between the copper and the porous cup
is filled with a solution of copper
sulfate which keeps saturated by
crystals of the (copper12 ) salt lying
on a perforated shelf. The porous cup
is filled with dilute sulfuric acid.
The porous earthenware keeps the fluids
from mixing without stopping the
passage of current; the earthenware
barrier allows (hydrogen13 ) ions to
move through while the reaction of the
cell is taking place. (The replacement
of Zinc for hydrogen in the sulfuric
acid is passed by the transfer of
hydrogen, which is small enough to
passes through the barrier and replaces
copper in the copper sulfate on the
other side.14 ) The contents of the
battery have to be dismantled when not
used to stop the chemical reactions and
conserve the metals. The sulfate of
copper that is in contact with the 12
passive plate serves to take up
hydrogen. The amalgamated zinc rod
(anode) had a binding screw (to hold a
metal wire16 ). The top of the copper
cylinder contains the other binding
screw (cathode).17 The chemical
reaction within the battery consists of
a decrease of zinc and an increase of
copper; the zinc crowds out copper from
its sulfate so that the copper sulfate
continuously changes into zinc sulfate
by replacement. Beard and Rockwell
express the chemical reaction with the
equation: Zn + H2SO4 + CuSO4 = ZnSO4 +
H2SO4 + Cu18 (separate out two
equations Zn+H2SO4->ZnSO4+H2 and
H2+CuSO4->H2SO4+Cu19 ) The sulfuric
acid is kept in the porous cup to keep
the sulfate of zinc formed from
contacting the copper (what purpose
does the copper pole serve? Not a
source for copper ions, but as an
attractor of zinc ions? It seems like
any conductor/metal would work
perhaps20 ). Since copper sulfate
solution is heavy, it remains on the
bottom of the cell. Daniell's battery
with modifications has an operating
voltage (gives constant electromotive
force and retains a nearly constant
internal resistance) of 1.11 volts.21
Daniell's battery is called a "constant
battery" because it does not evolve
gas, and therefore does not polarize,
supplying a constant current. Daniell's
battery (makes possible the measuring
of22 ) the unit of electric potential,
the volt, just as a column of mercury
does (for the measuring of23 ) the unit
of resistance, the ohm. The Daniell
cell still uses the familiar copper and
zinc electrodes. The zinc electrode is
put in a cup of unglazed earthenware
and bathed in dilute sulphuric acid.
The copper is surrounded by crystals of
copper sulphate that maintain a
saturated solution. Instead of
releasing hydrogen, the electrons are
furnished to the copper ions in the
electrolyte, which plate out as copper
metal on any nearby surface. (This
seems a possible confusion between the
movement of electrons and protons,
because 24 states that hydrogen
combines with copper sulfate to plate
copper at the positive copper pole -
perhaps electrons replace a negative
ion or perhaps all current is the
proton, the hydrogen atom.25 ) The
purpose of the cup is to keep the
solutions separate (the copper sulfate
and sulfuric acid mixture with the zinc
sulfate and sulfuric acid mixture26 )
while allowing electrical conduction by
ion migration. If the solutions mixed,
(the27 ) local (mixing28 ) action ruins
the battery (explain: with no barrier,
the hydrogen gas builds up?29 ). When
the cell (provides30 ) current, the
zinc dissolves (in the sulfuric acid31
) to form zinc sulphate solution (and
hydrogen is released32 ),33 (the
hydrogen moves through the barrier and
replaces the copper in the copper
sulfate34 ) and copper from the copper
sulphate plates out on the (positive35
) copper electrode. (Perhaps this
causes a hole which pulls an ion,
electron or proton from the wire and
the object the wires are connected to,
the so-called load. This chain reaction
may creates the phenomenon of
electrical current.36 ) (State the
official explanation.37 ) No gases are
(evolved38 ) at all (the replacement of
Zinc with Hydrogen in the Sulfuric acid
causes free hydrogen but this is
quickly reacts with copper sulfate on
the other side of the barrier39 ) (What
is the exact order of the above
equation? The hydrogen must be all
taken up by the copper sulfate on the
other side of the barrier40 ), so the
cell does not polarize. The cell has a
fairly large internal resistance, but
this is not a serious defect in view of
the small currents required, and
actually proves an advantage in many
applications. This large internal
resistance also protects the cell
against damage if short circuited. The
copper sulphate even keeps algae
(growth41 ) under control. However, the
porous cup, intended to keep the
solutions separate, is rendered
impervious after a time by deposition
of copper on it as the cell operates.42
 This internal resistance varies
slightly with areas of the copper and
zinc plates immersed in the solutions,
distance between the metal plates, and
the width and materials of the walls of
the porous cup. The battery's operating
voltage depends on the densities of the
copper and zinc sulfate solutions. The
operating voltage increases (to around
1.14 V) by increasing the density of
copper sulfate solution, and the
battery's voltage decreases (to around
1.08 V) by increasing the density of
the zinc sulfate solution. (zinc
sulfate or sulfuric acid solution?43 )
When the battery is not in use
corrosion of the zinc plates is high
which greatly limits its longevity.
Daniell's battery required little
maintenance, and does not give off
noxious fumes. The Daniell battery is
less expensive than existing
batteries.44 (Does the zinc electrode
get used up or the zinc in the zinc
sulfate? Does copper plating happen on
both inside and outside of earthenware
container?45 ) (See diagram below) This
combination consists of a jar of glass
or earthenware, F (Fig. 3), about six
inches in diameter and eight or nine
inches high. A plate of copper, G, is
bent into a cylindrical form, so as to
fit within it, and is provided with a
perforated chamber, to contain a supply
of sulphate of copper in crystals, and
a strap of the same metal with a clamp
for connecting it to the zinc of the
next element. H is a porous cup, as it
is technically termed, made of unglazed
earthenware, six or seven inches high
and two inches in diameter, within
which is placed the zinc, X. This is
usually of the shape shown in the
figure, which is called the "star
zinc", but it is often made in the form
of a hollow cylinder, the latter giving
greater power, but being somewhat more
difficult to clean. The outer cell is
filled with a saturated solution of
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), and
the porous cell with a solution of
sulphate of zinc. A series of three
elements connected together, as usually
employed on American lines for a local
battery, is shown at I.46 Daniell's
research into development of constant
current cells takes place at the same
time (late 1830s) that commercial
telegraph systems begin to appear.
Early telegraph messages are brief and
travel short distances. Crude, weak
batteries were sufficient to support
the signal. With the increase in
traffic and introduction of Morse sets,
stronger currents and more constant
output are required in the batteries.
Daniell's copper-depolarized battery
(1836) and Grove"s nitric acid
depolarized cell are fortuitous
arrivals. British and American
telegraph systems use the Daniell cell
exclusively, as it is the only one
capable of being rapidly depolarized.
(describe how, I thought this battery
would not become polarized.47 )
Daniell's cells also produced a more
constant output and generated a
stronger current than Sand batteries.
This is the "pre-volt" period, when the
intensity of pain is used as a measure
of a cell's power. The Daniell cell is
widely used in France before the
Leclanché cell is invented in 1868.48

In 1837 Daniell is presented the
highest award of the Royal Society, the
Copley Medal, for the invention of the
Daniell cell.49
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "John
Frederic Daniell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Frederic+Dan
iell+?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "amalgamate".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
malgamate
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
11. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
18. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "John
Frederic Daniell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Frederic+Dan
iell+?cat=technology
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted
Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted
Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
45. ^ Ted Huntington.
46. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
49. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
50. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
51. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314. (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Frederic Daniell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Freder
ic_Daniell
[2] "pyrometer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2062/pyrometer
[3] "Daniell cell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniell_cel
l
[4] "History of the battery".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_battery
London, England50 (presumably) 
[1] From: MODERN PRACTICE OF THE
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH A HANDBOOK FOR
ELECTRICIANS AND OPERATORS. By FRANK
L. POPE ELEVENTH EDITION, REVISED AND
ENLARGED, 1881 New York: D. VAN
NOSTRAND, Publisher The Daniell
Battery. This combination consists of a
jar of glass or earthenware, F (Fig.
3), about six inches in diameter and
eight or nine inches high. A plate of
copper, G, is bent into a cylindrical
form, so as to fit within it, and is
provided with a perforated chamber, to
contain a supply of sulphate of copper
in crystals, and a strap of the same
metal with a clamp for connecting it to
the zinc of the next element. H is a
porous cup, as it is technically
termed, made of unglazed earthenware,
six or seven inches high and two inches
in diameter, within which is placed the
zinc, X. This is usually of the shape
shown in the figure, which is called
the ``star zinc,'' but it is often made
in the form of a hollow cylinder, the
latter giving greater power, but being
somewhat more difficult to clean. The
outer cell is filled with a saturated
solution of sulphate of copper (blue
vitriol), and the porous cell with a
solution of sulphate of zinc. A series
of three elements connected together,
as usually employed on American lines
for a local battery, is shown at I. PD

source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/daniell.htm

[2] Made by R-Berto GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dry-cell.JPG
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 8 		2646)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
2. ^ "telegraph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
5. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
6. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0259/telegraph
7. ^ "Samuel FB Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
8. ^ "Samuel FB Morse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[3] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
[6] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
[7] "Telegraph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph
New York City, New York, USA7  
[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 7 		2748) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 responding to
the Bridgewater Treatises, of which
there were eight2 , publishes "The
Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, a Fragment"
(1837, John Murray)3 challenging Hume
on miracles.4 Babbage titles this work
"On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of
God, as manifested in the Creation",
putting forward the thesis that God has
the omnipotence and foresight to create
as a divine legislator, making laws (or
programs) which then produced species
at the appropriate times, rather than
continually interfering with ad hoc
miracles each time a new species was
required. The book is a work of natural
theology, and incorporates extracts
from correspondence Babbage had been
having with John Herschel on the
subject.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
3. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
4. ^ "Charles Babbage". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
6. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
7. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 7 8 		2749) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 decodes
Vigenère's autokey cipher as well as
the much weaker cipher that is called
Vigenère cipher today. Babbage's
discovery is used to aid English
military campaigns, and is not
published until several years later; as
a result credit for the development is
instead given to Friedrich Kasiski, a
Prussian infantry officer, who makes
the same discovery some years after
Babbage.2 (This clearly hints that
Babbage was in communication with
government military employees and the
view of keeping scientific advances
secret at the expense of public
education and information is well
underway by this time in Great
Britain.3 ) (chronology4 ) (more
details about cipher and encryption5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
7. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage (1837? (needs more accurate date)
8. ^
Ted Huntington. (1837? (needs more
accurate date)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 25 		2765) In 1808 Struve leaves Germany to
avoid (involuntary employment13 )
(conscription) by the Napoleonic
armies, and goes first to Denmark and
then to Russia.14
In 1813 Struve
becomes professor of astronomy and
mathematics at the University of Dorpat
(now Tartu, Estonia).15
Struve makes
substantial contributions to the study
of galactic structure and also is
involved in notable geodetic operations
such as the triangulation of Livonia
and the measurement of an arc of the
meridian.16
In 1817 Struve is
appointed director of the Dorpat
Observatory.17
In 1830 Czar Nicholas I
set aside land in the Pulkovo Hills
outside St. Petersburg as the site for
a new astronomical observatory and
selects Struve for the commission
responsible for its construction.18
(For
this observatory19 ), Struve buys the
largest and best refracting telescope
in the world made by Fraunhofer20 , a
15 inch objective lens21 .
Struve is
director of the observatory in Pulkovo
for 20 years.22
Struve is the first in
a line of 4 astronomers.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p325.
2. ^ "Friedrich Georg
Wilhelm von Struve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p325.
4. ^ "Friedrich Georg
Wilhelm von Struve". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm
von Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
7. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
8. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
9. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Friedrich Georg
Wilhelm von Struve". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
12. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Friedrich Georg
Wilhelm von Struve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
15. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
16. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
17. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
18. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p325.
21. ^ "Friedrich
Georg Wilhelm von Struve". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p325.
23. ^ "Friedrich
Georg Wilhelm von Struve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
24. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
25. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
(1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_G
eorg_Wilhelm_von_Struve
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Pulkovo, Russia24  
[1] Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/struve_w.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Struve.jpg

[2] Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve, detail of a lithograph by H.
Mitreuter after a portrait by C.A.
Jensen, 1844 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14570/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struv
e-detail-of-a-lithograph-by?articleTypeI
d=1
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 16 		2777) From 1828-1832, Whewell is
professor of mineralogy at Trinity
College, Cambridge.10
In 1834 Whewell
opposes the admission of Dissenters.11

From 1838-1855 Whewell is professor of
moral philosophy at Cambridge.12
From
1841-1866 Whewell is college master at
Cambridge.13
In 1842 Whewell is made
vice chancellor of Cambridge
University.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp327-328.
2. ^ "whewell
william". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/whewell-wil
liam
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ William Whewell, "History
of the Inductive Sciences from the
Earliest to the Present Time", Vol 2,
p.79. http://books.google.com/books?id=
prOsrElRVHoC&lpg=PA79&ots=8KE7ChOjYe&dq=
ac.+par.+1723&vq=inflexion&pg=PA79&ci=86
,340,770,829&source=bookclip"
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp327-328.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp327-328.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6762/William-Whewell
11. ^ "William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "William Whewell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Whewell
12. ^ "William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6762/William-Whewell
13. ^ "William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6762/William-Whewell
14. ^ "William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6762/William-Whewell
15. ^ "William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6762/William-Whewell
16. ^ "whewell william". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/whewell-wil
liam (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Whewell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whe
well
Cambridge, England15  
[1] Scientist: Whewell, William (1794
- 1866) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Eden Upton Eddis, 1812-1901
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.6 x 12.6 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 15.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w

[2] William Whewell - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Whewell_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 4 		2943) Wilhelm Eduard Weber (CE
1804-1891), German physicist1
publishes "Resultate aus den
Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins"
(6 vols, 1837-43), which contains many
of Weber's extensive articles edited by
Weber and Gauss2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard
Weber". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
3. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
4. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology
[4] http://babelfish.altavista.com/tr
[5] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(obituary), Proceedings of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, v.27
(1891-92),
p449-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oLcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449&dq=wilhelm+web
er&ei=3aP_SNOrKJH2sQPRr9S3DA#PPA449,M1
(University of) Göttingen, Germany3
 
[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 4 		3005) (Sir) William Rowan Hamilton (CE
1805-1865) corrects Abel's proof of the
impossibility of solving the general
quintic equation (an equation where the
highest power variable is 51 ) and
defends this proof against G. B.
Jerrard who claims to have found a
solution.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
3. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
4. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Rowan Hamilton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p358
[3] "Sir William
Rowan Hamilton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Rowan_Hamilton
[4] "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
(10/16/1843)
(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland3  
[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 33 		3029) As a child, science is considered
by the majority in English public
schools to be dehumanizing, and for
dabbling in chemistry Darwin is
condemned by his headmaster (and
nicknamed "Gas" by schoolmates).11
Darwi
n starts to study "medicine" ((health
science)12 ) at Edinburgh University13
, but the sight of operations on
children with no anesthesia upsets
him.14
Edinburgh attracts English
Dissenters who are barred from
graduating at the Anglican universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, and so the
university's radical students expose
the teenage Darwin to the latest
Continental sciences.15
In 1828,
Darwin's father transfers Charles to
Christ's College, Cambridge16 to
prepare for the church17 .
Inspired by
Alexander von Humboldt's account of the
South American jungles in his "Personal
Narrative of Travels", Darwin gladly
accepts Reverend John Henslow's
suggestion of a voyage to Tierra del
Fuego, at the southern tip of South
America, aboard a rebuilt brig, HMS
Beagle, commanded by the 26-year-old
captain, Robert Fitzroy.18
This voyage
is to survey coastal Patagonia to
facilitate British trade and return
three "savages" previously brought to
England from Tierra del Fuego and
Christianized.19
On the voyage Darwin
accumulates a 770-page diary, 1,750
pages of notes, and draws up 12
catalogs of the 5,436 bones, skins, and
carcasses Darwin had collected during
the journey.20

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Darwin is a typical
Victorian in his racial and sexual
stereotyping, thinking women inferior,
and although a fervent abolitionist,
considers blacks a lower race.21
Darwin
witnesses Negro slavery in the
Americas, and passionately is against
it.22
Darwin believes in a clear style
and doing away with eloquence.23
Darwin
is wealthy, according to the
Encyclopedia Britannica, by the late
1840s the Darwins had £80,000
invested; Darwin is an absentee
landlord of two large Lincolnshire
farms; and in the 1850s plows tens of
thousands of pounds into railway
shares.24
In 1873, Darwin helps raise
£2,100 to send a fatigued Huxley on
holiday.25
In 1881, with help from
Darwin, the routinely poor Wallace is
added to the Civil List26 , which gives
money to people who have achieved
distinction in the arts.27
Darwin has
ten children with his wife (and cousin)
Emma Wedgwood.28

To people who ask about his religious
beliefs, Darwin states that he is an
agnostic (a word coined by Huxley in
1869).29
Darwin as an agnostic, is
given the ultimate British accolade of
burial in Westminster Abbey, London.30
(For me being frozen and preserved for
future scientists to reawaken is the
ultimate in preservation and respect.31
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp230-231.
4. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp230-231.
5. ^ "Charles
Robert Darwin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp230-231.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
8. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
11. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
15. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
16. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
17. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp230-231.
18. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
19. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
20. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
21. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
24. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
25. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
26. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
27. ^ "Civil List". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2761/Civil-List
28. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
29. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
30. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
33. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1837)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
London, England32 (presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 14 		3055) In 1827 Rawlinson goes to India
as a British East India Company cadet,
and in 1833 Rawlinson and other British
officers are sent to Iran to reorganize
the shah's army. In Iran, Rawlinson
becomes interested in Persian
antiquities, and deciphering the
cuneiform inscriptions at Bisitun
becomes his goal.10

Rawlinson's other writings include "A
Commentary on the Cuneiform
Inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria"
(1850) and "Outline of the History of
Assyria" (1852).11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p370.
2. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir
Henry Creswicke." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
3. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
4. ^ "Behistun Inscription." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/behistun-in
scription
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p370.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p370.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Behistun Inscription." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/behistun-in
scription
9. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
10. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
11. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
12. ^ "Behistun Inscription." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/behistun-in
scription
13. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
14. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>. (1837)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cresw
icke_Rawlinson
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun_In
scription
Behistun, (Persia now12 ) Iran (and
England)13  
[1] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Darius_I_the_Great%27
s_inscription.jpg

[2] Behistun Inscription, Column 1 (DB
I 1-15) Sketch: Fr. Spiegel, Die
altpers. Keilinschriften, Leipzig
(1881). http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfu
rt.de/didact/idg/iran/apers/DB1_1-15.GIF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Behistun_DB1_1-15.jpg

163 YBN
[1837 AD] 18 		3056) The inscription starts:
"1.1) I
(am) Darius, the great king, the king
of kings, the king in Persia, the king
of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the
grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenide.

1.2) Says Darius the king: My father
(is) Hystaspes, the father of Hystaspes
(is) Arsames, the father of Arsames
(is) Ariaramnes, the father of
Ariaramnes (is Teispes), the father of
Teispes (is) Achaemenes.

1.3) Says Darius the king: Therefore we
are called the Achaemenides; from long
ago we have extended; from long ago our
family have been kings.

1.4) Says Darius the king: 8 of my
family (there were) who were formerly
kings; I am the ninth (9); long
aforetime we were (lit. are) kings.

1.5) Says Darius the king: By the grace
of Auramazda I am king; Auramazda gave
me the kingdom.

1.6) Says Darius the king: These are
the countries which came to me; by the
grace of Auramazda I became king of
them; Persia, Susiana, Babylonia,
Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, the (lands)
which are on the sea, Sparda, Ionia, 14
, Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia,
Drangiana, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria,
Sogdiana, Ga(n)dara, Scythia,
Sattagydia, Arachosia, Maka; in all
(there are) 23 countries." (and
continues on)15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p370.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
4. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
5. ^ "Henry Rawlinson." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-rawli
nson
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p370.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p370.
8. ^ "Behistun
Inscription". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun_In
scription
9. ^ Record ID2831. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Rawlinson,
Sir Henry Creswicke." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Henry Rawlinson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-rawli
nson
13. ^ "Behistun Inscription".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun_In
scription
(Media)
15. ^
http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia
/Behistun_txt.html
16. ^ "Behistun Inscription." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/behistun-in
scription
17. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>.
18. ^ "Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2808>. (1837)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cresw
icke_Rawlinson
[2] "Henry Rawlinson." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-rawli
nson
Behistun, (Persia now16 ) Iran (and
England)17  
[1] Behistun Inscription, Column 1 (DB
I 1-15) Sketch: Fr. Spiegel, Die
altpers. Keilinschriften, Leipzig
(1881). http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfu
rt.de/didact/idg/iran/apers/DB1_1-15.GIF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Behistun_DB1_1-15.jpg


[2] Henry Creswicke circa 1840:
English diplomat and Assyriologist Sir
Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1810 -
1895). Original Artwork: Painting by
Thomas Phillips. (Photo by
Rischgitz/Getty Images) * by
Rischgitz * reference:
3093211 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=3093211&text=Henry+Creswi
cke+Rawlinson
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 4 		3998)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. W. Bailey, "Notes on
Chemistry", The American journal of
science and arts, Volume 31, p292,
1837. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OvXRAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
American+journal+of+science+and+arts+dat
e:1837-1837#v=snippet&q=galvanic&f=false

2. ^ J. W. Bailey, "Notes on
Chemistry", The American journal of
science and arts, Volume 31, p292,
1837. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OvXRAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
American+journal+of+science+and+arts+dat
e:1837-1837#v=snippet&q=galvanic&f=false

3. ^ "United States Military Academy."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 02 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/united-stat
es-military-academy
4. ^ J. W. Bailey, "Notes on
Chemistry", The American journal of
science and arts, Volume 31, p292,
1837. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OvXRAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
American+journal+of+science+and+arts+dat
e:1837-1837#v=snippet&q=galvanic&f=false

(US Military Academy) West Point2 , NY,
USA3  		 
163 YBN
[1837 AD] 3 		6257)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "electric automobile." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electric-au
tomobile-transp-in-encyclopedia
2. ^ "electric automobile." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electric-au
tomobile-transp-in-encyclopedia
3. ^ "electric automobile." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electric-au
tomobile-transp-in-encyclopedia {1837}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinve
ntions/a/History-Of-Electric-Vehicles.ht
m
 
[1] [t Ad for Robert Anderson electric
car (verify)] UNKNOWN
source: http://electriccarphotos.com/wp-
content/uploads/2008/12/robert-anderson-
electric-car.jpg
162 YBN
[02/22/1838 AD] 5 		2885)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/4516710872647h28/?p=28e1ab05ce014028a76
a6b89d3a0d9e7&pi=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity Thirteenth
Series. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 54-56 DOI 10.1098/rspl
.1837.0020 Faraday_e13.pdf
3. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/4516710872647h28/?p=28e1ab05ce014028a76
a6b89d3a0d9e7&pi=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity Thirteenth
Series. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 54-56 DOI 10.1098/rspl
.1837.0020 Faraday_e13.pdf
4. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
5. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/4516710872647h28/?p=28e1ab05ce014028a76
a6b89d3a0d9e7&pi=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity Thirteenth
Series. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 54-56 DOI 10.1098/rspl
.1837.0020 Faraday_e13.pdf
(02/22/1838) (02/22/1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[13] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1b&pi=1
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=p4Ea260
3drgC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=Pl%C3%BCcker
+gassiot&source=web&ots=b7PMvMi_AB&sig=a
0dkHs_DPE50nMMJqTiMt-AYEL4&hl=en#PPA128,
M1
(Royal Institution in) London, England4
 
[1] Figures PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/4516710872647h28/?p=28e1ab05ce0
14028a76a6b89d3a0d9e7&pi=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity Thirteenth
Series. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 54-56 DOI 10.1098/rspl
.1837.0020 Faraday_e13.pdf 169

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
162 YBN
[02/??/1838 AD] 4 		2640) Samuel Morse (CE 1791-1872)1
gives his first public demonstration of
his telegraph for interested members of
the United States Congress.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
2. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
3. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
4. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
(02/1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[2] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[4] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
Washington DC, USA3  
[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg
162 YBN
[07/??/1838 AD] 7 		3618)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon, 1884,
p345-348. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
history+of+electric+telegraphy&ei=kBvhSP
9Si7KzA_KKvd4O#PPA345,M1
2. ^ "Karl August Steinheil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/565030/Karl-August-Steinheil>.
3. ^ John Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon, 1884,
p345-348. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
history+of+electric+telegraphy&ei=kBvhSP
9Si7KzA_KKvd4O#PPA345,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ John Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon, 1884,
p345-348. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
history+of+electric+telegraphy&ei=kBvhSP
9Si7KzA_KKvd4O#PPA345,M1
6. ^ "Karl August Steinheil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/565030/Karl-August-Steinheil>.
7. ^ John Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon, 1884,
p345-348. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
history+of+electric+telegraphy&ei=kBvhSP
9Si7KzA_KKvd4O#PPA345,M1 {07/1838}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl August von Steinheil".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_August
_von_Steinheil
[2] The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp52-53
[3] The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p52. (1836 )
(tested on railroad tracks from
Nüremburg to Fürth5 ) (Munich
University) Munich, Germany6  
[1] * Title: Carl August Steinheil
* Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Carl_
August_Steinheil.jpg

[2] Electromagnetic telegraph of
Steinheil COPYRIGHTED
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 3 		2499)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
[7] "article 9072236". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2236
[8] "Thorium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
[9]
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
Stokholm, Sweden2 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 5 		2500)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "allotropy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5829/allotropy
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
Stokholm, Sweden4 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 26 		2540) Bessel uses a heliometer to make
this measurement.18
Earlier astronomers
trying to measure parallax had chosen
bright stars, supposing that all stars
are about the same size and that the
brightest stars are the nearest
stars.19
By this time the "proper
motion" of different stars is available
and offers more reliable guidance in
guessing which stars are most likely to
be nearby.20

Bessel chooses to observe 61 Cygni, the
star known to have the largest proper
motion at the time. After 1 1/2 years
of careful observations and laborious
calculations, Bessel separates the
star's own motion from the various
motions of the earth and concludes in
1838 that the star was oscillating back
and forth each year by about 3/10 of 1
second of arc.21

This calculation of parallax is pivotal
in astronomy because it signals the
official end of the dispute (between
Sun-centered over Earth-centered
theories22 ) and constitutes the
beginning of (calculating the distances
to the other stars23 ).24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
2. ^ "parallax."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
4. ^ "parallax."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
7. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Bessel
8. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
10. ^ "parallax."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
13. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
18. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
19. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
20. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
21. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
25. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297. (1838)
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "popup?va=parallax".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=p
arallax
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany25
 
[1] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png

[2] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 5 6 7 		2639)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p59.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p59.
4. ^ "Samuel FB
Morse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
5. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p59. (1838)
6. ^
"telegraph". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph (1835)
7. ^ "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse (by 1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[3] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
[6] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
New York City, New York, USA4  
[1] Description A more visually
appealing image of the morse
code Source self-made Date
18/01/2008 Author James
Kanjo GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:International_Morse_Code.PNG

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 4 		2753)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
3. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
4. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage (1838)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Pilot (locomotive)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_%28lo
comotive%29
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] The John Bull, circa 1893. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Bull.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 10 		2766)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p325.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p325.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
5. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Georg+W
ilhelm+von+Struve?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
9. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
10. ^ "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0009/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struve
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_G
eorg_Wilhelm_von_Struve
Pulkovo, Russia9  
[1] Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/struve_w.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Struve.jpg

[2] Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve, detail of a lithograph by H.
Mitreuter after a portrait by C.A.
Jensen, 1844 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14570/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struv
e-detail-of-a-lithograph-by?articleTypeI
d=1
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 10 		2791)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p329.
2. ^ "Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
6. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
7. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
8. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
9. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
10. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_G
ottfried_Ehrenberg
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/christian-g
ottfried-ehrenberg?cat=technology
[3] "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg
[4]
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind
â€" a second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf
Berlin, Germany9  
[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â€" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 20 		2799) Poiseuille publishes (this
equation16 ) in 1846.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
2. ^ "Jean Louis
Marie Poiseuille". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0556/Jean-Louis-Marie-Poiseuille
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Jean Louis Marie
Poiseuille". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0556/Jean-Louis-Marie-Poiseuille
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
6. ^ "Jean Louis
Marie Poiseuille". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0556/Jean-Louis-Marie-Poiseuille
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
8. ^ "Jean Louis
Marie Poiseuille". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0556/Jean-Louis-Marie-Poiseuille
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
10. ^ "Poiseuille's
law's law". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poiseuille%
27s_law
11. ^ "Poiseuille's law's law".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poiseuille%
27s_law
12. ^ "Poiseuille's law's law".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poiseuille%
27s_law
13. ^ "Poiseuille's law's law".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poiseuille%
27s_law
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p333.
15. ^ "Jean Louis
Marie Poiseuille". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Louis_
Marie_Poiseuille
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Poiseuille's law's
law". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poiseuille%
27s_law
18. ^ "Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0556/Jean-Louis-Marie-Poiseuille
19. ^ "Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthilf_He
inrich_Ludwig_Hagen
20. ^ "Poiseuille's law (1838)'s law".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poiseuille%
27s_law (1838) (1838)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://wiki.xtronics.com/index.php/Visco
sity
Paris, France18 (presumably) (Berlin,
Germany for Hagen19 ) 
[1] Poiseuille Hagan law GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poi
seuille%27s_law

[2] Jean Louis Poiseuille (1799 -
1869) PD/Corel
source: http://wiki.xtronics.com/index.p
hp/Image:Poiseuille.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 4 		2803) (Sir) Charles Lyell (CE
1797-1875), Scottish geologist1 ,
publishes "Elements of Geology" (1838),
a well-illustrated work, which
describes European rocks and fossils
from the most recent to the oldest
known at the time.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
2. ^ "Sir Charles
Lyell Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
3. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
4. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Lyell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lye
ll
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
[3] "Sir Charles Lyell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Lyell
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ *
05:04, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
350x392 (23,102 bytes) (from meta;
Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here Date
Commons upload by Magnus Manske
14:47, 9 May 2006 (UTC) Author User
Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell.jpg

[2] Charles Lyell - Project Gutenberg
eText 16935 from The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch
Of His Life And Work, by P. Chalmers
Mitchell http://www.gutenberg.org/etext
/16935 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTe
xt_16935.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 5 		2814)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
4. ^ "Maynooth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicholas Callan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Ca
llan
[2]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Electricity/Induction_Coil/Induction_Co
il.html
Maynooth3 , Ireland4  
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 5 		2815)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
4. ^ "Maynooth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicholas Callan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Ca
llan
[2]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Electricity/Induction_Coil/Induction_Co
il.html
Maynooth3 , Ireland4  
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 10 		2854)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
5. ^ Dumas (1840). "Trichloroacetic
acid". Annalen der Chemie XXXII:
101. 
6. ^ William Albert Noyes (1927).
"Valence". Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society 66:
287-308. 
7. ^ "Trichloroacetic acid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichloroac
etic_acid
8. ^ "Trichloroacetic acid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichloroac
etic_acid
9. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
10. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[3] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Trichloroacetic+a
cid?cat=technology
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France9
(presumably) 
[1] Trichloroacetic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri
chloroacetic_acid

[2] acetic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tic_acid
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 8 9 		2891) Johannes Peter Müller (MYUlR)
(CE 1801-1858), German physiologist1 ,
publishes "Über den feineren Bau und
die Formen der krankhaften
Geschwülste" (1838, "On the Nature and
Structural Characteristics of Cancer,
and of Those Morbid Growths Which May
Be Confounded with It"),2 a book on
the pathology ((progress over time)3 )
of tumors4 , which begins to establish
pathological histology as an
independent branch of science5 .

Histology is a branch of biology
concerned with the composition and
structure of plant and animal tissues
in relation to their specialized
functions.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p346.
2. ^ "Johannes Peter
Muller". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Johannes Peter Müller".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology
5. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
6. ^ "histology". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0592/histology
7. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller
8. ^ "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4219/Johannes-Peter-Muller (1838)
9. ^
"Johannes Peter Müller". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Peter+M%
C3%BCller?cat=technology (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Peter Müller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Pe
ter_M%C3%BCller
[2] "Johannes Peter Muller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Peter_Muller
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany7
 
[1] Description Johannes Peter
Müller Source
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/edtech/entom
ology_slides/images/31063-johannes-muell
er.jpg Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mueller.Joh..jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 9 		2918)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp350-351.
2. ^ "Gerardus
Johannes Mulder". A Dictionary of Food
and Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gerardus+Johannes
+Mulder?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ On the composition of
some animal substances
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/mulder.ht
ml
5. ^ On the composition of some animal
substances
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/mulder.ht
ml
6. ^ On the composition of some animal
substances
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/mulder.ht
ml
7. ^
http://www.erfgoed-utrecht.nl/detail.asp
x?id=197177
8. ^ "Rotterdam". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam
9. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerardus Johannes Mulder".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Jo
hannes_Mulder
Rotterdam?, Netherlands7 8
(presumably) 
[1] Gerardus Johannes Mulder
(1802-1880) PD/Corel
source: http://www.erfgoed-utrecht.nl/de
tail.aspx?id=197177
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 18 		2934) Schleiden mistakenly believes
that new cells bud out of the
nucleus.13
Schleiden is one of the
first German biologists to accept
Darwin's theory of evolution.14
Schleide
n is a successful science popularizer
in lectures and in articles.15

The Encyclopedia Britannica compares
the importance of Schleiden's cell
theory to the atomic theory of
chemistry.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
2. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
4. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
8. ^ "Mathias Jacob
Schleiden". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
9. ^ "Matthias Jakob Schleiden". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Matthias+Jakob+Sc
hleiden+?cat=technology
10. ^ Record ID2414. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Matthias
Jakob Schleiden". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Ja
kob_Schleiden
12. ^ "Matthias Jakob Schleiden".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Matthias+Jakob+Sc
hleiden+?cat=technology
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
14. ^ "Mathias Jacob
Schleiden". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
16. ^ "Mathias Jacob
Schleiden". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
17. ^ "Mathias Jacob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355. (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Matthias Jakob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Matthias
_Jakob_Schleiden
[2] Trisha Creekmore. The Science
Channel :: 100 Greatest Discoveries:
Biology. Discovery Communications.
http://science.discovery.com/convergence
/100discoveries/big100/biology.html
[3] "University of Jena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Jena
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany17
 
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology

[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 9 		3006)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp358-359.
2. ^ "Johann Von
Lamont". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_V
on_Lamont
3. ^ "Johann von Lamont". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6970/Johann-von-Lamont
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Johann von
Lamont." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-von-
lamont
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Johann von Lamont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6970/Johann-von-Lamont
9. ^ "Johann Von Lamont". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_V
on_Lamont (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Von Lamont", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp516
(Royal Observatory) Bogenhausen,
Germany8  
[1] Johann Von Lamont
(1805-1879) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/sist_so
lar/images/lamont.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 5 		3067)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp371-372.
2. ^ "Gray, Asa."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
3. ^ "Asa Gray." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray
4. ^ "Asa Gray." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray
5. ^ "Gray, Asa." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>. (1838-43)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/asa
/ASABIO.html
New York City, NY, USA4  
[1] Asa Gray (1810-1888) PD/Corel
source: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libra
ries/asa/gray.jpg

[2] Asa Gray 1886 [t verify date of
photo] PD/Corel
source: http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/200
1/PSCF9-01MilesFig1.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 22 		3157) Remak is barred from teaching by
Prussian law, which forbids Jewish
people to be employed as teachers.
Remak does his research as an unpaid
assistant in Müller's laboratory and
supported himself by his medical
practice. In 1843 Remak petitions
directly to Friedrich Wilhelm IV for a
teaching position, but is refused.
Finally in 1847, Remak is hired as a
lecturer at the University of Berlin,
becoming the first Jewish person to
teach at the University of Berlin.19
(It's amazing how focused people are on
race, which to me seems unimportant
other than working towards racial
integration.20 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p388.
4. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
5. ^ "Remak, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>.
8. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Remak, Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p740.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
13. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
14. ^ Record ID2330. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "thorax."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thorax
16. ^ "lumbar." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lumbar
17. ^ "sympathetic nervous system." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sympathetic
-nervous-system
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Remak, Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p740.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ "Remak, Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p740.
22. ^ "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>. (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Remak." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k (1838)
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany21 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 6 7 8 		3386)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
4. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Gas Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1838}
7. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3 {1838}
8. ^
William Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum
Engines: A Practical Treatise on the
Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1838}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
?, England 
[1] Barnett's ignition cock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA219,M1
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 4 		3509)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ James Dodsley,
The Annual Register,
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CB9dAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA129&dq=johann+gall
e+ring&as_brr=1
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374. {1838}

Berlin, Germany3  
[1] Johann Gottfried Galle, german
astronomer, first to look at
Neptune Wikipedia Germany :
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gott
fried_Galle Date 1880 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Saturn%27s_ring_plane
.jpg

[2] Galle, Johann Gottfried
(1812-1910) PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Johann-Gottfried-Gall
e.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 8 		3589)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edward Davy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152895/Edward-Davy>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Edward Davy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152895/Edward-Davy>.
4. ^ "Telegraph#Chemical Telegraphs".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h#Chemical_Telegraphs
5. ^ "Telegraph#Chemical Telegraphs".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h#Chemical_Telegraphs
6. ^ Record ID3591. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.theiet.org/about/libarc/archi
ves/featured/edward-davy.cfm
8. ^ "Edward Davy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152895/Edward-Davy>. {1838}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Davy

[2] John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p349-. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+th
e+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
[3] An Account of Some Remarkable
Applications of the Electric Fluid to
the Useful Arts, by Mr. Alexander Bain:
With a Vindication of His Claim to be
the First Inventor of the
Electro-magnetic Printing Telegraph,
and Also of the Electro-magnetic
Clock By John Finlaison Published by
Chapman and Hall,
1843 http://books.google.com/books?id=-
PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Alexa
nder+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_P
EajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA110,M1
London, England7  
[1] [t Notice clear;y the ''talking on
the telephone'' pose - figure out date
of photo is <1885] While Cooke and Wheatstone were developing their telegraph and attempting to interest various rail companies in it, Edward Davy was developing an electric telegraph with a relay system. Davy however, unlike Cooke and Wheatstone or Morse, is completely unknown today. PD/Corel
source: http://www.theiet.org/about/liba
rc/images/faraday-image/edward-davy.jpg

[2] DAVY, EDWARD (1806-1885), one of
the inventors of the electric
telegraph, PD/Corel
source: http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog
/davy1.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 4 		6003)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fr-d-ric-ch
opin
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Frédéric Chopin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fr-d-ric-ch
opin
4. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fr-d-ric-ch
opin {1838}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/nohant-vic
[2] "Minute Waltz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_Walt
z
[3] "Frédéric Chopin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/114362/Frederic-Chopin>.
[4] "List of compositions by Frédéric
Chopin by opus number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin_b
y_opus_number
Paris, France3 (verify) 
[1] Description Frédéric Chopin
1846 or 1847 daguerreotype Date
1846/47 Source Fryderyk
Chopin Society, Warsaw, as reproduced
at
http://jackgibbons.blogspot.com/2010/03/
chopins-photograph.html Author
unknown Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Chopin_1846_daguerreo
type.JPG

[2] Description English: The only
known photograph of Frédéric Chopin,
often incorrectly described as a
daguerreotype Español: La única
fotografía conocida de Frédéric
Chopin Français : L'unique
photographie connue de Frédéric
Chopin, souvent incorrectement décrite
comme un daguerréotype Date ca.
1849 Source
http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/Cho
ir/5479/chopin2.jpg Author
Louis-Auguste Bisson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Frederic_Chopin_photo
.jpeg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 11 		6213)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles
/PMC1034765/pdf/medhist00165-0098.pdf
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ John Thomas Perceval, "A
narrative of the treatment experienced
by a gentleman, during a state of
mental derangement; designed to explain
the causes and nature of insanity, and
to expose the injudicious conduct
pursued towards many unfortunate
sufferers under that calamity",
Effingham Wilson, 1838, 1840.
4. ^ John
Thomas Perceval, Edited by Gregory
Bateson, "Perceval's Narrative: a
patient's account of his psychosis,
1830-2", 1962.
5. ^ Report of the select
committee on lunatics. 1859
Parliamentary papers, second session,
volume 7.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Szasz, Thomas
(editor) (1975 (1973)). The Age of
Madness: A History of Involuntary
Mental Hospitalization Presented in
Selected Texts. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 0710079931.
8. ^ John Thomas
Perceval, "A narrative of the treatment
experienced by a gentleman, during a
state of mental derangement; designed
to explain the causes and nature of
insanity, and to expose the injudicious
conduct pursued towards many
unfortunate sufferers under that
calamity", Effingham Wilson, 1838,
1840.
9. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles
/PMC1034765/pdf/medhist00165-0098.pdf
10. ^ Szasz, Thomas (editor) (1975
(1973)). The Age of Madness: A History
of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization
Presented in Selected Texts. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN
0710079931.
11. ^ John Thomas Perceval, "A
narrative of the treatment experienced
by a gentleman, during a state of
mental derangement; designed to explain
the causes and nature of insanity, and
to expose the injudicious conduct
pursued towards many unfortunate
sufferers under that calamity",
Effingham Wilson, 1838, 1840.

MORE INFO
[1] "John Thomas Perceval".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thomas
_Perceval
[2] http://studymore.org.uk/xper.htm
 
[1] Portrait of John Thomas
Perceval PD
source: http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcR0svHN2vFXn6jpIsq4SKdNYcP9JqbhW
vr4HZMGYyNuBxjfrQPZfBrqW_aRyQ
161 YBN
[01/09/1839 AD] 39 40 		2617) Daguerre specializes in painting
scenic backdrops for theaters.5
Working
with Charles-Marie Bouton Daguerre
invents the diorama - a display of
paintings on semitransparent linen that
transmit and reflect light - and opens
a diorama in Paris (in 1822).6

Niépce, who since 1814 has been trying
to create permanent pictures by the
action of sunlight, learns in 1826 of
Daguerre's efforts in the same field.7

Niépce and Daguerre became partners in
the development of Niépce's
heliographic process from 1829 until
the death of Niépce in 1833.8

The first permanent photograph from
nature was made around 1826 by
Nicéphore Niépce, but this photo is
of poor quality and requires about
eight hours of exposure time. The
process that Daguerre develops (the
daguerreotype process9 ) required only
20 to 30 minutes.10 The daguerreotype
is the first practical photograph.11

Niepce's heliography depends on the
hardening action of sunlight on bitumen
and the subsequent (dissolving12 ) of
the (dark unlit13 ) parts of the image.
Using this method on a glass plate,
Niépce had obtained and fixed a
photograph from the camera obscura in
1826. But Niepce wants to create a
photoengraved plate from which (paper
prints can be copied14 ). This goal
leads to Niepce using bitumen on
silver-coated copperplates and then
iodizing the silver revealed after
dissolving the unexposed bitumen. The
removal of the hardened bitumen
produces a silver-silver iodide image.
But Niépce goes no further.15

Daguerre (working with Niepce) makes
the first permanent image using a
pin-hole camera (a camera obscura,
Italian for "dark room") with a lens
and a copper plate with silver salts
deposited on it.16
Building on his
partner Niepce's foundation, Daguerre
discovers the light sensitivity of
silver iodide in 1831 but is unable to
obtain a visible image. Daguerre
discovers in 1835 that the latent image
present on a silver iodide plate
exposed for only 20 minutes can be
developed with mercury vapor marks a
major advance. Fixing this image is
achieved in 1837, when Daguerre removes
the unreduced silver iodide with a
solution of common salt (and water17 ).
Having improved Niépce's process,
Daguerre calls this process the
daguerreotype (process18 ).19

After 20 minute exposures, light
portions darken the silver salts and
dark areas leave the light-sensitive
layer of silver iodide and bromide20
(silver salts) unaffected.21
The
unchanged salts are then dissolved away
with sodium thiosulfate (a process
suggested by John Hershel), and a
permanent image is left behind (on the
copper plate?22 ).23

By 1840 the Daguerreotype technique
will be used to record astronomical
images.24

Before this the camera obscura or
pinhole camera is popular. Sunlight
enters a room through a small opening
and is made to fall onto a screen to
show a sharp image of whatever is
outside the room.25 People had
inserted a lens in the pinhole in order
to make possible a larger opening and
more light without affecting the
sharpness of the focus.26 (The
so-called pin-hole camera, is a basic
thing that all people should see and is
very easy to create by simply making
two holes in a cardboard box and
looking through one to see light going
through the other hole projected on the
back wall which produces the scene
horizontally and vertically backwards.
It's interesting that light enters a
tiny hole and shows a large scene. It
means that light of many different
directions is entering the hole.27 )

On January 9, 1839, a full description
of the daguerreotype process is
announced at a meeting of the Academy
of Sciences by the eminent astronomer
and physicist François Arago.28 (Does
Daguerre patent his invention?29 )

Daguerre describes the process as
consisting of five operations: the
polishing of the (copper30 ) plate; the
coating of the plate with iodide of
silver by submitting it for about 20
minutes to the action of iodine vapor;
the projection of the image of the
object upon the golden-colored iodized
surface; the development of the latent
image by means of the vapor of mercury
(how is the vapor produced?31 ); and,
lastly, the fixing of the picture by
immersing the plate in a solution of
sodium "hyposulphite" (sodium
thiosulphate).32

Daguerre's "Historique et description
des procedes du daguerreotype et du
diorama" (Paris, 1839) passes through
several editions, and is translated
into English. Besides this Daguerre
writes an octavo work (paper is in
octavo when a whole single sheet is
folded three times to form eight
leaves; a book is called an "octavo"
size when made up of sheets folded
three times33 ), entitled "Nouveau
moyen de preparer la couche sensible
des plaques destinees a recevoir les
images photographiques" (Paris,
1844).34

(One question for the excluded
historian/scientist is: when did people
start secretly using cameras and
microphones to spy on people? It must
have been very recently after the
invention, and who did all the spying?
Probably the wealthy, and those who use
taxpayer wealth in governments.35 )
(This
process of capturing a permanent image
of light will grow to include moving
images by Thomas Edison in 1889, and in
1910 light that people see will first
be captured from behind people's heads
by Michael Pupin making the first "eye
image" and the surprising find that the
brain can generate its own images from
past memories, what people generally
call "thought". This find will show how
similar the brains of all the species
are, having the ability to remember
images in their mind. But sadly these
will be kept secret from the public,
{as will hearing thought, recording the
sounds people think of, and the
technology of sending images, sounds
and even triggering muscle movements
remotely to brains} for 9 years and
counting.36 )
(The box with a hole to
only allow a small amount of light in
is useful to filter out large amounts
of light from many sources and
directions.37 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p312.
2. ^ "Louis
Jacques Mande Daguerre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p312.
4. ^ "Louis
Jacques Mande Daguerre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p312.
6. ^ "Louis
Jacques Mandé Daguerre". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Jacques+Man
d%C3%A9+Daguerre?cat=technology
7. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
8. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande
Daguerre". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
11. ^ "Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Jacques+Man
d%C3%A9+Daguerre?cat=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ "Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Jacques+Man
d%C3%A9+Daguerre?cat=technology
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p312.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Louis Jacques Mandé
Daguerre". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Jacques+Man
d%C3%A9+Daguerre?cat=technology
20. ^ "Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Jacques+Man
d%C3%A9+Daguerre?cat=technology
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p312.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p312.
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p312.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p312.
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p312.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande
Daguerre". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Ja
cques_Mande_Daguerre
33. ^ "Octavo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Octavo
34. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Ja
cques_Mande_Daguerre
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted
Huntington.
38. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
39. ^ "Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8529/Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre
(01/09/1839)
40. ^ "Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Jacques+Man
d%C3%A9+Daguerre?cat=technology
(08/19/1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Jacques Mandé
Daguerre". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Jacqu
es_Mand%C3%A9_Daguerre
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/daguerr.htm
[4] An historical and descriptive
account of the various processes of the
daguerréotype and the diorama, London
: McLean & Nutt, 1839
Paris, France38  
[1] Description English:
Daguerreotype of Louis Daguerre in 1844
by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot (died
1881) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2007-01-23 (first
version); 2007-01-23 (last
version) Author Jean-Baptiste
Sabatier-Blot Original uploader was
Aepryus at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre_2.jpg

[2] Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (18
November 1787 - 10 July 1851) Source
from English Wiki Date November
1787 July 1851 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre.jpg
161 YBN
[01/31/1839 AD] 17 18 19 20 		2834)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
2. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
3. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
4. ^
http://foxtalbot.dmu.ac.uk/letters/trans
criptDocnum.php?docnum=3774
5. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
6. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/h3427785t0tr5qkx/?p=aa022c7853a94eb5be6
a2be759865897&pi=8 Note Respecting a
New Kind of Sensitive
Paper. Journal Abstracts of the Papers
Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Page 134 DOI 10.1098/rspl.18
37.0063 Talbot_New_Sensitive_Paper.pdf
(03/21/1839 - see source 12) On the
21 March
7. ^ "An Account of some recent
improvements in Photography," read at
the 10 June 1841 meeting and published
in Proceedings of the Royal Society, v.
4 no. 48, 1841, pp. 312-316. An
Account of Some Recent Improvements in
Photography. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 312-316 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0169 Talbot_recent_improvements
.pdf
8. ^
http://foxtalbot.dmu.ac.uk/letters/trans
criptDocnum.php?docnum=4857
9. ^ "An Account of some recent
improvements in Photography," read at
the 10 June 1841 meeting and published
in Proceedings of the Royal Society, v.
4 no. 48, 1841, pp. 312-316. An
Account of Some Recent Improvements in
Photography. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 312-316 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0169 Talbot_recent_improvements
.pdf
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
12. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Talbot.html
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "William Henry Fox
Talbot". The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
17. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/n212310wr7068605/?p=8c2b6ecfe1184271967
d7d597f9503db&pi=11 Some Account of
the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or the
Process by Which Natural Objects May Be
Made to Delineate Themselves without
the Aid of the Artist's
Pencil. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 120-121 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0051 Talbot_1840_Some_Account_A
rtists_Pencil.pdf (01/31/1839)
(01/31/1839)
18. ^
http://foxtalbot.dmu.ac.uk/letters/trans
criptDocnum.php?docnum=3774
(01/31/1839)
19. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm (09/1840)
20. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Talbot.html (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[3] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[4]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[5] February 21,
1839 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/01123385452g1020/?p=630e2e7f8d3c4
7829e665b62274c0b82&pi=20 An Account
of the Processes Employed in Photogenic
Drawing. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 124-126 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0055 Talbot_An_Account_Photogen
ic.pdf
[6]
http://foxtalbot.dmu.ac.uk/letters/trans
criptDocnum.php?docnum=3838
Wiltshire, England16
(presumably) 
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
161 YBN
[01/??/1839 AD] 11 12 		3103)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
3. ^ C. F. Shoenbein, "On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances", "Philosophical Magazine",
ser3, vol14, (1839).
{schoenbein004.pdf}
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
5. ^ William Robert Grove, "On Voltaic
Series and the Combination of Gases by
Platinum.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 3, Volume 14, Number 86, Feb
1839, pp127-129. {Grove_PM_1839.pdf}
6. ^
http://www.nonmet.mat.ethz.ch/news_event
s/schoenbein
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
8. ^ C. F. Shoenbein, "On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances", "Philosophical Magazine",
ser3, vol14, (1839).
{schoenbein004.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Christian Friedrich
Schonbein". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
11. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm (01/1839)
12. ^ C. F. Shoenbein,
"On the Voltaic Properties of certain
Solid and Fluid Substances",
"Philosophical Magazine", ser3, vol14,
(1839). {schoenbein004.pdf} (01/1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Friedrich
Schönbein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F
riedrich_Sch%C3%B6nbein
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Nitrocellulose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellul
ose
[4] "nitrocellulose". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrocellul
ose?cat=technology
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esterificat
ion?cat=technology&method=26&initiator=W
ANS
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340. (1840)
(1840)
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland10  
[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s
161 YBN
[02/21/1839 AD] 7 8 		2833)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
2. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Talbot.html
3. ^ February 21,
1839 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/01123385452g1020/?p=630e2e7f8d3c4
7829e665b62274c0b82&pi=20 An Account
of the Processes Employed in Photogenic
Drawing. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 124-126 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0055 Talbot_An_Account_Photogen
ic.pdf
4. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Talbot.html
5. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
6. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
7. ^ February 21,
1839 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/01123385452g1020/?p=630e2e7f8d3c4
7829e665b62274c0b82&pi=20 An Account
of the Processes Employed in Photogenic
Drawing. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 124-126 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1837.0055 Talbot_An_Account_Photogen
ic.pdf (read? 02/21/1839) (read?)
02/21/1839)
8. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Talbot.html (submitted?
01/31/1839) (submitted?) 01/31/1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[3] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[4]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[5] Philosophical Magazine, series 3,
volume 14, number 88, March 1839,
pp196-209. {talbot001.pdf}
Wiltshire, England6 (presumably) 
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
161 YBN
[02/??/1839 AD] 37 38 39 		3100) In his Philosophical Magazine
postscript of January 1839, Groves
writes "I should have pursued these
experiments further, and with other
metals, but was led aside by some
experiments with different solutions
separated by a diaphragm and connected
by platinum plates; in many of these I
have been anticipated.
I will however mention one
which goes a step further than any
hitherto recorded; and affords, I
think, an important illustration of the
combination of gases by platinum.
Two strips of
platinum 2 inches long and
three-eighths of an inch wide, standing
erect at a short distance from each
other, passed, hermetically sealed,
through the bottom of a bell glass; the
projecting ends were made to
communicate with a delicate
galvanometer; the glass was filled with
water acidulated with sulphuric acid,
and both the platina strips made the
positive electrodes of a voltaic
battery until perfectly clean, &c;
contact with the battery having been
broken, over each piece of platinum was
inverted a tube of gas, four-tenths of
an inch in diameter, one of oxygen, the
other of hydrogen, acidulated water
reaching a certain mark on the glass so
that about half of the platina was
exposed to the gas, and half to the
water. The instant the tubes were
lowered so as to expose part of the
surface of platinum to the gases, the
galvanometer needle was deflected so
strongly as to turn more than half
round; it remained stationary at 15°,
the platinum in the hydrogen being
similar to the zinc element of the
pile. When the tubes were raised so as
to cover the plates with water, the
needle returned slowly to zero; but the
instant that the tubes were lowered
again, it was again deflected; if the
tubes were changed with regard to the
platina, the deflection was the
contrary side.
The action lowered
considerably after the first few
minutes, but was in some degree
restored every time the tubes were
raised so as to wash the surface of the
platina, and again lowered. After 24
hours, the water had risen half an inch
in the tube containing oxygen. in two
other tubes, without platina, but with
the same gases and immersed in
acidulated water for the same time, the
water had scarcely perceptibly risen,
the effect therefore could not have
been due to solution; the same sheets
of platinum were exposed to atmospheres
of common air and of similar gases,
i.e. both to oxygen or both to
hydrogen, &c, but without affecting the
galvanometer. The platinum in the
hydrogen was made the positive, and
that in the oxygen the negative
electrode of a single voltaic pair; the
water now rose at the rate of
three-eighths of an inch per hour in
the hydrogen tube and proportionally in
the oxygen; when the platina was not
assisted by a pair of metals the oxygen
was absorbed in more than its relative
proportion. I hope, by repeating this
experiment in series, to effect
decomposition of water by means of its
composition.".33
In an 1845 paper,
Grove writes "led me to the result, for
which I have the honour of laying
before the Royal Society in this
paper."34 , which, although it may be a
stretch, may imply that "tp" may be
telephone company, or a person with
initials TP, although 1845 is an early
date for even telegraph. But more
likely, there appears to be subtle
sex-based joking in many Philosophical
Transaction papers - some take a
positive tone and others a negative
tone. Faraday took a positive tone,
Priestley referred to "Canton's balls",
and here "the honour of laying before
the Royal Society" has to be a play on
laying as having sex before the Royal
Society. But this paper, may also imply
that people might be so intrusive as to
inspect a toilet paper. All this is
speculation in an effort to understand
the secret inside jokes of wealthy and
educated in London society in 1845.35
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "Grove, Sir
William Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234>.
3. ^
http://www.nonmet.mat.ethz.ch/news_event
s/schoenbein
4. ^ C. F. Shoenbein, "On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances", "Philosophical Magazine",
ser3, vol14, (1839).
{schoenbein004.pdf}
5. ^
http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/
origins/origins.htm
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
7. ^ C. F. Shoenbein, "On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances", "Philosophical Magazine",
ser3, vol14, (1839).
{schoenbein004.pdf}
8. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
9. ^ William Robert Grove, "On Voltaic
Series and the Combination of Gases by
Platinum.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 3, Volume 14, Number 86, Feb
1839, pp127-129. {Grove_PM_1839.pdf}
10. ^
http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/
origins/origins.htm
11. ^ Record ID2307. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/
origins/origins.htm
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
14. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
15. ^
http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/
origins/origins.htm
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
19. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ W. R. Grove, "On the
Gas Voltaic Battery. Experiments Made
with a View of Ascertaining the
Rationale of Its Action and Its
Application to Eudiometry",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
133, 1843,
pp91-112. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/58565g07hx37733x/?p=5a0fd190
b56e4f27924e5b766c3b3ff6&pi=1 {Grove_On
_the_Gas_1843.pdf}
22. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
23. ^ W. R. Grove, "On the Gas Voltaic
Battery. Experiments Made with a View
of Ascertaining the Rationale of Its
Action and Its Application to
Eudiometry", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 133, 1843,
pp91-112. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/58565g07hx37733x/?p=5a0fd190
b56e4f27924e5b766c3b3ff6&pi=1 {Grove_On
_the_Gas_1843.pdf}
24. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
25. ^ W. R. Grove, "On the Gas Voltaic
Battery. Experiments Made with a View
of Ascertaining the Rationale of Its
Action and Its Application to
Eudiometry", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 133, 1843,
pp91-112. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/58565g07hx37733x/?p=5a0fd190
b56e4f27924e5b766c3b3ff6&pi=1 {Grove_On
_the_Gas_1843.pdf}
26. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bacon.
html
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ William Robert Grove,
"On Voltaic Series and the Combination
of Gases by Platinum.", Philosophical
Magazine, Series 3, Volume 14, Number
86, Feb 1839, pp127-129.
{Grove_PM_1839.pdf}
34. ^ W. R. Grove, "Note of an
Experiment on the Spectrum of the
Electric Discharge", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905),Volume 28, 1878/1879.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/nr7q6031877857p8/?p=5a0fd190b56e4f279
24e5b766c3b3ff6&pi=9 {Grove_Gas_Voltaic
_Battery.pdf}
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ "Sir William Robert
Grove". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
37. ^ William Robert Grove, "On Voltaic
Series and the Combination of Gases by
Platinum.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 3, Volume 14, Number 86, Feb
1839, pp127-129. {Grove_PM_1839.pdf}
(02/1839)
38. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1839)
39. ^ "Sir
William Robert Grove". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove (1839)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_battery
[2] Franklin Leonard Pope, "Modern
Practice of the Electric Telegraph: A
Handbook for Electricians and ...", D.
Van Nostrand, (1874),
pp15-19. http://books.google.com/books?
id=negOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=MODERN+PRACTIC
E+OF+THE+ELECTRIC+TELEGRAPH.+By+Frank+L.
+Pope#PPA15,M1
[3] W. R. Grove, "Experiments on
Voltaic Reaction", Philosophical
Magazine, Volume 23, (1843),
pp443-446. {Grove_William_1843_Phil_Mag
_vol23.pdf}
[4] "William Robert Grove", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p300
London, England36  
[1] Grove's Device: Oxygen and hydrogen
in the tubes over the lower reservoirs
react in sulfuric acid solution to form
water. That is the energy producing
chemical reaction. The electrons
produced electrolyze water to oxygen
and hydrogen in the upper tube that was
actually used as a voltmeter. This
scheme was published by Grove in one of
the first accounts of an operating fuel
cell in Philos. Mag., Ser. 3, 1839, 14,
127. Grove proved that his fuel cells
worked, but as he had no
entrepreneurial inclinations, and there
was no practical use for them at that
time anyway, the invention slumbered
for more than 130 years. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell2.jpg

[2] William Grove's drawing of an
experimental ''gas battery'' from an
1843 letter PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell1.jpg
161 YBN
[07/29/1839 AD] 39 		3308) Alexandre Edmond Becquerel is the
son of Antoine-César Becquerel
(1788-1878) whom Edmond assists when
young and eventually succeeds as
director of the Muséum d'Historie
Naturelle in 1878.33

Becquerel is interested in
fluorescence, where a substance absorbs
light of one wavelength and emits light
of a different wavelength. Becquerel's
son will identify (high speed?34 )
electrons (beta particles) emitting
from uranium.35

People now have nanometer sized
photovoltaic devices that can even
detect infrared light and can fly.36

(Does Becquerel understand that the
effect is light on the metal only, and
not the liquids (although the liquids
must serve as carriers of the
electrons)?37 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
2. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
3. ^ M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
4. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
5. ^ M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
6. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
7. ^ M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
8. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
9. ^ M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
10. ^
http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdrom/MANUFA
CT/FIRST.HTM
11. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
12. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p67.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406-407.
14. ^ M. Edmond
Becquerel, "Recherches sur les effets
de la radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
electriques", Comptes Rendus hebd.
Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9, (1839),
p145-149; 561. also Annalen der
Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp. 18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
15. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
16. ^
http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdrom/MANUFA
CT/FIRST.HTM
17. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
18. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p67.
19. ^
http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdrom/MANUFA
CT/FIRST.HTM
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406-407.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ M.
Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches sur les
effets de la radiation chimique de la
lumière solaire, au moyen des courants
electriques", Comptes Rendus hebd.
Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9, (1839),
p145-149; 561. also Annalen der
Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp. 18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
23. ^ "Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^
http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdrom/MANUFA
CT/FIRST.HTM
26. ^ M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
27. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eekatz/scie
ntists/becquerel.htm
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "paramagnetism>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "paramagnetism."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 20 Jun.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
aramagnetism>.
30. ^ "diamagnetism>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"diamagnetism." WordNet® 3.0.
Princeton University. 20 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
iamagnetism>.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ "Becquerel,
Alexandre-Edmond", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
34. ^
Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406-407.
36. ^
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/story?id=20812
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ "Becquerel,
Alexandre-Edmond", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
39. ^
M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches sur
les effets de la radiation chimique de
la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
{07/29/1839}

MORE INFO
[1] "thermionic power converter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>
[2] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becqu
erel
[3] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquere
l
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets
chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-t
dm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
72>
[6]
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/BecquerelEdmond.html
[7]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isd9IEnR4
bw {video of liquid oxygen
paramagnetism}
(University of Paris) Paris, France38
 
[1] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg

[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 6 		2581) Also in this year, Purkinje
creates the planet's first independent
department of physiology at the
University of Breslau.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305.
2. ^ "jan evangelista
purkinje". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
3. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
4. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
5. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
6. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland4
5  
[1] Description Purkinje fibers in
H&E stained cardiac muscle. Source
self-made Date
2007-07-02 Author Nathanael
Reveal (Nathanael) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Purkinje_fibers.jpg

[2] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 4 		2631) John Frederic Daniell (CE
1790-1845)1 experiments on the fusion
of metals with a 70-cell battery.
Daniell produces an electric arc so
rich in ultraviolet rays that it
results in an instant, artificial
sunburn.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
3. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Frederic Daniell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Freder
ic_Daniell
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Frederic+Dan
iell+?cat=technology
[3] "pyrometer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2062/pyrometer
[4] "Daniell cell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniell_cel
l
[5] "amalgamate". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
malgamate
[6] "History of the battery".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_battery
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=hts4AAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22gravity+b
attery%22+callaud#PPA118,M1 Elementary
Treatise on Electric Batteries: From
the French of Alfred Niaudet ... By
Alfred Niaudet Translated by L. M.
Fishback Published 1880 J. Wiley &
sons
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] From: MODERN PRACTICE OF THE
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH A HANDBOOK FOR
ELECTRICIANS AND OPERATORS. By FRANK
L. POPE ELEVENTH EDITION, REVISED AND
ENLARGED, 1881 New York: D. VAN
NOSTRAND, Publisher The Daniell
Battery. This combination consists of a
jar of glass or earthenware, F (Fig.
3), about six inches in diameter and
eight or nine inches high. A plate of
copper, G, is bent into a cylindrical
form, so as to fit within it, and is
provided with a perforated chamber, to
contain a supply of sulphate of copper
in crystals, and a strap of the same
metal with a clamp for connecting it to
the zinc of the next element. H is a
porous cup, as it is technically
termed, made of unglazed earthenware,
six or seven inches high and two inches
in diameter, within which is placed the
zinc, X. This is usually of the shape
shown in the figure, which is called
the ``star zinc,'' but it is often made
in the form of a hollow cylinder, the
latter giving greater power, but being
somewhat more difficult to clean. The
outer cell is filled with a saturated
solution of sulphate of copper (blue
vitriol), and the porous cell with a
solution of sulphate of zinc. A series
of three elements connected together,
as usually employed on American lines
for a local battery, is shown at I. PD

source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/daniell.htm

[2] Made by R-Berto GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dry-cell.JPG
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 11 		2660)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". The Oxford Companion
to American Military History. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2000.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/telegraph?cat=tec
hnology
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington. , id 2657.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^, p91.
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM#PPA
91,M1 The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "telegraph". The
Oxford Companion to American Military
History. Oxford University Press, Inc.,
2000. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/telegraph?cat=tec
hnology
10. ^ "telegraph". The Oxford Companion
to American Military History. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2000.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/telegraph?cat=tec
hnology (1839)
11. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment (1839)
Liverpool (and Manchester), England10
 		 
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 5 		2684)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p113.
4. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p113.
5. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p113. (1839)
Calcutta, India4   
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 5 		2711) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)1
puts forward a new theory of electrical
action. Electricity, whatever it was,
causes tensions in matter. When these
tensions snap in a conductor, there is
a cyclical repetition of buildup,
breakdown, and buildup of tension that,
like a wave, passes along the
substance. In electrochemical processes
the rate of buildup and release of
strain is proportional to the chemical
affinities of the substances involved.
In Faraday's view the current is not a
material flow but a wave pattern of
tensions and their relief. (Did Faraday
reject the atomic theory?2 ). In
Faraday's view insulators are materials
whose particles can take an
extraordinary amount of strain before
snapping. Electrostatic charge in an
isolated insulator is simply a measure
of this accumulated strain. Therefore,
according to Faraday, all electrical
action is the result of forced strains
in bodies.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
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[5]
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y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
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9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
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terials.html
[11]
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AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[13] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1b&pi=1
(Royal Institution in) London, England4
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 9 		2721) In 1831 Murchison is elected
president of the Geological Society of
London.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p320.
2. ^ "Sir Roderick
Impey Murchison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
3. ^ "Roderick Impey Murchison".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Roderick%20Impey%
20Murchison%20
4. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
5. ^ "Roderick Impey Murchison".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Roderick%20Impey%
20Murchison%20
6. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
7. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
8. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
9. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
(1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Roderick Impey Murchison".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderick_Im
pey_Murchison
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Copied from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Roder
ick_Murchison.jpg Found at
http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/lefa/Mu
rchison.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Murchison.jpg

[2] Sir Roderick Impey Murchison with
cane, not dated, K.C. Gass
collection PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Impey_Murchison.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 13 		2730) Herschel also coins the term
"snapshot".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ "Sir John
Herschel 1st Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
3. ^ "John Herschel". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
4. ^ "John Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
6. ^ "John Herschel". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
10. ^ "John
Herschel". The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
11. ^ "John Herschel". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
12. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
13. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[3] "Herschel, John Frederick William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p416-417
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] John Herschel PD
source: "Herschel, John Frederick
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p417.

[2] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 7 		2755)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
4. ^ The works of
Charles Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p239.
5. ^ The works of Charles
Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p246.
6. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
7. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, v11 p239. (1838
and 1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[3] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Pilot (locomotive)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_%28lo
comotive%29
Cambridge, England6 (presumably) 
[1] The John Bull, circa 1893. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Bull.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 5 6 		2762)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p324.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p311.
3. ^
"appendicitis". The American Heritage
Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/appendiciti
s?cat=health
4. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
5. ^ "Thomas Addison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3700/Thomas-Addison (1839)
6. ^ "Thomas
Addison". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Addison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Addi
son
[2] "Addison's Disease". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Addison'
s_Disease
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Guy's Hospital) London, England4
 
[1] Thomas Addison,
1795-1870 PD/Corel
source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 10 		2800) Lanthanum has the symbol La,
atomic number 57, atomic weight 138.91.
Lanthanum, is a metal and the second
most abundant element in the rare-earth
group. The naturally occurring element
is made up of the isotopes 138La
(0.089%) and 139La (99.91%). 138La is a
radioactive positron emitter with a
half-life of 1.1 × 1011 years.
Lanthanum occurs associated with other
rare earths in monazite, bastnasite,
and other minerals. Lanthanum is one of
the radioactive products of the fission
of uranium, thorium, or plutonium.
Lanthanum is the most basic of the rare
earths and can be separated rapidly
from other members of the rare-earth
series by fractional crystallization.
Large quantities of Lanthanum are
separated commercially because it is an
important ingredient in glass
manufacture. Lanthanum imparts a high
refractive index to the glass and is
used in the manufacture of expensive
lenses. The metal is readily attacked
in air and is rapidly converted to a
white powder. Lanthanum becomes a
superconductor below about 6 K -449°F)
in both the hexagonal and face-centered
crystal forms.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp333-334.
2. ^ "Carl Gustaf
Mosander". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3874/Carl-Gustaf-Mosander
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp333-334.
4. ^
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/la.html
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp333-334.
6. ^
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/la.html
7. ^ "Carl Gustav Mosander". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav
_Mosander
8. ^ "lanthanum". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/lanthanum?cat=tec
hnology
9. ^ "Carl Gustaf Mosander".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3874/Carl-Gustaf-Mosander
10. ^ "Carl Gustaf Mosander".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3874/Carl-Gustaf-Mosander (1839)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-gustav
-mosander?cat=technology
[2] "lanthanum". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7143/lanthanum
[3] "Lanthanum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanthanum
(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden9  
[1] The Lanthanum metal GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lanthanum.jpg

[2] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 10 		2820)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p338.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p338.
3. ^ "Thomas
Henderson". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Henderson?
cat=technology
4. ^ "Astronomy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Astronomy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Astronom
y
5. ^ "Thomas Henderson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Henderson?
cat=technology
6. ^ "Thomas Henderson". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Henderson?
cat=technology
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Thomas Henderson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9990/Thomas-Henderson
9. ^ "Thomas Henderson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9990/Thomas-Henderson
10. ^ "Astronomy (1839)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Astronomy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Astronom
y (1839) (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas James Henderson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jame
s_Henderson
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Edinburgh)Edinburgh,
Scotland8 (and observation in Cape
Town, South Africa9 ) 
[1] Thomas Henderson. Reconstruction by
Angus McBride from rough sketches by
C.P. Smyth. Source:
Warner,Astronomers. COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/
his-astr-henderson_t.html
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 14 		2862) Goodyear patents this process in
1844, but the process is too simple and
like Whitney's cotton gin many people
copy it. Goodyear spends all his time
with 60 court cases. Goodyear wins his
case in 1852, but dies in debt.9 When
Goodyear dies in 1860, he leaves his
wife and six children $200,000 in
debt.10

The major use of this rubber will be in
automobile tires 50 years after
Goodyear's death.11

The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
(founded 1898) honors Goodyear's
name.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp343-344.
2. ^ "Charles
Goodyear". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7388/Charles-Goodyear
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp343-344.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp343-344.
5. ^ "Charles
Goodyear". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7388/Charles-Goodyear
6. ^ "Charles Goodyear". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7388/Charles-Goodyear
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp343-344.
8. ^ "Charles
Goodyear". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7388/Charles-Goodyear
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp343-344.
10. ^ "Charles
Goodyear". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Goodyear+
?cat=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp343-344.
12. ^ "Charles
Goodyear". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Goodyear+
?cat=technology
13. ^
http://www.goodyear.com/corporate/histor
y/history_story.html
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp343-344. (1839)
(1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Goodyear".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Goo
dyear
[2] "Charles Goodyear". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Goodyear
Woburn, Massachussetts, USA13
(presumably) 
[1] Charles Goodyear, as illustrated in
an 1891 Scientific American
article Charles Goodyear - Project
Gutenberg eText 14009 -
http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/4/0/0/14
009/14009-h/14009-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Goodyear.png

[2] SOURCE:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pnp/cph/3a00000/3a
09000/3a09800/3a09814r.jpg GOODYEAR,
CHARLES. Engraving by W. G. Jackman.
New York: D. Appleton & Co. [No date
found on item.] Location: Biographical
File Reproduction Number:
LC-USZ62-7162; LC-USZ6-57 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Goodyear-Charles-LOC.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 5 		2866)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp344-345.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp344-345.
3. ^ "Miller
indices". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2721/Miller-indices
4. ^ "William Hallowes Miller".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"William Hallowes Miller". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Hallowes_Miller
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp344-345. (1839)
(1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hallowes Miller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hal
lowes_Miller
[2] "Miller Index". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_Inde
x
Cambridge, England4  
[1] Exemple de plans
cristallographiques et de leurs indices
de Miller pour une structure
cubique Example of crystallographic
planes and Miller indices for a cubic
structure Auteur/author : Christophe
Dang Ngoc Chan (cdang) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Indices_miller_plan_exemple_cube.png

[2] Exemple d'indices de Miller de
directions Examples of Miller
indices for directions Auteur/author
: Christophe Dang Ngoc Chan
(cdang) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Indices_miller_direction_exemples.png

161 YBN
[1839 AD] 12 		3030) With a £1,000 Treasury grant,
obtained through the Cambridge network,
Darwin hires the best experts and
publishes their descriptions of his
specimens in "Zoology of the Voyage of
H.M.S. Beagle" (1838-43).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hms." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 30 Apr.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
ms>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
4. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
6. ^ "hms."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 30 Apr. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
ms>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "hms."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 30 Apr. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
ms>.
10. ^ "hms." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 30 Apr.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
ms>.
11. ^ "hms." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 30 Apr.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
ms>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368. (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2] "Charles Darwin." Wikipedia, The
Free Encyclopedia. 30 Apr 2008, 19:47
UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 May
2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Charles_Darwin&oldid=209297154>
London, England (presumably)11  
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 21 22 		3063) Regnault is an active amateur
photographer and introduces the use of
pyrogallic acid as a photographic
developer (c. 1845-7). Regnault is one
of the first photographers to use paper
negatives. In 1854, Regnault becomes
the founding president of the Société
Française de Photographie.10 11

Regnault takes samples of air from
different parts of Earth and
demonstrates that all over the Earth,
the air contains about 21% oxygen.12

Regnault is credited with the invention
of the air thermometer.13 Regnault
introduces the use of an accurate
air-thermometer, and compares its
indications with those of a mercury
thermometer, determining the (specific
heat14 ) of mercury as a step in the
process. Regnault devises a hygrometer
in which a cooled metal surface is used
for the deposition of moisture.15

Carbon tetrachloride has atomic formula
CCl4, colorless, poisonous, liquid
organic compound that boils at 76.8°C.
It is toxic when absorbed through the
skin or when inhaled. It reacts at high
temperatures to form the poisonous gas
phosgene. Carbon tetrachloride is used
in the production of Freon
refrigerants, for example, Freon-12
(dichlorodifluoromethane). Because it
is not flammable and is a good solvent
for fats, oils, and greases, carbon
tetrachloride is often used
commercially for dry cleaning and for
degreasing metals.16
Regnault grows up
in poverty struggling to maintain
himself and a sister.17
Regnault loses
much of the results of his chemical
work and his son Henri is killed as a
result of the Franco-German War
(1870-187118 ).19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p371.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Henri
Victor Regnault", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p739.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault",
Nature, Volume 17, Number 431, (31
January 1878),
pp263-264. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v17/n431/pdf/017263a0.pdf {Reg
nault_Henri_Victor_017263a0.pdf}
6. ^ V. Regnault (1839). "Ueber die
Chlorverbindungen des Kohlenstoffs,
C2Cl2 und CCl2". Annalen der Pharmacie
30 (3): 350.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18390300310.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.1839030
0310
7. ^ "Carbon tetrachloride". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetr
achloride
8. ^ "Carbon tetrachloride". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetr
achloride
9. ^ Manfred Rossberg, Wilhelm Lendle,
Gerhard Pfleiderer, Adolf Tögel,
Eberhard-Ludwig Dreher, Ernst Langer,
Heinz Rassaerts, Peter Kleinschmidt,
Heinz Strack, Richard Cook, Uwe Beck,
Karl-August Lipper, Theodore R.
Torkelson, Eckhard Löser, Klaus K.
Beutel, “Chlorinated Hydrocarbons”
in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology, 2007 John Wiley & Sons: New
York.
10. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Victo
r_Regnault
11. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2002.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
12. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
13. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Henri Victor
Regnault". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henri_Vi
ctor_Regnault
16. ^ "carbon tetrachloride." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carbon-tetr
achloride
17. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault", Nature,
Volume 17, Number 431, (31 January
1878),
pp263-264. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v17/n431/pdf/017263a0.pdf {Reg
nault_Henri_Victor_017263a0.pdf}
18. ^ "Regnault, Henri-Victor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3064>.
19. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henri_Vi
ctor_Regnault
20. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henri_Vi
ctor_Regnault
21. ^ "Carbon tetrachloride".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetr
achloride (1839)
22. ^ V. Regnault (1839).
"Ueber die Chlorverbindungen des
Kohlenstoffs, C2Cl2 und CCl2". Annalen
der Pharmacie 30 (3): 350.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18390300310.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.1839030
0310
(University of Lyons) Lyons, France20
 
[1] Carbon tetrachloride GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
bon_tetrachloride

[2] Victor Regnault peint par son
fils PD
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/regnault1.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 17 18 		3072) Schwann knows Mathias Schleiden
well, and a year after Schleiden,
working at University of Jena, advances
the cell theory for plants, Schwann
extends it to animals in his
"Microscopical Researches into the
Accordance in the Structure and Growth
of Animals and Plants" (1839).6

Schwann more clearly states and
summarizes the theory. Schwann states
that plants and animals are formed out
of cells, that eggs are cells distorted
by the presence of yolk, that eggs grow
and develop by constant dividing so
that the developing organism consists
of more and more cells, but always of
cells. Schwann refines Bichat's concept
of tissues, by differentiating tissues
by cell types. Asimov describes the
cell theory as a landmark of biology,
comparable to the atomic theory as a
landmark of chemistry.7

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography states that Schwann's cell
theory can be regarded as marking the
origin in biology of the school of
mechanistic materialism that Brückem,
du Bois-Raymond, Helmholtz, and Carl
Ludwig make famous. According to
Schwann, the theory that leads from the
chemical molecule to the organism by
way of the universal stage of the cell,
is inspired by an intellectual,
mechanistic reaction to Müller's
vitalism.8

Schwann states that the cell theory
demonstrates that the great barrier
between the animal and vegetable
kingdoms vanishes.9

Schwann proposes three generalizations
concerning the nature of cells: First,
animals and plants consist of cells
plus the secretions of cells. Second,
these cells have independent lives, and
third, these lives are subject to the
organism's life. In addition Schwann
realizes that the phenomena (or perhaps
purpose or activity?10 ) of individual
cells can be placed into two classes:
"those which relate to the combination
of the molecules to form a cell. These
may be called plastic phenomena," and
those phenomena "which result from
chemical changes either in the
component particles of the cell itself,
or in the surrounding cytoblastema
(modern cytoplasm). These may be called
metabolic phenomena." With this Schwann
coins the term "metabolism," which
becomes generally adopted for the sum
total of chemical processes by which
energy changes occur in living
things.11 (The word "metabolism" is
somewhat abstract, as is the term
"energy" when applied to living
objects. At the basic level there is a
conservation of velocity and mass,
however, there needs to be language and
descriptions more specifically adapted
to more complex processes that result
from many millions of pieces of matter
interacting together in routine ways.12
)

Schwann classifies tissues into five
groups: 1) separate independent cells,
such as blood; 2) compacted independent
cells, such as skin; 3) cells whose
walls have coalesced, such as
cartilage, bones, and teeth; 4)
elongated cells which have formed
fibers, such as tendons and ligaments;
and finally, 5) cells formed by the
fusion of walls and cavities, such as
muscles and tendons.13 (what is the
modern classification of cells?14 )

The first cell is at least 3.8 billion
years old and is the basis for all of
life on earth. Everything object alive
today is descended from a single
individual cell that divided. Cell
structure is old, however, free living
DNA and/or RNA molecules are viewed as
the oldest ancestors of living
objects.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
3. ^ "Theodor
Schwann." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
4. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
5. ^ "Theodor Ambrose Hubert Schwann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp790-791.
6. ^ "Schwann,
Theodor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
8. ^ "Theodor Ambrose
Hubert Schwann", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp790-791.
9. ^ "Theodor Schwann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Theodor Schwann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theodor_
Schwann
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Theodor Schwann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-sch
wann
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Schwann,
Theodor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
17. ^ "Schwann, Theodor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>. (1839)
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373. (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6125>
[2] Schwann, Theodor and Schleyden, M.
J. 1847. "Microscopical researches into
the accordance in the structure and
growth of animals and plants". London:
Printed for the Sydenham Society.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library/d
ata/lit28715?
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Sch
wann
[4]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per136
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium16  
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 		3075) First nude human photograph.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.maxpower.ca/a-timeline-of-ima
gery-firsts/2007/10/03/
 
[1] Two Nudes Standing In 1839,
Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre presented
the first practical process of
photography to the world. Most
historians seem to think that portraits
(or studies) done in the nude happened
at the same time. Simply put, instead
of painting nude models, men were
photographing them. PD/Corel
source: http://www.maxpower.ca/wp-conten
t/uploads/2006/11/example_first_nude_ful
l.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 13 14 15 16 		3090) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882), English-US chemist1 makes
one of the earliest daguerreotype
portraits (1839)2 .

Draper discovers that by increasing the
(diameter3 ) (aperture) of the lens and
reducing its focal length he can
drastically reduce exposure time. In
December 1840 Draper is using a lens
with an f1.4 aperture (focal length 1.4
inches4 ).

Draper reduces the exposure time of
photography to under a minute.5
Draper
founds the School of Medicine at New
York University.6
Draper creates a
partnership with Samuel Morse, a
colleague at New York University.7
Morse is the beginning of recording
people's messages to each other, which
grows into the telephone company and a
massive microscopic secret visible and
thought cameras, microphones, and
remote neuron activation network. So
Draper, in particular in New York City
the center of much of this development,
must have been a part of that.8

In 1876 Draper is elected the first
President of the American Chemical
Society.9
From 1850-1873, Draper is
the president of the University of the
City of New York.10

Draper's son, Henry Draper (1837-1882)
also teaches at the University of the
City of New York.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp375-376.
2. ^ "John William
Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211.
3. ^
Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
6. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm
7. ^
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
10. ^ "John William
Draper". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
11. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
12. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
13. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper (1839)
14. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm (1839)
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
(1840)
16. ^ "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper
 (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Draper." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[2] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[3] "John William Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA12  
[1] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg

[2] John William Draper c.1879 by
Edward Bierstadt Source: Smithsonian
Institution, National Museum of
American History, Archives Center,
Draper Family Collection.
http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/i
mages/d8121-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/John_William_Draper.j
pg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 15 16 		3099) In 1847 Franklin Leonard Pope
describes the Grove battery in "Modern
Practice of the Electric Telegraph: A
Handbook for Electricians" like this:
"The most intense and powerful voltaic
combination that has yet been
discovered is that of Grove. For many
years it was exclusively used for
telegraphic purposes in this country,
and is still employed in that capacity
to a considerable extent. Its component
parts are shown in Fig. 5, in which A
represents a glass jar or tumbler,
about 3 inches in diameter and 4 1/2
inches high. A thick cylinder of zinc,
B, of a size nearly sufficient to fill
the tumbler, is placed within it, and
is furnished with a projecting arm, to
which is attached the positive plate of
the next element. The porous cup, C, is
placed within the zinc. A thin strip of
platina, D, about 2 1/2 inches long and
half an inch in width, is soldered to
the end of the zinc arm projecting from
the adjacent cell, and reaches nearly
to the bottom of the porous cup.
Setting up
a Grove Battery. It is necessary that
the zinc should first be thoroughly
amalgamated. The ordinary zinc of
commerce contains particles of lead,
iron, and other impurities, which, when
the plate is immersed in dilute acid,
form as it were small batteries upon
the surface, which eat away numerous
cavities in the zinc without producing
any useful effect. This is prevented by
the above process of amalgamation,
which is usually performed by immersing
the zincs in a vessel containing dilute
muriatic or sulphuric acid, and then
plunging them in a bath of metallic
mercury. After remaining in this for a
minute or two they are taken out and
placed in a vat of clean water, where
the superfluous mercury is allowed to
drain off. The mercury dissolves a
little of the zinc, which flows over
and covers the impurities, and prevents
the acid solution from coming in
contact with them.

In putting the Grove battery together,
first place the glass tumblers in
position and fill them about half full
of a solution composed of one part of
sulphuric acid and twenty to thirty
parts water, by measure, thoroughly
mixed. Then place the amalgamated zincs
in the tumblers, with the arms turned
at right angles to the line of cells.
Fill the porous cups nearly full of
strong nitric acid and place them
within the zincs, then turn the zincs
around so as to immerse the platina
strips in the nitric acid of the
adjoining cell, throughout the whole
series, as shown at T, in Fig. 5.
The
strength of the dilute sulphuric acid
solution in this battery should be
varied in proportion to the number of
wires worked from it. The less the
number of the latter the weaker the
solution may be made.

When in continuous service a Grove
battery ought to be taken apart every
night, and the nitric acid from the
porous cups emptied into a vessel and
kept closed until morning. The zincs
should be removed and placed inverted
in a trough of water, acidulated with
sulphuric acid, and in the morning
rubbed with a brush, and the mercury
diffused evenly over their surfaces. To
every ten parts of the nitric acid
taken from the battery add one part of
fresh acid every morning. By this means
a steady and uniform current will be
maintained when the battery is in
action. The dilute sulphuric acid
requires renewal about twice a week. In
handling this battery great care is
required not to injure the connection
between the zinc and the platina. A set
of Grove zincs, in continuous service,
will require renewal about once in
three months.".11 12

Groves takes a considerable interest in
photographic science during the
1840s.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "Sir William
Robert Grove". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
3. ^ "Grove, Sir William Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234>.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
5. ^ "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
6. ^ "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "William Robert
Grove", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p300.
11. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
12. ^ Franklin Leonard Pope, "Modern
Practice of the Electric Telegraph: A
Handbook for Electricians and ...", D.
Van Nostrand, (1874),
pp15-19. http://books.google.com/books?
id=negOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=MODERN+PRACTIC
E+OF+THE+ELECTRIC+TELEGRAPH.+By+Frank+L.
+Pope#PPA15,M1
13. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
14. ^ "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1839)
16. ^ "Sir
William Robert Grove". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove (1839)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_battery
London, England14  
[1] Fill the porous cups nearly full of
strong nitric acid and place them
within the zincs, then turn the zincs
around so as to immerse the platina
strips in the nitric acid of the
adjoining cell, throughout the whole
series, as shown at T, in Fig. 5.
PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell3.gif

[2] Grove battery PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_battery100.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 12 13 		3102)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ W. R. Grove,
"The Bakerian Lecture: On Certain
Phenomena of Voltaic Ignition and the
Decomposition of Water into Its
Constituent Gases by Heat",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
137,
1847. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/?mode=allwords&k=grove&Author=W.
+R.+Grove&sortorder=asc&o=10 {Grove_Dec
omposition_of_Water_1847.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "eudiometer." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 14 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eudiometer-
2
7. ^ W. R. Grove, "The Bakerian
Lecture: On Certain Phenomena of
Voltaic Ignition and the Decomposition
of Water into Its Constituent Gases by
Heat", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 137,
1847. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/?mode=allwords&k=grove&Author=W.
+R.+Grove&sortorder=asc&o=10 {Grove_Dec
omposition_of_Water_1847.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Sir
William Robert Grove". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1839)
13. ^ "Sir
William Robert Grove". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove (1839)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_battery
[2] Franklin Leonard Pope, "Modern
Practice of the Electric Telegraph: A
Handbook for Electricians and ...", D.
Van Nostrand, (1874),
pp15-19. http://books.google.com/books?
id=negOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=MODERN+PRACTIC
E+OF+THE+ELECTRIC+TELEGRAPH.+By+Frank+L.
+Pope#PPA15,M1
[3] "Grove, Sir William Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234>
[4] W. R. Grove, "Note of an Experiment
on the Spectrum of the Electric
Discharge", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905),Volume
28, 1878/1879.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/nr7q6031877857p8/?p=5a0fd190b56e4f279
24e5b766c3b3ff6&pi=9 {Grove_Gas_Voltaic
_Battery.pdf}
[5] W. R. Grove, "On the Gas Voltaic
Battery. Experiments Made with a View
of Ascertaining the Rationale of Its
Action and Its Application to
Eudiometry", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 133, 1843,
pp91-112. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/58565g07hx37733x/?p=5a0fd190
b56e4f27924e5b766c3b3ff6&pi=1 {Grove_On
_the_Gas_1843.pdf}
London, England11  
[1] Grove's Device: Oxygen and hydrogen
in the tubes over the lower reservoirs
react in sulfuric acid solution to form
water. That is the energy producing
chemical reaction. The electrons
produced electrolyze water to oxygen
and hydrogen in the upper tube that was
actually used as a voltmeter. This
scheme was published by Grove in one of
the first accounts of an operating fuel
cell in Philos. Mag., Ser. 3, 1839, 14,
127. Grove proved that his fuel cells
worked, but as he had no
entrepreneurial inclinations, and there
was no practical use for them at that
time anyway, the invention slumbered
for more than 130 years. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell2.jpg

[2] William Grove's drawing of an
experimental ''gas battery'' from an
1843 letter PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell1.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 6 		3106)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p377.
2. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/55/Willi
am-Budd.html
3. ^
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?artid=1279260
4. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/55/Willi
am-Budd.html
5. ^ "William Budd", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p123.
6. ^
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?artid=1279260 (1839)
Bristol, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of William Budd (J B
Black, London, 1867). Reproduced by
permission of the Royal Society of
Medicine PD
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov
/picrender.fcgi?artid=1279260&blobname=5
61f1g.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 10 11 		3137)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polystyrene and Styrofoam", Mary
Bellis, About.com.
http://inventors.about.com/library/inv
entors/blpolystyrene.htm
2. ^ John Scheirs, Duane Priddy, Inc
NetLibrary, "Modern Styrenic Polymers:
Polystyrenes and Styrenic Copolymers",
John Wiley & Sons, 2003,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=FR
GoFxKels4C&pg=PA3&dq=Eduard+Simon+polyst
yrene&sig=vqLFWFTDE9icvea19zFUn87yesY
3. ^ "industrial polymers, major."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
37>, p4.
4. ^ "Polystyrene and Styrofoam",
Mary Bellis, About.com.
http://inventors.about.com/library/inv
entors/blpolystyrene.htm
5. ^ "industrial polymers, major."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
37>, p4.
6. ^ John Scheirs, Duane Priddy,
Inc NetLibrary, "Modern Styrenic
Polymers: Polystyrenes and Styrenic
Copolymers", John Wiley & Sons, 2003,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=FR
GoFxKels4C&pg=PA3&dq=Eduard+Simon+polyst
yrene&sig=vqLFWFTDE9icvea19zFUn87yesY
7. ^ "Polystyrene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene

8. ^ John Scheirs, Duane Priddy, Inc
NetLibrary, "Modern Styrenic Polymers:
Polystyrenes and Styrenic Copolymers",
John Wiley & Sons, 2003,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=FR
GoFxKels4C&pg=PA3&dq=Eduard+Simon+polyst
yrene&sig=vqLFWFTDE9icvea19zFUn87yesY
9. ^ "Polystyrene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene

10. ^ "industrial polymers, major."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
37>, p4. (1839)
11. ^ "Polystyrene and
Styrofoam", Mary Bellis, About.com.
http://inventors.about.com/library/inv
entors/blpolystyrene.htm (1839)
Berlin, Germany9   
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 5 		3469)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
2. ^ A. Crum Brown,
The Ions of Electrolysis, Science, New
Series, Vol. 15, No. 388 (Jun. 6,
1902), pp. 881-895.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627729 {
Brown_Ions_of_Electrolysis_1902.pdf}
3. ^ Schönbein, Annalen der Physik,
XLVI, p109, XLVII, p101 (1839).
4. ^ "Christian
Friedrich Schonbein". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
5. ^ A. Crum Brown, The Ions of
Electrolysis, Science, New Series, Vol.
15, No. 388 (Jun. 6, 1902), pp.
881-895.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627729 {
Brown_Ions_of_Electrolysis_1902.pdf}
{1839}

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Friedrich
Schönbein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F
riedrich_Sch%C3%B6nbein
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Nitrocellulose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellul
ose
[4] "nitrocellulose". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrocellul
ose?cat=technology
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esterificat
ion?cat=technology&method=26&initiator=W
ANS
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340. (1840)
(1840)
[7] William Robert Grove, "On Voltaic
Series and the Combination of Gases by
Platinum.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 3, Volume 14, Number 86, Feb
1839, pp127-129. {Grove_PM_1839.pdf}
[8]
http://www.nonmet.mat.ethz.ch/news_event
s/schoenbein
[9]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm (01/1839)
[10] C. F. Shoenbein,
"On the Voltaic Properties of certain
Solid and Fluid Substances",
"Philosophical Magazine", ser3, vol14,
(1839). {schoenbein004.pdf} (01/1839)
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland4  
[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s
160 YBN
[03/12/1840 AD] 5 		3875)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ John F. W.
Herschel, "On the Chemical Action of
the Rays of the Solar Spectrum on
Preparations of Silver and Other
Substances, Both Metallic and
Non-Metallic, and on Some Photographic
Processes", Philosophical Transactions,
v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf}
3. ^ John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf}
4. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
5. ^ John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf} {03/12/1840}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[3] "Herschel, John Frederick William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p416-417
[4] "John
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
[5] "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1839)
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Thermographs from 1840 John
Herschel paper. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf}

[2] John Herschel PD
source: "Herschel, John Frederick
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p417.
160 YBN
[12/17/1840 AD] 22 23 24 		3238) The entire paper is this: "The
inquiries of the author are directed to
the investigation of the cause of the
different degrees of facility with
which various kinds of metal, of
different sizes, are heated by the
passage of voltaic electricity. The
apparatus he employed for this purpose
consisted of a coil of the wire, which
was to be subjected to trial, placed in
a jar of water, of which the change of
temperature was measured by a very
sensible thermometer immersed in it;
and of a galvanometer, to indicate the
quantity of electricity sent through
the wire, which was estimated by the
quantity of water decomposed by that
electricity. The conclusion he draws
from the results of his experiments is,
that the calorific effects of equal
quantities of transmitted electricity
are proportional to the resistance
opposed to its passage, whatever may be
the length, thickness, shape, or kind
of metal which closes the circuit; and
also that, caeteris paribus, these
effects are in the duplicate ratio of
the quantities of transmitted
electricity, and, consequently, also in
the suplicate ratio of the velocity of
transmission. He also infers from his
researches that the heat produced by
the combustion of zinc in oxygen is
likewise the consequence of resistance
to electric conduction.".8

I think that measuring temperature is
difficult, because the temperature is
only measured in the volume of the
device doing the measuring. In
addition, if, for example mercury
expansion is used as a guide, only
photons that mercury atoms absorb
effect the measurement, while those
reflected or otherwise not absorbed by
mercury are not counted. So perhaps
other liquids or gases might produce
different temperatures in similar
locations. EXPER: How does the
expansion of different liquids and
gases relate to temperature? Since some
must absorb more photons than others,
clearly some expand more than others.
For example, chlorine being yellow,
does the absence of yellow frequency
photon absorption change the quantity
of expansion relative to clear gases?
It would seem that different materials
(solids, liquids, gases) have different
rates of expansion given some constant
temperature simply because
theoretically they absorb different
frequencies of photons.9

(It is fun to speculate about what
causes heat emitted from wires electric
current is passed through. I think the
collisions between the moving electrons
with other particles, such as metal
atoms, causes photons to be knocked
loose to exit the atom. Those photons
are then absorbed by surrounding
material such as air and water, etc.
and this raises their temperature. I
think it has to do with conservation of
velocity ultimately. Velocity is
transferred from the moving electrons
to the surrounding medium. The velocity
was there perhaps in orbiting photons,
and is released - so instead of moving
in circles the photon then moves in a
straight line.10 )
Joule comes from a
wealthy family.11
Joule's father is a
brewer, and Joule works in his father's
brewery.12
Joule has a spine injury
that prevents him from participating in
many activities.13
Joule's wife dies
after only 6 years of marriage.14
(how?15 )
Joule never takes a job and
spends his life performing experiments
in his own laboratory at his own
expense.16
Although not initially
received, eventually in 1849 Faraday
sponsors Joule to read a paper on his
work before the Royal Society.17
In
1850 Joule is elected to the Royal
Society.18
In 1866 Joule wins the
Copley medal.19
Joule remains a brewer
all his life and is never a
professor.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp59-60. http://books.google.com/books?
id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Pro
duction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%2
2
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp59-60. http://books.google.com/books?
id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Pro
duction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%2
2
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp59-60. http://books.google.com/books?
id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Pro
duction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%2
2
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Joule, Jame
Prescott", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p469.
12. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"Joule, Jame Prescott", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p469.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
21. ^ James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon
Playfair Playfair, William Thomson,
"The Scientific Papers of James
Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society,
1884,
pp59-60. http://books.google.com/books?
id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Pro
duction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%2
2
22. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp59-60. http://books.google.com/books?
id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Pro
duction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%2
2 (12/17/1840)
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400. (1840)
24. ^
"James Prescott Joule." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>
Broom Hill (near Manchester), England21
 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 7 		2563) Giovanni Battista Amici (omECE)
(CE 1786-1686)1 invents the
oil-immersion technique, in which the
objective (lower2 ) lens (of a
microscope3 ) is immersed in a drop of
oil which is placed on top of the
specimen under observation in order to
minimize light aberrations.4 (So the
oil is constant from the specimen to
the lens?5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p301.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p301.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Giovanni Battista Amici".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6170/Giovanni-Battista-Amici
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Giovanni Battista
Amici". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6170/Giovanni-Battista-Amici
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p301. (1840) (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Battista Amici".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Amici
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni%20Battis
ta%20Amici
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Florence, Italy6 (presumably) 
[1] Subject : Giovanni Battista Amici
(1786-1863) Specialist : italian
astronom and microscopist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amici_Giovanni_Battista_1786-1863.png

160 YBN
[1840 AD] 5 		2778) William Whewell (HYUuL) (CE
1794-1866), English scholar1 publishes
"Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences"
(1840) 2 which begins with the claim
that "Man is the interpreter of Nature,
science is the right interpretation"3 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp327-328.
2. ^ "whewell
william". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/whewell-wil
liam
3. ^ "whewell william". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/whewell-wil
liam
4. ^ "William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6762/William-Whewell
5. ^ "whewell william". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/whewell-wil
liam (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Whewell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whe
well
[2] "William Whewell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Whewell
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England4  
[1] Scientist: Whewell, William (1794
- 1866) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Eden Upton Eddis, 1812-1901
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.6 x 12.6 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 15.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w

[2] William Whewell - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Whewell_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 24 		2827) Ozone is an irritating, pale blue
gas that is explosive and toxic, even
at low concentrations.8
Ozone is
formed naturally in the ozone layer
from atmospheric oxygen by electric
discharge or exposure to ultraviolet
radiation.9 Ozone is a highly reactive
oxidizing agent used to deodorize air,
purify water, and treat industrial
wastes.10

Ozone gas decomposes rapidly at
temperatures above 100° C (212° F)
or, in the presence of certain
catalysts, at (lower 11 )
temperatures.12
At -112 °C, ozone
forms a dark blue liquid. At
temperatures below -193 °C, it forms a
violet-black solid.13 14 Ozone usually
is manufactured by passing an electric
discharge through a current of oxygen
or dry air. The resulting mixtures of
ozone and original gases are good
enough for most industrial purposes.
Purer ozone can be obtained from them
by various methods; for example, on
liquefaction, an oxygen-ozone mixture
separates into two layers, of which the
denser one contains about 75 percent
ozone. The extreme instability and
reactivity of concentrated ozone makes
its preparation both difficult and
hazardous.15
In 1828 Schönbein joins
the faculty of the University of Basel,
in Switzerland.16
In 1835, Schönbein
is appointed professor of chemistry and
physics at the University of Basel17 ,
staying there for the rest of his
life18 .
Schönbein rejects the atomic
theory.19
Schönbein (correctly20 )
thinks that Scheele was wrong in
thinking chlorine a compound and Davy
correct in proving chlorine to be an
element.21

In his lifetime Schönbein produces
more than 360 scientific papers.22
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
4. ^ "Christian
Friedrich Schönbein". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian+Friedri
ch+Sch%C3%B6nbein+?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
8. ^ "ozone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7878/ozone
9. ^ "ozone". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ozone?cat=technol
ogy
10. ^ "ozone". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ozone?cat=technol
ogy
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Christian Friedrich
Schonbein". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
13. ^ "Ozone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone
14. ^ Oxygen. WebElements. Retrieved
on 2006-09-23.
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/s
cholar/print/oxygen/key.html
15. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schonbein".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
16. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schonbein".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
17. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schonbein".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
18. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schönbein".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian+Friedri
ch+Sch%C3%B6nbein+?cat=technology
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
22. ^ "Christian
Friedrich Schönbein". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian+Friedri
ch+Sch%C3%B6nbein+?cat=technology
23. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schonbein".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340. (1840)
(1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Friedrich
Schönbein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F
riedrich_Sch%C3%B6nbein
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland23  
[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sch%C
3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 17 		2855)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Np8EAAA
AYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA14&lpg=RA1-PA14&dq=%22the
ory+of+types%22+dumas&source=web&ots=zua
DHodxQY&sig=D4GE43s1OMKHYG6Qbt3lvOFoEvw&
hl=en#PRA1-PA14,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^, p357.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ngk4AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA357&lpg=PA357&dq=%22theory+of
+types%22+dumas&source=web&ots=kzAp3M8Zk
_&sig=yxY7PxdCMO3UyJ0hKRn-xvZYrZc&hl=en
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Jean Baptiste André
Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Jean Baptiste André
Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre
Dumas". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
13. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
14. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
15. ^, p14.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Np8EAAA
AYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA14&lpg=RA1-PA14&dq=%22the
ory+of+types%22+dumas&source=web&ots=zua
DHodxQY&sig=D4GE43s1OMKHYG6Qbt3lvOFoEvw&
hl=en#PRA1-PA14,M1
16. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
17. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France16
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 5 		2902)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ "Charles
Wheatstone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
4. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
5. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone (1840)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[2] "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(King's College) London, England4
(presumably) 
[1] A rare and important ABC Telegraph
Transmitter, this fine instrument is
from the laboratory of one of the
inventors, Professor Charles
Wheatstone's, Kings College Laboratory
on the Strand England. ''KCL'' is
stamped on the top of the base and
''KCL WB'' is stenciled on the bottom..
The wood screws securing the base cover
are pre-1856 technology. This
instrument has a 7 1/2'' diameter
mahogany base supporting a spoked brass
wheel on which the alphabet is printed
in black lettering on its perimeter. To
operate the instrument, the sender
simply rotates the wheel until the
desired letter is displayed under the
index arm. During rotation the
instrument sends out the proper number
of electric pulses to an
electromagnetically controlled pointer
on a remote synchronized slave receiver
with a similarly lettered wheel which
moves to the sender's letter. Electric
telegraphs of the 1840-50's are of
special historic importance as the
earliest practical application of
serial binary coded digital
communication. They are one of the
first bricks in the technology that led
to the digital electronic ''information
highway'' evolving today. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 8 		2904)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ "Sir Charles
Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
4. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
5. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
8. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone (1840)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(King's College) London, England7
(presumably) 
[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to
right: Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry
Huxley, Charles Wheatstone, David
Brewster, John Tyndall Deutsch:
Charles Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 5 		2911) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON1 ) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist2 builds a magneto-electrical
machine (electric generator) for
generating continuous currents3 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
4. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[3] "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://wvegter.hivemind.net/abacus/Cyber
Heroes/Wheatstone.htm
(King's College) London, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to
right: Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry
Huxley, Charles Wheatstone, David
Brewster, John Tyndall Deutsch:
Charles Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 12 13 		2914)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p349.
2. ^ "Germain Henri
Hess". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p349.
4. ^ "Germain Henri
Hess". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess
5. ^ "Germain Henri Hess". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p349.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p349.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Germain Henri Hess". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Germain+Henri+Hes
s+?cat=technology
10. ^ "Germain Henri Hess".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess
11. ^ "Germain Henri Hess".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess
12. ^ "Germain Henri Hess".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0281/Germain-Henri-Hess (1840)
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p349. (1840) (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Germain Henri Hess".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germain_Hen
ri_Hess
[2] "Jeremias Benjamin Richter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jeremias
_Benjamin_Richter
(University of Saint Petersberg) Saint
Petersberg, Russia11
(presumably) 
[1] Description Picture of German
chemist Germain Henri Hess (who died in
1850) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before 1850 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hess_Germain_Henri.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 17 		2921)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^ "Justus baron
von Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
3. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
4. ^ "Justus von Liebig". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
5. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Justus von Liebig". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
8. ^ "Justus von Liebig". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"Justus von Liebig". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
15. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
16. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
17. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany15 16  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 5 		2936) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist1
publishes "Odontography" (1840-45), a
major study of the structure of teeth2
.

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ "Sir Richard
Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
3. ^ "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
4. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
5. ^ "Sir Richard Owen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
[3] "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England3 4  
[1] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG

[2] Sir Richard Owen and Dinornis
(Moa) skeleton from The Book of
Knowledge, The Grolier Society,
1911 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Dinor
nis1387.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 25 26 		3051) After studying medicine at
Heidelberg and at Bonn, where Henle
gets his doctor's degree in 1832, Henle
becomes prosector in anatomy to
Johannes Muller at Berlin. During the
six years henle spends in this position
he publishes a large amount of work,
including three anatomical monographs
on new species of animals, and papers
on the structure of the lacteal system,
the distribution of epithelium in the
human body, the structure and
development of the hair, the formation
of mucus and pus15 , and the first
descriptions of the structure and
distribution of human epithelial tissue
and of the fine structures of the eye
and brain.16

Henle recognizes that all inner and
outer surfaces of the body are lined
with epithelial tissue.17
(chronology18 )

Henle makes numerous microanatomical
finds, the best known being Henle's
loop, a part of the kidney tubule.19
In addition, "Henle's fibers", which
are the inner fibers of photoreceptors,
Hassle-Henle bodies.20 21
In 1835
Henle is arrested for belonging to a
radical students' movement, sentenced
to seven years in prison, but soon
released.22 According to Asimov,
Henle's liberal views bring him to
trial for treason in Berlin and a short
period of imprisonment.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp369-370.
2. ^ "Henle,
Friedrich Gustav Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
3. ^ "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 05 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-g
ustav-jakob-henle
4. ^ "Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Friedrich Gustav Jakob
Henle." Encyclopedia of Public Health.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-g
ustav-jakob-henle
7. ^ "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 05 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-g
ustav-jakob-henle
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Friedrich
Gustav Jakob Henle." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-g
ustav-jakob-henle
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pageren
der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
13. ^ Jacob Henle, tr:George Rosen,
"Jacob Henle: On Miasmata and
Contagia", The Johns Hopkins press,
1938. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ktJtHwAACAAJ&dq=inauthor:rosen++inauthor
:george+henle&ei=xrTASdOfHoaGkATKlZTQCw
14. ^
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pageren
der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
15. ^ "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Gustav_Jakob_Henle
16. ^ "Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
17. ^ "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 05 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-g
ustav-jakob-henle
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp369-370.
20. ^
http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalmologyhal
loffame/henle.html
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp410-411.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp369-370.
24. ^ "Henle,
Friedrich Gustav Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
25. ^ "Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>. (1840)
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp369-370. (1840)
(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Germany24  
[1] Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
(1809-1885) PD/Corel
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/henle.jpg

[2] Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle PD/Corel
source: http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalm
ologyhalloffame/henle.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 5 6 		3091)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "John William
Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211.
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
4. ^ "John William
Draper". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
5. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm (1840)
6. ^ "John Draper."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper
 (1840)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[2] "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[3] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[4] "John William Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA4  
[1] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg

[2] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 10 		3123) Stas has liberal views6 , and is
openly critical of the part played by
the Christian church in education.7
(more specific8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p383.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p342.
3. ^
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biog
raphies/MainBiographies/S/Stas/1.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p383.
5. ^ "Jean-Servais
Stas", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p830.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p383.
7. ^
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biog
raphies/MainBiographies/S/Stas/1.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Jean Baptiste André
Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
10. ^ "Aaron J. Ihde", The Development
of Modern Chemistry, Courier Dover
Publications, 1984, p155 (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Stas." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[2] "Jean Stas." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[3] "Jean Servais Stas". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ser
vais_Stas
[4] "Jean Servais Stas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Servai
s_Stas
[5] "Jean-Servais Stas," Microsoft®
Encarta® Online Encyclopedia
2008 http://encarta.msn.com ©
1997-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All
Rights Reserved
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France9
(presumably) 
[1] Scan of a picture of Belgian
scientist Jean Servais Stas (who died
in 1891) Source Journal of Chemical
Education, pages 353 – 357 Date
1938 Author Timmermans, Jean PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Stas_Jean_Servais.jpg


[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 24 25 		3230) Du Bois-Reymond works at the
University of Berlin (1836–96) under
Johannes Müller, whom he later
succeeds as professor of physiology
(1858).15
Du Bois-Reymond is an early
supporter of evolution.16
Du
Bois-Reymond's collaboration with
fellow physiologists Hermann von
Helmholtz, Carl Ludwig, and Ernst von
Brücke is of great significance in
linking animal physiology with physical
and chemical laws.17 Mijalo Pupin
studies under Helmholtz in Berlin, so
there is a clear continuity between
this research and the view that Pupin
is the first person to see images
stored and generated by the brain
remotely using a camera that detects a
specific frequency of radio or
microwave light. In addition the
finding of the as of yet unknown P.C.
who first remotely makes muscles move.
All of this technology apparently
connected with the phone companies of
earth.18
Du Bois-Reymond considers the
history of science the most important,
but most neglected part of cultural
history.19
In 1867 Du Bois-Reymond is
appointed perpetual secretary of the
Berlin Academy of Sciences.20
Du
Bois-Reymond serves as president of
both the Physical and the Physiological
societies of Germany and is elected a
foreign fellow of the Royal Society of
London.21

Du Bois-Reymond rejects the theory of
vitalism and is a "materialist". Du
Bois-Reymond writes memoirs of some of
the materialistic philosophers,
including Voltaire and Denis Diderot.22

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
2. ^ "Emil du
Bois-Reymond." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Record
ID2175. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Emil du
Bois-Reymond." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p397.
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/reymond.htm
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/reymond.htm
13. ^ Paul J. Rosch, Marko S. Markov,
"Bioelectromagnetic Medicine", Informa
Health Care, 2004,
p118. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nl9f1vWn5lQC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=Frosc
hwecker&source=web&ots=MI0Mh7LD8Q&sig=w6
dlm5HdLOAO49htzJDftoZDNTc&hl=en
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil
Heinrich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
17. ^ "Emil du
Bois-Reymond." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil
Heinrich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p263.
20. ^
"Emil du Bois-Reymond." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
21. ^ "Emil du Bois-Reymond."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
22. ^ "Emil du Bois-Reymond."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
23. ^ "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397. (1840)
25. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/reymond.htm (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "Emil du Bois-Reymond." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
[2] "Emil Heinrich du Bois-Reymond".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Heinri
ch_du_Bois-Reymond
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany23  
[1] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
Loecher & Petsch Medium: Photograph
PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-04a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Gesellschaft,
Berlin (Photographic company) Medium:
Photogravure Original Artist: Max
Koner, 1854-1900 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 23.8 x 17.6 cm / Sheet: 28.8
x 20.4 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-03a.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 6 7 		3360)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
2. ^
http://www.somatics.de/LeriFechner.htm
3. ^ Record ID3359. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Leo
Koenigsberger, Frances Alice Welby,
"Hermann Von Helmholtz", Clarendon
Press, 1906,
p171-172. http://books.google.com/books
?id=u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171&ci=81,1018,770
,391&source=bookclip
5. ^ "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3889/Gustav-Theodor-Fechner
6. ^ "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3889/Gustav-Theodor-Fechner {1839-1840}
7. ^
http://www.somatics.de/LeriFechner.htm
{1840}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gustav Fechner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Fech
ner
[2] "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gustav_T
heodor_Fechner
[3] "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gustav%20Theodor%
20Fechner%20
[4] "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3889/Gustav-Theodor-Fechner (1860)
[5]
"afterimage." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/8548/afterimage>.
[6] "afterimage." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/afterimage
[7] "Afterimage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterimage
Leipzig, Germany5 (presumably) 
[1] Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887),
German experimental psychologist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustav_Fechner.jpg

[2] Gustav Theodor Fechner
(1801-1877) PD
source: http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk
/staff/aldrich/Figures_files/image024.jp
g
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 9 		4004)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Duhamel.html
2. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/poui
llet.php
3. ^ possibly this paper talks about
recording the vibrations of strings: M
Duhamel, "Vibrations d'une corde
flexible, chargee d'un curseur",
Comptes Rendus, v11, 1840, p15-19. in
English "Vibration of a flexible cord,
carrying a
cursor". http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Cadr
esFenetre?O=30000000029706&M=chemindefer

4. ^ "cursor." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
04 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ursor>.
5. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=DR3OAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tuning+f
ork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20t
uning%20fork%201830&f=false
6. ^ Record ID3999. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/poui
llet.php
8. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Duhamel.html
9. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/poui
llet.php {1840}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Marie Duhamel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Marie_
Duhamel
[2]
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitst
ream/handle/2022/899/Archivist_4_4_graf.
pdf?sequence=1
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France8
(presumably) 
[1] Jean-Marie Duhamel PD
source: http://www.gap-system.org/~histo
ry/BigPictures/Duhamel_2.jpeg
159 YBN
[01/01/1841 AD] 8 		2836) (Sir) James Clark Ross (CE
1800-1862), Scottish explorer1 names
Mt. Erebus, (located on Antarctica2 )
after one of his ships. Mt. Erebus is
the southern-most active volcano
known.3

Ross publishes "A Voyage of Discovery
and Research in the Southern and
Antarctic Regions" (1847).4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p341.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p341.
4. ^ "Sir James Clark
Ross". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4134/Sir-James-Clark-Ross
5. ^ "James Clark Ross". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Clark%20R
oss
6. ^ "Boothia Peninsula". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boothia_Pen
insula
7. ^ "Boothia Peninsula". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0683/Boothia-Peninsula
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p341. (01/01/1841)
(01/01/1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clark Ross".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clark
_Ross
[2] "Sir James Clark Ross".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Clark_Ross
[3]
http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/brow
se/CXJ.HTM
[4] "North Magnetic Pole". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Magne
tic_Pole
[5] "North Pole#207484.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6216/North-Pole#207484.hook
[6]
http://www.answers.com/topic/geomagnetic
-reversal?cat=technology
Boothia Peninsula,5 Nunavut, Canada6 7
 
[1]
http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slika:James
_Clark_Ross.jpg James Clark Ross PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Clark_Ross.jpg

[2] James Clark Ross circa 1845:
British explorer Captain Sir James
Clark Ross (1800 - 1862). He discovered
the north magnetic pole in 1831. (Photo
by Hulton Archive/Getty Images) *
by Hulton Archive * Wednesday
December 31st, 1969 * reference:
3315250 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3315
250?partner=Google&epmid=1
159 YBN
[01/11/1841 AD] 3 		3600)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
2. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
3. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ {01/11/1841}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bain.html
[2] "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>
[3] "Alexander Bain" (obituary),
Nature, Jan 11, 1877,
218. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
38CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218&dq=Alexander+Bain+t
elegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwOG
rAQ
[4] Iconographic Encyclopaedia of the
Arts and Sciences, Iconographic
publishing co., 1890,
p376. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+B
ain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQ
OKwOGrAQ
London, England2  
[1] Bain's clock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+
Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajit
QOKwOGrAQ#PRA2-PA126-IA1,M1

[2] [t Bain's clock - not clear what
year] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ale
xander+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM
_PEajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA36,M1
159 YBN
[11/02/1841 AD] 5 		3246)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
2. ^ James Prescott
Joule, "On the Electric Origin of the
Heat of Combustion", Read before the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester November 2 1841, Phil Mag
ser 3 vol xx p 98. from James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby,
Lyon Playfair Playfair, William
Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule (2 vol.)",
Physical Society (Great Britain), 1884,
pp81-102. http://books.google.com/books
?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Production
+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=co
mbustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sourc
e=bookclip"
3. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Electric Origin of the Heat of
Combustion", Read before the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Manchester
November 2 1841, Phil Mag ser 3 vol xx
p 98. from James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson Kelvin, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule (2 vol.)", Physical Society
(Great Britain), 1884,
pp81-102. http://books.google.com/books
?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Production
+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=co
mbustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sourc
e=bookclip"
4. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Electric Origin of the Heat of
Combustion", Read before the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Manchester
November 2 1841, Phil Mag ser 3 vol xx
p 98. from James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson Kelvin, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule (2 vol.)", Physical Society
(Great Britain), 1884,
pp81-102. http://books.google.com/books
?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Production
+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=co
mbustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sourc
e=bookclip"
5. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Electric Origin of the Heat of
Combustion", Read before the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Manchester
November 2 1841, Phil Mag ser 3 vol xx
p 98. from James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson Kelvin, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule (2 vol.)", Physical Society
(Great Britain), 1884,
pp81-102. http://books.google.com/books
?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Production
+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=co
mbustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sourc
e=bookclip" (11/02/1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>
[7] "James Prescott Joule."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
Broom Hill (near Manchester), England4
 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 5 		2542) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE
1784-1846), In 1841 Bessel deduces a
value of 1/299 for the ellipticity of
the Earth (the amount of elliptical
distortion the Earth's shape departs
from a perfect sphere by).1 The study
of the Earth's size and shape is called
"geodesy" ("Geometrics" is an
alternative title2 ).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
4. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
5. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Bessel
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany4
 
[1] The image of Sirius A and Sirius B
taken by Hubble Space Telescope. The
white dwarf can be seen to the lower
left.[47] (Credit:NASA) [47] ''The Dog
Star, Sirius, and its Tiny Companion'',
Hubble News Desk, 2005-12-13. Retrieved
on 2006-08-04.
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsd
esk/archive/releases/2005/36/image/a PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg

[2] This Hubble Space Telescope image
shows Sirius A, the brightest star in
our nighttime sky, along with its
faint, tiny stellar companion, Sirius
B. Astronomers overexposed the image of
Sirius A [at centre] so that the dim
Sirius B [tiny dot at lower left] could
be seen. The cross-shaped diffraction
spikes and concentric rings around
Sirius A, and the small ring around
Sirius B, are artifacts produced within
the telescope's imaging system. The two
stars revolve around each other every
50 years. Sirius A, only 8.6
light-years from Earth, is the fifth
closest star system known. Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/
html/heic0516a.html Date 15 Oct.,
2003 Author NASA, ESA Credit: H.
Bond (STScI) and M. Barstow (University
of Leicester) PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 4 		2543) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE
1784-1846), publishes "Astronomische
Untersuchungen" (1841-42).1 (more
info2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
4. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+Bessel?cat=technology (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Bessel
[3] "popup?va=parallax". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=p
arallax
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax?ca
t=health
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany3
 
[1] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png

[2] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 4 		2582) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), improves the stroboscopic
viewer of Simon Stampfer and J. A. F.
Plateau with his "Phorolyt" device
which is marketed in two sizes as a
scientific toy. In the 1850s Purkinje
will produce a disc holding nine posed
photographs of a simple movement
intended for projection when his
Kinesiskop viewer is attached to a
magic lantern. With this apparatus, in
1861, Purkinje demonstrates the action
of the human heart and the circulation
of blood, using individual photographs
of each sequence of the heart's
movement. Purkinje's Kinesiskop discs
are used in his lectures throughout the
decade; one survives at the Technical
Museum, Prague.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "jan evangelista purkinje". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology
2. ^ "Jan Evangelista Purkinje".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1956/Jan-Evangelista-Purkinje
3. ^
"popup?book=Collegiate&va=wroclaw".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?book
=Collegiate&va=wroclaw
4. ^ "jan evangelista purkinje". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-evangel
ista-purkinje?cat=technology (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Jan Evangelista
Purkinje". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangel
ista_Purkinje
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biog
raphies/MainBiographies/P/Purkinje/1.htm
l
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland2
3  
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 6 		2722)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p320.
2. ^ "Roderick Impey
Murchison". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Roderick%20Impey%
20Murchison%20
3. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p320.
5. ^ "Sir Roderick
Impey Murchison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
6. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
(1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Roderick Impey Murchison".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderick_Im
pey_Murchison
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Copied from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Roder
ick_Murchison.jpg Found at
http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/lefa/Mu
rchison.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Murchison.jpg

[2] Sir Roderick Impey Murchison with
cane, not dated, K.C. Gass
collection PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Impey_Murchison.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 4 		2750) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 publishes
"Table of the Logarithms of the Natural
Numbers from 1 to 108000" (1841,
London, William Clowes and Sons).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
3. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
4. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage (1841)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 6 		2781)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
2. ^ "Johann Heinrich
von Madler". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
4. ^ "Johann Heinrich
von Madler". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
5. ^ "Johann Heinrich Mädler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_M%C3%A4dler
6. ^ "Johann Heinrich von Madler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler (1841)
(Dorpat Observatory) Dorpat (Tartu),
Estonia4 5  
[1] from [1]
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N Sou
rce Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here *
12:23, 28 July 2004 Magnus Manske
1000x869 (79,491 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske
17:30, 26 May 2006 (UTC) Author
User Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Heinrich_M%C3%A4dler.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 6 		2903)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ "Charles
Wheatstone". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
4. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
6. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(King's College) London, England5
(presumably) 
[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to
right: Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry
Huxley, Charles Wheatstone, David
Brewster, John Tyndall Deutsch:
Charles Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 16 17 		2948)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ "Karl Gustav
Jacob Jacobi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Gus
tav_Jacob_Jacobi
3. ^ "Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Karl
Gustav Jacob Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Gus
tav_Jacob_Jacobi
4. ^ "carl gustav jakob jacobi". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-gustav
-jakob-jacobi?cat=technology
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Carl
Jacobi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
9. ^ "determinant". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/determinant
?cat=technology
10. ^ "determinant". The New Dictionary
of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/determinant
?cat=technology
11. ^ "determinant". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/determinant
?cat=technology
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ History of Mathematics,
Volume 2, 1925, David E. Smith, p476.
14. ^
History of Mathematics, Volume 2, 1925,
David E. Smith, p477.
15. ^ "Carl Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
16. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi (1841)
17. ^, p477.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-gustav
-jakob-jacobi?cat=technology (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav
_Jacob_Jacobi
[2] "Determinant". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinant

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany15  
[1] Determinants 2x2 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det
erminant

[2] Determinant 3x3 matrix GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det
erminant
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 8 		3023)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colliery". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
olliery
2. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345803&lid=1
3. ^ "William George Armstrong, Baron
Armstrong". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
George_Armstrong,_Baron_Armstrong
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.hp-gramatke.net/history/engli
sh/page4000.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "William George
Armstrong, Baron Armstrong".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
George_Armstrong,_Baron_Armstrong
8. ^ "William George Armstrong, Baron
Armstrong". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
George_Armstrong,_Baron_Armstrong
(1841)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-arm
strong-1
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Geo
rge_Armstrong%2C_1st_Baron_Armstrong
Newcastle, England7  
[1] A steam electrostatic
generator PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/pictu
res/history/electric_steam.jpg

[2] Portrait of Sir William George
Armstrong
From: http://www.worldisround.com/artic
les/12541/photo1.html
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/William_george_armstr
ong.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 4 		3052)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp369-370.
2. ^ "Henle,
Friedrich Gustav Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
3. ^ "Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
4. ^ "Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>. (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp410-411.
[2] "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Gustav_Jakob_Henle
[3]
http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalmologyhal
loffame/henle.html
[4] "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 05 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-g
ustav-jakob-henle
(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Germany3  
[1] Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
(1809-1885) PD/Corel
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/henle.jpg

[2] Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle PD/Corel
source: http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalm
ologyhalloffame/henle.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 6 		3053)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp369-370.
2. ^
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate
Dictionary.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=p
athology
3. ^ "Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp369-370.
5. ^ "Henle,
Friedrich Gustav Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>.
6. ^ "Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9999>. (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp410-411
[2] "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Gustav_Jakob_Henle
[3]
http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalmologyhal
loffame/henle.html
[4] "Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 05 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-g
ustav-jakob-henle
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany5  
[1] Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
(1809-1885) PD/Corel
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/henle.jpg

[2] Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle PD/Corel
source: http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalm
ologyhalloffame/henle.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 7 		3077)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
3. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
7. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[4] "Robert
Bunsen." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
(University of Marburg), Marburg,
Germany6  
[1] ''Bunsen battery'': Ceramic cell
(V) contains a sulfuric acid solution
(10%) in which an amalgamated zinc
sheet wrapped to open ring (Z) is
immersed. Another ceramic cell (D)
containing nitric acid solution is
inside of the zinc electrode. A carbon
electrode (C) is inside of this nitric
acid solution. Electrical contact (K)
provides connection of the
cathode. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_cell.jpg

[2] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 8 9 		3128)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
2. ^ "Alexander
Parkes." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 20 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
3. ^ "George Elkington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elki
ngton
4. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record ID2437. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "George
Elkington". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elki
ngton
8. ^ "Alexander Parkes." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes (1841)
9. ^ "Alexander Parkes."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Parkes, Alexander."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8513>
Birmingham, England7  
[1] Alexander Parkes PD/Corel
source: http://museo.cannon.com/museonew
/storia/espande/img0049.jpg

[2] Alexander Parkes, English inventor
and chemist, 1875. © Science
Museum/Science and Society Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/people/img/IM.1287_zp.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 7 		3158)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p388.
4. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
5. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
6. ^ Record ID2886. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Remak, Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p740.
[2] "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>.
[3]
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
6 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 10 		3159)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p388.
4. ^ Record
ID2886. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Robert Remak." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
6. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
8. ^ "Robert Remak."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
9. ^ Record ID2886. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Remak, Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p740.
[2] "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>.
[3]
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany8
9 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 9 		3190) Kölliker like Nägeli believes
that evolution proceeds in jumps.4
Kölliker emphasizes the significance
of sudden change in evolution as
opposed to gradual change.5
In 1848
with Karl von Siebold, Kölliker founds
the "Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche
Zoologie" ("Journal of Scientific
Zoology").6
Kölliker plays an
influential role in the development of
Würzburg as a leading center of health
science (medical) learning.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392.
2. ^ "Koelliker,
Rudolf Albert Von", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p495.
3. ^
"Koelliker, Rudolf Albert Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p495.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392.
5. ^ "Kölliker,
Rudolf Albert von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5943>.
6. ^ "Kölliker, Rudolf Albert von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5943>.
7. ^ "Kölliker, Rudolf Albert von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5943>.
8. ^ "Koelliker, Rudolf Albert Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p495.
9. ^
"Koelliker, Rudolf Albert Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p495. (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert von Kölliker." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[2] "Albert von Kölliker." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[3] "Rudolf Albert von Kölliker".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Albe
rt_von_K%C3%B6lliker
[4] "Rudolph Albert Von Kolliker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolph_
Albert_Von_Kolliker
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland8  
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
158 YBN
[03/30/1842 AD] 14 		3171) The use of anesthetic gases in
surgery was first proposed by British
chemist Sir Humphrey Davy in 1798,
following his observation that
inhalation of nitrous oxide relieves
pain.5

The idea of using ether came to Long
after he had engaged in "ether
frolics", parties at which ether is
inhaled for the intoxicating effect.6 7

Long participates in many ether parties
and often notices that participants
receive bumps and bruises but
experience no pain.8
This suggests to
him the possibility of using ether to
provide surgical anesthesia. On March
30, 1842, Long removes a small tumor
from the neck of an etherized patient.
When the person operated on regains
consciousness he tells Long that he did
not experienced any pain. Long follows
this up in July by painlessly
amputating the toe of a young etherized
boy.9 Long does not publish any report
of this use until 1849.10

Despite Morton's claims to the
discovery and the publicity of his
demonstration, Long is recognized as
the first to use ether as an anesthetic
for surgery.11

There is one earlier record of the
administration of ether, for a tooth
extraction: in January 1842, William
Clark gave ether to a patient whose
tooth was then removed by Elijah
Pope.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
2. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
3. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p389.
5. ^ "anesthesia."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
6. ^ "Crawford Long." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/crawford-lo
ng
7. ^ "Crawford Williamson Long."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/347192/Crawford-Williamson-Long>.
8. ^ "Crawford Long." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/crawford-lo
ng
9. ^ "Crawford Long." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/crawford-lo
ng
10. ^ "Long, Crawford Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8846>.
11. ^ "Long, Crawford Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8846>.
12. ^ "Crawford Long." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/crawford-lo
ng
13. ^ "Long, Crawford Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8846>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p389. (03/30/1842)
Jefferson, Georgia13  
[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg
158 YBN
[06/17/1842 AD] 16 17 		2812) Also in this year Henry traces
the influence of induction to
surprising distances, magnetizing
needles in the lower story of a house
through several intervening floors by
means of electrical discharges in the
upper story, and also by the secondary
current in a wire 220 ft. distant from
the wire of the primary circuit.13
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
2. ^ Joseph Henry, "On Induction from
Ordinary Electricity; and on the
Oscillatory Discharge.", Proceedings of
the American Philosophical Society,
vol. II, 1842,
p193-196. http://books.google.com/books
?id=5AIwAAAAIAAJ
OR http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/
3143547.pdf
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Thomas
K. Simpson, "Maxwell and the Direct
Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph Henry, "On Induction from
Ordinary Electricity; and on the
Oscillatory Discharge.", Proceedings of
the American Philosophical Society,
vol. II, 1842,
p193-196. http://books.google.com/books
?id=5AIwAAAAIAAJ
OR http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/
3143547.pdf
7. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
Joseph Henry, "On Induction from
Ordinary Electricity; and on the
Oscillatory Discharge.", Proceedings of
the American Philosophical Society,
vol. II, 1842,
p193-196. http://books.google.com/books
?id=5AIwAAAAIAAJ
OR http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/
3143547.pdf
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Joseph
Henry". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
15. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
16. ^ Joseph Henry, Smithsonian,
"Scientific Writings of Joseph Henry",
The Smithsonian Institute, 1886,
p200-203. {06/17/1842}
17. ^ "Joseph Henry (1842,
estimate, needs more exact time and
publication) (1842)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Joseph Henry (1842,
estimate, needs more exact time and
publication)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry (1842, estimate, needs more exact
time and publication) (1842) {influence
of induction) 1842}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[5]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[6]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[7]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[8]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[9] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
[10] "Henry, Joseph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p411
Princeton, NJ, USA14 15  
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
158 YBN
[07/04/1842 AD] 6 		5837)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel Colladon, "Sur les
réflexions d'un rayon de lumière à
l'intérieur d'une veine liquide
parabolique", Comptes Rendus, 15,
p800-802,
(1842). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k2974q/f800.image {Colladon_Danie
l_18420704.pdf} English: "On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream"
2. ^ Bates, Regis J
(2001). Optical Switching and
Networking Handbook. New York:
McGraw-Hill. p. 10. ISBN 007137356X.
3. ^ Tyndall,
John (1870). "Total Reflexion". Notes
about Light.
http://www.archive.org/details/notesofco
urseofn00tyndrich.
4. ^ Tyndall, John (1873). "Six
Lectures on Light".
http://www.archive.org/details/sixlectur
esonlig00tynduoft.
5. ^ Daniel Colladon, "Sur les
réflexions d'un rayon de lumière à
l'intérieur d'une veine liquide
parabolique", Comptes Rendus, 15,
p800-802,
(1842). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k2974q/f800.image {Colladon_Danie
l_18420704.pdf} English: "On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream"
6. ^ Daniel Colladon,
"Sur les réflexions d'un rayon de
lumière à l'intérieur d'une veine
liquide parabolique", Comptes Rendus,
15, p800-802,
(1842). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k2974q/f800.image {Colladon_Danie
l_18420704.pdf} English: "On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream" {07/04/1842}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fiberoptic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberoptic
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Daniel Colladon first described
this ''light fountain'' or ''light
pipe'' in an 1842 article titled On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream. This
particular illustration comes from a
later article by Colladon, in
1884. Author: Jean-Daniel Colladon
(1802-1893). Source: This illustration
appears in ''La Nature'' magazine in
1884 and it is reproduced in modern-day
accounts of the history of fiber optics
including Jeff Hecht's book Story of
Fiber Optics and i-fiberoptics.com.
Collodon first described the system in
an article in ''Comptes Rendus'' 1842,
and described it again in 1884 in ''La
Nature''. In the above illustration,
water comes out of a short spout on the
watertank and then falls through open
air, as in a fountain. The device on
the illustration's lefthand side
produces light and directs a beam of
light into the watertank. The
demonstration of this ''light
fountain'' needs to be done in a
darkened room to see the effect. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/DanielColladon%27s_Li
ghtfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28ma
gazine%29%2C1884.JPG

[2] Jean Daniel COLLADON (1802-1893)
PD
source: http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1
/IMG/jpg/Colladon-Jean-Daniel-prtrt.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 5 		2733) The cyanotype method of
photography is used by Herschel's
friend Anna Atkins to produce the first
photographically illustrated book, and
later employed for decades in the form
of the architect's blueprint.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ "John Herschel".
The Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
3. ^ "John Herschel". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
4. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
5. ^ "John Herschel". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel_1846.png
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 6 		2734)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ "John Herschel".
The Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "John Herschel". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
6. ^ "John Herschel". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel_1846.png
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 10 		2751) The British government
officially1 withdraws funding and puts
the incomplete "Difference Engine"2 of
Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871)3 in the
Science Museum, where it still is
located.4 Babbage then, using his own
money, spends the rest of his life
working on the Analytical Engine, but
never finishes it.5 Babbage is
assisted by Lord Byron's daughter, Ada
Augusta, the countess of Lovelace and
an amateur mathematician. In spite of
his failure to completely develop a
working machine, Babbage (and Lady
Lovelace) are legendary heroes in the
prehistory of the computing age.6
Babbage is sometimes called "the
grandfather of modern computing".7

It is possible that at this time the
British military decided to fund and
continue this project secretly.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.charlesbabbage.net/
2. ^ "Charles Babbage". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
4. ^ "Charles
Babbage". Who2? Biographies. Who2?,
2008. Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
5. ^ "Charles Babbage". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Charles Babbage". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
7. ^ "Charles Babbage". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
10. ^ "Charles Babbage". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 12 		2798) The evils of racism, such as
slavery, or the race-based murder in
Nazi Germany, will use Retzius' and the
actual scientific work of other people
to determine differences between
humans, fraudulently for their own bad
purposes (in supporting claims of
racial separation, inferiority, etc.).9

From 1824-1860 Retzius is a professor
of anatomy and physiology at the
Karolinska Medic-Kirurgiska Institutet,
Stockholm.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp332-333.
2. ^ "Anders Adolf
Retzius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4749/Anders-Adolf-Retzius
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Anders Adolf Retzius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4749/Anders-Adolf-Retzius
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp332-333.
6. ^ "Anders Adolf
Retzius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4749/Anders-Adolf-Retzius
7. ^ "Inferior vena cava". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_ve
na_cava
8. ^ "vena cava". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-762
8/vena-cava
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp332-333.
10. ^ "Anders Adolf
Retzius". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4749/Anders-Adolf-Retzius
11. ^ "Anders Adolf Retzius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4749/Anders-Adolf-Retzius
12. ^ "Anders Adolf Retzius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4749/Anders-Adolf-Retzius (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Adolf Retzius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Adol
f_Retzius
Stockholm, Sweden11  
[1] Anders Retzius PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nob
el/biographical/articles/ringertz/index.
html

[2] Anders
Retzius Lithograph PD/Corel
source: http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp
?d=10925&a=29399&l=sv
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 19 20 		2923)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
4. ^
"Justus baron von Liebig". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
5. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
6. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
13. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Justus von
Liebig". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
17. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
18. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
19. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig (1842)
20. ^
"Justus von Liebig". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>.
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany17 18  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 14 15 		2929)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p353.
2. ^ "Christian
Doppler". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler
3. ^ "Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler
4. ^ "Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Christian Doppler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p353.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p353.
9. ^ "Christian
Johann Doppler". The Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian+Johann+
Doppler?cat=technology
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
11. ^ van Dijke, S.
E. A., "The Role Played by Radial
Velocity in Astronomy", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol.
4,
p.322. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ASPL....4..322V
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Doppler.html
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p353. (1842) (1842)
15. ^
"Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Johann Doppler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_J
ohann_Doppler
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Prague Polytechnic, now Czech
Technical University)Prague, Czech
Republic13  
[1] Johann Christian Andreas
Doppler PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cdoppler.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 5 		2937)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
3. ^ "Sir Richard
Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
4. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356. (1842)
(1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
[3] "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England3 4  
[1] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG

[2] Sir Richard Owen and Dinornis
(Moa) skeleton from The Book of
Knowledge, The Grolier Society,
1911 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Dinor
nis1387.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 4 5 		3031) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
drafts a 35-page sketch of his theory
of natural selection.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1842)
5. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp230-231.
(1842)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
Downe, Kent, England3
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 		3054) Oliver Wendell Holmes (CE
1809-1894), United States author and
physician1 , reads "The Contagiousness
of Puerperal Fever" (1843)2 , calling
attention to the contagiousness of
puerperal fever (a fever relating to,
or occurring during childbirth or the
period immediately following3 )4 .
Holmes' investigation convinces him
that physicians are themselves
responsible for carrying the disease
from one patient to another. As a
result, Holmes advocates the washing of
hands, changing of clothes, and a
twenty-four-hour period between
handling corpses and treating patients.
However, Holmes' directions are viewed
badly by some who can not believe that
physicians could be the source of
disease. Yet, his protocols offered
some response to a pressing public
health concern and questioned the
relationship between disease, patients,
and physicians.5 Asimov states that
Holmes figured out that childbed fever
is caused by doctors not washing their
hands, and that Holmes takes abuse from
doctors who view bloodied and smelly
hands with pride.6

Holmes names the process of applying
ether as "anesthesia" from the Greek
word for "no feeling".7

(Holmes recommends the use of soap in
washing hands? What kind of soap?8 )
At
the early age of 33 Holmes becomes the
first dean of Harvard Medical School.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p370.
2. ^ "Oliver Wendell
Holmes, Sr.." Encyclopedia of Public
Health. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-wend
ell-holmes-sr
3. ^ "Puerperal>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"Puerperal." Merriam-Webster's
Medical Dictionary. Merriam-Webster,
Inc. 05 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
uerperal>.
4. ^ "Holmes, Oliver Wendell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0816>.
5. ^ "Holmes, Oliver Wendell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0816>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p370.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p370.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.."
Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-wend
ell-holmes-sr
10. ^ "Holmes, Oliver Wendell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0816>.
Boston, Massachussetts, USA10  
[1] Oliver Wendell Holmes
(1809–1894), American physician and
writer Source William E. Burton:
cyclopedia of Wit and Humor Date
1858 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes
.jpg

[2] Oliver Wendell Holmes
(1809–1894), American physician and
writer Source Edited photograph
from the Library of Congress.
LC-USZ61-1761 (b&w film copy
neg.) Date around 1894 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes
_Sr_circa_1894.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 22 23 		3150) As ship's physician on a Dutch
merchant ship7 on a voyage to Java (an
island of Indonesia8 ), Mayer realizes
that heat and work are interchangeable,
that the same amount of food can be
converted to different proportions of
heat and work, but that the total must
be the same.9

Mayer send his first paper on the
subject to Annalen der Physik (Annals
of Physics) where the editor, Johann
Poggendorf, does not acknowledge it.
however, Justus von Liebig publishes
the paper "Bemerkungen über die Krafte
der unbelebten Natur"10 ("Comments on
the forces of inanimate nature"11 ) in
the journal "Annalen der Chemie und
Pharmazie" (Annals of Chemistry and
Pharmacy).12
Mayer is expelled (from
school13 ) for liberal views.14
In 1849
Mayer jumps out a 3 story building in a
failed suicide attempt laming himself
permanently.15
In 1851 Mayer is
(locked16 ) in a mental institution
where primitive and cruel methods
prevail, however is later released.17

In 1856 Liebig mistakenly refers to
Mayer as dead.18
In 1871 Mayer
receives the Copley medal.19
(I think
some people feel sympathy for some
people with potential scientific
contributions, and I think the
important thing is feel sympathy for
all of life, but clearly distinguishing
true and false in terms of science,
throwing away any lies or compromises
told to be polite, popular, or warm,
etc and also with no regard to gender,
race, religion, political beliefs, just
focusing on what is factually true in
your own opinion. And I think that
individual scientific beliefs can be
asserted, politely, and compassionately
without disrespecting any person.20 )
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
3. ^ Thomas S.
Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory of Adiabatic
Compression", Isis, Vol. 49, No. 2
(Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
4. ^ "Robert Mayer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-maye
r
5. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Mayer, Julius Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p589.
8. ^ "Java."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/java
9. ^ "Robert Mayer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-maye
r
10. ^ "Julius Robert Mayer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_R
obert_Mayer
11. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=de&tl=en
12. ^ "Robert Mayer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-maye
r
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
"Robert Mayer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-maye
r
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387. (1842)
23. ^
"Robert Mayer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-maye
r (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "thermodynamics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008, p19.
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258
556>
Heilbronn, Germany21  
[1] Julius Robert von Mayer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Julius_Robert_von_May
er.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 10 		3152) A neighbor of Lawes explains that
on some local farms bone meal increases
turnip production, while on others bone
meal seems to have no effect and this
starts Lawes on his life of
experimenting on the chemistry of
fertilizers.7

(One idea that occurs to me is that
very large buildings built up or down
into the earth, could grow many rows of
plants inside using electric lights
which would be free of many insects,
loss of light and wind. In addition, if
not already, eventually, the cost of
space above or below the earth is not
as much as the cost on the surface.
Inside growing is going to dominate the
future in my opinion, in particular as
humans move into orbit and to the
planets of other stars. Also, totally
automated systems, where seeding,
watering, harvesting, packaging and
distributing are all done automatically
with machines and/or walking robots.8 )
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287.
2. ^ "John Bennet
Lawes." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bennet
-lawes
3. ^ "John Bennet Lawes." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bennet
-lawes
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287.
5. ^ "John Bennet
Lawes." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bennet
-lawes
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John Bennet
Lawes." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bennet
-lawes
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287. (1842)
10. ^ "Lawes,
John Bennet and Gilbert, Joseph Henry",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p526. (1842)
Rothamsted, England9  
[1] Sir John Bennet Lawes
(1814-1900), Founder of the Famous
Rothamsted Experiment Station PD/Corel

source: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01a
glibrary/010134hopkins/fig.p75.jpg

[2] J B Lawes circa 1880: English
agriculturist Sir John Bennet Lawes
(1814 - 1900). (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
3318764 Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=3318764&text=John+Bennett
+Lawes
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 7 		3156) Forbes devotes much of his life
to an extensive study of mollusks and
starfishes, participating in dredgings
and expeditions in the Irish Sea
(1834), France, Switzerland, Germany,
Algeria (1836), Austria (1838), and the
Mediterranean (1841–42).4

Forbes believes in a creation plan as
opposed to evolution.5

Forbes completes "History of British
Mollusca" (4 vol., 1852) in 1852.6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
4. ^ "Forbes,
Edward." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
23 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4824>.
5. ^ "Forbes, Edward, Jr.", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p321.
6. ^ "Forbes, Edward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4824>.
7. ^ "Forbes, Edward." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4824>. (1841-1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Forbes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Forb
es
[2] "Edward Forbes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_F
orbes
Mediterranean Sea 
[1] Edward Forbes (February 12, 1815 -
November 18, 1854), British
naturalist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Edward_Forbes.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 16 17 		3179) Over the course of his life, more
than two hundred and fifty men from a
dozen different countries come to study
under Ludwig.8 (Sadly, at the time
women are not encouraged to pursue the
career of physician, which wastes half
of the potential human resource and
talent, in addition to creating a
second lower class of people of half
the humans.9 )

Schmiedeberg under Ludwig's guidance in
1866 discovers the accelerator nerve of
the heart of the frog and the dog, and
in 1883, Wooldridge finds centrifugal
fibers to the heart of the dog which
alter the blood pressure without
changing the rate of the heart beat.
Bowditch the best known of the US
physiologists10 in 1871 working with
an excised (frog?11 ) heart and frog
manometer (an instrument for measuring
the pressure of a fluid, consisting of
a tube filled with a liquid, the level
of the liquid being determined by the
fluid pressure and the height of the
liquid being indicated on a scale12 )
shows that the heart muscle either
contracts all together or not at all
(referred to as the "all or none"
principle13 ), Luciana and Stienon,
study the effects of electrical
excitation on the heart muscle and
ascertain a number of facts of
theoretical importance to heart and
muscle physiology.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ "Carl Ludwig."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-carl
-friedrich-wilhelm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Ludwig, Carl F.W.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
5. ^ "Ludwig, Carl F.W.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Physician and Surgeon,
(Volume 27, Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
8. ^ Physician and Surgeon, (Volume 27,
Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Physician and Surgeon,
(Volume 27, Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "manometer."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 27 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
anometer>.
13. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=J
voIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA600
14. ^ Physician and Surgeon, (Volume
27, Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
15. ^ "Carl Ludwig." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-carl
-friedrich-wilhelm
16. ^ "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Ludwig (1842)
17. ^ "Ludwig,
Carl F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm
Ludwig". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedr
ich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Ludwig, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p440
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany15  
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 5 		3284)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://astro-canada.ca/_en/a2306.html
2. ^
http://astro-canada.ca/_en/a2306.html
3. ^ Record ID3279. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://astro-canada.ca/_en/a2306.html
5. ^
http://astro-canada.ca/_en/a2306.html
(1842)
France4 (presumably)  
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 20 		3475) Thompson is an infant prodigy.7
Wi
lliam Thomson's father, James Thomson,
is a textbook writer, who teaches
mathematics, first in Belfast and later
as a professor at the University of
Glasgow.8
From 1890-1894 Thompson is
president of the Royal Society.9
Thompso
n rejects the idea that radioactive
atoms are disintegrating, or that the
energy they release (in modern terms
the photons10 ) comes from within the
atom.11
Thomson also opposes Darwin,
remaining "on the side of the
angels".12 (To me this shows a serious
limitation on the depth of his logic
skills, understanding of history and
basic education.13 )
After assisting the
successful laying of the transatlantic
cable, Thomson becomes a partner in two
engineering consulting firms, which
play a major role in the planning and
construction of submarine cables during
the period of massive growth that
results in a global network of
telegraph communication. Thomson
becomes a wealthy man, owning a 126-ton
yacht and a baronial estate.14
Thompson
is one of the first to support
Faraday's lines of force.15
Thompson
introduces Bell's telephone to Great
Britain.16
In retirement, Thomson
spends much of his time in writing and
revising the lectures on the wave
theory of light which he had delivered
at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
in 1884, but which were not finally
published till 1904.17
In his lifetime
Thomson produces 661 scientific
publications and 70 patents.18
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ "William
Thomson, Baron Kelvin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
3. ^ Record ID2606. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p873-874
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
8. ^ "William
Thomson, Baron Kelvin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
12. ^ "William
Thomson, Baron Kelvin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
17. ^ "William
Thomson, Baron Kelvin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
18. ^
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
19. ^ "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
20. ^ "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[4] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[5] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[6] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[7] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England19  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 4 		5991) Chopin is a legendary pianist who
only gives approximately 30 public
performances in his entire lifetime.2

Chopin is a child prodigy and at eight
makes his first public appearance at a
charity concert. Three years later
Chopin performs in the presence of the
Russian tsar Alexander I, who is in
Warsaw to open Parliament. At seven
Chopin writes a Polonaise in G Minor.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fr-d-ric-ch
opin
2. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fr-d-ric-ch
opin
3. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/114362/Frederic-Chopin>.
4. ^ "List of compositions by
Frédéric Chopin by opus number".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin_b
y_opus_number {1842 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/nohant-vic
Nohant, France3  
[1] Description English: Autograph
partiture by the Polish composer
Frédéric Chopin of his Polonaise Op.
53 in A flat major for piano,
1842. Français : Partition autographe
du compositeur polonais Frédéric
Chopin, pour sa Polonaise pour piano en
si bémol majeur, Opus 53, dite «
Polonaise héroïque »
(1842). Inscription top right:
Polonaise, pour le piano, dediée à
Monsieur Auguste Leo. Op. 53. Leipsic
Breitkopf et Haertel. Paris
Schlesinger. Londres Wessel et
Stapleton. Date 1842 Source
Heineman Music Collection
(Unbound), Pierpont Morgan Library
Dept. of Music Manuscripts and
Books Author [show]Frederic Chopin
(1810–1849) Link back to Creator
infobox template Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
http://www.themorgan.org/collections/co
llectionsPaging.asp?page=9&id=Music PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Chopin_polonaise_Op._
53.jpg

[2] Description Frédéric Chopin
1846 or 1847 daguerreotype Date
1846/47 Source Fryderyk
Chopin Society, Warsaw, as reproduced
at
http://jackgibbons.blogspot.com/2010/03/
chopins-photograph.html Author
unknown Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Chopin_1846_daguerreo
type.JPG
157 YBN
[02/03/1843 AD] 17 18 		2641) Morse buys some 250km of (iron?9
) wire made by the Stephen & Thomas
plant in New Jersey. The Ohio Railway
gives Morse permission to use the
railroad's right-of-way. Initially
Morse chooses to run the wire
underground, using two wires enclosed
in lead pipes. However, after laying
about 15km of wire, work is stopped
because the line fails to operate.
Morse reads that Cooke and Wheatstone
have shifted from underground to above
ground pole mounting of wire, Morse
decides to mount the wire on poles.
Upon advice from Joseph Henry, Morse
decides to use two glass plates on each
pole separating the two wires. 500
chestnut tree poles, 7 meters (23 feet)
high are erected 60 meters apart.
Number 16 copper wire is used,
insulated with cotton thread treated
with shellac and a mixture of beeswax,
resin, linseed oil, and asphalt. The
battery in Baltimore consisting of acid
cells, provides an 80 volt electricity
source.10 Before this messages are
sent by horse, railways had only
started in 1830, and messages from New
York to Washington took a day to
deliver and 3 weeks to reach Chicago.11


This starts the telegraph era in the
United States, which will last more
than 100 years.12 (Is this the origin
of AT&T?13 )

Although the earliest applications of
the telegraph is for railroad traffic
control, the telegraph immediately
becomes a vital tool for the
transmission of news around the
(planet14 ).15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
3. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
5. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p61.
11. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p61.
12. ^
"telegraph". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "telegraph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
16. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
17. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
(02/03/1843)
18. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p60. (03/03/1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[2] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[4] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM#PPA
91,M1 The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman
Washington DC, USA16  
[1] Morse-Vail Telegraph Key,
1844-1845 This key, believed to be
from the first American telegraph line,
was built by Alfred Vail as an
improvement on Samuel Morse''s original
transmitter. Vail helped Morse develop
a practical system for sending and
receiving coded electrical signals over
a wire, which was successfully
demonstrated in 1844. Photo courtesy
of the National Museum of American
History 1844 version PD
source: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pnp/dag/3c
/3c10000/3c10084r.jpg

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg
157 YBN
[06/??/1843 AD] 5 		2394)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
2. ^ "Alexander
Humboldt". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
3. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
4. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
5. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt (1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
[2] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_v
on_Humboldt
Paris, France4  
[1] * Description: Alexander von
Humboldt, oil paint on canvas, 126 x
92,5 cm * Author: Friedrich Georg
Weitsch, 1806 * Gallery:
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -
Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Alte
Nationalgalerie Berlin * Source:
http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatr
on/portrait.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg
157 YBN
[06/??/1843 AD] 6 		2395)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp266-267.
2. ^ "Alexander
Humboldt". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Alexander von Humboldt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1488/Alexander-von-Humboldt
5. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt
6. ^ "Alexander Humboldt". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Alexander%20%20Hu
mboldt (1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander von Humboldt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_v
on_Humboldt
Paris, France5  
[1] * Description: Alexander von
Humboldt, oil paint on canvas, 126 x
92,5 cm * Author: Friedrich Georg
Weitsch, 1806 * Gallery:
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -
Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Alte
Nationalgalerie Berlin * Source:
http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatr
on/portrait.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg
157 YBN
[08/21/1843 AD] 22 		3239) Joule begins "It is pretty
generally, I believe, taken for granted
that the electric forces which are put
into play by the magneto-electrical
machine possess, throughout the whole
circuit, the same caloritic properties
as currents arising from other sources.
And indeed when we consider heat not as
a substance, but as a state of
vibration, there appears to be no
reason why it should not be induced by
an action of a simply mechanical
character, such, for instance, as is
presented in the revolution of a coil
of wire before the poles of a permanent
magnet. At the same time it must be
admitted that hitherto no experiments
have been made decisive of this very
interesting question; for all of them
refer to a particular part of the
circuit only, leaving it a matter of
doubt whether the heat observed was
generated, or merely transferred from
the coils in which the
magneto-electricity was induced, the
coild themselves becoming cold. The
latter view did not appear untenable
without further experiments,
considering the facts which I had
already succeeded in proving, viz. that
the heat evolved by the voltaic batter
is definite (Phil. Mag. ser. 3. vol.
xix. p. 275.) for the chemical changes
taking place at the same time; and that
the heat rendered ("Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester", 2nd series, vol. vii. p.
97.) - facts which, among others, might
seem to prove that arrangement only,
not generation of heat, takes place
inthe voltaic apparatus, the simply
conducting parts of the circuit
evolving that which was previously
latent in the battery. And Peltier, by
his discovery that cold is produced by
a current passing from bismuth to
antimony, had, I conceived, proved to a
great extent that the heat evolved by
thermo-electricity is transferred (the
quantity of heat thus transferred is, I
doubt not, proportional to the square
of the difference between the
temperatures of the two solders. I have
attempted an experimental demonstration
of this law, but, owning to the extreme
minuteness of the quantities of heat in
question, I have not been able to
arrive at any satisfactory result.")
from the heated solder, no heat being
generated. I resolved therefore to
endeavor to clear up the uncertainty
with respect to magneto-electrical
heat. In this attempt I have met with
results which will, I hope, be worthy
the attention of the British
Association.".20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
2. ^ "Joule, James
Prescott." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
3 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>.
3. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf} (read) 08/21/1843)
4. ^ Thomas
S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory of
Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol. 49,
No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
5. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf}
6. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf} (read) 08/21/1843)
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf} (read) 08/21/1843)
10. ^ James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon
Playfair Playfair, William Thomson,
"The Scientific Papers of James
Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society,
1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf} (read) 08/21/1843)
11. ^ James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon
Playfair Playfair, William Thomson,
"The Scientific Papers of James
Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society,
1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf} (read) 08/21/1843)
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf}
21. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf}
22. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp123-159. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf} (read) 08/21/1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5] "Joule, Jame Prescott", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p469
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>. (1843)
[7]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1843)
[8] Crosbie W. Smith, "Faraday as
Referee of Joule's Royal Society Paper
'On the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat"',Isis , Vol. 67, No. 3 (Sep.,
1976), pp. 444-449.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/230684?seq
=2 {Joule_Faraday_Referee_Isis_1976_230
684.pdf}
(read in Cork, Ireland experiments done
in:) Broom Hill (near Manchester),
England21  
[1] Joule's experiment turning an
electromagnet in water between two
powerful permanent magnets to determine
current and temperature. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Produ
ction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22

[2] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg
157 YBN
[10/16/1843 AD] 23 		3001)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
2. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
3. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p358.
6. ^ "complex
number". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
5024/complex-number
7. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
10. ^ "modulus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/moduli
11. ^ "modulus." A Dictionary of
Weights, Measures, and Units. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2004.
Answers.com 25 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/moduli
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Sir William
Rowan Hamilton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
17. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Hamilton/Papers.html
18. ^ William Hamilton, "On a new
Species of Imaginary Quantities
connected with a theory of
Quaternions", Proceedings of the Royal
Irish Academy, 2 (1844), pp. 424-434.
{Hamilton_1843_Quatern1.pdf}
19. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
20. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Sir William Rowan
Hamilton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
23. ^ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9042/Sir-William-Rowan-Hamilton
(10/16/1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Rowan Hamilton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-row
an-hamilton
[2] Weisstein, Eric W. "Plane." From
MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Plane.html
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_%28ma
thematics%29
[4] "Sir William Rowan Hamilton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Rowan_Hamilton
(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland22  
[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg
157 YBN
[12/31/1843 AD] 6 		3603) Alexander Bain (CE 1811-1877),
machinist1 , constructs an earth
battery, by creating current between a
plate of zinc and copper buried in the
ground. Gauss and Steinheil had
previously done this.2 3 (chronology4
)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Munro, "Heroes of the
Telegraph", The Religious tract
society,
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
2. ^ "Alexander Bain" (obituary),
Nature, Jan 11, 1877,
218. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
38CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218&dq=Alexander+Bain+t
elegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwOG
rAQ
3. ^ John Munro, "Heroes of the
Telegraph", The Religious tract
society,
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ John Munro, "Heroes of
the Telegraph", The Religious tract
society,
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
6. ^ "Alexander Bain" (obituary),
Nature, Jan 11, 1877,
218. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
38CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218&dq=Alexander+Bain+t
elegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwOG
rAQ {1843}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bain.html
[2] "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>
[3] Iconographic Encyclopaedia of the
Arts and Sciences, Iconographic
publishing co., 1890,
p376. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+B
ain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQ
OKwOGrAQ
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Bain's ''earth battery'' PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bain_battery.jpg

[2] Alexander Bain, 1847 PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bain11.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 4 		1614)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ William Tobin, "The
Life and Science of Léon Foucault",
Cambridge University Press, 2003.
3. ^
William Tobin, "The Life and Science of
Léon Foucault", Cambridge University
Press, 2003.
4. ^ William Tobin, "The Life
and Science of Léon Foucault",
Cambridge University Press, 2003.
{1843}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dominique François Jean
Arago". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_F
ran%C3%A7ois_Jean_Arago
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
[3] "Francois Arago". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago (1824)
Paris, France3  
[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 8 		2615) Schwabe makes (1831) the first
known detailed drawing of the Great Red
Spot on Jupiter.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp311-312.
2. ^ "Samuel Heinrich
Schwabe". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6250/Samuel-Heinrich-Schwabe
3. ^ "Heinrich Samuel Schwabe". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Heinrich%20Samuel
%20Schwabe
4. ^ "Heinrich Samuel Schwabe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Sa
muel_Schwabe
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Samuel Heinrich
Schwabe". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6250/Samuel-Heinrich-Schwabe
7. ^ "Heinrich Samuel Schwabe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Sa
muel_Schwabe
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp311-312. (1843)
(1843)
Dessau, Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] English: Samuel Heinrich Schwabe,
German astronomer (1789 - 1875) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Heinrich_Schwabe.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 4 		2616)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp311-312.
2. ^ "Samuel Heinrich
Schwabe". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6250/Samuel-Heinrich-Schwabe
3. ^ "Heinrich Samuel Schwabe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Sa
muel_Schwabe
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp311-312. (1843)
(1843)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Heinrich%20Samuel
%20Schwabe
Dessau, Germany3 (presumably) 
[1] English: Samuel Heinrich Schwabe,
German astronomer (1789 - 1875) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Heinrich_Schwabe.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 21 		2794) James Braid (CE 1795-1860),
Scottish surgeon1 uses the word
"hypnotism" instead of "mesmerism" or
"animal magnetism", and demonstrates
that hypnosis is achieved by
suggestion. Braid's writings prepared
the way for investigations into what
will be called the unconscious mind.2

In 1841, Braid attends a lecture on
animal magnetism (mesmerism3 ) given by
Charles Lafontaine4 , then performs his
own experiments with mesmerism.5 (This
view of animal magnetism descends from
the idea that magnets affect humans,
and perhaps Braid seeks to remove this
theoretical relation to the method of
hypnosis.6 )
Braid rejects the popular
belief that the ability to induce
hypnosis is connected with the magical
passage of a fluid or other influence
from the operator to the patient.
Instead Braid adopts a physiological
view that hypnosis is a kind of nervous
sleep, induced by fatigue resulting
from the intense concentration
necessary for staring at a bright,
inanimate object.7

Braid finds that he is able to put a
person in a trance-like state
resembling sleep but different in being
(partially8 )-conscious and
extraordinarily open to suggestion.
Braid describes this as a suspension of
the conscious mind, induced by having
been forced into weariness through
repetitive stimuli, and calls this
state "hypnotism" from the Greek word
for "sleep".9

Braid publishes his findings in his
book "Neurypnology" (1843), in which
Brain introduces the term "hypnosis".10

brain is mainly interested in the
therapeutic possibilities of hypnosis
and reports successful treatment of
paralysis, rheumatism, and aphasia.
Brain hopes that hypnosis can be used
to cure various seemingly incurable
"nervous" diseases and also to
alleviate the pain and (fear11 ) of
patients in surgery.12


(some people are more easily brought
into this condition, while for others
it is virtually impossible. I wonder if
"hypnotist" shows are rigged, and if
there is any truth at all to the
phenomenon. Seeing and hearing people's
thoughts might reveal. Perhaps the
hypnotic state is simply sleeping, or
the part of the brain that controls
sleep is activated, or the part that
controls the brain when awake is made
to sleep. 13 )

On aspect of the idea of suggestion is
how easily an image, sound sent
directly or invoked by stimulated an
already existing memory can influence
the decisions made by a brain. This is
shown, in particular, in brains that
are unaware that such images, and
sounds are being sent or stimulated in
their brain, wrongly believing that
their thoughts cannot be externally
changed except through the usual inputs
such as eyes, ears, nose, skin, etc.14
In some sense, perhaps there is a
component of this principle in the
phenomenon of hypnosis. More
interesting is how decisions may
possibly be automatically made in the
brain without the owner of the brain
having any control over any part of
their own brain. Clearly this has been
demonstrated for all muscles, so there
is every reason to believe that this
may also be true for the movement of
all electrical currents in the cells of
any brain.15 The future of this
technology may result in a
voluntary-only use, more
user-controlled and pleasant. Some of
those people may enjoy wisely chosen
suggestions and information, for
example, of what to eat, which videos
to see, potential dangers, etc.16

I think hypnotism is a very
experimental and mostly ineffective
method, although I have never seen any
real studies done. In this time, even
now, with so much pseudo and
experimental science in health, mainly
psychology, I doubt the value of
hypnosis, and I doubt many of the
theories behind so-called psychiatric
diseases. As always, the key concept is
consensual treatment only.17 How much
of the current view of health will
change or has already secretly
radically changed as a result of the
secret technology of seeing, hearing,
sending images and sounds to and from
brains leaves large unanswered
questions for the future. For example,
many of those who claimed to hear
voices might not be forcibly treated,
pain might be stopped at the neuron,
sleep might be able to be automatically
induced at the neuron, health problems
more easily determined by examining
thought images, violent people more
easily identified using thought images
as evidence, among many countless other
improvements.18

Braid's findings are opposed at first,
but eventually inspire the development
of the French school of
neuropsychiatry.19

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp330-331.
2. ^ "James Braid".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Braid
3. ^ "James Braid". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid
4. ^ "James Braid". Encyclopedia of
Occultism and Parapsychology. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Braid
5. ^ "James Braid". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "James Braid".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp330-331.
10. ^ "James Braid".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "James Braid".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "James Braid". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid
20. ^ "James Braid". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid
21. ^ "James Braid". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6170/James-Braid (1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Braid (physician)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Braid
_%28physician%29
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Hypnotism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hypnotis
m
Manchester, England20
(presumably) 
[1] Photograph of Portrait of James
Braid. Before 1860, artist unknown.
From an engraved portrait in the
possession of the Manchester Medical
School. In the public domain. Source
[1]
http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerend
er.fcgi?artid=1034288 Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Date
2006-04-02 (original upload
date) Author Original uploader was
Cactus.man at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-ART-LIFE-50. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Braid%2C_portrait.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 27 		2801) Erbium has symbol Er, atomic
number 68, atomic mass 167.26, melting
point 1,529°C, boiling point 2,863°C,
relative density 9.05 at 25°C, and
valence +3. Erbium is a soft,
malleable, lustrous, silvery metal.
Erbium is a member of the lanthanide
series in Group 3 of the periodic
table. With other rare earths Erbium's
oxide occurs in the mineral gadolinite,
found in Sweden. Natural erbium is a
mixture of 6 stable isotopes; in
addition, 10 radioactive isotopes are
known. Erbium does not oxidize in air
as rapidly as some of the other
rare-earth metals. Erbia is a
rose-colored oxide of erbium and has
been used to a very limited extent in
glazes and glass as a coloring agent.19


What Mossander calls terbia becomes
known as erbia and is shown to contain
five distinct rare earths, now called
(made singular20 ) erbium, scandium,
holmium, thulium, and ytterbium. Fairly
pure erbium oxide is first isolated in
1905; fairly pure erbium is isolated in
1934.21

Terbium is a soft, silvery-gray
metallic rare-earth element, used in
x-ray and color television tubes.
Atomic number 65; atomic weight
158.925; melting point 1,356°C;
boiling point 3,123°C; relative
density 8.229; valence 3, 4.22

Terbium does not tarnish rapidly in
air. Terbium's oxide, terbia, Tb2O3, is
white; its peroxide, Tb4O7, is dark
brown to black. Terbium and its
compounds have limited commercial
importance; some minor uses are in
lasers, semiconductor devices, and
phosphors for color television picture
tubes (like yttrium they must emit
light in red frequencies when collided
with electrons23 ).24 Mosander
discovered Terbium in its oxide form
originally naming it "erbia", but has
been known as terbium since 1877.25
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp333-334.
2. ^ "Carl Gustaf
Mosander". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3874/Carl-Gustaf-Mosander
3. ^ "Yttrium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp333-334.
5. ^
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/la.html
6. ^ "Yttrium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium
7. ^
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/la.html
8. ^ "Yttrium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium
9. ^
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/la.html
10. ^ "yttrium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yttrium?cat
=technology
11. ^
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/la.html
12. ^ "yttrium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yttrium?cat
=technology
13. ^
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/la.html
14. ^ "Yttrium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium
15. ^ "yttrium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yttrium?cat
=technology
16. ^ "Yttrium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium
17. ^ "erbium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2865/erbium
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "erbium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/erbium?cat=techno
logy
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "erbium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2865/erbium
22. ^ "terbium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/terbium?cat=techn
ology
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "terbium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/terbium?cat=techn
ology
25. ^ "terbium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/terbium?cat=techn
ology
26. ^ "Carl Gustaf Mosander".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3874/Carl-Gustaf-Mosander
27. ^ "yttrium". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yttrium?cat
=technology (1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Gustav Mosander".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav
_Mosander
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-gustav
-mosander?cat=technology
[3] "yttrium". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8099/yttrium
[4] "Ytterby". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytterby
[5] "Erbium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbium
[6] "terbium". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1743/terbium
[7] "Terbium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terbium
(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden26  
[1] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html

[2] Element: Yttrium Atomic Weight of
Yttrium: 88.9059 Electron
Configuration of Yttrium:
[Kr]5s14d1 Atomic Radius of Yttrium:
181 pm Melting Point of Yttrium: 1522
ºC Boiling Point of Yttrium: 3345
ºC Oxidation States of Yttrium: 3 A.
L. Allred Electronegativity of Yttrium:
1.22 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.chemicalforums.com/in
dex.php?page=periodictable#Y
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 6 		2905) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON1 ) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist2 , communicates an important
paper to the Royal Society, entitled
"An Account of Several New Processes
for Determining the Constants of a
Voltaic Circuit" which contains a
description of the balance for
measuring the electrical resistance of
a conductor, which still goes by the
name of "Wheatstone's Bridge" or
balance, although it was first devised
by Samuel Hunter Christie, of the Royal
Military Academy, Woolwich, who
published it in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1833. The method was
neglected until Wheatstone brings it
into notice.3

The Christie (or Wheatstone) bridge is
an electrical bridge circuit used to
measure resistance. It consists of a
common source of electrical current
(such as a battery) and a galvanometer
that connects two parallel branches,
containing four resistors, three of
which are known. One parallel branch
contains one known resistance and an
unknown; the other parallel branch
contains resistors of known
resistances. In order to determine the
resistance of the unknown resistor, the
resistances of the other three are
adjusted and balanced until the current
passing through the galvanometer
decreases to zero.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^ "Charles
Wheatstone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
6. ^ "Charles Wheatstone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone (1843)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[2] "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Wheatstone bridge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatstone_
bridge
[5]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/6v647ul40r703255/?p=39a32180b43742e6aac
fe3ebff5f3b93&pi=14 The Bakerian
Lecture: An Account of Several New
Instruments and Processes for
Determining the Constants of a Voltaic
Circuit Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 133 -
1843 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1843.0014
(King's College) London, England5
(presumably) 
[1] Description Wheatstone's bridge
circuit diagram. Source
self-made Date
2007-10-09 Author Rhdv [t
Notice that Rx is the unknown
resistor] GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Wheatstonebridge.svg

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 5 		2924)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
4. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
[3] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany3 4  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 7 8 		3092)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "John William
Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211.
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
5. ^ "John
William Draper". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
6. ^ "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper
 (1843)
7. ^
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=3&ex=STC_26&id=691# (1840) (1843)
(1840)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[2] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[3] "John William Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. "John
William Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211
[5]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm (1840)
[6] "John Draper."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper
 (1840)
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. [7]
"John William Draper", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p211.
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA6  
[1] [t note that date in
1840] Spectrograph John William
Draper Daguerreotype 1840 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 138 PD/Corel

source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/691_Image_138.jpg

[2] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 10 11 		3133)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://infopedia.nl.sg/articles/SIP_358_
2005-01-06.html
2. ^ "gutta-percha." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8605>.
3. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Inte
rnationaltelegraphconnections/
4. ^
http://infopedia.nl.sg/articles/SIP_358_
2005-01-06.html
5. ^ "gutta-percha." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8605>.
6. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/ind3.htm
7. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Inte
rnationaltelegraphconnections/
8. ^
http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries
/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelegraph/Inte
rnationaltelegraphconnections/
9. ^
http://infopedia.nl.sg/articles/SIP_358_
2005-01-06.html
10. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/ind3.htm
(1843)
11. ^
http://infopedia.nl.sg/articles/SIP_358_
2005-01-06.html (1843)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.plastiquarian.com/gutta.htm
Singapore8 (and London, England9
) 
[1] Gutta percha (GP), also known as
balata, is a natural thermoplastic and
is of fundamental importance in the
history of the plastics
industry. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/gut
ta.htm
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 7 		3153)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287.
2. ^ "Sir Joseph
Henry Gilbert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Henry_Gilbert
3. ^ "John Bennet Lawes." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bennet
-lawes
4. ^ "John Bennet Lawes." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bennet
-lawes
5. ^ "John Bennet Lawes." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bennet
-lawes
6. ^ "Lawes, John Bennet and Gilbert,
Joseph Henry", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p526.
7. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p287. (1843)
Rothamsted, England5 (factory at
Deptford Creek, England6  
[1] Sir John Bennet Lawes
(1814-1900), Founder of the Famous
Rothamsted Experiment Station PD/Corel

source: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01a
glibrary/010134hopkins/fig.p75.jpg

[2] Joseph Henry
Gilbert (1817-1901) PD
source: http://www.tumbledownfarm.com/im
g/SF/Soil_Fertility_344.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 10 11 		3194) In 1841, Kopp becomes
Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) at
the University of Giessen.7
Kopp works
under Justus Liebig at the University
of Giessen.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp392-393.
2. ^ "Kopp, Hermann
Franz Moritz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6043>.
3. ^ "Kopp, Hermann", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp497-498.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp392-393.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Kopp, Hermann Franz Moritz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6043>.
8. ^ "Kopp, Hermann", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp497-498.
9. ^ "Kopp, Hermann", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp497-498.
10. ^ "Kopp, Hermann Franz
Moritz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6043>. (1843-1847)
11. ^ "Kopp, Hermann", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp497-498. (1843-1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kopp-herman
n-franz-moritz
[2] "Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Fra
nz_Moritz_Kopp
(University of Giessen) Geissen,
Germany9  
[1] Hermann Kopp PD/Corel
source: http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/ins
titute/fak12/gif/kopp.gif
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 14 		3201) Hofmann studies law and languages
at Giessen.3 (Which may explain how he
successfully worked in England for a
long time4 )
Hofmann studied under Justus
von Liebig at the University of Giessen
and received his doctorate in 1841.5
Ho
fmann is a co-founder of the German
Chemical Society (1867) and serves as
its president from 1868–92.6

Hofmann is a windower 3 times.7 (that
seems beyond coincidence, but perhaps
are natural deaths.8 )
Hofmann is the
father of 11 children.9
Asimov comments
that under Hofmann's leadership,
Germany overtakes England and France in
the dye industry, until the WWI British
blockade, when the US will develop a
chemical industry.10

Hofmann synthesizes new dyes.11

Most of Hofmann's 360 major papers grow
out of his work with the derivatives of
coal tar and the synthesis of related
organic compounds.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p394.
2. ^ "Hofmann, August
Wilhelm Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp432-433
3. ^ "Hofmann, August Wilhelm Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp432-433
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Hofmann, August Wilhelm von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0711>.
6. ^ "Hofmann, August Wilhelm von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0711>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p394.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "August
Wilhelm von Hofmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-wilh
elm-von-hofmann
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p394.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p394.
12. ^ "August
Wilhelm von Hofmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-wilh
elm-von-hofmann
13. ^ "Hofmann, August Wilhelm Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp432-433
14. ^
"Hofmann, August Wilhelm Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp432-433 (1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilh
elm_von_Hofmann
[2] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
ilhelm_von_Hofmann
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany13
 
[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 6 7 		3231)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
2. ^ "Du
Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/reymond.htm
5. ^ "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>.
6. ^ "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>. (1843)
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/reymond.htm (1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "Emil du Bois-Reymond." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
[2] "Emil du Bois-Reymond."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
[3] "Emil du Bois-Reymond." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
[4] "Emil Heinrich du Bois-Reymond".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Heinri
ch_du_Bois-Reymond
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p263
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
 
[1] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
Loecher & Petsch Medium: Photograph
PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-04a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Gesellschaft,
Berlin (Photographic company) Medium:
Photogravure Original Artist: Max
Koner, 1854-1900 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 23.8 x 17.6 cm / Sheet: 28.8
x 20.4 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-03a.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 5 6 		3232) Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond
(DYUBWA rAmON) (CE 1818-1896), German
physiologist1 publishes
"Untersuchungen über thierische
Elektricität", 2 vol. (1848–1884;
"Researches on Animal Electricity"),
which creates the field of
electrophysiology.2
Du Bois-Reymond
rarely publishes discoveries in
separate papers. The bulk of his work
appeared collectively in this, Du
Bois-Reymond's most famous book.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
2. ^ "Du
Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>.
3. ^ "Emil du Bois-Reymond."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
4. ^ "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>.
5. ^ "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1292>. (1843)
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/reymond.htm (1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "Emil du Bois-Reymond." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
[2] "Emil du Bois-Reymond." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-du-boi
s-reymond
[3] "Emil Heinrich du Bois-Reymond".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Heinri
ch_du_Bois-Reymond
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p263.
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
Loecher & Petsch Medium: Photograph
PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-04a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Gesellschaft,
Berlin (Photographic company) Medium:
Photogravure Original Artist: Max
Koner, 1854-1900 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 23.8 x 17.6 cm / Sheet: 28.8
x 20.4 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-03a.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 6 		3301)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Hodson Brock, Justus Von
Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper,
Cambridge University Press, 1997,
p136. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VugoemP2th0C&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=%22Th
omas+Drayton%22+silvering&source=web&ots
=M509-977E-&sig=5fuhVSfJVAFjZyXxAKErgi5o
oHI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&c
t=result
2. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp200-203.
3. ^ William
Hodson Brock, Justus Von Liebig: The
Chemical Gatekeeper, Cambridge
University Press, 1997,
p136. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VugoemP2th0C&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=%22Th
omas+Drayton%22+silvering&source=web&ots
=M509-977E-&sig=5fuhVSfJVAFjZyXxAKErgi5o
oHI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&c
t=result
4. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp200-203.
5. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, pp200-203.
6. ^ William Hodson Brock, Justus
Von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper,
Cambridge University Press, 1997,
p136. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VugoemP2th0C&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=%22Th
omas+Drayton%22+silvering&source=web&ots
=M509-977E-&sig=5fuhVSfJVAFjZyXxAKErgi5o
oHI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&c
t=result {1843}
London, England5   
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 13 		3326) In 1842, Cayley is the champion
student ("Senior Wrangler") of his
year.6
Cayley spends 14 years working
as a barrister, since he is unwilling
to take holy orders, which at the time
is a necessary condition of continuing
his mathematical career at Cambridge.
When this requirement is dropped,
Cayley is able to return to Cambridge
and in 1863 becomes Sadlerian Professor
there.7
Cayley has an extraordinarily
prolific career, producing almost a
thousand mathematical papers.8
In 1876
Cayley publishes his only book
"Treatise on Elliptic Functions".9
Cayle
y's collected papers are published in
13 volumes (1889–98).10
In 1882,
Cayley is awarded the Copley Medal by
the Royal Society.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
2. ^ "Cayley,
Arthur", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p144.
3. ^
"Cayley, Arthur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1935>.
4. ^ "Cayley, Arthur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1935>.
5. ^ "Cayley, Arthur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1935>.
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
7. ^ "A MEMOIR ON THE THEORY OF
MATRICES", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, vol
CXLVIII, 1858, pp 17-37. Received
December 10 1857 Read January 14 1858
"The Collected Mathematical Papers of
Arthur Cayley", By Arthur Cayley,
Andrew Russell Forsyth, F Howard
Collins http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SCwPAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0op5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA475,M1
8. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=xncAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA349,M1 {This is
the first paper with the word
'invariant': verify date of invariant
invention}
9. ^ "Cayley, Arthur", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p144.
10. ^ "Arthur Cayley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Arthur_C
ayley
11. ^ "Cayley, Arthur", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p144. {1843}
{1843}


MORE INFO
[1] "Arthur Cayley." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[2] "Arthur Cayley." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[3] "Arthur Cayley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayl
ey
[4] Arthur Cayley, "The Collected
Mathematical Papers of Arthur Cayley",
The University Press. v1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=PcAEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 v2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=SCwPAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v3:
http://books.google.com/books?id=encAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=xncAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v11:
http://books.google.com/books?id=nXkAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 Index of
papers:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gXoAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA22,M1 http://books
.google.com/books?id=4vU83eig7QYC&prints
ec=frontcover&dq=arthur+cayley
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Cayley, Arthur (1821 -
1895) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: Barraud &
Jerrard Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10 x 6 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-C2-06a.jpg

[2] Arthur Cayley, detail of an oil
painting by W.H. Longmaid, 1884; in the
collection of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England. Courtesy of The
Master and Fellows of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
23758&rendTypeId=4
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 6 		3329)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
4. ^ "Cayley,
Arthur", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p177.
5. ^
"Arthur Cayley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Arthur_C
ayley
6. ^ "Cayley, Arthur", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p177. {1843}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arthur Cayley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayl
ey
[2] Arthur Cayley, "The Collected
Mathematical Papers of Arthur Cayley",
The University Press. v1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=PcAEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 v2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=SCwPAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v3:
http://books.google.com/books?id=encAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4vU83eig7QYC&printsec=frontc
over&dq=arthur+cayley
[3] "Arthur Cayley." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[4] "Cayley, Arthur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1935>
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Arthur Cayley." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[7] "A MEMOIR ON THE THEORY OF
MATRICES", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, vol
CXLVIII, 1858, pp 17-37. Received
December 10 1857 Read January 14 1858
"The Collected Mathematical Papers of
Arthur Cayley", By Arthur Cayley,
Andrew Russell Forsyth, F Howard
Collins http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SCwPAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0op5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA475,M1
{12/10/1857}
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Cayley, Arthur (1821 -
1895) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: Barraud &
Jerrard Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10 x 6 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-C2-06a.jpg

[2] Arthur Cayley, detail of an oil
painting by W.H. Longmaid, 1884; in the
collection of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England. Courtesy of The
Master and Fellows of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
23758&rendTypeId=4
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 5 6 7 		3899)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gruby, David", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p376.
2. ^ "Gruby, David", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p376.
3. ^ M. Gruby, "ENTOZOAIRES. -
Recherches sur une nouvelle espèce de
ver qui se trouve dans le sang des
grenouilles, le Trypanosoma sanguinis;
Note de M. Gruby", Comptes Rendus,
1843,
p1134. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k2976b.image.r=gruby.langEN.f1146.t
ableDesMatieres
4. ^ "Gruby, David", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p376.
5. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=2ZpXAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA351&dq=Microsporum+gruby&as_b
rr=1&ei=XWjASdmwMZXSlQSt7eTXDg {1843}
6. ^
"Gruby, David", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p376.
{1841}
7. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e {1841-1844}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=MEcjAAA
AcAAJ&pg=PA1179&dq=Microsporum+gruby+dat
e:1840-1845&as_brr=1&ei=EmnASZnBOo7OkwSV
zrH5Ag#PPA1177,M1
(private practice) Paris, France4
 		 
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 5 		5990)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Felix Mendelssohn." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-mende
lssohn
2. ^ "A Midsummer Night's Dream
(Mendelssohn)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Midsummer
_Night%27s_Dream_%28Mendelssohn%29
3. ^ "A Midsummer Night’s Dream."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/381659/A-Midsummer-Nights-Dream>.
4. ^ "Felix Mendelssohn." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-mende
lssohn
5. ^ "Felix Mendelssohn." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-mende
lssohn {1843}

MORE INFO
[1] "Felix Mendelssohn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374785/Felix-Mendelssohn>
Leipsig, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: The
Portrait of Felix Mendelssohn Date
1839 Source watercolor
painting Author Creator:James
Warren Childe Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Mendelssohn_Bartholdy
.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 7 		6240)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
2. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
3. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Samuel Colt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
7. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>. {1843}
Paterson, New Jersey, USA6
(presumably) 
[1] Description Samuel Colt (1814
– 1862) English: Samuel Colt,
founder of the firearms manufacturer
Colt Deutsch: Samuel Colt, Begründer
des Waffenherstellers Colt Date
Source 19th century
engraving PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/SamuelColt.jpg
156 YBN
[05/01/1844 AD] 4 		2643)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
4. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
(05/01/1844)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[3] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[5] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
Annapolis, Maryland, USA3  
[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg
156 YBN
[05/24/1844 AD] 3 		2644)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
2. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
3. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
(05/24/1844)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[3] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[5] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
Washington DC, USA2  
[1] Source:
http://rs6.loc.gov/mss/mcc/019/0001.jpg
Text: This sentence was written from
Washington by me at the Baltimore
Terminus at 8:45 A.M. on Friday May 24,
1844, being the first ever transmitted
from Washington to Baltimore by
Telegraph and was indited by my much
loved friend Annie G. Ellsworth.
{signature-Sam F. B. Morse.}
Superintendent of Elec. Mag.
Telegraphs. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:The_First_Telegraph.jpg

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg
156 YBN
[06/20/1844 AD] 8 		3245)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>.
2. ^ James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society, 1844. contained
in: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp171-172.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
3. ^ James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society, 1844. contained
in: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp171-172.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
4. ^ James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Philosophical
Magazine, Series Series 3, May 1845.
contained in: James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp172-189.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
5. ^ James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Philosophical
Magazine, Series Series 3, May 1845.
contained in: James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp172-189.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
6. ^ Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester vol
v part 2 pp 251 625.
7. ^ James Joule, "On
the Changes of Temperature produced by
the Rarefaction and Condensation of
Air", Philosophical Magazine, Series
Series 3, May 1845. contained
in: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp172-189.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
8. ^ James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society, 1844. contained
in: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp171-172.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1 (06/20/1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5] "Joule, Jame Prescott", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p469
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>. (1843)
[7]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1843)
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400. (1852)
[9]
"Joule, James Prescott." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 3 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>. (1852)
[10] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule (from 1852)
[11] James Prescott
Joule, "Some Remarks on Heat and the
Constitution of Elastic Fluids",
Memoirs Manchester Lit & Phil Soc vol
ix p 107 Read Oct 3 1848 Also Phil Mag
ser 4 vol xiv p 211. From: James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon
Playfair Playfair, William Thomson,
"The Scientific Papers of James
Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society,
1884, pp290-297.
[12] "Joule-Thomson effect."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4025>.
[13] "On the Thermal Effects of Fluids
in Motion. Part IV", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886),Volume 152,
(1862),pp579-589. http://journals.royal
society.org/content/m18p1268886t3773/ful
ltext.pdf {Joule_Thomson_06_19_1862.pdf
}
[14] George Alfred Goodenough,
"Principles of Thermodynamics", H. Holt
and Company, 1911,
p275. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J9IEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA275&dq=%22joule-thomso
n+effect%22&as_brr=1#PPA275,M1
[15] "Energy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Energy
(Oak Field Whalley Range near)
Manchester, England7
(presumably) 
[1] Joule's experiment turning an
electromagnet in water between two
powerful permanent magnets to determine
current and temperature. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Produ
ction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22

[2] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg
156 YBN
[12/31/1844 AD] 3 		3602)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Munro, "Heroes of the
Telegraph", The Religious tract
society,
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
2. ^ John Munro, "Heroes of the
Telegraph", The Religious tract
society,
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
3. ^ John Munro, "Heroes of the
Telegraph", The Religious tract
society,
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ {12/31/1844}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bain.html
[2] "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
[3] "Alexander Bain" (obituary),
Nature, Jan 11, 1877,
218. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
38CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218&dq=Alexander+Bain+t
elegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwOG
rAQ
[4] Iconographic Encyclopaedia of the
Arts and Sciences, Iconographic
publishing co., 1890,
p376. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+B
ain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQ
OKwOGrAQ
London, England2  
[1] Alexander Bain, 1847 PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bain11.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 7 		2642)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp314-315. (1844)
(1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[2] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[4] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM#PPA
91,M1 The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman
Washington DC, USA6  
[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 7 		2676)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Royal Earl House". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Earl_
House
2. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65.
5. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65.
6. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65.
7. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65. (fall of
1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Royal House and the printing
telegraph". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
7477/Royal-House-and-the-printing-telegr
aph
New York City, New York, USA6  
[1] Photo courtesy of The Smithsonian
Institution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.telegraph-history.org
/george-m-phelps/house.htm
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 12 		2707)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=6_1fZXf
fwdAC&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=faraday+1844
&source=web&ots=kOMJ04nfn_&sig=idExqTkgq
Q3IIViFzIRMgwY0lX8
2. ^ Researches in Electricity,
:284-293.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^, pp289-290.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=faraday+1844
+%22speculation+touching+electric+conduc
tion+and+the+nature+of+matter%22&source=
web&ots=VKIsaGjcNg&sig=xG0TBslqLW2Zfdhm3
NXg37e9Ez4#PPA284,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320. (1844)
(1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[13] (Maxwell 1873:ix)
(Royal Institution in) London,
England11  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 4 		2708) Michael Faraday performs
experiments trying to measure an
electromagnetic current produced by the
force of gravity when a metal cylinder
is allowed to fall through a coiled
wire but no current is produced.1

I think that magnetism can be reduced
to electricity (as Ampere concluded
too), and that electricity can be
reduced to the effects of gravity, and
collision. In my opinion, the most
simple explanation is probably the most
accurate one. In this sense, there is
only one force in nature, and other
forces are only larger scale effects of
a single force (just as field of grass
may look like one object but is made of
many individual plants). I think
ultimately that both the attractive and
repulsive forces of electricity are
mainly due to particle collision, and
ultimately due to the attractive force
of gravity.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Experimental Researches in
Electricity. Twenty-Fourth Series. On
the Possible Relation of Gravity to
Electricity. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London
(1843-1854) Issue Volume 5 -
1843/1850 Author Michael, p994.
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rspl.1843.0267 Far
aday_e24_relation_gravity_electricity.pd
f
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320. (1844)
(1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(Royal Institution in) London, England3
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 4 		2737) Gustave Gaspard de Coriolis
(KOrYOlES) (CE 1792-1843), French
physicist, 1 publishes "Traité de la
mécanique des corps solides" (1844,
"Treatise on the Mechanics of Solid
Bodies").2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323.
2. ^ "Gustave Gaspard
Coriolis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
3. ^ "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
4. ^ "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Coriolis Effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_Ef
fect
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gustave+Gaspard+d
e+Coriolis+?cat=technology
[3] "Coriolis force". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6305/Coriolis-force
Paris, France3  
[1] Gustave Coriolis [Coriolis, detail
of a portrait by Zéphirin Belliard,
19th century, after a painting by Jean
Roller; in the Académie des Sciences,
Paris Courtesy of the Archives de
l'Academie des Sciences de Paris;
photograph, J. Colomb-Gerard, Paris
[2]] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustave_coriolis.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 12 		2795) Ruthenium has atomic number 44,
has the symbol "Ru". Ruthenium is a
hard silver-gray acid-resistant
metallic element that is found in
platinum ores and is used to harden
platinum and palladium for jewelry and
in alloys for nonmagnetic
wear-resistant instrument pivots and
electrical contacts. Ruthenium has an
atomic mass of 101.07; melting point
2,310°C; boiling point 3,900°C;
specific gravity 12.41; valence 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.8

Because of its high melting point,
ruthenium is not easily cast; its
brittleness, even at white heat, makes
it very difficult to roll or draw into
wires.9

Natural ruthenium consists of a mixture
of seven stable isotopes: ruthenium-96
(5.54 percent), ruthenium-98 (1.86
percent), ruthenium-99 (12.7 percent),
ruthenium-100 (12.6 percent),
ruthenium-101 (17.1 percent),
ruthenium-102 (31.6 percent), and
ruthenium-104 (18.6 percent). Ruthenium
has four allotropic forms. Ruthenium
metal does not tarnish in air at
ordinary temperatures and resists
attack by strong acids, even by aqua
regia.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Karl Karlovich Klaus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5724/Karl-Karlovich-Klaus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p331.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p331.
4. ^ "Karl
Karlovich Klaus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5724/Karl-Karlovich-Klaus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p331.
6. ^
http://www.answers.com/ruthenium?cat=tec
hnology
7. ^, p1.
http://books.google.com/books?id=6VKAs6i
LmwcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=ruthenium+regia&
source=web&ots=-scFoNy79q&sig=xFYiuWS_cj
43ek6USw3QWVI2xos&hl=en
8. ^ "ruthenium". The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/ruthenium?cat=tec
hnology
9. ^ "ruthenium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4506/ruthenium
10. ^ "ruthenium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4506/ruthenium
11. ^ "Karl Karlovich Klaus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5724/Karl-Karlovich-Klaus
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p331. (1844) (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ruthenium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthenium
St. Petersberg, Russia11  
[1] English: Ruthenium sample. This
image was copied from en.wikipedia.org.
The original description
was: Ruthenium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru%2C44.jpg

[2] Name, Symbol, Number Ruthenium,
Ru, 44 Chemical series transition
metals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru-TableImage.png
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 8 		2832)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
3. ^ "William
Henry Fox Talbot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
5. ^ "William Henry
Fox Talbot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
6. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
7. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341. (1844)
(1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[3]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[4]
http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/werke/penc
il-of-nature/
Wiltshire, England7 (presumably) 
[1] The Open Door, 1844 William Henry
Fox Talbot (British, 1800-1877) Salted
paper print from paper negative; 5 5/8
x 7 5/8 in. (14.3 x 19.4 cm) Gilman
Collection, Purchase, Joseph M. Cohen
and Robert Rosenkranz Gifts, 2005
(2005.100.498) PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exh
ibns/treasures/talbot2.html

[2] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 4 		2897) Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné
Boussingault (BUSoNGO) (CE 1802-1887),
French agricultural chemist1 publishes
"Traitt d'economie rurale" (1844),
which is remodeled as "Agronomie,
chimie agricole, et physiologie" (5
vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed., 1884).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp347-348.
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Boussingault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5984/Jean-Baptiste-Boussingault
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Boussingault". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boussingaul
t
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Boussingault?cat=
entertainment
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean-Baptiste
Boussingault (1802-1887) Source
[1]http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioner
os/boussingault.htm Date 19th
century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Baptiste_Boussingault.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 8 9 		3032) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
expands his 1842 sketch into an essay2
(which will become3 ) "On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection"4
, but does not intent to publish it5 .

Darwin writes a letter to his wife Emma
in 1844 asking that, if he dies, she
should pay an editor £400 to publish
the work.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Charles Robert
Darwin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp230-231.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
5. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
6. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
7. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
8. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1844)
9. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp230-231.
(1844)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
Downe, Kent, England7  
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 14 		3047)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp368-369.
2. ^ "polynomial."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 01 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "polynomial." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polynomial
5. ^ "transcendental number." WordNet
1.7.1. Princeton University, 2001.
Answers.com 01 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transcenden
tal-number-2
6. ^ "transcendental number."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 01 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transcenden
tal-number-2
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "transcendental number."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transcenden
tal-number-2
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp368-369.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Liouville, Joseph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>.
14. ^ "Liouville, Joseph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8433>. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Liouville".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Liou
ville
[2] "Joseph Liouville", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p547
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France13
 
[1]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Liouville.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/20/Liouville.jpeg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 16 		3048) Grassmann is an accomplished
linguist, specializing in Sanskrit
literature. At the age of 53 (around
186210 ), disappointed with the lack of
interest in his mathematical work,
Grassman turns all his efforts to
Sanskrit studies.11 Grassman
translates sanskrit texts, and prepares
Sanskrit dictionaries12 . Grassman's
Sanskrit dictionary on the Rigveda is
still widely used.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p369.
2. ^ "Grassmann,
Hermann Günther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
3. ^ Hermann Grassmann, Die lineale
Ausdehnungslehre ein neuer Zweig der
Mathematik: dargestellt und ...,
1844. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bKgAAAAAMAAJ&dq=Die+lineale+Ausdehnungsl
ehre,+ein+neuer+Zweig+der+Mathematik&pri
ntsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=ohWzCMdBM
Z&sig=rUkFT5E7zGdmvKHS2LYuG8ZZX-M&hl=en&
ei=_mS9So-WB6LOtAO15okp&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=metri
k&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p369.
5. ^ "Grassmann,
Hermann Günther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
6. ^ "Hermann Grassmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-gra
ssmann
7. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p89.
8. ^ A History of
Non-Euclidean Geometry, Evolution of
the Concept of a Geometric Space, B. A.
Rosenfeld, 1988, p251.
9. ^ "Metric space."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 26 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metric-spac
e-2
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Grassmann, Hermann
Günther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p369.
13. ^ "Grassmann,
Hermann Günther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
14. ^ "Grassmann, Hermann Günther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
15. ^ "Szczecin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/szczecin
16. ^ "Grassmann, Hermann Günther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Günther Grassmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_G%C
3%BCnther_Grassmann
[2] "Hermann Günther Grassmann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp370
(Gymnasium in) Stettin14 , (Prussia
now) Poland15  
[1] Hermann Günther Grassmann
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Hgrassmann.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 5 		3062)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp370-371.
2. ^ "Gabriel Gustav
Valentin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp896-897.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "VALENTIN, GABRIEL
GUSTAV", JewishEncyclopedia.com,
(2002).
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view
.jsp?artid=6&letter=V
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp370-371. (1844)
(University of Bern) Bern, Switzerland4
 		 
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 8 		3078)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Robert Bunsen."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
5. ^ "hydrochloric acid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrochlori
c-acid
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
7. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
8. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
(University of Marburg), Marburg,
Germany7  
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 4 		3093) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882), English-US chemist1
captures one of the first photographs
of specimens under a microscope2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "John Draper." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

3. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
4. ^
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=3&ex=STC_26&id=691# (1844)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[2] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[3] "John William Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
[4]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm (1840)
[5] "John Draper."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper
 (1840)
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA3  
[1] Photomicrograph of Frog Blood John
William
Draper Daguerreotype 1844 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 201 How to
locate or purchase this image A
multitalented scientist and inventor,
John William Draper worked as a
chemistry professor at the University
of New York, where he conducted
research in numerous fields, ranging
from medicine and philosophy to
spectrum analysis and photography. This
photograph displaying the physiological
characteristics of frog blood was taken
after Draper developed a method for
attaching a camera to his microscope.
His photomicrography enabled him to see
and photograph the previously unseen.
PD/Corel
source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/778_Image_201.jpg

[2] [t note that date in
1840] Spectrograph John William
Draper Daguerreotype 1840 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 138 PD/Corel

source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/691_Image_138.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 8 		3185) Nägeli accepts evolution but
puts forward the erroneous theory of
orthogenesis arguing that some inner
push drives evolution in a particular
direction, for example increased size.3
Nägeli rejects the paper sent to him
by an obscure monk named Mendel. Asimov
describes this as Nägeli's most
far-reaching mistake.4 When this paper
is rediscovered 40 years later, it will
serve as the source of the Mendelian
laws of inheritance.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p391.
2. ^ "Nägeli, Karl
Wilhelm von." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4656>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p391.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p391.
5. ^ "Nägeli,
Karl Wilhelm von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4656>.
6. ^
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per346
7. ^
http://home.datacomm.ch/biografien/biogr
afien/naegeli.htm
8. ^ "Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4656>. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-wilhel
m-von-n-geli
[2] "Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_von_N%C3%A4geli
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany6 7
 
[1] Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli
(1817-1891) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Carl_Wilhelm_von_Naeg
eli.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 10 		3216) Richard Jordan Gatling (CE
1818-1903), US inventor,1 adapts the
cotton sowing machine for sowing (seed
planting2 ) rice, wheat and other
grains, and establishes factories to
manufacture these sowing machines3 .
Gatl
ing is the son of a wealthy planter and
slave-owner.4
With his father Gatling
perfects machines to sow cotton and to
thin out cotton plants.5
In 1839
Gatling perfects a practical screw
propeller for steamboats, only to find
that a patent had been granted to John
Ericsson for a similar invention a few
months earlier.6
Gatling is well
educated and is successively a school
teacher and a merchant, spending all
his spare time in developing new
inventions.7
Because of an attack of
smallpox Gatling becomes interested in
the study of health science and
completes a course at the Ohio Medical
College, taking his M.D. degree in
1850.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Richard Jordan Gatling". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
4. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
5. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
6. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
7. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
8. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
9. ^ "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>.
10. ^ "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
St. Louis, Missouri9  
[1] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg

[2] Description Richard Jordan
Gatling. Library of Congress
description: ''Gatling, Prof. Richard
Jordan'' Source Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division.
Brady-Handy Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.03735.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH826-
1476 [P&P] Date between 1870 and
1880 Author Mathew Brady or Levin
Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g_-_Brady-Handy.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 11 		3236) Pettenkofer is most familiar in
connection with his work in practical
hygiene, advocating good water, fresh
air and proper sewage disposal.
Pettenkofer's attention is drawn to
this subject around 1850 by the
unhealthy condition of Munich.3
In
hygiene, Pettenkofer studies the role
of ventilation on health and how
contaminated soil and water spread
cholera.4
Pettenkofer rejects the germ
theory of disease.5

Pettenkofer publishes papers on the
preparation of gold and platinum,
numerical relations between the atomic
weights of analogous elements, the
formation of aventurine glass, the
manufacture of illuminating gas from
wood.6
According to the Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography, in
1850, Pettenkofer anticipates the
periodic law of the elements.7
In 1892
Pettenkofer deliberately swallows a
virulent culture of cholera bacteria to
show his contempt for the germ theory
of disease, but does not become
infected.8
In 1901, Pettenkofer buys a
gun and shoots himself in old age
because of a painful sore throat.9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
2. ^ "Pettenkofer,
Max Josef Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp548-549.
3. ^ "Max Joseph Von Pettenkofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Max_Jose
ph_Von_Pettenkofer
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
6. ^ "Max Joseph
Von Pettenkofer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Max_Jose
ph_Von_Pettenkofer
7. ^ "Pettenkofer, Max Josef Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), pp548-549.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
10. ^
"Pettenkofer, Max Josef Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp548-549.
11. ^ "Pettenkofer, Max Josef
Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), pp548-549.
(1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Joseph von Pettenkofer."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pettenkofer
-max-von
[2] "Max Joseph von Pettenkofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Joseph_
von_Pettenkofer
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany10  
[1] Description Max Joseph von
Pettenkofer (1818-1901), german
chemist Source Originally from
ja.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-09-22 (original
upload date) Author de:Franz
Hanfstaengl (1804-1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Max_von_Pettenkofer.j
pg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 4 		3237)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
2. ^ "Pettenkofer,
Max Josef Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp548-549.
3. ^ "Pettenkofer, Max Josef Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), pp548-549.
4. ^
"Pettenkofer, Max Josef Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp548-549. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Joseph von Pettenkofer."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pettenkofer
-max-von
[2] "Max Joseph von Pettenkofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Joseph_
von_Pettenkofer
[3] "Max Joseph Von Pettenkofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Max_Jose
ph_Von_Pettenkofer
(University of Geissen) Geissen,
Germany3  
[1] Description Creatine Source
self-made Date 5/6/07 Author
Sbrools GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Creatine-3d.png

[2] Chemical structure of creatine
created with ChemDraw PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Creatine2.png
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 9 		3294) Foucault is the son of a
publisher in Paris2 and educated at
home due to delicate health3 . Foucault
abandons medical studies4 unable to
bear the sight of blood5 6 .
Foucault is
experimental assistant to Alfred Donne
(1801-1878) for three years in Donne's
course of lectures on microscopic
anatomy.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
2. ^ "Jean Bernard
Leon Foucault". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
3. ^ "Foucault, Jean-Bernard-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259.
4. ^
"Foucault, Jean-Bernard-Léon", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p259.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
6. ^ Fox, William.
"Jean-Bertrand-Léon Foucault." The
Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New
York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 14
Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>.
7. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
8. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
9. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003. (1844)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[7] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+des+tra
vaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault
&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html (04/03/1845)
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Microphotographs made by
Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003. (1844)

[2] Microphotographs made by
Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003. (1844)
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 7 		3898)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred Swaine Taylor, Thomas
Stevenson, "The principles and practice
of medical jurisprudence", vol 1,
Edition: 3, Published by J.&A.
Churchill,
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yecvaBH2rMoC&pg=PA734&dq=Alfred+Donn%C3%
A9&as_brr=1&ei=WLK_Sa38H6SOkQS02YD0DA
2. ^ A L Thorburn, "Alfred François
Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer of
Trichomonas vaginalis and of
leukaemia.", Br J Vener Dis
1974;50;377-380. http://sti.bmj.com/cgi
/reprint/50/5/377.pdf
3. ^ "leukaemia." The Oxford Companion
to the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leukaemia-1

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A L Thorburn, "Alfred
François Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer
of Trichomonas vaginalis and of
leukaemia.", Br J Vener Dis
1974;50;377-380. http://sti.bmj.com/cgi
/reprint/50/5/377.pdf
6. ^ A L Thorburn, "Alfred François
Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer of
Trichomonas vaginalis and of
leukaemia.", Br J Vener Dis
1974;50;377-380. http://sti.bmj.com/cgi
/reprint/50/5/377.pdf
7. ^ A L Thorburn, "Alfred François
Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer of
Trichomonas vaginalis and of
leukaemia.", Br J Vener Dis
1974;50;377-380. http://sti.bmj.com/cgi
/reprint/50/5/377.pdf {1844}

MORE INFO
[1] Donné, (translated from
French) "Animalculi observed in
purulent fluids and secretions of
genital organs from Men and Women",
Academy of Sciences, 1836.
(Hotel dieu) Paris, France6
(verify) 
[1] Photographs of Donne, his wife, and
children. PD
source: http://sti.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/5
0/5/377.pdf
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 7 8 		6243) Wells is jailed in New York City
for throwing acid at passersby and ends
his own life there in a jail cell.4
(Perhaps Wells was excluded and remote
neuron writing was used to support an
association of nitrous oxide with acts
of violence.5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
2. ^ "Horace Wells." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639459/Horace-Wells>.
3. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
4. ^ "Horace Wells." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639459/Horace-Wells>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "anesthesia."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
7. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>. {1844}
8. ^ "Horace
Wells." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639459/Horace-Wells>. {1844}
Hartford, Connecticut, USA6
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: Picture of
Dr. Horace Wells, a pioneer in the use
of ether as an anesthetic Date
1894 Source Page 26 of The
Discovery of Modern Anæsthesia Author
Laird W.
Nevius Permission (Reusing this file)
See
below. http://books.google.com/books?id
=iS0JAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP19&dq=Horace+Wells+po
rtrait&lr=&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Wells_Horace.jpg
155 YBN
[04/02/1845 AD] 9 		3279)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
2. ^
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
4. ^
http://astro-canada.ca/_en/a2306.html
5. ^
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://astro-canada.ca/_en/a2306.html
8. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
9. ^
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html (04/03/1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[7] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+des+tra
vaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault
&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11] William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] [t by focusing at a point before or
after the two images, you will see
three images, by focusing in on the
middle image depth, you can see the
stereo features, Foucault's arms appear
forward. You may need to reduce the
size of the image to make them
smaller.] stereo portrait of
Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

[2] portrait of Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
155 YBN
[04/??/1845 AD] 36 37 		2839) William Parsons, (3d earl of
Rosse) (CE 1800-1867), Irish
astronomer14 is the first person to
recognize the spiral shape of the
objects at the time called nebulae15 ,
but now known to be galaxies, like our
own Milky Way Galaxy.16

Parsons' main aim is to build a
telescope as large as those of William
Herschel17 and to discover the nature
of the unresolved nebulae found by
William Herschel to determine if they
are only gaseous masses in space or are
composed of many stars, like our own
Milky Way, as introduced by Kant in his
theory of "world islands"18 . Even the
largest telescopes (like those build by
Herschel) were not able to resolve the
nebulae (into their spiral shape or
into individual stars19 ).20 Herschel
had left no details of how to grind
large mirrors, and so Parsons has to
rediscover all this for himself.21
Parsons uses an alloy composed of four
atoms of copper to each atom of tin.
This alloy is very brittle.22 Not
until 1839 does Parsons make a 3-inch
(8-cm) mirror; this is followed by
mirrors of 15 inches (38 cm), 24 inches
(61 cm), and 36 inches (91 cm).23
Parsons' first 36-inch-diameter mirror
is made of 16 thin plates soldered to a
brass framework.24 In 1842, Parsons
starts works on his 72-inch (183-cm)
massive mirror. Parsons is only
successful on the fifth casting.25 The
mirror weighs 8960 pounds (4064 kg),
cost £12,000, and becomes known as the
"Leviathan of Corkstown". The telescope
tube is over 50 feet (15 m) long and
because of winds the tube has to be
protected by two masonry piers 50 feet
high and 23 feet (7 m) apart in which
it is supported by an elaborate system
of platforms, chains, and pulleys.26
The telescope takes 4 people to run
it.27

In the year 1845, Parsons completes his
72 inch reflector telescope, the
largest on Earth until the 100-inch
reflector is installed in 1917 at the
Mt. Wilson Observatory, California.28

In April 1845, when Parsons points his
new telescope to M51 for the first
time, he discovers that the nebula has
a spiral structure. Parsons creates the
term "spiral nebula" and concludes
(that the nebula is29 ) an inner
rotation of a large system30 "pretty
well studded with stars"31 .32

Parsons will discover 15 spiral
galaxies.33

The Leviathan is dismantled in 1908.34

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
6. ^ "William Parsons
3rd earl of Rosse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
9. ^ "William
Parsons 3rd earl of Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm
12. ^, p180.
http://books.google.com/books?id=T4-GErg
SbU0C&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=m51+parsons&
source=web&ots=GGm9EHbg8P&sig=yenx2wv4rE
8zH3UnkcwK5InEgiA&hl=en
13. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
15. ^ "William
Parsons 3rd earl of Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
17. ^ "rosse william
parsons 3d earl of". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
18. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm
21. ^ "rosse william parsons 3d earl
of". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
22. ^ "William Parsons 3rd earl of
Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
23. ^ "rosse william parsons 3d earl
of". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
24. ^ "William Parsons 3rd earl of
Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
25. ^ "rosse william parsons 3d earl
of". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
26. ^ "rosse william parsons 3d earl
of". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
28. ^ "William
Parsons 3rd earl of Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm
31. ^, p180.
http://books.google.com/books?id=T4-GErg
SbU0C&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=m51+parsons&
source=web&ots=GGm9EHbg8P&sig=yenx2wv4rE
8zH3UnkcwK5InEgiA&hl=en
32. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm
33. ^ "rosse william parsons 3d earl
of". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
34. ^ "William Parsons 3rd earl of
Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
35. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/
Galaxies.html
36. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm (04/1845)
37. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342. (1845)
(1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of
Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Par
sons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[2] "William Parsons Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Parsons_Rosse
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
[4]
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland35
 
[1] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm

[2] en: This is the sketch made by
Lord Rosse of the Whirlpool Galaxy in
1845. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M51Sketch.jpg
155 YBN
[08/06/1845 AD] 5 		3248)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
2. ^ James Prescott
Joule, "On the Existence of an
Equivalent Relation between Heat and
the ordinary Forms of Mechanical
Power", Philosophical Transactions,
1845, 3rd series, 27:205. James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby,
Lyon Playfair Playfair, William
Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule (2 vol.)",
Physical Society (Great Britain), 1884,
pp202-205. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip"
3. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Existence of an Equivalent Relation
between Heat and the ordinary Forms of
Mechanical Power", Philosophical
Transactions, 1845, 3rd series, 27:205.
James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific
Papers of James Prescott Joule (2
vol.)", Physical Society (Great
Britain), 1884,
pp202-205. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip"
4. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Existence of an Equivalent Relation
between Heat and the ordinary Forms of
Mechanical Power", Philosophical
Transactions, 1845, 3rd series, 27:205.
James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific
Papers of James Prescott Joule (2
vol.)", Physical Society (Great
Britain), 1884,
pp202-205. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip"
5. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Existence of an Equivalent Relation
between Heat and the ordinary Forms of
Mechanical Power", Philosophical
Transactions, 1845, 3rd series, 27:205.
James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific
Papers of James Prescott Joule (2
vol.)", Physical Society (Great
Britain), 1884,
pp202-205. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip" (08/06/1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>
[7] "James Prescott Joule."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[8] James Prescott Joule, "On the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
140, 1850,
pp61-82. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/7379721vkj250895/?p=fcd8f3402
75f4bfba0bba78f08e696fc&pi=1 {Joule_On_
the_Mechanical_Equivalent_of_Heat_1850.p
df}
[9] Crosbie W. Smith, "Faraday as
Referee of Joule's Royal Society Paper
'On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat',
Isis, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Sep., 1976), pp.
444-449. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0684?seq=1 {Joule_Faraday_Referee_Isis_
1976_230684.pdf}
(Oak Field, Whalley Range near)
Manchester, England4  
[1] Figures from Joule's 08/06/1845
paper. PD/Corel
source: Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_J
ames_Prescott_2.pdf

[2] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg
155 YBN
[09/18/1845 AD] 27 28 		2713) Faraday holds the belief that all
the forces of matter have one common
origin, and are convertible into each
other.7 However, experiments done by
Faraday show no effect of electricity
on light particles. A ray of light from
an Argand lamp is polarized in a
horizontal plane by reflection from a
surface of glass, and passed through a
Nichol's eye-piece revolving on a
horizontal axis. Between the polarizing
(glass8 ) mirror and eye-piece, two
powerful electro-magnetic poles are
arranged, separated by about two
inches. The direction of the magnet is
positioned so that the magnetic lines
of force are parallel to the ray of
light. (I think an important note is
that although we call a beam of light a
ray, the ray is composed of many
billions of individual rays of light
particles, an unimaginably large
quantity of very fast moving
particles.9 ) Any transparent substance
in between the two poles would have
passing through it the polarized ray of
light and the magnetic lines of force
at the same time in the same direction.
Faraday first finds an effect in a
glass he created 16 years before called
silicated borate of lead. In addition,
the glass illustrates the effect to a
larger degree than any other substance
examined. A piece of this glass 2
inches square and 1/5 inch thick is
placed between the poles (not yet
magnetized by electric current), and
the polarized light appears
extinguished when the eye-piece is
turned to the same position as when
there is nothing between the magnetic
poles. When sending the current through
its coils, creating the electromagnet,
looking through the eye-piece,
immediately the lamp-flame becomes
visible, and continues to be visible as
long as the electric current is on. On
stopping the electric current, causing
the magnetic force to stop, the light
instantly disappears. The battery
Faraday uses is five pairs of Grove's
construction (explain10 ), and the
electromagnets have a power such that
the poles can each sustain a weight of
56 or more pounds, so this phenomenon
is no seen with a weak magnet. (How
many wire turns, what diameter iron
bar?11 ) Faraday finds that when the
current is flowing, the rotating the
eyepiece to the right or left will
cause it to disappear, and concludes
that the polarized light has been
rotated. (2149) Faraday uses the word
"diamagnetic" to mean a body through
which lines of magnetic force are
passing. When the marked pole is
nearest the observer, the rotation of
the ray is right-handed; the eye-piece
needs to be turned to the right-hand,
clockwise. When the poles are reversed,
simply by changing the direction of the
electric current, the rotation is also
changed and becomes left-handed in
equal quantity as before. When the
magnetic lines of force are
perpendicular to the glass, no effects
are observed. These results are also
obtained with an ordinary steel
horse-shoe magnet with no electric
current used, although these results
were feeble. 12 Faraday uses a single
magnet pole (see figure 1, a and b are
the positions of the diamagnetic
(glass) where the ray of light is
perpendicular to the magnetic pole at
P, c and d are at points where the ray
is parallel to the field which is
circling around the pole (on the
outside, not the lines entering or
emitting from the pole center), the ray
is marked by a dotted line. Faraday
notes that if a glass is placed
directly at the end of the magnet, no
effect is produced. (I think the
curving nature of particles in the
field is needed.13 ) So in position a
and b, when light is perpendicular (and
probably the magnetic lines are
parallel to rows of atoms14 ), there is
no effect, but in positions c and d
when light is parallel (and probably
the magnetic lines are perpendicular to
rows of atoms15 ), there is an effect.
The rotation of the ray is in
proportion to the length of the
"diamagnetic" (the glass). (2163) When
Faraday adds more pieces of glass end
to end, the amount of rotation is
increased. (So clearly there is a
cumulative effect, the longer the light
passes through the atomic field the
more deflected it is. The phenomenon
may be like a ball bouncing down a
corridor, and with each 20 reflections,
the position of the ball at regular
intervals of time has rotated by a
certain quantity.16 ) (2164) The power
of rotating the ray of light increases
with the intensity of the magnetic
lines of force (or the intensity of the
electric field17 ). (It may be that an
atomic lattice "corridor" is tilted
more with a stronger magnetic field.18
) (2165) In bodies that have a
rotative power of their own such as
turpentine, sugar, tartaric acid,
tartrates, etc, the effect of the
magnetic force is to add to or subtract
from their specific force. (2176)
Flint-glass exhibits the property but
in a less degree, and crown-glass is an
even smaller degree. (What can it mean
that a highly refractive material
exhibits this property most? Perhaps in
a material that already changes the
direction of light significantly, small
changes to the atomic positions are
magnified.19 ) (2178) Rock-crystal
shows no effect on the ray. (So clearly
the nature of the atomic structure
makes a difference, and it appears that
some parts of the atomic structure can
be moved by particles in an electric
field in transparent materials.20 )
(2179) Iceland spar shows no effect.
(2184) Water, alcohol and ether all
show the effect, water most, alcohol
less, and ether the least. Every liquid
substance Faraday has at hand produce
this effect. (I think it shows that the
atomic structure is more easily moved
in a liquid than in a solid.21 ) (2186)
In gases, Faraday does not observe this
effect in any substance. (Perhaps there
constantly moving structure of the gas
atoms removes any kind of permanent
order.22 ) (2189) Faraday finds the
same effect for electric current
running through a wire on the
polarization angle of the ray of light.
(2224) Faraday makes clear that the
magnetic forces do not act on the ray
of light directly but only through the
intervention of matter. (Which shows
that Faraday does not consider light to
be made of matter.23 ) (2242) Faraday
concludes by stating that he hopes to
find a way to use light to evolve
electricity and magnetism, but prefers
to investigate and develop real truth
through experiment as opposed to
suppose ideas that may or may not be
founded on or consistent with fact.24
(
Like Faraday, I also share this belief
that all forces of matter have one
common origin, however, I think all
apparent forces of matter,
electromagnetism, the strong and weak
nuclear forces are all cumulative and
collective effects of gravity, just as
life itself, with the many complex
molecules and naturally selected forms
is complex, but made of the same atomic
units functioning by gravity. It is
probably hard to believe that such
complexity could result from the simple
principles of an infinite sized and
scaled space, matter, time under a
single force of gravity, and modeling
the evolution of molecules and life
using light particles and gravity
requires massive computer resources and
time. We should definitely keep an open
mind when it comes to theories of the
universe. In particular I find that the
probability of an infinity of space and
matter both in size and scale causes a
mathematical problem with modeling the
universe exactly. In any event, to
reduce unnecessary "forces" to a single
force seems logical. The most simple
explanation is probably the correct
one. instead of creating dozens of new
"forces" that are probably the results
of the cumulative and larger scale
effects of a single force. One example
I give is that a star wobbles from the
matter orbiting it. From a distance
people could say that there is some
"wobbling" force "wobblery" that all
stars have besides the force of gravity
that appears to hold the stars
together. Perhaps a clearer example is
how a person might see, from a distance
an anthill created without ever seeing
individual ants building the anthill,
and then create a new force "hill
growthery" which causes hills to arise
from the ground over time. So it is, I
think, with electricity {and therefore
magnetism} being a collective effect of
gravity, and particle collisions.25 )
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
7. ^ Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf,
pp1-2.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^
Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf http://jou
rnals.royalsociety.org/content/?k=michae
l+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^
Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf, p20.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
27. ^ "1845 )". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday (09/18/1845 (received
11/06/1845 ) (09/18/1845 (received
11/06/1845)
28. ^ Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf, 1.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
(09/18/1845 (received 11/06/1845)
(09/18/1845 (received 11/06/1845 )

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[7] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[8] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[9]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[11]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[12] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1b&pi=1
(Royal Institution in) London,
England26  
[1] Figure 1 from [16
4] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf ht
tp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/?
k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001 4

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
155 YBN
[09/??/1845 AD] 11 12 13 		3266) Adams is a child prodigy.8
Adams
refuses knighthood and astronomer royal
because of age.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401.
2. ^ "Adams, John
Couch." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003668>
.
3. ^ "John Couch Adams". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Cou
ch_Adams
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401.
5. ^ "John Couch
Adams." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
6. ^ "Adams, John Couch."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003668>
.
7. ^ Record ID3073. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401.
10. ^ "John Couch
Adams." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 13 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
11. ^ "John Couch Adams". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Cou
ch_Adams (09/1845)
12. ^ "Adams, John Couch."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003668>
. (09/1845)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401. (10/1843)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Couch Adams." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
[2] "John Couch Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Couch_
Adams
(Cambridge Observatory) Cambridge,
England10  
[1] John Couch Adams PD
source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/I
mages/StarChild/scientists/adams_l1.jpg

[2] John Couch Adams. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68871&rendTypeId=4
155 YBN
[12/24/1845 AD] 15 16 		2714) Faraday suspends a bar of glass
composed of silicated borate of lead
2x0.5x0.5 inches in size by a long
thread. This bar can turn freely by the
slightest force in the horizontal plane
and is enclosed in a glass jar to
prevents the movement of air from
moving the bar. Two poles of a powerful
electromagnet are placed on each side
of the glass bar so the center of the
bar is in the line connecting the
poles, which is the line of magnetic
force. If the bar is inclined at 45
degrees to that line of force, then
when the battery is connected, the
glass bar will turn to a position at
right angles to the line of force, and
if moved will return to that position.
A bar of bismuth exhibits the same
phenomenon. While a bar of iron takes a
position in the same direction of the
magnetic forces, which is 90 degrees
with the direction the bar of bizmuth
takes when subjected to the same
magnetic influence. (How do the
dimensions of the bar make a
difference? For example, in cube shape,
no difference can be noticed, but when
in rectoid a difference is noticed? And
then is it not possible to simply cut
the material so that what was once the
long dimension is then the short
dimension, the long part extending 90
degrees from the grain? I think this
needs to be verified and explained. If
time make a video of this experiment.
Search for videos of this experiment.5
) Faraday categorizes these two
different kinds of objects as those,
like iron usually called "magnetics",
and the other group, like bismuth,
obeying a contrary law, and therefore
being called "diamagnetics". The number
of magnetics are extremely limited,
consisting only of iron, nickel,
cobalt, manganese, chromium, cerium,
titanium, palladium, platinum and
osmium. All other bodies, either solid
or liquid are diamagnetic, but with
various degrees of intensity. Some
diamagnetics, listed in increasing
degree are ether, alcohol, gold, water,
mercury, flint glass, tin, lead, zinc,
antimony, phophorus, and bismuth. No
gases, rarefied or condensed are
observed to be affected by magnetic
forces. Faraday views gases as
occupying a neutral point in the
magnetic scale between magnetic and
diamagnetic bodies. (So perhaps a
sliver of bizmuth will always point
east and west? Perhaps their movement
depends on the direction of current in
them. One in which current flows around
the short side, and the other where the
current flows around the long side.
Clearly the dimensions of the material
are partially responsible for the
effect, because the "grain" of the
material could be in any of 3
dimensions depending on how the
material is cut.6 )
Faraday states that
the material requires an elongated
shape for this effect. When the
material is in the form of a cube or
sphere they do not turn in any
direction, but the entire object if
magnetic, is attracted towards either
magnetic pole; if diamagnetic, the
object is repelled from them.
(Interesting that there are objects
that are repelled from North and South
magnetic poles?7 ) Substances divided
into minute fragments, or fine powder,
obey the same law as the larger masses.
This powder moves in lines which
Faraday terms "diamagnetic curves", in
contradistinction to the ordinary
magnetic curves, which they everywhere
intersect at right angles. (To me this
is a major find, that there are
materials that cause different lines of
magnetic force.8 ) Faraday writes
"These movements may be beautifully
seen by sprinkling bismuth in very fine
powder on paper, and taping on the
paper while subjected to the action of
a magnet.". Faraday explains that these
lines are the result of the simple law
that while every particle of a magnetic
body is attracted, every particle of a
diamagnetic body is repelled, by either
pole of a magnet. (Perhaps the
diamagnetics align on separate lines of
current, or the current flows through
them only in the long dimension. I want
to see the effect before I think more
about it.9 ) Faraday states that these
two modes of action stand in the same
general antithetical relation to one
another as the positive and negative
conditions of electricity, the northern
and southern polarities of ordinary
magnetism, or the lines of electric and
of magnetic force in
magneto-electricity. (It is important
to note that at this stage in 1845,
Faraday, still holds out magnetism as a
separate force of nature, different
from electricity. Faraday still
describes the "magnetic force" instead
of the "electric force". Although some
might interpret this as simply calling
this force the magnetic force, just
because it is an electric force in a
permanent magnet as opposed to an
electric force created by a battery.
Clearly the modern view is still this
distinction between electricity and
magnetism.10 ) Faraday concludes his
first paper on the diamagnetic
phenomenon by theorizing that both
magnetic and diamagnetic materials
become magnetized when exposed to a
magnetic field (Note that on this
occasion, Faraday is using the word
"field" instead of magnetic action or
force11 ), each having its axis
parallel to the lines of force passing
through it, but the particle of
magnetic matter would have its north
and south poles opposite or facing the
pole of the inducing magnet, where the
diamagnetic particles would align in
the reverse which results in the
magnetic particle being attracted,
while the diamagnetic particle being
receded. (It's confusing. Make clearer.
I think I doubt the receding claim, are
bars of bismuth actually recede from
magnetic poles?12 ) Faraday then states
that according to Ampere's theory (the
theory of an electric current causing a
magnetic field? Faraday should be more
explicit.13 ) this view would result in
currents that are induced in iron and
magnetics parallel to those existing
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ Faraday_e20_diamagnetism.pdf,
p594.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/75x2r22450097812/?p=c9cf323da7564bdd8c3
412936085483b&pi=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity. And
Twentieth Series. Section 26th. On New
Magnetic Actions; and on the Magnetic
Condition of All
Matter. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London
(1843-1854) Issue Volume 5 -
1843/1850 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rspl.1843.0066
4. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
15. ^ "1845(received)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday (12/24/1845(received)
(12/24/1845(received)
16. ^
Faraday_e21_Diamagnetism.pdf Experiment
al Researches in Electricity.
Twenty-First
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0004,
p41.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q1m6r722146m4t00/?p=fb8be4dd0be44bb78e3
d9670c7c2bea0&pi=0
(12/24/1845(received)
(12/24/1845(received)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[7] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[8] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[9]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[11]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[12] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1b&pi=1
[13]
Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf http://jou
rnals.royalsociety.org/content/?k=michae
l+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
(Royal Institution in) London,
England14  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 5 		2652) The Electric Telegraph Company is
formed in England.1

The Electric Telegraph Company must
store every telegraph, and keep them on
file for wealthy connected people to
search through the messages of people
they are interested in. Why do we never
hear about this massive telegraph
library?2
In 1870 the telegraph
industry in England is nationalized and
becomes part of the British Post
Office.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
5. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (1845)
England4   
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 3 		2723) (Sir) Roderick Impey Murchison
(mRKiSuN) (CE 1792-1871), Scottish
geologist, publishes "The Geology of
Russia in Europe and the Ural
Mountains" (1845).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
2. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
3. ^ "Sir Roderick Impey Murchison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4328/Sir-Roderick-Impey-Murchison
(1845)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Roderick Impey
Murchison". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderick_Im
pey_Murchison
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Roderick%20Impey%
20Murchison%20
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Copied from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Roder
ick_Murchison.jpg Found at
http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/lefa/Mu
rchison.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Murchison.jpg

[2] Sir Roderick Impey Murchison with
cane, not dated, K.C. Gass
collection PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Impey_Murchison.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 28 		2828) Nitrocellulose is a pulpy or
cottonlike polymer derived from
cellulose treated with sulfuric and
nitric acids and used in the
manufacture of explosives, collodion,
plastics, and solid monopropellants.17


Nitrocellulose is the main ingredient
of modern gunpowder. Nitrocellulose is
a fluffy white substance that retains
some of the fibrous structure of
untreated cellulose. Nitrocellulose
will ignite on brief heating of more
than about 150° C (300° F). When
nitrocellulose (breaks apart18 ), it
forms products that further catalyze
decomposition and this reaction, if not
stopped in time, results in an
explosion (which is when many pieces of
matter are quickly given high
velocities in an outward direction, in
particular many photons are released in
even visible frequencies19 ).20

Nitrocellulose is nitric acid ester of
cellulose (a glucose polymer).
Nitrocellulose is usually formed by the
action of a mixture of nitric and
sulfuric acids on purified cotton or
wood pulp. The quantity of nitration
and degradation (breaking down) of the
cellulose (into glucose?21 ) is
carefully controlled in order to obtain
the desired product.22

When cotton is treated so that nearly
all of the hydroxyl groups of the
cellulose molecule are esterified
(conversion of an acid into an ester by
combination with an alcohol and removal
of a molecule of water23 ), but with
little or no degradation of the
molecular structure, the nitrocellulose
formed is called guncotton. Guncotton
resembles cotton in its appearance.
Extremely flammable, guncotton explodes
when detonated and is used in the
manufacture of explosives. Guncotton is
insoluble in such common solvents as
water, chloroform, ether, and
ethanol.24

If the nitration is not carried to
completion (the point at which about
two thirds of the hydroxyl groups are
esterified), the soluble cellulose
nitrate pyroxylin is formed.25

Less completely nitrated celluloses are
called collodion cotton or pyroxylin
and are inferior to guncotton in
explosive properties. Collodion with a
nitrogen content of not more than 12
percent is used chiefly for lacquers
and celluloid plastics. Materials with
a nitrogen content of about 11.5
percent are used as artificial silk but
have been replaced by other materials
such as viscose rayon. A nitrogen
content of 11.5 percent is also used
for manufacturing photographic film
until safety film made of cellulose
acetate plastics becomes more
popular.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
3. ^ "Christian
Friedrich Schonbein". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
9. ^ "Christian
Friedrich Schönbein". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian+Friedri
ch+Sch%C3%B6nbein+?cat=technology
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Christian Friedrich
Schönbein". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian+Friedri
ch+Sch%C3%B6nbein+?cat=technology
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"nitrocellulose". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5946/nitrocellulose
15. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schönbein".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Christian+Friedri
ch+Sch%C3%B6nbein+?cat=technology
16. ^ "machine gun." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9742>.
17. ^ "nitrocellulose". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrocellul
ose?cat=technology
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^
"nitrocellulose". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5946/nitrocellulose
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "nitrocellulose". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrocellul
ose?cat=technology
23. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/esterificat
ion?cat=technology&method=26&initiator=W
ANS
24. ^ "nitrocellulose". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrocellul
ose?cat=technology
25. ^ "nitrocellulose". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrocellul
ose?cat=technology
26. ^ "nitrocellulose". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5946/nitrocellulose
27. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schonbein".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340. (1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Friedrich
Schönbein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F
riedrich_Sch%C3%B6nbein
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Nitrocellulose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellul
ose
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland27  
[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 20 		2838) Parsons is a wealthy aristocrat.3
 (One of the few who spends on science,
and in particular useful science.4 )
Parso
ns is educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, and Oxford University, where he
graduates in 1822.5
In 1821 Rosse is
elected to the House of Commons as Lord
Oxmantown.6
Parsons sits in Parliament
for 12 years,7 resigning his seat in
1834.8
In 1841 Parsons inherits his
father's earldom and serves as one of
the Irish peers in the House of Lords.9

(You can see how even after monarchy,
the wealthy somehow control the
"representative" governments.10 )

In 1845 Parsons is the Irish
representative in the House of Lords
(in England?11 ).12
In Ireland in the
years after 1845 the "potato famine"
costs the lives of more than 1 million
people.13
During the potato famine,
Rosse (pays14 ) back a major portion of
his rents to the farmers.15
From 1849
to 1854 Parsons is the president of the
Royal Society.16
From 1862 (on17 )
Parsons is the chancellor of the
University of Dublin.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
2. ^
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "rosse
william parsons 3d earl of". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
6. ^ "William Parsons 3rd earl of
Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
8. ^ "William Parsons
3rd earl of Rosse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
9. ^ "William Parsons 3rd earl of
Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
13. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
16. ^ "rosse william
parsons 3d earl of". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "rosse william parsons
3d earl of". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
19. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/
Galaxies.html
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342. (1845)
(1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of
Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Par
sons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[2] "William Parsons Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Parsons_Rosse
[3] "search?q=speculum metal".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q
=speculum%20metal
[4] "bronze". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ronze
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland19
 
[1] William Parsons, Third Earl of
Rosse, 36-inch reflector, Birr Castle,
Parsonstown, Ireland, 1839. Speculum
metal mirror. King, Figure 88, page
208. PD
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html

[2] en: This is the sketch made by
Lord Rosse of the Whirlpool Galaxy in
1845. PD
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 12 		2922) In Hertfordshire England
experiments by Liebig's English pupil
J.H. Gilbert, together with the
landowner John Bennet Lawes, lead to
the discovery of superphosphates, which
are developed as fertilizers.8

In addition extracting the necessary
molecules from manure may remove the
unpleasant smell of feces when
fertilizing public plants.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
3. ^ "Justus
baron von Liebig". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
5. ^ "Justus von
Liebig". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Justus
baron von Liebig". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Justus baron von
Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
11. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
12. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig (1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany10 11  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 12 13 14 		2933) Siebold founds the "Zeitschrift
für wissenschaftliche Zoologie"
("Journal of Scientific Zoology"),
which becomes one of the foremost
periodicals for biological research.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p354.
2. ^ "Hermann
Friedrich Stannius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Fri
edrich_Stannius
3. ^ "Carl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7655/Carl-Theodor-Ernst-von-Siebold
4. ^ "Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Theodo
r_Ernst_von_Siebold
5. ^ "Carl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7655/Carl-Theodor-Ernst-von-Siebold
6. ^ "Carl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7655/Carl-Theodor-Ernst-von-Siebold
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p354.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p354.
10. ^ "Carl
Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7655/Carl-Theodor-Ernst-von-Siebold
11. ^ "Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Theodo
r_Ernst_von_Siebold
12. ^ "Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Theodo
r_Ernst_von_Siebold (1845-1848)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p354. (1845)
(1845)
14. ^ "Carl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7655/Carl-Theodor-Ernst-von-Siebold
(1846)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Karl%20Theodor%20
Ernst%20von%20Siebold
[2] "Carl Theodor Ernst von Siebold".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Carl_The
odor_Ernst_von_Siebold
(University in) Freiburg, Germany11
 
[1] Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold
(1804-1885) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siebold_1804-1885.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 5 		3151) Julius Robert Mayer (MIR) (CE
1814-1878), German physicist,1
publishes "Die organische Bewegung in
ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem
Stoffwechsel" (1845, "Organic movement
in their connection with the
metabolism"2 ) in which Mayer extends
the conservation of force to magnetic,
electrical and chemical forces. Mayer
describes how plants convert the sun's
heat and light into latent chemical
force; animals consume this chemical
force as food; the animals then convert
that force to body heat and mechanical
muscle force in their life processes.3


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp386-387.
2. ^
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

3. ^ "Mayer, Julius Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p589.
4. ^ "Robert Mayer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-maye
r
5. ^ "Mayer, Julius Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p589. (1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "thermodynamics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008, p19.
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258
556>.
[2] "Java." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 May.
2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/java
Heilbronn, Germany4  
[1] Julius Robert von Mayer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Julius_Robert_von_May
er.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 4 		3202)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p394.
2. ^ "August Wilhelm
von Hofmann." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-wilh
elm-von-hofmann
3. ^ "August Wilhelm von Hofmann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-wilh
elm-von-hofmann
4. ^ "August Wilhelm von Hofmann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-wilh
elm-von-hofmann (1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hofmann, August Wilhelm
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0711>.
[2] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilh
elm_von_Hofmann
[3] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
ilhelm_von_Hofmann
[4] "Hofmann, August Wilhelm Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp432-433
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany3
 
[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 15 16 		3227) Kolbe studies chemistry with
Friedrich Wöhler at the University of
Göttingen and earns his doctorate in
1843 with Robert Bunsen at the
University of Marburg.10

Just before 1860, the German chemist
August Kekulé and others develop the
the theory of chemical structure that
depends on valence bonds. However,
Kolbe categorically rejects the
molecular structural diagrams drawn by
Kekulé, and holds that the classical
theory of radicals, in which groups of
atoms are held together by
electrostatic forces is sufficient to
describe even the most complex organic
molecules, and that therefore the new
structural formulas are overly
speculative. However, most other
chemists Kolbe's age or younger accept
the structure theory, and this theory
is well established around 1870.11

In 1874 when Kekulé's former student
Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff extends
structural formulas into three
dimensions to create the new field of
stereochemistry, Kolbe explodes with
anger. Being chief editor of a leading
journal, the "Journal für praktische
Chemie", Kolbe often publishes scathing
editorials, and in 1877 Kolbe viciously
opposes the young and still unknown
Van't Hoff12 and the tetrahedral
carbon atom proposed by Van't Hoff and
Le Bel.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p397.
3. ^ Record
ID2857. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p397.
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kolbe.
html
6. ^ "Kolbe, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p397.
9. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kolbe.
html
10. ^ "Kolbe, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
11. ^ "Kolbe, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
12. ^ "Kolbe, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
14. ^ "Kolbe,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397. (1845)
16. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolph Wilhelm Hermann
Kolbe." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolph-wilh
elm-hermann-kolbe
[2] "Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Wilh
elm_Hermann_Kolbe
[3] "Adolphe Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Adolphe_
Wilhelm_Hermann_Kolbe
[4] "Kolbe, Adolf Wilhelm Hermann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp496-497
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany14  
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 4 5 		3234) Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
(KOLBu) (CE 1818-1884), German chemist1
 publishes a "Textbook of Organic
Chemistry" (1854–60), which collects
together all the methods of preparing
organic compounds.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
2. ^ "Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolph-wilh
elm-hermann-kolbe
3. ^ "Kolbe, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397. (1845)
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolph Wilhelm Hermann
Kolbe". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Wilh
elm_Hermann_Kolbe
[2] "Adolphe Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Adolphe_
Wilhelm_Hermann_Kolbe
[3] "Kolbe, Adolf Wilhelm Hermann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp496-497
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany3  
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 4 		3295)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
2. ^ Donné (1845),
Bulletin de la Société
d'encouragement pour l'industrie
nationale, 44, 338-92, 578-86,977.
3. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003.
4. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003. (1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[7] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+des+tra
vaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault
&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[12]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html (04/03/1845)
Paris, France3  
[1] Electric Photo Microscope PD/Corel

source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

[2] carbon electrode PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 21 		3362) Virchow bases his view on a
mechanistic understanding of vital
phenomena3 seeing life as the sum of
physical and chemical actions and as
essentially the expression of cell
activity4 .

In 1847 Virchow and friend Benno
Reinhardt, start a new journal, "Archiv
für pathologische Anatomie und
Physiologie, und für klinische
Medizin" ("Archives for Pathological
Anatomy and Physiology, and for
Clinical Medicine").5

In 1848 Virchow denounces social
conditions in Silesia, radicalized by
his experiences with the destitute
Polish minority of Upper Silesia during
the typhus epidemic of 18486 , and
fights on the side of the
revolutionaries against the Prussian
government, and loses his university
position. But Virchow is hired as
professor in the more liberal
atmosphere of Bavaria in 1849.7

In 1860 Virchow states that "all cells
arise from cells" in Latin.8

Bismarck challenges Virchow to a duel
in 1865. Virchow refuses.9

Virchow is elected to the Reichstag in
1880, as a leader of a small German
liberal party which vigorously opposes
Bismarck.10

Virchow rejects Pasteur's germ theory
of disease, and views disease as a
civil war between cells, an anarchy
among order, not an invasion from the
outside. We now know that there are
diseases of both kinds.11 (In addition
to external causes, there are
congenital (genetic) inherited
diseases.12 ) Virchow also thinks that
sociological factors play a significant
role in disease.13

Virchow rejects Darwin's theory of
evolution, and votes for a measure
banning the teaching of Darwin's theory
from schools.14

Virchow accompanies Schliemann to Troy
in 1879 and to Egypt in 1888.15

In 1873 Virchow is elected to the
Prussian Academy of Sciences.16
Virchow
declines to be ennobled as "von
Virchow", but in 1894 is created
Geheimrat ("privy councillor").17
From
his anthropological studies, Virchow is
convinced that there are no such things
as "superior races".18

In 1892 Virchow receives the Copley
medal of the Royal Society.19
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
2. ^ "Rudolf
Virchow." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>.
3. ^ "Rudolf Virchow." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-virc
how
4. ^ "Virchow, Rudolf Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p710-711.
5. ^ "Rudolf Virchow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>.
6. ^ "Virchow, Rudolf Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p710-711.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Virchow, Rudolf Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p710-711.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
15. ^ "Rudolf
Virchow." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>.
16. ^ "Rudolf Virchow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>.
17. ^ "Rudolf Virchow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
19. ^ "Rudolf
Virchow." The Oxford Companion to
German Literature. Oxford University
Press, 1976, 1986, 1997, 2005.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-virc
how
20. ^ "Virchow, Rudolf Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p710-711.
21. ^ "Rudolf Virchow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>. {1845}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Virchow."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-virc
how
[2] "Rudolf Virchow." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-virc
how
[3] "Rudolph Carl Virchow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Car
l_Virchow
[4] "Charité". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charit%C3%A
9
(Charité Hospital) Berlin, Germany20
 
[1] Rudolf Carl Virchow, MD, as a young
man. Source. Prints and Photographs
Collection, History of Medicine
Division, National Library of Medicine,
Bethesda, Md. PD/Corel
source: http://www.ajph.org/content/vol9
6/issue12/images/large/Brown_78436_F1.jp
eg

[2] http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Rudolf_Virchow.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 7 		3363)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
2. ^ "Rudolf
Virchow." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p413-414.
(preexisting)
5. ^ "Rudolf Virchow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>.
6. ^ "Virchow, Rudolf Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p710-711.
7. ^ "Rudolf Virchow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/629797/Rudolf-Carl-Virchow>. {1845}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Virchow."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-virc
how
[2] "Rudolf Virchow." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-virc
how
[3] "Rudolf Virchow." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-virc
how
[4] "Rudolph Carl Virchow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Car
l_Virchow
[5] "Charité". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charit%C3%A
9
(Charité Hospital) Berlin, Germany6
 
[1] Rudolf Carl Virchow, MD, as a young
man. Source. Prints and Photographs
Collection, History of Medicine
Division, National Library of Medicine,
Bethesda, Md. PD/Corel
source: http://www.ajph.org/content/vol9
6/issue12/images/large/Brown_78436_F1.jp
eg

[2] http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Rudolf_Virchow.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 9 10 		3401)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p417.
2. ^ "tire."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596799/tire>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p417.
5. ^ "tire."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596799/tire>.
6. ^
http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Sco
tland-History/RobertWilliamThomson.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Sco
tland-History/RobertWilliamThomson.htm
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p417. {1845}
10. ^ "tire."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596799/tire>. {1845}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert William Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Will
iam_Thomson
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] US Patent 5104 PD/Corel
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?
DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5104&F=0&QPN=US5104

[2] Obituary of Robert William
Thomson, Scottish engineer and inventor
of the locomotive traction steam
engine. The text above his obituary is
the end of Lord Ossington (John Evelyn
Denison)'s obituary. Source
Illustrated London News Date
March 29, 1873 Author Engraving
by R & E Taylor, after a photograph by
a Mr. Peterson of Copenhagen. Author of
the obituary unknown. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Robert_William_Thomso
n_-_Illustrated_London_News_March_29_187
3.png
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 16 		3451) In 1847 Kirchhoff becomes
privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) at
the University of Berlin.10
In 185011
Kirchhoff accepts the post of
extraordinary professor of physics at
the University of Breslau.12
In 1854 he
was appointed professor of physics at
the University of Heidelberg, where he
joined forces with Bunsen and
(establishes13 ) spectrum analysis.14
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
2. ^ "Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/319055/Gustav-Robert-Kirchhoff>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
6. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/319055/Gustav-Robert-Kirchhoff>.
7. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
8. ^ "nonlinear circuit component."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 06
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nonlinear-c
ircuit-component
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/319055/Gustav-Robert-Kirchhoff>.
11. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gustav_R
obert_Kirchhoff
12. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/319055/Gustav-Robert-Kirchhoff>.
13. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gustav_R
obert_Kirchhoff
14. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/319055/Gustav-Robert-Kirchhoff>.
15. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gustav_R
obert_Kirchhoff
16. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/319055/Gustav-Robert-Kirchhoff>.
{1845}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gustav Kirchhoff."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
[2] "Gustav Kirchhoff." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
[3] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Robe
rt_Kirchhoff
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p489
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Prussia (now Germany)15
(presumably) 
[1] The current entering any junction
is equal to the current leaving that
junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/KCL.png

[2] The sum of all the voltages around
the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3
+ v4 = 0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/KVL.png
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 6 7 		3519)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gobley, Nicolaus-Théodore",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p361.
2. ^ "Gobley,
Nicolaus-Théodore", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p361.
3. ^
Rockefeller Institute, "Studies from
the Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research",
p343. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nmMSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA4-PA343&dq=lecithin+di
scovered&as_brr=1
4. ^ Gobley M J, pharm chim ,1847, xi
409 xii 1 .
5. ^ "Gobley,
Nicolaus-Théodore", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p361.
6. ^
"Gobley, Nicolaus-Théodore", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p361. {1845}
7. ^ Rockefeller
Institute, "Studies from the
Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research",
p343. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nmMSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA4-PA343&dq=lecithin+di
scovered&as_brr=1 {1846}
(School of Pharmacy) Paris, France5
 
[1] Nicolas-Théodore Gobley (Maurice
Gobley) Klicke auf einen Zeitpunkt, um
diese Version zu laden. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/7/7c/Gobley.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 12 13 		3660)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p369.
2. ^ Hermann
Grassmann, "Neue Theorie der
Elektrodynamik", Annalen der Physik,
Vol. 64, 1845, p
1-18. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/cgi-bin/fulltext/112496338/PDFSTART {
Grassmann_Hermann_1845.pdf} English
translation in as "A new theory of
electrodynamics". Tricker, R. A. R.,
"Early Electrodynamics - The First Law
of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p201-214.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p78-117.
5. ^ Hermann
Grassmann, "Neue Theorie der
Elektrodynamik", Annalen der Physik,
Vol. 64, 1845, p
1-18. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/cgi-bin/fulltext/112496338/PDFSTART {
Grassmann_Hermann_1845.pdf} English
translation in as "A new theory of
electrodynamics". Tricker, R. A. R.,
"Early Electrodynamics - The First Law
of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p201-214.
6. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, Joseph John
Thomson, "A treatise on electricity and
magnetism", Clarendon, v.2, 1904,
p319. http://books.google.com/books?id=
t5vCDCXPUswC&pg=PA319&dq=grassmann+amper
e&as_brr=1&ei=LooPSaXxJoH-sQOo_KC_Dw#PPA
319,M1
7. ^ Hermann Grassmann, "Neue Theorie
der Elektrodynamik", Annalen der
Physik, Vol. 64, 1845, p
1-18. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/cgi-bin/fulltext/112496338/PDFSTART {
Grassmann_Hermann_1845.pdf} English
translation in as "A new theory of
electrodynamics". Tricker, R. A. R.,
"Early Electrodynamics - The First Law
of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p201-214.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Grassmann,
Hermann Günther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
11. ^ "Szczecin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/szczecin
12. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p78-117. {1845}
13. ^
Hermann Grassmann, "Neue Theorie der
Elektrodynamik", Annalen der Physik,
Vol. 64, 1845, p
1-18. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/cgi-bin/fulltext/112496338/PDFSTART {
Grassmann_Hermann_1845.pdf} English
translation in as "A new theory of
electrodynamics". Tricker, R. A. R.,
"Early Electrodynamics - The First Law
of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p201-214.

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Günther Grassmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_G%C
3%BCnther_Grassmann
[2] "Hermann Günther Grassmann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp370
[3] "Hermann
Grassmann." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-gra
ssmann
[4] "Grassmann, Hermann Günther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>. (1844)
(Gymnasium in) Stettin10 , (Prussia
now) Poland11  
[1] This is a closed circuit with
constant current I. There are two
mercury troughs and the metal bridge
BCDEF floats on them. When current
flows, the bridge moves forward. This
motion is due to an electromagnetic
force. According to Ampere's equation,
the main component of the forward force
is along the pieces BC and EF due to
the repulsion from the pieces AB and
FG, respectively. However, with
Grassman's equation there can not exist
any force parallel to the current, so
the forward force on BC and EF is zero
and the motion is explained by the
force acting on the arch CDE.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p109

[2] [t Figures from Grassmann's 1845
paper] PD/Corel
source: Grassmann_Hermann_1845.pdf
154 YBN
[05/??/1846 AD] 7 		3298) For me light interference is a
very interesting phenomena. EXPERIMENT:
I think we need to carefully measure
the light that goes in and comes out of
interference. Do it all add up? Is mass
(energy) conserved? Where does the
light in the dark areas go? in the
light areas is the light brighter than
the source when added up? If any light
is missing, test for larger particles,
such as electrons, neutrinos, neutrons,
protons, other possible composite
particles to verify that no two or more
photons are falling together because of
their gravity.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
2. ^
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
3. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
7. ^ William Tobin,
"The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003. {05/1846}

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[7] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+des+tra
vaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault
&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[12] "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
[13]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html (04/03/1845)
Paris, France6  
[1] Calorific rays PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

[2] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif
154 YBN
[08/??/1846 AD] 4 		2930) James Challis (CE 1803-1882),
English astronomer 1 observes the
planet Neptune but fails to compare
that night's observations with those of
the previous night2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp353-354.
2. ^ "James Challis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2288/James-Challis
3. ^ "James Challis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2288/James-Challis
4. ^ "James Challis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2288/James-Challis (08/1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Challis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Chall
is
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] JAMES CHALLIS English clergyman and
astronomer Date: 1803 - 1882 ©
Copyright (c) Mary Evans Picture
Library 2007 PD/Corel
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/nept
une/unseen.htm

[2] James Chalis PD/Corel
source: http://www.prints-online.com/pic
tures_618360/JAMES-CHALLIS-CDV.html
154 YBN
[09/03/1846 AD] 14 15 16 		3101)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "Grove, Sir
William Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Sir
William Robert Grove". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
8. ^ Record ID2407.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ William Robert Grove, On
the correlation of physical forces, the
substance of a course of lectures,
London Institution,
(1846). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=S3oEAAAAQAAJ
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Sir William
Robert Grove". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
14. ^ "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove (1846)
15. ^ "Grove, Sir
William Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234>. (1846)
16. ^ W. R. Grove, "The Bakerian
Lecture: On Certain Phenomena of
Voltaic Ignition and the Decomposition
of Water into Its Constituent Gases by
Heat", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 137,
1847. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/?mode=allwords&k=grove&Author=W.
+R.+Grove&sortorder=asc&o=10 {Grove_Dec
omposition_of_Water_1847.pdf}
(09/03/1846)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_battery
[2] Franklin Leonard Pope, "Modern
Practice of the Electric Telegraph: A
Handbook for Electricians and ...", D.
Van Nostrand, (1874),
pp15-19. http://books.google.com/books?
id=negOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=MODERN+PRACTIC
E+OF+THE+ELECTRIC+TELEGRAPH.+By+Frank+L.
+Pope#PPA15,M1
[3]
http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/
origins/origins.htm
[4]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
London, England13  
[1] Figures from Groves 1847
Decomposition PD/Corel
source: Grove_Decomposition_of_Water_184
7.pdf

[2] Grove's Device: Oxygen and
hydrogen in the tubes over the lower
resevoirs react in sulfuric acid
solution to form water. That is the
energy producing chemical reaction. The
electrons produced electrolyze water to
oxygen and hydrogen in the upper tube
that was actually used as a voltmeter.
This scheme was published by Grove in
one of the first accounts of an
operating fuel cell in Philos. Mag.,
Ser. 3, 1839, 14, 127. Grove proved
that his fuel cells worked, but as he
had no entrepreneurial inclinations,
and there was no practical use for them
at that time anyway, the invention
slumbered for more than 130
years. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell2.jpg
154 YBN
[09/23/1846 AD] 22 23 		3073) In 1821 Alexis Bouvard, of the
Paris Observatory, had published a set
of tables of the motion of Uranus.6
(Tables are different from
observations, in that tables are
mathematical predictions of the
location of an object over a period of
time.7 ) Within a few years there is a
noticeable difference between the
predicted and observed location of
Uranus.8

Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier (luVerYA)
(CE 1811-1877), French astronomer,9
calculates the position of Neptune
mathematically from the perturbations
of Uranus. On 09/23/1846, Galle is the
first to see planet Neptune, in the
first night of searching at the request
of Leverrier names the planet
"Neptune", god of the ocean (supposedly
from the planet Neptune's green color).
The finding of a planet from pure
calculation is strong evidence in favor
of Newton's theory.10

John Couch Adams had made the same
calculation months earlier with the
same result. Leverrier works out the
gravitational accounting of the motions
of the planets in greater detail than
ever before. (But it is now accepted
that these motions are partially
unpredictable, like the weather on
earth, because of the many atoms of
water and their complex movement on
earth and even the moving of many atoms
inside planets.11 ) Both Leverrier and
Adams has thought that Neptune would be
more distant based on Bode's law.12

In the field of celestial mechanics, Le
Verrier revises much of the work of
Pierre Simon Laplace.13

(At the time14 ) the theory of
celestial mechanics centers on the
theory that each planet moves around
the sun in an ellipse with minor
deviations due to attractions by the
rest of the planets.15 This is
different from running a simulation
forward into time by using a computer
to iterate the positions of all known
masses and their mutual forces on each
other (that is to calculate each
position for each unit of time given
starting positions and velocities into
the future). Leverrier and Laplace
before Leverrier use equations which
are supposed to repeat periodically in
time, for example, the equation for an
ellipse; these equations are
independent of time, since they form a
periodic pattern. This method must make
special exceptions to account for the
interaction of other masses in the
system.16 The computations involved
are very complicated, but the results
are accurate enough to provide
predictions of considerable accuracy.
However, the planet Uranus is the one
exception. The error is in prediction
of location of Uranus is 1 minute of
arc.17

Another contribution of Galle's is that
Galle suggests that the parallax of
asteroids be used to determine the
scale of the solar system. This will
finally be done and successful, but not
until 20 years after Galle dies.18
(chronology, may be 4.819 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp378-379.
5. ^ "Le Verrier,
Urbain-Jean-Joseph." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>.
6. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph
Leverrier." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 07 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
13. ^ "Urbain Jean
Joseph Leverrier." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph
Leverrier." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 07 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph
Leverrier." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 07 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp378-379.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^
"Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
21. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
(09/23/1846)
23. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>. (09/23/1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le
Verrier", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p538
[2] "celestial mechanics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-774
32>
Berlin, Germany20 (and Paris, France21
) 
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg


[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
154 YBN
[09/30/1846 AD] 10 11 		2998) William Thomas Green Morton (CE
1819-1868), United States dental
surgeon, popularizes the use of ether
by giving a successful public
demonstration of ether as an anesthesia
during surgery, using ether for a tooth
removal (extraction).1

The rural Georgia physician Crawford
Long was the first to use ether for
surgery 4 years before,2 but did not
make his findings public until 18493 .
In
1844, the earliest known tooth
extraction under anesthesia using
nitrous oxide was performed by US
dentist Horace Wells, which Morton
witnessed.4

Determined to find a more reliable
pain-killing chemical than nitrous
oxide, Morton consults his former
teacher Boston chemist Charles Jackson
(CE 1805-18805 ). The two discuss the
use of ether.6

On October 16 Morton successfully
demonstrates the use of ether as an
anesthetic, administering ether to a
person undergoing a tumor operation.7

Morton attempts to obtain exclusive
rights to the use of ether anesthesia
and spends the remainder of his life
engaged in a costly disagreement with
Jackson, who claims priority in the
discovery, despite official recognition
going to Horace Wells and the rural
Georgia physician Crawford Long.8
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "William Thomas Green Morton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3858/William-Thomas-Green-Morton
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p402.
3. ^ "anesthesia."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
4. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p357.
6. ^ "William Thomas
Green Morton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3858/William-Thomas-Green-Morton
7. ^ "William Thomas Green Morton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3858/William-Thomas-Green-Morton
8. ^ "William Thomas Green Morton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3858/William-Thomas-Green-Morton
9. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p402. (09/1846)
11. ^ "William
Thomas Green Morton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3858/William-Thomas-Green-Morton
(09/30/1846)

MORE INFO
[1] Charles Thomas Jackson, A
Manual of Etherization: Containing
Directions for the Employment of Ether
...", J. B. Mansfield,
(1861). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LiEJAAAAIAAJ
(Massachusetts General Hospital)
Boston, Massachusetts, USA9  
[1] Photographie de William Thomas
Green
Morton http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:WilliamMorton.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Thomas_Green_Morton.jpg

[2] Charles Thomas Jackson PD/Corel
source: http://images.virtualology.com/a
c/3/i/ency0067.jpg
154 YBN
[09/??/1846 AD] 17 18 		3268) Howe's early years are spent on
his father's farm. In 1835 Howe enters
the factory of a manufacturer of
cotton-machinery at Lowell,
Massachusetts, where he learns the
machinist's trade.4 Howe is
apprenticed in 1838 to an instrument
maker and watchmaker in Boston at whose
suggestion Howe turns his attention to
devising a sewing machine5 . For five
years Howe spends all his spare time in
its development.6

Howe sends his brother to England to
seek a market and there sells his third
machine to William Thomas7 a
manufacturer of corsets, umbrellas, and
shoes. This manufacturer sees the
possibilities the sewing machine could
have if it can sew leather for shoes.8
Howe works with Thomas in London to
produce a machine to stitch leather.9
The two soon quarrel, however, and Howe
is forced to pawn his model and the
patent papers to raise enough money to
return back to the USA.10
When he
cannot make money from his sewing
machine patent, Howe sells the patent
rights in England for £250 ($1,250),
and moves to England. Howe works for
£5 a week to perfect his machine for
use in sewing leather and similar
materials.11

When Howe returns to the
U.S., he finds that some manufacturers,
including Isaac Singer, are making and
selling sewing machines similar to his.
After a five year legal battle, lasting
from 1849 to 185412 , Howe's patent
rights are established in 1854, and
from then until 1867, when his patent
expires, Howe receives royalties on all
sewing machines produced in the United
States13 .
At the height of his
prosperity Howe receives as much as
$4,000 a week in royalties.14

(Can you imagine had Michael Pupin
fought for his patent right to the
camera that sees eyes and brain images?
He probably feared being murdered if he
pushed the point in the press or
courts.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp401-402.
2. ^ "sewing
machine." How Products are Made. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 14
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp401-402.
4. ^ "Elias Howe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Elias_Ho
we
5. ^ "Elias Howe." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elias-howe
6. ^ "Elias Howe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Elias_Ho
we
7. ^ "Elias Howe." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elias-howe
8. ^ "Elias Howe." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elias-howe
9. ^ "Elias Howe." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elias-howe
10. ^ "Elias Howe." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elias-howe
11. ^ "Howe, Elias." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9041238>
.
12. ^
http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/206.h
tml
13. ^ "Howe, Elias." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9041238>
.
14. ^ "Elias Howe." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elias-howe
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Elias Howe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Elias_Ho
we
17. ^ "Elias Howe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Elias_Ho
we (09/1846)
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp401-402. (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Elias Howe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_Howe
[2] "sewing machine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9066989>
.
[3] "sewing machine." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA16  
[1] Woodcut of the first patented
lockstitch sewing machine, invented by
Elias Howe in 1845 and patented in
1846. The machine was not successful
commercially. Isaac Singer improved it
and manufactured the first commercially
successful machine in 1850. Howe sued
Singer for patent infringement and won
in 1854, and subsequently earned about
2 million dollars in royalties for his
invention. Alterations: removed the
caption, which read: ''The first Howe
sewing machine'' Source Retrieved
2007-12-21 from Frank Puterbaugh
Bachman (1918) Great Inventors and
their Inventions, American Book Co.,
New York, USA, p.131 on Google
Books Date 1918 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Elias_Howe_sewing_mac
hine.png

[2] The first Elias Howe sewing
machine, from a wood
engraving. Library of Congress/Corbis
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
19170&rendTypeId=4
154 YBN
[10/10/1846 AD] 16 17 		2824) Triton is the largest of
Neptune's moons and has a diameter
around 1,680 mi (2,700 km), nearly 80%
that of Earth's Moon. Triton is the
only large moon of the solar system to
move in a retrograde orbit, opposite
the direction of Neptune's rotation.
Triton's orbital period of 5.9 Earth
days is the same as its rotation period
and as a result Triton always keeps the
same face toward Neptune. Triton has a
very thin atmosphere of nitrogen and
methane and a surface temperature of
-390 °F (-235 °C). The surface of
Triton is covered with enormous
(sheets9 ) of ice sculpted with
fissures, puckers, and ridge-crossed
depressions. Geyser-like plumes will be
observed by the Voyager 2 spacecraft
and these may be gas venting through
fissures when the surface is warmed by
sunlight. Triton appears to have formed
elsewhere in the star system and to
have been gravitationally captured by
Neptune in the planet's early
history.10
In 1839, Lassell describes
his home-made 9-inch equatorial
reflector to the Royal Astronomical
Society.11
Lassell never publishes any
drawings of the 24-inch telescope.12
Ar
ound 1825 Lassell starts a brewery
business, after a seven-year
apprenticeship.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p339.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
4. ^ "William
Lassell". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7257/William-Lassell
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
6. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
7. ^ "William Lassell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7257/William-Lassell
8. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/lassell.htm
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "triton". Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/triton?cat=techno
logy
11. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
12. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
13. ^ "William Lassell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7257/William-Lassell
14. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
15. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/lassell.htm
16. ^ "William Lassell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7257/William-Lassell (10/10/1846)
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339. (1846) (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Lassell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Las
sell
[2]
http://www.answers.com/William+Lassell+?
cat=technology
(Starfield Observatory) Liverpool,
England14 15  
[1] Picture of Triton made by Voyager 2
in 1989. [t Find original drawing from
Lassell] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Triton_%28moon%29.jpg

[2] William Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm
154 YBN
[10/??/1846 AD] 11 		3022) In 1865 De Morgan helps to found
the London Mathematical Society.7
De
Morgan is prevented from taking his
M.A. degree, or from obtaining a
fellowship, by his conscientious
objection to signing the theological
tests then required from masters of
arts and fellows at Cambridge.8
De
Morgan publishes numerous math papers
and textbooks.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p361.
2. ^ "De Morgan,
Augustus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9609>.
3. ^ "Augustus De Morgan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustus
_De_Morgan
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p361.
6. ^ "De Morgan,
Augustus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9609>.
7. ^ "Augustus De Morgan", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p242.
8. ^ "Augustus De Morgan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustus
_De_Morgan
9. ^ "Augustus De Morgan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustus
_De_Morgan
10. ^ "Augustus De Morgan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustus
_De_Morgan
11. ^ "Augustus De Morgan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustus
_De_Morgan (10/1846)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_De
_Morgan#External_links (for a list of
De Morgan's works)
(University College) London, England10
 
[1] Augustus De Morgan PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/437/0
00097146/augustus-de-morgan-2-sized.jpg

[2] Beschreibung: Augustus De
Morgan Quelle: Fotografie aus dem 19.
Jahrhundert PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/AugustusDeMorgan.png
154 YBN
[12/12/1846 AD] 2 		3601)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
2. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ {12/12/1846}

MORE INFO
[1] Iconographic Encyclopaedia of
the Arts and Sciences, Iconographic
publishing co., 1890,
p376. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+B
ain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQ
OKwOGrAQ
[2]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bain.html
[3] John Finlaison, "An Account of Some
Remarkable Applications of the Electric
Fluid to the Useful Arts, by Mr.
Alexander Bain: With a Vindication of
His Claim to be the First Inventor of
the Electro-magnetic Printing
Telegraph, and Also of the
Electro-magnetic Clock", Chapman and
Hall,
1843. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Alex
ander+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_
PEajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA1,M1
[4]
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CASELLI_BIO.h
tml
Edinburgh, Scotland1  
The annexed diagram represents a piece
of the punched paper with the symbols
of the word ''Bain''. [t from
1853] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA169,M1

[1] Brain's 1843 telegraph [t from
patent? - here is shows clearly that
the message is moved vertically while
the pendulum swings
horizontally.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Bain.gif
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 8 		2603)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p308.
2. ^ "Jacques Boucher
de Perthes". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5889/Jacques-Boucher-de-Perthes
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p308.
4. ^ "Jacques Boucher
de Perthes". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5889/Jacques-Boucher-de-Perthes
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p308.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p308.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p308.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p308. (1846)
(1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Boucher de
CrèvecÅ"ur de Perthes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Bou
cher_de_Cr%C3%A8vec%C5%93ur_de_Perthes
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-bou
cher-de-cr-vec-ur-de-perthes
Abbeville, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Description J. Boucher de
Perthes Source Originally from
fr.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-01-18 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was 120 at
fr.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boucher_de_Perthes.jpg

[2] Una foto di Jacques Boucher de
Perthes scattata nel sito preistorico
di Saint-Acheul, nell''aprile
1859. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sapere.it/tc/arte/per
corsi/DP/AO/Mestiere_archeologo/Archeo_v
estiti.jsp
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 5 		2675) After a year of operation the
telegraph system is moved from
government owned and opened to
ownership by private industry.1

(Some people argue that handing over
the telegraph to private industry the
telegraph grew faster, and perhaps that
is true, however companies are not
democratic (not that government is
either), and if a conservative company
owns the telegraph, telephone, and
eventually the Pupin technology,
liberal intellectual atheists and
non-church going tend to be excluded
from use of the service and the victim
of abuse at the hands of conservative
religious who own and have access to
the technology. If owned by government,
there might be on occasion the
possibility of liberal leadership, as
opposed to a company like AT&T where
the owners rarely change, and are
generally passed down like monarchy
through inheritance. Either way,
ultimately, the majority can control
the vast wire network through
government laws, once the public
realizes what is happening with the
secrecy and two-tier society that has
been created.2 )

The telegraph companies must store
every telegraph recognizing the value
of charging people to see the messages
sent by people they are interested in.
However, this routine process must be
kept from the public, for fear of the
public becoming angry. What are some of
the oldest telegraphs secretly and
systematically stored?3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p61.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
5. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p61. (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[3] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[5] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
[8] "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM#PPA
91,M1 The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman
Washington DC, USA4  
[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 13 		2716) Charles Wheatstone is supposed to
give a lecture for the Royal Society,
but at the last second, with the
audience already in their seats,
Wheatstone becomes scared and leaves
the theater, so Faraday gives this
improvised lecture in which Faraday
speculates that light may be a
disturbance of electricity and
magnetism.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^ Darrel T.
Emerson ,"The Stage Is Set:
Developments before 1900 Leading to
Practical Wireless Communication", p.
http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson/sset
q.pdf
3. ^ Record ID2695. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ James
Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory of
the Electromagnetic Field", Royal
Society Transactions, Vol. 155, 1865,
p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_Ja
mes_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1
864.pdf} also in James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ The Mechanical
Universe, episode 33, Electric
Circuits, :40.
12. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
13. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[13] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1bπ=1
[14]
Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf http://jou
rnals.royalsociety.org/content/?k=michae
l+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
[15]
Faraday_e21_Diamagnetism.pdf Experiment
al Researches in Electricity.
Twenty-First
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0004 htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q1
m6r722146m4t00/?p=fb8be4dd0be44bb78e3d96
70c7c2bea0π=0
[16] Faraday_e20_diamagnetism.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/75x2r22450097812/?p=c9cf323da7564bdd8
c3412936085483bπ=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity. And
Twentieth Series. Section 26th. On New
Magnetic Actions; and on the Magnetic
Condition of All
Matter. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London
(1843-1854) Issue Volume 5 -
1843/1850 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rspl.1843.0066
[17]
http://www.padrak.com/ine/FARADAY1.html
(Royal Institution in) London,
England12  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 41 42 		2944) The name "Weber" was used for the
unit of current for some time, until an
international congress in Paris in 1881
in which Helmholtz, the leader of the
German delegation proposed the name
"Ampere" for the unit of current
instead of "Weber" which was
accepted.35
The magnetic unit, termed a
Weber, formerly the Coulomb, is named
after Weber.36
A "Weber" is the
International System unit of magnetic
flux. One "Weber" is equal to the flux
that produces in a circuit of one turn
(of wire37 ) an electromotive force of
one volt, when the flux is uniformly
reduced to zero within one second.38
A
Weber is equivalent to 108 "Maxwell"s,
the unit used in the
centimeter-gram-second system.39
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p356.
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
4. ^ Andre Koch Torres Assis, "On the
First Electromagnetic Measurement of
the Velocity of Light by Wilhelm Weber
and Rudolf Kohlrausch",
2003. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf
5. ^ Wilhelm Weber, "Determinations of
Electrodynamic Measure, Concerning a
Universal Law of Electrical Action,
issued at the founding of the Royal
Scientific Society of Saxony on the day
of the 200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846".
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter version is
published in Annalen der
Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p356.
7. ^ "Wilhelm
Eduard Weber". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
8. ^ Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter version is
published in Annalen der
Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
9. ^ Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen:
über ein allgemeines Grundgesetz der
elektrischen Wirkung", Abhandlungen der
K. Sächsischen Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Leipzig,
1846, p211-378. in: Wilhelm Eduard
Weber, Ernst Heinrich Weber, Eduard
Weber, Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm Weber,
Woldemar Voigt, Eduard Riecke,
Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter version is
published in Annalen der
Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
10. ^ R.
Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
a summary is given as: Wilhelm Weber,
H. R. Kohlrausch, "Ueber die
Elektricitätsmenge, welche bei
galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9 (p
10-25).
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected
11. ^ Andre Koch Torres Assis, "On the
First Electromagnetic Measurement of
the Velocity of Light by Wilhelm Weber
and Rudolf Kohlrausch",
2003. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Wilhelm
Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter version is
published in Annalen der
Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Felix Klein, Robert Hermann,
Development of Mathematics in the 19th
Century, Math Sci Press, 1979,
p22. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
M36hgqmOLkC&pg=PA17&dq=wilhelm+weber&lr=
&as_brr=1&ei=dKb_SJ6eJIjutAPDyO2SDA#PPA2
2,M1
17. ^ Andre Koch Torres Assis, "On the
First Electromagnetic Measurement of
the Velocity of Light by Wilhelm Weber
and Rudolf Kohlrausch",
2003. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf
18. ^ Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter version is
published in Annalen der
Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
19. ^ Wilhelm
Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter version is
published in Annalen der
Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen:
über ein allgemeines Grundgesetz der
elektrischen Wirkung", Abhandlungen der
K. Sächsischen Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Leipzig,
1846, p211-378. in: Wilhelm Eduard
Weber, Ernst Heinrich Weber, Eduard
Weber, Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm Weber,
Woldemar Voigt, Eduard Riecke,
Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter {t but different}
version is published in Annalen der
Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
23. ^ Wilhelm
Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf {Weber_1
846.pdf} A shorter {t but different}
version is published in Annalen der
Physik {t it's not clear when this
original was published in the
Abhandlungen}: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp
193-240. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA215,M1 E
nglish translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On
the Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Andre Assis,
"Weber's electrodynamics", Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1994, p78-117.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A
Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic
Field", Royal Society Transactions,
Vol. 155, 1865, p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_Ja
mes_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1
864.pdf} also in James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
Electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, p51.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
Electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, p51.
36. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard
Weber". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^
http://www.answers.com/weber?cat=technol
ogy
39. ^ "weber". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6383/weber
40. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
41. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1846)
42. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356. (1846) (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of) Leipzig, Germany40
 
[1] [t Weber's Law from p212 of Weber's
Werke In this initial version, the
letter a represents the static
electricity constant. Later this will
be c as seen in the next
image.] PD/Corel [t Weber's
law] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmung
en&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,
+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+dur
ch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_
brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA212,M1

[2] Description of an instrument for
the measurement of the reciprocal
action of two conducting
wires. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmung
en&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,
+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+dur
ch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_
brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA617,M1
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 4 		2950)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp356-357.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ "Hugo von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
4. ^ "Hugo von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hugo von Mohl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_von_Mo
hl
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Hugo%20von%20Mohl
%20
[3] "Hugo Von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hugo_Von
_Mohl
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany3  
[1] Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quellenangabe
dort: aus Geschichte der Mikroskopie,
Bd. 1, Biologie. Herausgeber H. Freund
und A. Berg, Umschau- Verlag
Frankfurt/Main 1963 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugo_von_mohl.jpg

[2] Hugo von Mohl � Peter v.
Sengbusch - Impressum Das Werk
Botanik online - Die Internetlehre -
THE INTERNET HYPERTEXTBOOK
einschlie�lich aller seiner Teile
ist urheberrechtlich gesch�tzt.
Jede Verwertung au�erhalb der
engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes
ohne Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers ist
unzul�ssig. Das gilt insbesondere
f�r Vervielf�ltigungen,
�bersetzungen und die
Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in
Datenverarbeitungssystemen zwecks
kommerzieller Nutzung. Bei Kopien
f�r nichtkommerzielle Zwecke ist
diese Copyright-Notiz der Kopie
anzuf�gen. PD/Corel
source: http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.
de/b-online/d01/mohl.htm
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 4 		2951)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp356-357.
2. ^ "Hugo von Mohl".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
3. ^ "Hugo von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
4. ^ "Hugo von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hugo von Mohl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_von_Mo
hl
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Hugo%20von%20Mohl
%20
[3] "Hugo Von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hugo_Von
_Mohl
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany3  
[1] Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quellenangabe
dort: aus Geschichte der Mikroskopie,
Bd. 1, Biologie. Herausgeber H. Freund
und A. Berg, Umschau- Verlag
Frankfurt/Main 1963 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugo_von_mohl.jpg

[2] Hugo von Mohl � Peter v.
Sengbusch - Impressum Das Werk
Botanik online - Die Internetlehre -
THE INTERNET HYPERTEXTBOOK
einschlie�lich aller seiner Teile
ist urheberrechtlich gesch�tzt.
Jede Verwertung au�erhalb der
engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes
ohne Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers ist
unzul�ssig. Das gilt insbesondere
f�r Vervielf�ltigungen,
�bersetzungen und die
Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in
Datenverarbeitungssystemen zwecks
kommerzieller Nutzung. Bei Kopien
f�r nichtkommerzielle Zwecke ist
diese Copyright-Notiz der Kopie
anzuf�gen. PD/Corel
source: http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.
de/b-online/d01/mohl.htm
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 6 		3084)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
5. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
6. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[3] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154.
(University of Marburg), Marburg,
Germany5  
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 24 25 26 		3108) Probably military people take an
interest in developing this explosive,
and the traditions of secrecy in
military would make this research
unavailable to the public.21 (Used for
projectiles? propulsion of projectiles
or vehicles?22 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp379.
3. ^ "Ascanio
Sobrero." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ascanio-sob
rero
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379.
5. ^ "Ascanio
Sobrero." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ascanio-sob
rero
6. ^ "explosive." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
67>.
7. ^ "explosive." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
67>.
8. ^ "Ascanio Sobrero." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ascanio-sob
rero
9. ^ Icilio Guareschi (1913). "Ascanio
Sobrero nel centenario della sua
nascita". Isis 1 (3):
351-358. http://links.jstor.org/sici?si
ci=0021-1753%281913%291%3A3%3C351%3AASNC
DS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U {Sobrero_Ascanio_2241
37.pdf}
10. ^ Accademia delle scienze di
Torino, "Il primo secolo della R.
accademia delle scienze di Torino.
Notizie storiche ...",
(1883). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=MaANAAAAQAAJ
11. ^ "Nitroglycerin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nitrogly
cerin
12. ^ "Sopra alcuni nuovi composti
fulminanti ottenuti col mezzo
dell'azione dell'acido nitrico sulle
sostanze organiche vegetali" in
"Memorie della Reale accademia delle
scienze di Torino", series 2, volume
10, 02/21/1847,
pp195-201. {Sobrero_1847_Sulle_Sostanze
.pdf}
13. ^ "nitroglycerin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5952>.
14. ^ "Nitroglycerin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nitrogly
cerin
15. ^ "Nitroglycerin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nitrogly
cerin
16. ^ "nitroglycerin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5952>.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Icilio Guareschi (1913). "Ascanio
Sobrero nel centenario della sua
nascita". Isis 1 (3):
351-358. http://links.jstor.org/sici?si
ci=0021-1753%281913%291%3A3%3C351%3AASNC
DS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U {Sobrero_Ascanio_2241
37.pdf}
24. ^ "explosive." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
67>. (1846)
25. ^ "Ascanio Sobrero." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ascanio-sob
rero (1846)
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ascanio Sobrero". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascanio_Sob
rero
[2] Ascanio Sobrero, "Memorie scelte di
Ascanio Sobrero pubblicate
dall'Associazione chimica industriale
di Torino con discorso storico-critico
ed annotazioni di I. Guareschi",
pp42-53.
http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/s/
sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_ascanio_sobrer
o_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/pdf/memori_
p.pdf "Sopra alcuni nuovi composti
fulminanti ottenuti col mezzo
dell'azione dell'acido nitrico sulle
sostanze organiche vegetali" in
"Memorie della Reale accademia delle
scienze di Torino", series 2, volume
10,
02/21/1847 http://www.liberliber.it/bib
lioteca/s/sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_asca
nio_sobrero_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/p
df/memori_p.pdf {Sobrero_1847_memori_p.
pdf}
Torino, Italy23 (presumably) 
[1] [t notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more
explosive] Nitroglycerin 1,2,3-trinitr
oxypropane 1,3-dinitrooxypropan-2-yl
nitrate propane-1,2,3-triyl
trinitrate IUPAC name Chemical
formula C3H5(NO3)3 Molar mass
227.0872 g/mol Shock sensitivity
high Friction sensitivity
high Density 1.6 g/cm³ at 15
°C Explosive velocity 7700 m/s RE
factor 1.50 Melting point 13.2 °C
(55.76 °F) Autoignition temperature
Decomposes at 50 to 60 °C (122 to 140
°F) Appearance Clear
yellow/colorless oily liquid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Nitroglycerin-2D-skel
etal.png

[2] Ascanio Sobrero PD/Corel
source: http://www.liberliber.it/bibliot
eca/s/sobrero/immagini/ritratto.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 7 8 9 		3129) This process is used extensively
by Goodyear in the United States and
Hancock in England. Elkington and Mason
use the process for waterproofing
before selling the patent rights to
Macintosh and Company, who became
famous for their waterproofing
products.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
2. ^ "Parkes,
Alexander." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8513>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Alexander Parkes."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
5. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
6. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
7. ^ "Alexander Parkes." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes (1846)
8. ^ "Alexander Parkes."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes (1846)
9. ^ "Parkes, Alexander."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8513>. (1841)
Birmingham, England6 (presumably)
 
[1] Alexander Parkes PD/Corel
source: http://museo.cannon.com/museonew
/storia/espande/img0049.jpg

[2] Alexander Parkes, English inventor
and chemist, 1875. © Science
Museum/Science and Society Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/people/img/IM.1287_zp.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 13 		3132) Ménard is educated at the
Collège Louis-le-Grand and the École
Normale and is a gifted chemist,
painter and historian. Ménard is a
socialist republican and is condemned
to prison in 1849 for his "Prologue
d'une révolution", which contains
radical political opinions and his
reminiscences of the June 1848
insurrections in Paris, in which
Ménard played an active part. Ménard
escapes abroad, returning to Paris in
1852.10
In 1876 Ménard publishes
"Rêveries d'un païen mystique"
("Reveries of a Mystic Pagan"), which
explains his philosophy.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ménard, Louis-Nicolas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1963>.
2. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
5. ^ "collodion." The Oxford Companion
to the Photograph. Oxford University
Press, 2005. Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/collodion
6. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
7. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
8. ^ Record ID3112. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Collodion".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
10. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
11. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
12. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
13. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis-Nicolas Ménard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Nicol
as_M%C3%A9nard
Paris, France12  
[1] Louis Ménard. PD/Corel
source: http://www.cosmovisions.com/imag
es/LouisMenard.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 7 		3240)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon
Playfair Playfair, William Thomson,
"The Scientific Papers of James
Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society,
1884,
pp235-276. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400. (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[4] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[5] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Joule, Jame Prescott", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p469
Salford, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 5 		3327)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
2. ^ "Cayley,
Arthur", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p144.
3. ^
Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Arthur Cayley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Arthur_C
ayley
5. ^ "Cayley, Arthur", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p144. {1846}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cayley, Arthur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1935>
[2] "Arthur Cayley." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[3] "Arthur Cayley." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[4] "Arthur Cayley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayl
ey
[5] Arthur Cayley, "The Collected
Mathematical Papers of Arthur Cayley",
The University Press. v1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=PcAEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 v2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=SCwPAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v3:
http://books.google.com/books?id=encAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=xncAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v11:
http://books.google.com/books?id=nXkAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 Index of
papers:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gXoAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA22,M1 http://books
.google.com/books?id=4vU83eig7QYC&prints
ec=frontcover&dq=arthur+cayley
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "A MEMOIR ON THE THEORY OF
MATRICES", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, vol
CXLVIII, 1858, pp 17-37. Received
December 10 1857 Read January 14 1858
"The Collected Mathematical Papers of
Arthur Cayley", By Arthur Cayley,
Andrew Russell Forsyth, F Howard
Collins http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SCwPAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0op5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA475,M1
[8]
http://books.google.com/books?id=xncAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA349,M1 {This is
the first paper with the word
'invariant': verify date of invariant
invention}
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Cayley, Arthur (1821 -
1895) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: Barraud &
Jerrard Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10 x 6 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-C2-06a.jpg

[2] Arthur Cayley, detail of an oil
painting by W.H. Longmaid, 1884; in the
collection of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England. Courtesy of The
Master and Fellows of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
23758&rendTypeId=4
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 11 12 		3476) At the University of Glasgow
where Thomson is the chair of natural
philosophy (later called physics)8 ,
Thomson creates the first physics
laboratory for students in the British
Isles.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p315.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co., 1908,
p65,229. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=L
ife+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
9. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
10. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433. {1846}
12. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p315. {1846}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[5] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[6] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[7]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[8] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland10  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
153 YBN
[05/05/1847 AD] 10 		3255)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp265-276. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22
2. ^ Record ID1845. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Record
ID1769. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record ID1856.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Vis viva". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vis_viva
7. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp265-276. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22
10. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp265-276. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 (05/05/1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>
[7] James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp265-276. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 (12/17/1840)
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400. (1840)
[9] "James
Prescott Joule." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule (1840)
Broom Hill (near Manchester), England9
 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
153 YBN
[07/23/1847 AD] 28 29 		3331) (Possibly include text of
introduction here13 )

Helmholtz's father is a teacher of
philosophy and literature at the
Potsdam Gymnasium, and Helmholtz's
mother is descended from William Penn,
the founder of Pennsylvania.14 (It is
interesting that there are lines of
descent where clearly some families
have progressed into science farther
than others, and their descendants
generally receive science educations as
opposed to the explanations offered by
religions, and this effect is amplified
over many generations.15 )

In 1838, Helmholtz enters the Friedrich
Wilhelm Medical Institute in Berlin,
where he receives a free (physician's16
) education on the condition that he
serve eight years as an army doctor. At
the Institute Helmholtz does research
under the greatest German physiologist
of the day, Johannes Müller.17

Helmholtz learns to play piano while at
the Medical Institute.18

Helmholtz opposes the "nature
philosophy" of Kant and others which
views concepts of time, space, and
causation were not products of sense
experience but mental attributes,
instead insisting that all knowledge
comes through the senses, and that all
science and the universe can and should
be reduced to the laws of classical
mechanics, which, for Helmholtz,
includes matter, force, and, later,
energy. Müller, whose lab Helmholtz
earned his doctorate in, is a vitalist
and is convinced that living processes
will never be reduced to the ordinary
mechanical laws of physics and
chemistry.19

Ernst Brücke, Helmholtz and Karl
Ludwig make up the "1847 school" of
physiology whose program reacts sharply
against German physiology of previous
decades, in rejecting any explanation
of life processes that appeals to
nonphysical vital properties or forces.
The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography states that "All of
Helmholtz's minor papers published
between 1843 and 1847, most of which
treat problems of animal heat and
muscle contraction, clearly reflect the
mechanistic tenets of the school.".20

Heinrich Hertz, who discovers radio
waves in 1888, is Helmholtz's pupil.21


(Helmholtz is the teacher/mentor of
Michael Pupin for a few years, and
Helmholtz's interest and immersion in
studies of the sense organs no doubt
inspired Pupin to explore the questions
of "can the heat from a human's body
and in particular the brain be seen
apart from the background heat?",
“can what a person sees be seen from
behind the head?”, "can image a brain
creates be seen outside of the head in
different frequencies of light?",
“can thought be somehow heard outside
of the head?”, questions perhaps
Helmholtz and others openly asked among
themselves. When did hidden microphones
start to be used? After 1890, people
probably were using hidden movie
cameras. 22 )

In 1873 Helmholtz is award the Copley
Medal.23

Helmholtz experiences fainting spells
throughout his life, on returning from
a lecture tour of the USA, he suffers a
concussion from a faint, doesn't
recover and dies 8 weeks later.24

Many of Helmholtz's works appear in
Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen",
"Scientific Papers" (2 vol,
1882,1883).25 26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
2. ^ Record ID770. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Record
ID3260. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record ID3150.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Record ID3239. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
7. ^ "Hermann von
Helmholtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
8. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Über die
Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847; "On the
Conservation of Force"), Read before
the Physical Society of Berlin, 23 July
1847. Published under the title "Ueber
die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1 full:
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf}
9. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Über die
Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847; "On the
Conservation of Force"), Read before
the Physical Society of Berlin, 23 July
1847. Published under the title "Ueber
die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1 full:
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf}
10. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Über die
Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847; "On the
Conservation of Force"), Read before
the Physical Society of Berlin, 23 July
1847. Published under the title "Ueber
die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1 full:
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf} {07
/23/1847}
11. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "On the
Consevation of Force; a Physical
Memoir." translated into English by
John Tyndall from: John Tyndall and
William Francis, "Scientific Memoirs",
1853, Johnson Reprint, 1966, p114-162
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Record
ID3150. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Record ID3239.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
17. ^ "Hermann von
Helmholtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
18. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Über die
Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847; "On the
Conservation of Force"), Read before
the Physical Society of Berlin, 23 July
1847. Published under the title "Ueber
die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1 full:
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf}
19. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Über die
Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847; "On the
Conservation of Force"), Read before
the Physical Society of Berlin, 23 July
1847. Published under the title "Ueber
die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1 full:
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf}
20. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
21. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Über die Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847;
"On the Conservation of Force"), Read
before the Physical Society of Berlin,
23 July 1847. Published under the title
"Ueber die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1 full:
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf} {07
/23/1847}
22. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>. {1847}
23. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
24. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
25. ^ Hermann
von Helmholtz, "Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen", "Scientific Papers" (2
vol, 1882,1883) Names in German of all
of Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
TOC:
http://books.google.com/books?id=zWoSA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PR27&dq=Wissenschaftliche+Abh
andlungen+helmholtz&as_brr=1#PPR37,M1
26. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von
Helmholtz". http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334&dq=Wissensch
aftliche+Abhandlungen&as_brr=1
27. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
28. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Über die Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847;
"On the Conservation of Force"), Read
before the Physical Society of Berlin,
23 July 1847. Published under the title
"Ueber die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1 full:
{Helmholtz_Hermann_conserve001.pdf} {07
/23/1847}
29. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>. {1847}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[7] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
(Physikalische Gesellschaft) Berlin,
Germany27  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
153 YBN
[10/01/1847 AD] 23 		3215) Mitchell is the first
professional woman astronomer in the
USA.4

As a child Mitchell's interest in
astronomy is stimulated by her father,
who encourages her independent use of
his telescope.5
From 1836 to 1856
Mitchell works as a librarian during
the day and is a regular observer of
the skies at night.6
In October 1847
Mitchell succeeds in establishing
(plotting?7 ) the orbit of a new
comet.8 (how is this communicated to
the public?9 )
This discovery causes
Mitchell's immediate recognition among
people in science.10
Mitchell is
awarded a gold medal from the King of
Denmark.11
The following year Mitchell
becomes the first woman elected to the
American Academy of Arts and
Sciences.12
In 1849 Mitchell is hired
as a "computer" by the US Nautical
Almanac Office.13
The next year
Mitchell is elected to the American
Association for the Advancement of
Science.14
In 1857 a group of Boston
area women (led by Elizabeth Peabody15
) present Mitchell with a 5-in. Alvan
Clark refractor, with which she expands
her studies of sunspots, planets, and
nebulae16 .
In 1865, Mitchell,
reluctantly, but encouraged by her
father, accepts a job at Vassar Female
College, which opens this year in
Poughkeepsie, New York.17
(Is Mitchell
the first female professor (of
astronomy) in the US?18 )

In 1873 Mitchell helps found the
Association for the Advancement of
Women and serves as its president
(1875–76).19

Asimov comments that Mitchell's
contributions to science are moderate,
but that she represents the (highest
point20 ) for the oppressed half of the
American population.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ "Mitchell,
Maria." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Mitchell, Maria."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
5. ^ "Mitchell, Maria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
6. ^ "Mitchell, Maria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Mitchell, Maria."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Mitchell, Maria."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
11. ^ "Maria Mitchell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Maria_Mi
tchell
12. ^ "Mitchell, Maria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
13. ^ "Mitchell, Maria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
14. ^ "Mitchell, Maria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
15. ^ "Mitchell, Maria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
16. ^ "Maria Mitchell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 29 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maria-mitch
ell
17. ^ "Mitchell, Maria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Mitchell, Maria."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3020>.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
22. ^ "Maria
Mitchell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maria-mitch
ell
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396. (10/01/1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Maria Mitchell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maria-mitch
ell
[2] "Maria Mitchell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Mitch
ell
Nantucket, Massachusetts, USA22  
[1] Maria Mitchell Maria Mitchell,
painting by H. Dasell, 1851 Source
based on image at
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/c&
gs/theb3534.htm Credit: National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration/Department of Commerce
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/23/Maria_Mitchell.jpg

[2] Maria Mitchell Astronomer 1818 -
1889 PD
source: http://www.lucidcafe.com/library
/95aug/95auggifs/mitchell.gif
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 6 		2731)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Sir
John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
5. ^ "Sir John
Herschel 1st Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
6. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
[3] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[4] "Herschel, John Frederick William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p416-417.
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel_1846.png
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 9 		2754)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.college-optometrists.org/inde
x.aspx/pcms/site.college.What_We_Do.muse
yeum.online_exhibitions.optical_instrume
nts.ophthalmoscopes.ophthalmoscopes_home
/
5. ^
http://www.college-optometrists.org/inde
x.aspx/pcms/site.college.What_We_Do.muse
yeum.online_exhibitions.optical_instrume
nts.ophthalmoscopes.ophthalmoscopes_home
/
6. ^
http://www.college-optometrists.org/inde
x.aspx/pcms/site.college.What_We_Do.muse
yeum.online_exhibitions.optical_instrume
nts.ophthalmoscopes.ophthalmoscopes_home
/
7. ^
http://www.college-optometrists.org/inde
x.aspx/pcms/site.college.What_We_Do.muse
yeum.online_exhibitions.optical_instrume
nts.ophthalmoscopes.ophthalmoscopes_home
/
8. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324. (1847)
(1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[3] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Pilot (locomotive)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_%28lo
comotive%29
[6] The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989
Cambridge, England8 (presumably) 
[1] The John Bull, circa 1893. PD
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 18 19 		3064) In 1843 Regnault is commissioned
by the Government to investigate the
properties of steam and to obtain
numerical data that should be of value
to steam engineers. The results are
published in 1847, as vol. XXI of the
"Mémoires" of the Academy of Sciences.
For this work Regnault wins the Rumford
Medal of the Royal Society of London.12
 (alpha of 1/273 is in this work?13 )

Also in this year, Regnault publishes a
four-volume treatise on Chemistry which
has been translated into many
languages.14 15 (title = 16 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p371.
2. ^ "Henri Victor
Regnault." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
3. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
4. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henri_Vi
ctor_Regnault
5. ^ Record ID1739. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Regnault,
Henri-Victor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3064>.
7. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henri_Vi
ctor_Regnault
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p371.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Record
ID2720. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Henri Victor
Regnault." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
12. ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume
XII. Published 1911. New York: Robert
Appleton Company. Nihil Obstat, June 1,
1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor.
Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley,
Archbishop of New York
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"Henri Victor Regnault". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henri_Vi
ctor_Regnault
15. ^ "Henri Victor Regnault", Nature,
Volume 17, Number 431, (31 January
1878),
pp263-264. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v17/n431/pdf/017263a0.pdf {Reg
nault_Henri_Victor_017263a0.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Henri Victor
Regnault". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henri_Vi
ctor_Regnault
18. ^ David R. Gaskell, "Introduction
to the thermodynamics of materials",
Taylor & Francis, (2003), p6.
http://books.google.com/books?id=my8hP
O-JFPoC&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=regnault+273&s
ource=web&ots=cYocx7rtS2&sig=gZXiiPvMquO
IxIW-ZhDJaZGGG6k&hl=en (1847)
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p371. (1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Victor Regnault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Victo
r_Regnault
[2] "Henri Victor Regnault." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2002.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
[3] "Henri Victor Regnault", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p739
(College de France) Paris, France17
 
[1] Victor Regnault peint par son
fils PD
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/regnault1.jpg

[2] Henri Victor Regnault
(1810–1878), French chemist and
physicist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Henri_Victor_Regnault
.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 7 		3094)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "John William
Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211.
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm
[2]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[3] "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[4] "John Draper." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[5] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[6] "John William Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA6  
[1] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg

[2] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 14 15 		3098) Simpson is a child prodigy, and
enters the University of Edinburgh at
14, receiving a medical degree at age
21.11
Simpson develops the long
obstetrics forceps that are named for
him. Simpson is also known for his
writings on medical history (especially
on leprosy in Scotland) and on fetal
pathology and hermaphroditism.12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Merriam-Webster's Collegiate
Dictionary,
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=o
bstetrics
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376.
5. ^ "Simpson, Sir
James Young, 1st Baronet."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7876>.
6. ^ "Simpson, Sir James Young, 1st
Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7876>.
7. ^ "Simpson, Sir James Young." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 12 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-simps
on
8. ^ "Simpson, Sir James Young, 1st
Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7876>.
9. ^ "Simpson, Sir James Young." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 12 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-simps
on
10. ^ "Simpson, Sir James Young, 1st
Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7876>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376.
12. ^ "Simpson, Sir
James Young, 1st Baronet."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7876>.
13. ^ "Simpson, Sir James Young, 1st
Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7876>.
14. ^ "Simpson, Sir James Young, 1st
Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7876>. (1847)
15. ^ "Simpson, Sir James
Young." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-simps
on (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir James Young Simpson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Young_Simpson
[2] "James Young Simpson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Young
_Simpson
(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland13  
[1] James Young Simpson (1811–1870),
Scottish physician Source
contemporary photography Date
before 1871 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/91/Simpson.James.Y..jpg

[2] James Young Simpson - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/James_Young_Simpson_-
_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13103.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 10 		3110) Until Snow is 14, he is educated
at a common day school for poor
families. In 1827, Snow travels to
Newcastle - upon - Tyne, 80 miles from
his home, where Snow begins serving a
six year apprenticeship in medicine (or
perhaps in the study of illness6 )
under surgeon William Hardcastle. The
apprenticeship includes attending
lectures at the Newcastle Infirmary.
During this apprenticeship, Snow became
a vegetarian as well as a total
abstainer of alcohol (perhaps a
non-drinker of alcohol, nonalcoholian7
).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381.
2. ^ "John Snow."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 17 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John Snow." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
9. ^ "John Snow." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Snow (physician)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow_%
28physician%29
[2]
http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html
London, England9  
[1] During his career, Dr. John Snow
(1813-1858) anesthetized 77 obstetric
patients with chloroform. In addition
to pioneering anesthesia, Dr. Snow is
considered the father of epidemiology:
well before germ theory was formulated,
he studied an epidemic of cholera in S.
London in 1845, and reported (1849)
that the disease was transmitted
through a contaminated
water-supply. PD/Corel
source: http://www.joyceimages.com/image
s/John%20Snow.jpg

[2] Original map by Dr. John Snow
showing the clusters of cholera cases
in the London epidemic of
1854 Original map made by John Snow in
1854, copied from
http://matrix.msu.edu/~johnsnow/images/o
nline_companion/chapter_images/fig12-5.j
pg Author died in 1858, material is
public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jp
g
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 31 32 		3172) Boole comes from a poor
background in the English city of
Lincoln.22
Boole's father teaches him
math and to make optical instruments.
Aside from his father's help and a few
years at local schools, however, Boole
is self-taught in mathematics.23
From
the age of 16 Boole teaches in village
schools in the West Riding of
Yorkshire.24
In 183525 Boole opens his
own school in Lincoln when he is 2026
.
In 1844 Boole is awarded the Royal
Society's first gold medal for
mathematics27 for Boole's pioneering
paper on the calculus of operators28 .

Much of language is defined by our
interpretation of the universe. We
define subset objects from a singular
universe. For example we create the
object "Star" which is different from
the rest of the universe. From the
definition of space and time come the
questions what, where, when, if, etc
which form the basis of language. So
humans create and move around these
objects in our brains. The objects
(nouns) we select in the universe, and
their movement (verbs) define much of
human language.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp389-390.
2. ^ "Boole, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp389-390.
4. ^ George Boole,
"The Mathematical Analysis of Logic,
Being an Essay Towards a Calculus of
Deductive Reasoning.", Cambridge:
Macmillan, Barclay, & Macmillan,
London: George Bell, orig. 1847,
(1865).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "George Boole."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
7. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp389-390.
10. ^ Record ID1853.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "George Boole". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_B
oole
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "syllogism." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 26
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/syllogism
14. ^ "Boole, George", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p95.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ George Boole,
"The Mathematical Analysis of Logic,
Being an Essay Towards a Calculus of
Deductive Reasoning.", Cambridge:
Macmillan, Barclay, & Macmillan,
London: George Bell, orig. 1847,
(1865).
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Boole, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
19. ^ "Boole, George", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p95.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
"George Boole." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
23. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
24. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp389-390.
26. ^ "Boole,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
27. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
28. ^ "George Boole." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ "Boole, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
31. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>. (1847)
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp389-390. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Boole." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
Lincoln, England30 (presumably) 
[1] George Boole (1815-1864) PD/Corel
source: http://georgeboole.net/images/Bo
ole_George.jpg

[2] George Boole Irish mathematician,
logician and philosopher, George Boole
(1815 - 1864), during his tenure as
professor of mathematics at Queen's
College, Cork (now University College
Cork), circa 1860. His invention of
Boolean algebra has come to be
recognized as fundamental to the field
of computer science. (Photo by
Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
* by Keystone * *
reference: 53009793 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=53009793&text=George+Bool
e+
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 15 16 		3180) Ludwig attempts to determine,
with greater precision than Harvey had
done, the relation of the movements of
the heart and chest to the fluctuations
of pressure of the blood in the veins
and arteries. In 1846, Ludwig, while
still at Marburg, studies the relation
which exists between the movements of
respiration and the pressure of the
blood. Ludwig connects a U shaped
manometer tube partly filled with
mercury with an artery (describe how -
wrapping around or injecting in?12 )
but the movements of the column of
mercury are so rapid and complex that
the eye fails to retain them. It is
then that Ludwig conceives the idea of
placing on the mercury a float carrying
a style tipped with a writing point and
of letting this record the movements of
the mercury and consequently of the
blood column on a moving surface. The
movement of the paper on which the
tracing is written is effected by means
of a clockwork. The respiratory
movements are recorded on the same
paper at the same time with the
oscillations of the arterial pressure.
Therefore the records of these two
processes are written simultaneously
and can be readily compared.13
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Ludwig, Carl F.W.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Karl
Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
10. ^ Physician and
Surgeon, (Volume 27, Number 11,
November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Physician and
Surgeon, (Volume 27, Number 11,
November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
14. ^ "Carl Ludwig." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-carl
-friedrich-wilhelm
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390. (1847)
16. ^ "Ludwig,
Carl F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm
Ludwig". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedr
ich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Ludwig, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p440
[4] "Kymograph
(has links to images)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kymograph
(has links to images)
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany14  
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 26 		3213) Semmelweiss is educated at the
universities of Pest and Vienna,
receives his doctor's degree from
Vienna in 1844 and is appointed
assistant at the obstetric clinic in
Vienna.21

In July 1865 Semmelweiss is locked into
a psychiatric hospital22 and dies
there23 . (I always wonder what the
person did to be handcuffed by police
and taken to a psychiatric
hospital...maybe he grabbed a juicy
ass, who knows?!24 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
3. ^ "Semmelweis,
Ignaz Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "peritonitis."
Encyclopedia of Medicine. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peritonitis

6. ^ "puerperal fever." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/puerperal-f
ever
7. ^ Record ID3054. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Ignaz
Semmelweis." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
9. ^ "Ignaz Semmelweis." Encyclopedia
of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
10. ^ "Ignaz Semmelweis." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
11. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz Phillipp",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p796.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz
Philipp." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
17. ^
"Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz
Philipp." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
21. ^ "Semmelweis,
Ignaz Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
23. ^ "Semmelweis,
Ignaz Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz
Phillipp", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p796.
26. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ignaz Semmelweis." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[2] "Ignaz Semmelweis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[3] "Ignaz Philipp Semmelweiss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz_Phili
pp_Semmelweiss
[4] "Ignatz Philipp Semmelweiss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ignatz_P
hilipp_Semmelweiss
(Vienna General Hospital) Vienna,
(Austria now:) Germany25  
[1] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis01.jpg

[2] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis02.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 5 		3225) Many people mistake a gun
"bullet" with a gun "cartridge". The
bullet is the projectile inside the
cartridge.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
2. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "cartridge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
5. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Cartridge (firearms)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_%
28firearms%29
[2] "Bullet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet
Paris, France4  
[1] A modern cartridge consists of the
following: 1. the bullet itself, which
serves as the projectile; 2. the case,
which holds all parts together; 3. the
propellant, for example gunpowder or
cordite; 4. the rim, part of the
casing used for loading; 5. the
primer, which ignites the
propellant. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bul
let

[2] Rifle cartridges - L to R: .50
BMG, 300 Win Mag, .308 Winchester, 7.62
Russian Short, 5.56 NATO, .22
LR Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ri
fle_cartridge_comparison.jpg Date
25 February 2006 Author Richard
C. Wysong II GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Rifle_cartridge_compa
rison.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 4 		3303)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p101-106.
"Lighting".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Lighting".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Lighting".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. {1847}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arc lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
Paris, France3  
[1] Staite's patent electric
light PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p103.

[2] Self-regulating arc lamp proposed
by William Edwards Staite and William
Petrie in 1847. Source: G. Woodward:
Staite and Petrie: pioneers of electric
lighting, IEEE Proceedings of Science,
Measurement and Technology, 136-6/Nov.
1989, p. 290–296, ISSN 0960-7641 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Staite-Petrie_Lamp_18
47.png
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 11 		3473) This paper wins Hofmeister,
self-educated, an honorary degree from
the University of Rostock.8
In 1863
Hofmeister is given the chair of botany
at Heidelberg. and in 1872 is hired as
chair at the University of Tübingen,
both unheard of accomplishments for a
self-taught scholar.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p431.
2. ^ "Wilhelm
Hofmeister." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>.
3. ^ "Wilhelm Friedrich Benedict
Hofmeister". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Friedrich_Benedict_Hofmeister
4. ^ "Wilhelm Hofmeister." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hofmeister-
wilhelm
5. ^ "Wilhelm Friedrich Benedict
Hofmeister". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Friedrich_Benedict_Hofmeister
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p431.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Wilhelm Hofmeister." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>.
9. ^ "Hofmeister, Wilhelm Friedrich
Benedict", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp343-344.
10. ^ "Wilhelm Hofmeister."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>.
11. ^ "Wilhelm Hofmeister."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>. {1847}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Hofmeister." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hofmeister-
wilhelm
[2] "Wilhelm Hofmeister". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Hof
meister
Leipzig, Germany10 (presumably) 
[1] Wilhelm Hofmeister Source
Goebel, K. von (1905) Wilhelm
Hofmeister. The Plant World 8:
291-298. Date c.1870 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Wilhelm_Hofmeister.jp
g
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 4 		3605)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
2. ^ "Alexander Bain" (obituary),
Nature, Jan 11, 1877,
218. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
38CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218&dq=Alexander+Bain+t
elegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwOG
rAQ
3. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
4. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ {1847}

MORE INFO
[1] Iconographic Encyclopaedia of
the Arts and Sciences, Iconographic
publishing co., 1890,
p376. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+B
ain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQ
OKwOGrAQ
[2]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bain.html
[3] John Finlaison, "An Account of Some
Remarkable Applications of the Electric
Fluid to the Useful Arts, by Mr.
Alexander Bain: With a Vindication of
His Claim to be the First Inventor of
the Electro-magnetic Printing
Telegraph, and Also of the
Electro-magnetic Clock", Chapman and
Hall,
1843. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Alex
ander+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_
PEajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA1,M1
[4] "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
[5] Taliaferro Preston Shaffner,
"Shaffner's Telegraph Companion:
Devoted to the Science and Art of the
Morse American Telegraph", Pudney &
Russell, 1854, V.1-2
(1854-55),p113. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TDEOAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=Shaffner+telegraph&ei=mCDZSNfgL4_c
swPArqHaDQ#PPA113,M1
[6] John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
[7] "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
Edinburgh, Scotland3  
[1] Alexander Bain, 1847 PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bain11.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 13 		3606)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Frederick Collier Bakewell,
"Electric science; its history,
phenomena, and applications", Ingram,
Cooke, 1853,p170-175.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Electric+science%3B+
its+history,+phenomena,+and+applications
%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Y
RsyhVeJTh&sig=fry1fZhT1LAjbuErI6bRdIz5Ib
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result

2. ^
http://www.turle.name/the_doctors/indiI6
2.html
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bakewe
ll.html
4. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
5. ^ Frederick Collier Bakewell,
"Electric science; its history,
phenomena, and applications", Ingram,
Cooke, 1853,p170-175.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Electric+science%3B+
its+history,+phenomena,+and+applications
%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Y
RsyhVeJTh&sig=fry1fZhT1LAjbuErI6bRdIz5Ib
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result

6. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
7. ^ Frederick Collier Bakewell,
"Electric science; its history,
phenomena, and applications", Ingram,
Cooke, 1853,p170-175.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Electric+science%3B+
its+history,+phenomena,+and+applications
%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Y
RsyhVeJTh&sig=fry1fZhT1LAjbuErI6bRdIz5Ib
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result

8. ^ Frederick Collier Bakewell,
"Electric science; its history,
phenomena, and applications", Ingram,
Cooke, 1853,p170-175.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Electric+science%3B+
its+history,+phenomena,+and+applications
%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Y
RsyhVeJTh&sig=fry1fZhT1LAjbuErI6bRdIz5Ib
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result

9. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/BAKEWELL_BIO.
html
10. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/FAX_HIST.html

11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ David Salomon, "A
Concise Introduction to Data
Compression", Springer, 2008,
p83. http://books.google.com/books?id=m
npeizY0btYC&pg=PA83&dq=frederick+bakewel
l+telegraph+patent&ei=RVHZSIjGIIn-tQPKg9
XeDg&sig=ACfU3U0mdeoKl6q1iCSNX87y9vTBbAe
WSg
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/bakewe
ll.html {1847}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Bakewell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_B
akewell
London, England12  
[1] [t Bakewell's Copying telegraph -
sending aluminum foil and receiving
paper. The strip ''C'' is used to
syncronize the receiver to the
sender.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA171,M1

[2] Bakewell 's system involved
writing or drawing on a piece of metal
foil with a special insulating ink. The
foil was then wrapped around a cylinder
(C). This cylinder formed a part of a
machine, which rotated it slowly on its
axis, as in a lathe. The cylinder
rotated at a uniform rate by means of a
clock mechanism (M). A metal stylus
driven by a screw thread (T) traveled
along the surface of the cylinder as it
turned, tracing out a path over the
complete piece of foil. Each time the
stylus crossed a line of the insulating
ink, the electrical current running
through the foil to the stylus was
interrupted. At the receiver, a similar
pendulum-driven stylus marked
chemically treated paper with an
electric current as the receiving
cylinder rotated. PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/bakewell_fax3.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 5 		5992)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Frédéric Chopin." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fr-d-ric-ch
opin
2. ^ "List of compositions by
Frédéric Chopin by opus number".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin_b
y_opus_number
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Frédéric Chopin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/114362/Frederic-Chopin>.
5. ^ "Minute Waltz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_Walt
z {1847 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/nohant-vic
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Description Frédéric Chopin
1846 or 1847 daguerreotype Date
1846/47 Source Fryderyk
Chopin Society, Warsaw, as reproduced
at
http://jackgibbons.blogspot.com/2010/03/
chopins-photograph.html Author
unknown Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Chopin_1846_daguerreo
type.JPG

[2] Description English: The only
known photograph of Frédéric Chopin,
often incorrectly described as a
daguerreotype Español: La única
fotografía conocida de Frédéric
Chopin Français : L'unique
photographie connue de Frédéric
Chopin, souvent incorrectement décrite
comme un daguerréotype Date ca.
1849 Source
http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/Cho
ir/5479/chopin2.jpg Author
Louis-Auguste Bisson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Frederic_Chopin_photo
.jpeg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 5 		6002) Clara Josephine Schumann (CE
1819-1896), German pianist and
composer, composes Piano Trio opus 17.1


Shumann wins success as a touring piano
virtuoso both before and after she
marries the composer Robert Schumann
(1840).2

Despite strong objections from her
father, she married Schumann in 1840,
and they have eight children between
1841 and 1854.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Clara Schumann." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clara-schum
ann
2. ^ "Clara Schumann." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clara-schum
ann
3. ^ "Clara Schumann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528440/Clara-Schumann>.
4. ^ "Clara Schumann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528440/Clara-Schumann>.
5. ^ "Clara Schumann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clara_Schum
ann {1847 (verify}
Leipzig, Germany4 (verify) 
[1] Clara Schumann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Clara_s.jpg
152 YBN
[03/11/1848 AD] 7 		2843)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
2. ^
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
3. ^
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
4. ^
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
5. ^
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
6. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/
Galaxies.html
7. ^
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l (03/11/1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons 3rd earl of
Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
[2] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of
Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Par
sons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
[4] "William Parsons Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Parsons_Rosse
[5]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland6
 
[1] Drawing of spiral galaxy M99 by
William Parsons, the Third Earl of
Rosse. M99 was the second ''nebula''
recognized as spiral by Lord Rosse.
Based on his observation of March 11,
1848, he commented: ''Spiral with
a bright star above; a thin portion of
the nebula reaches across this star and
some distance past it. Principal spiral
at the bottom and turning toward the
right.'' PD/Corel
source: http://seds.org/MESSIER/Pics/Mor
e/m99rosse.jpg

[2] Virgo cluster spiral M99, as
photographed by Adam Block of the
Advanced Observing Program, Kitt Peak
National Observatory (KPNO) Visitor
Center, with their Meade 16-inch LX200
telescope operating at f/6.3 and SBIG
ST8E CCD camera with color filter
wheel. This is a composite of 4 CCD
exposures: L, Luminance = 40 min; R,
Red = 10 min; G, Green = 10 min; and B,
Blue = 20 min. Note the obvious
disturbations in the appearance of this
galaxy, caused by gravitational
interactioons with its many neighbors
in the Virgo cluster, as well as the
vivid colors displayed by this galaxy:
A yellowish central region, composed of
older stellar population II, and spiral
arms hosting reddish-pinkish diffuse
nebulae which are star-forming regions,
as well as blueish clusters and
associations of hot young population I
stars, miced up with dark structures of
dust. Credit: Adam
Block/AURA/NOAO/NSF PD
source: http://seds.org/Messier/M/m099.h
tml
152 YBN
[05/22/1848 AD] 33 34 		3411) Pasteur is the descendant of
generations of tanners. His
great-grandfather was an indentured
laborer who bought his own freedom.18
Pa
steur tutors, but experiences periods
of semistarvation from poverty.19
In
1848 Pasteur takes side of the
revolutionaries but is politically
conservative.20
Pasteur shows these
(stereo optical molecular isomers21 )
to Biot.22
The finding of stereo
optical isomers makes Pasteur famous at
age 2623 .
Pasteur receives the Rumsford
medal for this work.24
Pasteur is a
very religious person.25
Pasteur
rejects the theory of evolution on
religious reasons.26

In 1868 Pasteur has a stroke that
partially paralyzes him.27

In 1888 the Pasteur Institute is
established with the help of donations
from all over the earth, including from
the governments of Russia, Turkey and
Brazil.28 It's purpose is originally
to treat rabies, and it is now one of
the most recognized29 and productive
centers of biological research on
earth. In the closing paragraphs of his
inaugural oration, Pasteur said: "Two
opposing laws seem to me now to be in
contest. The one, a law of blood and
death opening out each day new modes of
destruction, forces nations always to
be ready for the battle. The other, a
law of peace, work and health, whose
only aim is to deliver man from the
calamities which beset him. The one
seeks violent conquests, the other, the
relief of mankind. The one places a
single life above all victories, the
other sacrifices hundreds of thousands
of lives to the ambition of a single
individual. The law of which we are the
instruments strives even through the
carnage to cure the wounds due to the
law of war. Treatment by our antiseptic
methods may preserve the lives of
thousands of soldiers. Which of these
two laws will prevail, God only knows.
But of this we may be sure, science, in
obeying the law of humanity, will
always labor to enlarge the frontiers
of life.".30

Asimov comments that nobody except
Aristotle and Darwin can compete with
Pasteur for the greatest scientist in
the field of biology.31
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
3. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
4. ^ "hemihedral>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"hemihedral." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. 14 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
emihedral>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
8. ^ "Pasteur,
Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
p532-535.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
10. ^ "Pasteur,
Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
p532-535.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
13. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
23. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
27. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
30. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
32. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
33. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {05/22/1848}
34. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
Paris, France32  
[1] Dextro and levorotary forms of
tartrate Pasteur separated the left
and right crystal shapes from each
other to form two piles of crystals: in
solution one form rotated light to the
left, the other to the right, while an
equal mixture of the two forms canceled
each other's rotation. Hence, the
mixture does not rotate polarized
light. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Pcrystals.svg/2
50px-Pcrystals.svg.png

[2] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
152 YBN
[08/10/1848 AD] 19 		2879)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "On the Effect
of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
5. ^ "On the Effect
of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "On the Effect of
Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition",, p55.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd878
5b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "On the Effect of
Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition",, p55.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd878
5b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "On the Effect of
Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition",, p50.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd878
5b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "On the Effect of
Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition",, p12.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd878
5b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Record ID2878.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Sir William Robert
Grove". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234/Sir-William-Robert-Grove
18. ^ "William Robert Grove".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rob
ert_Grove
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (08/10/1848)
(08/10/1848)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
[2]
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10
439 ^ Harrison, W. J. (2004) "Gassiot,
John Peter (1797-1877)", rev. Iwan Rhys
Morus, Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press,
accessed 5 August 2007 (subscription
required)
London, England17 18
(presumably) 
[1] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/William_Robert_Grove.
jpg

[2] Figure 1 from [4 p50] PD
source: "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p50
152 YBN
[08/??/1848 AD] 7 8 		3241)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
2. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp288-290. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ James Prescott
Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp288-290. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf}
6. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp288-290. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf}
7. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp288-290. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+P
roduction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity
%22 {Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_Jam
es_Prescott_2.pdf} (08/1848)
8. ^ "James Prescott
Joule." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400
[2] "James Prescott
Joule." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[4] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[5] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Joule, Jame Prescott", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p469
[8] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>
(read at) Swansea, Wales, England6
 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
152 YBN
[09/16/1848 AD] 27 28 		2612) Bond builds a home observatory
that is the best in the nation.4 5

Hyperion is 370x280x225km (230x174x140
miles)6 , and is largest highly
irregular (nonspherical) body in the
solar system7 . Hyperion's mean density
is only about half that of water ice,
suggesting that the moon's interior may
be a loose agglomeration of (water?8 )
ice blocks interspersed with empty
space.9 (I have doubts, because the
meteor impacts imply a solid one-piece
object, in particular the largest
impact.10 )
Hyperion orbits Saturn once
every 21.3 Earth days in the prograde
direction at a distance of 1,481,100 km
(920,300 miles), between the orbits of
the moons Titan and Iapetus.11
Hyperion's orbit is unusual in that it
is somewhat eccentric (elongated) yet
inclined less than a half degree from
the plane of Saturn's equator.12
Hyperi
on forms a satellite pair with Titan;
that is, the two moons interact
gravitationally.13

Because of Hyperion's shape and orbit,
it does not maintain a stable rotation
around its own fixed axis. Unlike any
other known object in the solar system,
Hyperion rotates (unpredictably14 ),
changing its rotational characteristics
over timescales as short as a month.15


Hyperion is named for one of the Titans
of Greek mythology.16
Bond is largely
self-educated, and is a watchmaker who
becomes interested in astronomy after
observing the solar eclipse of 1806.17

In 1815 Bond is sent by Harvard College
to Europe to visit existing
observatories and gather data
preliminary to the building of an
observatory at Harvard.18
In 1839, Bond
is appointed the first astronomical
observer at Harvard College in
recognition of his efforts.19
In 1839
the (Harvard20 ) observatory is
founded. Bond supervises its
construction and becomes its first
director.21
In 1847 a 15-in. (37.5 cm)
telescope, then matched in size by only
one other on Earth, is installed. With
this telescope Bond makes elaborate
studies of sunspots, of the Orion
nebula, and of the planet Saturn,
publishing his results chiefly in the
Annals of the Harvard College
Observatory.22
In 1851 a photograph
(daguerreotype )of the moon Bond takes
is a sensation at the Great Exhibition
in London.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p311.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p436.
3. ^ "William
Cranch Bond". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p311.
5. ^ "William Cranch
Bond". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
6. ^ "Hyperion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1800/Hyperion
7. ^ "Hyperion (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion_%2
8moon%29
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
12. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
13. ^ "William Cranch Bond". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Cranch+Bo
nd+?cat=technology
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
16. ^ "Hyperion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1800/Hyperion
17. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
18. ^ "William Cranch Bond". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Cranch+Bo
nd+?cat=technology
19. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Cranch+Bo
nd+?cat=technology
22. ^ "William Cranch Bond". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Cranch+Bo
nd+?cat=technology
23. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
24. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
25. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/lassell.htm
26. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
27. ^ "Hyperion (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion_%2
8moon%29 (09/16/1848) (09/16/1848)
28. ^ "William
Cranch Bond". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Cranch Bond".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cra
nch_Bond
[2]
http://www.answers.com/hyperion?cat=tech
nology
[3] "William Lassell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7257/William-Lassell
[4] "William Lassell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Las
sell
[5]
http://www.answers.com/William+Lassell+?
cat=technology
Harvard, Massachussetts, USA24
((Starfield Observatory) Liverpool,
England25 26 ) 
[1] English: Original caption: Unlike
most of the dull grey moons in the
Solar System, Hyperion's color is a
rosy tan, as this view shows. The
origin of the moon's unusual hue is not
known. Some scientists suspect the
color comes from falling debris from
moons farther out. A similar origin has
been suggested for the dark reddish
material on Saturn's moon
Iapetus. Images taken using red, green
and blue spectral filters were combined
to create this natural color view. The
images were taken in visible light with
the Cassini spacecraft narrow-angle
camera on June 28, 2006 at a distance
of approximately 291,000 kilometers
(181,000 miles) from Hyperion. Image
scale is 2 kilometers (1 mile) per
pixel. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA08240 * Uploaded from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PIA08240.jpg

[2] Approximately true color mosaic of
Saturn's moon Hyperion. Composed of
several narrow-angle frames and
processed to match Hyperion's natural
color. Taken during Cassini's flyby of
this lumpy moon on 26th September
2005. Credit: NASA / JPL / SSI /
Gordan Ugarkovic Source Originally
from en.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Date 2006-10-18
(original upload date) Author
Original uploader was Ugo at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hyperion_true.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 5 		2561) Slavery is abolished in the
French colonies.1
French physicist,
Dominique François Jean Arago (oroGO)
(CE 1786-1853) 2 as minister of war
and navy, appoints the greatest
advocate of ending slavery Victor
Schoelcher as undersecretary for the
navy, who the prepares the famous
decree that abolishes slavery in the
colonies.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "fran ois arago". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp300-301.
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/arago.
html
4. ^ "Francois Arago". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9171/Francois-Arago
5. ^ "fran ois arago". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ar
ago?cat=technology (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "Dominique François Jean
Arago". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_F
ran%C3%A7ois_Jean_Arago
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 5 		2648) The Associated Press is a
cooperative news agency (wire service),
the oldest and largest of those in the
United States and long the largest and
one of the preeminent news agencies on
Earth. The AP is formed in 1848, when
six New York City daily newspapers
pooled their efforts to finance a
telegraphic relay of foreign news
brought by ships to Boston, the first
U.S. port of call for westbound
transatlantic ships.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
2. ^ "Associated Press". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9944/Associated-Press
3. ^ "Associated Press". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9944/Associated-Press
4. ^ "Associated Press". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9944/Associated-Press
5. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[3] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[5] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7]
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
[8] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
New York City, NY, USA4  
[1] Logo for the Associated Press. Fair
use. From the organization
website. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Associated_Press_logo.png

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 3 		2679)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p107.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p107.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p107. (1848)
France2   
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 4 		2759) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 makes a
complete set of drawings for
"Difference Engine 2".2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ The works of
Charles Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11, p75.
3. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
4. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, v11, p75. (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[3] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles
(1791 - 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 16 		2811) In this same paper, Henry
describes how at a high enough
temperature silver does not evaporate
as thought, but sinks into copper metal
below it.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ "Joseph
Henry". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
4. ^ "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Joseph Henry".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
5. ^ Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp.
173-176 Stated Meeting, June 20, pp.
170-181 Henry_sunspot.pdf http://www.j
stor.org/view/0003049x/ap030007/03a00020
/0?frame=frame&userID=a9eaf18d@uci.edu/0
1c0a848750050a13c3&dpi=3&config=jstor
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
7. ^
"thermogalvanometer". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"thermogalvanometer". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
hermogalvanometer
8. ^ Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp.
173-176 Stated Meeting, June 20, pp.
170-181 Henry_sunspot.pdf, p175.
http://www.jstor.org/view/0003049x/ap030
007/03a00020/0?frame=frame&userID=a9eaf1
8d@uci.edu/01c0a848750050a13c3&dpi=3&con
fig=jstor
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4,
pp. 173-176 Stated Meeting, June 20,
pp. 170-181 Henry_sunspot.pdf, p174.
http://www.jstor.org/view/0003049x/ap030
007/03a00020/0?frame=frame&userID=a9eaf1
8d@uci.edu/01c0a848750050a13c3&dpi=3&con
fig=jstor
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Proc. Am.
Phil. Soc., 4, pp. 173-176 Stated
Meeting, June 20, pp.
170-181 Henry_sunspot.pdf, p177.
http://www.jstor.org/view/0003049x/ap030
007/03a00020/0?frame=frame&userID=a9eaf1
8d@uci.edu/01c0a848750050a13c3&dpi=3&con
fig=jstor
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
15. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1848)
(1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[4]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[5]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[6]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[7]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[8] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
Princeton, NJ, USA14 15  
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 4 		2842)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
3. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/
Galaxies.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342. (1848)
(1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons 3rd earl of
Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
[2] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of
Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Par
sons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosse-willi
am-parsons-3d-earl-of?cat=technology
[4] "William Parsons Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Parsons_Rosse
[5]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
[6] "search?q=speculum metal".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q
=speculum%20metal
[7] "bronze". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ronze
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland3
 
[1] Lord Rosse's drawings of M1, the
Crab Nebula Drawing of the Crab Nebula
by William Parsons, the Third Earl of
Rosse. This drawing gave rise to the
name ''Crab Nebula''. It was created
using the 36-inch reflector at Birr
Castle about 1844. On the basis of this
observation, Lord Rosse gave the
following description: ''.. a
cluster; we perceive in this [36-inch
telescope], however, a considerable
change of appearance; it is no longer
an oval resolvable [mottled] Nebula; we
see resolvable filaments singularly
disposed, springing principally from
its southern extremity, and not, as is
usual in clusters, irregularly in all
directions. Probably greater power
would bring out other filaments, and it
would then assume the ordinary form of
a cluster. It is stubbed with stars,
mixed however with a nebulosity
probably consisting of stars too minute
to be recognized. It is an easy object,
and I have shown it to many, and all
have been at once struck with its
remarkable aspect. Everything in the
sketch can be seen under moderately
favourable circumstances.''
Obviously, the Earl had mistaken the
filaments he saw as indications for
resovability! In 1848, Lord Rosse
re-observed this object with the
72-inch reflector, and saw a remarkably
different picture, which was
represented in a new drawing in 1855 by
R.J. Mitchell - this second picture was
approved as ''the best representation''
of this object by his son, Laurence
Parsons, the Fourth Earl of Rosse.
PD/Corel
source: http://seds.org/MESSIER/Pics/Mor
e/m1rosse.jpg

[2] This is a mosaic image, one of the
largest ever taken by NASA's Hubble
Space Telescope of the Crab Nebula, a
six-light-year-wide expanding remnant
of a star's supernova explosion.
Japanese and Chinese astronomers
recorded this violent event nearly
1,000 years ago in 1054, as did, almost
certainly, Native Americans. The
orange filaments are the tattered
remains of the star and consist mostly
of hydrogen. The rapidly spinning
neutron star embedded in the center of
the nebula is the dynamo powering the
nebula's eerie interior bluish glow.
The blue light comes from electrons
whirling at nearly the speed of light
around magnetic field lines from the
neutron star. The neutron star, like a
lighthouse, ejects twin beams of
radiation that appear to pulse 30 times
a second due to the neutron star's
rotation. A neutron star is the crushed
ultra-dense core of the exploded
star. The Crab Nebula derived its
name from its appearance in a drawing
made by Irish astronomer Lord Rosse in
1844, using a 36-inch telescope. When
viewed by Hubble, as well as by large
ground-based telescopes such as the
European Southern Observatory's Very
Large Telescope, the Crab Nebula takes
on a more detailed appearance that
yields clues into the spectacular
demise of a star, 6,500 light-years
away. The newly composed image was
assembled from 24 individual Wide Field
and Planetary Camera 2 exposures taken
in October 1999, January 2000, and
December 2000. The colors in the image
indicate the different elements that
were expelled during the explosion.
Blue in the filaments in the outer part
of the nebula represents neutral
oxygen, green is singly-ionized sulfur,
and red indicates doubly-ionized
oxygen. Source
http://hubblesite.org/gallery/album
/entire_collection/pr2005037a/ Date
December 2000 Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
image) Material credited to STScI
on this site was created, authored,
and/or prepared for NASA under Contract
NAS5-26555. Unless otherwise
specifically stated, no claim to
copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. However, it is requested that
in any subsequent use of this work NASA
and STScI be given appropriate
acknowledgement. STScI further requests
voluntary reporting of all use,
derivative creation, and other
alteration of this work. Such reporting
should be sent to
copyright@stsci.edu. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Crab_Nebula.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 17 		3018) Maury describes the gulf stream
by saying "there is a river in the
ocean".11
Maury is one of the founders
of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.12
According to
the Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, as head of the U.S. naval
Observatory from 1844 to 1861, Maury's
poor qualifications as an astronomer
hold back the Earth's greatest
observatories.
Being a Virginian Maury sides with the
Confederacy in the outbreak of the US
Civil War in 1861.13 14
In England,
Maury takes an active part in
organizing an unsuccessful petition for
peace in the United States.15
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
2. ^ "Matthew
Fontaine Maury." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
3. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury".
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
14. ^ "Maury,
Matthew Fontaine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>.
15. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Matthew_
Fontaine_Maury
16. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury". A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
17. ^ "Maury, Matthew Fontaine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 28 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>. (1848)
Washington, DC, USA16  
[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg‎
(259 � 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg


[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 4 		3068)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp371-372.
2. ^ "Gray, Asa."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
3. ^ "Gray, Asa." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
4. ^ "Gray, Asa." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>. (1848)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/asa
/ASABIO.html
[2] "Asa Gray." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussetts, USA3  
[1] Asa Gray (1810-1888) PD/Corel
source: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libra
ries/asa/gray.jpg

[2] Asa Gray 1886 [t verify date of
photo] PD/Corel
source: http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/200
1/PSCF9-01MilesFig1.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 3 		3191)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392.
2. ^ "Koelliker,
Rudolf Albert Von", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p495.
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392. (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "Kölliker, Rudolf Albert
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5943>.
[2] "Albert von Kölliker." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[3] "Albert von Kölliker." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[4] "Rudolf Albert von Kölliker".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Albe
rt_von_K%C3%B6lliker
[5] "Rudolph Albert Von Kolliker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolph_
Albert_Von_Kolliker
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany2  
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 16 		3289) Fizeau substitutes bromine for
the iodine used by Daguerre in making
daguerreotypes7 and this increases the
permanency of daguerreotypes8 .
(verify9 )
With Jean Foucault, Fizeau
performs a series of investigations on
the interference of light and heat.10
Mo
st of Fizeau's published works appear
in the "Comptes Rendus" and in the
"Annales de physique et de chimie".11
F
izeau is the son of a wealthy physician
and professor at the Faculty of
Medicine in Paris. Fizeau receives his
secondary education at the Collège
Stanislas and starts to study a career
as a physician, but because of poor
health has to stop regular attendance
of classes. Upon return to health
Fizeau turns his focus to physics.12
Fiz
eau never holds professorships but is
elected to the Academy of Sciences in
1860.13
In 1875 Fizeau is awarded the
Royal Society's Rumford medal.14
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p405.
3. ^ Record
ID2929. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
7. ^ "Hippolyte
Fizeau." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
8. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Armand Hippolyte Louis
Fizeau". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
11. ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia An
International Work of Reference on the
Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and
History of the Catholic Church edited
by John Joseph
Wynne, http://books.google.com/books?id
=LncqAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA88&dq=fizeau&as_brr=1
#PPA88,M1
12. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
13. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
14. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
15. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405. (1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>

[2] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[3] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p254
Paris, France15 (presumably) 
[1] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 4 		3302)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
2. ^ William Tobin,
"The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p101-106.
3. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p101-106.
4. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p101-106. {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean Bernard
Léon." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[4] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[5] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[7] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[8] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[9]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[12] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
[13] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[14] "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
[15] "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
. (1851)
Paris, France3  
[1] Foucault's automatic electric=arc
light (1848) PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p103.

[2] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 8 		3333)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914,
p479. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ke0IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmh
oltz+arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&o
ts=UHZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_V
W9iSY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2
&ct=result
2. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von., "?",
Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie, und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, Berlin,
1848, p144-164.
3. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
8. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison,
"An Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914,
p479. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ke0IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmh
oltz+arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&o
ts=UHZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_V
W9iSY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2
&ct=result

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[7] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[8] "Hermann von Helmholtz" (Obituary).
Royal Society (Great Britain). (1894).
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. London: Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
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[9] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[10] Hermann von Helmholtz, "Über die
Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847; "On the
Conservation of Force"), Read before
the Physical Society of Berlin, 23 July
1847. Published under the title "Ueber
die Erhaltung der Kraft". Eine
physikalische Abhandlung. G. Reimer,
Berlin, 1847. Translated and edited by
John Tyndall, in Taylor's "Scientific
Memoirs" (1853), p. 114. original
German: Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=0WoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%C3%9Cbe
r+die+Erhaltung+der+Kraft English
(partial): Stephen G. Brush, Nancy S.
Hall, "The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An
Anthology of Classic Papers with
Historical
..." http://books.google.com/books?id=B
Xt-Ne7ytxYC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22taylo
r%27s+scientific+memoirs%22+helmholtz&so
urce=web&ots=lIgTuVT27p&sig=Nxq6wCY7Y9J2
ELx1AMhMBzGIO34&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA89,M1
{07/23/1847}
[11] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>. {1847}
(Physikalische Gesellschaft) Berlin,
Germany7  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 6 		3405)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=de&tl=en
4. ^ (Obituary) Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
Taylor and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
5. ^ (Obituary) Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
Taylor and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
6. ^ (Obituary) Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
Taylor and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1 {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Leuckart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/337674/Rudolf-Leuckart>.
[2] "Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leuckart-ka
rl-georg-friedrich-rudolf
[3] "Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Georg_
Friedrich_Rudolf_Leuckart
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[5] "Leuckart, Karl Georg Friedrich
Rudolf", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p424.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany5 (presumably) 
[1] Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Leuckart_Rudolph_1822
-1898.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 15 		3477)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
(id 1893)
8. ^ Record
ID1971. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ William Thomson, "On
an Absolute Thermometric Scale Founded
on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power
of Heat and Calculated from Regnault's
Observations on Steam", Proceedings
Camb Phil, June 5 1848. and:
Philosophical Magazine, October 1848.
also: Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac, William Thomson
Kelvin, James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
and William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p100-106. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result#PPA100,M1
10. ^ William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
and William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p100-106. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result#PPA100,M1
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433. {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[5] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[6] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p315
[8]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[9] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[10] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland14  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 4 		3478)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "William Thomson, 1st
Baron Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
4. ^ Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1 {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[5] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[6] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p315.
[8]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[9] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[10] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[11] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland3  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 4 		3497) In later life Bates is considered
possibly the greatest authority on
Coleoptera (beetles and weevils).2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434-435.
2. ^ "Henry Walter
Bates." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-walte
r-bates
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434-435.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p434-435. {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "H. W. Bates." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/55845/H-W-Bates>
[2] "Henry Walter Bates." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-walte
r-bates
[3] "Henry Walter Bates." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-walte
r-bates
[4] "Henry Walter Bates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Walte
r_Bates
[5] "Henry Walter Bates". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_Wa
lter_Bates
[6] "Bates, Henry Walter", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p66
Brazil, South America3  
[1] Description photograph of
Bates Source Bates 1892 Naturalist on
River Amazons Date about 1870 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/HW_Bates_23_KB.jpg

[2] Henry Walter Bates Charles
Sims © Bridgeman Art Library / ©
Royal Geographical Society, London,
UK PD/Corel
source: http://images.bridgeman.co.uk/cg
i-bin/bridgemanImage.cgi/600.RGS.942730.
7055475/34070.JPG
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 		3658)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Wilhelm
Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen", Abhandlungen der K.
Sächsischen Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Leipzig,
1848?, p?. Annalen der Physik, vol.
73, pp
193-240. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA215,M1 E
nglish translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On
the Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
{Weber_Wilhelm_1848.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1848?, p?. Annalen
der Physik, vol. 73, pp
193-240. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA215,M1 E
nglish translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On
the Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
{Weber_Wilhelm_1848.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
13. ^ "Weber, Wilhelm Eduard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p925.

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
[6] Wilhelm Weber, "Determinations of
Electrodynamic Measure, Concerning a
Universal Law of Electrical Action,
issued at the founding of the Royal
Scientific Society of Saxony on the day
of the 200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846".
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf A
shorter version is published in Annalen
der Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529
[7] R. Kohlrausch,
Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maassbestimmungen insbesondere
Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
a summary is given as: Wilhelm Weber,
H. R. Kohlrausch, "Ueber die
Elektricitätsmenge, welche bei
galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9 (p
10-25).
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected
[8] Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf A
shorter version is published in Annalen
der Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529
[9] Felix Klein,
Robert Hermann, Development of
Mathematics in the 19th Century, Math
Sci Press, 1979,
p22. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
M36hgqmOLkC&pg=PA17&dq=wilhelm+weber&lr=
&as_brr=1&ei=dKb_SJ6eJIjutAPDyO2SDA#PPA2
2,M1
[10] Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf A
shorter version is published in
Annalen der Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529
[11] Andre Assis,
"Weber's electrodynamics", Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1994, p78-117
[12] James
Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory of
the Electromagnetic Field", Royal
Society Transactions, Vol. 155, 1865,
p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 also in
James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
[13]
http://www.answers.com/weber?cat=technol
ogy
[14] "weber". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6383/weber
[15] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1846)
[16] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356. (1846) (1846)
(University of) Leipzig, Germany12 13
 
[1] [t Weber's equation from Scientific
Memoirs 1848] PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.

[2] Figures from Scientific Memoirs
1848 PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 5 		5988) Johann Strauss I (Known as "the
Elder.") (CE 1804-1849), Austrian
violinist and composer of waltzes and
other works, composes the "Redetzky
March" (1848). His son Johann
(1825-1899), known as "the Younger," is
sometimes called "the Waltz King" and
is best remembered for his numerous
waltzes, such as "The Blue Danube"
(1867).1

(It is interesting how different from
Mozart and Beethoven's music the march
is. There is, perhaps more focus on
percussion and a regular drum beat.
Apparently the march goes back a long
way in history.2 )

(Determine when the march originates
and by whom.3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Strauss I." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 19
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-stra
uss-i
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Johann I
Strauss." The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Music. Oxford University Press,
2007. Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-i-st
rauss
5. ^ "Johann I Strauss." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 2007. Answers.com 19
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-i-st
rauss {1848}
Vienna, Austria4 (presumably) 
[1] Johann Strauss I (also known as
Johann Strauss Snr.) (March 14, 1804 -
September 25, 1849) was an Austrian
composer known particularly for his
waltzes. http://www.maurice-abravanel.c
om/strauss_johann_sr__pict2.html
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Johann_Strauss_I_%282
%29.jpg
151 YBN
[01/20/1849 AD] 19 		3280) EXPER: For all known substances,
use a diffraction grating and computer
interface to analyze for all photon
intervals (wavelengths) of light, those
absorbed, reflected, and transmitted.
Try various angles of incidence to see
if there is a difference. Make public
all findings.16

I think there is the remote possibility
that light particles of the same
frequency could be colliding off each
other and this might explain the dark
areas. Kirchhoff had found that the
absorption happens even for
unilluminated sodium - see id3458.
EXPERIMENT: In 2D and 3D models do
particle beams of the same or different
frequencies from two spherical sources
collide more often? How are distance,
intensity, frequency, etc related to
number and rate of collisions?17
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
2. ^ L'Institut Feb 7
1849. Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
3. ^ L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
4. ^ L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R.
Bunsen, "Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
William Tobin, "The life and science of
Léon Foucault: the man who proved the
earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p109-112.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
14. ^ G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860),
1-21. {Kirchhoff_PT_1860_07_Eng.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
19. ^ L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
(01/20/1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bernard-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] Collected
Works Volume One - Recueil des travaux
scientifiques de Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+des+tra
vaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault
&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
Paris, France18 (presumably) 
[1] Reproduction of the first
daguerrotype of the Sun. The original
image was a little over 12 centimeters
in diameter. Reproduced from G. De
Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography,
MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg

[2] Daguerreotype of the Sun PD/Corel

source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif
151 YBN
[01/23/1849 AD] 6 		1252) Blackwell applies to several
prominent medical schools but is
rejected by all. Her second round of
applications is sent to smaller
colleges, including Geneva College in
New York, where she is accepted.
According to legend, because the
faculty put the application to a
student vote, and the students think
her application is a hoax. Blackwell
braves the prejudice of some of the
professors and students to complete her
training. She persists, ranking first
in her class.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Elizabeth Blackwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_B
lackwell
2. ^ Side of Silk Soy milk container
3. ^
"Elizabeth Blackwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_B
lackwell
4. ^ "Hobart and William Smith
Colleges". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobart_and_
William_Smith_Colleges
5. ^ "Elizabeth Blackwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_B
lackwell
6. ^ "Elizabeth Blackwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_B
lackwell
Geneva4 , New York, USA5   
151 YBN
[03/29/1849 AD] 7 		3507)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
2. ^ Thomas Henry
Huxley, "On the anatomy and the
affinities of the family of Medusae",
Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London (1776-1886),
Volume 139, 1849,
p413-434. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e6887p03870m8284/?p=e74bb222
bc9e416481437823ed095816π=1 {Huxley_18
49.pdf}
3. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "T.H. Huxley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
6. ^ "Thomas Henry Huxley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
7. ^ Thomas Henry Huxley, "On the
anatomy and the affinities of the
family of Medusae", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 139, 1849,
p413-434. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e6887p03870m8284/?p=e74bb222
bc9e416481437823ed095816π=1 {Huxley_18
49.pdf} {03/29/1849}

MORE INFO
[1] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[2] "Huxley, Thomas Henry."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[3] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[4] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henr
y_Huxley
[5] "Huxley, Thomas Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p447-448.
(Royal College of Surgeons) London,
England6  
[1] [t Some figures from 1849
paper] PD/Corel
source: Huxley_1849.pdf

[2] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg
151 YBN
[05/27/1849 AD] 9 		3299)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp137-138.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
4. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, pp137-138.
5. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp137-138.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp137-138.
9. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, pp137-138. {05/27/1849}


MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p317
[6] A. A.
Michelson and E.W. Morley, "Influence
of motion of the medium on the motion
of light" Am. J. Science 31 377-386
(1886)
[7] Pieter Zeeman, "Fresnel's
coefficient for light of different
colours. (First part)" Proc. Kon. Acad.
van Weten. 17 445-451 (1914)
[8] Pieter
Zeeman, "Fresnel's coefficient for
light of different colours. (Second
part)" Proc. Kon. Acad. van Weten. 18
398-408 (1915)
[9] "Fizeau experiment".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau_expe
riment
[10] "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[11] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>
. (1851)
[12]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t
[13] "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

Paris, France8  
[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem
e_ru.PNG

[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
151 YBN
[06/21/1849 AD] 12 		3247) Joule publishes these results as
"On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat"
in the Philosophical Transactions.7

Joule opens with two quotes, the first
from John Locke, and the second from
Gottfried Leibnitz:
From Locke: "Heat
is a very brisk agitation of the
insensible parts of the object, which
produces in us that sensation from
whence we denominate the object hot; so
what in our sensation is heat, in the
object is nothing but motion." and from
Leibnitz: "The force of a moving body
is proportional to the square of its
velocity, or to the height to which it
would rise against gravity.".8 This
last quote is interesting to me,
because, perhaps this work is on the
path that leads to the use of "energy"
as a quantity which is conserved and
equal to 1/2mv2. Joule refers to the
"vis-viva" of the heated water
(particles) and defines this property
(vis-viva) as being proportional to the
particle velocity squared. I think
according to the F=ma law, force of an
object is proportional to the object's
mass and acceleration. This idea of
gravity presumes the large mass of the
Earth, strictly speaking, a mass that
is pulled away, against the force
exerted by a larger mass. But I think
this may be a case of how a person may
say, force is proportional to mass, and
to mass squared, and to the square root
of mass, and to mass cubed, etc. all
true, but seems apparently unimportant.
Although I am not sure and this is
certainly open to other explanations.
But beyond that, I don't think force is
proportional to velocity or velocity
squared (or cubed, etc), as it is,
strictly speaking by the definition of
F=ma defined as proportional only to
mass and acceleration. But again, I'm
not entirely clear on this.9

My own feeling about the heat
convertible to force, force convertible
to heat issue that Faraday rejects, is
that these quantities, heat and force,
are composite quantities and strictly
speaking the modern view of heat does
not include all possible forces,
because it excludes photons of a
frequency that are not absorbed by the
heat measuring device, which may
account for the velocity of a force.
Are we measuring that small slice of
the spectrum in the microwave and
infrared, or the movement of particles
in the full spectrum? The definition of
heat, I think needs to be more clearly
defined, because, clearly there are
moving particles that are not absorbed
by the heat measuring device, whether
that is mercury, water, a skin cell,
etc. So is the intention to measure the
average velocity of all particles in
some volume of space, or to measure the
average velocity of only those
particles that are absorbed by the
substance used to determine the
quantity of heat? Ultimately mass and
velocity are conserved, so the velocity
of the particles as they do mechanical
work, can be transferred to particles
that are heated up, but I think that
there may be large velocities of
photons within atoms, which, because
they are limited to an orbit, cannot be
measured directly using other atoms,
but are observed when the photon exits
the atom and takes a straight line
direction. So, it may be, that there
are many hidden velocities in atoms
that are revealed when photons are sent
into straight line directions from
friction. To conclude, I think that,
there are many velocities of photons in
atoms. So a small velocity (an example
is like a neutron in fission) might
release a much larger velocity summed
over many released particles than went
into some event. The velocities were
always there, but simply not moving in
straight lines and not visually
observable. So it's an issue of space,
the many resulting velocities were
already there, but confined to a small
space. But I think we need to open this
debate up and try to find the clearest
and most simple and accurate
explanations that everybody can
understand and accept as the best
theory currently known.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
2. ^ Crosbie W.
Smith, "Faraday as Referee of Joule's
Royal Society Paper 'On the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat', Isis, Vol. 67, No.
3 (Sep., 1976), pp.
444-449. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0684?seq=1 {Joule_Faraday_Referee_Isis_
1976_230684.pdf}
3. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat",
Philosophical Transactions, 1860, Part
I Read June 21 1849 from James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby,
Lyon Playfair Playfair, William
Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule (2 vol.)",
Physical Society (Great Britain), 1884,
pp298-328. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip"
4. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat",
Philosophical Transactions, 1860, Part
I Read June 21 1849 from James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby,
Lyon Playfair Playfair, William
Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule (2 vol.)",
Physical Society (Great Britain), 1884,
pp298-328. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip"
5. ^ Crosbie W. Smith, "Faraday as
Referee of Joule's Royal Society Paper
'On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat',
Isis, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Sep., 1976), pp.
444-449. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0684?seq=1 {Joule_Faraday_Referee_Isis_
1976_230684.pdf}
6. ^ Crosbie W. Smith, "Faraday as
Referee of Joule's Royal Society Paper
'On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat',
Isis, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Sep., 1976), pp.
444-449. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0684?seq=1 {Joule_Faraday_Referee_Isis_
1976_230684.pdf}
7. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
140, 1850,
pp61-82. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/7379721vkj250895/?p=fcd8f3402
75f4bfba0bba78f08e696fc&pi=1 {Joule_On_
the_Mechanical_Equivalent_of_Heat_1850.p
df}
8. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat",
Philosophical Transactions, 1860, Part
I Read June 21 1849 from James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby,
Lyon Playfair Playfair, William
Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule (2 vol.)",
Physical Society (Great Britain), 1884,
pp298-328. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip"
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ James Prescott
Joule, "On the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat", Philosophical Transactions,
1860, Part I Read June 21 1849 from
James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific
Papers of James Prescott Joule (2
vol.)", Physical Society (Great
Britain), 1884,
pp298-328. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip"
12. ^ James Prescott Joule, "On the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat",
Philosophical Transactions, 1860, Part
I Read June 21 1849 from James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby,
Lyon Playfair Playfair, William
Thomson Kelvin, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule (2 vol.)",
Physical Society (Great Britain), 1884,
pp298-328. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22On+the+Productio
n+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22&vq=c
ombustion&pg=PA81&ci=61,532,832,214&sour
ce=bookclip" (06/21/1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>
[7] "James Prescott Joule."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
(Oak Field, Whalley Range near)
Manchester, England11  
[1] [t Joule's figures from this
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/7379721vkj250895/fulltext.pdf

[2] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg
151 YBN
[07/23/1849 AD] 19 20 		3290) EXPER: Use a device similar to
the one used by Fizeau to determine if
long photon interval light beams can be
halved. use a diffraction grating to
isolate a single frequency of light
from a light source. To detect the
light a grating can also be used, or
perhaps an electronic tuned circuit.
For a grating, is the spectral line
moved because of the blocking by the
spinning toothed wheel? Is this
evidence for the particle theory, or
can a wave theory explain this
result?17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p122-124.
2. ^ "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>
.
3. ^ Record ID1851. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record
ID1931. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Fizeau, Hippolyte
1849a: "Sur une expérience relative à
la vitesse de propagation de la
lumière", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires
des séances de l’Académie des
Sciences de l’Institut de France 29,
90–92. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2986&M=chemindef
er {Fizeau_1849.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Record
ID3287. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ William Tobin, "The
Life and Science of Léon Foucault",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p122-124.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Fizeau, Hippolyte
1849a: "Sur une expérience relative à
la vitesse de propagation de la
lumière", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires
des séances de l’Académie des
Sciences de l’Institut de France 29,
90–92. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2986&M=chemindef
er {Fizeau_1849.pdf}
13. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p122-124.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p122-124.
19. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p122-124. {07/23/1849}
20. ^ "Hippolyte
Fizeau." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau (09/1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p254
[6] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
Paris, France18  
[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?

source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 2 		1026)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).?
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library
of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000).?
  
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 7 		2523) David Brewster (CE 1781-1868)1
invents the lenticular2 "stereoscope"
where a person looks at two slightly
different pictures, one with each eye,
which gives the illusion of
three-dimensional features.3

Charles Wheatstone discovered the
principle (of the stereoscope4 ) and
applied it as early as 1838 to an
instrument, in which the binocular
pictures are made to combine by means
of mirrors. Brewster uses of lenses for
the purpose of uniting the dissimilar
pictures.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
2. ^ "Sir David
Brewster". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Sir David Brewster".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp293-294.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Sir
David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir David
Brewster". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster
6. ^ "Sir David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6395/Sir-David-Brewster
7. ^ "Sir David Brewster (1849-1850)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
David Brewster". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Brewster (1849-1850) (1849-1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "David Brewster". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brews
ter
[2]
http://www.answers.com/David+Brewster?ca
t=technology
[3] "Brewsters law". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6399/Brewsters-law
Edinburgh, Scotland6  
[1] David Brewster [t Early
photograph] 19th century photograph.
public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dbrewster.jpg

[2] Scientist: Brewster, David (1781
- 1868) Discipline(s): Optics Print
Artist: W. Holl Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Henry Raeburn,
1756-1823 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
17.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Optics
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 6 		2649) Reuters uses pigeons to cover
sections where lines are incomplete.3
R
euters' original name is Israel Beer
Josaphat. Reuters is a German-born
founder of one of the first news
agencies, which still bears his name.
Of Jewish parentage, Reuters becomes a
Christian in 1844 and adopts the name
of Reuter.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "telegraph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
4. ^ "Paul Julius baron von Reuter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3337/Paul-Julius-baron-von-Reuter
5. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph
6. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
03/telegraph (1849)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Samuel FB Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3834/Samuel-FB-Morse
[3] "Samuel Morse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Mors
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-f-b-
morse
[5] "Samuel Finley Breese Morse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_F
inley_Breese_Morse
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7]
http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house
_history/technology/telegraph.html
[8] "licentiousness". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
icentiousness
Paris, France5  
[1] Reuters logo Source
http://www.reuters.com/ COPYRIGHTED

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e2/Reuters_logo.svg

[2] Baron von Reuter BBC Hulton
Picture Library PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13721/Baron-von-Reuter?articleTypeId=1
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 7 		2732)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Sir
John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
5. ^ "Sir John
Herschel 1st Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
6. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
7. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
[3] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel_1846.png
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 10 		2763)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p324.
2. ^ "Thomas
Addison". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
3. ^ "anemia". The American Heritage
Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anemia?cat=
health
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/suprarenal?
cat=health
5. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
6. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
7. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
8. ^ "Thomas Addison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3700/Thomas-Addison
9. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p324. (1849) (1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Addison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Addi
son
[2] "Addison's Disease". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Addison'
s_Disease
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Guy's Hospital) London, England9
 
[1] Thomas Addison,
1795-1870 PD/Corel
source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 3 		3065)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p371.
2. ^ "Henri Victor
Regnault." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p371. (1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Victor Regnault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Victo
r_Regnault
[2] "Henri Victor Regnault." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2002.
Answers.com 06 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-victo
r-regnault
[3] "Henri Victor Regnault", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p739
[4] The Catholic Encyclopedia,
Volume XII. Published 1911. New York:
Robert Appleton Company. Nihil Obstat,
June 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D.,
Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal
Farley, Archbishop of New York
[5] "Henri
Victor Regnault", Nature, Volume 17,
Number 431, (31 January 1878),
pp263-264. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v17/n431/pdf/017263a0.pdf {Reg
nault_Henri_Victor_017263a0.pdf}
[6] David R. Gaskell, "Introduction to
the thermodynamics of materials",
Taylor & Francis, (2003), p6.
http://books.google.com/books?id=my8hP
O-JFPoC&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=regnault+273&s
ource=web&ots=cYocx7rtS2&sig=gZXiiPvMquO
IxIW-ZhDJaZGGG6k&hl=en (1847)
(College de France) Paris, France2
 
[1] Victor Regnault peint par son
fils PD
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/regnault1.jpg

[2] Henri Victor Regnault
(1810–1878), French chemist and
physicist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Henri_Victor_Regnault
.jpg
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 25 		3114) Barnard is one of the founders of
experimental (health science16 ).
Barnard describes the concept of the
internal environment of the organism,
which leads to the current
understanding of homeostasis, the
self-regulation of vital processes.17
B
ernard studies under François Magendie
at both the Hôtel-Dieu and the
Collège de France. Magendie notices
Bernard's skillful dissections and
takes Bernard on as a research
assistant.18

Bernard's wife, Fanny, opposes
vivisection (the act or practice of
cutting into or otherwise injuring
living animals, especially for the
purpose of scientific research19 ) so
much that, she joins the newly formed
society for the protection of animals,
the SPA, and becomes one of its most
vocal members.20 The two have a legal
separation in 1870.21

Bernard rejects evolution. Asimov
explains that French biologists, even
Pasteur, reject Darwinism, this is
partly from the influence of Lamarck
and Cuvier 50 years before.22

At his death Bernard is given a funeral
arranged and financed by the
government, the first ever given to a
scientist in France.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^ "Bernard,
Claude." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
3. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
5. ^ "Claude
Bernard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp67-68.
6. ^ "Bernard, Claude." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Claude
Bernard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp67-68.
10. ^ "Bernard, Claude." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
13. ^ "chyle." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
14. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
"Bernard, Claude." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
18. ^ "Bernard, Claude." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
19. ^ "vivisectionist." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 19
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vivisection

20. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
23. ^ "Bernard,
Claude." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
24. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
25. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68. (1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude Bernard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[2] "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[3] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[4] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
(Collège de France) Paris, France24
 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 6 		3135) William Zinsser manufactures
shellac into the USA.1

Zinsser is a foreman in a Mainz,
Germany, shellac factory, who emigrates
from Germany to the United States in
1848. Zinsser discovers that shellac
varnishes are unknown in America.
Working from a home laboratory, Zinsser
develops a product and soon establishes
the nation's first bleached shellac
manufacturing plant, William Zinsser &
Company, in what is then "far uptown
rural Manhattan".2

Shellac is made from the secretions of
the tiny lac insect, Laccifer lacca.
Shellac is a natural thermoplastic, a
material that is soft and flows under
pressure when heated but becomes rigid
at room temperature. Shellac is an
ingredient in many products, including
abrasives, sealing wax, hair sprays,
and cake glazes. Shellac is used, along
with fine clay or other filler, to mold
phonograph records, but, after the
early 1930s, synthetic thermoplastics,
particularly vinyl resins, gradually
replace shellac.3

In the 1800s many mixtures and
compositions are based on shellac, the
most successful being the American ones
of Peck, Halvorson, and Critchlow.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-h
istories/William-Zinsser-amp;-Company-In
c-Company-History.html
2. ^
http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-h
istories/William-Zinsser-amp;-Company-In
c-Company-History.html
3. ^ "shellac." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7262>.
4. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/shellac.htm

5. ^
http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-h
istories/William-Zinsser-amp;-Company-In
c-Company-History.html
6. ^
http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-h
istories/William-Zinsser-amp;-Company-In
c-Company-History.html (1949)

MORE INFO
[1] "Shellac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellac
[2] Merrifield, Mary (1849). Original
Treatises on the Art of Painting. ISBN
0486404404
[3] "shellac." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shellac
[4] "papillary>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"papillary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 20 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
apillary>
[5] "Lac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Lac
Manhattan, NY, USA5  
[1] Blond shellac sample PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Schellak.jpg

[2] Shellac has been used for
centuries in lacquer form as a
protective and decorative finish for
wood and metals (not to be confused
with Chinese lacquerwork that is based
on resin from Rhus verniciflua trees).
The lac insect is a plant parasite
producing an exudate as a protective
barrier against predators.
Traditionally scraped off twigs with
the eggs, larvae and pupae and insects,
the shellac is cleaned and filtered to
produce a hard, brittle thermoplastic
material. This is used as the basis for
sealing wax. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/she
llac.htm
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 23 		3195) Ethylamine is a colorless
volatile liquid, C2H5NH2, used in
petroleum refining and detergents and
in organic synthesis. Also called
ethamine.12

Methylamine is a toxic flammable gas,
CH3NH2, produced by the decomposition
of organic matter and synthesized for
use as a solvent and in the manufacture
of many products, such as dyes and
insecticides.13

Diethylamine, (C2H5)2NH is a
water-soluble, colorless liquid with
ammonia aroma, boiling at 56°C; used
in rubber chemicals and pharmaceuticals
and as a solvent and flotation agent.14

Trietylamine, (C2H5)3N is a colorless,
toxic, flammable liquid with an ammonia
aroma; soluble in water and alcohol;
boils at 90°C; used as a solvent,
rubber-accelerator activator, corrosion
inhibitor, and propellant, and in
penetrating and waterproofing agents.15

In 1845 Wurtz becomes an assistant to
Jean-Baptiste-André Dumas, whom Wurtz
succeeds at the School of Medicine in
1852.16
In 1858 Archibald Couper
apparently anticipates Kekulé in
working out the structure of the carbon
atom (more detail17 ) and asks Wurtz to
present his paper to the Académie des
Sciences. Wurtz delays and Kekulé
publishes. When Couper protests with
Wurtz Couper is expelled from Wurtz's
laboratory.18 (I don't worry about
priority. With the camera-thought
network, history will show who was
first, and ultimately the important
thing is human progress no matter what
the source. In any event, theoriginator
of new ideas should always be honestly
recognized by people.19 )
In 1875 Wurtz
is the first chair of organic chemistry
at the Sorbonne.20

Wurtz is one of the founders of the
Paris Chemical Society (1858), and its
first secretary and three times serves
as its president.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p393.
2. ^ "Charles Adolphe
Wurtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Wurtz,
Charles-Adolphe." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7617>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p393.
7. ^ "Charles Adolphe
Wurtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p949.
10. ^ "Charles
Adolphe Wurtz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
11. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Adolphe_Wurtz
12. ^ "ethylamine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ethylamine
13. ^ "methylamine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/methylamine

14. ^ "diethylamine." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diethylamin
e-organic-chemistry
15. ^ "triethylamine." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/triethylami
ne-organic-chemistry
16. ^ "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7617>.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Charles Adolphe
Wurtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Wurtz,
Charles-Adolphe." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7617>.
21. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Adolphe_Wurtz
22. ^ "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7617>.
23. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz (1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
[2] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ado
lphe_Wurtz
(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France22  
[1] Ethanamine GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylamine

[2] Methylamine GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hylamine
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 16 		3199) Sainte-Claire Deville also
isolates toluene and methyl benzoate
from tolu balsam and investigates other
natural products before turning to
inorganic chemistry.6

Toluene is a colorless, flammable,
toxic liquid hydrocarbon aromatic
compound (C6H5CH3), the methyl
derivative of benzene. Found in
coal-tar light oil and in petroleum,
toluene is mainly obtained from the
processing of petroleum fractions. It
is used as a solvent, diluent (serving
to dilute), and thinner; as an
antiknock additive in airplane
gasoline; and as a raw material for
TNT, benzoic acid and its derivatives,
saccharin, dyes, photographic
chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.7
Toluene is also called methylbenzene.8


Toluene was discovered by Pelletier in
1838 (Ann. chim. phys., 1838, 67, p.
269).9

Starting around 1857 Deville studies
reversible reactions under a general
theory of dissociation. In the course
of this investigation Deville devises
the apparatus known as the "Deville hot
and cold tube".10 Deville discovers
dissociation of heated chemical
compounds and their recombination at
lower temperatures.11 (more info. Is
the dissociation between atoms, or
between molecule groups?12 )
Deville is
the son of a wealthy shipowner from the
Caribbean island of St. Thomas.13
Sainte
-Claire Deville commits suicide at
63.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp393-394.
2. ^ "Sainte-Claire
Deville, Henri-Étienne." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4962>.
3. ^ "Etienne Henri Sainte-Claire
Deville". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Etienne_
Henri_Sainte-Claire_Deville
4. ^ "nitric acid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitric-acid

5. ^ "nitrogen pentoxide." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrogen-pe
ntoxide
6. ^ "Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
Deville." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-etien
ne-sainte-claire-deville
7. ^ "toluene." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toluene
8. ^ "toluene." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toluene
9. ^ "Toluene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Toluene
10. ^ "Etienne Henri Sainte-Claire
Deville". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Etienne_
Henri_Sainte-Claire_Deville
11. ^ "Deville, Henri Étienne
Sainte-Claire", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p949
12. ^
Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
Deville." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-etien
ne-sainte-claire-deville
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp393-394.
15. ^ "Deville, Henri
Étienne Sainte-Claire", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p949
16. ^ "Sainte-Claire Deville,
Henri-Étienne." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4962>. (1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
Deville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Etien
ne_Sainte-Claire_Deville
(University of Besançon) Besançon,
France15  
[1] This image has been released into
the public domain by its author,
Benjah-bmm27. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Dinitrogen-pentoxide-
3D-balls.png

[2] Description French chemist
Henri Sainte-Claire Deville
(1818-1881) Source
http://hdelboy.club.fr/mineralogistes
.html Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.gif
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 14 		3229)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kolbe.
html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
4. ^ "Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolph-wilh
elm-hermann-kolbe
5. ^ "Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Wilh
elm_Hermann_Kolbe
6. ^ A. K. Vijh, B. E. Conway (1967).
"Electrode Kinetic Aspects of the Kolbe
Reaction". Chem. Rev. 67 (6): 623-664.
doi:10.1021/cr60250a003. http://pubs.ac
s.org/cgi-bin/archive.cgi/chreay/1967/67
/i06/pdf/cr60250a003.pdf
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
8. ^ A. K. Vijh, B.
E. Conway (1967). "Electrode Kinetic
Aspects of the Kolbe Reaction". Chem.
Rev. 67 (6): 623-664.
doi:10.1021/cr60250a003. http://pubs.ac
s.org/cgi-bin/archive.cgi/chreay/1967/67
/i06/pdf/cr60250a003.pdf
9. ^ "Kolbe electrolysis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolbe_elect
rolysis
10. ^ A. K. Vijh, B. E. Conway (1967).
"Electrode Kinetic Aspects of the Kolbe
Reaction". Chem. Rev. 67 (6): 623-664.
doi:10.1021/cr60250a003. http://pubs.ac
s.org/cgi-bin/archive.cgi/chreay/1967/67
/i06/pdf/cr60250a003.pdf
11. ^ "Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Wilh
elm_Hermann_Kolbe
12. ^ A. K. Vijh, B. E. Conway (1967).
"Electrode Kinetic Aspects of the Kolbe
Reaction". Chem. Rev. 67 (6): 623-664.
doi:10.1021/cr60250a003. http://pubs.ac
s.org/cgi-bin/archive.cgi/chreay/1967/67
/i06/pdf/cr60250a003.pdf
13. ^ "Kolbe, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
14. ^ A. K. Vijh, B. E. Conway (1967).
"Electrode Kinetic Aspects of the Kolbe
Reaction". Chem. Rev. 67 (6): 623-664.
doi:10.1021/cr60250a003. http://pubs.ac
s.org/cgi-bin/archive.cgi/chreay/1967/67
/i06/pdf/cr60250a003.pdf (1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolphe Wilhelm Hermann
Kolbe". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Adolphe_
Wilhelm_Hermann_Kolbe
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Kolbe, Adolf Wilhelm Hermann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp496-497.
[4] Hermann
Kolbe (1848). "Zersetzung der
Valeriansäure durch den elektrischen
Strom". Annalen der Chemie und
Pharmacie 64 (3): 339-341.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18480640346.
Braunschweig, Germany13  
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 5 		3319)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp409-410.
2. ^ "Édouard
Roche." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/douard-roch
e
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Édouard Roche." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/douard-roch
e
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp409-410. {1849}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roche limit." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3949>.
[2] "Édouard Albert Roche". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d_Albert_Roche
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Montpellier)
Montpellier, France4  
[1] Edouard Albert
Roche 1820-1883 PD/Corel
source: http://www.gothard.hu/astronomy/
astronomers/images/Edouard_Albert_Roche.
1820-1883.jpg
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 6 		3479)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ "William
Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p319.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "William Thomson, 1st
Baron Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
6. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin {1849}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[5] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[6]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[7] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[8] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[9] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
[10]
Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland5  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
150 YBN
[02/??/1850 AD] 26 27 		3364) Clausius writes "Die
Potentialfunktion und das Potential"
(1859) and "Die mechanische
Wärmetheorie" (1865–67; tr. "The
Mechanical Theory of Heat", 1879).19

(So is heat a particle or movement? I
think my own opinion is that heat is a
movement due to a particle, but its not
clear to me. Is the heat the velocity
of the photon or the photon itself?
Without the photon there is no heat,
but without the velocity of a photon
there is no heat either, so it is in
some sense both a movement and a
particle perhaps. It has to do with the
quantity of free photons too, in
particular free photons absorbed. For
example you could hold a dense solid
cold object and a less dense warm
object. The dense object clearly has
more photons and more velocity within
it, but the warm object is emitting
more photons, in particular photons of
a frequency that are absorbed by
sensors in the skin.20 )

(Notice how the heat and work
equivalent group never refer to
velocity (or momentum) of particles but
only to their vis viva, which is
1/2mv^2.21 )
Clausius rejects
Helmholtz's explanation of the first
law of thermodynamics (the conservation
of energy) in the early 1850s.22 An
interesting example in my mind is that
if you put a mass near a large mass,
it's potential energy goes up (because
the force of gravity is large on it),
as opposed to putting a mass far away
from a large mass. It just seems like
the mass is just a mass and there is no
difference physically in it, no matter
where it happens to be located. Faraday
stated that the law of gravity violates
the conservation of energy, but I think
that it is preserved because any added
acceleration is balanced in an opposite
direction, and in addition, two masses
moving closer, results in their moving
farther away from all other masses.23

In 1857, Clausius wrongly claims
priority for Avogadro's hypothesis of
diatomic molecules and in 1866 for the
diatomic nature of the oxygen
molecule.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
2. ^ "Rudolf
Clausius." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>
.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Rudolf Clausius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
5. ^ Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

Rudolf Clausius, Thomas Archer Hirst,
John Tyndall, "The Mechanical Theory of
Heat: With Its Applications to the
Steam-engine and...", J. Van Voorst,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=On+Se
veral+Convenient+Forms+of+the+Fundamenta
l+Equations+of+the+Mechanical+Theory+of+
Heat&source=web&ots=3bCIaMfz8P&sig=kWc0A
-YS1UWhLHRKN7na4fA5zN8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA14,M1
6. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p195-196.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
15. ^ Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p195-196.
25. ^ "Rudolf Clausius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
26. ^ Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond
{02/1850}
27. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>
. {1850}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[2] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Royal Artillery and Engineering
School) Berlin, Germany25  
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
150 YBN
[05/06/1850 AD] 43 		3281) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868)6 , measures that
the light moves more slowly in water
than in air, and that the speed of
light is inversely proportional to the
index of refraction of the medium.7 8

Roemer had measured the speed of light
and proved light to have a finite
velocity in 16769 .

In 1834, Charles Wheatstone had used a
rotating mirror powered by (wound up10
) clock gears to measure the speed of
electricity11 .

Foucault clearly supports the wave
theory of light writing in "Journal des
Débats" on May 15, 1850: "To complete
the downfall of this poor theory of
emission...to give it the fatal blow,
it was only a matter of performing
{Arago's} famous experiment.".12

Foucault and Fizeau both independently
perform the same experiment, Foucault
finding success first. Historian
William Tobin describes Foucault's
experiment: (see image 1) "Sunlight
from a heliostat (a heliostat is an
instrument in which a mirror is
automatically moved so that it reflects
sunlight in a constant direction13 )
illuminated a 2-mm square entrance
aperture. In its initial form, the
aperture was crossed by a vertical grid
of eleven fine platinum wires, but
later Foucault used only a single wire,
and this arrangement will be described
since it accords with an engraving
which he later published {see image 2}.

Let us consider the air path first with
the spinning mirror stationary. Within
a certain range of azimuth (space in
the horizontal or X dimension14 ), this
mirror reflects rays from the wire
towards the air-path concave mirro,
where an image is produced owing to a
converging lens placed earlier along
the optical path. The concave mirror
reflects the rays back towards the
platinum wire, where they would
refocus, except that Foucault
introduced a beam-splitting glass plate
near the aperture to reflect this final
image into an eyepiece. To emphasize a
point already made, because a concave
mirror was used, the position of the
image in the eyepiece remained the same
whatever the azimuth of the spinning
mirror, though of course no image
appears if the azimuth of the spinning
mirror was outside the range that fed
rays to the concave mirror. A ruling in
the eyepiece marked the undeviated
position of the image {see image 2}.
When
the mirror was spinning, it turned
through a certain minuscule angle
during the time it took light to make
the tript to the concave mirror and
back. The final image was therefore
shifted slightly sideways in the
eyepiece. The size of the deviation
depended on how much the spinning
mirror had rotated, which in turn
depended on the mirror speed and the
delay between the outward and returning
beams. With such a complicated path,
Foucault reported that the principal
difficulty was obtaining a sharp image.

The spinning mirror was held in a
barrel-like fixture mounted on a
spindle {see image 3}. To turn the
spindle, Foucault adandones his beloved
clockwork, which he felt was too
self-destructive at high speeds and did
not allow the mirror speed to be varied
ina continuous manner or held constant
for sufficiently long. Instead, he
adapted the siren {see image 4} devised
by the aged Cagniard-Latour...Foucault
adapted the siren into a 24-bladed
turbine driven by steam {see image 3}.

...The {mirror} needed to be
dynamically balanced ... {and} ...then
statically balanced. ...
Foucault first
saw the image of the wire deviate on
1850 February 17. He will then have
known that the experiment was going to
work. However, it took a further two
months to set up the water-path leg of
the experiment, in which the light
passed through a 3-m long tube of
water. To get a satisfactory final
image it was essential that the windows
at the end of the tube had accurately
parallel sides; luckily there was a
supplier of optical plates in Paris,
MM. Radiguet and Son. ... Distilled
water was surprisingly murky because of
microorganisms; water from the public
supply provided much superior
transparency. The final image of the
wire was nevertheless very dim - and
green - because of absorption by the
long column of water. For this reason,
both Foucault and Fizeau were forced to
operate with sunlight, and to increase
throughput, Foucault mounted two glass
mirror in the barrel, back to back.
{Foucault uses the new chemical
silvering process for these mirrors.}
So as to
be able to see the air- and water-path
images simultaneously, Foucault masked
the air-path concave mirror with a
screen pierced by a narrow, horizontal
slit {see image 6}. This reduced the
path of the air-path image {image 2b},
allowing the water-path image to be
seen dimly flanking it {image 2c}. The
experiment finally worked on April 27,
a Saturday. Foucault observed the air-
and water-path deviations successively,
and then simultaneously, as in {image
2.d}, where a vertical scratch in the
eyepiece marked the position of no
deviation. The rightwards displacement
of the image of the wire was greater
for the water path, as illustrated.
Further, the ratio of the two
deviations was as expected given the
refractive index of water. The emission
theory was dead, incontestably
incompatible with the experimental
results! Within three hours, Foucault
had had four others peer into the
eyepiece and confirm his result....
On Monday,
May 6, Foucault reported to the
Academy. The mirror speed was estimated
from the pitch (of sound15 ) of the
knocking of the bearings, but was not
accurately determined, which prevented
an absolute determination of the
velocity of light. With 600-800 r.p.s.,
the deviations were 0.2 to 0.3 mm.
Foucault went on to suggest how to make
an absolute measurement and adapt the
method to calorific rays using the tiny
thermometers devised with Fizeau.
....
Non-scientists wanted to see the image
deviate too. Hector Berlioz asked to
bring along three friends."16

Foucault publishes this as "Methode
générale pour mesurer la vitesse de
la lumière dans l'air et les milieux
transparants. Vitesses relatives de la
lumière dans l'air et dans l'eau.
Projet d'experience sur la vitesse de
propagation du calorique rayonnant.",
("General method to measure the speed
of light in air and the transparent
medium. Relative speeds of light in air
and water. Project experiment on the
speed of propagation of radiant
heat."17 ). (verify translation) (Find
translation of 1850 paper18 )

In his paper, Foucault writes (note:
this is a Google and babel fish
translation since Foucault's writings,
shockingly, considering the importance
to science of these works, have not
been translated to English to my
knowledge)
"The new experimental method
that I propose to evaluate the speed of
light being propagated at small
distance, is founded on the use of the
rotating mirror invented by Mr.
Wheatstone, and indicated by Mr. Arago,
as being able to be used to attack this
kind of question. The rotating mirror
associated with a suitable optical
apparatus indeed makes it possible to
note, to less than one thirtieth close,
the duration of the double course of
the light through a column of water 3
meters in length, and when it is
intended to operate only in the air, a
slight modification of this apparatus
permits the attainment of a degree of
precision of which it not is not yet
possible to specify the limit. A third
modification, designed to spare much
the loss of light, will be useful, and
I've come to understand a note by
thermometric indications that the
heating radiation until here
inseparable from the light, is
propagated with same speed.".19 20 21

Foucault continues: "Moreover, taking
into account lengths of air and water
crossings, deviations have been
substantially proportionate to the
refractive indices. These results show
a speed of light in water less than in
the air and accordingly, fully confirm
the views of Mr Arago indications of
the theory of undulations.
It should be noted as Mr.
Arago said at the meeting that the
experiment, in demonstrating a lower
speed in water than in air, is quite
crucial and is the decisive call
between the two systems. If we would
have found an inverse result, the
theory of Newton would remain
sustainable, but that the wave theory
is not possibly reversed, waits until
it is possible to constitute ether in
order to explain, whatever is the
meaning of the change of speed to the
changes of mediums."22 23 24 (It is
interesting that no exploration of a
particle theory is examined. It's no
credit to the corpuscular supporters
that they never created a theory to
support light particles being slowed in
denser mediums, so far as I know.25 )

In his "Opticks" (in 1704)26 , Newton
had theorized that because the path of
light corpuscles is slanted towards the
perpendicular, the distance traveled by
the corpuscles must be shorter, and
therefore that the speed of the
corpuscles must be faster in denser
mediums.27 (verify28 ) The accepted
view given by corpuscular supporters is
that the parallel component of the
velocity of a ray of particles is
unchanged when the particles enter the
water, but the perpendicular component
is increased by the attraction of the
water. The total velocity of the
particles is therefore increased in
water.29 Nobody, so far as I know, had
any alternative corpuscular theory, in
particular that the speed of corpuscles
might be slower and the parallel
velocity nonzero because of collision
with atoms in water. Before Newton's
corpuscular (or "emission"30 ) theory,
the view was that light is like sound,
a wave in a medium. This view was
supported by (Grimaldi, Hooke, Huygens,
Euler, Thomas Young, Fresnel, and
others).31

The wave interpretation of light is
thought to imply that the movement of
light would be slowed in a denser
medium. (verify first to claim light
would be slowed in denser medium -
Fresnel in 1821?32 ) Thomas Young
determined the wavelength of light in
180133 and theorized that light is a
transverse wave in an aether medium in
181734 , as did Fresnel in 182135 , and
the corpuscular theory of light then
started to lose popularity.36
In the
undulatory or wave theory, wavefronts
are deviated but not broken when the
enter water. This deviation shorten the
space between wavefronts. Since the
same number of wavefronts must pass per
second, their reduced separation
results in a lower velocity in water.37

Foucault's finding that light is slowed
down in denser mediums therefore
supports the wave theory. The
corpuscular supporters had never
theorized that collisions of light
corpuscles and atoms in the medium
might delay the passage of the
corpuscles, and as far as I know, no
published paper has ever contested the
wave explanation for light being slower
in denser mediums, or offered a
corpuscular alternative. Do any known
rebuttals or alternative corpuscular
explanations exist?38

Tobin explains that this effect is
explained in quantum mechanics by
Planck's equation for the momentum of a
photon (momentum=Planck's
constant/wavelength). The photon is
interpreted differently from the old
corpuscular theory (which presumed
particles of light to be material while
the photon is viewed as nonmaterial or
massless39 ). Tobin states that "The
component of the photon momentum
perpendicular to the interface does
increase as the photon passes into
water, as does the total momentum; but
the wavelength is thereby reduced.
Since the frequency is unchanged, the
velocity, which equals the product of
frequency and wavelength, is lessened
too...".40 However, I think the delay
is because of photons, as masses,
colliding and reflecting off the
internal structure of the atoms of the
medium. In addition, I think Planck's
equation for momentum, being dependent
on wavelength, cannot represent a
single photon. This equation of
momentum can only apply to two or more
photons, and I think the photon must
have a mass and momentum of its own.
This equation may represent the total
momentum of a beam of sequential
photons.41
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
2. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
4. ^ Léon Foucault,
Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine
Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
5. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
7. ^ Léon Foucault,
Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine
Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
8. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
9. ^ Record ID1851. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Record ID2899. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p124.
13. ^ "heliostat>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "heliostat." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 20 Jun.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
eliostat>.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p124-130.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
20. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=fr&tl=en
21. ^
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

22. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
23. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=fr&tl=en
24. ^
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Record ID1846.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p121.
30. ^ William Tobin, "The life
and science of Léon Foucault: the man
who proved the earth rotates",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p121.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Record ID2595.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Record ID2405. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Record
ID2408. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Record ID2595.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ William Tobin, "The
life and science of Léon Foucault: the
man who proved the earth rotates",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p121.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p132.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ "Jean Bernard
Leon Foucault". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
43. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 (05/06/1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[8] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[9] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
Paris, France42 (presumably) 
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
150 YBN
[08/28/1850 AD] 7 		5996) The court opera authorities in
Dresen refuse to stage Wagner's opera,
Lohengrin, because they are alienated
by Wagner’s projected administrative
and artistic reforms. Wagner's
proposals would have taken control of
the opera away from the court and
created a national theater whose
productions would be chosen by a union
of dramatists and composers. Wagner
becomes involved in the German
revolution of 1848–49. Wagner writes
a number of articles advocating
revolution and takes an active part in
the Dresden uprising of 1849. When the
uprising fails, a warrant is issued for
Wagner's arrest and he fleas from
Germany, unable to attend the first
performance of Lohengrin at Weimar,
given by his friend Franz Liszt on Aug.
28, 1850.4

In 1850-51, in Zürich, Wagner writes
his ferociously anti-Jewish "Jewishness
in Music" (some of it an attack on
Meyerbeer).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Wagner." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-wag
ner
2. ^ "Lohengrin (opera)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohengrin_%
28opera%29
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Richard Wagner."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/633925/Richard-Wagner>.
5. ^ "Richard Wagner." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-wag
ner
6. ^ "Richard Wagner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/633925/Richard-Wagner>.
7. ^ "Richard Wagner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/633925/Richard-Wagner>. {08/28/1950
(first performance} {08/28/1850 (first
performance}
Weimar, Germany6  
[1] Richard Wagner PD
source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-ima
ges/Arts/Arts_/Pictures/2010/2/16/126632
5695718/Composer-Richard-Wagner-c-001.jp
g
150 YBN
[08/??/1850 AD] 10 11 12 		3893)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
2. ^ Rayer, P., "Inoculation du sand de
rate", C. r. Seanc. Soc. Biol., 1850,
11, 141-144 (cf. p. 142).
3. ^ "Koch,
Robert." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir
Davaine (1812-1882): a precursor of
Pasteur.", Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
6. ^ Rayer, P., "Inoculation du sand de
rate", C. r. Seanc. Soc. Biol., 1850,
11, 141-144 (cf. p. 142).
7. ^ "Davaine,
Casimir Joseph", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p233.
8. ^
Joseph A. Witkowski, Lawrence Charles
Parish, The story of anthrax from
antiquity to the present: a biological
weapon of nature and humans, Clinics in
Dermatology, Volume 20, Issue 4,
July-August 2002, Pages 336-342, ISSN
0738-081X, DOI:
10.1016/S0738-081X(02)00250-X. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
T5G-46MBF63-4/2/8d6754fb70b3b214872fb2cd
8fe4bca9)
9. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
10. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
{08/1850}
11. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>. {1850}
12. ^ Joseph A. Witkowski,
Lawrence Charles Parish, The story of
anthrax from antiquity to the present:
a biological weapon of nature and
humans, Clinics in Dermatology, Volume
20, Issue 4, July-August 2002, Pages
336-342, ISSN 0738-081X, DOI:
10.1016/S0738-081X(02)00250-X. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
T5G-46MBF63-4/2/8d6754fb70b3b214872fb2cd
8fe4bca9) {1850}

MORE INFO
[1] "Casimir Davaine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Dav
aine
[2] "Pierre François Olive Rayer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Fran
%C3%A7ois_Olive_Rayer
Paris, France9 (presumably) 
[1] English: Portrait of Pierre
François Olive Rayer (1793-1867) from
Corlieu (A.), Centenaire de la Faculté
de Médecine de Paris
(1794-1894) Source Bibliothèque
Interuniversitaire de Médecine -
http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/images/ba
nque/zoom/CIPN21600.jpg Date
Unknown but certainly +100 years
ago. Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
image) Copyright expired as artist
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Pierre_Fran%C3%A7ois_
Olive_Rayer.jpg

[2] Casimir Joseph Davaine
(1812-1882) PD
source: http://www.dmipfmv.ulg.ac.be/bac
vet/images/original/CJDavaine.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 5 		1134)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p383.
2. ^ "Jean Servais
Stas". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ser
vais_Stas
3. ^ "Jean-Servais Stas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p830.
4. ^ "Jean-Servais Stas",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p830.
5. ^ "Aaron J.
Ihde", The Development of Modern
Chemistry, Courier Dover Publications,
1984, p155 (1840) (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Stas." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[2] "Jean Stas." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[3] "Jean Servais Stas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Servai
s_Stas
[4] "Jean-Servais Stas," Microsoft®
Encarta® Online Encyclopedia
2008 http://encarta.msn.com ©
1997-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All
Rights Reserved
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342.
[6] "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
(Military School) Brussels, Belgium4
 
[1] Scan of a picture of Belgian
scientist Jean Servais Stas (who died
in 1891) Source Journal of Chemical
Education, pages 353 – 357 Date
1938 Author Timmermans, Jean PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Stas_Jean_Servais.jpg


[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 15 		2613) In this same year, Bond detects
the dark inner ring of Saturn (the
Crepe Ring), which Lassell discovers
independently only a few nights later.4
 Johann Galle had discovered the Crepe
(or C) ring in 1838.5
(What is the
reason that the rings have different
colors?6 )
Vega is also called Alpha
Lyrae. Vega is the brightest star in
the northern constellation Lyra and
fifth brightest in the night sky, with
a visual magnitude of 0.03 (in photons7
). Vega is 25 light-years away.8

Vega is a white main-sequence star of
spectral class A0 V9 indicating that
Vega has a surface temperature of 9600
K (16,800°F)10 .

Compared to the Sun, Vega is
approximately 2.9 times larger in
diameter, 2.5 times more massive, and
60 times more luminous (emits 60x as
many photons11 ).12

Vega emits far more radiation at
infrared wavelengths than would be
expected. This radiation originates
from a shell or disk of particles with
a temperature of 100 K (−280°F)
surrounding Vega out to a distance of
1.3 × 1010 km (8 × 109 mi), twice the
radius of the solar system.13
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p311.
2. ^ "William Cranch
Bond". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p311.
4. ^ "William Cranch
Bond". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
5. ^ James Dodsley, The Annual
Register,
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CB9dAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA129&dq=johann+gall
e+ring&as_brr=1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Vega".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4950/Vega
9. ^ "vega". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vega?cat=te
chnology "". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "vega". McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vega?cat=te
chnology
12. ^ "vega". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vega?cat=te
chnology
13. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond
14. ^ "William Cranch Bond".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond (1850)
15. ^ "William
Cranch Bond". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0573/William-Cranch-Bond (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Cranch Bond".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cra
nch_Bond
[2]
http://www.answers.com/William+Cranch+Bo
nd+?cat=technology
[3] "Vega". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega
Harvard, Massachussetts, USA14  
[1] William Cranch Bond (1789-09-09 -
1859-01-29) was an American astronomer,
and the first director of Harvard
College Observatory. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Cranch_Bond.jpg

[2] William Cranch Bond Courtesy of
the Lick Observatory Archives, Santa
Cruz, Calif. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wil
liam_Cranch_Bond
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 4 		2663)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^, p113.
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM Th
e Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman
2. ^, p113.
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM Th
e Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM Th
e Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDV
IUL4C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22first+tel
egraph%22+in+india&source=web&ots=qH9PjD
d-M7&sig=pYWKE1I6QDfo5Ts10ggKkXnKZgM Th
e Worldwide History of
Telecommunications By Anton A.
Huurdeman (1850)
Calcutta, India3   
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 13 		2817) In 1830 Melloni takes part in an
unsuccessful Italian revolution.11
(Mell
oni measures the heat effect of
moonlight (from a high location on
Mount Vesuvius.).)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp337-338.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp337-338.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Macedonio Melloni". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Macedonio Melloni".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Macedoni
o_Melloni
8. ^ "Macedonio Melloni". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Macedonio Melloni".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Macedoni
o_Melloni
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp337-338.
12. ^
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Thermodynamics/Differential_Thermopile/
Differential_Thermopile.html
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp337-338. (1850)
(1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Macedonio Melloni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonio_M
elloni
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/macedonio-m
elloni?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V70-4HF5KMF-4&_user=4
422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&v
iew=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=1658db485facb9e
3bce968dbdb29340e
[4] Cornell, 1938 E.S. Cornell, The
radiant heat spectrum from herschel to
Melloni-I. The Work of Herschel and his
contemporaries, Annals of Science 3
(1938), pp. 119-137. Full Text via
CrossRef http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/content?content=10.1080/0003379380020
0801 Infrared_Herschel_Melloni.pdf
[5] Melloni, 1848 Melloni, M. (1848).
Researches on the radiations of
incandescent bodies, and on the
elementary colours of the solar
spectrum. Philosophical Magazine, 3rd
series, 32, 262-276. (First published
as Ricerche sulle irradiazioni de"
corpi roventi, e sui colori elementari
dello spettro solare, Museo di Napoli,
12 1847, 17-38; also reprinted in
Rendiconto R. Accademia di Napoli, 6,
1847, 83-106).
[6] Melloni, 1994 Melloni, M.
(1994). Carteggio (1819-1854), (E.
Schettino, Ed.). Firenze: Olschki.
[7]
Philosophical magazine, 1848, series 3,
vol
32 Melloni_1848_philosophical_magazine_
series_3_vol32.pdf
Naples, Italy12  
[1] The Differential Thermopile was
invented by Macedonio Melloni
(1798-1854), an Italian physicist who
worked in France and Italy. PD/Corel
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Thermodynamics/Differential_The
rmopile/Differential_Thermopile.html

[2] Figure in Thermocrose PD
source: La Thermochrose ou La
Coloration Calorifique, 1850, Naples
Melloni_scan.pdf
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 5 		2942)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ "Sir Richard
Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
3. ^ "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
4. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
5. ^ "Sir Richard Owen (1850)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Sir
Richard Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen (1850) (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
[5] "parathyroid gland". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8433/parathyroid-gland
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England3 4  
[1] Spirula spirula, Posthörnchen,
Mission Beach National Park,
Queensland, Australia English: Spirula
spirula, Mission Beach, National Park,
Queensland, Australia, 2002 Source
Own work Date 2002-09-25 Author
Fritz Geller-Grimm CC
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Spiru
la_fg1.jpg

[2] 1. Bél-Trichinella (Trichinella
spiralis Owen) hím és
nőstény. COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03408/h
tml/img/brehm-18-008-1.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 5 6 7 		3008)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp358-359.
2. ^ "Johann von
Lamont." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-von-
lamont (1866-1874)
3. ^ "Johann von Lamont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6970/Johann-von-Lamont
4. ^ "Johann von Lamont". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6970/Johann-von-Lamont
5. ^ "Johann von Lamont". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6970/Johann-von-Lamont (1850)
6. ^ "Johann von
Lamont." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-von-
lamont (1850)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp358-359. (shows)
1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Von Lamont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_V
on_Lamont (1838)
[2] "Johann Von Lamont",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp516
(Royal Observatory) Bogenhausen,
Germany4  
[1] Johann Von Lamont
(1805-1879) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/sist_so
lar/images/lamont.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 7 		3019)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
2. ^
http://www.calculateme.com/Length/Feet/T
oMiles.htm
3. ^
http://www.calculateme.com/Length/Feet/T
oMiles.htm
4. ^ "Atlantic Ocean." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 28
Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atlantic-oc
ean
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury".
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361. (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Maury, Matthew Fontaine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 28 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>. (1848)
Washington, DC, USA6  
[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg‎
(259 � 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg


[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 9 		3115) In 1850, the Academy of Sciences
award Bernard, for the third time, its
prize in Experimental Physiology.7
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
7. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
8. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
9. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/ (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>
[2] "Claude Bernard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[3] "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[4] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[5] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[8] "chyle." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
(Collège de France) Paris, France8
 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 5 		3116) These findings are published as
"Recherches sur le curare". C R hebd
Acad Sci, t.31, 1850, p 533-537. Avec J
Pelouze. and "Action du curare et de la
nicotine sur le système nerveux et sur
le système musculaire." - C. R. Soc.
Biol., t. 2, 1850 (1851), p. 195.3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
3. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
4. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
5. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/ (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>
[2] "Claude Bernard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[3] "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[4] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[5] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[8] "chyle." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
(Collège de France) Paris, France4
 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 4 5 		3130)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
2. ^ "Parkes,
Alexander." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8513>.
3. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
4. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes (1850)
5. ^ "Parkes, Alexander."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8513>. (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Parkes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
(Elkington and Mason copper smelting
plant) Pembrey, South Wales, England3
 
[1] Alexander Parkes PD/Corel
source: http://museo.cannon.com/museonew
/storia/espande/img0049.jpg

[2] Alexander Parkes, English inventor
and chemist, 1875. © Science
Museum/Science and Society Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/people/img/IM.1287_zp.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 5 		3217) Richard Jordan Gatling (CE
1818-1903), US inventor,1 invents a
double-acting hemp break (an instrument
or machine to break or bruise the woody
part of flax or hemp so that it may be
separated from the fiber)2 . (human
powered?3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ "brake."
Webster's Revised Unabridged
Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
rake>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
5. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>.
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[3] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
Indianapolis, Indiana4
(presumably) 
[1] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg

[2] Description Richard Jordan
Gatling. Library of Congress
description: ''Gatling, Prof. Richard
Jordan'' Source Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division.
Brady-Handy Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.03735.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH826-
1476 [P&P] Date between 1870 and
1880 Author Mathew Brady or Levin
Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g_-_Brady-Handy.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 5 		3265)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Samuel M. Kier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_M._K
ier
2. ^ "Edwin Drake." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake

3. ^ "Edwin Drake." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake

4. ^ "Edwin Drake." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake

5. ^ "Edwin Drake." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake
 (1850)
Tarentum, Pennsylvania, USA4   
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 11 		3291)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
2. ^ "Armand
Hippolyte Louis Fizeau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Fizeau, Hippolyte, and E.
Gounelle 1850: "Recherches sur la
vitesse de propagation de
l’électricité", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des Sciences de
l’Institut de France 30,
437–440. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k2987x/f440.chemindefer {Fizea
u_1850.pdf}
5. ^
http://www.google.com/translate_t?sl=fr&
tl=en
6. ^ Fizeau, Hippolyte, and E. Gounelle
1850: "Recherches sur la vitesse de
propagation de l’électricité",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des Sciences
de l’Institut de France 30,
437–440. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k2987x/f440.chemindefer {Fizea
u_1850.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Fizeau,
Hippolyte, and E. Gounelle 1850:
"Recherches sur la vitesse de
propagation de l’électricité",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des Sciences
de l’Institut de France 30,
437–440. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k2987x/f440.chemindefer {Fizea
u_1850.pdf}
10. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
11. ^ "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>

[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p317
[6] "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis", "The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the ...", edited by John
Joseph Wynne, (1913),
pp87-89. http://books.google.com/books?
id=LncqAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA88&dq=fizeau&as_brr
=1#PPA89,M1
[7] Jan Frercks (2007) Immaterial
Devices Centaurus 49 (2) , 81–113
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.2007.00066.x
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/actio
n/showFullText?submitFullText=Full+Text+
HTML&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.2007.0006
6.x&cookieSet=1
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] Drawn by Theresa Knott for the
English wikipedia article on Speed of
light GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Speed_of_light_%28Fiz
eau%29.PNG

[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 15 16 		3332)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
2. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von. "Messungen
über den zeitlichen Verlauf der
Zuckung animalischer Muskeln und die
Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der
Reizung in den Nerven.", Archiv für
Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1850,
p276-364. http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.d
e/library/data/lit1862? {Helmholtz_Herm
ann_1850_lit1862_Lo.pdf} "Of the
methods of measuring very small
intervals of time and their application
to physiological purposes", Phil. Mag.,
6, 1853, 313-325.
{Helmholtz_Herman_Measuring_1850.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
4. ^ "Hermann von
Helmholtz" (Obituary). Royal Society
(Great Britain). (1894). Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
5. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
6. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
7. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
9. ^
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
10. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von.
"Messungen über den zeitlichen Verlauf
der Zuckung animalischer Muskeln und
die Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der
Reizung in den Nerven.", Archiv für
Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1850,
p276-364. "Of the methods of measuring
very small intervals of time and their
application to physiological purposes",
Phil. Mag., 6, 1853, 313-325.
{Helmholtz_Herman_Measuring_1850.pdf}
11. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von.
"Messungen über den zeitlichen Verlauf
der Zuckung animalischer Muskeln und
die Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der
Reizung in den Nerven.", Archiv für
Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1850,
p276-364. "Of the methods of measuring
very small intervals of time and their
application to physiological purposes",
Phil. Mag., 6, 1853, 313-325.
{Helmholtz_Herman_Measuring_1850.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Helmholtz,
Hermann Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p408-410.
15. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>. {1850}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[4] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[5] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[8] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[9] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany14  
[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf

[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 14 15 		3471)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Alexander William Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/644441/Alexander-William-Williamson>.
5. ^ "Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p733.
6. ^ "Alexander William
Williamson". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_William_Williamson
7. ^ "Alexander William Williamson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-w
illiam-williamson
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431.
10. ^ "Alexander
William Williamson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_William_Williamson
11. ^ "Alexander William Williamson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-w
illiam-williamson
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431.
13. ^ "Alexander
William Williamson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/644441/Alexander-William-Williamson>.
14. ^ "Alexander William Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/644441/Alexander-William-Williamson>.
{1850}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431. {1850}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander William
Williamson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_W
illiam_Williamson
(University College, London) London,
England13  
[1] Alexander William Williamson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Williamson_Alexander.jpg

[2] Description Picture of
Alexander W. Williamson Source The
Life & Experiences of Sir Henry Enfield
Roscoe (Macmillan: London and New
York), p. 34 Date 1906 Author
Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Williamson_Alexander_
W.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 19 		3488) Frankland receives his doctorate
at Marburg under Bunsen10 in 194911 .
In
1851, Frankland becomes the first
professor of chemistry at Owens
College, Manchester.12
In 1863,
Frankland succeeds Michael Faraday as
professor of chemistry at the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, London.13

Frankland names his son Percy Faraday
Frankland, presumably in honor of
Michael Faraday.14
In 1894, Frankland
receives the Copley medal of the Royal
Society.15
Frankland investigates the
chamistry of storage batteries,
publishing 3 papers through the Royal
Society on this topic. Frankland
installs electricity into his residence
using batteries of his own design.16
Fra
nkland makes many contributions to
purification of drinking water.17
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ "Sir Edward
Frankland". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
3. ^ Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie,
Bd. LXXI, s. 213, and journal of the
Chemical Society, vol. ii, p. 297.
4. ^ E.
Frankland, "On a New Series of Organic
Bodies Containing Metals",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=55e3df04
be284120b8404167191430abπ=19 and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
7. ^ "cacodyl." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
8. ^ "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1.
Princeton University, 2001. Answers.com
26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
9. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
10. ^ "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327.
11. ^ "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>.
12. ^ "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>.
13. ^ "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
16. ^ Edward
Frankland, (obituary) Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
17. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
18. ^ "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434. {1850}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Frankland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[2] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[3] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[4]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England18
 
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 16 		3561) Cohn is born in the ghetto of
Breslau, the first of three sons of a
Jewish merchant.2
Cohn is a child
prodigy.3
From 1842-1846 Cohn studies
at the University of Brelau (now
Wroclaw, Poland4 ), but as a Jewish
person, Cohn is barred from the degree
examinations5 , because the University
of Breslau will not grant the doctorate
to a Jewish person. So, in 18476 Cohn
gets his doctorate degree from the more
liberal University of Berlin at the age
of 197 . However, Cohn spends the rest
of his life employed teaching at the
University of Breslau.8
In 1866, at
the University of Breslau, Cohn founds
the first institute for plant
physiology.9
In 1870 Cohn founds the
journal Beiträge zur Biologie der
Pflanzen ("Contributions to the Biology
of Plants")10 in which the founding
papers of modern bacteriology appear.11


In 1876 Robert Koch turns to Cohn for a
prepublication appraisal of his work on
the cause of anthrax, a disease of
cattle, sheep, and sometimes humans.
Cohn agrees to see the unknown country
physician and quickly recognizes Koch
as "an unsurpassed master of scientific
research". Cohn’s publishes Koch's
paper which shows that Bacillus
anthracis is the agent that causes
anthrax, in his journal Beiträge.12

Cohn is an effective popularizer of
science.13
The Encyclopedia Britannica
writes that perhaps Cohn's greatest
achievement is his introduction of the
strict and systematic observation of
the life histories of bacteria, algae,
and other microorganisms.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ "Ferdinand
Cohn." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p444.
5. ^ "Cohn,
Ferdinand Julius", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p200.
6. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
7. ^ "Ferdinand
Cohn." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
8. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200.
9. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand Julius",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p200.
10. ^
"Ferdinand Cohn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
11. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200.
12. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
14. ^ "Ferdinand
Cohn." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
15. ^ "Ferdinand Julius Cohn".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ferdinan
d_Julius_Cohn
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444. {1850}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinand Cohn." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[2] "Ferdinand Cohn." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[3] "Ferdinand Julius Cohn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_J
ulius_Cohn
[4] "Ferdinand Cohn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)15  
[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 6 		3580)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446.
5. ^ "Norman Robert
Pogson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/norman-robe
rt-pogson
6. ^ "Norman Robert Pogson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/466220/Norman-Robert-Pogson>. {1850}

MORE INFO
[1] "Norman Robert Pogson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Robe
rt_Pogson
 
[1] Norman Robert Pogson PD/Corel
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/NormanRobe
rtPogson01.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 2 		4544)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1850
(guess}
unknown  
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 4 		4700)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {1850 (guess}
London, England3 (guess)  
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 4 		5995)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Franz Liszt." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 19 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/franz-liszt

2. ^ "List of compositions by Franz
Liszt (S.351 – S.999)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Franz_Liszt_%28S.351_%E2%80
%93_S.999%29
3. ^ "Franz Liszt." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 19 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/franz-liszt

4. ^ "List of compositions by Franz
Liszt (S.351 – S.999)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Franz_Liszt_%28S.351_%E2%80
%93_S.999%29 {c1850}
Weimar, Germany3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Franz List Date
1843 Source
pianoinstituut.nl Author
Herman Biow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Franz_Liszt_by_Herman
_Biow-_1843.png
149 YBN
[02/03/1851 AD] 22 23 		3282) Foucault's first pendulum swings
in the cellar of the house he lives in
with his mother. Froment makes this and
all later pendulums for Foucault. A
substantial piece of cast iron is fixed
into the vaulting to provide a solid
suspension for a 5-kg brass bob hung on
a 2-m steel wire. Foucault tells Arago
of his discovery and Arago authorizes
Foucault to swing his bob with an 11-,
wire in the Meridian Room of the
observatory. The Observatory has a
north-south line set into the floor
which can serve as a reference line.5

Foucault suspends an iron ball, 2 feet
in diameter, from a steel wire more
than 67m (220feet) long6 , under the
dome of a large Paris church. The
pendulum has a spike that just clears
the floor and makes a line in sand
placed on the floor. In this way, the
pendulum appears to draw lines in
different direction as the earth slowly
moves relative to the motion of the
pendulum. The pendulum swings a full
rotation in 31 hours and 47 minutes,
which is the rate to be expected for
the latitude of Paris. This experiment
causes great excitement. Heracleides
was the first to suggest that the earth
is rotating, 22 centuries before, and
Foucault is the first to demonstrate
this fact.7

For this demonstration and a similar
one using a gyroscope (in 18528 ),
Foucault receives the Copley Medal of
the Royal Society of London in 1855 and
is made physical assistant at the
Imperial Observatory, Paris.9

Foucault publishes this experiment in
1851 as "Demonstration physique du
mouvement de rotation de la terre au
moyen du pendule" ("Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the
Earth by Means of the Pendulum")
presented to the Academy by Arago10 .11

Foucault writes "The very numerous and
important observations which have
hitherto been made upon the pendulum,
are especially relative to the time of
its oscillations; those which I propose
to relate to the Academy, have
reference principally to the direction
of the plane of oscillation, which
being gradually displaced from east to
west, gives a sensible proof of the
diurnal motion of the terrestrial
globe.
In order to succeed in justifying
this interpretation of a constant
result, I will neglect the earth's
movement of translation, which is
without effect upon the phenomenon
which I wish to exhibit, and I will
suppose the observer to have
established at the pole a pendulum of
the greatest simplicity: that is, a
compound pendulum composed of a heavy,
homogeneous, and spherical mass,
suspended by a flexible thread from a
point absolutely fixed. I will,
moreover, suppose at first, that this
point of suspension is exactly in the
prolongation of the axis of rotation of
the globe, and the solid masses which
support it do not participate in the
diurnal movement. If, under these
circumstances, the mass of the pendulum
is drawn aside from its position of
equilibrium, and abandoned to the
action of gravity without having any
lateral impulse given to it, its center
of gravity will pass through the
vertical, and by its acquired velocity
will rise upon the other side of the
vertical to a height nearly equal to
that whence it came. Arrived at this
point, its velocity dies out, changes
its sign, and brings it back, causing
it to pass again through the vertical
to a point a little below its starting
point. Thus a movement of oscillation
is excited in an arc of a circle whose
plane is clearly determined, to which
the inertia of the mass gives an
invariable position in space. If then
these oscillations continue for a
certain time, the motion of the earth,
which does not cease turning from west
to east, will become sensible by
contrast with the immobility of the
plane of oscillation, whose trace upon
the ground will appear to have a motion
comfortable to the apparent motion of
the heavenly sphere; and if the
oscillations could be continued for
twenty-four hours, the trace of their
plane would have executed in that time
a complete revolution around the
vertical projection of the point of
suspension.
Such are the ideal conditions under
which the motion of rotation of the
globe would become evidently accessible
to observation. But, in fact, we are
obliged to take our fixed point upon a
moving base; the parts to which the
upper end of the pendulum thread is
attached cannot be withdrawn from the
diurnal movement, and it might be
feared, at first sight, that this
motion, communicated to the thread and
to the mass of the pendulum, would
alter the direction of the plane of
oscillation. However, theory shews us
here no serious difficulty, and on the
other hand, experiment has shewn me
that, provided the thread be round and
homogeneous, it may be turned with
considerable rapidity around its axis
in either direction, without
influencing sensibly the position of
the plane of oscillation, so that the
experiment such as I have described it,
must succeed at the pole.

But when we descend to our latitudes,
the phenomenon becomes complicated by
an element of considerable difficulty
of appreciation, and to which I desire
particularly to call attention of
mathematicians.

In proportion as we approach the
equator, the plane of the horizon
assumes a position more and more
oblique to the axis of the earth, and
the vertical, in place of turning on
itself, as at the pole, describes a
cone of greater and greater angle;
whence results a retardation in the
apparent motion of the plane of
oscillation, a motion which becomes
nothing at the equator, and changes its
sign in the other hemisphere. To
determine the law according to which
this motion varies in different
latitudes, we must have recourse either
to analysis or to mechanical and
geometrical considerations, which do
not suit the narrow limits of this
note. I must, therefore, confine myself
to announcing that the two methods
accord (neglecting certain secondary
phenomena) in shewing that the angular
motion of the earth during the same
time multiplied by the sine of the
latitude. I then set to work with
confidence, and in the following way I
established the reality of the
predicted phenomenon as to its
direction and probable amount.".12

Foucault concludes: "In conclusion I
will present on further remark:
It is, that the
facts observed under these
circumstances, accord perfectly with
the results announced by Poisson in a
very remarkable memoir, read by him
before the Academy, 14th November,
1837. In this memoir, Poisoon, treating
of the motion of projectiles in the
air, and taking into consideration the
diurnal movement of the earth shows, by
calculation that in our latitude,
projectiles thrown towards any point,
experience a deviation which takes
place constantly towards the right of
the observer, standing at the point of
departure and looking towards the
trajectory. It appears to me that the
mass of the pendulum may be compared to
the projectile, which deviates towards
the right while departing from the
observer, and necessarily in the
opposite direction in returning towards
its mean plane of oscillation, and
indicates its direction.. But the
pendulum possesses the advantage of
accumulating the effects, and allowing
them to pass from the domain of theory
into that observation.".13

An audience of people watches the
pendulum. The rope holding the pendulum
from moving is burned off to prevent
the effects of cutting.14 (Perhaps a
small vibration could be amplified over
time, but it seems like the original
direction would be maintained. Still a
burnt rope might also impart an uneven
motion in some direction since not all
of the rope separates at once.15 )

Pendulums complete a 360 degree circuit
in 23 hour 56 minutes at the North or
South Pole, increasing in time to
thousands of hours around the
equator.16

Fifty years before, Laplace wrote in
his "Celestial Mechanics" (translated
from French) "Although the rotation of
the Earth is now established with all
the certainty available in the physical
sciences, a direct proof of this
phenomenon would nevertheless be of
interest to mathematicians and
astronomers.".17

In March 1851, a pendulum is installed
in the Paris Panthéon to demonstrate
what Foucault has found. In ancient
Greece pantheons were temples dedicated
to all gods. The Panthéon in Paris'
Latin Quarter is a former church
dedicated to the cit's patron saint,
Saint Genevieve, whose prayers
supposedly saved Paris from Atilla the
Hun in the 400s CE. A new building
replaced the original building in 1791.
Louis-Napoléon approves the
installation of the pendulum. Foucault
comments "Every man, whether converted
or not to prevailing ideas (about the
Earth's rotation) remains thoughtful
and silent for a few moments, and
generally leaves carrying with him a
more insistent and lively appreciation
of our unceasing motion in space.". One
magazine reports "Pendulum mania"
spreading like wildfire after this
demonstration.18 (Imagine the response
to the public demonstration of seeing
and hearing thought.19 )

In 1852 Louis-Napoléon gives Foucault
10,000 francs.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
2. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
5. ^ William
Tobin, "The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, pp139-140.
6. ^ "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
8. ^ "Foucault, Jean
Bernard Léon." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
9. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
10. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp139-140.
11. ^ Léon
Foucault, "Demonstration physique du
mouvement de rotation de la terre au
moyen du pendule", Comptes Rendus de
l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris. tome
XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851, p435. English
translation: "Physical Demonstration of
the Rotation of the Earth by Means of
the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
12. ^ Léon Foucault, "Demonstration
physique du mouvement de rotation de la
terre au moyen du pendule", Comptes
Rendus de l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris.
tome XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851,
p435. English translation: "Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the
Earth by Means of the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
13. ^ Léon Foucault, "Demonstration
physique du mouvement de rotation de la
terre au moyen du pendule", Comptes
Rendus de l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris.
tome XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851,
p435. English translation: "Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the
Earth by Means of the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
William Tobin, "The life and science of
Léon Foucault: the man who proved the
earth rotates", Cambridge University
Press, 2003, p143.
17. ^ William Tobin, "The
life and science of Léon Foucault: the
man who proved the earth rotates",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p137.
18. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp147-149.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p161.
21. ^ "Jean
Bernard Leon Foucault". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
22. ^ Léon Foucault, "Demonstration
physique du mouvement de rotation de la
terre au moyen du pendule", Comptes
Rendus de l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris.
tome XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851,
p435. English translation: "Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the
Earth by Means of the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
(02/03/1851)
23. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean Bernard
Léon." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[4] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[5] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[7] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[8] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[9]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[12] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
Paris, France21 (presumably) 
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1

[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
149 YBN
[03/??/1851 AD] 4 		2680)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p107.
3. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p107.
4. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p107. (03/1851)
France3   
149 YBN
[03/??/1851 AD] 30 31 		3112) Talbot sues for patent
infringement but loses.24 Archer does
not patent this process,25 although
does patent other inventions26 .
Archer
dies very poor.27

At the time, collodion is also sold as
finger nail polish after dye is added
to it.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p381.
2. ^ "Archer,
Frederick Scott." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 16 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9275>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.anvil.clara.net/sarcher.htm
5. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
6. ^ "Frederick Scott Archer." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
cott-archer
7. ^
http://www.anvil.clara.net/sarcher.htm
8. ^ Frederick Scott Archer, "The
Collodion Process On Glass", Second
Edition, enlarged, London: Printed for
the author,
1854. {archer_collodion.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "wet collodion process."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6702>.
11. ^ "Frederick Scott Archer." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
cott-archer
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Frederick Scott Archer,
"The Collodion Process On Glass",
Second Edition, enlarged, London:
Printed for the author, 1854.
p75. {archer_collodion.pdf}
17. ^ "collodion." The Oxford Companion
to the Photograph. Oxford University
Press, 2005. Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/collodion
18. ^ "Collodion". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Collodio
n
19. ^ "collodion." The Oxford Companion
to the Photograph. Oxford University
Press, 2005. Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/collodion
20. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/brady.htm
21. ^ "wet collodion process."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6702>.
22. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/brady.htm
23. ^ "Richard Leach Maddox." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-lea
ch-maddox
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p381.
25. ^ "Frederick
Scott Archer." The Oxford Companion to
the Photograph. Oxford University
Press, 2005. Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
cott-archer
26. ^
http://www.anvil.clara.net/sarcher.htm
27. ^ "Frederick Scott Archer." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
cott-archer
28. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
29. ^ "Frederick Scott Archer." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
cott-archer
30. ^ "Archer, Frederick Scott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9275>. (1851)
31. ^ "Frederick Scott Archer."
The Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
cott-archer (03/1851)

MORE INFO
[1] Video of "The Wet Collodion
process" http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=Gyf8fQOdvDs
Bloomsbury, London, England29
(presumably) 
[1] Frederick Scott Archer, inventor of
the wet collodion process PD/Corel
source: http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.c
o.uk/DSarcher.jpg

[2] Scott Archer print Rochester
Castle PD/Corel
source: http://www.anvil.clara.net/Scott
pic1.jpg
149 YBN
[03/??/1851 AD] 13 14 15 		3480)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p321.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ William
Thomson, "On the Dynamical Theory of
Heat, With Numerical Results Deduced
From Mr Joule's Equivalent of a Thermal
unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on
Steam.", Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, March, 1851, and
Phil Mag IV. 1852. From: William
Thomson Kelvin, Mathematical and
Physical Papers,
p174-332. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result#PPA174,M1
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ William Thomson, "On a
Tendacy in Nature to the dissipation of
Mechanical Energy.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 19,
1852, and Phil Mag IV. Oct
1852. From: William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p511-514,p514. http://books.google.com/
books?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534
&dq=%22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&s
ource=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4R
p4jM3SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA514,M1
12. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
13. ^ William Thomson, "On the
Dynamical Theory of Heat, With
Numerical Results Deduced From Mr
Joule's Equivalent of a Thermal unit,
and M. Regnault's Observations on
Steam.", Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, March, 1851, and
Phil Mag IV. 1852. From: William
Thomson Kelvin, Mathematical and
Physical Papers,
p174-332. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result#PPA174,M1 {03/1851}
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433. {1851}
15. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p321. {1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[5] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[6]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[7] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[8] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[9] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
[10]
Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[11] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland12  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
149 YBN
[05/06/1851 AD] 7 		6250)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ US Patent 8080: JOHN GORRIE,
IMPROVED PROCESS FOR THE ARTIFICIAL
PRODUCTION OF ICE
http://www.google.com/patents?id=bbdHA
AAAEBAJ
2. ^ Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, "Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, "Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ "refrigerator." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/refrigerato
r
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ US Patent 8080: JOHN
GORRIE, IMPROVED PROCESS FOR THE
ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF ICE
http://www.google.com/patents?id=bbdHA
AAAEBAJ
7. ^ US Patent 8080: JOHN GORRIE,
IMPROVED PROCESS FOR THE ARTIFICIAL
PRODUCTION OF ICE
http://www.google.com/patents?id=bbdHA
AAAEBAJ {05/06/1851}
New Orleans, Lousiana, USA6  
[1] Description English: Diagram of
John Gorrie's Ice Machine. From U.S.
Patent 8080, May 6, 1851. Date
2004-09-14 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Mutter Erde using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was JW1805 at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Gorrie_Ice_Machine.pn
g
149 YBN
[09/29/1851 AD] 15 16 		3292)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
2. ^ William Tobin,
"The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p321.
3. ^ H. Fizeau, "Sur les
hypothèses relatives à l'éther
lumineux et sur une expérience qui
parait démontrer que le mouvement des
corps change la vitesse avec laquelle
la lumière se propage dans leur
intérieur", Comptes Rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie, vol 33, 1851, p349-355.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 57 385-404
(1859). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k347981/f381.table (09/29/1851)
English: M. H. Fizeau, "On the
Hypotheses Relating to the Luminous
Aether, and an Experiment which Appears
to Demonstrate that the Motion of
Bodies Alters the Velocity with which
Light Propagates Itself in their
Interior.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, number 14, Supplement Volume
2, p568-573. {fizeau_aether001.pdf}
4. ^ "Fizeau experiment". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau_expe
riment
5. ^ Record ID2595. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p321.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ H. Fizeau, "Sur les
hypothèses relatives à l'éther
lumineux et sur une expérience qui
parait démontrer que le mouvement des
corps change la vitesse avec laquelle
la lumière se propage dans leur
intérieur", Comptes Rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie, vol 33, 1851, p349-355.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 57 385-404
(1859). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k347981/f381.table (09/29/1851)
English: M. H. Fizeau, "On the
Hypotheses Relating to the Luminous
Aether, and an Experiment which Appears
to Demonstrate that the Motion of
Bodies Alters the Velocity with which
Light Propagates Itself in their
Interior.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, number 14, Supplement Volume
2, p568-573. {fizeau_aether001.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ William Tobin, "The
Life and Science of Léon Foucault",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p138,321.
11. ^ "Aether drag hypothesis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_drag
_hypothesis
12. ^ P. T. Landsberg, "The
Relativistic Theory of the Fresnel Drag
Coefficient:, Nature, 189, 654 (25
February 1961);
doi:10.1038/189654a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v189/n4765/abs/18965
4a0.html {Lansberg_P_T_Fresnel_Drag_196
1.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
15. ^ H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèses
relatives à l'éther lumineux et sur
une expérience qui parait démontrer
que le mouvement des corps change la
vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se
propage dans leur intérieur", Comptes
Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie, vol 33, 1851, p349-355.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 57 385-404
(1859). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k347981/f381.table (09/29/1851)
English: M. H. Fizeau, "On the
Hypotheses Relating to the Luminous
Aether, and an Experiment which Appears
to Demonstrate that the Motion of
Bodies Alters the Velocity with which
Light Propagates Itself in their
Interior.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, number 14, Supplement Volume
2, p568-573. {fizeau_aether001.pdf}
16. ^ "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>
. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p317
[6] A. A.
Michelson and E.W. Morley, "Influence
of motion of the medium on the motion
of light" Am. J. Science 31 377-386
(1886)
[7] Pieter Zeeman, "Fresnel's
coefficient for light of different
colours. (First part)" Proc. Kon. Acad.
van Weten. 17 445-451 (1914)
[8] Pieter
Zeeman, "Fresnel's coefficient for
light of different colours. (Second
part)" Proc. Kon. Acad. van Weten. 18
398-408 (1915)
[9]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t
Paris, France14 (presumably) 
[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem
e_ru.PNG

[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
149 YBN
[10/22/1851 AD] 25 		2726) According to one source,
Faraday's introduction of the concept
of lines of force is rejected by most
of the mathematical physicists of
Europe, since they assume that electric
charges attract and repel each other,
by action at a distance, making such
lines unnecessary.13

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, by 1850 Faraday will evolve
a radically new view of space and
force. Space is not "nothing", the mere
location of bodies and forces, but a
medium capable of supporting the
strains of electric and magnetic
forces. The energies of the world are
not localized in the particles from
which these forces arise but rather are
to be found in the space surrounding
them. Therefore the field theory is
created. Maxwell will admit that the
basic ideas for his mathematical theory
of electrical and magnetic fields came
from Faraday; his contribution was to
mathematize those ideas in the form of
his classical field equations.14

James Clerk Maxwell will formulate a
mathematical theory of the propagation
of electromagnetic waves from Faraday's
theory of lines of force moving between
bodies with electrical and magnetic
properties. In 1865, Maxwell theorizes
mathematically that electromagnetic
phenomena are propagated as waves
through space (with an aether as a
medium15 ) moving at the velocity of
light, which will lay the foundation of
radio communication being confirmed
experimentally in 1888 by Hertz and
developed for practical use by
Guglielmo Marconi.16 (My own view is
that Maxwell theorized that electricity
is light waves because the speeds were
similar, and then created a
mathematical justification for this
view, with Hertz detecting photons
emitted from electric wire, just as
photons are emitted from all atoms. So
I think that Maxwell can be credited
with the idea that light is emitted
from current and inspiring Hertz,
however, I think the photons emitted
from electrical current, are the same
as photons emitted from any object, and
Maxwell coincidentally inspired a very
powerful concept of invisible photon
detection which would rise into
invisible photon communication.17 )

James Maxwell will write: "Faraday, in
his mind's eye, saw lines of force
traversing all space where the
mathematicians saw centres of force
attacting at a distance: Faraday saw a
medium where they saw nothing but
distance: Faraday sought the seat of
the phenomena in real actions going on
in the medium, they were satisfied that
they found it in a power of action at a
distance impressed on the electric
fluids.... Faraday's methods resembled
those in which we begin with the whole
and arrive at the parts by analysis,
while the ordinary mathematical methods
were founded on the principle of
beginning with the parts and building
up the whole by synthesis".18 19

I think the mistakes that Faraday make,
are 1) not realizing that a electric
(magnetic) field is made of particles,
2) not thinking that those particle in
the electric field are tiny centers of
gravity 3) not recognizing that, at
tiny magnifications, many particles may
be grouping, colliding and result in
the appearance of a stronger force but
may be the result of the accumulated
movements of many particles. This view
is the obvious method to apply if
theorizing an argument to entertain the
concept of gravity, which apparently
either was not done or not popular. So
the idea of "action at a distance" is a
phrase that is applied as a dogma in my
opinion, because it implies that an
electric field is just empty space, not
chock full of particles and that the
magnetic force, like gravity must
emanate from the center of the magnet.
It is maybe a subtle point, but the
idea that an electric field is made of
material particles is still not
popular.20

Had Faraday supported the view of
electrical current as a fluid made of
particles, the wave theories of light
may not have lasted as long as it has,
and the wave theory of electricity
might not have ever been created,
saving the human species more than 100
years of theoretical progress in
science.21

According to Oxford University Press
Philosophy Dictionary states that
Faraday's discovery of electro-magnetic
'lines of force' and view of the atom
as merely a center of force opened up
field theory, which itself owns
ancestry to the views of Kant, and
especially Boscovich.22

Clearly by this time, the corpuscular
or emission theory appears to have lost
favor.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^, p328.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7sKAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Michael+Far
aday&as_brr=1#PPA328,M1 volume 3
2. ^
Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^, pp330-331.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7sKAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Michael+Far
aday&as_brr=1#PPA328,M1 volume 3
12. ^
Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
14. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
19. ^ (Maxwell 1873:ix)
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ "Michael Faraday". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
25. ^, p328.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7sKAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Michael+Far
aday&as_brr=1#PPA328,M1 volume 3
(10/22/1851)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Michael Faraday".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[5]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=6_1fZXf
fwdAC&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=faraday+1844
&source=web&ots=kOMJ04nfn_&sig=idExqTkgq
Q3IIViFzIRMgwY0lX8
[12] Researches in Electricity
[13]
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=faraday+1844
+%22speculation+touching+electric+conduc
tion+and+the+nature+of+matter%22&source=
web&ots=VKIsaGjcNg&sig=xG0TBslqLW2Zfdhm3
NXg37e9Ez4#PPA284,M1
(Royal Institution in) London,
England24  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
149 YBN
[11/25/1851 AD] 5 		6258)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp401-402.
2. ^ ELIAS HOWE,
"IMPROVEMENT IN FASTENINGS FOR
GARMENTS", Patent number: 8540, Issue
date: Nov 25,
1851 http://www.google.com/patents?id=t
a9IAAAAEBA
3. ^ "zipper." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/zipper
4. ^ ELIAS HOWE, "IMPROVEMENT IN
FASTENINGS FOR GARMENTS", Patent
number: 8540, Issue date: Nov 25,
1851 http://www.google.com/patents?id=t
a9IAAAAEBA
5. ^ ELIAS HOWE, "IMPROVEMENT IN
FASTENINGS FOR GARMENTS", Patent
number: 8540, Issue date: Nov 25,
1851 http://www.google.com/patents?id=t
a9IAAAAEBA {11/25/1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "Elias Howe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_Howe
[2] "sewing machine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9066989>

[3] "sewing machine." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
[4] "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
[5]
http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/206.h
tml
[6] "Elias Howe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Elias_Ho
we (09/1846)
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp401-402. (1846)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA4  
[1] ELIAS HOWE, ''IMPROVEMENT IN
FASTENINGS FOR GARMENTS'', Patent
number: 8540, Issue date: Nov 25,
1851 http://www.google.com/patents?id=t
a9IAAAAEBA PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=ta9IAAAAEBA

[2] Woodcut of the first patented
lockstitch sewing machine, invented by
Elias Howe in 1845 and patented in
1846. The machine was not successful
commercially. Isaac Singer improved it
and manufactured the first commercially
successful machine in 1850. Howe sued
Singer for patent infringement and won
in 1854, and subsequently earned about
2 million dollars in royalties for his
invention. Alterations: removed the
caption, which read: ''The first Howe
sewing machine'' Source Retrieved
2007-12-21 from Frank Puterbaugh
Bachman (1918) Great Inventors and
their Inventions, American Book Co.,
New York, USA, p.131 on Google
Books Date 1918 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Elias_Howe_sewing_mac
hine.png
149 YBN
[11/??/1851 AD] 26 27 28 		3544) Riemann was born into a poor
Lutheran pastor’s family.20
Riemann
plans on a career in the Church in
accordance with his father's wishes but
changes to mathematics.21
Riemann also
teaches course in mathematical physics
(at Göttingen22 ).23
Riemann dies of
tuberculosis before the age of 40.24
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
2. ^ B. Riemann,
Grundlagen für eine allgemeine Theorie
der Functionen einer veränderlichen
complexen Grösse,
Inauguraldissertation, Göttingen
(1851). http://www.emis.de/classics/Rie
mann/Grund.pdf
3. ^ "Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
5. ^ B. Riemann,
Grundlagen für eine allgemeine Theorie
der Functionen einer veränderlichen
complexen Grösse,
Inauguraldissertation, Göttingen
(1851). http://www.emis.de/classics/Rie
mann/Grund.pdf
6. ^ "Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
10. ^ "Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
11. ^ B. Riemann, Grundlagen für eine
allgemeine Theorie der Functionen einer
veränderlichen complexen Grösse,
Inauguraldissertation, Göttingen
(1851). http://www.emis.de/classics/Rie
mann/Grund.pdf
12. ^ Abe Shenitzer, John Stillwell,
"Mathematical Evolutions", Mathematical
Association of America (MAA),
2002 p55-62. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=I5uYV1BIT6wC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq
=Foundations+for+a+general+Theory+of+Fun
ctions+of+a+variable+complex+riemann&sou
rce=web&ots=sErKZs_X5N&sig=xgTZtXjWV7xaq
jE9LW9f4Y7u24o&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result
&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA55,M1 also
located
at: http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002
-9890(199905)106%3A5%3C463%3ARDAIEO%3E2.
0.CO%3B2-E
13. ^
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Record ID2442.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Record ID2450. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Record
ID2767. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Record ID2917.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Bernhard Riemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
21. ^ "Bernhard Riemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Riemann, Georg
Friedrich Bernhard", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p746-747.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
25. ^ "Bernhard
Riemann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
26. ^ "Georg Friedrich Bernhard
Riemann". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Georg_Fr
iedrich_Bernhard_Riemann {11/1851}
27. ^
"Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>. {1851}
28. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p321. {1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernhard Riemann." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[2] "Bernhard Riemann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[3] "Riemann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann
[4] The Mathematical Papers of Georg
Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(1826-1866) http://www.emis.de/classics
/Riemann/
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany25  
[1] Scientist: Riemann, Bernhard (1826
- 1866) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.5 x 14 cm / Sheet: 24.1 x
18.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R003-02a.jpg
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 4 		2653) The International Morse Code is
adopted.1
The American Morse Code is
inadequate for the transmission of much
non-English text and so a variant
ultimately becomes known as the
International Morse Code is used on all
cables, for land telegraph lines except
in North America, and later for
wireless telegraphy.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
2. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (1851)
Europe3   
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 3 		2681)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p109.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p109.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p109. (1851)
St Petersburg, Russia2   
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 9 		2756)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Skeleton
key". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton_ke
y
7. ^ "Warded lock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warded_lock

8. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
9. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, v11. (1851 sees
lock at exhibition) (unknown: needs
date) (1851 sees lock at exhibition)
(unknown: needs date)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[3] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Pilot (locomotive)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_%28lo
comotive%29
Cambridge, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: A skeleton
key. Español: Llave antigua de
bronce. Source Trabajo
propio. Date 12/09/07 Author
Jorge Barrios PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Llave_bronce.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 7 		2816) One induction coil of Ruhmkorff
in 1851 that is awarded a 50,000-franc
prize in 1858 by Emperor Napoleon III
as the most important discovery in the
application of electricity.5

Ruhmkorff is able to improve Callan's
two-winding induction spark-coils, on
the basis of the research conducted in
Paris by Masson and Breguet in 1842.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4392/Heinrich-Daniel-Ruhmkorff
2. ^ "Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4392/Heinrich-Daniel-Ruhmkorff
3. ^ "Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4392/Heinrich-Daniel-Ruhmkorff
4. ^
http://www.hp-gramatke.net/history/engli
sh/page4000.htm
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/ruhmko
rff.htm
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/ruhmko
rff.htm
7. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/ruhmko
rff.htm (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Da
niel_Ruhmkorff
 
[1] Heinrich D. Ruhmkorff, ca.
1850 PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/ruhmkorff.htm

[2] Ruhmkorff's induction coils were
used in many physical experiments when
generation of high voltages was needed.
This picture shows a very large
Ruhmkorff's induction coil. Ruhmkorff's
doubly wound induction coil later
evolved into the alternating-current
transformer. He also invented a
thermo-electric battery in
1844. PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/ruhmkorff.htm
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 15 		2825) Ariel rotates around Uranus at a
mean distance of 191,240 km (118,830
miles) from the center of the planet,
taking 2.52 days to complete one orbit.
Like the other large Uranian moons,
Ariel rotates synchronously with its
orbital period, keeping the same face
toward the planet. Ariel has an average
diameter around 1,160 km (720 miles)
and has a density of about 1.67 grams
per cubic cm which is consistent with a
composition of roughly equal parts
water ice and rock, perhaps intermixed
with a small amount of frozen methane.5

The surface of Ariel has scarps (a line
of cliffs produced by faulting or
erosion) and long valleylike
formations. These features and the
small number of large impact craters
suggests that Ariel has the youngest
surface of all of Uranus's major
moons.6

Umbriel is the nearest of the five
major moons of Uranus and the one
having the darkest and oldest surface
of the group. Umbriel orbits Uranus
once every 4.144 days at a mean
distance of 265,970 km (165,270 miles).
Umbriel has a diameter of 1,170 km (727
miles) and a density of about 1.4 grams
per cubic cm. Umbriel appears to be
composed of equal parts water ice and
rocky material, intermixed with small
amounts of frozen methane. Umbriel is
distinct from the other major moons of
Uranus in having no evidence of past
tectonic activity. Its surface is
uniformly covered with impact craters,
most of them large, measuring 100-200
km (60-120 miles) across. Craters of
this size could only have been produced
early in the history of the star
system, when planetesimal-size
impacting bodies existed.7

The name "Ariel" and the names of all
four satellites of Uranus then known
were suggested by John Herschel in 1852
at the request of Lassell8 9 and named
for characters in Alexander Pope's poem
"The Rape of the Lock".10 11 Ariel is
also the name of the spirit who serves
Prospero in Shakespeare's "Tempest".12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p339.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p339.
5. ^ "Ariel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9421/Ariel
6. ^ "Ariel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9421/Ariel
7. ^ "Umbriel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4205/Umbriel
8. ^ "Ariel (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_%28mo
on%29
9. ^
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.
../0034//0000169.000.html
10. ^ "Ariel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9421/Ariel
11. ^ "Umbriel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4205/Umbriel
12. ^ "Ariel (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_%28mo
on%29
13. ^ "William Lassell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7257/William-Lassell
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p339. (1851)
(1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Lassell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Las
sell
[2]
http://www.answers.com/William+Lassell+?
cat=technology
[3]
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/lassell.htm
[4]
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
Malta13 14  
[1] Uranus' Moon Ariel: Valley
World Photo Credit: NASA, Voyager 2,
Copyright Calvin J.
Hamilton Explanation: What formed
Ariel's valleys? This question
presented itself when Voyager 2 passed
this satellite of Uranus in January
1986. Speculation includes that heating
caused by the ancient tides of Uranus
caused moonquakes and massive shifting
of the moon's surface. In any event, a
huge network of sunken valleys was
found to cover this frozen moon, and
some unknown material now coats the
bottoms of many of these channels.
Ariel is the second closest to Uranus
outside of Miranda, and is composed of
roughly half water ice and half rock.
Ariel was discovered by William Lassell
in 1851. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap9603
03.html

[2] Umbriel, a moon of Uranus. Photo
by Voyager PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Umbriel_moon_1.gif
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 2 		2830) |
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341. {1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[3]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[4]
http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/werke/penc
il-of-nature/
[5] P.W.W. Fuller, "The use of spark
photography in scientific research",
Shock Waves (1999) 9:
353–365. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/k96yxljy0tt29rgx/fulltext.pdf {
Fuller_Spark_photography_1999.pdf}
[6] Talbot, W.H.F., "On the Production
of Instantaneous Photographic Images".
Philosophical Magazine., 4th series,
vol 3 (January 1852), 73–77.
and Henry Fox Talbot, "On the
Production of Instantaneous
Photographic Images," The Athenaeum, 6
December 1851, 1286–87.
[7]
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/elh/v073/73
.2kreilkamp.html#REF50
Wiltshire, England1 (presumably) 
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 15 		2952)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp356-357.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp356-357.
3. ^
http://www.nature.com/nrm/journal/v3/n1/
box/nrm701_BX1.html
4. ^ "Hugo Von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Hugo Von Mohl".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hugo_Von
_Mohl
5. ^ "Hugo von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp356-357.
8. ^ "Hugo von Mohl".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
9. ^, p232.
http://books.google.com/books?id=r9kLOsL
ZNEsC&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=mohl+osmosis
&source=web&ots=kDbwGoWAKL&sig=69XirM1oE
JWrzYN5vSzhYxkBdYQ&hl=en
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Hugo von Mohl".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
12. ^ "Hugo von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Hugo von Mohl".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl
15. ^ "Hugo von Mohl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3201/Hugo-von-Mohl (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hugo von Mohl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_von_Mo
hl
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Hugo%20von%20Mohl
%20
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany14  
[1] Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quellenangabe
dort: aus Geschichte der Mikroskopie,
Bd. 1, Biologie. Herausgeber H. Freund
und A. Berg, Umschau- Verlag
Frankfurt/Main 1963 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugo_von_mohl.jpg

[2] Hugo von Mohl � Peter v.
Sengbusch - Impressum Das Werk
Botanik online - Die Internetlehre -
THE INTERNET HYPERTEXTBOOK
einschlie�lich aller seiner Teile
ist urheberrechtlich gesch�tzt.
Jede Verwertung au�erhalb der
engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes
ohne Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers ist
unzul�ssig. Das gilt insbesondere
f�r Vervielf�ltigungen,
�bersetzungen und die
Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in
Datenverarbeitungssystemen zwecks
kommerzieller Nutzung. Bei Kopien
f�r nichtkommerzielle Zwecke ist
diese Copyright-Notiz der Kopie
anzuf�gen. PD/Corel
source: http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.
de/b-online/d01/mohl.htm
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 10 		3025)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Mallet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mall
et
2. ^
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topi
cs/seismology/history/part06.php
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topi
cs/seismology/history/part06.php
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topi
cs/seismology/history/part06.php
7. ^ "Robert Mallet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mall
et
8. ^
http://www.dias.ie/lang/en/cosmic/geo/ro
bert_mallet.html
9. ^
http://www.dias.ie/lang/en/cosmic/geo/ro
bert_mallet.html
10. ^
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topi
cs/seismology/history/part06.php (1851)
Dublin, Ireland9 (presumably) 
[1] Mallet's seismoscope (after Mallet,
1852). The image of a cross-hairs in C
is reflected from the surface of
mercury in the basin B and viewed
through a magnifier, D. PD
source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
ing/topics/seismology/history/figures/fi
g_03.gif

[2] Robert Mallet
(1810-1881) PD/Corel
source: http://www.dias.ie/img/geo/malle
t/robertmallet.jpg
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 5 		3154) From 1868-1883, De La Rue
investigates the discharge of
electricity through gases by means of a
battery of 14,600 chloride of silver
cells.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp387-388.
2. ^ "De La Rue,
Warren", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p240.
3. ^
"Warren De La Rue". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Warren_D
e_La_Rue
4. ^ "Warren De La Rue". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Warren_D
e_La_Rue
5. ^ "De la Rue, Warren." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9603>. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "De La Rue." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/de-la-rue
[2] "Warren De La Rue". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_De_L
a_Rue
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Warren De La Rue (1815 - 1889)
British chemist, astronomer,
photographer and inventor, who
photographed the solar eclipse in Spain
in 1860, invented the silver chloride
battery and photoheliograph. (Photo by
Otto Herschan/Getty Images) * by
Otto Herschan * * reference:
2641735 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641735&text=Warren+De+La
+Rue

[2] Warren de la
Rue (1815-1889) PD/Corel
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/delarue
.jpg
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 7 		3182)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ "Ludwig, Carl
F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
3. ^ Physician and Surgeon, (Volume 27,
Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm
Ludwig". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Ludwig (1842)
6. ^ "Ludwig,
Carl F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
7. ^ Physician and Surgeon, (Volume 27,
Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481 (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm
Ludwig". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedr
ich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Ludwig, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p440
[4] "Ludwig,
Carl F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>. (1844)
(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Germany6  
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 7 8 		3204)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p394.
2. ^ "Hofmann, August
Wilhelm von." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0711>.
3. ^ "Hofmann degradation." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hofmann-deg
radation
4. ^ "Hofmann reaction." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hofmann-rea
ction
5. ^ "August Wilhelm von Hofmann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-wilh
elm-von-hofmann
6. ^ "Hofmann, August Wilhelm Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp432-433
7. ^
http://people.bu.edu/jaylowe/Named%20rea
ctions/H/Hofmann%20degradation/hoffmann.
htm (1851)
8. ^ Hofmann, A.W. Ann., 1851, 78,
253.

MORE INFO
[1] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilh
elm_von_Hofmann
[2] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
ilhelm_von_Hofmann
(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England6  
[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 9 		3208) Secchi enters the Jesuit order in
Rome, studies at the Collegio Romano,
and becomes the director of its
observatory in 1849.6
Secchi's works
include a star catalog (1867).7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p395.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p395.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Secchi, (Pietro) Angelo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p793.
7. ^ "Angelo Secchi." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
8. ^ "Secchi, (Pietro) Angelo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p793.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6512>
[2] "Angelo Secchi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy8  
[1] Pietro Angelo Secchi (1818-1878),
Italian astronomer. Scientist:
Secchi, Angelo (1818 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 6.5 x 4.7 cm / Sheet: 10.5 x
6.5 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Angelo_Secchi.jpg
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 29 		3273) In 1854 Stokes suggests that the
Fraunhofer lines might be caused by
atoms in the outer layers of the Sun
that absorb light of certain
wavelengths, however concedes priority
to Kirchhoff.8 Although the first to
publish this theory is Foucault in
1849.9 In fact, Stokes. himself
publishes the English translation of
Foucault's 1849 paper.10

The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica states
that Stokes' perhaps best-known
researches are those which deal with
the undulatory theory of light.11
Stokes is an advocate of the wave
theory of light and in the ether as a
medium for the waves of light. To
explain how the ether can be rigid but
moved, Stokes suggests that the aether
is like wax that is rigid but flows
under a slow but steady force, such as
that applied by the orbiting planets.
In addition, Stokes hypothesizes that
the planets drag part of the ether
along with them because of friction.12


Stokes is among the first to appreciate
the importance of the work of James
Joule.13

The Royal Society's catalog of
scientific papers gives the titles of
over a hundred memoirs by Stokes
published to 1883.14
Stokes is the
youngest son of the Reverend Gabriel
Stokes, rector of Skreen.15
In 1849
Stokes is appointed to the Lucasian
professorship of mathematics at
Cambridge16 , but finds it necessary to
supplement his slender income from this
post by teaching at the Government
School of Mines in London17 .
In 1852
Stokes receives the Rumford medal of
Royal Society for his paper on
fluorescence (1852) in which Stokes
shows how fluorescence can be used to
study the ultraviolet segment of the
spectrum.18
In 1885 Stokes is President
of the Royal Society (1885-189219 ).20
(As President of the Royal Society and
supported of the wave theory for light,
clearly the overthrow of the
corpuscular theory originated by Newton
was complete in England at this time.21
)
In 1893 Stokes receives the Copley
medal.22 (state for what23 )
Stokes
serves as Conservative member in
Parliament for Cambridge University.24

A devoutly religious person, Stokes is
deeply interested in the relationship
of science to religion.25 For me, the
uselessness of religions is obvious.26

(I am not sure that Stokes'
achievements in science justify the
awards he receives. Perhaps this is an
example of perhaps a wealthy person,
that either buys awards or is given
awards in recognition of monetary
contributions to science or simply for
have other wealthy connections. Stokes
might have contributions to science
that are not public.27 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
2. ^ "Stokes's law."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>
.
3. ^ "Stokes's law." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>
.
4. ^ "Stokes's law." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>
.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
8. ^ "Stokes, Sir
George Gabriel, 1st Baronet."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069777>
.
9. ^ Record ID3143. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Translated by Professor
Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix (1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
11. ^ "Sir George Gabriel, Bart
Stokes". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
12. ^ "Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, 1st
Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069777>
.
13. ^ "George Gabriel Stokes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
14. ^ "Sir George Gabriel, Bart
Stokes". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
15. ^ "Sir George Gabriel, Bart
Stokes". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
16. ^ "Sir George Gabriel, Bart
Stokes". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
17. ^ "George Gabriel Stokes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
18. ^ "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659.
19. ^ "George Gabriel Stokes."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Sir
George Gabriel, Bart Stokes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
25. ^ "Stokes, George
Gabriel", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp658-659.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Sir George
Gabriel, Bart Stokes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
29. ^ "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gabriel Stokes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gabr
iel_Stokes
[2] "Stokes' law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes'_law

Cambridge, England28  
[1] Picture of George G. Stokes Source
Memoir and Scientific Correspondence
of the Late Sir George Gabriel Stokes,
Bart Date 1857 Author George G.
Stokes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg

[2] George Gabriel Stokes From
Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 124. In
turn from a photograph by Fradelle &
Young. PD/Corel
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/stokes-1200-scale1000.jp
g
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 4 		3275)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
2. ^ "Sir George
Gabriel, Bart Stokes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
3. ^ "George Gabriel Stokes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
4. ^ "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Stokes, Sir George Gabriel,
1st Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069777>
.
[2] "George Gabriel Stokes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
[3] "George Gabriel Stokes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gabr
iel_Stokes
[4] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[5] "Stokes's law." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>
.
Cambridge, England3  
[1] Picture of George G. Stokes Source
Memoir and Scientific Correspondence
of the Late Sir George Gabriel Stokes,
Bart Date 1857 Author George G.
Stokes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg

[2] George Gabriel Stokes From
Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 124. In
turn from a photograph by Fradelle &
Young. PD/Corel
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/stokes-1200-scale1000.jp
g
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 8 9 		3334)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
2. ^ Helmholtz,
Hermann von."Beschreibung eines
Augenspiegels zur Untersuchung der
Netzhaut im lebenden Auge" (Description
of an eye mirror for the investigation
of the retina of the living eye).
Berlin, 1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
4. ^ Helmholtz,
Hermann von."Beschreibung eines
Augenspiegels zur Untersuchung der
Netzhaut im lebenden Auge" (Description
of an eye mirror for the investigation
of the retina of the living eye).
Berlin, 1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1 Hermann von Helmholtz, Translated
by Thomas Hall Shastid, "Beschreibung
eines Augenspiegels", "The Description
of an Ophthalmoscope", Cleveland press,
1916. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=kdEEAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22description+of+
an+ophthalmoscope%22&printsec=frontcover
&source=web&ots=5-R4cvIHK9&sig=3RZjcamuL
rU2ccnmsg_k31sFCyU&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=1&ct=result#PPA7,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
7. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1851}
9. ^
"Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410. {1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[4] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[5] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[6] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[7]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[8] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[9] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[10] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
[11] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[12]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[13] C. Richard Keeler, "The
Ophthalmoscope in the Lifetime of
Hermann von
Helmholtz" http://archopht.ama-assn.org
/cgi/reprint/120/2/194.pdf
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany7  
[1] Helmholtz Ophthalmoscope PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41#PPA71,M1

[2] Image from ophthalmoscope in
National Geographic COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bim.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD] 9 		3341) EXPER:How fast can CCD chips
capture images?7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
2. ^ P.W.W. Fuller,
"The use of spark photography in
scientific research", Shock Waves
(1999) 9:
353–365. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/k96yxljy0tt29rgx/fulltext.pdf {
Fuller_Spark_photography_1999.pdf}
3. ^ P.W.W. Fuller, "The use of spark
photography in scientific research",
Shock Waves (1999) 9:
353–365. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/k96yxljy0tt29rgx/fulltext.pdf {
Fuller_Spark_photography_1999.pdf}
4. ^
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/elh/v073/73
.2kreilkamp.html#REF50
5. ^ Talbot, W.H.F., "On the Production
of Instantaneous Photographic Images".
Philosophical Magazine., 4th series,
vol 3 (January 1852), 73–77.
and Henry Fox Talbot, "On the
Production of Instantaneous
Photographic Images," The Athenaeum, 6
December 1851, 1286–87.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
9. ^ P.W.W. Fuller,
"The use of spark photography in
scientific research", Shock Waves
(1999) 9:
353–365. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/k96yxljy0tt29rgx/fulltext.pdf {
Fuller_Spark_photography_1999.pdf}
{1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[3]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[4]
http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/werke/penc
il-of-nature/
[5] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
[6] "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
[7]
http://people.rit.edu/andpph/text-hs-his
tory.html
Wiltshire, England8 (presumably) 
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 8 9 		3404) Arrest helps Galle find Neptune.
Galle reads off the stars he observes
while Arrest checks each with its
position against the star chart.4
Arres
t finds several (previously unknown5 )
comets.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p419-420.
2. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/d-arrest.htm
3. ^ "Heinrich Louis d’Arrest."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/36070/Heinrich-Louis-dArrest>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p419-420.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p419-420.
7. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/d-arrest.htm
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p419-420. {1851}
9. ^
"Heinrich Louis d’Arrest."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/36070/Heinrich-Louis-dArrest>. {1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Louis d'Arrest".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Lo
uis_d%27Arrest
[2] "Arrest, Heinrich Louis D"',
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p36.
(Leipzig Observatory) Pleissenburg,
Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Heinrich Louis d'Arrest (1822 -
1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Heinrich_Louis_d%27Ar
rest.jpg
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 11 		3474)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p431.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p431.
3. ^ "Wilhelm
Hofmeister." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>.
4. ^ "Wilhelm Friedrich Benedict
Hofmeister". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Friedrich_Benedict_Hofmeister
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p431.
8. ^ "Wilhelm
Hofmeister." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>.
9. ^ "Wilhelm Hofmeister". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Hof
meister
10. ^ "Wilhelm Hofmeister."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>.
11. ^ "Wilhelm Hofmeister."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268786/Wilhelm-Hofmeister>. {1851}


MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Hofmeister." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hofmeister-
wilhelm
[2] "Wilhelm Hofmeister." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hofmeister-
wilhelm
[3] "Hofmeister, Wilhelm Friedrich
Benedict", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp343-344.
Leipzig, Germany10 (presumably) 
[1] Wilhelm Hofmeister Source
Goebel, K. von (1905) Wilhelm
Hofmeister. The Plant World 8:
291-298. Date c.1870 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Wilhelm_Hofmeister.jp
g
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 7 		5998) Rigoletto is produced in Venice
(after trouble with the censors, a
recurring theme for Verdi) and is a
huge success.4 Hugo's play depicts a
king (Francis I of France) as an
immoral and cynical womanizer,
something that is not accepted in
Europe during the Restoration period.5
(verify)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi
2. ^ "Rigoletto (opera)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigoletto_%
28opera%29
3. ^ "La donna è mobile". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_donna_%C
3%A8_mobile
4. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi
5. ^ "Rigoletto (opera)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigoletto_%
28opera%29
6. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi
7. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/625922/Giuseppe-Verdi>. {1851}
Venice, Italy6  
[1] Picture of Giuseppe Verdi. taken by
Carjat, Etienne (1828-1906) Giuseppe
Verdi in 1876 by Etienne Carjat PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/GiuseppeVerdi.jpg
148 YBN
[01/07/1852 AD] 12 		2880) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist,7
applies an induction coil high voltage
through an evacuated tube with various
gases, and performs electrolysis on
gases.8

Grove describes his experiments in "On
the Electro-Chemical Polarity of
Gases".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
8. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
9. ^, pp89-90.
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
10. ^ "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234/Sir-William-Robert-Grove
11. ^ "William Robert Grove".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rob
ert_Grove
12. ^, p87.
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf (01/07/1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886)
[2] "antithetic". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ntithetic
[3] Harrison, W. J. (2004) "Gassiot,
John Peter (1797-1877)", rev. Iwan Rhys
Morus, Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press,
accessed 5 August 2007 (subscription
required) http://www.oxforddnb.com/view
/article/10439
London, England10 11
(presumably) 
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101

[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
148 YBN
[05/10/1852 AD] 14 		3489)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ E. Frankland,
"On a New Series of Organic Bodies
Containing Metals", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=38cdc316
b887400e8b6f958d2d4a2d27π=1 {Frankland
_Edward_1852.pdf} and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
5. ^ Edward
Frankland, (obituary) Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
6. ^ "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
7. ^ "cacodyl." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ E. Frankland, "On a New
Series of Organic Bodies Containing
Metals", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=55e3df04
be284120b8404167191430abπ=19 and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434. {05/10/1852}
{05/10/1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton
University, 2001. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[7] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England13
 
[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf

[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
148 YBN
[05/11/1852 AD] 28 29 		3274) Stokes receives the Rumford medal
of Royal Society for this paper.26
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
2. ^ "luminescence."
Science of Everyday Things. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 13 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
3. ^ G. G. Stokes, "On the Change of
Refrangibility of Light", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 142, (1852), pp.
463-562. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/6126623v64j36174/?p=ded590480
7d74d488352789d4ba55091π=2 http://www.
jstor.org/stable/108550?seq=1 {Stokes_G
eorge_On_the_Change_1852.pdf} See also
part II: G. G. Stokes, "On the Change
of Refrangibility of Light. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
143,
1853. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/30mp3882x7174057/?p=42b01442f26d
4c958c4abea68f074d92π=17 {Stokes_Georg
e_On_the_Change_II_1852.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p209.
6. ^
"Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659.
7. ^ 7. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "A
History of Luminescence", The American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p354.
8. ^ E.
Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence
From the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p354.
9. ^ "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ E.
Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence
From the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p355.
13. ^ (Original Footnote:) I confess I
do not like this term. I am almost
incliuned to coin a word, and call the
appearance fluorescence, from
fluor-spar, as the analogous term
opalescence is derived from the name of
a mineral.
14. ^ G. G. Stokes, "On the Change of
Refrangibility of Light", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 142, (1852), pp.
463-562. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/6126623v64j36174/?p=ded590480
7d74d488352789d4ba55091π=2 http://www.
jstor.org/stable/108550?seq=1 {Stokes_G
eorge_On_the_Change_1852.pdf} See also
part II: G. G. Stokes, "On the Change
of Refrangibility of Light. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
143,
1853. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/30mp3882x7174057/?p=42b01442f26d
4c958c4abea68f074d92π=17 {Stokes_Georg
e_On_the_Change_II_1852.pdf}
15. ^ "Sir George Gabriel, Bart
Stokes". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
18. ^ "Stokes, Sir
George Gabriel, 1st Baronet."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069777>
.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
"luminescence." Science of Everyday
Things. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 13 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p207.
24. ^ E.
Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence
From the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p210.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Stokes, George
Gabriel", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp658-659.
27. ^ "George Gabriel Stokes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
28. ^ G. G. Stokes, "On the Change of
Refrangibility of Light", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 142, (1852), pp.
463-562. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/6126623v64j36174/?p=ded590480
7d74d488352789d4ba55091π=2 http://www.
jstor.org/stable/108550?seq=1 {Stokes_G
eorge_On_the_Change_1852.pdf} See also
part II: G. G. Stokes, "On the Change
of Refrangibility of Light. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
143,
1853. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/30mp3882x7174057/?p=42b01442f26d
4c958c4abea68f074d92π=17 {Stokes_Georg
e_On_the_Change_II_1852.pdf}
{05/11/1852}
29. ^ "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659. (1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gabriel Stokes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
[2] "George Gabriel Stokes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gabr
iel_Stokes
[3] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[4] "Stokes's law." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>

Cambridge, England27  
[1] Picture of George G. Stokes Source
Memoir and Scientific Correspondence
of the Late Sir George Gabriel Stokes,
Bart Date 1857 Author George G.
Stokes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg

[2] George Gabriel Stokes From
Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 124. In
turn from a photograph by Fradelle &
Young. PD/Corel
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/stokes-1200-scale1000.jp
g
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 13 14 15 		2604) Sabine superintends the
establishment of magnetic observatories
throughout the world (and so this
provides Sabine with regular access to
Earth's magnetic data9 ).10
From
1861-1871, Sabine is president of the
Royal Society.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp308-309.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp308-309.
3. ^ "sabine sir
edward". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sabine-sir-
edward?cat=technology
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/spa/papers/
eos_40yrs/&usg=AFQjCNEfJAQUNrHQJ3GqvBz43
DsoGBYj2A
6. ^
http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/spa/papers/
eos_40yrs/&usg=AFQjCNEfJAQUNrHQJ3GqvBz43
DsoGBYj2A
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Sir
Edward Sabine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4625/Sir-Edward-Sabine
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp308-309.
12. ^ "sabine sir
edward". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sabine-sir-
edward?cat=technology
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp308-309. (1852)
(1852)
14. ^ "Sir Edward Sabine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4625/Sir-Edward-Sabine (1852)
15. ^ "sabine
sir edward". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sabine-sir-
edward?cat=technology (announces 1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Sabine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sabi
ne
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Edward Sabine, portrait by S.
Pearce, 1851; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.google.com/url?q=h
ttp://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/spa/papers/e
os_40yrs/&usg=AFQjCNEfJAQUNrHQJ3GqvBz43D
soGBYj2A
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 3 		2678) E. P. Smith coins the word
"telegram".1

(It is interesting how telegram is
replaced by phone call, email, vmail,
and perhaps thought-gram or
thought-message.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p602.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1852)
  
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 5 		2920)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^ "Justus baron
von Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
3. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
4. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
5. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig (1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Justus+von+Liebig
+?cat=technology
[3] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany3 4  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 6 		2938)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
3. ^ "parathyroid
gland". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8433/parathyroid-gland
4. ^ "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
5. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356. (1852)
(1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
[3] "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England4 5  
[1] Thyroid and parathyroid
glands source:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds2_thyroid.html
PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Illu_
thyroid_parathyroid.jpg

[2] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 8 		3086)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
7. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
8. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154.
(from) 1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>
[2] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[3] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[4] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany7  
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 12 13 		3104) Otis' device is demonstrated at
the Crystal Palace Exposition in New
York.9
In 1854, Otis tests his new
design with himself inside. The
elevator cable is cut and it descends
safely.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
2. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377.
4. ^ "Otis, Elisha
Graves." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7648>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377.
6. ^ "elevator."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
7. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
8. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
9. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377.
11. ^ "Otis, Elisha
Graves." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7648>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377. (1852)
13. ^
"elevator." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>. (1853)
Yonkers, NY, USA11  
[1] Elisha Otis Avaliable at
http://www.otis.com/otis150/images/displ
ay/1,2343,2039,00.gif PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
3274&rendTypeId=4

[2] Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861)
invented a safety device in 1852 that
made PD
source: http://arkadien.org/scientists/E
lisha%20Graves2.jpg
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 24 		3117) Later in 1869, the Swiss
physician Horner additionally observes
reduced sweating in a woman with a
tumor invading the sympathetic nerve in
the neck. The complete clinical
syndrome is widely called Horner's
Syndrome, but in France is referred to
as the Syndrome de Claude
Bernard-Horner.21

For this work Bernard is awarded his
fourth award from the Academy of
Sciences for experimental physiology.22

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
3. ^ "Claude Bernard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
4. ^ "muscle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-589
71>, p49.
5. ^ "Vascular smooth muscle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_sm
ooth_muscle
6. ^ "vasodilator." Mosby's Dental
Dictionary. Elsevier, Inc., 2004.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vasodilator

7. ^ "Claude Bernard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
8. ^ "vasodilator." Mosby's Dental
Dictionary. Elsevier, Inc., 2004.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vasodilator

9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "muscle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-589
71>, p49.
11. ^ "vasodilator." Encyclopedia
of Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vasodilator

12. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
15. ^ Record ID2175. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
21. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
22. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
23. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
24. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/ (1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>
[2] "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[3] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[4] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[7] "chyle." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
(Collège de France) Paris, France23
 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 9 		3192) Rudolf Albert von Kölliker
(KRLiKR) (CE 1817-1905), Swiss
anatomist and physiologist,1 publishes
"Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen"
(1852; "Manual of Human Histology"):
probably the best early text on
histology.2

This textbook may be the first good
study of histology, the science started
50 years before by Bichat without a
microscope.3
In this work Kölliker
expounds on his isolating the first
smooth muscle cell.4

Kölliker shows that nerve fibers are
elongated parts of cells, therefore
anticipating the neuron theory5 , (in
which6 ) the neuron is the basic unit
of the nervous system7 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392.
2. ^ "Albert von
Kölliker." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392.
4. ^ "Albert von
Kölliker." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
5. ^ "Albert von Kölliker." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Koelliker, Rudolf Albert
Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p495.
8. ^
"Koelliker, Rudolf Albert Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p495.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392. (1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "Kölliker, Rudolf Albert
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5943>
[2] "Albert von Kölliker." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[3] "Rudolf Albert von Kölliker".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Albe
rt_von_K%C3%B6lliker
[4] "Rudolph Albert Von Kolliker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolph_
Albert_Von_Kolliker
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany8  
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 12 		3283)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
2. ^ "Foucault, Jean
Bernard Léon." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "gyroscope." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
6. ^ "gyroscope." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Léon Foucault,
"INSTRUCTION SUR LES EXPÉRIENCES DU
GYROSCOPE", sans date. English
translation: "Instructions on
Experiments of the Gyroscope"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp416-420, plates 11 and
12. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kc
0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+des+trava
ux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault&a
s_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recueil_des_
travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
9. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=fr&tl=en
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon
Foucault". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405. (1852)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[5] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[6] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[7] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[10]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[12] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[13] "Foucault
pendulum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[14] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
Paris, France11 (presumably) 
[1] Foucault's gyroscope PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p163.

[2] Foucault's Gyroscope PD/Corel
source: Foucault_Recueil_des_travaux_sci
entifiques.pdf http://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/3D_Gyroscope.
png
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 11 12 		3335)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
2. ^
"ophthalmometer." The American Heritage
Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com 26
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ophthalmome
ter
3. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ George Neil Stewart, "A
Manual of Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
6. ^ J.C. Maxwell, "On the theory of
compound colours and the relations of
the colours of the spectrum", Philos
Trans R Soc London 150 (1860), pp.
57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447,
p414. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg {not
scanned yet 10/10/08}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ H.
Helmholtz, "Ueber die Theorie der
zusammengesetzten Farben", Ann Phys 87
(1852), pp. 45–66. Full Text via
CrossRef:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_partne
rName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.o
rg%2F10.1002%2Fandp.18521630904&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=2d0
a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
Helmholtz, Translation (On the theory
of compound colours), Philos Mag 4
(1852) (4), pp.
519–534. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=gVQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:Magazine+date:1852-18
52&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=Cu_vSO24CJqktAOL99Fy#
PPA519,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann
Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p408-410.
11. ^ Fielding
Hudson Garrison, "An Introduction to
the History of Medicine: With Medical
Chronology ...", W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult {1852}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[4] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[5] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[6] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[7]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[8] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[9] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[10] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
[11] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[12]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[13] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[14] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany10  
[1] Helmholtz's Phakoscope PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iklAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA1103
,M1

[2] [t Images seen when the eye lens
accomdates to focus on a closer
object.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iklAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA1021
,M1
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 7 		3413)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
4. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
5. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
6. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
7. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur {1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {05/22/1848}
[5] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1848}
(University of Strasbourg5 )
Strasbourg, France6  
[1] Dextro and levorotary forms of
tartrate Pasteur separated the left
and right crystal shapes from each
other to form two piles of crystals: in
solution one form rotated light to the
left, the other to the right, while an
equal mixture of the two forms canceled
each other's rotation. Hence, the
mixture does not rotate polarized
light. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Pcrystals.svg/2
50px-Pcrystals.svg.png

[2] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
147 YBN
[01/19/1853 AD] 9 10 		3482)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ William Thomson,
"On Transient Electric Currents",
Glasgow Philosophical Society
Proceedings, Jan 1853
and Philosophical Magazine, Jun 1853.
in William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p534-553. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result and http://gallica.bn
f.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95118c/f550
(currently can only save one page at a
time)
3. ^ William Thomson, "On Transient
Electric Currents", Glasgow
Philosophical Society Proceedings, Jan
1853 and Philosophical Magazine, Jun
1853. in William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p534-553. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result and http://gallica.bn
f.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95118c/f550
(currently can only save one page at a
time)
4. ^ William Thomson, "On Transient
Electric Currents", Glasgow
Philosophical Society Proceedings, Jan
1853 and Philosophical Magazine, Jun
1853. in William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p534-553. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result and http://gallica.bn
f.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95118c/f550
(currently can only save one page at a
time)
5. ^ William Thomson, "On Transient
Electric Currents", Glasgow
Philosophical Society Proceedings, Jan
1853 and Philosophical Magazine, Jun
1853. in William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p534-553. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result and http://gallica.bn
f.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95118c/f550
(currently can only save one page at a
time)
6. ^ Record ID3440. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
9. ^ Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1 {01/19/1853}
10. ^ William
Thomson, "On Transient Electric
Currents", Glasgow Philosophical
Society Proceedings, Jan 1853
and Philosophical Magazine, Jun 1853.
in William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p534-553. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result and http://gallica.bn
f.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95118c/f550
(currently can only save one page at a
time) {01/1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[5] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p321.
[7]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[8] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[9] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[10] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
[11]
Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[12] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland8  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
147 YBN
[02/16/1853 AD] 32 33 		3143) In 1872, Angström is awarded the
Rumford medal of the Royal Society.30
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
2. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co.,
(1887). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Optis
ka+Unders%C3%B6kning&source=web&ots=-3MJ
K404gq&sig=olTzkNwJOvCyEr6WNZ7qUXFW9XM&h
l=en {The_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
3. ^ "Optiska Undersökningar", Trans
Royal Aitukmy of Stockholm 1853.
Translated in Phil Mag Fourth Series
vol ix, 1857, p327.
4. ^ Anders Jonas
Ångström, Annalen der Physik, v94,
1855,
p141-165 http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k15179x.image.r=angstrom.f161.la
ngEN English version: A. J.
Angström, "Optical Researches",
Philosophical Transactions, v9, 1857,
p327-342. {Angstrom_English_1857.pdf}
5. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co.,
(1887). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Optis
ka+Unders%C3%B6kning&source=web&ots=-3MJ
K404gq&sig=olTzkNwJOvCyEr6WNZ7qUXFW9XM&h
l=en {The_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
6. ^ L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Anders
Jonas Angstrom". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
10. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co.,
(1887). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Optis
ka+Unders%C3%B6kning&source=web&ots=-3MJ
K404gq&sig=olTzkNwJOvCyEr6WNZ7qUXFW9XM&h
l=en {The_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
11. ^ "Optiska Undersökningar", Trans
Royal Aitukmy of Stockholm 1853.
Translated in Phil Mag Fourth Series
vol ix, 1857, p327.
12. ^ "Anders Jonas
Angstrom". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Anders Jonas
Ångstrom." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anders-jona
s-ngstrom
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Anders Jonas
Ångstrom." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anders-jona
s-ngstrom
17. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386.
19. ^ "Anders Jonas
Ångstrom." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anders-jona
s-ngstrom
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Ångström, Anders
Jonas." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Anders Jonas
Ångström, Annalen der Physik, v94,
1855,
p141-165 http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k15179x.image.r=angstrom.f161.la
ngEN English version: A. J.
Angström, "Optical Researches",
Philosophical Transactions, v9, 1857,
p327-342. {Angstrom_English_1857.pdf}
30. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
31. ^ "Ångström, Anders Jonas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>.
32. ^ Anders Jonas Ångström, Annalen
der Physik, v94, 1855,
p141-165 http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k15179x.image.r=angstrom.f161.la
ngEN English version: A. J.
Angström, "Optical Researches",
Philosophical Transactions, v9, 1857,
p327-342. {Angstrom_English_1857.pdf}
{02/16/1853}
33. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom (1853)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Jonas Angström".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Jona
s_Angstr%C3%B6m
[2] "Ångström, Anders Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp22-23
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden31  
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 7 		2655)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1
2. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
3. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1
7. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1 (1853)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Wilhelm Gintl".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Gintl
Vienna, Austria6   
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 3 		2689)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p110.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p110.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p110. (1853)
Stockholm (and Uppsala), Sweden2   
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 20 21 		2894) During his passage back from
London, Borden sees several children on
board ship die after drinking
contaminated milk. Because no one yet
understands how to keep milk fresh,
spoiled and even poisonous milk is not
uncommon.12
Visiting the Shaker
community at New Lebanon, N.Y., in
1851, Borden observes sugar making with
airtight pans and decides that milk
could be condensed and could remain
wholesome indefinitely.13
Borden knows
that the Shakers (?14 ) use vacuum pans
to preserve fruit, and he begins
experimenting with a similar apparatus
in search of a way to preserve milk.15


In 1861 the U.S. government orders 500
pounds of condensed milk for troops
fighting in the Civil War. As the
conflict grows, government orders
increase, until Borden has to license
other manufacturers to keep up with
demand. After the war, Bordon's New
York Condensed Milk Company has a
ready-made customer base in both Union
and Confederate veterans.16
Bordon
teaches school in southern Mississippi
and immigrates to Texas in 1829, where
he prepares the first topographical map
of Texas, helps write the first
constitution of that state, is
cofounder of the first long-lived Texas
newspaper, and lays out the city of
Galveston.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p347.
2. ^ "Gail Borden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0710/Gail-Borden
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
4. ^ "Gail Borden". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Gail%20Borden%20
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
6. ^ "Gail Borden". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Gail%20Borden%20
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p347.
9. ^ "Gail Borden".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gail%20Borden%20
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p347.
12. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
13. ^ "Gail Borden". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Gail%20Borden%20
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
16. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
17. ^ "Gail Borden". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0710/Gail-Borden
18. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/borden-inc?
cat=biz-fin
19. ^ "Gail Borden". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gail%20Borden%20
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p347. (1853) (1853)
21. ^
"Gail Borden". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gail%20Borden%20
(1853)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gail Borden". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gail_Borden

New York City, NY, USA18 19
(presumably) 
[1] Gail Borden
(1801-1874) http://americanrevwar.homes
tead.com/files/civwar/borden.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borden.jpg

[2] Gail Borden patent for condensing
milk PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borden_patents_01.png
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 10 		3186)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p391.
2. ^ "Nägeli, Karl
Wilhelm von." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4656>.
3. ^ "meristem." The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meristem
4. ^ "Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4656>.
5. ^ "Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4656>.
6. ^ "Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_von_N%C3%A4geli
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4656>.
9. ^
http://home.datacomm.ch/biografien/biogr
afien/naegeli.htm
10. ^ "Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_von_N%C3%A4geli (1853)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-wilhel
m-von-n-geli
[2]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per346
[3] "meristem." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2139>.
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg im
Bresigau, Germany9  
[1] Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli
(1817-1891) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Carl_Wilhelm_von_Naeg
eli.jpg

[2] [t verify] Tunica-Corpus model of
the apical meristem (growing tip). The
epidermal (L1) and subepidermal (L2)
layers form the outer layers called the
tunica. The inner L3 layer is called
the corpus. Cells in the L1 and L2
layers divide in a sideways fashion
which keeps these layers distinct,
while the L3 layer divides in a more
random fashion. Description : Schéma
de la représentation en couches d'un
méristème apical. Réalisé au crayon
et retouché avec photoshop. Auteur :
Dakdada Licence : GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/M%C3%A9rist%C3%A8me_c
ouches.png
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 8 		3293)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Armand
Hippolyte Louis Fizeau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ William Tobin, "The Life
and Science of Léon Foucault",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
pp191-193.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
8. ^ "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau (1853)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>

[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p317
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Fizeau's condensor PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p192.

[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 4 		3309)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406-407.
2. ^ "thermionic
power converter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>.
3. ^ "Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
4. ^
"thermionic power converter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>. {1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becqu
erel
[2] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquere
l
[3] M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets
chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-t
dm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
72>.
[6]
http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdrom/MANUFA
CT/FIRST.HTM
[7]
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/story?id=20812
(Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers)
Paris, France3  
[1] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg

[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 10 		3312) The concept of potential energy
presumes a set course over a period of
time, where in my view, the forces at
each instant need to be recalculated
using the law of gravitation. Actually,
I think that simply the mass times the
velocity squared of any particle can be
viewed as its potential energy, or
possibly kinetic energy, without any
presumptions about future forces
(although because of gravity, there
must be forces that change the energy,
because gravity changes the
acceleration, and therefore the
velocity of the particle, which in turn
changes the potential energy.7

One question I have, is, how can the
amount of heat emitted from exothermic
chemical reactions be related to energy
of the reagents? For example, in a
battery, the energy is related to
electric current. Perhaps the initial
mass of the chemicals? So Joule's
constant applies to the conversion of
electric current to heat, but I think
it depends on wire diameter and other
parameters.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p408.
2. ^ "Rankine,
William John Macquorn", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p736.
3. ^ "On the General Law of
Transformation of Energy",Proceedings
of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow, (1853). Proceedings of the
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1855, pp276-280. and Phil. Mag.
1853. http://books.google.com/books?id=
z-0UAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN17000023&lr=#PPA276,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "On the General Law of
Transformation of Energy",Proceedings
of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow, (1853). Proceedings of the
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1855, pp276-280. and Phil. Mag.
1853. http://books.google.com/books?id=
z-0UAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN17000023&lr=#PPA276,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/bio
graphy/?id=WH0067&type=P
10. ^ "Rankine, William John Macquorn",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p736. {1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rankine, William John
Macquorn." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2685>.
[2] "William John Macquorn Rankine."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-joh
n-macquorn-rankine
[3] "William John Macquorn Rankine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
John_Macquorn_Rankine
[4] "Rankine cycle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2686>.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland, UK9  
[1] (William John) Macquorn Rankine
(1820-1872) was Regius Professor of
Civil and Engineering and Mechanics
from 1855 to 1872. U of
Glasglow PD/Corel
source: http://www.universitystory.gla.a
c.uk/images/UGSP00025_m.jpg

[2] William John Macquorn
Rankine PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/W_J_M_Rankine.JPG
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 22 		3468)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp429-430.
2. ^ W. Hittorf,
"Ueber die Wanderungen der Ionen
während der Elektrolyse", Pogg. Ann.,
89 (1853),
p177-211. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112490676/issue {Hittorf_
Johann_1853.pdf}
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p323.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp429-430.
5. ^ "Johann Wilhelm
Hittorf." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268199/Johann-Wilhelm-Hittorf>.
6. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Hittorf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268199/Johann-Wilhelm-Hittorf>.
7. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Hittorf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268199/Johann-Wilhelm-Hittorf>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp429-430.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Record ID3366. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ A. Crum
Brown, The Ions of Electrolysis,
Science, New Series, Vol. 15, No. 388
(Jun. 6, 1902), pp. 881-895.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627729 {
Brown_Ions_of_Electrolysis_1902.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ A. Crum Brown, The Ions
of Electrolysis, Science, New Series,
Vol. 15, No. 388 (Jun. 6, 1902), pp.
881-895.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627729 {
Brown_Ions_of_Electrolysis_1902.pdf}
18. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Hittorf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268199/Johann-Wilhelm-Hittorf>.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Hittorf,
Johann Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p429.
22. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp429-430. {1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Hittorf".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Hittorf
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hittor
f.html
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany
(presumably)21  
[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm Ostwald PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Johann_Wilhelm_Hittor
f.jpg

[2] Johann Wilhelm Hittorf PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/hittorf5.jpg
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 4 5 		3525) Thomsen is a member of
Copenhagen's Municipal Council for 35
years and is the driving force
responsible for the development of
Copenhagen's gas, water, and sewage
system.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p438.
3. ^ "Thomsen,
Hans Peter Jörgen Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p871.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438. {1853}
5. ^ "Julius
Thomsen." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
02 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/593044/Julius-Thomsen>. {1853} (date
of patent) {1853 (date of patent}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Peter Jørgen Julius
Thomsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Peter_
J%C3%B8rgen_Julius_Thomsen
[2] "Hans Peter Jorgen Julius Thomsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hans_Pet
er_Jorgen_Julius_Thomsen
[3] "Obituary Notices of Fellows
Deceased", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 84, No. 574 (Feb. 15,
1911), pp. i-xxxvii+xxxviii
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93337?seq=
25
(Polytekniske Laereanstalt) Copenhagen,
Denmark3  
[1] Portrait and statue of Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius Thomsen (1826-1909),
Chemist Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1909-12-31 Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3460&q=SIL14-T002-01 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Accession number:
SIL14-T002-01 PD/Corel
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
109/2552817267_53206801d0.jpg?v=0

[2] Scientist: Thomsen, Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius (1826 -
1909) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15 x 11.5 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T002-01a.jpg
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 10 11 		3538) When a revolution starts in 1847,
Cannizzaro returns from his studies in
Pisa to his native Sicily, and takes an
active role in fighting on the side of
the republicans, who seek to break the
domination of the Italian states by
Austria and the House of Bourbon
(rulers of the kingdom of Naples).
After the failure of the revolt in
1849, Cannizzaro flees to Paris.5
Canni
zaro becomes vice president of the
Italian senate.6
In 1891 Cannizzaro
receives the Copley medal of the Royal
Society.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
2. ^ "Stanislao
Cannizzaro." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
3. ^ "Cannizzaro, Stanislao", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p163.
4. ^ "Stanislao Cannizzaro."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
5. ^ "Stanislao Cannizzaro."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
8. ^ "Stanislao
Cannizzaro." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
9. ^ "Cannizzaro, Stanislao", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p163.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440. {1853}
11. ^
"Stanislao Cannizzaro." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>. {1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "Stanislao Cannizzaro." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanislao-c
annizzaro
[2] "Stanislao Cannizzaro." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanislao-c
annizzaro
[3] "Stanislao Cannizzaro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislao_C
annizzaro
[4] "Stanislao Cannizzaro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Stanisla
o_Cannizzaro
(Collegio Nazionale in Alessandria)
Piedmont (now part of Italy), Italy8 9
 
[1] The Cannizzaro reaction PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Benzaldehyde_Cannizza
ro_reaction.png

[2] Description Scan of a
photograph of Stanislao
Cannizzaro Source Supplement to
Nature (magazine) Date May 6,
1897 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Cannizzaro_Stanislao.
jpg
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 4 		3644) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist1 , work in geometrical optics
leads to the discovery of the fish-eye
lens2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
03 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
3. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
4. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588. {1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[5] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p331.
[7] Lewis Campbell, William Garnett,
"The Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[8] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[9]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[10] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[11]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[12] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 4 		5999)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi
2. ^ "Il Trovatore". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Trovator
e
3. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi
4. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi {1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rigoletto (opera)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigoletto_%
28opera%29
[2] "La donna è mobile". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_donna_%C
3%A8_mobile
[3] "Giuseppe Verdi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/625922/Giuseppe-Verdi>
Rome, Italy3  
[1] Picture of Giuseppe Verdi. taken by
Carjat, Etienne (1828-1906) Giuseppe
Verdi in 1876 by Etienne Carjat PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/GiuseppeVerdi.jpg
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 5 		6247)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "aspirin." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aspirin-1
2. ^ "Charles Gerhardt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 25 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/230539/Charles-Gerhardt>.
3. ^ "aspirin." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aspirin-1
4. ^ "Charles Gerhardt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 25 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/230539/Charles-Gerhardt>.
5. ^ "aspirin." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aspirin-1
{1853}
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] tion Published in the US
around 1901 in F. Moore's History of
Chemistry Date 2007-05-06
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Astrochemist
at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Gerhardt_Charles.jpg
146 YBN
[11/08/1854 AD] 3 		2682)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p111.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p111.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p111. (11/08/1854)
Madrid, Spain2   
146 YBN
[11/08/1854 AD] 3 		2683)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p111.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p111.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p111. (11/08/1854)
Madrid, Spain2   
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 5 		2569) Michel Eugéne Chevreul (seVRuL)
(CE 1786-1889)1 publishes a treatise
debunking psychic phenomena2 entitled
"De la baguette divinatoire" (1854)3 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302.
2. ^ "Michel Eugene
Chevreul". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
3. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul".
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
4. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
5. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul (1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michel Eugène Chevreul".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Chevreul
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esters?cat=
health
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/saponificat
ion?cat=health
[4]
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 3 		2693)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p106.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116. (1854)
Melbourne (and Victoria), Australia2
 		 
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 14 		2792)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p329.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p329.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg
5. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
6. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
7. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
8. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg
9. ^
http://www.palynology.org/history/ehrenb
erg.htm
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
12. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg
13. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
14. ^ "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1854)". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg (1854) (1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_G
ottfried_Ehrenberg
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/christian-g
ottfried-ehrenberg?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind
â€" a second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf
Berlin, Germany13  
[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â€" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 5 		2893)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp346-347.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Sir
George Biddell Airy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy
4. ^ "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy
5. ^ "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy (1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Biddell Airy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bidd
ell_Airy
[2]
http://www.answers.com/George+Biddell+Ai
ry?cat=technology
[3] "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Biddell_Airy
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Greenwich, England4 (presumably) 
[1] George Biddell Airy (British
Astronomer), from en, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 5 		2940)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356.
3. ^ "Sir Richard
Owen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7792/Sir-Richard-Owen
4. ^ http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/museums
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp355-356. (1854)
(1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Owen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owe
n
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Owen
[3] "Sir Richard Owen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Rich
ard_Owen
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=I
zsAAAAAQAAJ&dq=descriptive+and+illustrat
ed+catalogue+of+the+physiological+series
+of+comparative+anatomy&printsec=frontco
ver&source=web&ots=gqDgEByGxf&sig=9LoiVc
5DV0i-eePExoTlPoMAlw0
[6] "parathyroid gland". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8433/parathyroid-gland
(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England3 4  
[1] Thyroid and parathyroid
glands source:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds2_thyroid.html
PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Illu_
thyroid_parathyroid.jpg

[2] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 33 34 		2945)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ "Kohlrausch,
Rudolph Herrmann Arndt", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p496.
3. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm
Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maassbestimmungen insbesondere
Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Andre Koch
Torres Assis, "On the First
Electromagnetic Measurement of the
Velocity of Light by Wilhelm Weber and
Rudolf Kohlrausch", 2003,
p267. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf
{Weber-Kohlrausch_2003_1854.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
14. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm
Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maassbestimmungen insbesondere
Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
17. ^ Felix Klein, Robert Hermann,
Development of Mathematics in the 19th
Century, Math Sci Press, 1979, p22.
http://books.google.com/books?id=NM36hgq
mOLkC&pg=PA17&dq=wilhelm+weber&lr=&as_br
r=1&ei=dKb_SJ6eJIjutAPDyO2SDA#PPA22,M1
18. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
19. ^ Felix Klein, Robert Hermann,
Development of Mathematics in the 19th
Century, Math Sci Press, 1979, p22.
http://books.google.com/books?id=NM36hgq
mOLkC&pg=PA17&dq=wilhelm+weber&lr=&as_br
r=1&ei=dKb_SJ6eJIjutAPDyO2SDA#PPA22,M1
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
22. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
23. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "On a Method
of Making a Direct Comparison of
Electrostatic with Electromagnetic
Force; with a Note on the
Electromagnetic Theory of Light",
Philosophical Transactions, vol.
158. in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
vol 2, p125-143.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
33. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
34. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
[5] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology (1849)
[6] Wilhelm Eduard
Weber (obituary), Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
v.27 (1891-92),
p449-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oLcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449&dq=wilhelm+web
er&ei=3aP_SNOrKJH2sQPRr9S3DA#PPA449,M1
(University of) Göttingen, Germany32
 
[1] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTART

[2] [t Another form of the Weber
equation with 1/cc removed from
parenthesis expression] PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTART
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 19 		3111) Snow is called the "father of
epidemiology".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381.
2. ^ "John Snow."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 17 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
3. ^ "John Snow", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
1, Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
p643.
4. ^ John Snow, M.D., "On the Mode of
Communication of Cholera", London: John
Churchill, New Burlington Street,
England, 1855.
http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowbo
ok.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381.
7. ^ "John Snow."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 17 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
8. ^ "John Snow", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
1, Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
p643.
9. ^ John Snow, M.D., "On the Mode of
Communication of Cholera", London: John
Churchill, New Burlington Street,
England, 1855.
http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowbo
ok.html
10. ^ "John Snow." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
11. ^ John Snow, M.D., "On the Mode of
Communication of Cholera", London: John
Churchill, New Burlington Street,
England, 1855.
http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowbo
ok.html
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381.
13. ^ "John Snow."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 17 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "John Snow", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p643.
16. ^ John Snow, M.D., "On the
Mode of Communication of Cholera",
London: John Churchill, New Burlington
Street, England, 1855.
http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowbo
ok.html
17. ^ "John Snow." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
18. ^ "John Snow." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381. (1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Snow (physician)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow_%
28physician%29
[2]
http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html
London, England18  
[1] During his career, Dr. John Snow
(1813-1858) anesthetized 77 obstetric
patients with chloroform. In addition
to pioneering anesthesia, Dr. Snow is
considered the father of epidemiology:
well before germ theory was formulated,
he studied an epidemic of cholera in S.
London in 1845, and reported (1849)
that the disease was transmitted
through a contaminated
water-supply. PD/Corel
source: http://www.joyceimages.com/image
s/John%20Snow.jpg

[2] Original map by Dr. John Snow
showing the clusters of cholera cases
in the London epidemic of
1854 Original map made by John Snow in
1854, copied from
http://matrix.msu.edu/~johnsnow/images/o
nline_companion/chapter_images/fig12-5.j
pg Author died in 1858, material is
public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jp
g
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 6 		3167) Weierstrass' lectures were
published, as "Die Elemente der
Arithmetik", by one of his students in
1872.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl Theodor
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl
Theodor Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724.
5. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl Theodor
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724. (1854)
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1854)


MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Weierstrass, Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6438>
[3] "Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Theodo
r_Wilhelm_Weierstrass
[4] "Karl Weierstrass." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
[5] "Karl Weierstrass." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
(Catholic Gymnasium) Braunsberg, East
Prussia5  
[1] Source from
de:Image:Karl_Weierstrass.jpg,
from
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Karl_Weierstrass.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 10 11 		3173) Boole writes "Logic is conversant
with two kinds of relations, relations
among things, and relations among
facts. But as facts are expressed by
propositions, the latter species of
relation may, at least, for the
purposes of Logic, be resolved into a
relation among propositions. The
assertion that the fact or event A, is
an invariable consequent of the fact or
event B, may to this extent, at least
be regarded as equivalent to the
assertion that the truth of the
proposition affirming the occurrence of
the event B always implies the truth of
the proposition affirming the
occurrence of the event A. Instead then
of saying that Logic is conversant with
relations among things, and relations
among facts, we are permitted to say
that it is concerned with relations
among things, and relations among
propositions. Of the former kind of
relations we have an example in the
proposition- 'All men are mortal' of
the latter kind in the proposition- 'If
the sun is totally eclipsed, the stars
will become visible'. The one expresses
a relation between 'men' and 'mortal
beings;' the other between the
elementary propositions- 'The sun is
totally eclipsed;' 'The stars will
become visible'. Among such relations,
I suppose to be included, those which
affirm or deny existence with respect
to things, and those which affirm or
deny truth with respect to
propositions. Now let those things, or
those propositions among which relation
is expressed be termed 'the elements of
the propositions by which such relation
is expressed'. Proceeding from this
definition we may then say that i) the
premises of any logical argument
express given relations among certain
elements, and that the conclusion must
express an implied relation among those
elements or among a part of them ie a
relation implied by or inferentially
involved in the premises.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp389-390.
2. ^ "George Boole."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
3. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
4. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
5. ^ "Boole, George", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p95.
6. ^ "Boole, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ George Boole, "An
Investigation of the Laws of Thought on
Which Are Founded the Mathematical
Theories of Logic and Probabilities",
Walton and Maberly,
(1854). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SWgLVT0otY8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ge
orge+Boole
9. ^ "George Boole." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
10. ^ "Boole, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0664>. (1854)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp389-390. (1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Boole." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
[2] "George Boole." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-bool
e
[3] "George Boole". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_B
oole
(Queen's College) Cork, Ireland9  
[1] George Boole (1815-1864) PD/Corel
source: http://georgeboole.net/images/Bo
ole_George.jpg

[2] George Boole Irish mathematician,
logician and philosopher, George Boole
(1815 - 1864), during his tenure as
professor of mathematics at Queen's
College, Cork (now University College
Cork), circa 1860. His invention of
Boolean algebra has come to be
recognized as fundamental to the field
of computer science. (Photo by
Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
* by Keystone * *
reference: 53009793 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=53009793&text=George+Bool
e+
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 8 		3276) (Sir) George Gabriel Stokes (CE
1819-1903), British mathematician and
physicist,1 publishes "Stokes'
theorem"2 which describes an equality
concerning the cosines of a normal
vector of a surface3 .
Stokes for
several years sets the Smith's Prize
Exam at Cambridge with this proving
this theorem as a test question.4

The left hand expression is in two
earlier works of Stokes'. Before
appearing in print in 1854, this
theorem had already appeared in a
letter of William Thomson to Stokes on
July 2, 1850.5

This theorem, a theorem by Gauss, and
the same theorem by Reimann will be
eventually generalized and unified.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
2. ^ Victor J. Katz,
"The History of Stokes' Theorem",
Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 52, No. 3
(May, 1979), pp.
146-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26
90275?seq=4 {Stokes_George_Stokes_Theor
em_1979_2690275.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Victor J. Katz, "The
History of Stokes' Theorem",
Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 52, No. 3
(May, 1979), pp.
146-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26
90275?seq=4 {Stokes_George_Stokes_Theor
em_1979_2690275.pdf}
5. ^ Victor J. Katz, "The History of
Stokes' Theorem", Mathematics Magazine,
Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp.
146-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26
90275?seq=4 {Stokes_George_Stokes_Theor
em_1979_2690275.pdf}
6. ^ Victor J. Katz, "The History of
Stokes' Theorem", Mathematics Magazine,
Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp.
146-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26
90275?seq=4 {Stokes_George_Stokes_Theor
em_1979_2690275.pdf}
7. ^ "George Gabriel Stokes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
8. ^ Victor J. Katz, "The History of
Stokes' Theorem", Mathematics Magazine,
Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp.
146-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26
90275?seq=4 {Stokes_George_Stokes_Theor
em_1979_2690275.pdf} (1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "Stokes, Sir George Gabriel,
1st Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069777>

[2] "George Gabriel Stokes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
[3] "George Gabriel Stokes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gabr
iel_Stokes
[4] "Sir George Gabriel, Bart Stokes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
[5] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659
[7] "Stokes's law."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>

Cambridge, England7  
[1] [t Stokes' test
question.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2690
275?seq=4

[2] Picture of George G.
Stokes Source Memoir and Scientific
Correspondence of the Late Sir George
Gabriel Stokes, Bart Date
1857 Author George G. Stokes PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 7 		3352)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p408-410.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[7] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[8]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[9] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[10] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[11] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
[12] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[13] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[14] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[15] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany6  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 8 		3365) (My own view on this topic is
that there is a larger equation
describing the conservation of
velocity. Each atom has a certain
quantity of velocity, which is
proportional to the quantity of photons
in it. So much of the heat produced by
simple friction, is the release of
particles with a velocity that is
simply changing direction out of the
atom and into a straight line as a free
photon. The velocity was already there
from perhaps some gravitational
exchange far in the past, such as a
collision with another photon. It may
be that a photon-photon collision is
what causes the photons to be released
in simple friction. So there is a
larger, more inclusive equation which
includes {sums} the velocities of all
particles involved. For example,
velocity of moving particles in arm and
metal file + velocity of particles in
piece of metal that will be freed by
passing file scraping on metal =>
velocity of particles in metal file +
velocity of free photons released from
scraped metal ... I am saying that it
is something like that ... that this
concept is more complex and can't be
confined to quantity of
movement=quantity of heat. But we
should verify all of these claims for
all theories as best as possible.6 )
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
2. ^ Rudolf Clausius,
Thomas Archer Hirst, John Tyndall, "The
Mechanical Theory of Heat: With Its
Applications to the Steam-engine
and...", J. Van Voorst,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=On+Se
veral+Convenient+Forms+of+the+Fundamenta
l+Equations+of+the+Mechanical+Theory+of+
Heat&source=web&ots=3bCIaMfz8P&sig=kWc0A
-YS1UWhLHRKN7na4fA5zN8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA111,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Rudolf Clausius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Rudolf
Clausius." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>
.
8. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[2] "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[4] "Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Clausius, Rudolf", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p195-196
[7] Clausius, R. (1850),
“Über die bewegende Kraft der
Wärme, Part I, Part II”, Annalen der
Physik 79: 368–397, 500–524 . See
English Translation: On the Moving
Force of Heat, and the Laws regarding
the Nature of Heat itself which are
deducible therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851),
2, 1–21, 102–119. German: Part
1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

(Royal Artillery and Engineering
School) Berlin, Germany7  
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 10 		3423) In writings and public
appearances Wallace opposes
vaccination, eugenics, and vivisection
while strongly supporting women’s
rights3 , but also believes in and
promotes spiritualism4 .

Also over the course of his life,
Alfred Wallace publishes 21 books, and
the list of his articles, essays, and
letters in periodicals totals more than
700 items.5

Among Wallace's books are: "The Malay
Archipelago: The Land of the
Orang-Utan, and the Bird of Paradise"
(1869), "Contributions to the Theory of
Natural Selection (1870), a two-volume
"Geographical Distribution of Animals"
(1876) and "Island Life" (1880) which
synthesize knowledge about the
distribution and dispersal of living
and extinct animals in an evolutionary
framework, and Darwinism (1889) which
contains an explanation of natural
selection and Wallace's points of
divergence from Darwin.6
Wallace wins
the Royal Society of London’s Royal
Medal (1868), Darwin Medal (1890; for
his independent origination of the
origin of species by natural
selection), Copley Medal (1908), and
Order of Merit (1908); the Linnean
Society of London’s Gold Medal (1892)
and Darwin-Wallace Medal (1908); and
the Royal Geographical Society’s
Founder’s Medal (1892).7 (Perhaps
all these medals are mainly due to
Wallace's public support of the theory
of common ancestry and natural
selection.8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p425.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p425.
3. ^ "Alfred
Russel Wallace." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634738/Alfred-Russel-Wallace>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p425.
5. ^ "Alfred Russel
Wallace." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634738/Alfred-Russel-Wallace>.
6. ^ "Alfred Russel Wallace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_R
ussel_Wallace
7. ^ "Alfred Russel Wallace."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634738/Alfred-Russel-Wallace>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p425.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p425. {1854}
Malaysia9  
[1] Description A.R. Wallace (age
24), 1848 Source Alfred Russel
Wallace: My Life (1905); Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page is
(was) here * 13:46, 5. Jun 2006
Holger.waechtler 599 x 802 (199.487
Byte) Date 1848; Commons upload by
Tohma 12:58, 5 June 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
_%2824%29.jpg

[2] Alfred Russel Wallace Français :
Photographie de Wallace prise à
Singapour en 1862. From
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15997 PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
_1862_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15997.pn
g
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 8 		3472)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431.
2. ^ "Alexander
William Williamson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/644441/Alexander-William-Williamson>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431.
5. ^ "Alexander
William Williamson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-w
illiam-williamson
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Alexander William
Williamson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/644441/Alexander-William-Williamson>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp430-431. {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander William
Williamson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_W
illiam_Williamson
[2] "Alexander William Williamson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_William_Williamson
[3] "Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p733.
(University College, London) London,
England7  
[1] Alexander William Williamson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Williamson_Alexander.jpg

[2] Description Picture of
Alexander W. Williamson Source The
Life & Experiences of Sir Henry Enfield
Roscoe (Macmillan: London and New
York), p. 34 Date 1906 Author
Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Williamson_Alexander_
W.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 6 		3545)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
2. ^ "Riemann, Georg
Friedrich Bernhard", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p746-747.
3. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
4. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Riemann/Papers.html http://www.math
s.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Riemann/Tri
g/ {http://www.emis.de/classics/Riemann
/Trig.pdf}
5. ^ "Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
6. ^
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Riemann/Papers.html http://www.math
s.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Riemann/Tri
g/ {http://www.emis.de/classics/Riemann
/Trig.pdf} {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernhard Riemann." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[2] "Bernhard Riemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[3] "Bernhard Riemann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[4] "Riemann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann
[5] B. Riemann, Grundlagen für eine
allgemeine Theorie der Functionen einer
veränderlichen complexen Grösse,
Inauguraldissertation, Göttingen
(1851). http://www.emis.de/classics/Rie
mann/Grund.pdf
[6] The Mathematical Papers of Georg
Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(1826-1866) http://www.emis.de/classics
/Riemann/
[7]
Ueber%20die%20Darstellbarkeit%20einer%20
Function%20durch%20eine%20trigonometrisc
he%20Reihe
[8] "Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Georg_Fr
iedrich_Bernhard_Riemann
[9] "Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
[10] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p321.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany5  
[1] Scientist: Riemann, Bernhard (1826
- 1866) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.5 x 14 cm / Sheet: 24.1 x
18.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R003-02a.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 20 		3546)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
2. ^ "Riemann, Georg
Friedrich Bernhard", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p746-747.
en
en {1854}
5. ^ Record ID2702. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Riemann, Georg Friedrich
Bernhard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p746-747.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
Ueber%20die%20Darstellbarkeit%
20einer%20Function%20durch%20eine%20trig
onometrische%20Reihe
14. ^ "Riemann, Georg Friedrich
Bernhard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p746-747.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
en
19. ^ "Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
en {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernhard Riemann." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[2] "Bernhard Riemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[3] "Bernhard Riemann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[4] "Riemann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann
[5] "Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Georg_Fr
iedrich_Bernhard_Riemann
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p321
[7]
B. Riemann, Grundlagen für eine
allgemeine Theorie der Functionen einer
veränderlichen complexen Grösse,
Inauguraldissertation, Göttingen
(1851). http://www.emis.de/classics/Rie
mann/Grund.pdf
[8] The Mathematical Papers of Georg
Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(1826-1866) http://www.emis.de/classics
/Riemann/
[9]
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Riemann/Papers.html http://www.math
s.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Riemann/Tri
g/
[10]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
[11] "Ueber die Hypothesen, welche der
Geometrie zu Grunde liegen."
Habilitationsschrift, 1854,
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen,
13. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/ English
translation: "On the Hypotheses which
lie at the Bases of
Geometry." Bernhard
Riemann Translated by William Kingdon
Clifford Nature, Vol. VIII. Nos. 183,
184, pp. 14--17, 36,
37. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/WKCGeom.html
[12] M. Reid and Heinrich W.
Guggenheimer, Review: [untitled], The
American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 96,
No. 4 (Apr., 1989), pp.
370-373. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
24107?seq=2
[13] "Johann Friedrich Herbart".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_F
riedrich_Herbart
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany19  
[1] Scientist: Riemann, Bernhard (1826
- 1866) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.5 x 14 cm / Sheet: 24.1 x
18.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R003-02a.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 10 		3551)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
5. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
8. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
9. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
10. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[3] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
[4]
"Marcellin Berthelot." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
(Collège de France) Paris, France9
 
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 24 25 		3552) Berthelot is born into a
middle-income Parisian family.6
Berthelo
t is the son of a doctor, and studies
medicine at the Collège de France but
is more interested in chemistry, and
becomes assistant to Antoine-Jérôme
Balard in 1851.7
Berthelot is professor
of organic chemistry at the Ecole
Supérieure de Pharmacie (1859–76)
and professor of chemistry at the
Collège de France (1864–1907).8
In
1860, Berthelot declines German chemist
August Kekule’s offer to join the
Karlsruhe Conference, which is
organized to reach an agreement on
formulas and atomic weights, because
Berthelot wants to return to equivalent
weights.9

Berthelot unsuccessfully leads the
opposition to the atomic conventions
put forward by Cannizzaro.10
Berthelot
wrongly suggests that the heat emitted
by a chemical reaction is its driving
force. However, reversible reactions
(shown by Williamson) show that heat is
not the driving force of reactions.
Gibbs will describe "free energy" and
"chemical potential" to define the
driving force behind chemical
reactions.11 (As a novice, I feel that
simple physical proximity to each other
has to be one part of the drive of
reaction, in addition, to material
distribution - atomic structure,
particle collisions and interactions.12
)
In 1866 Berthelot becomes president of
the Chemical Society of Paris.13
In
1881 Berthelot becomes a senator.14
In
1886 Berthelot enters the cabinet.15
In
1889 Berthelot succeeds Louis Pasteur
as secretary of the French Academy of
Sciences.16

Berthelot is a prolific writer, with
some 1,600 published papers and books
in his lifetime.17

Scholars of chemical history are
greatly indebted to Berthelot for his
book "Les Origines de l'alchimie"
(1885) and his "Introduction a l'etude
de la chimie des anciens et du moyen
age" (1889), as well as for publishing
translations of various old Greek,
Syriac and Arabic treatises on alchemy
and chemistry ("Collection des anciens
alchimistes grecs", 1887-1888, and "La
Chimie au moyen age", 1893). Berthelot
is also the author of "Science et
philosophie" (1886), which contains a
well-known letter to Renan on "La
Science ideale et la science positive",
of "La Revolution chimique, Lavoisier"
(1890), of "Science et morale" (1897),
and of numerous articles in "La Grande
Encyclopedie", which Berthelot helps to
establish.18

Berthelot is one of the last chemists
to reject Dalton's theory of atoms.19
20 He rejects the theories of chemical
atoms and molecular constitutions,
which he considered to be "theories of
language", as opposed to his own system
of equivalents, which he views to be
"theories of facts" firmly grounded on
empirical evidence.21

(Some people may confuse Pierre Eugène
Marcellin Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO)
(CE 1827-1907) with another French
chemist, Claude-Louis Berthollet
(BRTOlA) (CE 1748-1822).22 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ "Marcellin
Pierre Eugene Berthelot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
3. ^ "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p90-91.
4. ^ "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p90-91.
6. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
7. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
8. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
9. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
17. ^
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
18. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
19. ^ Mark Michalovic, "John Dalton and
the Scientific Method", Chemical
Heritage Newsmagazine, Spring 2006, vol
26,
num http://www.chemheritage.org/pubs/ch
-v26n1-articles/exp_Dalton.html
20. ^ Marcellin Berthelot, "On Systems
of Chemical of Notation", Letter of M.
Berthelot to M. Marignac, Moniteur
Scientifique 19, 1254-6 (1877),
translated by P. Casamajor, American
Journal of Science 115, 184-7 (1878)
{facsimile published in Mary Jo Nye,
The Question of the Atom (Los Angeles:
Tomash,
1984)} http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/B
erthelot.html
21. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Marcellin Pierre
Eugene Berthelot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
24. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1854}
25. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London By Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1 {1866}


MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
(Collège de France) Paris, France23
 
[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Benzene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben
zene
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 9 		3671) Crookes is the oldest of 16
children.3
In 1856, having inherited a
large fortune from his father, Crookes
devotes himself entirely to scientific
work of various kinds at his private
laboratory in London.4
Crookes has 10
children.5
In 1859 Crookes founds the
Chemical News, which makes him widely
known, and Crookes is editor and owner
all his life.6
Crookes grows interested
in psychic research and spiritualism.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ "Crookes,
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
4. ^ "Crookes, Sir
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
10 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
6. ^ "William
Crookes." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
8. ^ "Crookes,
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217.
9. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217. {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[2] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[4] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
(private lab) London, England8
(presumably) 
[1] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg

[2] Description: Scan of a picture of
William Crookes Source: A History of
Science (vol. 5, facing page
106) Date: 1904 Author: Henry Smith
Williams PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Crookes_William.jpg
145 YBN
[01/04/1855 AD] 8 		3650)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On the Theory of Colours in relation
to Colour-Blindness", A Letter to Dr.
G. Wilson., From the "Transactions of
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts",
Vol IV, Part III. From James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p119-125. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
3. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On the Theory of Colours in relation
to Colour-Blindness", A Letter to Dr.
G. Wilson., From the "Transactions of
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts",
Vol IV, Part III. From James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p119-125. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard
C. Dougal, Clive A. Greated, Alan E.
Marson, Then and now: James Clerk
Maxwell and colour, Optics & Laser
TechnologyVolume 38, Issues 4-6, ,
Colour and Design in the natural and
man-made worlds, June-September 2006,
Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3) Keywords:
Colour analysis, synthesis and
perception; Colour imaging and
photography
6. ^ J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on
colour as perceived by the eye, with
remarks on colour-blindness, Trans R
Soc Edinburgh 21 (1857) (2), pp.
275–298. From James Clerk Maxwell,
Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific
Papers of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J.
Clay, 1890,
p126-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
7. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On the Theory of Colours in relation
to Colour-Blindness", A Letter to Dr.
G. Wilson., From the "Transactions of
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts",
Vol IV, Part III. From James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p119-125. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
8. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On the Theory of Colours in relation
to Colour-Blindness", A Letter to Dr.
G. Wilson., From the "Transactions of
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts",
Vol IV, Part III. From James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p119-125. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08} {01/04/1855}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[5] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[6] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[7] "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588.
[8] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p331.
[9] Lewis Campbell, William
Garnett, "The Life of James Clerk
Maxwell: With Selections from His
Correspondence and Occasional
Writings", Macmillan and co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[10] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[11]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[12] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[13]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[14] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[15] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[16] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 09
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[17] C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
[18] "photography, history of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457919/photography>.
[19] "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
[20]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html

Edinburgh, Scotland7  
[1] [t Maxwell's color
triangle] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p121.

[2] [t Maxwell's figure of color discs
that are placed on tops] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p122.
145 YBN
[01/04/1855 AD] 24 		3651) For this paper Maxwell receives
the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society
of London.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ Richard C.
Dougal, Clive A. Greated, Alan E.
Marson, Then and now: James Clerk
Maxwell and colour, Optics & Laser
TechnologyVolume 38, Issues 4-6, ,
Colour and Design in the natural and
man-made worlds, June-September 2006,
Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
3. ^ Richard C. Dougal, Clive A.
Greated, Alan E. Marson, Then and now:
James Clerk Maxwell and colour, Optics
& Laser TechnologyVolume 38, Issues
4-6, , Colour and Design in the natural
and man-made worlds, June-September
2006, Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
4. ^ J.C. Maxwell, "On the theory of
compound colours and the relations of
the colours of the spectrum", Philos
Trans R Soc London 150 (1860), pp.
57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
5. ^ Richard C.
Dougal, Clive A. Greated, Alan E.
Marson, Then and now: James Clerk
Maxwell and colour, Optics & Laser
TechnologyVolume 38, Issues 4-6, ,
Colour and Design in the natural and
man-made worlds, June-September 2006,
Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
6. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html

7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Richard C. Dougal, Clive
A. Greated, Alan E. Marson, Then and
now: James Clerk Maxwell and colour,
Optics & Laser TechnologyVolume 38,
Issues 4-6, , Colour and Design in the
natural and man-made worlds,
June-September 2006, Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ J.C. Maxwell, "On the
theory of compound colours and the
relations of the colours of the
spectrum", Philos Trans R Soc London
150 (1860), pp. 57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
11. ^ J.C. Maxwell,
"On the theory of compound colours and
the relations of the colours of the
spectrum", Philos Trans R Soc London
150 (1860), pp. 57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
12. ^ J.C. Maxwell,
"On the theory of compound colours and
the relations of the colours of the
spectrum", Philos Trans R Soc London
150 (1860), pp. 57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
13. ^ J.C. Maxwell,
"On the theory of compound colours and
the relations of the colours of the
spectrum", Philos Trans R Soc London
150 (1860), pp. 57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
14. ^ J.C. Maxwell,
"On the theory of compound colours and
the relations of the colours of the
spectrum", Philos Trans R Soc London
150 (1860), pp. 57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
15. ^ J.C. Maxwell,
"On the theory of compound colours and
the relations of the colours of the
spectrum", Philos Trans R Soc London
150 (1860), pp. 57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi
.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p410-447. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
16. ^ "color."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 13 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/color
17. ^ "Tetrachromacy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachroma
cy
18. ^ Robinson, J., Schmitt, E.A.,
Harosi, F.I., Reece, R.J., Dowling,
J.E. 1993. Zebrafish ultraviolet visual
pigment: absorption spectrum, sequence,
and localization. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. U.S.A. 90, 6009–6012.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html

23. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On the Theory of
Colours in relation to
Colour-Blindness", A Letter to Dr. G.
Wilson., From the "Transactions of the
Royal Scottish Society of Arts", Vol
IV, Part III. From James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p119-125. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08}
24. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On the Theory of Colours in relation
to Colour-Blindness", A Letter to Dr.
G. Wilson., From the "Transactions of
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts",
Vol IV, Part III. From James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p119-125. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
{not scanned yet 10/10/08} {01/04/1855}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[5] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[6] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[7] "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588.
[8] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p331.
[9] Lewis Campbell, William
Garnett, "The Life of James Clerk
Maxwell: With Selections from His
Correspondence and Occasional
Writings", Macmillan and co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[10] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[11]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[12] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[13]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[14] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[15] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[16] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 09
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[17] C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
[18] "photography, history of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457919/photography>.
[19] "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
[20] J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on
colour as perceived by the eye, with
remarks on colour-blindness, Trans R
Soc Edinburgh 21 (1857) (2), pp.
275–298. From James Clerk Maxwell,
Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific
Papers of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J.
Clay, 1890,
p126-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[21] H. Helmholtz, "Ueber die Theorie
der zusammengesetzten Farben", Ann Phys
87 (1852), pp. 45–66. Full Text via
CrossRef:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_partne
rName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.o
rg%2F10.1002%2Fandp.18521630904&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=2d0
a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
Helmholtz, Translation (On the theory
of compound colours), Philos Mag 4
(1852) (4), pp.
519–534. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=gVQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:Magazine+date:1852-18
52&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=Cu_vSO24CJqktAOL99Fy#
PPA519,M1
Edinburgh, Scotland23  
[1] On the Theory of Compound Colours
figures 1, 2 and 3 PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p445.

[2] On the Theory of Compound Colours
figures 4, 5, 6 and 7 Fig. 6. Colour
analysis by colour box: summary graphs
of results of observations by Maxwell
(J) and his wife Katherine (K). The
graphs are empirical colour synthesis
functions, S denoting the sum at
different points of the spectrum of the
intensities contributed by the chosen
standard colours of light labelled red
R (red), G (green) and B (blue). The
upper row of letters C, D, E, Fand G
denote positions of the Fraunhofer
solar absorption lines. [t This can
be viewed as how much each of the three
sensors, RGB, in the eye are stimulated
perhaps.] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p445.
145 YBN
[08/08/1855 AD] 5 		2760) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 publishes "On
the Method of Laying Guns in a Battery
without exposing the men to the shot of
the enemy."2

Another interesting statement by
Babbage is "...men of science in Italy
might have made three steps in
advance..." which may imply that
Babbage and others are already aware of
the possibility of walking robots, and
the potential military advantage such a
machine could supply. Perhaps this is
just coincidence, but if not, it also
implies that Babbage, for some reason
feels reluctance to openly express the
idea of walking machines.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ The works of
Charles Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p375.
3. ^ The works of Charles
Babbage / edited by Martin
Campbell-Kelly, London : W. Pickering,
1989, v11 p324.
4. ^ "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
5. ^ The works of Charles Babbage /
edited by Martin Campbell-Kelly, London
: W. Pickering, 1989, v11 p375.
(08/08/1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
[3] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Pilot (locomotive)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_%28lo
comotive%29
Cambridge, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
145 YBN
[09/??/1855 AD] 7 		3285)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
2. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp189-191.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp189-191.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
7. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault (09/1855)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405
[2] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[6] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[7] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[8] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[9] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[10] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[11] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[12]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[13]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[14]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=fr&tl=en
[15]
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

[16] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[17] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
[18] "gyroscope." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
[19] "gyroscope." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Foucault's experiment. PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p190.

[2] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif
145 YBN
[12/10/1855 AD] 52 53 		3641) (Possibly put either entire text
or above notes here49 )50
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ "Maxwell, James
Clerk", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p586-588.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell,
"On Faraday's Lines of Force.",
Teansactions of the Cambridge
philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_
Clerk_Maxwell
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Record ID3281.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On
Faraday's Lines of Force.",
Teansactions of the Cambridge
philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On
Faraday's Lines of Force.",
Teansactions of the Cambridge
philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
18. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
26. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On
Faraday's Lines of Force.",
Teansactions of the Cambridge
philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
29. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
30. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On
Faraday's Lines of Force.",
Teansactions of the Cambridge
philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
33. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
34. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
35. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
36. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
37. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
38. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
39. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910,
p271. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CGJDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA271,M
1
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ Ted
Huntington.
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ Ted
Huntington.
46. ^ Ted Huntington.
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Ted
Huntington.
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On
Faraday's Lines of Force.",
Teansactions of the Cambridge
philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
51. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
52. ^ J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
{12/10/1855 (and 02/11/1856}
53. ^ "Maxwell, James
Clerk", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p586-588. {1855}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[6]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[7] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[8]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[9] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[10]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[11] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England51  
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 7 		2463)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p282.
3. ^ "Pierre
Fidele Bretonneau". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p282.
5. ^ "bretonneau
pierre". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bretonneau-
pierre?cat=health
6. ^ "Pierre Fidele Bretonneau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6385/Pierre-Fidele-Bretonneau
7. ^ "bretonneau pierre". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bretonneau-
pierre?cat=health (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Bretonneau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bret
onneau
Tours, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 4 		2627) Marshall Hall (CE 1790-1857)1
introduces (1855) a method of
artificial respiration that was widely
applied in cases of drowning.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p313.
2. ^ "Marshall Hall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
3. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
4. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marshall Hall
(physiologist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Ha
ll_%28physiologist%29
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Marshall%20Hall%2
0
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 6 		2632)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp313-314.
3. ^, p118.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hts4AAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22gravity+b
attery%22+callaud#PPA118,M1 Elementary
Treatise on Electric Batteries: From
the French of Alfred Niaudet ... By
Alfred Niaudet Translated by L. M.
Fishback Published 1880 J. Wiley &
sons
4. ^, p118.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hts4AAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22gravity+b
attery%22+callaud#PPA118,M1 Elementary
Treatise on Electric Batteries: From
the French of Alfred Niaudet ... By
Alfred Niaudet Translated by L. M.
Fishback Published 1880 J. Wiley &
sons
5. ^ "John Frederic Daniell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8713/John-Frederic-Daniell
6. ^, p118.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hts4AAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22gravity+b
attery%22+callaud#PPA118,M1 Elementary
Treatise on Electric Batteries: From
the French of Alfred Niaudet ... By
Alfred Niaudet Translated by L. M.
Fishback Published 1880 J. Wiley &
sons (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Frederic Daniell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Freder
ic_Daniell
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Frederic+Dan
iell+?cat=technology
[3] "pyrometer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2062/pyrometer
[4]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/daniell.htm
[5] "Daniell cell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniell_cel
l
[6] "amalgamate". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
malgamate
[7] "History of the battery".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_battery
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Engraving of a gravity cell from
the Cyclopedia of Telegraphy and
Telephony, published in 1919. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Gravi
ty_cell.gif

[2] Gravity cells PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hts4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22g
ravity+battery%22+callaud#PPA118,M1 Ele
mentary Treatise on Electric Batteries:
From the French of Alfred Niaudet
... By Alfred Niaudet Translated by
L. M. Fishback Published 1880 J.
Wiley & sons 118
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 8 9 		2637) George Peacock (PEKoK) (CE
1791-1858)1 , publishes a memoir of
Thomas Young, and edits the first two
volumes of the three volume
"Miscellaneous works" (1855, London2 )
of Thomas Young3 . This is the main
source for those interested in Young's
contribution to the transition in
popularity from Newton's corpuscular
theory of light to the wave (or
undulatory) theory for light.4
These
three volumes contain 1. Scientific
memoirs. 2. Scientific memoirs
{concluded} Biographies of men of
science. 3. Hieroglyphical essays and
correspondence. The articles
"Languages" and "Herculaneum", from the
Supplement to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Lives of eminent scholars
(which contains Young's biographies of
scientists5 ).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314.
2. ^
http://melvyl.cdlib.org/F/DG9S92GEBIY6FH
A9QPJFGHVNLHM7JPJH5429UQU7QGY94LSSD2-002
41?func=full-set-set&set_number=035912&s
et_entry=000017&format=999
3. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://melvyl.cdlib.org/F/DG9S92GEBIY6FH
A9QPJFGHVNLHM7JPJH5429UQU7QGY94LSSD2-002
41?func=full-set-set&set_number=035912&s
et_entry=000017&format=999
7. ^ "George Peacock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock
8. ^ "George Peacock (1855)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "George
Peacock". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_P
eacock (1855) (1855)
9. ^
http://melvyl.cdlib.org/F/DG9S92GEBIY6FH
A9QPJFGHVNLHM7JPJH5429UQU7QGY94LSSD2-002
41?func=full-set-set&set_number=035912&s
et_entry=000017&format=999 (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "George Peacock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-44782
5/George-Peacock
[2] "George Peacock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peac
ock
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Peacock.html
Cambridge, England7 (presumably) 
[1] George Peacock (1791-1858), English
mathematician. Source en.wikipedia
(see there the description page) Date
XIX century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Peacock.jpg

[2] George Peacock PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Peacock.html
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 9 		2764)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p324.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p324.
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocrine-g
land?cat=health
4. ^ "exocrine gland". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocrine-gl
and?cat=health
5. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
6. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
7. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
8. ^ "Thomas Addison". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Addison+?c
at=health
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p324. (1855) (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Addison".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3700/Thomas-Addison
[2] "Thomas Addison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Addi
son
[3] "Addison's Disease". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Addison'
s_Disease
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/suprarenal?
cat=health
[6]
http://www.answers.com/topic/anemia?cat=
health
(Guy's Hospital) London, England8
 
[1] Thomas Addison, 1795-1870 PD/Corel

source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html

[2] endocrine gland endocrine
glands A. thyroid B. pituitary
gland C. pineal gland D. thymus E.
adrenal glands F. pancreas G. ovaries
(female) H. testes (male) (Carlyn
Iverson) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/end
ocrine-gland?cat=health
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 7 		3020)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
2. ^ "Maury, Matthew
Fontaine". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
4. ^ "Matthew
Fontaine Maury", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p586.
5. ^ 5. ^ "Maury, Matthew Fontaine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 28 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>
6. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury". A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361. (1855)
Washington, DC, USA6  
[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg‎
(259 � 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg


[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 9 		3021) In 1862 Mallet publishes two
volumes, dealing with the Great
Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857 and "The
First Principles of Observational
Seismology". Mallet then brings forward
evidence to show that the depth below
the earth's surface, where impulse of
the Neapolitan earthquake came from, is
about 8 or 9 geographical miles.6

One of his Mallet's most important
essays is that communicated to the
Royal Society (Phil. Trans. clxiii.
147; 1874), entitled "Volcanic Energy:
an Attempt to develop its True Origin
and Cosmical Relations" in which Mallet
seeks to show that volcanic heat may be
attributed to the effects of crushing,
contortion and other disturbances in
the crust of the earth; these
disturbances leading to the formation
of lines of fracture, more or less
vertical, down which water moves, and
if the temperature generated is
sufficient, volcanic eruptions of steam
or lava would follow.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361.
2. ^ "Maury, Matthew
Fontaine". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Maury, Matthew
Fontaine". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>
5. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Matthew_
Fontaine_Maury
6. ^ "Robert Mallet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_M
allet
7. ^ "Robert Mallet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_M
allet
8. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury". A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361. (1855)
Washington, DC, USA8  
[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg‎
(259 � 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg


[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 6 7 		3024)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp361-362.
2. ^ "seismograph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6633>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp361-362.
4. ^ "Luigi
Palmieri". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Palmi
eri
5. ^ "Vesuvius Observatory". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesuvius_Ob
servatory
6. ^ "seismograph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6633>. (1855)
7. ^
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topi
cs/seismology/history/part06.php (1856)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11431a.h
tm
(Vesuvius Observatory) Naples, Italy4 5
 
[1] Figure 4. Palmieri's ''sismografo
elettro-magnetico'' (reproduced from
The Engineer, 33, 1877, p. 407).
Vertical motion is detected by a mass
on a spiral spring E. The U-tubes n
detect horizontal motion. Paper is
unrolled from the drum i and a pencil
mark put on the paper at m. The speed
of the paper is regulated by the clock
B. The clock A is stopped by the
earthquake to give the time of the
shock. PD
source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
ing/topics/seismology/history/figures/fi
g_04.gif

[2] Luigi Palmieri PD/Corel
source: http://storing.ingv.it/tromos/im
ages/01014.JPG
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 17 18 		3082)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Robert Bunsen."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
3. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
4. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
5. ^ "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Von
Bunsen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
11. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
12. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
(image to left)
(from Poggendorffs Ann.
Physik, 100, p. 84-5.)
15. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
16. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375. (1855)
18. ^
"Robert Bunsen." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en (introduces in 1855) (introduces in)
1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany16  
[1] presumably Bunsen's burner from
[from Poggendorffs Ann. Physik, 100, p.
84-5.] PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_burner1.gif

[2] A simple bunsen burner with needle
valve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Bunsen_burner.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 14 15 16 17 		3131) In 1866 Parkes founds the
Parkesine Company and begins commercial
production of parkesine. However,
Parkes's business fails. Daniel Spill.
A talented chemist, and works manager
at the Parkesine Company takes over the
company, renaming it the Xylonite
Company and markets celluloid as
Xylonite and Ivoride, but goes bankrupt
in 1874. However, Spill reopens in a
new location in 1875, takes on several
partners in 1877 becoming the British
Xylonite Company and they achieve
commercial success producing celluloid
collars and cuffs.11

John Wesley Hyatt of the Hyatt
Brothers, in the United States will
discover that nitrate cellulose mixed
with camphor creates a much more
pliable product. The Hyatt Brothers
will find planet-wide success and bring
in the age of modern plastics.12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p384.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
6. ^ "Alexander
Parkes." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 20 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
7. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
8. ^ Record ID2514. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
11. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
12. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
13. ^ "Alexander Parkes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes
14. ^ "Parkes, Alexander."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8513>. (c1855)
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384. (early 1850s)
16. ^
"Alexander Parkes." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes (1855 patents)
17. ^ "Alexander Parkes."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-p
arkes (1855 patents)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.plastiquarian.com/ind3.htm
(Elkington and Mason copper smelting
plant) Pembrey, South Wales, England13
 
[1] A showcase of colourful plastics
was displayed at the 1862 London
International Exhibition. Although
Vulcanite had been shown by both
Hancock and Goodyear at the 1851 Great
Exhibition, this was the first time
that a colourful material that did not
rely on a surface finish or dye had
been put on public display.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm

[2] The following pictures show
perhaps some of those original exhibits
and justify Parkes' optimism and the
award of a prize medal ''for excellence
of product''. 1862 London
exhibit COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 32 33 		3139) In 1869, in conjunction with H.
P. J. Vogelsang, Geissler proves the
existence of liquid carbon dioxide in
cavities in quartz and topaz.29
Geissle
r was educated as a glass-blower.30
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
4. ^ Record ID1692.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
6. ^ Record ID1683.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Geissler pump." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 21 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/geissler-pu
mp
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry
Thurston Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The
New International Encyclopædia",
p239. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22&pg=P
A239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookclip
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
14. ^ Record ID2878.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Thomas Edward Thorpe, "A
Dictionary of Applied Chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co., (1912), p559.
19. ^
Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston
Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The New
International Encyclopædia",
p239. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22&pg=P
A239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookclip
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Geissler tube."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 21
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/geissler-tu
be
22. ^ "Geissler tube." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/geissler-tu
be
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385.
26. ^ "Heinrich
Geissler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Ge
issler
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Geissler, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6312>.
29. ^ "Heinrich Geissler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Geissler
30. ^ "Heinrich Geissler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Geissler
31. ^ "Geissler, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6312>.
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp384-385. (1855)
33. ^
"Geissler, Heinrich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6312>. (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Heinrich Wilhelm
Geissler", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p351
[2]
"Geissler tube". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geissler_tu
be
Bonn, Germany31  
[1] Heinrich Geissler PD/Corel
source: http://www.aargon-neon.com/image
s/recent-projects/Geissler-portraitLG.jp
g

[2] The Geissler pump PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 6 		3160)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p388.
4. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
5. ^ "Remak, Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p740.
6. ^ "Robert Remak." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>.
[2]
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 34 		3163) Ducheene publishes over fifty
volumes containing his researches on
muscular and nervous diseases, and on
the applications of electricity both
for diagnostic purposes and for
treatment.16

This work is translated to English by
GV Poore in "Selections from the
clinical works of Dr Duchenne (de
Boulogne)." (London: The New Sydenham
Society, 1883).17

In 1838 interest in electrical methods
of treatment become popular when
Cerletti and Bini introduce
electroconvulsive therapy (Cerletti,
1950).18 High voltage electricity on
the human nervous system in the crude
involuntary application of
"electroshock" or "electroconvulsive"
therapy, even involuntarily still is
used in some psychiatric hospitals on
unwilling people. This practice of
applying a large voltage to the human
nervous system needs to be stopped if
unconsensual, but even if consensual
(which I think should be allowed
although I do not advocate), the
theories behind it, and the supposed
beneficial results, in particular given
the trauma induced, are highly doubtful
in my mind. I compare it to cooking a
hotdog with electricity in terms of
precision and overall effect. The wise
use of electricity in testing the
functioning of nerves, and stimulating
paralyzed muscles (although how much of
this may be replaced by remote or local
photon muscle stimulation when the
secret is finally shown to all is
unknown) are some beneficial results of
the application of electricity to
health science of Duchenne and
others.19

Quoting from selections of Duchenne's
writings:
"...faradisation (applying a high
voltage20 ) of a very wasted muscle in
the last stage of atrophy causes no
movement, or only a feeble one, of the
limb or part of the limb to which it
belongs, especially when the health
antagonising muscles oppose a tonic
resistance to its action. We must not
conclude that the contractility of such
a muscle is weakened, the true meaning
of such a fact being merely that the
fibres are insufficient for performing
the normal work of the muscle."21
Duchen
ne describes paralysis of the tongue,
palate and lips, a disease called
"glosso-labio-laryngeal paralysis"
which Duchenne had originally named
"progressive muscular paralysis of the
tongue, soft palate, and lips".22 This
raises the issue of naming conventions,
which in my view should be as simple
and accurate as possible. Problems
arise when there are many different
languages, and many times Latin is
preferred, although Latin is not in
common use anymore.23

In describing progressive locomotor
ataxy, Duchenne writes "The sexual
power in man sooner or later has
manifested considerable change: once it
was increased; in all the others it was
weakened or abolished."24 , and it
causes me to wonder if Duchenne applied
so-called faradisation to a penis.
Electrical stimulation of the anus is
used to make the penis erect in mammal
species, however does direct electrical
stimulation cause the penis to become
erect?25

In describing lead palsy and "vegtable
palsy" Duchenne writes "under the
influence of local faradisation, I
noted on the right side that the
extensor communis digitorum, extensor
minimi digiti, extensor secundii
internodi, and the extensores carpi
radiales, did not contract to a maximum
current with moist rheophores, and even
electro-puncture (a needle being
plunged into the muscles) only caused a
few fibrillary contractions with the
most intense current.".26

Duchenne writes about so-called
"hyterical paralysis". One interesting
case Cuchenne describes is case number
76 "A girl, aged 24, a baker's
assistant, usually healthy, was in the
habit of carrying bread daily to a
customer. One day she found him dead in
his bed, and the shock was so great as
to cause an hysterical fit, lasting
several hours. After this she remained
deprived of movement, the lower limbs
being tetanised, and presenting a
well-marked equino-varus. Her
menstruation was suppressed, and she
became blind. Certain senses were
strangely perverted. If she were
pinched or spoken to on the right side,
she felt and heard on the left.
The
contractions of the legs lasted several
years, long after the disappearance of
the other troubles, and this
persistence might have caused a fear
that they were symptomatic of damage to
the cord. Nevertheless the whole group
of symptoms just given made me certain
of its hysterical origin.
This diagnosis was
completely justified by her spontaneous
and sudden recovery, only some
deformity of the joints, caused by the
long-sustained faulty posture of the
feet, remaining."27

Duchenne writes on "nervous deafness":
"1. The rheophore having been placed in
my own external Auditory meatus
(previously half-filled with water),
and the apparatus being at its minimum,
I perceived, on the instant that the
intermission of the current took place,
a little dry parchment-like sound, a
crackling which I referred to the
bottom of the external auditory meatus.
When the intermissions were very rapid
the sound resembled a crepitation, or
the noise produced by the wings of a
fly flying between a window-pane and
the blind. The intensity of these
sounds increased with the force of the
current.
2. To the auditory phenomenon was added
a sense of tickling in the bottom of
the ear, proportional to the strength
of the current, and absolutely limited
to the point at which the sound seemed
to originate.
3. After a certain time, and with a
certain degree of tension of current
(voltage28 ), I felt very plainly a
tickling of the right side of my tongue
at the junction of the middle and
posterior thirds. As the stength of the
current increased, the tickling reached
the point of the tongue, where I then
felt a numbness and a disagreeable
pricking which was not actually
painful. This experiment is often
followed by a numbness, and sometimes
by an over-sensitiveness of the two
front thirds of the edge of the tongue,
which persists a considerable time.
4.
It seemed also as if my tongue were dry
and rough on the side operated upon.
Such
were the phenomena which first
attracted my attention, and which
appeared almost in the order I have
indicated in the patients who were
submitted to this experiment.
5. I must
mention a very important phenomenon
which, often enough, appears when the
stimulation is sufficiently
energenetic, viz., the production of a
peculiar taste. It was the last
phenomenon to attract my attention,
because it is masked byu the tickling
and pricking which accompanies it. It
would pass unobserved if attentionwere
not directed to it. Although the taste
is feeble, it can be recognized to be
of a metallic kind.
6. Finally, some
patients perceived which each
intermission a luminous sensation on
the side stimulated.".29

Duchenne describes curing asphyxia
(absence of respiration) by
faradisation of the skin over the
heart.30

In a number of cases Duchenne describes
faradisation curing problems it seems
doubtful were cured by applying
electricity and more likely other
causes. In this sense Duchenne
advertises faradisation, as a cure-all,
and more than is likely and accurate.31
 One example is case 118, a child who
has a general paralysis, which lasted
about forty-eight hours, and was
followed by a complete loss of voice,
and a difficulty in swallowing and
breathing...", Duchenne writes "...The
palsy returned many times, but was soon
overcome by faradisation of the phrenic
nerves. After faradizing the palate,
phrynx, and front of the neck on a
level with the larynx, the child sucked
better, and voice came back a little.
he was completely cured in a few
sittings.". Case no 119 is another
example, which makes use of the very
abstract so-called disease of
"neurosis", Duchenne writing "Case no.
119 - Neurosis marked by a kind of
apnea. Cured by faradising the skin of
the praecordia, and by faradising the
phrenic nerve.". In this case, Duchenne
describes a young man "of nervous
temperament" who has intervals where he
stops breathing for from thirty to
sixty seconds.32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guillaume Duchenne." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
2. ^
http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/67/
3/322
3. ^ Henry Lewis Jones, William Edward
Steavenson, "Medical Electricity: A
Practical Handbook for Students and
Practitioners", H. K. Lewis,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAQ22qarfAcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=remak+ele
ctricity&source=web&ots=4dD7qRqNhP&sig=9
8deF5qFnU4Q3tOI-P9EX_SpSVQ&hl=en#PPA4,M1

4. ^ "Duchenne,
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1344>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Fielding Hudson
Garrison, "An Introduction to the
History of Medicine: With Medical
Chronology ...", Saunders, 1921,
pp690-692. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA690&dq=Guillaume+
Benjamin+Amand+Duchenne#PPA691,M1
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Henry
Lewis Jones, William Edward Steavenson,
"Medical Electricity: A Practical
Handbook for Students and
Practitioners", H. K. Lewis,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAQ22qarfAcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=remak+ele
ctricity&source=web&ots=4dD7qRqNhP&sig=9
8deF5qFnU4Q3tOI-P9EX_SpSVQ&hl=en#PPA4,M1

12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/duchenne.html
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Henry Lewis Jones,
William Edward Steavenson, "Medical
Electricity: A Practical Handbook for
Students and Practitioners", H. K.
Lewis,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAQ22qarfAcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=remak+ele
ctricity&source=web&ots=4dD7qRqNhP&sig=9
8deF5qFnU4Q3tOI-P9EX_SpSVQ&hl=en#PPA4,M1

16. ^ "Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Guillaum
e_Benjamin_Amand_Duchenne
17. ^ "Some contributions of Duchenne
de Boulogne (1806-75)", J Neurol
Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;67:322
(September) http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/con
tent/full/67/3/322
18. ^ A. W. Beveridge, and E. B.
Renvoize, "Electricity: A History of
its use in the Treatment of Mental
Illness in Britain During the Second
Half of the 19th Century", British
Journal of Psychiatry, 153, (1988),
pp157-162. http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/r
eprint/153/2/157.pdf {Electricity_Healt
h_157.pdf}
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne,
translated, edited and condensed by G.
V. Poore, "Selections from the Clinical
Works of Dr. Duchenne (de Boulogne),
The New Sydenham Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
22. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne,
translated, edited and condensed by G.
V. Poore, "Selections from the Clinical
Works of Dr. Duchenne (de Boulogne),
The New Sydenham Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin
Duchenne, translated, edited and
condensed by G. V. Poore, "Selections
from the Clinical Works of Dr. Duchenne
(de Boulogne), The New Sydenham
Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin
Duchenne, translated, edited and
condensed by G. V. Poore, "Selections
from the Clinical Works of Dr. Duchenne
(de Boulogne), The New Sydenham
Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
27. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne,
translated, edited and condensed by G.
V. Poore, "Selections from the Clinical
Works of Dr. Duchenne (de Boulogne),
The New Sydenham Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin
Duchenne, translated, edited and
condensed by G. V. Poore, "Selections
from the Clinical Works of Dr. Duchenne
(de Boulogne), The New Sydenham
Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
30. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne,
translated, edited and condensed by G.
V. Poore, "Selections from the Clinical
Works of Dr. Duchenne (de Boulogne),
The New Sydenham Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin
Duchenne, translated, edited and
condensed by G. V. Poore, "Selections
from the Clinical Works of Dr. Duchenne
(de Boulogne), The New Sydenham
Society, London, 1883.
{duchenne_s001.pdf}
33. ^ "Duchenne,
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1344>.
34. ^
http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/67/
3/322 (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Guillaume Duchenne." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 25 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
[2]
http://www.historiadelamedicina.org/duch
enne.htm
[3]
http://www.e-mergencia.com/html/historia
_ecg/
[4] H. S. J. Lee, H. Lee, "Dates in
Neurology", Informa Health Care,
2000. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dp_Hb0LvvXkC
[5]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?sl=fr&
tl=en
[6] Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne, edited
and translated by R. Andrew
Cuthbertson, "The mechanism of human
facial expression", (Mécanisme de la
physionomie humaine, 1862),
1990. {duchenne_f001.pdf}
Paris, France33  
[1] Duchenne de Boulogne (1806 -
1875) Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne and
assistant electrically stimulate the
face of a live subject in displaying an
expression. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Duchenne_de_Boulogne_
3.jpg

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 12 		3196)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p393.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p393.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
5. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
6. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p393.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Wurtz,
Charles-Adolphe", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p949.
10. ^
Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7617>.
12. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ado
lphe_Wurtz
[2] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Adolphe_Wurtz
(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France11  
[1] Adolphe Wurtz. Courtesy of The
Edgar Fahs Smith Collection, Special
Collections Department, Van
Pelt- Dietrich Library Center,
University of Pennsylvania. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/23/ft5g500723/figures/ft5g500723
_00060.jpg

[2] An improved design was the ‘only
on the cheeks moustache’, developed
by Charles-Adolphe Wurtz PD/Corel
source: http://bp1.blogger.com/_mOsqmOB4
z3s/RebKTINh9oI/AAAAAAAAAWA/Mxvmb0dKPUM/
s1600/wurtz.JPG
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 9 		3200)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp393-394.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp393-394.
3. ^
"Sainte-Claire Deville,
Henri-Étienne." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4962>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp393-394.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p598.
6. ^ "Henri
Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-etien
ne-sainte-claire-deville
7. ^ "Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
Deville." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-etien
ne-sainte-claire-deville
8. ^ "Deville, Henri Étienne
Sainte-Claire", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p949
9. ^
"Sainte-Claire Deville,
Henri-Étienne." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4962>. (1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
Deville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Etien
ne_Sainte-Claire_Deville
[2] "Etienne Henri Sainte-Claire
Deville". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Etienne_
Henri_Sainte-Claire_Deville
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France8  
[1] Description French chemist Henri
Sainte-Claire Deville
(1818-1881) Source
http://hdelboy.club.fr/mineralogistes
.html Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.gif

[2] Description Henri Sainte-Claire
Deville (Graphic: 7.5 x 6.4 cm) Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 7 		3553)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
3. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
6. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
7. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1855}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[3] "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
[4] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
(Collège de France) Paris, France6
 
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 5 6 		3564)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand
Julius", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p200.
3. ^
"Ferdinand Cohn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
4. ^ "Ferdinand Julius Cohn".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ferdinan
d_Julius_Cohn
5. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>. {1855}
6. ^
"Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200. {1855-1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinand Cohn." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[2] "Ferdinand Cohn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[3] "Ferdinand Cohn." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[4] "Ferdinand Julius Cohn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_J
ulius_Cohn
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)4  
[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 4 5 		3565)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand
Julius", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p200.
3. ^
"Ferdinand Julius Cohn". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ferdinan
d_Julius_Cohn
4. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>. {1855}
5. ^
"Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200. {1855-1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinand Cohn." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[2] "Ferdinand Cohn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[3] "Ferdinand Cohn." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[4] "Ferdinand Julius Cohn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_J
ulius_Cohn
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)3  
[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 6 		2650) The Western Union Telegraph
Company is founded.1
Western Union must
store every telegraph, and keep them on
file for wealthy connected people to
search through the messages of people
they are interested in. Why do we never
hear about this massive telegraph
library?2
Western Union became the
dominant telegraph company in the
United States.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (1856)

MORE INFO
[1] "Western Union Corporation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6670/Western-Union-Corporation
Mississippi, USA4 (and New York5
) 
[1] Logo of The Western Union
Company COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Western_Union_money_transfer.png
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 4 		2654) By 1856 the register in the Morse
system is replaced by a sounder
(speaker?1 ), and the code is
transcribed (onto paper2 ) directly
from the sounds by the operator.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "telegraph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (By 1856)
  
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 		2868)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/Dryopithecus
3. ^ "Dryopithecus". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Dryopithecus
4. ^ "Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
5. ^ "edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy (1856)

MORE INFO
[1] "Édouard Lartet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d_Lartet
[2] "Edouard Lartet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edouard_
Lartet
Aurignac?, France4  
[1] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg

[2] Сл. 12. -
Лева
странk
2; доње
вилицk
7;
мајмуl
5;а
дриопl
0;тека
(Dryopithecus Fontani)
који
је у
миоцеl
5;ој
периоk
6;и
живео
у
францm
1;ској.
Доњи
део
слике
предсm
0;авља
изглеk
6; с
поља, a
горњи
је
изглеk
6; озго.
Сликаl
5;о је у
прироk
6;ној
величl
0;ни. c је
очњак;
3p. и 4p.
предњl
0;
кутњаm
4;и; 1a. 2a.
два
прва
задња
кутњаl
2;а; 3a
жљеб
за
послеk
6;њи
задњи
кутњаl
2;. This file has been scanned,
digitally enhanced and uploaded to
Wikimedia Commons by Project Rastko, as
a part of its cooperation with the
Wikimedia foundation. Public domain
This is an illustration from the book
Kameno doba by Jovan Zujovic
(1856-1936), published in Belgrade in
1893. The copyright of this book is
expired and this image is in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dryopithecus_Fontani_jaw.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 4 		3044) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882)1 , tells his friends Lyell
and J. D. Hooker about his theory of
evolution. both Lyell and Hooker do not
accept evolution which they are
familiar with through Lamarck. On their
urging Darwin starts to write a book on
the theory (1856).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Charles Robert
Darwin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp230-231.
3. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1856)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
Downe, Kent, England3
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 6 		3095)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "John William
Draper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
4. ^ "John William
Draper". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1856)
6. ^ "John
William Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211.
(1850-1856)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm
[2]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[3] "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[4] "John Draper." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[5] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA4  
[1] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg

[2] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 7 8 		3096)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "John William
Draper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
3. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "History of the
Intellectual Development of Europe".
New York: Harper & Brothers, 1864.,
1900 edition,
v.1: http://books.google.com/books?id=U
V8IWjgndLsC&vq=History+of+the+Intellectu
al+Development+of+Europe&source=gbs_summ
ary_s&cad=0 v.2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=Z5L9oif
1f64C&dq=History+of+the+Intellectual+Dev
elopment+of+Europe&source=gbs_summary_s&
cad=0
6. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1856)
8. ^ "John
William Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211.
(1850-1856)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm
[2]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[3] "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[4] "John Draper." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[5] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA6  
[1] John William Draper c.1879 by
Edward Bierstadt Source: Smithsonian
Institution, National Museum of
American History, Archives Center,
Draper Family Collection.
http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/i
mages/d8121-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/John_William_Draper.j
pg

[2] John William Draper
c1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.naic.edu/~gibson/drap
er/draper_jwy.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 8 9 		3097) This work is a In this work,
Draper summarizes the history of
science, spending a chapter on the
Museum in Alexandria, concluding the
chapter with the murder of Hypatia.4

Draper's preface begins: "WHOEVER has
had an opportunity of becoming
acquainted with the
mental condition of the
intelligent classes in Europe and
America,
must have perceived that there is a
great and
rapidly-increasing departure from
the public religious faith, and
that, while
among the more frank this divergence is
not
concealed, there is a far more
extensive and far more dangerous
secession,
private and unacknowledged.

So wide-spread and so powerful is this
secession, that it can
neither be treated
with contempt nor with punishment. It
cannot
be extinguished by derision, by
vituperation, or by force. The
time is
rapidly approaching when it will give
rise to serious
political results.

Ecclesiastical spirit no longer
inspires the policy of the world.
Military
fervor in behalf of faith has
disappeared. Its only
souvenirs are the
marble effigies of crusading knights,
reposing
in the silent crypts of churches on
their tombs.

That a crisis is impending is shown by
the attitude of the great
powers toward the
papacy. The papacy represents the ideas
and
aspirations of two-thirds of the
population of Europe. It insists
on a political
supremacy in accordance with its claims
to a
divine origin and mission, and a
restoration of the mediaeval
order of things,
loudly declaring that it will accept
no
reconciliation with modern
civilization."5

Draper concludes: "As to the issue of
the coming conflict, can any one
doubt?
Whatever is resting on fiction and
fraud will be overthrown.
Institutions that
organize impostures and spread
delusions must
show what right they have to
exist. Faith must render an account
of herself
to Reason. Mysteries must give place to
facts.
Religion must relinquish that
imperious, that domineering
position which she has
so long maintained against Science.
There
must be absolute freedom for thought.
The ecclesiastic must learn
to keep himself
within the domain he has chosen, and
cease to
tyrannize over the philosopher,
who, conscious of his own
strength and the
purity of his motives, will bear such
interfe
rence no longer. What was written by
Esdras near the
willow-fringed rivers of
Babylon, more than twenty-three
centuries ago, still
holds good: 'As for Truth it endureth
and is
always strong; it liveth and
conquereth for evermore."'.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ "John William
Draper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
3. ^ "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ History of the Conflict
Between Religion and Science. New York:
D. Appleton,
1874. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11
85 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Xolq
aWimmkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=History+o
f+the+Conflict+Between+Religion+and+Scie
nce&sig=lxy8aYK_b5ZLGW7xQxgh_lDDwrc#PPA3
,M1
6. ^ History of the Conflict Between
Religion and Science. New York: D.
Appleton,
1874. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11
85 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Xolq
aWimmkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=History+o
f+the+Conflict+Between+Religion+and+Scie
nce&sig=lxy8aYK_b5ZLGW7xQxgh_lDDwrc#PPA3
,M1
7. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1856)
9. ^ "John
William Draper", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p211.
(1850-1856)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm
[2]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[3] "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[4] "John Draper." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA7  
[1] John William Draper c.1879 by
Edward Bierstadt Source: Smithsonian
Institution, National Museum of
American History, Archives Center,
Draper Family Collection.
http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/i
mages/d8121-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/John_William_Draper.j
pg

[2] John William Draper
c1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.naic.edu/~gibson/drap
er/draper_jwy.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 24 		3109) In 1860 Bessemer starts his own
steel works, using phosphorus-free iron
ore, and sells high-grade steel for
one-tenth the prices of the
competition. He grows rich in a very
few years.13

The invention of the open-hearth
(Siemens-Martin) process in the late
1860s eventually is more popular than
the Bessemer process.14 William
Siemens, a German person living in
England revisits an old proposal for
using the waste heat given off by the
furnace; directing the fumes from the
furnace through a brick checkerwork,
Siemans heats the brick to a high
temperature, then used the same pathway
for the introduction of air into the
furnace; the preheated air increases
the temperature.15
In his youth
Bessemer learns metal processing in his
father's type foundry and machine
design and chemistry in London.16

Bessemer invention of movable stamps
for dating deeds and other government
documents.17
Before aged 20 Bessemer
invents a new way to stamp deeds, which
the British government uses but doesn't
compensate Bessemer for.18
Bessemer
improves a typesetting machine.19
Bessem
er manufactures "gold" powder from
brass for use in paints.20
Bessemer
grows wealthy from his secret brass
powder process.21
Bessemer retires a
rich man in 1873.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
2. ^ "Henry
Bessemer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-besse
mer
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
5. ^ "Bessemer,
Sir Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
16 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8934>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
9. ^ "Henry
Bessemer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-besse
mer
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
11. ^ "Henry
Bessemer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-besse
mer
12. ^ "Henry Bessemer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-besse
mer
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
14. ^ "Bessemer, Sir
Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8934>.
15. ^ "open-hearth process."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7179>.
16. ^ "Henry Bessemer", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p75.
17. ^ "Bessemer, Sir Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8934>.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380.
19. ^ "Bessemer, Sir
Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8934>.
20. ^ "Bessemer, Sir Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8934>.
21. ^ "Bessemer, Sir Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8934>.
22. ^ "Henry Bessemer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-besse
mer
23. ^ "Bessemer, Sir Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8934>.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379-380. (1856)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Bessemer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-besse
mer
[2] "Henry Bessemer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-besse
mer
[3] "Sir Henry Bessemer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Henr
y_Bessemer
Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, England
(announcement)23  
[1] Scientist: Bessemer, Henry (1813
- 1898) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.4 x 12.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8
x 22.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B4-02a.jpg

[2] Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Henry_Bessemer.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 		3118)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
3. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
4. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
5. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/ (1856)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
[2] "Claude Bernard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[3] "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[4] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[5] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[8] "chyle." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
(Sorbonne) Paris, France4  
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 10 		3119)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
3. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
9. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
10. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/ (1856)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
[2] "Claude Bernard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[3] "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[4] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[5] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[8] "chyle." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
(Sorbonne) Paris, France9  
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 		3136) Francois Charles Lepage invents
"Bois Durci" (BOE DRSE?1 ), a form of
plastic based on cow's blood.2

This is a plastic based on an animal
polymer patented in France in 1856 by
Francois Charles Lepage who calims "A
New Composition of materials which may
be employed as a substitute for wood,
leather, bone, metal and other hard or
plastic substances". Bois Durci is made
from blood (from the Paris
slaughterhouses) and powdered wood,
mixed with coloring to simulate wood
color. Lepage heats and stirs the
mixture until it acquired the 'correct
consistency' and then molds it in a
heated mold. The mixture is cured under
heat and pressure to produce a hard,
dense, glossy, molding.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/boisdurc.ht
m
3. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/boisdurc.ht
m
4. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/boisdurc.ht
m
5. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/boisdurc.ht
m (1856)
Paris, France4  
[1] [t Bois Durci
objects] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/boi
sdurc.htm
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 		3168)
FOOTNOTES
2. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl Theodor
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl
Theodor Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724.
5. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl Theodor
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724. (1856)


MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Weierstrass, Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6438>.
[3] "Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Theodo
r_Wilhelm_Weierstrass
[4] "Karl Weierstrass." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
[5] "Karl Weierstrass." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
(Industry Institute) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Source from
de:Image:Karl_Weierstrass.jpg,
from
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Karl_Weierstrass.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 8 9 		3181)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ "Ludwig, Carl
F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm
Ludwig". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
5. ^ Physician and Surgeon, (Volume 27,
Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
6. ^ "peristalsis." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
27 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
eristalsis>.
7. ^ "Carl Ludwig." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-carl
-friedrich-wilhelm
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390. (1856)
9. ^ "Ludwig,
Carl F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>. (1856)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm
Ludwig". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedr
ich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Ludwig, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p440
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria,
Germany7  
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 		3350)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
2. ^ Fielding Hudson
Garrison, "An Introduction to the
History of Medicine: With Medical
Chronology ...", W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p408-410.
5. ^ "Hermann
von Helmholtz." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 23 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[7] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[8] "Hermann von Helmholtz" (Obituary).
Royal Society (Great Britain). (1894).
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. London: Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
[9] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[10]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[11] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[12] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
[13] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[14] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany4
 
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 13 14 		3425) Charles William (Carl Wilhelm)
Siemens is the younger brother of Ernst
Wener von Siemens (CE 1816-1892), who
after improving the indicator telegraph
of Wheatstone, founds with Halske, in
1847, the company of
"Telegraphenbaunstalt von Siemens &
Halske" to manufacture and construct
telegraph systems, eventually expanding
to London, St. Petersberg and Vienna.8
9 Charles becomes a partner in Ernst's
subsidiary British company.10

Siemens designs the cable-laying ship
Faraday for laying a new trans-Atlantic
cable in 1874.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426.
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Siemens." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sie
mens
3. ^ "Sir William Siemens."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543273/Sir-William-Siemens>.
4. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Siemens." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sie
mens
5. ^ "Sir William Siemens."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543273/Sir-William-Siemens>.
6. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Siemens." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sie
mens
7. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Siemens." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sie
mens
8. ^ "Siemens, Charles William, (Carl
Wilhelm)", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p809-810.
9. ^ "Siemens, Ernst Werner Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p810.
10. ^
"Siemens, Charles William, (Carl
Wilhelm)", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p809-810.
11. ^ "Siemens, Charles William, (Carl
Wilhelm)", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p809-810.
12. ^ "Sir William Siemens."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543273/Sir-William-Siemens>.
13. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Siemens." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sie
mens {1856}
14. ^ "Sir William Siemens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Siemens {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Siemens". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Sie
mens
[2]
http://w4.siemens.de/archiv/en/dokumente
/sir_william_siemens_en.pdf
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Sir William Siemens, 1850 (300 dpi
JPEG) PD/Corel
source: http://w4.siemens.de/archiv/img/
downloads/william_1850.zip

[2] Sir William Siemens, 1875 (300 dpi
JPEG) PD/Corel
source: http://w4.siemens.de/archiv/img/
downloads/william_1875.zip
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 4 		3442)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ William Huggins,
"The Science Papers of William
Huggins", p359-363.
3. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
4. ^ William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins", p359-363.
{1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[7]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[9] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[10]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[11] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[13] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[14] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[18] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
[19] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
[20] "Sir William Huggins".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins {1875}
[21] William Huggins, "On
the Photographic Spectra of Stars",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
171, 1880,
p669-690. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/903lv4817357g261/?p=0d247f6f
0ce04494a5dd9aaa65ae0186π=35 {Huggins_
Spectra_Stars_1880.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England3  
[1] Jupiter drawings 1856 PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 		3457)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Charles Drury Brand, Raymond
Bonnett, "Lines of Light",
p60. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
O2U8OMfLVEC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=%22Willi
am+Swan%22+spectrum+1894&source=web&ots=
PeMo6WX9e_&sig=oTOacnc_bPqGzxEF7DcQ81kv5
UI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct
=result
Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
3. ^ Swan, "Prismatic Spectra", pp.
413-414, 419-420; McGucken,
Spectroscopy, pp. 24-27.
4. ^ John Charles
Drury Brand, Raymond Bonnett, "Lines of
Light",
p60. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
O2U8OMfLVEC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=%22Willi
am+Swan%22+spectrum+1894&source=web&ots=
PeMo6WX9e_&sig=oTOacnc_bPqGzxEF7DcQ81kv5
UI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct
=result
Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {1856}
Edinburgh, Scotland4   
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 5 		3554)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
3. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
4. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
5. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[4] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
(Collège de France) Paris, France4
 
[1] Formic Acid GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For
mic_acid

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 15 16 17 18 19 		3607)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Sabine, "The History and
Progress of the Electric Telegraph:
With Descriptions of Some of the
Apparatus", Virtue & Co.,
1869,p204-206. http://books.google.com/
books?id=7ukOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA212&lpg=PA212
&dq=lenoir+electrograph&source=web&ots=4
CALZ6ZivO&sig=qxARx7-RA-knXiXakuN3atH3Rr
A&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=
result#PPA204,M1
2. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
3. ^ Record ID3601. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record
ID3606. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/casell
i.html
6. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm
7. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/casell
i.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Robert Sabine, "The
History and Progress of the Electric
Telegraph: With Descriptions of Some of
the Apparatus", Virtue & Co.,
1869,p204-206. http://books.google.com/
books?id=7ukOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA212&lpg=PA212
&dq=lenoir+electrograph&source=web&ots=4
CALZ6ZivO&sig=qxARx7-RA-knXiXakuN3atH3Rr
A&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=
result#PPA204,M1
11. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/a
ndrewkantor/2004-02-06-kantor_x.htm
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/casell
i.html
14. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/casell
i.html
15. ^ Robert Sabine, "The History and
Progress of the Electric Telegraph:
With Descriptions of Some of the
Apparatus", Virtue & Co.,
1869,p204-206. http://books.google.com/
books?id=7ukOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA212&lpg=PA212
&dq=lenoir+electrograph&source=web&ots=4
CALZ6ZivO&sig=qxARx7-RA-knXiXakuN3atH3Rr
A&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=
result#PPA204,M1 {1856}
16. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/casell
i.html {demonstrates)05/06/1860}
17. ^ "telephone and telephone
system." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>. {1863}
18. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CASELLI_BIO.h
tml {1865}
19. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/a
ndrewkantor/2004-02-06-kantor_x.htm
{1856}
(University of Florence, Florence,
Italy13 demonstrates in Froment's
workshop) Paris, France14  
[1] First pictures sent and received
over long distance using Casselli's
pantelegraph PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/caselli_first_fax.jpg

[2] Caselli's Pantotelegraph or
Autotelegraph 1865 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Caselli01.gif
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 24 		3774) Perkin is inspired by the
lectures of Faraday, as Faraday was
once inspired by the lectures of
Davy.20 After seeing the lectures,
Perkins becomes determined to attend
the Royal College of Chemistry.21

In 1889 Perkin is awarded the Davy
medal.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
2. ^ "Sir William
Henry Perkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
4. ^ "Sir William
Henry Perkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
5. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>.
6. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
7. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Sir William Henry
Perkin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
10. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
12. ^ "Sir William
Henry Perkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
13. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
15. ^ "Sir William
Henry Perkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
17. ^ "Sir William
Henry Perkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
18. ^ "aniline." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aniline
19. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
21. ^ "Sir William
Henry Perkin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
23. ^ "Sir William
Henry Perkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482. {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Henry Perkin."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[2] "William Henry Perkin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Perkin
[3] "William Henry Perkin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Perkin
[4] "Perkin, William Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p694-695
(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England23  
[1] Aniline Other names
Phenylamine Aminobenzene Benzenamine
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani
line

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
143 YBN
[01/26/1857 AD] 12 13 		4005)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
01/26/1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/p
ublic/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
 {Scott_Leon_first_paper_phonautograph_1
857.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
3. ^ Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
01/26/1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/p
ublic/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
 {Scott_Leon_first_paper_phonautograph_1
857.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
5. ^ Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
01/26/1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/p
ublic/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
 {Scott_Leon_first_paper_phonautograph_1
857.pdf}
6. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
9. ^ Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
01/26/1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/p
ublic/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
 {Scott_Leon_first_paper_phonautograph_1
857.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
01/26/1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/p
ublic/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
 {Scott_Leon_first_paper_phonautograph_1
857.pdf}
12. ^ Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
01/26/1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/p
ublic/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
 {Scott_Leon_first_paper_phonautograph_1
857.pdf} {01/26/1857}
13. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php {01/26/1857}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.usnews.com/articles/science/2
009/06/01/earliest-known-sound-recording
s-revealed.html
[2]
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/scott.html
[3] "Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d-L%C3%A9on_Scott_de_Martinville
[4] "acoustics." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6405
0>
[5] edited by Clarence John Blake, The
American journal of otology, Volume 1,
1879,p4.
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrogra
ph&f=false
[6]
http://www.archive.org/stream/talkingmac
hinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachinein00mitcu
oft_djvu.txt
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrograph
&f=false
[8]
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitst
ream/handle/2022/899/Archivist_4_4_graf.
pdf?sequence=1
[9] Scott, "Inscription automatique des
sons de l'air, au moyen d'une oreille
artificielle", Comptes Rendus, vol53,
1861, p108. English
translation: http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-04.pd
f
[10]
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/poui
llet.php
[11] Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing, "On the
Harmonic Analysis of certain, Vowel
Sounds," Trans. Boy. Sac Edin., vol.
xxviii. p. 745. t Jenkin and Ewing, op.
cit., p 770.
[12]
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story
.php?storyId=89148959
[13]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/73
18180.stm
[14] Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[15] Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
[16] edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
[17]
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/arts/2
7soun.html
[18] Scott's March 24, 1857 patent - as
far as I know the first publically
known rotating cylinder sound recorder
- the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f
[19] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
[20] Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, Volume 22, 1900,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
4Ms_U3Y6T8C&pg=PA78&dq=leon+scott&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=leon%20scott&f=false
Paris, France11  
[1] Phonautographs by Scott deposited
January 25, 1857 CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf

[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
143 YBN
[03/24/1857 AD] 59 60 61 62 		3999) Sound recorded mechanically by
the sound vibrating a stylus that draws
onto paper.31

The phonautograph, an early cylinder
sound recording device32 33 that
records sound mechanically by drawing
the sound vibration shape onto paper.34
 Scott is the first to record sound
using a membrane instead of directly
attaching a stylus to a string, tuning
fork or bell.35

Leon Scott (Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, (CE 1817–1879)) invents
the phonautograph, the earliest known
mechanical device for recording and
reproducing sounds including music and
speech. This device consists simply of
an ellipsoidal barrel. The sound
receiver is open at one end and closed
at the other. From the closed end
projects a small tube, with a stretched
flexible membrane across it. In the
center of the membrane is a bristle
which acts as a stylus and vibrates
with the membrane. In front of the
membrane is a horizontal cylinder
wrapped with a sheet of paper and
covered with a layer of lampblack
(carbon) which the bristle rests
lightly against. Any sound vibrations
entering the ellipsoid are transmitted
by the membrane to the stylus, which,
when the cylinder is made to revolve
and to advance slowly, describes on the
lampblack surface a wavy line which is
a phonographic record of whatever
vibrations have been produced.36 In
1870 Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing record
sounds onto a tin foil phonograph.37 38
 The physicist and instrument maker
Konig of Paris builds a device based on
Leon Scott's invention, but nothing
practical is created until Thomas
Edison constructs a machine in which a
receiving funnel is substituted for the
ellipsoid, an iron diaphragm for the
membrane, a sharp metallic point for
the bristle, and a tin-foil-covered
cylinder in place of the cylinder
coated with lamp-black. With the sound
vibrations indented as opposed to
traced on the surface of the cylinder,
the machine can be reversed which
causes the stylus to travel over the
spiral line indented by the recording
point, and the original sonud is
reproduced by the diaphragm.39


In January, Scott had deposited his
first paper to the Academy of Sciences
on recording sound vibrations to sooted
glass plates.40

Now in March 1857, Scott deposits the
paperwork for a patent on the
phonautograph-the same basic design
described in the "Principes de
Phonautographie", but now lays out in
greater detail with drawings and a
sample phonautogram and instead of
plates of glass uses a hand-cranked
cylinder.41

This patent is the first to publicly
introduce a rotating cylinder to record
sound vibrations.42 Scott writes:
"The process
I have invented-hitherto completely
unknown, and for which I am requesting
a patent- consists of fastening a
simple or composite stylus near the
center of a thin membrane placed at the
end of any acoustic conduit. This
stylus light grazes a substance
sensitive to the lightest friction,
such as for example a film of lampblack
- a substance deposited on a glass, a
metal, or even a piece of paper or
fabric. The sensitive film passes under
the stylus at a regular and determined
speed. When one speaks, sings, or plays
an instrument in the presence of the
acoustic conduit, the stylus traces
figures or drawings in keeping with the
sounds produced. Afterwards I fix this
novel writing by immersion in a liquid
carburet, followed by a bath of
albuminous water. I then make prints
called negatives directly, or positive
prints indirectly by photography or
transfer to stone, etc.

With the aid of this process and the
interchangeable parts of the
phonautograph (fig. 2,3,4,5 of the
supporting drawing). I collect the
acoustic trace of speech at a distance-
of the song of the coice and of various
instruments. I propose to apply my
process to the construction of a
divider instrument; to that of a
mathematical tuner for all instruments,
of a stenographer for the voice and of
instruments; to the study of the
conditions of sonority of various
commercial substances and alloys; and
to produce industrial designs for
embroideries, filigrees, jewelry,
shades, illustration of books of an
entirely new kind.

The first figure of the plate clearly
shows my process in its most extreme
simplicity - a process which is in my
mind roughly independent of the number
of thin membranes, of their size, of
the form and dimensions of he conduit
to which they have been applied, of the
manner of suspension of the
phonautograph, and of the nature of the
motor which imparts speed to the
sensitive film.". Scott then goes on to
explain each part in particular the
addition of the cylinder. Scott
writes:
"dir.-stylus director - Small cylinder
of very light material performated
along its axis and glued firmly to the
membrane. It is intended to receive the
stylus and to maintain it in a fixed
and determined direction.". Scott
describes the use of a motor too
writing:
"fig. 6 -sensitive film that passes
under the stylus set in motion by the
action of a trumpet at a distance, at a
speed determined by the movement of a
pendulum and made uniform by means of a
motor borrowed from clockwork or from
the electromagnet - a motor not
represented in the figure.". Scott
concludes writing "For greater clarity,
I am appending to the drawing of my
apparatuses a print in duplicate of the
acoustic figures of the voice, or the
cornet- of drawings I obtain before any
construction of apparatuses and by the
only use of the process of figure 1.".
Scott describes the process:
"The manner of
proceeding to obtain phonautographic
prints is very simple. A strip of paper
is rolled up on the cylinder while
being stretched. This paper, which
turns with a nearly uniform speed, is
charged with an even, opaque,
exceedingly thin film of lampblack.
Towards the center of the membrane is
placed the stylus, of which the end
that does the tracing is taken from a
feather of certain birds. This point,
so very thin, obeys all the simple or
complex movements of the membrane. In
this state the stylus is introduced to
the cylinder in such a manner that it
grazes it while remaining fixed in the
direction of its shadt. One makes the
sound heard at the opening of the tub
or conduit, the membrane begins
vibrating, the stylus follows its
movements and its end traces upon the
cylinder, which describes a continuous
helix, the figures of the vibration of
the sound produced. They show the
number of the timbre thereof. These
figures are large when the sound is
intense, microscopic if it is very
weak, spread out if it is low, squeezed
together if it is high, of a regular
and straightforward pattern if the
timbre is pure, uneven and somewhat
shaky if it is bad or clouded.

Here now is the series of interesting
experiments for physicists,
physiologists, instrument makers, {and}
lovers of the sciences, which can
already be carried out with the
apparatus built as represented in the
present certificate:

1. To write the vibratory movement of
any solid to be used as a term of
comparison with the movements of a
fluid; to count the number of
vibrations carried out by the solid in
a unit of time by means of the marking
chronometer.

2. A tuning fork having been calibrated
by means of the preceding experiment to
a determined number of vibrations in a
unit of time (500 or 1000 for example),
to count, by causing them to write
simultaneously, the number of
vibrations achieved by any agent
capable of vibrating 9solid or fluid)
in a space of time as short as one
might wish (a few thousandths of a
second). Example: to count and measure
the various phases of a noise and the
intervals of time contained between
rapid and successive sound phenomena;
to test the relative sonority of
metals, alloys, wood, etc.

3. To write the vibrations produced in
a membrane by one of more pipes
sounding sumultaneously, to count the
number thereof, to show the phases
thereof; to obtain the acoustic figure
or diagram of each chord and
dissonance; to write likewise the song
of any wind instrument; to show the
characteristic timbre of these
instruments; to write the composite
movement resulting from the sounds of
two or more instruments playing
simultaneously.

4. To write the song of a voice, to
measure the extent thereof with the
marking chronometer or the calibrated
marking tuning fork; to write the scale
of a singer, to measure the accuracy
thereof with the marking tuning fork;
to show the purity or isochronism of
the vibrations thereof, as well as the
timbre; to write a melody and
transcribe it with the aid of the
marking tuning fork; to write the
simultaneous song of two voices and to
show the harmony or discord thereof.

5. To study acoustically the
physiological or pathological movements
of the vocal apparatus and of its parts
during the various emissions of sound,
the shout, etc; to mark down the
characteristic timbre of a given
voice;

6. To study the articular voice, the
declamation (see in the appended plates
a first application to ordinary
writing); to show the syllabic
diagrams.

7. To inscribe by the combination of
the second method (the flexible stylus)
and the third (the fixing) the
movements of the pendulum, of the
teetotum or top, of the magnetized
needle, the manner of locomotion of an
insect, etc."43

Scott describes plate 2 writing:
"...For noting
declamation exactly it does not suffice
to mark down above or below the line
the longs and the shorts, the fortes
and the pianos, the raisings and
lowerings of pitch, the inalations, the
breathing, and the pauses and the
explosions; it is necessary to
represent clearly and easily the
quantum or mathematical value of each
of these modifications.

The phoautographic trace furnishes at
present-without one having to be
occupied with articulation- a very
simple means of objectively
representing the artist's diction. This
trace is a kind of reptile, the coils
of which follow all the modulations or
inflections of discorse. It suffices
for translating by sight- except for
the articulation - to make the
following remarks: the horizontal
distance of the foot of the curves
indicates the pitch or tonality; the
height of the same curves the intensity
of the voice; the detail of the curves
the timbre; the absence of curves the
pauses or silences. The few natural
expressions opposite suffice for
understanding this page.

represents the deep voice
the high-pitched
voice
a high-pitched voice descending to a
deep one
a deep voice rising to the
high-pitched on
an intense voice
an average
voice
a weak voice
the tremolo on the letter r
the
cadence on a vowel
the outburst of the voice

So to this rival faithless Hedelmone
must have given this diadem! In their
cruel rage, our lions
of the desert, beneath
their burning laei,
sometimes tear apart the
trembling traveler-
It would be better for him
for their devouring
hunger to scatter the scraps
of his palpitating flesh
than to fall
alive into my terrible hands!". Scott
describes plate 3 as the "calibration
of a sound by means of the
chronometer".44



Notice that playing these recordings on
paper out loud is not claimed. Playing
recorded - that is permanently stored -
sounds out loud will only be known
publicly with the phoneograph of Thomas
Edison in 1877 which records the sounds
as impressions into tin foil - although
playing live sounds from a microphone
through a wire and out a speaker will
be first done publicly by Philip Reiss
in 1861.45 46

A recording made on April 9, 1860 of a
person singing the words, "Au clair de
la lune, Pierrot repondit" is currently
the oldest known sound recording.47
This soot-covered paper is converted to
audio in 2008, replayed from a digital
scan.48

It is disappointing that so few people
know about Leon Scott, and so few have
a biography on Scott and the
telautograph. It is a combination of
the evilness and fear of those who want
to keep technology and science secret
together with the underinformed and/or
easily fooled who believe and follow
the outlandish claims of religions and
pseudosciences.49

There is some confusion about the
history of sound recording between
Hooke and Chladni's sand drawings and
this first rotating cylinder.50

THere is a claim that Wilhelm Weber
recorded the sound vibrations of a
tuning fork onto a sooted glass plate
in 183051 52 53 54 . There is also a
claim that Duhamel was the first to
record sound to a sooted glass cylinder
in 1840.55

Note that this is the first public
record of at least the technical
possibility of people, in particular,
governments, and telegraph and
telephone companies, accumulating data
records of sound, before this, could
only be paper records on which a person
wrote or typed the sounds, and of
course, photographs, and text
information. It seems very likely that
people in governments, in particular
military, and in the telegraph and
telephone companies were secretly
recording and playing back sounds
before this time, in particular
presuming they saw and heard thought
and were doing remote neuron activation
in 1810. Is Arthur Korn the first to
apply this pressure writing method to
record the intensity of each dot in an
image?56

According to one source, Scott succeeds
in causing the phonautograph to render
back faint sounds from the blast of two
huge organ pipes, three feet from the
instrument.57
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
3. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
4. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
5. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
6. ^ Scott, "Inscription automatique
des sons de l'air, au moyen d'une
oreille artificielle", Comptes Rendus,
vol53, 1861,
p108. {Scott_Leon_telautograph_1861.pdf
} English
translation: http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-04.pd
f {Scott_Leon_telautograph_english_1861
.pdf}
7. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
8. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/poui
llet.php
9. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
10. ^ Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, Volume 22, 1900,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
4Ms_U3Y6T8C&pg=PA78&dq=leon+scott&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=leon%20scott&f=false
11. ^ Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing, "On
the Harmonic Analysis of certain, Vowel
Sounds," Trans. Boy. Sac Edin., vol.
xxviii. p. 745. t Jenkin and Ewing, op.
cit., p 770.
12. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
13. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
14. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857
patent - as far as I know the first
publically known rotating cylinder
sound recorder - the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf}
{03/24/1857}
17. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857 patent -
as far as I know the first publically
known rotating cylinder sound recorder
- the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf}
{03/24/1857}
18. ^ Record ID3997. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story
.php?storyId=89148959
21. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/73
18180.stm
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der
akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
25. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
26. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
27. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
28. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler,
"Thomas Alva Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
31. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
32. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
33. ^ Scott, "Inscription automatique
des sons de l'air, au moyen d'une
oreille artificielle", Comptes Rendus,
vol53, 1861,
p108. {Scott_Leon_telautograph_1861.pdf
} English
translation: http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-04.pd
f {Scott_Leon_telautograph_english_1861
.pdf}
34. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
35. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/poui
llet.php
36. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
37. ^ Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, Volume 22, 1900,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
4Ms_U3Y6T8C&pg=PA78&dq=leon+scott&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=leon%20scott&f=false
38. ^ Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing, "On
the Harmonic Analysis of certain, Vowel
Sounds," Trans. Boy. Sac Edin., vol.
xxviii. p. 745. t Jenkin and Ewing, op.
cit., p 770.
39. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
40. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
41. ^
http://www.firstsounds.org/features/scot
t.php
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857
patent - as far as I know the first
publically known rotating cylinder
sound recorder - the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf}
{03/24/1857}
44. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857 patent -
as far as I know the first publically
known rotating cylinder sound recorder
- the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf}
{03/24/1857}
45. ^ Record ID3997. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
46. ^ Ted
Huntington.
47. ^
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story
.php?storyId=89148959
48. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/73
18180.stm
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der
akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
52. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
53. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
54. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
55. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
56. ^ Ted Huntington.
57. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler,
"Thomas Alva Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
58. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/arts/2
7soun.html
59. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857 patent -
as far as I know the first publically
known rotating cylinder sound recorder
- the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf}
{03/24/1857}
60. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
61. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se {1855}
62. ^ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Volume 22, 1900,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
4Ms_U3Y6T8C&pg=PA78&dq=leon+scott&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=leon%20scott&f=false
{1856}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.usnews.com/articles/science/2
009/06/01/earliest-known-sound-recording
s-revealed.html
[2]
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/scott.html
[3] "Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d-L%C3%A9on_Scott_de_Martinville
[4] "acoustics." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6405
0>
[5] edited by Clarence John Blake, The
American journal of otology, Volume 1,
1879,p4.
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrogra
ph&f=false
[6]
http://www.archive.org/stream/talkingmac
hinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachinein00mitcu
oft_djvu.txt
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrograph
&f=false
[8]
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitst
ream/handle/2022/899/Archivist_4_4_graf.
pdf?sequence=1
[9] Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/public/
First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
Paris, France58  
[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf

[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
143 YBN
[04/??/1857 AD] 7 		3354)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Faraday, "On the
Conservation of Force", Phil. Mag.,
1857, 4th Series, vol 13,
p225. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B5QOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:OCLC03780319&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA225,M1

2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Michael Faraday, "On the
Conservation of Force", Phil. Mag.,
1857, 4th Series, vol 13,
p225. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B5QOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:OCLC03780319&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA225,M1

4. ^ Newton's Fourth Letter to
Bentley http://www.newtonproject.sussex
.ac.uk/texts/viewtext.php?id=THEM00258&m
ode=normalized
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
7. ^ Michael Faraday, "On the
Conservation of Force", Phil. Mag.,
1857, 4th Series, vol 13,
p225. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B5QOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:OCLC03780319&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA225,M1
 {04/1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[13] (Maxwell 1873:ix)
[14]
http://books.google.com/books?id=6_1fZXf
fwdAC&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=faraday+1844
&source=web&ots=kOMJ04nfn_&sig=idExqTkgq
Q3IIViFzIRMgwY0lX8
[15] Researches in Electricity,
:284-293
[16] , pp289-290.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=faraday+1844
+%22speculation+touching+electric+conduc
tion+and+the+nature+of+matter%22&source=
web&ots=VKIsaGjcNg&sig=xG0TBslqLW2Zfdhm3
NXg37e9Ez4#PPA284,M1
[17] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320
(Royal Institution in) London, England6
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
143 YBN
[07/17/1857 AD] 9 		3121) Thomas Andrews (CE 1813-1885),
Irish physical chemist1 measure the
density of ozone2 , and shows that
ozone is an allotrope of oxygen3 , but
cannot determine its composition4
(chronology for second part5 ).
Ozone
was first identified by Schönbein.6

An allotrope is any of two or more
forms of the same chemical element.
They may have different arrangements of
atoms in crystals of the solid, for
example, graphite and diamond for
carbon, or different numbers of atoms
in their molecules, for example,
ordinary oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3).7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp383-384.
2. ^ Thomas Andrews,
"Note on the Density of Ozone",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905),Volume 8, 1856/1857,
pp498-500. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/21j61u604653r990/?p=583e2a8
68be245b793af6e2f256d6a75&pi=23 Andrews
_Thomas_Ozone_1856.pdf
3. ^ "Thomas Andrews." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-andr
ews-irish-physical-chemist
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp383-384.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp383-384.
7. ^ "allotrope."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/allotrope
8. ^ "Andrews, Thomas." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7496>.
9. ^ Thomas Andrews, "Note on the
Density of Ozone", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905),Volume 8, 1856/1857,
pp498-500. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/21j61u604653r990/?p=583e2a8
68be245b793af6e2f256d6a75&pi=23 Andrews
_Thomas_Ozone_1856.pdf (07/17/1857)

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Andrews", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p22
(Queen's College) Belfast, Ireland8
 
[1] [t This is the earliest top hat
I've seen] Thomas
Andrews. Photos.com/Jupiterimages
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
102322&rendTypeId=4
143 YBN
[08/08/1857 AD] 19 20 21 22 23 		3412)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p326.
3. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
4. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
5. ^ "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p681-684.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
7. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=q5JHcs8
w21gC&pg=PR6&lpg=PR6&dq=pasteur+1861&sou
rce=web&ots=jhbbK5O--k&sig=pd3IXyWZrurSF
7l5m5Z6VJrVZiM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result
&resnum=5&ct=result#PPR6,M1
8. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/R
EG/causeries/dates_1850.html
9. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=c1jyWFU
mafoC&pg=PA531&lpg=PA531&dq=M%C3%A9moire
+sur+la+fermentation+appel%C3%A9e+lactiq
ue&source=web&ots=jLHryHnk6G&sig=v7HL9Gj
cKww6M5R_HS8cC3Xz-GY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=6&ct=result
10. ^
http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/M%C3%A9moi
re_sur_la_fermentation_appel%C3%A9e_lact
ique
11. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
12. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p46-47. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=hdQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lo
uis+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA46,M1
13. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p46-47. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=hdQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lo
uis+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA46,M1
14. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p50. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA46,M1
15. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p57-58. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=hdQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lo
uis+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA57,M1
16. ^ Justus Liebig, William Gregory,
"Familiar Letters on Chemistry: In Its
Relations to Physiology, Dietetics
...", Taylor, Walton & Maberly, 1851,
p237.
http://books.google.com/books?id=oFwOA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PA237&lpg=PA237&dq=liebig+put
refaction+rhine++mills&source=web&ots=PT
jyZFGHaB&sig=3AQjEKNYVkzR17_XwGeVSiWo2tU
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=r
esult#PPA237,M1
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
19. ^
http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/M%C3%A9moi
re_sur_la_fermentation_appel%C3%A9e_lact
ique {08/08/1857}
20. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/R
EG/causeries/dates_1850.html {1857}
21. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=c1jyWFU
mafoC&pg=PA531&lpg=PA531&dq=M%C3%A9moire
+sur+la+fermentation+appel%C3%A9e+lactiq
ue&source=web&ots=jLHryHnk6G&sig=v7HL9Gj
cKww6M5R_HS8cC3Xz-GY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=6&ct=result {1857}
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
23. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p326. {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
(University of Lille) Lille, France18
 
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
143 YBN
[12/10/1857 AD] 10 		3325) Cayley plays a large role in
persuading the University of Cambridge
to admit women as students.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
2. ^ "Cayley,
Arthur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1935>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Cayley, Arthur", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p177.
8. ^
"Arthur Cayley." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
9. ^ "Arthur Cayley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Arthur_C
ayley
10. ^ "A MEMOIR ON THE THEORY OF
MATRICES", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, vol
CXLVIII, 1858, pp 17-37. Received
December 10 1857 Read January 14 1858
"The Collected Mathematical Papers of
Arthur Cayley", By Arthur Cayley,
Andrew Russell Forsyth, F Howard
Collins http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SCwPAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0op5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA475,M1
{12/10/1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arthur Cayley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayl
ey
[2] Arthur Cayley, "The Collected
Mathematical Papers of Arthur Cayley",
The University Press. v1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=PcAEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 v2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=SCwPAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v3:
http://books.google.com/books?id=encAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4vU83eig7QYC&printsec=frontc
over&dq=arthur+cayley
[3] "Arthur Cayley." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
London, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Cayley, Arthur (1821 -
1895) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: Barraud &
Jerrard Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10 x 6 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-C2-06a.jpg

[2] Arthur Cayley, detail of an oil
painting by W.H. Longmaid, 1884; in the
collection of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England. Courtesy of The
Master and Fellows of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
23758&rendTypeId=4
143 YBN
[12/27/1857 AD] 22 23 		2873) Plücker writes (translated):
"The idea of employing tubes with
platinum electrodes fused into them for
observing the electrical discharge
through rarefied gases, instead of the
electrical egg, as originally employed
by Ruhmkorff and Quet, may be
considered in many respects a happy
one. Such tubes, containing various
gases and vapours, are prepared in this
city, of the most different forms, by
M. Geissler, and present sometimes an
appearance of incomparable beauty.
Geissler's tubes (I give them, and with
justice, this name although the first
such tubes were not prepared by him)
were tried at the beginning of this
year in the Physical Cabinet: and what
more natural than the thought of
approximating such tubes in various
ways to the poles of a magnet during
the discharge? Davy had already noticed
that the arch of light which he formed
between carbon-points by means of a
powerful battery was diverted by the
magnet. Arago had predicted such
diversion. In the same way it was
possible to predict generally the
nature of the diversion of the electric
current in Geissler's tubes. But on the
actual performance of the experiment,
in addition to the phaenomena which
were looked for, certain unexpected one
presented themselves; namely, the
division of the light-stream, its
decomposition at the negative electrode
into an undulating flickering light,
and the extension of the stream from
the positive electrode into a
brilliantly illuminating fine point...
This
electrolysis of dilute compound gases
received complete verification in
subsequent cases. In tubes containing
hydriodic acid, the iodine is gradually
deposited. In highly rarified gases
this electrolysis by the electric
stream, as it becomes finely divided,
often manifests itself suddenly by a
remarkable alteration of colour.
Examples of this were furnished by
tubes containing phosphoretted hydrogen
and sulphurous acid. The laws of the
electrolysis brought about by the spark
of Ruhmkorff's apparatus may, however,
be traced in gases and vapours of
ordinary density.
...
In the different Geissler's tubes the
light appears of all kinds of colours,
often of a very intense nature, and on
analysis with the prism yields
variously modified spectra.
...
The dark bands first observed by
Rugmkorff and Quet in the electrical
egg (electric egg electrodes11 12 )
appear in Geissler's tubes of the most
varied shape, and in some of them with
the greatest distinctness. ... In wider
tubes the dark intervals may attain a
breadth of 5 millims.; they become
narrower if the electric light passes
from a wide tube into a narrower one.
They often appear only after the
discharge has passed for a long time
through the tube, and then become
gradually better and better defined.
... the discharges of light take place
at intervals, which, if Ruhmkorff's
apparatus be employed, depend upon the
rapidity with which the breakings of
the current follow one another. The
phaenomena can only consist in an
aggregation of matter at definite parts
of the tube which become luminous
through the discharge, while the
passage of the electricity from one
luminous plate to the other is dark.
...
In the experiments immediately to be
described I employed a great upright
horseshoe magnet, to the two limbs of
which two heavy armatures were applied,
4 cm thick, 13 cm wide, and 20 cm long.
Each of these armatures was rounded
circularly at one end, and the rounded
extremities were directed towards one
another, being kept by an interposed
brass disc, at a distance of about 4
mm. ...
I placed a tube about 270 mm long,
widened in the middle to an ellipsoid
... This tube contained a trace of
phosphorus, and gave a beautiful red
light when the discharge was led
through it by means of the two platinum
wires fused into its extremities. ...
In
two cases the electrical light-currents
were attracted in the ellipsoid; in the
other two they were repelled.
...
A perfectly similarly-shaped tube,
containing a small quantity of hydrogen
instead of the trace of phosphorus,
showed exactly the same appearances,
with the single exception that the
light, instead of being red, was bright
violet.
...
The two arcs of light, which were
before circular and which bordered the
ring in which the atmosphere of light
had become concentrated around the
warmth-pole, assumed the form of
magnetic curves.
"13
Plücker follows up on
January 25, 1858 by stating clearly "In
accordance with the phaenomena
described in the latter part of the
preceding paper, we may say that
electric light under the circumstances
in point is magnetic. Inasmuc h as such
light, which proceeds from one point of
the negative electrode in all
directions, is drawn together by the
magnet to a luminous magnetic curve
passing through the same point, the
original rays behave as iron-filings
would do if we imagine them infinitely
fine, perfectly flexible, and attached
to the point of the electrode in
opposition to the force of
gravitation."14 (Here the view is that
light particles and electric current
particles (later called electrons) are
the same, as opposed to the view that
the light particle are emitted from the
electric particles in such arcs.15 )

On March 30, 1858 Plücker writes "The
behavior towards magnetism of that
light which, proceeding from the
negative electrode, spreads out in all
directions, is so remarkable that I
shall in the first place recur to it
again. We can best illustrate this
behaviour by considering the well-known
fact, that when iron filings are strewn
upon a piece of stiff paper covering
the pole of a magnet, they arrange
themselves in curves which have been
called magnetic curves, or lines of
magnetic force. Such curves render the
distribution of the power of a magnet
visible even when analysis is unable to
determine their form. in every such
curve the separate particles of iron
having, under the influence of the
magnet, become themselves little
magnets, arrange themselves with their
attracting poles together so as to form
a chain. Could we remove the particles
of iron from the influence of
gravitation and distribute them through
the whole space surrounding the
magnetic pole, then such chains
assuming the form of magnetic curves
would traverse the whole magnetic
field, and furnish a visible image of
the distribution of the magnetic force.
... The hypotheses conditioning such a
phaenomenon are such as can scarcely by
realized; so that the phaenomenon itslf
will probably remain a merely imaginary
one. if, however, in place of the
linked iron chain, we suppose rays of
magnetic light, the phaenomenon is
converted into one which actually
exists. "16 (EX: It would be
interesting to attach a magnet inside a
tube and see the beams of light forms
around the magnetic field.17 )
Plücker
describes a system using lines instead
of points as the fundamental geometric
elements.18

In 1847 Plücker is made professor of
physics at Bonn19 , and this begins the
record of Plücker's work in physics
after a life dedicated to mathematics20
.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp345-346.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp345-346.
3. ^ Record
ID2833. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Julius
Plucker". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker
5. ^
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
188w pp88-106 Annalen der Physik
(Leipzig). 1799. 1858 (Bd. 179 = F. 2
/ Bd. 103).
6. ^
http://www.google.com/translate_t?langpa
ir=deen
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John Peter Gassiot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
9. ^ The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
10. ^ The Discovery of X-Rays W.
C. Rontgen; George Sarton Isis,
Vol. 26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp.
349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
11. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=p4Ea260
3drgC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=Pl%C3%BCcker
+gassiot&source=web&ots=b7PMvMi_AB&sig=a
0dkHs_DPE50nMMJqTiMt-AYEL4&hl=en#PPA104,
M1
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "On the Action of the
Magnet upon the Electrical Discharge in
Rarefied Gases.", Philosophical
Magazine, Volume, p119.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
14. ^ "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine,
Volume, p132.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "On the Action of the
Magnet upon the Electrical Discharge in
Rarefied Gases.", Philosophical
Magazine, Volume, p408.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker
19. ^ "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Julius
Plucker". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker
22. ^ The Discovery of X-Rays W.
C. Rontgen; George Sarton Isis,
Vol. 26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp.
349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df (dated)12/27/1857 (published in
1858) (dated)12/27/1857 (published in
1858)
23. ^ "Julius Plucker (1858)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Julius
Plucker". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker (1858) (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Plücker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C
3%BCcker
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Julius%20Pl%C3%BC
cker%20
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2&pi=5 Abstract of a
Series of Papers and Notes Concerning
the Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany21
 
[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plücker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. Plücker
published it in the Poggendorffs
annalen der Physik und Chemie
1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 6 		2831)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p370.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341.
3. ^
http://cdli.ucla.edu/wiki/index.php/A_Br
ief_History_of_Archaeology_in_Mesopotami
a
4. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
5. ^ "William Henry Fox Talbot". The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp340-341. (1857)
(1857)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[3]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[4]
http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/werke/penc
il-of-nature/
Wiltshire, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Darius_I_the_Great%27
s_inscription.jpg

[2] Behistun Inscription, Column 1 (DB
I 1-15) Sketch: Fr. Spiegel, Die
altpers. Keilinschriften, Leipzig
(1881). http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfu
rt.de/didact/idg/iran/apers/DB1_1-15.GIF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Behistun_DB1_1-15.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD] 13 		2858)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp342-343.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Silane". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silane
5. ^ "silane". Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/silane?cat=techno
logy
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Silane". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silane
8. ^ "Silane". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silane
9. ^ "Silane". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silane
10. ^ "Silane". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silane
11. ^ CFC Startec properties of Silane
http://www.c-f-c.com/specgas_products/si
lane.htm
12. ^ "Friedrich Wöhler". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
13. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler (1857 (presumably)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wohler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
[2] "Friedrich Wöhler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "silane". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
7742/silane
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany12 (presumably) 
[1] Silane PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sil
ane

[2] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 9 		2910) In 1870 the electric telegraph
lines of the United Kingdom, worked by
different companies, is transferred to
the Post Office, and placed under
Government control.6 (Perhaps there
was a difference of opinion about how
the public's messages are stored. Under
government control, the heads, handlers
and controllers of the telegraph
service can be replaced by popular
opinion unlike the US system.7 )
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p348.
3. ^
http://wvegter.hivemind.net/abacus/Cyber
Heroes/Wheatstone.htm
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
9. ^
http://wvegter.hivemind.net/abacus/Cyber
Heroes/Wheatstone.htm (1857)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Wheatstone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whe
atstone
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[3] "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Wheatstone
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(King's College) London, England8
(presumably) 
[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to
right: Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry
Huxley, Charles Wheatstone, David
Brewster, John Tyndall Deutsch:
Charles Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 5 		3034)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
5. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1857)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 7 		3079) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899),
German chemist1 , publishes his only
book2 "Gasometrische Methoden" (1857)3
 which brings gas analysis to a new
level of accuracy and simplicity4 .

In 1838, Bunsen started working with
gases, starting with work on the gases
present in the blast furnaces used for
making iron. Accompanied by a
collaborator, Lyon Playfair, Bunsen
visits England and their results help
iron-masters save fuel. Bunsen and
Playfair suggest techniques that can
recycle gases through the furnace and
retrieve valuable escaping by-products
such as ammonia. From this work Bunsen
goes on to show how to determine the
specific gravity of gases, to measure
their absorption by liquids, and their
rates of diffusion. Bunsen perfects the
technique of eudiometry, where known
volumes of gas are exploded with oxygen
and the amounts of the products
measured.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Robert Wilhelm
Von Bunsen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
3. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
4. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154.
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
6. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
7. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1857)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[4] Gasometry: Comprising the Leading
Physical and Chemical Properties of
Gases by Robert Bunsen (1857) London:
Walton and Maberly (translated by Henry
Roscoe)
http://books.google.com/books?id=0RwWzUy
sftEC&pg=PA1&dq=Bunsen+Robert&as_brr=1#P
PR3,M1
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany6  
[1] Bunsen's laboratory in Marburg
(presumably) PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_labor3.jpg

[2] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 5 		3148)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p386.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Daniel
Kirkwood." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/daniel-kirk
wood
4. ^ "Kirkwood, Daniel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p489.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p386. (1857)

MORE INFO
[1] "Kirkwood gaps."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5630>
(Indiana University) Indiana, USA4
 
[1] Daniel Kirkwood PD/Corel
source: http://www.udel.edu/Archives/Arc
hives/images/pres/kirkwood.jpg

[2] This is a photo of American
astronomer Daniel Kirkwood (1814-1895),
who identified and explained the
''Kirkwood Gaps'' in the main asteroid
belt between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter and who explained that
Cassini's Division and Encke's Division
in the rings of Saturn are caused by
the gravitational effects of Saturn's
moons. PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/7b/Daniel_Kirkwood.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 4 		3218)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Richard Jordan Gatling". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
4. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling (1857)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>.
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[3] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[4] "brake." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
rake>.
Indianapolis, Indiana3
(presumably) 
[1] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg

[2] Description Richard Jordan
Gatling. Library of Congress
description: ''Gatling, Prof. Richard
Jordan'' Source Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division.
Brady-Handy Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.03735.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH826-
1476 [P&P] Date between 1870 and
1880 Author Mathew Brady or Levin
Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g_-_Brady-Handy.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 6 		3286)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tarnish." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
16 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
arnish>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
3. ^ William Tobin,
"The life and science of Léon
Foucault: the man who proved the earth
rotates", Cambridge University Press,
2003, pp200-203.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon
Foucault". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405. (1857)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[8] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[9] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[13]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=fr&tl=en
[14]
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

[15] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[16] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
[17] "gyroscope." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
[18] "gyroscope." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
[19] William Hodson Brock, Justus Von
Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper,
Cambridge University Press, 1997,
p136. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VugoemP2th0C&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=%22Th
omas+Drayton%22+silvering&source=web&ots
=M509-977E-&sig=5fuhVSfJVAFjZyXxAKErgi5o
oHI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&c
t=result
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

[2] Illustration of the original
Foucault experiment from a 1851
newspaper. PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/paper.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 15 		3366)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
2. ^ "Clausius,
Rudolf", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p195-196.
3. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p327.
5. ^ A. Crum Brown, The Ions of
Electrolysis, Science, New Series, Vol.
15, No. 388 (Jun. 6, 1902), pp.
881-895.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627729 {
Brown_Ions_of_Electrolysis_1902.pdf}
6. ^ Clausius, Annalen der Physiks, ci,
1857, p338.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p195-196.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ A. Crum Brown, The Ions
of Electrolysis, Science, New Series,
Vol. 15, No. 388 (Jun. 6, 1902), pp.
881-895.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627729 {
Brown_Ions_of_Electrolysis_1902.pdf}
12. ^ Clausius, Annalen der Physiks,
ci, 1857, p338.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Clausius,
Rudolf", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p195-196.
15. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius {1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>

[2] "Rudolf Clausius." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[4] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

[7] "Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
(New Polytechnicum) Zurich, Germany14
 
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 4 5 		3367)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
2. ^ "Rudolf Julius
Emmanuel Clausius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
3. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p195-196.
4. ^ "Rudolf Clausius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>
. {1857}
5. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius {1851}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[2] "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

(New Polytechnicum) Zurich, Germany3
 
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 4 		3394) Thomas Rickett builds a "road
locomotive" (steam engine car1 ).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Lyman Horace Weeks,
"Automobile Biographies: An Account of
the Lives and the Work of Those who
...", The Monograph Press, 1904, p156.
3. ^
Lyman Horace Weeks, "Automobile
Biographies: An Account of the Lives
and the Work of Those who ...", The
Monograph Press, 1904, p156.
4. ^ Lyman
Horace Weeks, "Automobile Biographies:
An Account of the Lives and the Work of
Those who ...", The Monograph Press,
1904, p156. {1857}
Buckingham, England3  
[1] Voiture légère de THOMAS RICKETT
- 1858: PD
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490398_voiture
_legere_de_thomas_rickett___1858.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 11 		3455)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Gustav Robert Kirchhoff", Obituary
Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol. 46, p. vi.
(1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p329.
5. ^ "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p489.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff", Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy,
Soc. vol. 46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
10. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
11. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf} {1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gustav Kirchhoff."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
[2] "Gustav Kirchhoff." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
[3] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Robe
rt_Kirchhoff
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
[6] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/319055/Gustav-Robert-Kirchhoff>.
{1845}
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany10  
[1] )[8] Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen
(1811 - 1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff
(1824 - 1887) [SV] PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kirchhoff6.jpg

[2] The current entering any junction
is equal to the current leaving that
junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Gustav_R._Kirchhoff.j
pg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 9 10 		3508) Bond identifies a number of
comets.6
Bond dies of tuberculosis at
age 29.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "George
Phillips Bond." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-phil
lips-bond
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436.
5. ^ "George Phillips
Bond." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-phil
lips-bond
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p436.
8. ^ "Bond,
George Phillips", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p117.
9. ^
"George Phillips Bond." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-phil
lips-bond {1857}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436. {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Phillips Bond."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/72781/George-Phillips-Bond>.
[2] "George Phillips Bond." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-phil
lips-bond
[3] "George Phillips Bond". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Phil
lips_Bond
(Harvard U) Cambridge, Massachussetts,
USA8 (presumably) 		 
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 5 		3562)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
4. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
5. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1 {1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[4] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
[5]
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
[6] "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
(Collège de France) Paris, France4
 
[1] methane GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hane

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 15 		3628) Suess advocates bringing in
drinking water into Vienna from
mountain springs instead of using
disease-filled wells.5 Suess develops
the plan for a 69-mile (112-kilometre)
aqueduct (completed in 1873) that
brings fresh water from the Alps to
Vienna.6

In 1876, Suess supervises the
production of the Danube canal which
puts an end to the flooding of the
low-lying sections of Vienna.7
In 1850
Suess is imprisoned for being on the
side of the liberals during a
revolution in 1848.8 Another source
has Suess imprisoned simply for
participating in revolutionary
demonstrations of 1848.9
In 1856, Suess
is appointed extraordinary professor of
paleontology at the University of
Vienna without a doctorate degree.10
Fr
om 1873 on, Suess spends 30 years in
the Austrian legislature.11 12
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451.
2. ^ "Eduard Suess."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Eduard Suess."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451. ?
6. ^ "Eduard
Suess." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451. ?
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451. ?
9. ^ "Suess,
Eduard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p848.
10. ^
"Suess, Eduard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p848.
11. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451. ?
12. ^ "Eduard
Suess." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Suess, Eduard",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p848.
15. ^ "Eduard
Suess." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>. {1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eduard Suess." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-sues
s
[2] "Eduard Suess." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-sues
s
[3] "Eduard Suess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Sues
s
[4] "Eduard Suess". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eduard_S
uess
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany13 )14  
[1] English: Eduard Suess (1831 –
1914), Austrian geologist Source
http://www.jamd.com/image/g/2638599
Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Eduard_Suess00.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 30 31 		3640) Maxwell's parents married late in
life, and his mother is 40 years old at
his birth.10
James's unusual mode of
dress is how he got the nickname
"Dafty" at Edinburgh Academy, where he
enrolled in 1841.11
Asimov explains
this nickname as being because talent,
for example in math, is some times
mistaken for foolishness.12
At age 15,
Maxwell submits a paper on curves to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh.13
In
1871 Maxwell is appointed professor of
experimental physics at Cambridge.14
Acc
ording to Asimov, Maxwell is not a
popular lecturer.15
Maxwell organizes
the Cavendish laboratory and serves as
its director it until his death.16
The
Encyclopedia Britannica states that (as
director of Cavendish laboratory17 ),
Maxwell has few students, but that they
are of the highest quality.18
Like
Faraday, Maxwell has deep religious
beliefs, and has a childless but happy
marriage.19
In 1876, Maxwell writes a
classic elementary text in dynamics,
"Matter and Motion" (1876).20
Maxell
and Thomas Huxley are joint scientific
editors of the ninth edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica.21
Maxwell
publishes the "Unpublished Electrical
Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish"
(1879).22 According to Asimov this
work shows that Cavendish was 50 years
ahead of his time.23
Maxwell rejects
the particle theory for electricity,
although Faraday's laws of electrolysis
strongly suggest the particulate nature
of electricity (and this is true also
for light, Maxwell viewing light as
waves of electromagnetic radiation
carried by the ether24 ).25

Maxwell is one of the first to
appreciate the work of Gibbs.26

Maxwell dies before the age of 50 from
cancer.27

Over the course of his life, Maxwell
wrote four books and about 100
papers.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
03 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
3. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
4. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 03
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"James Clerk Maxwell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
11. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
"James Clerk Maxwell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
20. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 03
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
21. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588.
22. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586-588.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
27. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
28. ^ "Maxwell, James
Clerk", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p586-588.
29. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456. {1857}
31. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p328. {1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[4] Lewis Campbell, William Garnett,
"The Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[5] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[6]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[7] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[8]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
(Marischal College) Aberdeen,
Scotland29  
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 6 		3670)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne See
also; http://books.google.com/books?id=
rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&lr=&as_brr=
1#PPA497,M1
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ William Robinson, "Gas
and Petroleum Engines A Practical
Treatise on the Internal Combustion
Engine", E. & F.N. Spon, 1890, p153.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&lpg=PA103&ots=zXhunpMWQn&dq=%22r
obert%20street%22%20patent%20engine&pg=P
A154&ci=65,158,832,77&source=bookclip"
4. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion Engine", E.
& F.N. Spon, 1890, p138.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&lpg=PA103&ots=zXhunpMWQn&dq=%22r
obert%20street%22%20patent%20engine&pg=P
A154&ci=65,158,832,77&source=bookclip"
5. ^
http://www.barsantiematteucci.it/inglese
/index.asp
6. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne See
also; http://books.google.com/books?id=
rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&lr=&as_brr=
1#PPA497,M1 {1857}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blotto.htm
[2] W. E. Ayrton, "On the Economical
Use of Gas Engines for the Production
of Electricity", Nature, 01/19/1882,
p280-282 http://books.google.com/books?
id=PnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA282&dq=otto+engine+
coal+gas&ei=WBA_SaibG5qEkgSEzLzIDg#PPA28
0,M1
[3] Dugald Clerk, "Flame the working
fluid in gas and petrol engines",
Nature, 04/04/1907,
p546-548. http://books.google.com/books
?id=atURAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=otto+engine
+coal+gas&ei=WBA_SaibG5qEkgSEzLzIDg
[4] "Nikolaus August Otto." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikolaus-ot
to
[5] William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion
...". http://books.google.com/books?id=
8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22ro
bert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web&
ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0
kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
1&ct=result#PPA102,M1
[6]
"books?id=rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&l
r=&as brr=1#PPA497,M1". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne See
also; http://books.google.com/books?id=
rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&lr=&as_brr=
1#PPA497,M1
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457
(Ximenian Institute)Florence, Italy5
 
[1] Barsanti and Matteucci engine of
1857 patent PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA133,M1

[2] On December 12, 1857 the Great
Seal Patent Office conceded patent No.
1655 to Barsanti and Matteucci for the
invention of an Improved Apparatus for
Obtaining Motive Power from Gases.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.barsantiematteucci.it
/immagini/brevetti_BrevInglese1857.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 9 		3791)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406-407.
2. ^ E. Newton
Harvey, "History of Luminescence From
the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p354-355.
3. ^
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Optics/Phosphoroscope/Phosphoroscope.ht
ml
4. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p354-355.
5. ^ E. Becquerel,
"Recherches sur divers effets
lumineux", Comptes Rendus Ac. Sci. 45:
815-819; 46: 1858, 969-975. find full
paper
at: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb
343481087/date portion: http://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=v3MbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA105
&dq=Recherches+sur+divers+effets+lumineu
x+intitle:comptes+date:1858-1858&as_brr=
1&ei=s9hdSai1KInwkQSi1LXSAw and http:/
/books.google.com/books?id=43YbAAAAMAAJ&
pg=RA1-PT32&dq=Recherches+sur+divers+%22
effets+lumineux%22+intitle:comptes&as_br
r=1&ei=jtpdScFrks6VBI6crbgJ#PRA1-PA897,M
1
6. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p354-355.
7. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p354-355.
8. ^
"Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p72.
9. ^
https://www.abdn.ac.uk/~nph126/selected.
php?id=31 {1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becqu
erel
[2] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquere
l
[3] M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets
chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-t
dm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
72>
[6]
http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdrom/MANUFA
CT/FIRST.HTM
[7]
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/story?id=20812
[8] "thermionic power converter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>.
[9] "Phosphoroscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorosc
ope
[10] Ed Becquerel, "La lumière, ses
causes et ses effets", Firmin Didot
frères, fils et cie,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NuEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=auth
or:becquerel&as_brr=1&ei=BNVdSZnyNYPKkQS
PjL2BAg
(Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers)
Paris, France8  
[1] phosphoroscope from 1867 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NuEEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253

[2] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg
142 YBN
[01/06/1858 AD] 11 		2881) Gassiot describes his experiments
in a January 6, 1858 paper "On the
Stratifications and Dark Band in
Electrical Discharges as observed in
Toricellian Vacua.". (I think
"stratifications" can be interpreted as
"stripes".4 ) Gassiot writes:
"The striated
condition of the electrical discharge
in vacuo that takes place when the
terminal wires of Ruhmkorff's inductive
coil are inserted into a well-exhausted
receiver, in which a small piece of
phosphorus has been previously placed,
was first announced by Mr. Grove in his
communication to the Royal Society, 7th
January, 1852; ...
I had, at the time,
the pleasure of witnessing many of
these experiments, which are now so
well known to electricians; shortly
afterwards I examined the discharge in
a Torricellian vacuum: my apparatus
consisted of a glass cylinder 6 inches
long, in which two platinum wires are
hermetically sealed about 4 inches
apart; the cylinder forms the upper
portion of a barometer, the lower part
being made of the usual sized tubing;
the mercury, when at the height of 30
inches, reaches to within about 6
inches of the cylinder; the mercury was
carefully boiled in the usual manner by
M. Negretti, and the apparatus fixed in
my laboratory ...
When the discharge is
made with a Ruhmkorff's coil, by
connecting the above platinum wires
with the terminals of that apparatus,
the cylinder is brilliantly illuminated
with a dense white phosphorescent
light, filling the entire vacuum, the
intensity of the light depending on the
energy of the battery. The mercury
sinks at each discharge, but not the
slightest trace of any transverse bands
can be detected.
The phenomenon of
stratifications in the discharge in
vacuo were subsequently observed in
Paris by M. Ruhmkorff, who obtained the
effect by using the vapour of alcohol;
they were again noticed by Masson, Du
Moncel, Quet, and other continental
electricians, who all describe the
intense white light without
stratification produced in the
barometrical vacuum.
The Rev. Dr. Robinson, who
has made a series of beautiful
experiments with the inductive coil,
says, "Nothing satisfactory has yet
been ascertained as to the cause of the
stratification of light. Mr. Grove
appears to think that it arises from
some vibration in the metal of the
contact breaker, which produces a
fluctuation in the inducing
current;...
(Is this due to the alternating current
of the induction coil?5 )
...
(see figure)
While pursuing my experiments, it
occurred to me that an apparatus
similar in some respects to that used
by Davy, could without much difficulty
be constructed, which would enable me
not only to make experiments in a
Torricellian vacuum, but also with
great facility in any gas which does
not act on mercury Plat I. fig. 1
represents this apparatus. In the glass
tube, two platinum wires, a and b, are
carefully sealed about 6 inches apart;
the tube is filled with pure mercury. A
stopcock, fixed at C, can, by means of
a flexible tube, be connected with an
air-pump. When the air is extracted
from the ball of the apparatus, the
mercury sinks in the tube, and in this
manner the Torricellian vacuum is
formed, the mercury in the tube
descending to "d."
...
...the discharge from the coil, when
excited by a single cell of Grove's
battery, the upper wire being negative,
consisted of eight or ten distinct
stratifications, extending from the
positive wire to the dark space, while
the usual blue flame surrounding the
intense red, which has the appearance
of red heat, is visible on the negative
wire. (The blue flame are actually
photons emitting from charged
particles? I don't think this flame
must appear like an ordinary flame from
gas or a match.6 ) On reversing the
direction of the primary current by the
commutator, the stratifications appear
from the upper wire, while the lower,
which is now negative, has the blue and
red glow; but in this case there is
aphosphorescent light from the surface
of the mercury at d to the lower wire.
...
In some experiments which I made as far
back as October 1854, I noticed a
deposit when the discharge was made
from platinum wires sealed in a glass
globe, exhausted by means of the
air-pump. I showed the globe to Dr.
Faraday, who kindly tested and examined
the deposit, and found it to be finely
divided platinum in the metallic state.
(how tested?7 )...
...it appeared surprising
that there should be so marked a
difference in the discharge when, as in
some instances, so very minute a
quantity of air (less than 1/6000th of
the contents of the tube) was present.
Mr.
Casella, who had made all the glass
apparatus already described (with the
exception of the barometer), placed one
of his most intelligent workmen at my
disposal;...
Each of these tubes was filled with
pure mercury, carefully boiled; a tube
about 34 inches in length being
attached to each, also filled with
mercury; the apparatus was inverted
into a basin of mercury, thereby
forming the usual barometrical vacuum,
and the tubes were then sealed about 4
inches below the lower platinum wire.
...the
platinum coating is deposited on the
portion of the tube surrounding the
negative wire, but none at or near the
positive.
....
The stratifications are very powerfully
affected by a magnet. When the
discharge is made from wire to wire.
Plat I. figs 1,2,3 or 7, if a horseshoe
magnet is passed along the tube so as
alternately to present the poles to
different contiguous positions of the
discharge, it will assume the form of ~
in consequence of its tendency to
rotate round the poles in opposite
directions, as the magnet in this
position is moved up and down the side
of the tube.
The effect is still more
striking if the straight bar of a
powerful electro-magnet is placed close
to the ends of the stratifications;
they then tend to rotate in one
direction round the north, and in
another round the south pole of the
magnet.
When the discharge was first made in
the pear-shaped apparatus, fig. 5
(24.), the mercury being negative and
about 2 inches from the end of the
positive wire, the discharge formed
nearly a straight line; in this
position, when the pole of a powerful
electro-magnet was placed close to the
glass vessel of the apparatus, the
discharge was deflected across the pole
at right angles, the discharge being
from the positive wire to the negative
mercury; if the magnet presented a
northern polarity, the discharge
deflected to the right, when looking
from the magnet to the discharge,
carrying with it the red spot in a
direct line across the mercury.
...
In this experiment I noticed another
effect which I have not seen in any of
my other apparatus. The magnet so
divided the electrical discharge, that
the rays producing the fluorescence in
the glass tube were all accumulated in
the neighbourhood of the negative
terminal, the glass in that part being
highly fluorescent, while the positive
portion exhibited little or no signs of
this phenomenon.
I refrain for the present from
offering any observations as to the
action of the magnet on the discharge.
The intimate relation of magnetic and
electric action has long since been
shown; but the curious effect of the
power of a magnet to draw out the
stratification from the positive
terminal, and in some instances its
powerful action on that portion of the
discharge which exhibited the
phosphorescent light in its greatest
intensity, are worthy of further
examination."8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ No Truth Except in the Details:
Essays in Honor of Martin J.
Klein http://books.google.com/books?id=
p4Ea2603drgC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=Pl%C3
%BCcker+gassiot&source=web&ots=b7PMvMi_A
B&sig=a0dkHs_DPE50nMMJqTiMt-AYEL4&hl=en#
PPA104,M1
2. ^ Record ID2833. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^, pp1-14.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2&pi=5 Abstract of a
Series of Papers and Notes Concerning
the Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df 12/06/1859
9. ^ "John Peter Gassiot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
10. ^ "stratification". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"stratification". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
tratification
11. ^, p1.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/m1633376h1922028/?p=0e5820a245d34fe19f0
53e69bc97b81c&pi=20 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Stratifications and
Dark Band in Electrical Discharges as
Observed in Torricellian
Vacua Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 148 -
1858 Pages 1-16 Gassiot_bakerian_toric
ellian.pdf (01/06/1858) (01/06/1858)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/x841h6u6t2345555/?p=ee1305aef63a4927bf9
cb8e51ff7c840&pi=6 On the
Stratifications in Electrical
Discharges, as Observed in Torricellian
and other Vacua. --Second
Communication. Journal Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 9 -
1857/1859 Pages 601-605 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1857.0116 Gassiot_electric_discharge
_second.pdf
London, England9 10 (presumably) 
[1] [t Various figures from Gassiot's
text [5 p17] PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f
1445d80f82675725be8d2&pi=5 Abstract of
a Series of Papers and Notes Concerning
the Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df 12/06/1859 p17

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plücker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. Plücker
published it in the Poggendorffs
annalen der Physik und Chemie
1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
142 YBN
[03/12/1858 AD] 9 10 11 		3539)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
2. ^ "Stanislao
Cannizzaro." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
3. ^ "Cannizzaro, Stanislao", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p163.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
6. ^ Sketch of a
course of chemical philosophy by
Cannizzaro (1858) - Edinburgh: Alembic
Club Reprint No. 18
(1911). http://www.archive.org/details/
sketchofcourseof00cannrich {Cannizzaro_
Stanislao_sketch.pdf}
7. ^ Sketch of a course of chemical
philosophy by Cannizzaro (1858) -
Edinburgh: Alembic Club Reprint No. 18
(1911). http://www.archive.org/details/
sketchofcourseof00cannrich {Cannizzaro_
Stanislao_sketch.pdf}
8. ^ "Stanislao Cannizzaro."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
9. ^ "Stanislao Cannizzaro."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
{03/12/1858}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440. {1858}
11. ^
"Cannizzaro, Stanislao", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p163. {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Stanislao Cannizzaro." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanislao-c
annizzaro
[2] "Stanislao Cannizzaro." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanislao-c
annizzaro
[3] "Stanislao Cannizzaro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislao_C
annizzaro
[4] "Stanislao Cannizzaro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Stanisla
o_Cannizzaro
(Collegio Nazionale in Alessandria)
Piedmont (now part of Italy), Italy8
 
[1] [t Table of atomic weights in units
of atoms of hydrogen] PD/Corel
source: Cannizzaro_Stanislao_sketch.pdf
{http://www.archive.org/details/sketchof
courseof00cannrich}

[2] Description Scan of a
photograph of Stanislao
Cannizzaro Source Supplement to
Nature (magazine) Date May 6,
1897 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Cannizzaro_Stanislao.
jpg
142 YBN
[03/15/1858 AD] 16 		3460) After a 10 year career in
business Stewart changes to a career in
science.10
For this in 1868 Stewart is
awarded the Rumford medal of the Royal
Society.11
Stewart's textbooks and
popularizations of science are widely
read.12
Stewart writes "The Unseen
Universe" (with Peter Tait, 1875) and
many other popular accounts of
scientific discoveries of the time.13
"The Unseen Universe", is at first
published anonymously, and according to
the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica is
intended to combat the common notion of
the incompatibility of science and
religion.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law', Isis, Vol.
67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
2. ^ Record ID3280. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Record
ID3143. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record ID3456.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Balfour Stewart". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Balfour_
Stewart
6. ^ Balfour Stewart (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, v46 (1889-90), 1890, p
ix. http://books.google.com/books?id=IO
oAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PR9#PRA1-PR9,M1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Balfour Stewart
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, v46 (1889-90), 1890,
p
ix. http://books.google.com/books?id=IO
oAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PR9#PRA1-PR9,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Stewart, Balfour",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p656.
11. ^ "Balfour
Stewart". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Balfour_
Stewart
12. ^ "Stewart, Balfour", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p656.
13. ^ Daniel M. Siegel,
"Balfour Stewart and Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff: Two Independent Approaches
to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
14. ^ "Balfour Stewart". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Balfour_
Stewart
15. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law', Isis, Vol.
67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
16. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law', Isis, Vol.
67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {03/15/1858}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p445.
[2] "Balfour
Stewart." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/566011/Balfour-Stewart>.
[3] "Balfour Stewart." Encyclopedia of
Occultism and Parapsychology. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balfour-ste
wart
[4] "Balfour Stewart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Ste
wart
[5] The Unseen Universe: Or, Physical
Speculations on a Future State by
Balfour Stewart, Peter Guthrie Tait,
1894. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HWAAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Balf
our+Stewart&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KirPSPGiD4WY
sgOytenqCQ
[6] The Conservation of Energy: Being
an Elementary Treatise on Energy and
Its Laws by Balfour Stewart - 1883 -
180
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=FhoAAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bal
four+Stewart&as_brr=1&ei=bSjPSMjGOYPIsQP
xpaSmDA
[7] Physics by Balfour Stewart -
Physics - 1889 - 149
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EDcAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bal
four+Stewart&as_brr=1&ei=bSjPSMjGOYPIsQP
xpaSmDA
(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland15  
[1] Balfour Stewart PD/Corel
source: http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/sol
ar-terrestrial-luminaries/image_tn/Stewa
rt.jpg
142 YBN
[03/16/1858 AD] 29 30 31 32 		3581) Kekulé is attacted to chemistry
by the teaching of Justus Liebig at the
University of Giessen.23
Kekulé has a
complete mastery of English and French
in addition to his native German.24
In
September 1860, Kekulé organizes the
First International Chemical Congress
at Karlsruhe.25
During Kekulé's long
time at the University of Bonn
(1867-1896), he contributes to the rise
of organic chemistry and the chemical
industry of Germany. Students of
Kekulé come from all over Europe and
then take leading professorships and
head industrial laboratories.26
Kekulé
is ennobled in 1895 by Emperor William
II and can then add "von Stradonitz" to
his name.27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
2. ^ "Friedrich
August Kekulé von Stradonitz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
3. ^ "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
14. ^ Ernst von
Meyer, translated by George McGowan, "A
History of Chemistry from Earliest
Times to the Present Day", Macmillan
and co., 1898,
p328-329. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0mJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Ueber+die+C
onstitution+und+die+Metamorphosen+der+ch
emischen+Verbindungen+und+%C3%BCber+die+
chemische+Natur+des+Kohlenstoffs&lr=&as_
brr=1&ei=VTTQSOOYDoPWsgO7w90z#PPA328,M1
15. ^ Aug. Kekulé (1858). "Ueber die
Constitution und die Metamorphosen der
chemischen Verbindungen und über die
chemische Natur des Kohlenstoffs".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 106
(2): 129–159.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18581060202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18581060202
{Kekule_Friedrich_1858.pdf}
16. ^ "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
17. ^ "August Kekule von Stradonitz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
18. ^ "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ "August Kekule von Stradonitz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
24. ^ "August Kekule von Stradonitz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
26. ^ "Friedrich
August Kekulé von Stradonitz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
28. ^ "Kekulé
Memorial Lecture", Journal of the
Chemical Society, Chemical Society
(Great Britain), Royal Society of
Chemistry (Great Britain), v.73, 1898,
p97-138. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Tus4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=Friedrich+Aug
ust+Kekule+obituary&ei=oj3QSNmcGoH-sQPwl
OHbAw#PPA97,M1
29. ^ Aug. Kekulé (1858). "Ueber die
Constitution und die Metamorphosen der
chemischen Verbindungen und über die
chemische Natur des Kohlenstoffs".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 106
(2): 129–159.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18581060202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18581060202
{Kekule_Friedrich_1858.pdf}
{03/16/1858}
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448. {1858}
31. ^
"Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t {1858}
32. ^ "August Kekule von Stradonitz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
{1857 and 1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[2] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 16
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[3] "Kekule Von Stradonitz (Kekulé),
(Friedrich) August", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p480-481
[4] Aug. Kekulé (1857). "Ueber die s.
g. gepaarten Verbindungen und die
Theorie der mehratomigen Radicale".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 104
(2): 129–150.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18571040202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18571040202
{Kekule_Friendrich_1857.pdf}
[5] "Friedrich August Kekule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_August_Kekule
[6]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/chemsynthesis/couper-kekule.html
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany28  
[1] [t Chemical Diagrams from Kekule's
1858 paper, Notice 2 dots on S and O
- with valence of 2 - these clearly are
not electrons - they must represent
open bonds?] PD/Corel
source: Kekule_Friedrich_1858.pdf

[2] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg
142 YBN
[03/30/1858 AD] 15 		2874) Plücker continues: "On
discharging Ruhmkorff's apparatus
through one of the tubes before
described, not only the intensity, but
the colour of the light is different in
different parts of the tube. (Are these
different elements?12 ) The eye
perceives, for instance, in one part of
the tube red, in another violet, and in
the middle cylinder a fainter colour;
so that one would be inclined to
imagine that the ponderable matter
which becomes luminous is differently
distributed through the tube. In
addition to this, it happens in many
cases that the colour of the electric
light undergoes a change in its passage
through the narrow tube on the
excitation of the great
electro-magnet...But in all cases,
whatever may be the colour-impression
produced on the eye, the distribution
of the colours in the spectrum remains
for the same gas entirely of the same
kind; it is the intensity of the
colours alone which changes in
different degrees in different portions
of the spectrum: so that when the eye
... is at fault, still the nature of
the gas or vapour contained in the tube
is unfailingly determined by means of
the spectrum."13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp345-346.
2. ^ "On the Action
of the Magnet upon the Electrical
Discharge in Rarefied Gases.",
Philosophical Magazine, Volume, p414.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
3. ^ "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine,
Volume, p414.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "On the
Action of the Magnet upon the
Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine,
Volume, p418.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
8. ^ "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine,
Volume, pp415-417.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
9. ^ "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine,
Volume, p418.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
10. ^ George Fownes, "A Manual of
Elementary Chemistry", J. Churchill and
Sons, 1863,
p68. http://books.google.com/books?id=3
vY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=wheatsto
ne+compound+spectrum+lines&source=web&ot
s=gTteg-UdZ1&sig=Q5KTfwa6oHt7AXhkQ4ZPF4L
r1aM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&
ct=result#PPA68,M1
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "On the
Action of the Magnet upon the
Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine,
Volume, pp414-415.
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
14. ^ "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker
15. ^, p128.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
1897/f140.table (03/30/1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker
[2] "Julius Plücker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C
3%BCcker
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Julius%20Pl%C3%BC
cker%20
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
188w pp88-106 Annalen der Physik
(Leipzig). 1799. 1858 (Bd. 179 = F. 2
/ Bd. 103)
[6]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?langpa
ir=deen
[7] The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
[8] "John Peter Gassiot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
[9]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2π=5 Abstract of a Series
of Papers and Notes Concerning the
Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df
[10] "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases." (cont), Philosophical Magazine,
Volume 18, num 117 July 1859
plucker_1858_english.pdf
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany14
 
[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Juliu
s_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Pl�cker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf.
Pl�cker published it in the
Poggendorffs annalen der Physik und
Chemie 1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
142 YBN
[07/01/1858 AD] 41 		3033) Richard Owen opposes the theory
of evolution by natural selection.28
Dar
win is gentle, avoids conflict and
spends many years trying to build up
evidence before publishing.29
Thomas
Huxley calls himself "Darwin's bulldog"
and does much of the public arguing for
Darwin.30
In Germany, Ernst Haeckel
supports evolution against the
opposition of Virchow.31
In America Asa
Gray supports evolution against the
opposition of Agassiz.32
(in France and
Italy, Russia, China, India: ? It is
interesting how the theory of evolution
clearly divides people into two sides.
In my opinion, those who see the truth
of evolution are the smarter and more
concerned with truth and accuracy.33 )
In
1863 in "The Antiquity of Man", Lyell
comes out strongly in favor of
evolution.34
Wallace doubts that
evolution can apply to humans, but
Darwin accepts this.35
Wallace becomes
engaged in spiritualism.36
Both British
prime ministers William Gladstone and
Benjamin Disraeli are both strongly
opposed to evolution.37 (Now
politicians are not even required to
express an opinion, and it is an
absolute disgrace on society. Update:
recently the question of belief in
evolution was asked of a few United
States presidential candidates with a
few {Huckabee, Brownback and Tancredo
being examples38 } openly rejecting
evolution.39 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p425.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p425.
8. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
9. ^ "Alfred Russel Wallace."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634738/Alfred-Russel-Wallace>.
10. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
11. ^ "Alfred Russel Wallace."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634738/Alfred-Russel-Wallace>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ "niche". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/n
iche
16. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp230-231
17. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp230-231
18. ^ Record
ID2361. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Record ID2240.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
20. ^
http://judson.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/06/
17/darwinmania/index.html
21. ^ "William Charles Wells".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cha
rles_Wells
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^
http://judson.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/06/
17/darwinmania/index.html
24. ^ "Patrick Matthew". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Mat
thew
25. ^ "Edward Blyth". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Blyt
h
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p425.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
29. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
30. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
31. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
32. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
36. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
38. ^
http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/06/05/d
ebate.evolution/index.html
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
41. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (07/01/1858)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
(Linnean Society), London, England40
 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
142 YBN
[08/16/1858 AD] 12 		3305)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cyrus West Field." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
2. ^ "Cyrus West Field." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
3. ^ "Newfoundland". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Newfound
land
4. ^ "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
5. ^ "Cyrus West Field." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
6. ^ "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
7. ^ "Valencia, Ireland". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Valencia
,_Ireland
8. ^ "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Telegraph".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
11. ^ "Field, Cyrus W." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>.
12. ^ "Cyrus West Field." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field {08/16/1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus West Field".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_West_
Field
[2] "Cyrus West Field". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cyrus_We
st_Field
(Newfoundland to Ireland10 ) Atlantic
Ocean11  
[1] Field, Cyrus West (1819 -
1892) Discipline(s): Science
Patron Original Dimensions: Graphic:
31 x 21.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x 25.9
cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F002-06a.jpg

[2] Cyrus West Field. Imperial
salted-paper print by the Mathew Brady
Studio 1858, National Portrait Gallery,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. secondary source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cyrus
Field.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/CyrusField.jpg
142 YBN
[08/25/1858 AD] 13 		2974)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp345-346.
2. ^ "On the Action
of the Magnet upon the Electrical
Discharge in Rarefied Gases." (cont),
Philosophical Magazine, Volume 18, num
117 July 1859 plucker_1858_english.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases." (cont), Philosophical Magazine,
Volume 18, num 117 July 1859, p7.
plucker_1858_english.pdf
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "On the
Action of the Magnet upon the
Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases." (cont), Philosophical Magazine,
Volume 18, num 117 July 1859, pp8-9.
plucker_1858_english.pdf
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Julius
Plucker". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker
13. ^ "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases." (cont), Philosophical Magazine,
Volume 18, num 117 July 1859, p128.
plucker_1858_english.pdf (03/30/1858)
(03/30/1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker
[2] "Julius Plücker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C
3%BCcker
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Julius%20Pl%C3%BC
cker%20
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
188w pp88-106 Annalen der Physik
(Leipzig). 1799. 1858 (Bd. 179 = F. 2
/ Bd. 103)
[6]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?langpa
ir=deen
[7] The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
[8] "John Peter Gassiot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
[9]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2&pi=5 Abstract of a
Series of Papers and Notes Concerning
the Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df
[10] "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Volume
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
[11]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
1897/f140.table
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany12
 
[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Juliu
s_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Pl�cker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf.
Pl�cker published it in the
Poggendorffs annalen der Physik und
Chemie 1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 5 		2826)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
2. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
3. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm
4. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic
/persons/lassell.htm
5. ^
http://www.mikeoates.org/lassell/lassell
_by_a_chapman.htm (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Lassell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7257/William-Lassell
[2] "William Lassell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Las
sell
[3]
http://www.answers.com/William+Lassell+?
cat=technology
(Starfield Observatory) Liverpool,
England3 4  
[1] 48'' f/9.4 Reflector at
Malta PD/Corel (presumably) William
Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm

[2] William Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 7 		3120)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"somatic nervous system." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/somatic-ner
vous-system
4. ^ "autonomic nervous system." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autonomic-n
ervous-system
5. ^ http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
6. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
7. ^
http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/ (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
[2] "Claude Bernard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[3] "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[4] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[5] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[8] "chyle." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
(Sorbonne) Paris, France6  
[1] Sympathetic (red) and
parasympathetic (blue) nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Gray839.png

[2] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813
- 1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 11 		3155) In 1851 De La Rue's attention is
drawn to a daguerreotype of the moon by
G. P. Bond (or W. C.?3 ), shown at the
great exhibition of that year. De La
Rue uses the rapid wet-collodion
process and succeeds in obtaining well
defined lunar pictures, which remain
unsurpassed until the appearance of the
Rutherfurd photographs in 1865.4 De La
Rue's photograph of the Moon is sharp
enough to be magnified twenty-times.
(This magnification must be done with a
negative raised above a photograph
exposure paper and light beamed down
through the negative onto the exposure
paper.5 ) De La Rue's stereoscopic
pictures (formed by combining two
photographs) of the Sun and the Moon
create a sensation at the International
Exhibition of 1862 in London.6

In 1860 De la Rue took the
photoheliograph to Spain for the
purpose of photographing the total
solar eclipse which occurs on the 18th
of July of that year. The photographs
obtained on that occasion prove beyond
doubt the solar character of the
prominences or red flames, seen around
the limb of the moon during a solar
eclipse.7 According to Asimov, this
and Schwabe's finding of a sunspot
cycle initiate astrophysics, the study
of the composition of the stars and
their physical processes.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp387-388.
2. ^ "De La Rue,
Warren", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p240.
3. ^
Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "De la Rue, Warren."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9603>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "De La Rue, Warren",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p240.
7. ^ "Warren
De La Rue". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Warren_D
e_La_Rue
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp387-388.
9. ^ "De La Rue." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/de-la-rue
10. ^ "De La Rue, Warren", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p240.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp387-388. (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Warren De La Rue".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_De_L
a_Rue
(Kew Observatory9 ) Surrey, England10
 
[1] Warren De La Rue (1815 - 1889)
British chemist, astronomer,
photographer and inventor, who
photographed the solar eclipse in Spain
in 1860, invented the silver chloride
battery and photoheliograph. (Photo by
Otto Herschan/Getty Images) * by
Otto Herschan * * reference:
2641735 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641735&text=Warren+De+La
+Rue

[2] Warren de la
Rue (1815-1889) PD/Corel
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/delarue
.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 8 		3161) Robert Remak (rAmoK1 or rAmaK2
?) (CE 1815-1865), German physician,3
publishes the results of his study of
the therapeutic effects of electric
current in "Galvanotherapie" and
recommends the use of the constant
current in "morbid conditions of the
brain accompanied by disordered mental
functions".4

(Is this the earliest use and or study
of the use of electricity for human
health?5 )

(electricity has many important uses in
health, for example, diagnostic testing
of nerves, closing blood vessels, and
of course, running machines that
analyze body fluids, however,
electroshock or electroconvulsive
treatment is an example of the many
experimental and destructive or useless
application of electricity to health
care, and reminds us that clear consent
in applying health care procedures is
of primary importance in addition to
carefully separating observed clearly
measurable truth from unproven highly
speculative, non-physical, or abstract
theory. I think there is a fine line
between neurology the science of nerve
cells and psychology the study of human
behavior and the brain {the so called
"mind"}. For example, the use of
electricity to determine is a nerve
cell is working is neurology, but to
apply electricity without a physical
explanation is not neurology in my
opinion. The most important point is
that there is consent when applying
electricity to a body, in particular a
human. I think a clear line should be
drawn between the science of damaged
nerve cells versus the science of
diseases without any known physical
damage to nerve cells, and I define
these two sciences as neurology and
psychology, although again, the most
important point is making all health
care whether neurology, psychology or
any other ology consensual only as
defined by the Nuremburg laws and basic
ethics and logic.6 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p388.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p388.
4. ^ A. W.
Beveridge, and E. B. Renvoize,
"Electricity: A History of its use in
the Treatment of Mental Illness in
Britain During the Second Half of the
19th Century", British Journal of
Psychiatry, 153, (1988),
pp157-162. {Electricity_Health_157.pdf}
http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/153
/2/157.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Remak, Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p740.
8. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>
[2]
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
[3] Henry Lewis Jones, William Edward
Steavenson, "Medical Electricity: A
Practical Handbook for Students and
Practitioners", H. K. Lewis,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAQ22qarfAcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=remak+ele
ctricity&source=web&ots=4dD7qRqNhP&sig=9
8deF5qFnU4Q3tOI-P9EX_SpSVQ&hl=en#PPA4,M1

(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany7
 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 4 		3164)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guillaume Duchenne." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
2. ^ "Duchenne,
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1344>.
3. ^ "Duchenne,
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1344>.
4. ^ "Duchenne,
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1344>. (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] A. W. Beveridge, and E. B.
Renvoize, "Electricity: A History of
its use in the Treatment of Mental
Illness in Britain During the Second
Half of the 19th Century", British
Journal of Psychiatry, 153, (1988),
pp157-162. http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/r
eprint/153/2/157.pdf {Electricity_Healt
h_157.pdf}
[2] Henry Lewis Jones, William Edward
Steavenson, "Medical Electricity: A
Practical Handbook for Students and
Practitioners", H. K. Lewis,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAQ22qarfAcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=remak+ele
ctricity&source=web&ots=4dD7qRqNhP&sig=9
8deF5qFnU4Q3tOI-P9EX_SpSVQ&hl=en#PPA4,M1

[3] "Guillaume Duchenne." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 25
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
[4] "Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Guillaum
e_Benjamin_Amand_Duchenne
[5]
http://www.historiadelamedicina.org/duch
enne.htm
[6]
http://www.e-mergencia.com/html/historia
_ecg/
[7] H. S. J. Lee, H. Lee, "Dates in
Neurology", Informa Health Care,
2000. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dp_Hb0LvvXkC
[8] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
Saunders, 1921,
pp690-692. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA690&dq=Guillaume+
Benjamin+Amand+Duchenne#PPA691,M1
[9]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?sl=fr&
tl=en
[10]
http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/67/
3/322
Paris, France3  
[1] Duchenne de Boulogne (1806 -
1875) Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne and
assistant electrically stimulate the
face of a live subject in displaying an
expression. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Duchenne_de_Boulogne_
3.jpg

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 4 		3203)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p394.
2. ^ "August Wilhelm
von Hofmann". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
ilhelm_von_Hofmann
3. ^ "Hofmann, August Wilhelm Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp432-433
4. ^ "August
Wilhelm von Hofmann". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
ilhelm_von_Hofmann (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hofmann, August Wilhelm
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0711>.
[2] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-wilh
elm-von-hofmann
[3] "August Wilhelm von Hofmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilh
elm_von_Hofmann
(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England3  
[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 5 6 		3205) Donders uses his own money to
establish the polyclinic in Utrecht
which becomes a center for both
research and teaching.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395.
2. ^ "Donders, Frans
Cornelis." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0909>.
3. ^ "Donders, Franciscus Cornelis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p259.
4. ^ "Donders,
Franciscus Cornelis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p259.
5. ^ "Donders, Frans Cornelis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0909>. (1858)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395. (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Cornelis
Donders". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Cornelis_Donders
[2] "ophthalmology." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
28 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
phthalmology>
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands4  
[1] Scientist: Donders, Franciscus
Cornelis (1818 - 1889) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Alexander
Seitz (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.1 x 5.7 cm / Sheet: 10 x
6.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D4-14a.jpg

[2] Franciscus Cornelis
Donders PD/Corel
source: http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/s
ites/nnm.dossiers/contents/i002093/c.1.%
20donders.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 7 8 		3211)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395.
2. ^
http://chapters.marssociety.org/toronto/
Education/TL1700.shtml
3. ^
http://chapters.marssociety.org/toronto/
Education/TL1700.shtml
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://chapters.marssociety.org/toronto/
Education/TL1700.shtml
6. ^ "Secchi, (Pietro) Angelo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p793.
7. ^
http://chapters.marssociety.org/toronto/
Education/TL1700.shtml (1858)
8. ^
http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/
timelines/mars_1700-1959.html (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6512>
[2] "Angelo Secchi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
[3] "Angelo Secchi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy6  
[1] Pietro Angelo Secchi (1818-1878),
Italian astronomer. Scientist:
Secchi, Angelo (1818 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 6.5 x 4.7 cm / Sheet: 10.5 x
6.5 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Angelo_Secchi.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 5 		3288)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
2. ^ "Foucault, Jean
Bernard Léon", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259.
3. ^
William Tobin, "The life and science of
Léon Foucault: the man who proved the
earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, pp206-210.
4. ^ "Jean
Bernard Leon Foucault". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
5. ^ "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259. (1858)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[7] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Léon Foucault, "Dètermination
Expérimentale de la Vitesse de la
Lumière" ("Experimental Determination
of the Speed of Light") Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp216-218. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[13]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=fr&tl=en
[14]
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

[15] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[16] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
[17] "gyroscope." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
[18] "gyroscope." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
[19] Léon Foucault, "Dètermination
Expérimentale de la Vitesse de la
Lumière" ("Experimental Determination
of the Speed of Light") Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp219-226. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

[2] Illustration of the original
Foucault experiment from a 1851
newspaper. PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/paper.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 5 		3358)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA167,M1
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Leo Koenigsberger,
Frances Alice Welby, "Hermann Von
Helmholtz", Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA167,M1
4. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA167,M1
5. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA167,M1 {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[7]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[8] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[9] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[10] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
[11] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[12] "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410. {1862}
[13] "Hermann von
Helmholtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz {1863}
[14] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1 {1863}
[15]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[16] Joan L. Richards, "The Evolution
of Empiricism: Hermann von Helmholtz
and the Foundations of Geometry", Brit.
J. Phil. Sci. a8 (1977), p235-253
[17]
"Helmholtz, Hermann von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany4
 
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 5 		3359)
FOOTNOTES
(id)
2. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA172,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Leo Koenigsberger,
Frances Alice Welby, "Hermann Von
Helmholtz", Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA167,M1
5. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA167,M1 {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[7]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[8] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[9] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[10] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
[11] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[12] "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410. {1862}
[13] "Hermann von
Helmholtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz {1863}
[14] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1 {1863}
[15]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[16] Joan L. Richards, "The Evolution
of Empiricism: Hermann von Helmholtz
and the Foundations of Geometry", Brit.
J. Phil. Sci. a8 (1977), p235-253
[17]
"Helmholtz, Hermann von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany4
 
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 8 		3368)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
2. ^ "Rudolf
Clausius." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p195-196.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
7. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p195-196.
8. ^ "Rudolf Clausius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>
.
[2] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

(New Polytechnicum) Zurich, Germany7
 
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 11 		3395) Because of the liquids in the
planets, moons and Sun, in addition to
the effect of smaller masses not
accounted for, I think estimating the
locations of the planets and moons will
forever be like predicting the weather
on planet Earth, impossible to estimate
into the far future. Even into the far
future, I think our descendants will be
have to constantly update the latest
positions of the moons, planets, and
all the ships in orbit of the Sun to
carefully make sure that the star
system remains stable and does not
collapse or become chaotic.8

EXPER: Use a computer and the simple
Newtonian equation to see how closely
the Sun, planets and moons follow
observations from different centuries.
Can the effect of the other planets be
seen in the motion of the Sun? When
every object is moving, how can any
location be fixed in the universe (in
particular some center point of 0,0,0
for any given time, presuming time to
be the same value everywhere in the
universe)? Include the constant loss of
mass from the Sun. Use initial
velocities. How do these initial
inertial velocities change through
time? For example how is the x,y,z of a
planet relative to the Sun or a central
0,0,0 point, changed in the course of a
single orbit?9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ Charles George
Herbermann, Edward Aloysius, "The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the ...",
Encyclopedia Press, 1913,
p205-206. http://books.google.com/books
?id=EFQmf0E7N_EC&pg=PA206&dq=%22le+Verri
er%22+1858&as_brr=1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ William Tobin, "The Life
and Science of Léon Foucault",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p229-230.
5. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p229-230.
(the data)
7. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Neptune_and_Pluto.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Le Verrier,
Urbain-Jean-Joseph." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>.
11. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p229-230.
{1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "celestial mechanics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-774
32>
[2] "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
[3] "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Urbain_J
ean_Joseph_Leverrier
[4] "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
[5] "Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p538. (1859)
[6] "Le
Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>. (takes up problem of explaining
unusual characteristic motion of
Mercury)1855)
Paris, France10  
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg


[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 5 		3408)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420-421.
2. ^ "Charles
Hermite." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>.
3. ^ "Charles Hermite." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>.
4. ^ "Charles Hermite." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>.
5. ^ "Charles Hermite." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>. {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hermite." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-her
mite
[2] "Charles Hermite." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-her
mite
[3] "Charles Hermite". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Her
mite
[4] "Hermite, Charles", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p330.
(Collège de France) Paris, France4
(presumably) 
[1] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.profcardy.com/matemat
icos/bHermite.jpg

[2] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/h
ome/grothkopf/fotos/math-ges/thumbs/081t
humb.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 6 		3415)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/R
EG/causeries/dates_1850.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
4. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/R
EG/causeries/dates_1850.html
5. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
[8] René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[9] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France5  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 7 		3481)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ "William
Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
7. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[5] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p321
[7]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[8] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[9] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[10] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
[11]
Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[12] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland6  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 25 		3501) Huxley is the youngest of the six
surviving children of schoolmaster
George Huxley and his wife, Rachel.5
In
1845, Huxley discovers a new membrane,
now known as Huxley’s layer, in the
human hair sheath.6
Huxley teaches
natural history at the Royal School of
Mines, giving very popular lectures
aimed at lower income people, and is a
popularizer of science.7
Huxley's
strong belief in public education of
science is expressed in his famous
lectures to working men, delivered from
1855 on.8
In 1856, Charles Darwin and
T.H. Huxley meet, become friends. The
two complement each other well, because
the reclusive Darwin needs a public
defender, which Huxley is skilled
with.9
Huxley praises Darwin's "Origin
of Species" in a review for the London
Times (the day after Christmas, 185910
); in an article for the "Westminster
Review"; and in a discourse at the
Royal Institution ("On Species and
Races, and their Origin").11
Huxley
popularizes the theory of evolution.12

In 1869, Huxley's team founds the
journal "Nature".13
As an example of
Huxley's popularity, in 1866, as Huxley
gives a talk on blind faith as the
ultimate sin, 2,000 people must be
turned away from the crowded hall.14
A
bequest of £1,000 from a Quaker
supporter finances Huxley’s American
(US only?15 ) tour in 1876, in which
Huxley gives talks about the dinosaur
ancestry of birds and shows how the
succession of fossil horses in America
is “Demonstrative Evidence of
Evolution”.16
Huxley serves as
president of the Geological Society
(1869–71), the Ethnological Society
(1868–71), the British Association
for the Advancement of Science (1870),
the Marine Biological Association
(1884–90), and the Royal Society
(1883–85).17
Huxley's talented
daughter Marian was labeled insane
after 1882 and died in Paris, under the
care of the renowned neurologist
Jean-Martin Charcot, in 1887.18
To
fill the demand for science teachers
(driven in part by the Education Act of
1870), Huxley teaches courses at South
Kensington for schoolmasters and
mistresses, and from the good
performance of the women Huxley is
inspired to fight for the admission of
women to universities.19
In 1880 Huxley
names the class Osteichthyes which are
also called bony fish".20 21
In 1883, a
lord chief justice declares that
Christianity is no longer the law of
the land in England, with the caveat
that while Huxley’s reverent
questioning is now legal, vulgar
working-class attacks on Christian
beliefs are still indictable.22
Huxley
has many nicknames including "Darwin's
pit bull", "The General", "Huxley
Eikonoklastes", and "Pope Huxley".23
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
2. ^ "Huxley, Thomas
Henry", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p447-448.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Carl Gegenbaurv".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Carl_Geg
enbaurv
5. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
6. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
8. ^ "Huxley, Thomas
Henry." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
9. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
10. ^ "Huxley, Thomas Henry."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
11. ^ "Huxley, Thomas Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p447-448.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
13. ^ "T.H. Huxley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
14. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "T.H. Huxley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
17. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
18. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
19. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
20. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42316&tree=0.1a
21. ^
http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/courses/Ta
tner/biomedia/units/fish7.htm
22. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
23. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
24. ^ "Huxley, Thomas Henry."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436. {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[2] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henr
y_Huxley
[3] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
(University of London) London,
England24 (presumably) 
[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 7 8 		3555)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
3. ^ "hydrogen sulfide." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/278779/hydrogen-sulfide>.
4. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
5. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
6. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
7. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1858}
8. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London By Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1 {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[4] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
(Collège de France) Paris, France6
 
[1] methane GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hane

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 13 		3557) Berthelot synthetically produces
many organic (carbon) compounds such as
methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, methane,
benzene, and acetylene.
Berthelot is
the first to synthesize organic
(carbon) compounds that do not occur
naturally, by combining glycerol with
fatty acids that do not naturally occur
in fats.
Berthelot builds a calorimeter
to measure the heat of chemical
reactions.
Berthelot defines the terms
"exothermic" for reactions that give
off heat, and "endothermic" for
reactions that absorb heat.
In 1883,
Berthelot publishes the results of a
detailed study on the strength of
explosives in a two-volume book.10
(How many explosives reactions are then
known?11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ "Berthelot,
Pierre Eugène Marcellin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p90-91.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Marcellin Berthelot." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
6. ^ "reduction." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reduction
7. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
8. ^ "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p90-91.
9. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
10. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Marcellin Pierre
Eugene Berthelot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
13. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
(Collège de France) Paris, France12
 
[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 15 		3627) With Couper there is a claim of
nervous breakdown possibly as result of
priority of Kekule structure
priority.12 I reject the claims of
"nervous breakdown" as too abstract,
and the stigma of psychiatric disorder
is a massive injustice directed at many
lawful nonviolent people. So I think
people should require specific examples
of claims of unusual behavior. Many
times, the so-called unusual behavior
is not unusual, or is within the realm
of creative expression, and is
completely nonviolent and legal.
Perhaps a better expression would be,
was unable to contribute to science
because of constant distraction, etc, a
more specific kind of claim, then
labeling "nervous breakdown". Perhaps
Couper just became uninterested in
chemistry or suffered from some
physical health problem.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450-451.
2. ^
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/chemsynthesis/couper-kekule.html
3. ^ "Archibald Scott Couper."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140454/Archibald-Scott-Couper>.
4. ^ "Archibald Scott Couper."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140454/Archibald-Scott-Couper>.
5. ^ "Archibald Scott Couper."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archibald-s
cott-couper
6. ^ M. A. Kekule, "OBSERVATIONS ON MR
COUPER's NEW CHEMICAL THEORY",
Philosophical Magazine, Taylor &
Francis., 1858, ser.4 v.16,
p478-480. {Kekule addresses
similarities of Couper's and his
paper} http://books.google.com/books?id
=aVEwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA478&dq=%22On+a+New+Ch
emical+Theory%22&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=b8rjSOT
WOIbQMsz61dcL#PPA478,M1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Archibald Scott
Couper." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archibald-s
cott-couper
10. ^ Couper, A. S. (1858). "Sur une
nouvelle théorie chimique". Annales de
chimie et de physique 53:
469–489. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k34794n
and http://books.google.com/books?id=1u
A3AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA510&dq=Annales+de+ch
imie+et+de+physique+Sur+une+nouvelle+th%
C3%A9orie+chimique&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OMbjS
O-2ForWMJ-F1NcL#PRA3-PA469,M1 English
translation: "On a New Chemical
Theory", The London, Edinburgh and
Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science, Taylor & Francis,
1858, ser.4:v.16 (1858),
p104-116. http://books.google.com/books
?id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104&dq=%22On+a+New
+Chemical+Theory%22&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=b8rj
SOTWOIbQMsz61dcL
11. ^ "Couper, Archibald Scott",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p212-213.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450-451.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"Couper, Archibald Scott", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p212-213.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450-451. {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Archibald Scott Couper".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_S
cott_Couper
(Wurtz's Paris laboratory) Paris,
France14  
[1] Archibald Scott Couper's bond lines
in a French version of his 1858 paper.
On the left is his representation of
tartaric acid and the product obtained
after the loss of water by heating. On
the right is the first depiction of a
ring system—for cyanuric acid (Az
=N). Here Couper used continuous lines
and brackets to represent bonds. In
other publications, bonds are straight
dotted lines—possibly the
typesetter's preference. From Annales
de chemie et de physique, Série 3, 53
(1858), 488–489. Chemical Heritage
Foundation Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/06synthesis
/couper-kekule2.jpg

[2] Archibald Scott Couper in Paris in
1857 or 1858. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith
Memorial Collection, Department of
Special Collections, University of
Pennsylvania Library. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/06synthesis
/couper-kekule1.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 7 		3635) Voit is a pupil of the German
chemists Justus von Liebig and
Friedrich Wöhler at the University of
Munich, where Voit later is professor
of physiology (1863–1908).3
In 1862
Voits begins a collaboration with the
German chemist Max von Pettenkofer that
leads to productive investigations into
metabolism (the chemical processes
occurring within a living cell or
organism that are necessary for the
maintenance of life4 ).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
2. ^ "Carl Von Voit"
(obituary), Science, American
Association for the Advancement of
Science, HighWire Press, JSTOR
(Organization), Moses King, 1908, n.s.,
v.27
(1908),p315-316. http://books.google.co
m/books?id=2JkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA315&dq=
Carl+von+Voit&ei=PBzlSIK4M5j4MOuUvQI#PRA
1-PA315,M1
3. ^ "Carl von Voit." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631930/Carl-von-Voit>.
4. ^ "metabolism." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metabolism
5. ^ "Carl von Voit." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631930/Carl-von-Voit>.
6. ^ "Voit, Carl Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910.
7. ^ "Carl Von Voit"
(obituary), Science, American
Association for the Advancement of
Science, HighWire Press, JSTOR
(Organization), Moses King, 1908, n.s.,
v.27
(1908),p315-316. http://books.google.co
m/books?id=2JkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA315&dq=
Carl+von+Voit&ei=PBzlSIK4M5j4MOuUvQI#PRA
1-PA315,M1 {1857/1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl von Voit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Vo
it
[2] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p333
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany6
 (presumably) 
[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 4 		3775)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
2. ^ "Perkin, Sir
William Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>.
3. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
4. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>. {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[2] "Sir William Henry Perkin." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[3] "William Henry Perkin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Perkin
[4] "William Henry Perkin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Perkin
[5] "Perkin, William Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p694-695.
(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England3  
[1] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg

[2] The dye-making factory of Perkin &
Son's in 1858. From a sketch by
William Perkin. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/the-works-in-1858.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 9 		6001)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jacques Offenbach." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-off
enbach
2. ^ "Jacques Offenbach." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/425651/Jacques-Offenbach>.
3. ^ "Orpheus in the Underworld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orpheus_in_
the_Underworld
4. ^ "Jacques Offenbach." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/425651/Jacques-Offenbach>.
5. ^ The New Penguin Opera Guide, ed.
Amanda Holden, Penguin Books, London
2001
6. ^ "Orpheus in the Underworld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orpheus_in_
the_Underworld
7. ^ "Can-Can." The Oxford Dictionary
of Dance. Oxford University Press,
2000, 2004. Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/can-can-2
8. ^ "Jacques Offenbach." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-off
enbach
9. ^ "Jacques Offenbach." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-off
enbach {1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Offenbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Off
enbach
(Bouffes-Parisiens theater) Paris,
France8  
[1]
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Jac
ques_offenbach.jpg Jacques Offenbach,
1960s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Offencolor.jpg
141 YBN
[02/21/1859 AD] 12 13 		3747)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406-407.
2. ^ E. Newton
Harvey, "A History of Luminescence",
The American Philosophical Society,
1957, 353-354.
3. ^ E. Becquerel, "Recherches
sur divers effets lumineux qui
résultent de l'action de la lumière
sur les corps", Ann. de Chim. et Phys.,
1859, 55, 5-119;57:
40-124. translated: E. Becquerel, "On
the Phosphorescence of Gases by the
Action of Electricity", Philosophical
Magazine,
p383-384. http://books.google.com/books
?id=yVEwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA383&dq=becquerel+1
859+1857&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=XX1YSfTfGoXSkwT
qqLGFBw
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406-407.
6. ^ E. Newton
Harvey, "A History of Luminescence",
The American Philosophical Society,
1957, 353-354.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"A History of Luminescence", The
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
353-354.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ E. Becquerel,
"Recherches sur divers effets lumineux
qui résultent de l'action de la
lumière sur les corps", Ann. de Chim.
et Phys., 1859, 55, 5-119;57:
40-124. translated: E. Becquerel, "On
the Phosphorescence of Gases by the
Action of Electricity", Philosophical
Magazine,
p383-384. http://books.google.com/books
?id=yVEwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA383&dq=becquerel+1
859+1857&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=XX1YSfTfGoXSkwT
qqLGFBw
11. ^ "Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
12. ^ E.
Becquerel, "Recherches sur divers
effets lumineux qui résultent de
l'action de la lumière sur les corps",
Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 1859, 55,
5-119;57: 40-124. translated: E.
Becquerel, "On the Phosphorescence of
Gases by the Action of Electricity",
Philosophical Magazine,
p383-384. http://books.google.com/books
?id=yVEwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA383&dq=becquerel+1
859+1857&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=XX1YSfTfGoXSkwT
qqLGFBw {02/21/1859}
13. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "A
History of Luminescence", The American
Philosophical Society, 1957, 353-354.
{1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becqu
erel
[2] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquere
l
[3] M. Edmond Becquerel, "Recherches
sur les effets de la radiation chimique
de la lumière solaire, au moyen des
courants electriques", Comptes Rendus
hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 9,
(1839), p145-149; 561. also Annalen
der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp.
18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets
chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-t
dm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
72>
[6]
http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdrom/MANUFA
CT/FIRST.HTM
[7]
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/story?id=20812
[8] "thermionic power converter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>.
[9] E. Becquerel, "Recherches sur
divers effets lumineux.", Ann. de Chim.
et Phys., 1858, 45, 815-819; 46:
969-975.
(Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers)
Paris, France11  
[1] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg

[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF
141 YBN
[08/10/1859 AD] 8 9 		3754) Kühne succeeds Helmholtz in the
chair of physiology at Heidelberg
(1871-1899).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475-476.
2. ^ "Wilhelm
Kühne." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne
3. ^ Kuehne W (1859) Untersuchungen
über Bewegungen und Veränderungen der
contractilen Substanzen. Archiv für
Anatomie. Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin Jahrgang
1859:748–835
http://books.google.com/books?id=dwUBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA748&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%B
Cber+Bewegungen+und+Ver%C3%A4nderungen+d
er+contractilen+Substanzen+date:1859-185
9&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=NMlYSb6
1FoyEkQT39_E0 {08/10/1859}
4. ^
http://www.medicusbooks.com/shop/USER_AR
TIKEL_HANDLING_AUFRUF.php?darstellen=1&K
ategorie_ID=23709〈=de&update_user_lang
=true&Ziel_ID=7806&javascript_enabled=tr
ue&PEPPERSESS=eb2b859175ce4ee19d9633f9c3
1fb318
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Kühne, Wilhelm
Friedrich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p504.
7. ^
Kuehne W (1859) Untersuchungen über
Bewegungen und Veränderungen der
contractilen Substanzen. Archiv für
Anatomie. Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin Jahrgang
1859:748–835
http://books.google.com/books?id=dwUBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA748&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%B
Cber+Bewegungen+und+Ver%C3%A4nderungen+d
er+contractilen+Substanzen+date:1859-185
9&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=NMlYSb6
1FoyEkQT39_E0 {08/10/1859}
8. ^ Kuehne W (1859)
Untersuchungen über Bewegungen und
Veränderungen der contractilen
Substanzen. Archiv für Anatomie.
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin Jahrgang 1859:748–835
http://books.google.com/books?id=dwUBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA748&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%B
Cber+Bewegungen+und+Ver%C3%A4nderungen+d
er+contractilen+Substanzen+date:1859-185
9&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=NMlYSb6
1FoyEkQT39_E0 {08/10/1859}
9. ^ "Wilhelm Kühne." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne {1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Friedrich Kühne".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fri
edrich_K%C3%BChne
[2] "Willy Kuhne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Willy_Ku
hne
[3]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per103
(University of ?) Paris, France7  
[1] Image of frog nerves from 1888
Kuhne lecture PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=r1cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA628&dq=K%C3%BChne,+W.
+Untersuchungen+uber+das+Protoplasma+und
+die+Contractility&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=vNNYS
eT4DI3WlQSq6MTuBw#PPA627,M1

[2] Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img3930.jpg
141 YBN
[08/27/1859 AD] 8 9 		3264)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p400.
2. ^ "Drake, Edwin
Laurentine." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9031134>
.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Edwin Drake."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake

5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p400.
7. ^ "Edwin Drake."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake

8. ^ "Edwin Drake." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake
 (08/27/1859)
9. ^ "Edwin Drake." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake
 (08/27/1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edwin Laurentine Drake".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Laure
ntine_Drake
(near) Titusville, Pennsylvania, USA7
 
[1] Edwin Drake Image from PHMC, Drake
Well Museum, Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Edwin%2
0Drake.jpg

[2] Edwin Drake [r] and Peter Wilson
[l] in front of the engine house and
derrick for the well which began the
oil industry, 1866. John Mather,
photographer. Image from PHMC, Drake
Well Museum, Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Drake's
%20well%201.jpg
141 YBN
[09/23/1859 AD] 20 21 		3074)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
3. ^
"Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p538.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
5. ^
"Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p538.
6. ^
"Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p538.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph
Leverrier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Urbain_J
ean_Joseph_Leverrier
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph
Leverrier." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Le Verrier,
Urbain-Jean-Joseph." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>.
20. ^ "Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p538. (1859)
21. ^
"Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>. (takes up problem of explaining
unusual characteristic motion of
Mercury)1855)

MORE INFO
[1] "celestial mechanics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-774
32>
[2] "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
Paris, France19  
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg


[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
141 YBN
[10/20/1859 AD] 50 51 52 53 		3087) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899)20 ,
and Gustav Kirchhoff (KRKHuF) (CE
1824-1887)21 understand that the
spectra of light relates to and can be
used to determine the atomic (chemical)
composition of a substance22 and
develop the technique of spectroscopy23
.

Bunsen (CE 1811-1899)24 , and Kirchhoff
(KRKHuF) (CE 1824-1887)25 build a
spectroscope26 and develop the
technique of spectroscopy27 .

Bunsen and Kirchhoff (confirm clearly
Fraunhofer's view that28 ) each pure
substance has its own characteristic
spectrum.29

Kirchhoff supports the theory that each
element emits and absorbs frequencies
of light at the same specific
frequencies.

Kirchhoff recognizes that sodium and
potassium exist in the sun's
atmosphere, while lithium does not or
does in undetectably small quantity.30


Kirchhoff recognizes that temperature
of source and absorbing material makes
a difference in absorption of spectral
lines.31

Kirchhoff and Bunsen develop a
spectroscope which allows light to pass
through a narrow slit before reaching a
prism. The different wavelengths (or
photon intervals32 ) of light are
refracted differently so that numerous
images of the slit are thrown on a
scale in different positions and with
different colors.33

In addition to yielding a unique
spectrum for each element (and compound
molecules34 ), the spectroscope has the
advantage of definite identification
while only using a minimal amount of
sample, on the range of nanograms to
micrograms for elements like sodium and
barium respectively.35 Bunsen and
Kirchhoff will use this technique to
quickly identify the two new elements
cesium and rubidium.36

The Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope, a
very important instrument of chemical
analysis is initially built with simple
components such as a prism, cigar box,
and two ends of otherwise unusable old
telescopes. The spectroscope is an
instrument which will prove to be of
tremendous importance in chemical
analysis and the discovery of new
elements.37

The spectroscope will be used to
identify five more new elements. These
included thallium (Crookes, 1861),
indium (Reich and Richter, 1863),
gallium (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, 1875),
scandium (Nilson, 1879) and germanium
(Winkler, 1886). Bunsen's original
vision of analyzing the composition of
the stars is realized in 1868 when
helium is discovered in the solar
spectrum.38 Draper and Huggins also
use the spectroscope for astronomy.39


The Bunsen lamp provides a hot flame of
low visible light emission in which
flame spectra can be observed against a
minimum of background spectra, which
makes spectrum analysis easier.40

In 1859, Bunsen suddenly stops his work
with Roscoe, telling Roscoe: "At
present Kirchhoff and I are engaged in
a common work which doesn't let us
sleep... Kirchhoff has made a
wonderful, entirely unexpected
discovery in finding the cause of the
dark lines in the solar spectrum....
thus a means has been found to
determine the composition of the sun
and fixed stars with the same accuracy
as we determine sulfuric acid,
chlorine, etc., with our chemical
reagents. Substances on the earth can
be determined by this method just as
easily as on the sun, so that, for
example, I have been able to detect
lithium in twenty grams of sea
water."41

This work is published as (translated
from German) "On Fraunhofer's Lines"
("Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien,")
in the "Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin".42 The two
main contributions of this paper are:
1) recognizing that the elements of any
substance can be determined from the
spectrum of an object and 2)
identifying elements in the sun.43 44

Kirchhoff makes the important
observation that, to observe an
absorption feature, the source of the
light has to be hotter than the
absorbing flame.45

Kirkkoff report this in "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien" ("On
Fraunhofer's lines").46


This finding initiates a new era in the
method used to identify new elements.
The first fifty elements discovered,
beyond those known since ancient times,
were either the products of chemical
reactions or were released by
electrolysis. From 1860 on, the search
is on for trace elements detectable
only with the help of specialized
instruments like the spectroscope.47
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber
die Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber
die Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber
die Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
7. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
14. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
"spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>.
18. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
19. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
26. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^
"spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>.
30. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
31. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
36. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
37. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
38. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
39. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
40. ^ Daniel M.
Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff: Two Independent
Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation
Law"', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec.,
1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
} {10/20/1859}
41. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
42. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber
die Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
45. ^ Malcolm S. Longair, "The Cosmic
Century", Cambridge University Press,
1006,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=z0
vlYHQZHJcC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=%22Investig
ations+on+the+solar+spectrum+and+spectra
+of+the+chemical+elements%22&source=web&
ots=UhnGKF2yT7&sig=DAT4d1SZAQZCMIgL58LXE
igR6sc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result
46. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
47. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
48. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
49. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
50. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf} {10/20/1859}
51. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
} {10/20/1859}
52. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
53. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] (English translation of 1860 paper)
Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen,
"Chemical Analysis by Observation of
Spectra", Annalen der Physik und der
Chemie (Poggendorff), Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[8] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany48 49  
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg

[2] [t Clearly and early spectroscope,
is this from Bunsen?] PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_spectrometer.jpg
141 YBN
[11/22/1859 AD] 15 		3035) Darwin hates public argument, and
Huxley, a good friend, loves public
argument and famously argues in favor
of the theory of evolution.9

Huxley writes three reviews of "Origin
of Species", defends human evolution at
the Oxford meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of
Science in 1860 (when Bishop Samuel
Wilberforce jokingly asks whether the
apes are on Huxley's grandmother's or
grandfather's side), and publishes his
own book on human evolution, "Evidence
as to Man's Place in Nature" (1863).10
Throughout these struggles Huxley is
the leading champion for evolution and
for fair play to natural selection,
although Huxley never entirely accepts
the theory of natural selection11 ,
although enthusiastic for the theory of
evolution, that is descent from a
common ancestor12 . Herbert Spencer's
alternative phrase, "the survival of
the fittest", probably helps to spread
a clear appreciation of Darwin's
meaning.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Charles
Robert Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Robert_Darwin
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Charles Robert
Darwin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Robert_Darwin
14. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
15. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1859) (11/22/1859)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
London, England14 (presumably) 
[1] Origin of Species title
page PD/Corel
source: 1859. On the origin of species
by means of natural selection, or the
preservation of favoured races in the
struggle for life. 1st ed. p.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.htm
l#books {Darwin_1859_Origin_F373.pdf}

[2] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
141 YBN
[11/24/1859 AD] 6 7 		2928)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ironclad". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2807/ironclad
2. ^ "Ironclad". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironclad
3. ^ "French battleship La Gloire".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_batt
leship_La_Gloire
4. ^ "French battleship La Gloire".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_batt
leship_La_Gloire
5. ^ "French battleship La Gloire".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_batt
leship_La_Gloire
6. ^ "French battleship La Gloire".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_batt
leship_La_Gloire (11/24/1859)
7. ^ "ironclad".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2807/ironclad (1859)
Mourillon, Toulon, France5  
[1] The French ironclad La Gloire. 1860
photograph. Source: ''La Royale'' Jean
Randier. The Gloire, first ocean-going
ironclad warship PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LaGloirePhotograph.jpg
141 YBN
[12/11/1859 AD] 28 29 		3456)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Henry Crew,
"The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams
and Wilkens, 1928, edition 1, p303-305.
4. ^
Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
9. ^ Daniel M.
Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff: Two Independent
Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation
Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec.,
1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
10. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber den
Zusammenhang zwischen Emission und
Absorption von Licht und Warme,"
Monatsber. Kon. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.
Berlin, 1859, pp. 783-787 (presented
Dec. 11, 1859). Reprinted in
Abhandlungen, pp. 566-571, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff'sl Untersuchungen,
pp.
7-13. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA783,M1 E
nglish translation: Pierre Prevost,
Balfour Stewart, Gustav Kirchhoff,
Robert Bunsen, De Witt Bristol Brace,
"The Laws of Radiation and Absorption:
Memoirs", American Book Company, 1901,
p73- http://books.google.com/books?id=A
fGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=brace
+laws+of+radiation#PPA73,M1
11. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53,
p51. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"Gustav Kirchhoff." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
15. ^ Record ID3280. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1928,
edition 1, p303-305.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Henry Crew,
"The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams
and Wilkens, 1928, edition 1, p303-305.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Pierre Prevost, Balfour Stewart,
Gustav Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De
Witt Bristol Brace, "The Laws of
Radiation and Absorption: Memoirs",
American Book Company, 1901, pp
v-vi. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=titlepage&dq=brace
+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorption%22#
PPP12,M1
22. ^ Pierre Prevost, Balfour Stewart,
Gustav Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De
Witt Bristol Brace, "The Laws of
Radiation and Absorption: Memoirs",
American Book Company, 1901, pp
v-vi. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=titlepage&dq=brace
+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorption%22#
PPP12,M1
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ James, Frank
A. J. L. (1983) "The establishment of
spectro-chemical analysis as a
practical method of qualitative
analysis, 1854-1861", Ambix, v30,
pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
26. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
27. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
28. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law', Isis, Vol.
67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {12/11/1859}
29. ^ Gustav
Kirchhoff, "Uber den Zusammenhang
zwischen Emission und Absorption von
Licht und Warme," Monatsber. Kon.
Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1859, pp.
783-787 (presented Dec. 11, 1859).
Reprinted in Abhandlungen, pp. 566-571,
as well as in Kangro, Kirchhoff'sl
Untersuchungen, pp.
7-13. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA783,M1 E
nglish translation: Pierre Prevost,
Balfour Stewart, Gustav Kirchhoff,
Robert Bunsen, De Witt Bristol Brace,
"The Laws of Radiation and Absorption:
Memoirs", American Book Company, 1901,
p73- http://books.google.com/books?id=A
fGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=brace
+laws+of+radiation#PPA73,M1
{12/11/1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] "spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>
[8] ULSF id 2571
[9] "Robert Wilhelm Von
Bunsen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[10] G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[11] (English translation of 1860
paper) Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert
Bunsen, "Chemical Analysis by
Observation of Spectra", Annalen der
Physik und der Chemie (Poggendorff),
Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[12]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
[13] "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)
[14] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
}
[15] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p109-112
[16] "Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff", Obituary Notice.
Proc. Roy, Soc. vol. 46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
[17]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany26 27  
[1] Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen (1811 -
1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824 -
1887) [SV] PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kirchhoff6.jpg

[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Gustav_R._Kirchhoff.j
pg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 32 33 		2823) Argelander is friends with
Frederick William IV, which allows
Argelander to build a new
observatory.27
In 1863 Argelander
founds the "Astronomische
Gesellschaft", (Astronomical Society28
) the first large international
organization of astronomers29 . The
object of the society is to expand the
collaboration with many
observatories.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
2. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm August Argelander". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
4. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm August Argelander".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9362/Friedrich-Wilhelm-August-Argelander

5. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
6. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
10. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm
August Argelander". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
13. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9362/Friedrich-Wilhelm-August-Argelander

14. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
16. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm August Argelander". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p339.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
"Bonner Durchmusterung". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0624/Bonner-Durchmusterung
23. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=-ZERAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bonner+Durc
hmusterung#PPT6,M1
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^
http://adc.gsfc.nasa.gov/adc-cgi/cat.pl?
/catalogs/1/1122/
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
28. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm August Argelander".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9362/Friedrich-Wilhelm-August-Argelander

29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339.
30. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm August Argelander".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9362/Friedrich-Wilhelm-August-Argelander

31. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p339. (1859-1862)
(1859-1862)
33. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+Wilhelm
+August+Argelander?cat=technology
(1859-1863)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_August_Argelander
[2] "Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wilhelm_August_Argelander
[3] "Bonner Durchmusterung". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonner_Durc
hmusterung
Bonn, Germany31  
[1] Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander, german-finnish
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Argel
ander.jpg

[2] Argelander ja Bonner
Durchmusterung Friedrich W. A.
Argelanderia (1799-1875) voidaan
hyvällä syyllä pitää nykyaikaisen
uranometrian alullepanijana. Hänen
kaksi kartastoaan edustavat siirtymää
vanhasta koristeellisesta tyylistä
nykyaikaiseen
asiallisuuteen. Argelander oli 1837
muuttanut Helsingistä Bonniin saatuaan
kutsun observatorion johtajaksi.
Laitoksen valmistuminen kuitenkin
viivästyi ja siinä välissä
Argelander käytti tilapäisiä tiloja
ja pientä kaukoputkea uuden kartaston
laatimiseen. Tässä Uranometria
Novassa, vuodelta 1843, taruhahmot on
esitetty enää hentoina ääriviivoina
ja tähdet alkavat kohota pääosaan.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/edu/kurs
sit/ttpk1/ttpkI/21Luettelointi.html
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 6 		3183)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ Physician and
Surgeon, (Volume 27, Number 11,
November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
3. ^ Physician and Surgeon, (Volume 27,
Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
5. ^ "Carl Ludwig."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-carl
-friedrich-wilhelm
6. ^ Physician and Surgeon, (Volume 27,
Number 11, November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481 (1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ludwig, Carl F.W.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
[2] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedr
ich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[3] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Ludwig, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p440.
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria,
Germany5  
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 7 		3209)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p395.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm
6. ^ "Secchi, (Pietro) Angelo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p793.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395. (1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6512>
[2] "Angelo Secchi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
[3] "Angelo Secchi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy6  
[1] Pietro Angelo Secchi (1818-1878),
Italian astronomer. Scientist:
Secchi, Angelo (1818 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 6.5 x 4.7 cm / Sheet: 10.5 x
6.5 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Angelo_Secchi.jpg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 5 6 		3228)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kolbe.
html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397.
4. ^ "Kolbe,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5925>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p397. (1859)
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolph Wilhelm Hermann
Kolbe". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Wilh
elm_Hermann_Kolbe
[2] "Adolphe Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Adolphe_
Wilhelm_Hermann_Kolbe
[3] "Kolbe, Adolf Wilhelm Hermann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp496-497
[4] "Adolph
Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolph-wilh
elm-hermann-kolbe
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany4  
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 7 8 		3311)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rankine cycle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2686>.
2. ^ "Rankine cycle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2686>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p408.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Rankine, William John Macquorn",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p736.
6. ^
http://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/bio
graphy/?id=WH0067&type=P
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p408. {1859}
8. ^ "Rankine
cycle." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2686>. {1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rankine, William John
Macquorn." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2685>.
[2] "William John Macquorn Rankine."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-joh
n-macquorn-rankine
[3] "William John Macquorn Rankine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
John_Macquorn_Rankine
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland, UK6  
[1] (William John) Macquorn Rankine
(1820-1872) was Regius Professor of
Civil and Engineering and Mechanics
from 1855 to 1872. U of
Glasglow PD/Corel
source: http://www.universitystory.gla.a
c.uk/images/UGSP00025_m.jpg

[2] William John Macquorn
Rankine PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/W_J_M_Rankine.JPG
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 23 		3313) Tyndall is descended from William
Tyndale, a 1500s translator of the
bible who was burned at the stake as a
heretic in 1536.12
Tyndall spends his
savings on gaining a Ph.D. from the
University of Marburg, Germany
(1848–50), but then struggles to find
employment.13
In 1853 Tyndall is
appointed professor of natural
philosophy at the Royal Institution,
London, where he becomes a friend of
the much-admired Michael Faraday, gives
many public lectures, and pursues
science research.14

Tyndall has a successful lecturing tour
in America (1872-1873) and receives the
equivalent of several thousands of
pounds, but places it in the hands of
trustees for the benefit of American
science.15

Tyndale helps to inaugurate the British
scientific journal "Nature".16

Tyndall's respect for Faraday is
recorded in his memorial volume called
"Faraday as a Discoverer" (1868).17 18

Suffering from sleeplessness, Tyndall
is accidentally given an overdose of
chloral hydrate by his wife and dies
the next day.19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
5. ^ "Tyndall, John." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
6. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
10. ^ "Tyndall, John." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>.
11. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
13. ^ "Tyndall,
John." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>.
14. ^ "Tyndall, John." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>.
15. ^ "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
16. ^ "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
17. ^ "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
18. ^ John Tyndale, "Faraday as a
Discoverer", D. Appleton,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wskKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=John
+Tyndall&as_brr=1
19. ^ "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
20. ^ "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
21. ^ "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
22. ^ "Tyndall, John", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp891-892.
23. ^ "Tyndall, John." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l {1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyndall, John." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[2] "John Tyndall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndal
l
[3] John Tyndall, "Note on the
Transmission of Radiant Heat through
Gaseous Bodies", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume
10,1859/1860,p37-39. http://journals.ro
yalsociety.org/content/b4v3131352756864/
?p=38a13d04b2b3450aae191e61dae6352dπ=37
 {Tyndall_Transmission_1859.pdf}
(Royal Institution) London, England21
22  
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 8 		3328) This paper is very abstract and
complex. It examines conic (cones) and
spherical geometry and so appears to be
an extension of the so-called
non-Euclidean surface geometry that
rose up after Lobechevskii.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
2. ^ "Cayley,
Arthur", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p177.
3. ^
"Cayley, Arthur", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p177.
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=SCwPAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA561,M1
5. ^ "Cayley, Arthur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1935>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Arthur Cayley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Arthur_C
ayley
8. ^ "Cayley, Arthur", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p177. {1846} {1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arthur Cayley." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[2] "Arthur Cayley." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-cayl
ey
[3] "Arthur Cayley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayl
ey
[4] Arthur Cayley, "The Collected
Mathematical Papers of Arthur Cayley",
The University Press. v1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=PcAEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 v2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=SCwPAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v3:
http://books.google.com/books?id=encAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=xncAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh v11:
http://books.google.com/books?id=nXkAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPR3,M1 Index of
papers:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gXoAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA22,M1 http://books
.google.com/books?id=4vU83eig7QYC&prints
ec=frontcover&dq=arthur+cayley
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "A MEMOIR ON THE THEORY OF
MATRICES", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, vol
CXLVIII, 1858, pp 17-37. Received
December 10 1857 Read January 14 1858
"The Collected Mathematical Papers of
Arthur Cayley", By Arthur Cayley,
Andrew Russell Forsyth, F Howard
Collins http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SCwPAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0op5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA475,M1
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=xncAAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0o
p5zKNszKc_OaONzPh#PPA349,M1 {This is
the first paper with the word
'invariant': verify date of invariant
invention}
London, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Cayley, Arthur (1821 -
1895) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: Barraud &
Jerrard Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10 x 6 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-C2-06a.jpg

[2] Arthur Cayley, detail of an oil
painting by W.H. Longmaid, 1884; in the
collection of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England. Courtesy of The
Master and Fellows of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
23758&rendTypeId=4
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 26 27 		3373) Lenoir dies poor.23
(This
invention shows that a certain amount
of engineering skill, and inventive
free thought exists in this time in
France, also clearly in England,
Germany, Italy, Western Russia, and the
USA (perhaps also China? South America?
Spain?).24 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
2. ^ Dugald Clerk,
"The Gas Engine", Scientific American
Supplement (Vol. 19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
3. ^ "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Record ID3383. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
7. ^ "history of
technology." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
10. ^ Record ID3380.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Record ID3382. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Gas
Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
13. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
14. ^ Record ID3383. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
17. ^ William
Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A
Practical Treatise on the Internal
Combustion ...", 104,
136. http://books.google.com/books?id=8
e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22rob
ert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web&o
ts=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0k
uNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1
&ct=result#PPA102,M1
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
20. ^ William
Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A
Practical Treatise on the Internal
Combustion ...", 104,
136. http://books.google.com/books?id=8
e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22rob
ert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web&o
ts=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0k
uNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1
&ct=result#PPA102,M1
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Gas Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416. {1859}
27. ^ "Gas
Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {patent)1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne Lenoir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Lenoir
[2]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/engine.html
[3] "Étienne Lenoir." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>
?, France25  
[1] Lenoir motor in the Musée des Arts
et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg

[2] Jean Joseph Etienne
Lenoir PD/Corel
source: http://www.tschoepe.de/auktion47
/bilder/frankreich/Moteurs_Lenoir_Photo.
jpg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 5 		3536) Carrington, like Joule is the son
of a wealthy brewer.2
Carrington dies
of a stroke before 50.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p439.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439.
4. ^ "Carrington,
Richard Christopher", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p169.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439. {1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Christopher
Carrington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
04 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/97050/Richard-Christopher-Carrington>
[2] "Richard Christopher Carrington".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Chr
istopher_Carrington
[3] "Richard Christopher Carrington".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Christopher_Carrington
[4]
http://www.solarstorms.org/SCarrington.h
tml
[5] Agnes Mary Clerke, A Popular
History of Astronomy During the
Nineteenth Century, A. and C. Black,
1902,
p146. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lvARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=%22Richard+Chri
stopher+Carrington%22&as_brr=1#PPA146,M1

[6] The American Journal of Science and
Arts, S. Converse, 1864,
p142-143. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P3MUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=%
22observations+on+the+spots%22&source=we
b&ots=MTn39EPbJF&sig=lAck4cl68yrdBMdKDwp
YkNJiFOo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnu
m=1&ct=result#PPA142,M1
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p330.
(Redhill Observatory) Surrey, England4
 		 
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 6 		3543)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p440-441.
2. ^ "Karl
Gegenbaur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227773/Karl-Gegenbaur>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p440-441.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Carl
Gegenbaur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Carl_Geg
enbaur
6. ^ "Karl Gegenbaur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227773/Karl-Gegenbaur>. {1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Gegenbaur." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-gegenb
aur
[2] "Karl Gegenbaur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Gegenb
aur
[3] "Gegenbaur, Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p350.
(U of Jena) Jena, Germany5  
[1] Gegenbaur, Carl Grundzüge der
vergleichenden Anatomie. 2. umgearb.
Auflage. Mit 319 Holzschnitten.
Leipzig, Verl. von Wilhelm Engelmann,
1870. 892 pp. fig. 223. p.
692. Original artwork presumably by
Carl Gegenbaur (1826—1903). Digital
photo by Alexei Kouprianov PD.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Gegenbaur_1870_hand_h
omology.png

[2] Photograph of German anatomist and
professor Carl Gegenbaur in suit (409
pixels wide). Source URL (from German
Wikipedia):
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Carl_g
egenbaur.jpg Since Carl Gegenbaur died
in 1903, the photo is over 100 years
old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/df/Carl-Gegenbaur-professor-e
lder-suit-photo-409px.jpg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 11 		3547)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p441-442.
2. ^ "Bernhard
Riemann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
3. ^ M. Reid and Heinrich W.
Guggenheimer, Review: untitled. ^, The
American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 96,
No. 4 (Apr., 1989), pp.
370-373. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
24107?seq=2
4. ^ "Riemann zeta function."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 08
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503247/Riemann-zeta-function>.
5. ^
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

6. ^ "Ueber die Hypothesen, welche der
Geometrie zu Grunde liegen."
Habilitationsschrift, 1854,
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen,
13. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/ English
translation: "On the Hypotheses which
lie at the Bases of
Geometry." Bernhard
Riemann Translated by William Kingdon
Clifford Nature, Vol. VIII. Nos. 183,
184, pp. 14--17, 36,
37. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/WKCGeom.html
7. ^ "Ueber die Hypothesen, welche der
Geometrie zu Grunde liegen."
Habilitationsschrift, 1854,
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen,
13. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/ English
translation: "On the Hypotheses which
lie at the Bases of
Geometry." Bernhard
Riemann Translated by William Kingdon
Clifford Nature, Vol. VIII. Nos. 183,
184, pp. 14--17, 36,
37. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/WKCGeom.html
8. ^ "Bernhard Riemann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Bernhard Riemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503201/Bernhard-Riemann>.
11. ^ "Ueber die Hypothesen, welche der
Geometrie zu Grunde liegen."
Habilitationsschrift, 1854,
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen,
13. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/ English
translation: "On the Hypotheses which
lie at the Bases of
Geometry." Bernhard
Riemann Translated by William Kingdon
Clifford Nature, Vol. VIII. Nos. 183,
184, pp. 14--17, 36,
37. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMat
h/People/Riemann/Geom/WKCGeom.html
{1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernhard Riemann." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[2] "Bernhard Riemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[3] "Bernhard Riemann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-ri
emann
[4] "Riemann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann
[5] "Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Georg_Fr
iedrich_Bernhard_Riemann
[6] "Riemann, Georg Friedrich
Bernhard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p746-747.
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p321.
[8] B. Riemann, Grundlagen für eine
allgemeine Theorie der Functionen einer
veränderlichen complexen Grösse,
Inauguraldissertation, Göttingen
(1851). http://www.emis.de/classics/Rie
mann/Grund.pdf
[9] The Mathematical Papers of Georg
Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(1826-1866) http://www.emis.de/classics
/Riemann/
[10]
http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Peo
ple/Riemann/Papers.html http://www.math
s.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Riemann/Tri
g/
[11]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
[12]
Ueber%20die%20Darstellbarkeit%20einer%20
Function%20durch%20eine%20trigonometrisc
he%20Reihe
[13] Bernhard Riemann, "Ueber die
Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer
gegebenen
Grösse." http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/H
istMath/People/Riemann/Zeta/ (with
English translation by David R. Wilkins
)
[14] "number theory." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 08 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/422325/number-theory>.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany10  
[1] Scientist: Riemann, Bernhard (1826
- 1866) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.5 x 14 cm / Sheet: 24.1 x
18.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R003-02a.jpg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 8 		3714)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p468.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468.
5. ^ "Planté,
Gaston." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
320>.
6. ^ "Planté, Gaston." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
320>.
7. ^ "Planté, Gaston." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
320>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468. {1859}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Gaston%20Plant%C3
%A9
[2] "Gaston Planté". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Plan
t%C3%A9
[3] "Lead-acid battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-acid_b
attery
(Conservatory of Arts and Crafts)
Paris, France7  
[1] Plante battery COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_battery1.jpg

[2] Plante cell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_cel.gif
140 YBN
[01/??/1860 AD] 18 		3461)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860), 1-21,
p15. {Kirchhoff_PT_1860_07_Eng.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ James, Frank A. J. L.
(1983) "The establishment of
spectro-chemical analysis as a
practical method of qualitative
analysis, 1854-1861", Ambix, v30,
pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
4. ^ G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860),
1-21. {Kirchhoff_PT_1860_07_Eng.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ James, Frank A. J. L.
(1983) "The establishment of
spectro-chemical analysis as a
practical method of qualitative
analysis, 1854-1861", Ambix, v30,
pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ G. R.
Kirchhoff, "Ueber das Verhältnis
zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und
dem. Absorptionsvermögen der Körper
für Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860), 1-21,
p15. {Kirchhoff_PT_1860_07_Eng.pdf}
16. ^ G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860),
1-21. {Kirchhoff_PT_1860_07_Eng.pdf}
17. ^ G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860), 1-21.
{Kirchhoff_PT_1860_07_Eng.pdf}
18. ^ G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860), 1-21.
{Kirchhoff_PT_1860_07_Eng.pdf} {01/1860
}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] "spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>
[8] ULSF id 2571
[9] "Robert Wilhelm Von
Bunsen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[10] G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[11] (English translation of 1860
paper) Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert
Bunsen, "Chemical Analysis by
Observation of Spectra", Annalen der
Physik und der Chemie (Poggendorff),
Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[12]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
[13] "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)
[14] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
}
[15] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p109-112
[16] "Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff", Obituary Notice.
Proc. Roy, Soc. vol. 46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
[17]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
[18] James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53,
p51. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
[19] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375
[20] "Gustav
Kirchhoff." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 07 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
[21] "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[22] Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, [Kirchhoff's]
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
[23] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {12/11/1859}
[24] Gustav
Kirchhoff, "Uber den Zusammenhang
zwischen Emission und Absorption von
Licht und Warme," Monatsber. Kon.
Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1859, pp.
783-787 (presented Dec. 11, 1859).
Reprinted in Abhandlungen, pp. 566-571,
as well as in Kangro, [Kirchhoff'sl
Untersuchungen, pp.
7-13. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA783,M1 E
nglish translation: Pierre Prevost,
Balfour Stewart, Gustav Kirchhoff,
Robert Bunsen, De Witt Bristol Brace,
"The Laws of Radiation and Absorption:
Memoirs", American Book Company, 1901,
p73- http://books.google.com/books?id=A
fGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=brace
+laws+of+radiation#PPA73,M1
{12/11/1859}
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany17  
[1] [t Figures from Kirchhoff paper-
note, are the ''Elemente'' figures
describing the surfaces of different
elements which change the frequency of
absorption and emission of light?
] PD/Corel
source: Kirchhoff_black_body_1860_01.pdf


[2] Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen (1811 -
1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824 -
1887) [SV] PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kirchhoff6.jpg
140 YBN
[04/16/1860 AD] 25 26 27 28 		3088) Cesium is a soft, silvery-white
ductile metal, liquid at room
temperature, the most electropositive
and alkaline of the elements, used in
photoelectric cells and to catalyze
hydrogenation of some organic
compounds. Cesium has atomic number 55;
atomic weight 132.905; melting point
28.5°C; boiling point 690°C; density
(specific gravity) 1.87; valence 1.17

Cesium is the heaviest of the alkali
metals in group 1 of the periodic table
(except for francium, the radioactive
member of the alkali metal family) and
is the most reactive of the alkali
metals. Cesium reacts vigorously with
oxygen to form a mixture of oxides.
Cesium does not appear to react with
nitrogen to form a nitride, but does
react with hydrogen at high
temperatures to form a fairly stable
hydride. Cesium reacts (bonds?18 ) with
the halogens, ammonia, and carbon
monoxide. In general, cesium undergoes
some of the same type of reactions with
organic compounds as do the other
alkali metals (such as Lithium and
Sodium19 ), but is much more reactive.
Cesium is not very abundant in the
Earth's crust, there being only 7 parts
per million (ppm) present (about half
as abundant as lead20 ). Like lithium
and rubidium, cesium is found as a
component of complex minerals and not
in relatively pure halide form as are
sodium and potassium. Lithium,
rubidium, and cesium frequently occur
together in lepidolite ores.21

Pure cesium can be prepared by
electrolysis of fused cesium cyanide in
an inert atmosphere; the pure metal
must be kept under an inert liquid or
gas or in a vacuum to protect it from
air and water. Cesium reacts readily
with oxygen; it is sometimes used to
remove traces of the gas from vacuum
tubes and from light bulbs. It reacts
with ice; it reacts explosively with
water to form cesium hydroxide, the
strongest base known. Cesium-137, a
waste product of nuclear reactors, is a
radioactive isotope used in the
treatment of cancer. Cesium is found in
the mineral pollux. Commercially useful
quantities of inexpensive cesium are
now available as a byproduct of the
production of lithium metal.22

Cesium is first isolated by Carl
Sefferburg in 1881 by electrolysis of
its salts. 23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "cesium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>.
3. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen (1861).
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der
Physik und Chemie 189 (7): 337–381.
doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18611890702 htt
p://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/
fulltext/112489837/PDFSTART and
free: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k151986 {Bunsen_Kirchhoff_1861_cesi
um.pdf} translated in English as
"Chemical Analysis by
spectrum-observations", Phil. Mag. 22,
329-49, 498-510 (1861).
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"cesium." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>.
6. ^ "Über ein neues dem Kalium
nahestehendes Metall", Monatsberichte
der Königlich preussischen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, pp.
221-3. (b) J. Prak. Chem. 80, pp477-80;
(c) reprint in Bunsen (1904) 3, pp
252-4. (in L. A. Buchner, "Neues
Repertorium für die Pharmacie",
p36) http://books.google.com/books?id=A
j8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA578&lpg=PA578&dq=%C3%9C
ber+ein+neues+dem+Kalium+nahestehendes+M
etall&source=web&ots=pX-7HyFexv&sig=umQE
aBjjGQqjeQSawkx1PbNgjss&hl=en&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA36,M1
7. ^ Klaus Hentschel, Mapping the
Spectrum,
p483. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WceRw3sr-rQC&pg=PA483&lpg=PA483&dq=bunse
n++ueber+ein+neues+dem+kalium&source=web
&ots=MyI0GGw5c3&sig=uUJ6C2djUKdMeVVp3eWm
wEjwe1g&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
10. ^ Frank A. J. L. James, "Of 'Medals
and Muddles' the Context of the
Discovery of Thallium: William
Crookes's Early Spectro-Chemical Work",
Notes and Records of the Royal Society
of London, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Sep., 1984),
pp. 65-90.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/531576 {B
unsen_Kirchhoff_cesium_1984.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Von
Bunsen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
13. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. http://www3.interscience.wil
ey.com/journal/112489837/abstract {Buns
en_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium.pdf}
English translation "Chemical
Analysis by spectrum-observations",
Phil. Mag, 22, 329-49, 498-510 (1861).
14. ^
Ted Huntington.
15. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983)
"The establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "cesium."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 09 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/caesium
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "cesium."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 09 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/caesium
21. ^ "cesium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 09 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/caesium
22. ^ "cesium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 09
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/caesium
23. ^ "cesium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 09
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/caesium
24. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
25. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
{04/16/1860}
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
{05/10/1860}
27. ^ Klaus Hentschel, Mapping the
Spectrum,
p483. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WceRw3sr-rQC&pg=PA483&lpg=PA483&dq=bunse
n++ueber+ein+neues+dem+kalium&source=web
&ots=MyI0GGw5c3&sig=uUJ6C2djUKdMeVVp3eWm
wEjwe1g&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result {05/10/1860}
28. ^ "cesium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>
[2] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[3] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[6] G.
Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen, "Chemische
Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 186, Issue
6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[7] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5597>
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany24  
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
140 YBN
[04/??/1860 AD] 12 		3458)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
2. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
3. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
4. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
6. ^ "Gustav
Kirchhoff." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 07 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
7. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
8. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
9. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
10. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
11. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
12. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html} {04/1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] "spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>
[8] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[9]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
[10] "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)
[11] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
}
[12] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p109-112
[13] "Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff", Obituary Notice.
Proc. Roy, Soc. vol. 46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
[14]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
[15] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375
[16] Daniel M.
Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff: Two Independent
Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation
Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec.,
1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany9 10 11  
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf

[2] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf
140 YBN
[09/??/1860 AD] 17 18 		3540) Also in 1860 Cannizzaro takes
part in attacking Naples to make it
part of a unified Italy.14 This is
eleven years after his failed 1847
Sicilian revolution. This Sicilian
revolt, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, is
successful and leads to the unification
of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II.
Cannizzaro moves to Rome and is made a
senator. As a moderate liberal,
Cannizzaro plays a role in shaping the
new constitution and establishing
political reforms.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
3. ^ Sketch of a
course of chemical philosophy by
Cannizzaro (1858) - Edinburgh: Alembic
Club Reprint No. 18
(1911). http://www.archive.org/details/
sketchofcourseof00cannrich {Cannizzaro_
Stanislao_sketch.pdf}
4. ^ "Cannizzaro, Stanislao", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p163.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
6. ^ "Cannizzaro,
Stanislao", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p163.
7. ^
"Stanislao Cannizzaro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Stanisla
o_Cannizzaro
8. ^ "Stanislao Cannizzaro."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Alfred Naquet, Alfred
Joseph Naquet, William Cortis, Thomas
Stevenson, Translated by William
Cortis, "Principles of Chemistry :
Founded on Modern Theories: Founded on
Modern Theories", H. Renshaw, 1868,
p45. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
Ao5AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&dq=Cannizzaro+hydrox
yl&as_brr=1
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
13. ^ "Friedrich
August Kekulé von Stradonitz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
15. ^ "Stanislao
Cannizzaro." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440.
17. ^ "Stanislao
Cannizzaro." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/92749/Stanislao-Cannizzaro>.
{09/1860}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439-440. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Stanislao Cannizzaro." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanislao-c
annizzaro
[2] "Stanislao Cannizzaro." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanislao-c
annizzaro
[3] "Stanislao Cannizzaro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislao_C
annizzaro
Karlsruhe, Baden16  
[1] [t Table of atomic weights in units
of atoms of hydrogen] PD/Corel
source: Cannizzaro_Stanislao_sketch.pdf
{http://www.archive.org/details/sketchof
courseof00cannrich}

[2] Description Scan of a
photograph of Stanislao
Cannizzaro Source Supplement to
Nature (magazine) Date May 6,
1897 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Cannizzaro_Stanislao.
jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 5 		2694)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
5. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116. (1860)
Cape Town (and Simon's Town), South
Africa4  		 
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 9 		2706) Faraday writes "The Chemical
History of a Candle" and this is the
first complete book to be converted
into "basic English".1
"The Chemical
History of a Candle", is taken from a
series of six children's lectures.2

In this work Faraday describes atoms,
but not light as made of corpuscles,
but simply as "light" and "heat".3 For
example Faraday states "You see it
comes to this - that all bright flames
contain these solid particles; all
things that burn and produce solid
particles, either during the time they
are burning, as in the candle, or
immediately after being burnt, as in
the case of the gunpowder and iron
filings - all these things give us this
glorious and beautiful light."4 and
"for what is this bright flame but the
solid particles passing off?"5
(Presumably Faraday is referring to
atoms of carbon.6 ) Faraday uses the
word "particles" to describe atoms and
molecules.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1860F
araday-candle.html (actual text)
5. ^
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1860F
araday-candle.html (actual text)
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
9. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm (1860)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[7] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[8] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[9]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[11]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(Royal Institution in) London, England8
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 5 		2870) Édouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet (loRTA) (CE 1801-1871), French
paleontologist1 publishes "Sur
l'ancienneté géologique de l'espèce
humaine dans l'Europe occidentale"
(1860; "Antiquity of Man in Western
Europe").2 Lartet follows this with
"New Researches on the Coexistence of
Man and of the Great Fossil Mamnifers
Characteristic of the Last Geological
Period" (1861) in 1861.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
2. ^ "Edouard Armand
Isidore Hippolyte Lartet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
3. ^ "Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
4. ^ "Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
5. ^ "Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet (1860)

MORE INFO
[1] "Édouard Lartet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d_Lartet
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy
[3] "Edouard Lartet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edouard_
Lartet
[4] http://www.answers.com/Dryopithecus
[5]
http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/lstone_a.h
tml
Paris?,France4  
[1] the most remarkable of them all,
the celebrated La Madeleine carving. It
is engraved upon mammoth ivory and was
discovered in 1864 in the cave of La
Madeleine, Perigord, France, by M.
Louis Lartet. It was broken into five
fragments, and like the carving on the
Lenape Stone, which it singularly
resembles in general position, and in
the indecisive drawing of the back and
tail, unmistakably represents the
mammoth. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ls
tone_a.html

[2] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 10 		2872) Gustav Theodore Fechner (FeKnR)
(CE 1801-1887), German physicist1
publishes "Elemente der Psychophysik"
(1860, 2 vol, "Elements of
Psychophysics")2 . In this work Fechner
develops experimental procedures for
measuring sensations in relation to the
physical magnitude of stimuli and
devised an equation to express the
theory of the just-noticeable
difference, advanced earlier by Ernst
Heinrich Weber. This theory concerns
the sensory ability to discriminate
when two stimuli (for example two
weights) are just noticeably different
from each other. Later research has
shown, however, that Fechner's equation
is applicable within the midrange of
stimulus intensity and then holds only
approximately true.3

This book claims to describe4 the
"exact science of the functional
relations, or relations of dependency,
between body and mind".5 Pupin's work
once made public, will show that the
so-called mind, is much more like a
mechanical machine which stores and
retrieves images, than many early
primitive religious theories
understood.6
Fechner is said to have
learned Latin by age 5.7

I would say my current views on
psychology are:
1) Psychiatric treatments
need to be consensual only
2) People should
not be locked in psychiatric hospitals
without consent
3) Consensual-only use of drugs
and/or treatments is fine
4) If a person
feels that consensual drug or treatment
is curing some problem, than in some
sense that is science in the form of
find a solution to some perceived
problem for at least one person through
consensual experimentation.
5) People should view much
of psychology as modern day snake-oil
cure-all salespeople. All people are
prescribed drugs, and I doubt that most
of the drugs given are helpful in
solving any believed or perceived
problems.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
2. ^ "Gustav Theodor
Fechner". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3889/Gustav-Theodor-Fechner
3. ^ "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3889/Gustav-Theodor-Fechner
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gustav%20Theodor%
20Fechner%20
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Gustav
Theodor Fechner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3889/Gustav-Theodor-Fechner
10. ^ "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3889/Gustav-Theodor-Fechner (1860)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gustav Fechner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Fech
ner
[2] "Gustav Theodor Fechner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gustav_T
heodor_Fechner
Leipzig, Germany9 (presumably) 
[1] Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887),
German experimental psychologist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustav_Fechner.jpg

[2] Gustav Theodor Fechner
(1801-1877) PD
source: http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk
/staff/aldrich/Figures_files/image024.jp
g
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 10 		2990)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bruce J. Hunt, "Varley, Cromwell
Fleetwood (1828-1883)", Oxford
Dictionary of National Biography,
Oxford University Press, 2004.
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/28
114 (accessed 20 April 2008)
2. ^ Silvanus
Phillips Thompson, "Elementary Lessons
in Electricity and Magnetism",
Macmillan, (1915),
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckler
+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8v
IkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA&h
l=en#PPA53,M1
3. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
4. ^ Brit. Pat. Spec. No. 206 of 1860
5. ^
George W. Jacoby, J. Ralph Jacoby,
"Electricity in Medicine", P.
Blakiston's son & co, (1919),
p27. http://books.google.com/books?id=R
3Yt1N-qotsC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=von+bose
+static+electricity&source=web&ots=TONId
nPt4n&sig=YMMbpDEnQe5ggeCrpmZn6q1a6x0&hl
=en#PPA27,M1
6. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism", Macmillan,
(1915),
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckler
+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8v
IkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA&h
l=en#PPA53,M1
9. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
10. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism", Macmillan, (1915),
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckler
+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8v
IkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA&h
l=en#PPA53,M1 (1860)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._Varle
y
London, England9  
[1] Varley's Machine. PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Image:Electrical-5.jpg

[2] Typical Influence Machine PD
source: Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism", Macmillan, (1915),
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckler
+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8v
IkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA&h
l=en#PPA53,M1
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 5 		3045) There is a famous debate between
Thomas Huxley and Samuel Wilberforce on
human evolution at the Oxford meeting
of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.1

According to Isaac Asimov: the Bishop
of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce is primed
with facts by Owen, and when asked if
Huxley traces his own descent from the
apes through his father or mother.
Before a crowd of 700 Huxley answers
that if given the choice of an ancestor
either a miserable ape or an educated
man who could introduce such a remark
into a serious scientific discussion,
he would choose the ape.2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
2. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1860)
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
5. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1860)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368
[3] "Charles Robert
Darwin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp230-231
Oxford, England4  
[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 8 		3124)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p383.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p383.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p383.
5. ^
"Jean-Servais Stas," Microsoft®
Encarta® Online Encyclopedia
2008 http://encarta.msn.com ©
1997-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All
Rights Reserved.
6. ^ "Researches on the Mutual
Relations of Atomic Weights", in the
Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de
Belgique v10, 1860,
pp208-336. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giun
ta/stas.html
7. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
8. ^ "Researches on the Mutual
Relations of Atomic Weights", in the
Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de
Belgique v10, 1860,
pp208-336. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giun
ta/stas.html

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Servais Stas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p830
[2] "Jean Stas." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[3] "Jean Stas." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[4] "Jean Servais Stas". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ser
vais_Stas
[5] "Jean Servais Stas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Servai
s_Stas
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342
[7]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biog
raphies/MainBiographies/S/Stas/1.html
[8] "Aaron J. Ihde", The Development of
Modern Chemistry, Courier Dover
Publications, 1984, p155 (1840)
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France7
(presumably) 
[1] Scan of a picture of Belgian
scientist Jean Servais Stas (who died
in 1891) Source Journal of Chemical
Education, pages 353 – 357 Date
1938 Author Timmermans, Jean PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Stas_Jean_Servais.jpg


[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 15 		3125) Butlerov studies under N.N. Zinin
at Kazan university (1844-49), and
teaches there (1852-68), and at St.
Petersburg University (1868-85).5
Butler
ov goes farther than Kekulé, and is
the first to speak of the chemical
structure of a compound.6 (make
clearer7 )
Butlerov is an eager convert
to the new structural theory (of
Kekulé8 ).9
Butlerov becomes
interested in spiritualism, Mendeléev
investigates his suggestions, and
becomes an outspoken critic of
(spiritualism10 ) but remains friends
with Butlerov.11 (Notice Asimov
keyword "suggestions". When did people
in Russia first see eyes and hear
ears?12 )
Butlerov creates the first
Russian school of chemists, which
includes V. V. Markovnikov, A. M.
Zaytsev, A. P. Popov at Kazan and A. E.
Favorski and I. L. Kondakov at St.
Petersburg.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ Leicester, Henry
M. (1940). "Alexander Mikhailovich
Butlerov". Journal of Chemical
Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
3. ^ Leicester, Henry M. (1940).
"Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov".
Journal of Chemical Education 17 (May):
203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Butlerov, Aleksandr
Mikhailovich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158.
6. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Butlerov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158.
14. ^
Leicester, Henry M. (1940). "Alexander
Mikhailovich Butlerov". Journal of
Chemical Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
15. ^ Leicester, Henry M. (1940).
"Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov".
Journal of Chemical Education 17 (May):
203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf} {c1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 .
[2] "Aleksandr Mikhailovich
Butlerov." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-m
ikhailovich-butlerov
[3] "Butlerov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlerov
[4] Arbuzov, B. A. (1978). "150th
Anniversary of the birth of A. M.
Butlerov". Russian Chemical Bulletin 27
(9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia14
 
[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 5 		3166)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guillaume Duchenne." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
2. ^ "Duchenne's muscular dystrophy."
WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton University,
2001. Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/duchenne-mu
scular-dystrophy
3. ^ "muscular dystrophy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4409>.
4. ^ "Duchenne,
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1344>.
5. ^ A. W. Beveridge, and E. B.
Renvoize, "Electricity: A History of
its use in the Treatment of Mental
Illness in Britain During the Second
Half of the 19th Century", British
Journal of Psychiatry, 153, (1988),
pp157-162. http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/r
eprint/153/2/157.pdf {Electricity_Healt
h_157.pdf} (1860)

MORE INFO
[1] Henry Lewis Jones, William
Edward Steavenson, "Medical
Electricity: A Practical Handbook for
Students and Practitioners", H. K.
Lewis,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAQ22qarfAcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=remak+ele
ctricity&source=web&ots=4dD7qRqNhP&sig=9
8deF5qFnU4Q3tOI-P9EX_SpSVQ&hl=en#PPA4,M1

[2] "Guillaume Duchenne." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 25
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
[3] "Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Guillaum
e_Benjamin_Amand_Duchenne
[4]
http://www.historiadelamedicina.org/duch
enne.htm
[5]
http://www.e-mergencia.com/html/historia
_ecg/
[6] H. S. J. Lee, H. Lee, "Dates in
Neurology", Informa Health Care,
2000. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dp_Hb0LvvXkC
[7] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
Saunders, 1921,
pp690-692. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA690&dq=Guillaume+
Benjamin+Amand+Duchenne#PPA691,M1
[8]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?sl=fr&
tl=en
[9]
http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/67/
3/322
Paris, France4  
[1] Duchenne de Boulogne (1806 -
1875) Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne and
assistant electrically stimulate the
face of a live subject in displaying an
expression. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Duchenne_de_Boulogne_
3.jpg

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 17 		3174) From 1837 to 1849 Rutherfurd
practices law.11
From 1858–84
Rutherfurd is a trustee of Columbia
University.12 A trustee is a member of
a board elected or appointed to direct
the funds and policy of an
institution.13
Rutherfurd gives his
instruments and collections of
photographs to Columbia University.14
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ B. A. Gould, "Memoir of Lewis
Morris Ruthurford 1816-1892",
(1895). http://books.nap.edu/html/biome
ms/lrutherfurd.pdf {Rutherfurd_Lewis_Mo
rris_Biography.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Lewis Morris
Rutherfurd." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 27
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rutherfurd-
lewis-morris
12. ^ "Lewis Morris Rutherfurd." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rutherfurd-
lewis-morris
13. ^ "trustee." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trustee
14. ^ "Lewis Morris Rutherfurd." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rutherfurd-
lewis-morris
15. ^ "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
16. ^ "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
17. ^ "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>. (1860)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lewis Morris Rutherfurd".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Morri
s_Rutherfurd
[2] "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p601
(invented: New York City, NY, USA15 )
(tested:) Laborador, Canada16  
[1] Scientist: Rutherford, Ernest
(1871 - 1937) Discipline(s): Physics
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.3 x 6.2 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R004-08a.jpg

[2] City map of Labrador,
Canada. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Labrador_fullmap.gif
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 5 		3177) Between 1854 and 1864 Donati
discovers six comets, one of which,
first seen on June 2, 1858, is named
after Donati.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
2. ^ Royal
Astronomical Society, "Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society",
Blackwell Scientific Publications,
1863, pp100-107. (translated to
English from Giovan Battista Donati,
"Memorie Astronomiche", Annals of the
Museum at Florence, 1860)
http://books.google.com/books?id=1AsAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Donati+Flo
rence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=P-e2Qh
Lbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFocn0&hl=
en#PPA103,M1
3. ^ "Donati, Giovanni Battista."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0903>.
4. ^ Royal Astronomical Society,
"Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society", Blackwell
Scientific Publications, 1863,
pp100-107. (translated to English from
Giovan Battista Donati, "Memorie
Astronomiche", Annals of the Museum at
Florence, 1860)
http://books.google.com/books?id=1AsAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Donati+Flo
rence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=P-e2Qh
Lbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFocn0&hl=
en#PPA103,M1
5. ^ Royal Astronomical Society,
"Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society", Blackwell
Scientific Publications, 1863,
pp100-107. (translated to English from
Giovan Battista Donati, "Memorie
Astronomiche", Annals of the Museum at
Florence, 1860)
http://books.google.com/books?id=1AsAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Donati+Flo
rence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=P-e2Qh
Lbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFocn0&hl=
en#PPA103,M1

MORE INFO
[1] "Donati, Giovan Battista",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p209
[2] "Giovanni
Battista Donati." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-donati
[3] "Giovanni Battista Donati".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Donati
[4] "Giovanni Battista Donati".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Battista_Donati
Florence, Italy4  
[1] [t Donati's stellar spectra. These
are difficult to read because Donati
give accompanying references for alpha,
beta, etc for example Sirius alpha is
the Sun's F line - 15'' of arc, where
Vega's alpha is the Sun's F line + 40''
of arc.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1AsAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Dona
ti+Florence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=
P-e2QhLbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFoc
n0&hl=en#PPA103,M1

[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 10 		3416)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
5. ^ René
Vallery-Radot, R. L. Devonshire, "The
Life of Pasteur", Doubleday, Page &
Co., 1916, p
106. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
OwIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA106,M1
6. ^ "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p681-684.
7. ^ Joseph Lister, "ON A NEW
METHOD OF TREATING COMPOUND FRACTURE,
ABSCESS, ETC. WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE
CONDITIONS OF SUPPURATION", The Lancet,
v89, issue 2272, March 16, 1867,
p326-329. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4B0GMN
4-V6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F16%2F186
7&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=4&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=e404f64de
15ddc571cd94cd1d4d51590 {Lister_Joseph_
1867.pdf} and vol89, issue
2273,p357-359. http://www.sciencedirect
.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4
B0GMWW-Y6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F23%
2F1867&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=3&_fmt=high
&_orig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanch
or=&view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_versi
on=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=01a0
c39475ece6067f0668f80ab82123 and
vol89, issue 2274,
p387-389. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498N8C
D-1RN&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F30%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7b658559
7824f00c8b565454f399889f and vol 89,
issue 2278,
p507-509. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498NB3
T-2CW&_user=4422&_coverDate=04%2F27%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c8e201eb
2e8a536dc7cd14929e399ce9
8. ^ Record ID3548. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7] René
Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth Emma Proby
Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His Life and
Labours", Longmans, Green, & co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[8] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France9  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 10 11 12 		3532) Pacinotti graduates from the
University of Pisa (1861) where his
father is a professor of mathematics
and physics.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pacinotti, Antonio", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p673.
2. ^ "Dynamo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dynamo
3. ^ Antonio Pacinotti, "Descrizione di
una macchinetta elettro-magnetica",
Istituto italiano d'arti grafiche,
1912, p45-60. (English
tranlation): http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=2CpPAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&
dq=Pacinotti&as_brr=1#PPA45,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ The Electrical Review,
The Electrical review, ltd., v.12
(Jan.-June 1883),
p465. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA465&dq=Pacinotti&as_br
r=1#PPA465,M1
6. ^ Antonio Pacinotti, "Descrizione di
una macchinetta elettro-magnetica",
Istituto italiano d'arti grafiche,
1912, p45-60. (English
tranlation): http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=2CpPAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&
dq=Pacinotti&as_brr=1#PPA45,M1
7. ^ Record ID3531. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Pacinotti,
Antonio", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p673.
9. ^
"Pacinotti, Antonio", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p673.
10. ^ "Pacinotti, Antonio",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p673.
{reported in 1864}
11. ^ "Dynamo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dynamo
{1860}
12. ^ The Electrical Review, The
Electrical review, ltd., v.12
(Jan.-June 1883),
p465. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA465&dq=Pacinotti&as_br
r=1#PPA465,M1 {1860}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.geocities.com/neveyaakov/elec
tro_science/pacinotti.html
[2] Thomas Commerford Martin, Joseph
Wetzler, Louis Bell, "The Electric
Motor and Its Applications", The W.J.
Johnston company, ltd,
1892. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AcsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11&dq=Pacinotti&as_brr
=1#PPA12,M1
(University of Pisa) Pisa, Italy9
 
[1] Description
Pacinotti-Grammescher Ring Source
Bibliothek allgemeinen und
praktischen Wissens für
Militäranwärter Band III, 1905 /
Deutsches Verlaghaus Bong & Co Berlin *
Leipzig * Wien * Stuttgart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Pacinotti-Grammescher
_Ring.png

[2] Antonio Pacinotti PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/pacinotti1.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 14 		3573) Swan's house is the first house
to be lit by electricity.9 (on Earth?
verify10 )
In 1881 The House of Commons
in Great Britain is lit with Swan
lamps.11
In 1882 The British Museum is
lit by Swan lamps.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
2. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
3. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
5. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
13. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
14. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008
[2] "Joseph Swan." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[4] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
Newcastle, England13
(presumably) 
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 33 34 		3642) (To me, temperature, might more
accurately be stated as average
velocity of particles over a
dimensional space. The quantities
{variables} necessary are: velocity,
quantity of particles, mass, space,
time. One possible definition of
temperature, in terms of photons
{presuming constant velocity and
perfectly elastic collisions}, is
defining temperature as the number of
photons moving through some photon
sized-point over some period of time.
Temperature and heat would then be a
measurement of rate as opposed to
velocity (the rate of accumulated
constant velocity photons). But I
question the theory that light always
has a constant velocity. Light
particles may, perhaps as a result of
some finite distance they can get to
each other - creating the maximum
acceleration possible. However, if
true, then photon velocities change,
but only very close to other photons.24
)

(Does Maxwell claim to integrate
temperature and heat? To me heat is
average velocity * quantity. Clearly
there is a difference between
temperature and heat - since two
objects, of different size with the
same temperature on contact with a
thermometer, give different
temperatures if the thermometer is 10
cm away in a vacuum. So heat and
temperature as identical or different -
both depend on a volume space which
involves quantity of particles.25 )

(It is interesting and a key concept
that Maxwell defines temperature as the
velocity of molecules (not for example
how often molecules collide, since this
is viewed as perfectly elastic). I
think this needs to be taken into the
realm of photons, however. Clearly
photons absorbed into an atom, cause
the atoms velocity to increase {photons
with infrared frequency in, for
example, sunlight, raise the
temperature of mercury and other atoms
more than any other frequency}.
EXPERIMENT: Are there materials which
expand more with other frequencies
besides the traditional infrared?26 )

(There is also a major point in my mind
that temperature should be defined as
average velocity of all particles,
perhaps multiplied by quantity of
particles involved - and so cannot be
measured accurately with mercury of
other atoms, since none absorb all
frequencies of light. Measurements with
mercury are only partial estimates, and
then may be inaccurate if two different
objects emit the same quantity but
different frequencies of light.27 )

(Are all collisions elastic? Since
clearly velocity is always conserved.
At a scale larger than the photonic
scale, velocity of a single fast moving
particle colliding with other particles
is distributed among the many other
particles {for example a drop falling
into a pool of water}. The velocity
appears to stop eventually for the one
particle, but this velocity is spread
among the many other particles in
smaller quantity. One of the great
questions in my mind, is where the
return, reverse, mirror velocity come
from, when, a ball bounces off a wall,
or water rising up after a drop of
water falls into it. Clearly this
reverse velocity must come from
somewhere. Is it the original velocity
simple bent into a circle 180 degrees
back onto itself? Or is there at some
atomic or photonic level always
particles that periodically in their
orbiting have an orbit in this
direction which impart this "answer"
velocity back? This is interesting to
model on a computer.28 )

(Either photons
maintain constant velocity, and 1) in
the realm of photons temperature has no
meaning, since it only relates to a
larger phenomenon of atoms (or the
quantity of photons in a finite volume
of space determines temperature), or 2)
photons do have variable velocity and
photon velocity also determines
temperature.29 )

(Clearly photons are needed to produce
heat so in that sense the caloric
theory of heat as the product of a
particle is true - but also the
particle's velocity matters - so then
one issue is do photons have the same
velocity or different velocities.
Another interesting issue is, how do we
define the temperature of, for example
particles compressed together that have
small velocities, for example in the
center of a planet or star? Only when
space is opened up to them is there a
large release of photons, and therefore
heat. I think, we should then claim
that the technical temperature of the
inside of stars and planets is actually
cold, relative to the surface, because
of pressure - only when space is made
for the particles to flow, does the
temperature quickly and vastly
increase. It's an interesting issue.30
)


(Imagine if Jupiter was a sun that has
since lost matter. It is 1000 times
smaller than the sun. How many photons
are each losing per second? Then work
backwards and see how Jupiter grows. It
cannot be ruled out that the oldest
sediment we see is not the sediment
that originated on earth, and that
perhaps any original sediment has long
since metamorphasized, presenting the
possibility that the earth may be older
(and perhaps far older) than 4.6
billion years. Although it seems clear
that multicellular life has only
evolved in the last billion years, and
would we not see a more developed life
in ancient sediment if the earth was
older? Still I don't think we can rule
out sediment older than 3.6
bya...actually I think the zircon may
be evidence of a finite age since the
last molten stage of earth. The best
evidence of the matter of our star
system being 4.8 billion year old is
the meteorites which do not extend in
age past 5 billion. But then, clearly
some matter in the universe must be
older than, for example 100 billion
years old. Theoretically, the
conservation of matter requires that no
matter ever disappears. Each photon may
be infinitely old, and there may be
atoms which are trillions of years old
- but without any clear way of knowing.
The best method of aging requires a
sample large enough to determine a
ratio of some atom to a smaller atom it
decays to. This ratio is presumed to be
constant throughout the sample.31 )
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p331.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p500.
4. ^ "Boltzmann,
Ludwig", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116.
5. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
8. ^ Record ID1971. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
10. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
13. ^ "Daniel
Bernoulli". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
17. ^ Record
ID3364. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p377-409. http://books.google.com/books
?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Lord Kelvin, "On a
Decisive Test-Case Disproving the
Maxwell-Boltzmann Doctrine regarding
Distribution of Kinetic Energy",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 51, 1892,
p.397-399. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/852254p34740n748/?p=fd5d04d
b404149098951340ab55da0c5π=20
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588.
33. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586-588.
{1860}
34. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p331. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[4] Lewis Campbell, William Garnett,
"The Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[5] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[6]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[7]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
(King's College) London, England32
 
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 20 21 22 		3720) Newcomb is an infant prodigy.5
New
comb rises to the rank of rear admiral
in the Navy.6
Newcomb's revision of the
value of the solar parallax published
in 1867 remained standard until 1895,
when it was superseded by his own
revision.7
Before and even after the
Wright brothers, Newcomb claims that
the hope of heavier-than-air machines
is a vain and foolish one.8 (Seeing
the first metal planes must have
surprised some people.9 )
As early as
1867 Newcomb suggests the desirability
of accurately determining the velocity
of light as a method to obtain a
reliable value for the radius of the
earth's orbit. In 1878 Newcomb begins
the experiments, for a while
collaborating with Albert Michelson,
whose later works far overshadow
Newcomb's efforts.10
From 1881-1899,
Newcomb annually edits "The American
Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac"11 12 .
An ephemeris is a table giving the
coordinates of a celestial body at a
number of specific times during a given
period.13 These annual books report
the predicted positions of sun, planets
and the moon (not other moons or
stars), eclipses, and transits for
various times of the year in right
ascension and declination, from the
perspective of Greenwich, Washington,
geocentric and heliocentric14 .
Newcomb
urges the use of a common system of
constants and fundamental stars by
astronomers of all nations.15
Newcomb
is the author of over 350 scientific
papers and a number of popular works on
astronomy.16 (see 17 for list of
works.)

Newcomb publishes a number of
mathematical textbooks and several
astronomical books for a popular
audience, including Popular Astronomy
(1878), The Stars (1901), Astronomy for
Everybody (1902), and his
autobiographical Reminiscences of an
Astronomer (1903). He also wrote a
novel, His Wisdom, the Defender (1900),
and three books and a large number of
articles on economics.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
2. ^ "Newcomb,
Simon", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p641-642.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
7. ^ "Simon
Newcomb." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Simon
Newcomb." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
11. ^ R. C. Archibald, Bibliography of
the Life and Works of Simon Newcomb,
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
12. ^ The American Ephemeris and
Nautical
Almanac http://books.google.com/books?q
=editions:0aAc2MdxS-_MXwI0B66&id=VVwAAAA
AMAAJ
13. ^ "ephemeris." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ephemeris
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Simon Newcomb." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
16. ^ "Simon Newcomb." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
17. ^ R. C. Archibald, Bibliography of
the Life and Works of Simon Newcomb,
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
18. ^ "Simon Newcomb." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
19. ^ "Newcomb, Simon", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p641-642.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470. {1860}
21. ^
"Newcomb, Simon", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p641-642. {1860}
22. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p330. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Newcomb, Simon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
577>
[2] "Simon Newcomb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Newco
mb
[3] "Simon Newcomb". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Simon_Ne
wcomb
(Nautical Almanac Office) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA19  
[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 4 		3776)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
2. ^ "Perkin, Sir
William Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>.
3. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
4. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[2] "Sir William Henry Perkin." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[3] "William Henry Perkin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Perkin
[4] "William Henry Perkin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Perkin
[5] "Perkin, William Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p694-695.
(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England3 (presumably) 
[1] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg

[2] The dye-making factory of Perkin &
Son's in 1858. From a sketch by
William Perkin. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/the-works-in-1858.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 3 		3894)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Davaine, Casimir Joseph",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p233.
2. ^ J
Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
3. ^ "Davaine, Casimir Joseph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p233. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
[2] "Casimir Davaine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Dav
aine
[3] Rayer, P., "Inoculation du sand de
rate", C. r. Seanc. Soc. Biol., 1850,
11, 141-144 (cf. p. 142).
[4] "Pierre
François Olive Rayer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Fran
%C3%A7ois_Olive_Rayer
(Hopital de le Charite) Paris, France2
 
[1] Casimir Joseph Davaine
(1812-1882) PD
source: http://www.dmipfmv.ulg.ac.be/bac
vet/images/original/CJDavaine.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 5 		3900)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/25/7/8
72.pdf
2. ^ Delafond H-M-O. Untitled
discussions "sur la maladie régnante,"
séances de 22 mars et 10 mai 1860.. ^
Recueil de médecine vétérinaire.
1860;37:574, 726–748.
3. ^ Andrew Hunt Gordon,
Calvin W. Schwabe, "The quick and the
dead: biomedical theory in ancient
Egypt", BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/25/7/8
72.pdf {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] J Théodoridès, "Casimir
Davaine (1812-1882): a precursor of
Pasteur.", Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[2] "Onésime Delafond". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%C3%A9sim
e_Delafond
 
[1] Description
Delafond.png Onésime
Delafond Source BIUM Paris V PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Delafond.png
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 3 		4545)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{1860 (guess}
unknown  
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 2 		4546)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1860
(guess}
unknown  
139 YBN
[02/25/1861 AD] 17 18 		3089) Rubidium is a soft silvery-white
metallic element of the alkali group
that ignites spontaneously in air and
reacts violently with water. Rubidium
has atomic number 37; atomic weight
85.47; melting point 38.89°C; boiling
point 688°C; specific gravity (solid)
1.532; valence 1, 2, 3, 4.11

Rubidium is used in photoelectric cells
and as a "getter" in electron tubes to
scavenge the traces of sealed-in
gases.12

Natural rubidium makes up about 0.01
percent of Earth's crust; it exists as
a mixture of two isotopes: rubidium-85
(72.15 percent) and the radioactive
rubidium-87 (27.85 percent). A large
number of radioactive isotopes have
been artificially prepared, from
rubidium-79 to rubidium-95.13

Rubidium is so reactive with oxygen
that Rubidium will ignite spontaneously
in pure oxygen. Rubidium, a metal,
tarnishes very rapidly in air to form
an oxide coating, and it may ignite.
The oxides formed are a mixture of
Rb2O, Rb2O2, and RbO2. Rubidium reacts
with hydrogen to form a hydride which
is one of the least stable of the
alkali hydrides. Rubidium does not
react with nitrogen. With bromine or
chlorine, rubidium reacts vigorously
with flame formation.14

Rubidium is extremely reactive and
forms numerous compounds, e.g.,
halides, oxides, sulfates, and
sulfides. Rubidium's salts color a
flame red. Rubidium is not found
uncombined in nature but occurs widely
distributed in lepidolite (the major
source), carnallite, pollucite, and
some rare minerals, and with lithium in
seawater, brines, and natural spring
waters. Although rubidium is much more
abundant in the earth's crust than
chromium, copper, lithium, nickel, or
zinc, and about twice as abundant in
seawater as lithium, rubidium did not
become available commercially until the
early 1960s as a byproduct of the
manufacture of lithium chemicals. The
metal is obtained by electrolysis or
chemical reduction of the fused
chloride.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "rubidium".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4322/rubidium
3. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen (1861).
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der
Physik und Chemie 189 (7): 337–381.
doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18611890702 htt
p://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/
fulltext/112489837/PDFSTART and
free: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k151986 {Bunsen_Kirchhoff_1861_cesi
um.pdf} translated in English as
"Chemical Analysis by
spectrum-observations", Phil. Mag. 22,
329-49, 498-510 (1861).
4. ^ James, Frank A. J.
L. (1983) "The establishment of
spectro-chemical analysis as a
practical method of qualitative
analysis, 1854-1861", Ambix, v30,
pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
5. ^ "rubidium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4322/rubidium
6. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
11. ^ "rubidium." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 09 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rubidium
12. ^ "rubidium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4322/rubidium
13. ^ "rubidium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4322/rubidium
14. ^ "rubidium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 09 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rubidium
15. ^ "rubidium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rubidium
16. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
17. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
{02/25/1861}
18. ^ "rubidium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4322/rubidium (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>
[2] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[3] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[4] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[7] "cesium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>
[8] G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen, "Chemische
Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 186, Issue
6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[9] G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen, "Chemische
Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 189, Issue
7, (1861),
pp337-381. http://www3.interscience.wil
ey.com/journal/112489837/abstract {Buns
en_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium.pdf}
[10] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5597>.
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany16  
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
139 YBN
[03/??/1861 AD] 12 13 		3652)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On Physical Lines of Force",
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1
{Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On
Physical Lines of Force", Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2
{Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
5. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
6. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
12. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513. {03/1861 (Part I}
13. ^
"Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588. {1861-1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[5] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[7]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[8] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
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d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
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brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
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[12] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
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[13] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
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p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
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[14] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Oxford
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[15] C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
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Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
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YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
[16] "photography, history of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
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c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>
[18] J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on
colour as perceived by the eye, with
remarks on colour-blindness, Trans R
Soc Edinburgh 21 (1857) (2), pp.
275–298. From James Clerk Maxwell,
Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific
Papers of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J.
Clay, 1890,
p126-155. http://books.google.com/books
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le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[19] Richard C. Dougal, Clive A.
Greated, Alan E. Marson, Then and now:
James Clerk Maxwell and colour, Optics
& Laser TechnologyVolume 38, Issues
4-6, , Colour and Design in the natural
and man-made worlds, June-September
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210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
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348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
[20] J.C. Maxwell, "On the theory of
compound colours and the relations of
the colours of the spectrum", Philos
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57–84.
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00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
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[21] H. Helmholtz, "Ueber die Theorie
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00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=2d0
a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
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519–534. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=gVQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:Phi
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[22] "color." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
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[23] "Tetrachromacy". Wikipedia.
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[24] Robinson, J., Schmitt, E.A.,
Harosi, F.I., Reece, R.J., Dowling,
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[25] J. C. Maxwell, "On
the Theory of Colours in relation to
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le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell
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(King's College) London, England11
 
[1] From ''On Physical Lines of Force''
Part 1. figures 1,2 and 3. PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p460.

[2] From ''On Physical Lines of
Force'' Part 1. figures 4,5. PD/Corel

source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p461.
139 YBN
[04/26/1861 AD] 7 8 		3726) On his retirement Schiaparelli
studied the astronomy of the ancient
Hebrews and Babylonians and writes
"L'astronomia nell'antico testamento"
(1903; Astronomy in the Old Testament,
1905)2 .3

From his observations of Mercury and
Venus, Schiaparelli concludes that they
rotate on their axes at the same rate
as they rotate around the Sun, so one
side always faces the Sun. This view is
generally accepted until the late
1960s, when radar techniques and space
probes give different values.4
(chronology and work title5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p470-471.
2. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=nxgqA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Schiapare
lli&ei=GBNWSY_fE4qakQTA3-C_Aw
3. ^ "Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
116>.
4. ^ "Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
116>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Schiaparelli, Giovanni
Virginio." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
116>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p470-471. {1861}
8. ^
"Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Vi
rginio_Schiaparelli {04/26/1861
(verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Schiaparelli." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-sc
hiaparelli
[2] "Giovanni Schiaparelli." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-sc
hiaparelli
[3] "Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Virginio_Schiaparelli
[4] "Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p779-780
[5]
http://www.bareket-astro.com/movies/come
t/69hesperia.html
(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy6
 
[1] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/GiovanniSchiaparelli.
jpg

[2] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://www.mallorcaweb.net/masm/
meteor/schiaparelli.gif
139 YBN
[04/??/1861 AD] 11 12 		3653)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On Physical Lines of Force",
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1
{Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
3. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
4. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On
Physical Lines of Force", Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2
{Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On
Physical Lines of Force", Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2
{Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
9. ^ J. Challis, "On Theories of
Magnetism and other Forces, in reply to
Remakrs by Professor Maxwell.",
Philosophical Magazine, vol 21, 1861,
p250-254. http://books.google.com/books
?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_
brr=1#PPA250,M1
10. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
11. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513. {04/1861 (Part 2}
12. ^
"Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588. {1861-1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[5] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[7]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[8] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[9]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[10] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[11]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[12] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[13] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[14] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 09
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[15] C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
[16] "photography, history of."
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[18] J. C. Maxwell, "On the Theory of
Colours in relation to
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Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
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p119-125. http://books.google.com/books
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[19] J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on
colour as perceived by the eye, with
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[20] Richard C. Dougal, Clive A.
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348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
[21] J.C. Maxwell, "On the theory of
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00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=2d0
a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
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of compound colours), Philos Mag 4
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519–534. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=gVQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:Magazine+date:1852-18
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Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachroma
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[25] Robinson, J., Schmitt, E.A.,
Harosi, F.I., Reece, R.J., Dowling,
J.E. 1993. Zebrafish ultraviolet visual
pigment: absorption spectrum, sequence,
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Sci. U.S.A. 90, 6009–6012
(King's College) London, England10
 
[1] From ''On Physical Lines of Force''
Part 2. figure 1. PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p489.

[2] From ''On Physical Lines of
Force'' Part 2. figure 2. PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p489.
139 YBN
[05/10/1861 AD] 9 		3490)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ Edward
Frankland, (obituary) Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434. {05/10/1852}
5. ^ E.
Frankland, "On the Influence of
Atmospheric Pressure upon Some of the
Phenomena of Combustion",
Journal Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 151, 1861,
p629-653. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/dk40422103500431/?p=9c8c616a
82c1407599247c232e8554b1π=26 {Franklan
d_Edward_Pressure_Combustion_1861.pdf}
{05/10/1852}
6. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
{1861}
{1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[7] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
(St Bartholomew's hospital) London,
England8 (presumably) 
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
139 YBN
[06/??/1861 AD] 12 		3462)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/0038-567
0/2/6/R08/PHU_2_6_R08.pdf?request-id=8f1
884a6-fd47-447b-a653-fe3cb7086b72
3. ^ "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
4. ^ Wolcott Gibbs, "On the
construction of a Normal Mpa of the
Solar Spectrum.", Amer. Jour. of
Science, 1866,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=An
QUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=kirchhoff+m
ap+solar+spectrum&source=web&ots=5Ac_cut
P0C&sig=5c-65qWte-4GoDnmM_9Go1FSqoI&hl=e
n&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result
#PPA1,M1
5. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
6. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
7. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
8. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ G. Kirchhoff,
"Untersuchungen über das
Sonnenspektrum und Spektren der
chemischen Elemente", Abhandlungen
der Königlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1861, 63–95
1862, 227–240; 1863, 225–240
English translation: tr. by Henry E.
Roscoe, "Researches on the solar
spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
11. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
12. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf} {06/1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] "spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>
[8] ULSF id 2571
[9] "Robert Wilhelm Von
Bunsen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[10] G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[11] (English translation of 1860
paper) Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert
Bunsen, "Chemical Analysis by
Observation of Spectra", Annalen der
Physik und der Chemie (Poggendorff),
Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[12]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
[13] "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)
[14] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
}
[15] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p109-112
[16]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
[17] James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53,
p51. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
[18] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375
[19] "Gustav
Kirchhoff." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 07 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
[20] "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[21] Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, [Kirchhoff's]
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
[22] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {12/11/1859}
[23] Gustav
Kirchhoff, "Uber den Zusammenhang
zwischen Emission und Absorption von
Licht und Warme," Monatsber. Kon.
Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1859, pp.
783-787 (presented Dec. 11, 1859).
Reprinted in Abhandlungen, pp. 566-571,
as well as in Kangro, [Kirchhoff'sl
Untersuchungen, pp.
7-13. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA783,M1 E
nglish translation: Pierre Prevost,
Balfour Stewart, Gustav Kirchhoff,
Robert Bunsen, De Witt Bristol Brace,
"The Laws of Radiation and Absorption:
Memoirs", American Book Company, 1901,
p73- http://books.google.com/books?id=A
fGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=brace
+laws+of+radiation#PPA73,M1
{12/11/1859}
[24] G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860), 1-21. {01/1860}
[25] Norman
Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun,
Macmillan and co, 1887,
p74. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
r8KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=chemi
stry+of+the+sun#PPA74,M1
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany11  
[1] [t First page of solar
spectrum] PD/Corel
source: Kirchhoff_Researches_on_the_sola
r_spectrum_1861.pdf

[2] The great spectroscope of
kirchhoff for the study of the solar
spectrum (Abh. Berliner Akad. 1861, p.
63) PD/Corel
source: http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/00
38-5670/2/6/R08/PHU_2_6_R08.pdf?request-
id=8f1884a6-fd47-447b-a653-fe3cb7086b72
139 YBN
[09/??/1861 AD] 8 9 		3568)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ "Aleksandr
Butlerov." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
12 Sep. 2008 .
3. ^ Leicester, Henry M.
(1940). "Alexander Mikhailovich
Butlerov". Journal of Chemical
Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
4. ^ Arbuzov, B. A. (1978). "150th
Anniversary of the birth of A. M.
Butlerov". Russian Chemical Bulletin 27
(9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/ {Butlerov_Aleksandr.pdf
}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Leicester, Henry M.
(1940). "Alexander Mikhailovich
Butlerov". Journal of Chemical
Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
7. ^ "Speyer." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/speyer
8. ^ Arbuzov, B. A. (1978). "150th
Anniversary of the birth of A. M.
Butlerov". Russian Chemical Bulletin 27
(9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/ {Butlerov_Aleksandr.pdf
} {09/1861}
9. ^ "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 . {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Mikhailovich
Butlerov." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-m
ikhailovich-butlerov
[2] "Butlerov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlerov
[3] "Butlerov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158
(Scientific Congress) Speyer, Germany6
7  
[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png
139 YBN
[10/26/1861 AD] 84 85 		3997) Microphone, speaker, and
telephone. Sound converted to
electricity and back to sound again.47
48
Sound can be sent farther as
electric current in a wire than
mechanically in air and travels
silently.49

(Note that if remote neuron reading and
writing is centuries old, then probably
the telephone, microphone, speaker,
recording and playing back of sound
happened earlier but was kept secret
from the public.50 )

Johann Philipp Reis (CE 1834-1874)51
explains the first microphone, speaker
and telephone publicly. These devices
convert variations in sound (air
pressure) into variations in electric
current, which can be carried over long
distances using metal wire, and then
convert the electric current back into
sound. The electromagnet made possible
the sending of electric current over
long distances.52

Before 1840, the attempts to transmit
signals over large distances were not
very successful.53

The first microphone, or device that
transfers variations in sound to
variations in electric current is
demonstrated on October 26, 1861 by
Philip Reiss of Friedrichsdorf,
Germany54 , although it seems very
likely that the microphone was invented
earlier but like seeing eyes and
thought-images kept secret from the
public for a long time.55

Reis, Professor of Natural Philosophy
at Friedrichsdorf, neat Frankfort,
demonstrates his apparatus in a meeting
room before members of the Physical
Society. Reiss causing melodies to be
sung in one part of his apparatus in
the Civic Hospital, a building about
300 feet away with doors and windows
closed, and the same sounds to be
reproduced and heard in the meeting
room through a second part of his
apparatus.56

Reiss models his first telephone
transmitter (microphone) after the
human ear (see image). Silvanus
Thompson describes Reiss' ear this
way:
"The end of the aperture a was closed
by a thin membrane b, in imitation of
the human tympanum. Against the centre
of the tympanum rested the lower end of
a little curved lever c d, of platinum
wire, which represented the " hammer "
bone of the human ear. This curved
lever was attached to the membrane by a
minute drop of sealing-wax, so that it
followed every motion of the same. It
was pivoted near its centre by being
soldered to a short cross-wire which
served as an axis; this axis passing on
either side through a hole in a bent
strip of tin-plate screwed to the back
of the wooden ear. The upper end of the
curved lever rested in loose contact
against the upper end g of a vertical
spring, about one inch long, also of
tin-plate, bearing at its summit a
slender and resilient strip of platinum
foil. An adjusting-screw, h, served to
regulate the degree of contact between
the vertical spring and the curved
lever. The conducting-wires by which
the current of electricity entered and
left the apparatus were connected to
the screws by which the two strips of
tin-plate were fixed to the ear. In
order to make sure that the current
from the upper support of tin should
reach the curved lever, another strip
of platinum foil was soldered on the
side of the former, and rested lightly
against the end of the wire-axis, as
shown in magnified detail in Fig. 6. If
now any words or sounds of any kind
were uttered in front of the ear the
membrane was thereby set into
vibrations, as in the human ear. The
little curved lever took up these
motions precisely as the " hammer
"-bone of the human ear does; and, like
the " hammer "-bone, transferred them
to that with which it was in contact.
The result was that the contact of the
upper end of the lever was caused to
vary. With every rarefaction of the air
the membrane moved forward and the
upper end of the little lever moved
backward and pressed more firmly than
before against the spring, making
better contact and allowing a stronger
current to flow. At every condensation
of the air the membrane moved backwards
and the upper end of the lever moved
forward so as to press less strongly
than before against the spring, thereby
making a less complete contact than
before, and by thus partially
interrupting the passage of the
current, caused the current to flow
less freely. The sound waves which
entered the ear would in this fashion
throw the electric current, which
flowed through the point of variable
contact, into undulations in strength.
It will be seen that this principle of
causing the voice to control the
strength of the electric current by
causing it to operate upon a loose or
imperfect contact, runs throughout the
whole of Reis's telephonic
transmitters. In later times such
pieces of mechanism for varying the
strength of an electric current have
been termed current-regulators or
sometimes "tension regulators" {ULSF
note: this kind of device is also
called a "pressure regulator" and
"pressure relay"57 ).". Reis goes on to
develop and improve a variety of
different models of telephone.58

Sylanus Thompson describes Reis' first
receiver (or "speaker"59 ):
"The first
form of apparatus used by Reis for
receiving the currents from the
transmitter, and for reproducing
audibly that which had been spoken or
sung, consisted of a steel
knitting-needle, round which was wound
a spiral coil of silk- covered
copper-wire. This wire, as Reis
explains in his lecture " On
Telephony," was magnetised in varying
degrees by the successive currents, and
when thus rapidly magnetised and
demagnetised, emitted tones depending
upon the frequency, strength, etc., of
the currents which flowed round it. It
was soon found that the sounds it
emitted required to be strengthened by
the addition of a sounding-box, or
resonant- case. This was in the first
instance attained by placing the needle
upon the sounding-board of a violin. At
the first trial it was stuck loosely
into one of the /-shaped holes of the
violin (see Fig. 19) : subsequently the
needle was fixed by its lower end to
the bridge of the violin. These details
were furnished by Herr Peter, of
Friedrichsdorf, music-teacher in
Garnier's Institute, to whom the violin
belonged, and who gave Ileis, expressly
for this purpose, a violin of less
value than that used by himself in his
profession. Reis, who was not himself a
musician, and indeed had so little of a
musical ear as haidly to know one piece
of music from another, kept this violin
for the purpose of a sounding-box. It
has now passed into the possession of
Garnier's Institute. It was in this
form that the instrument was shown by
Reis in October 1861 to the Physical
Society of Frankfort.". Later a cigar
box will substitute for the violin, and
then an electro-magnet receiver. Reis
writes "
The apparatus named the
'Telephone,' constructed by me, affords
the possibility of evoking sound-
vibrations in every manner that may be
desired. Electro-magnetism affords the
possibility of calling into life at any
given distance vibrations similar to
the vibrations that have been produced,
and in this way to give out again in
one place the tones that have been
produced in another place.". This
electromagnet receiver or speaker is
the basis of the telephones of the
later receivers of Yates, Asa Gray, and
Alexander Bell.60

Reis builds his telephone in a workshop
behind his house in Friedrichsdorf and
runs a wire to a cabinet in Garnier's
Institute. Reis names the instrument
"telephon".61

Reiss first publishes a description of
his telephone delivered verbally on
October 26 and in writing in December
1861, for the 1860-1861 Annual Report
of the Physical Society of
Frankfur-am-Main, in a paper entitled
(translated to English from German) "On
Telephony by the Galvanic Current".62
Reiss writes:
"The surprising results in the
domain of Telegraphy, have already
suggested the question whether it may
not also be possible to communicate the
very tones of speech direct to a
distance. Researches aiming in this
direction have not, however, up to the
present time, been able to show any
tolerably satisfactory result, because
the vibrations of the media through
which sound is conducted, soon fall off
so greatly in their intensity that they
are no longer perceptible to our
senses.
A reproduction of tones at some
distance by means of the galvanic
current, has perhaps been contemplated;
but at all events the practical
solution of this problem has been most
doubted by exactly the very persons who
by their knowledge and resources should
have been enabled to grasp the problem.
To one who is only superficially
acquanted with the doctrines of
Physics, the problem, if indeed he
becomes acquainted with it, appears to
offer far fewer points of difficulty
because he does not foresee most of
them. Thus did I, some nine years ago
(with a great penchant for what was
new, but with only too imperfect
knowledge in Physics), have the
boldness to wish to solve the problem
mentioned; but I was soon obliged to
relinquish it, because the very first
inquiry convinced me firmly of the
impossibility of the solution.
Later, after
further studies and much experience, I
perceived that my first investigation
had been very crude and by no means
conclusive: but I did not resume the
question seriously then, because I did
not feel myself sufficiently developed
to overcome the obstacles of the path
to be trodden.
Youthful impressions are,
however, strong and not easily effaced.
i could not, in spite of every protest
of my reason, banish from my thoughts
that first inquiry and its occasion;
and so it happened that, half without
intending it, in many a leisure hour
the youthful project was taken up
again, the difficulties and the means
of vanquishing them were weighed,- and
yet not the first step towards an
experiment taken.
How could a single
instrument reproduce, at once, the
total actions of all the organs
operated in human speech ? This was
ever the cardinal question. At last I
came by accident to put the question
another way: How does our ear take
cognizance of the total vibrations of
all the simultaneously operant organs
of speech? Or, to put it more
generally: How do we perceive the
vibrations of several bodies emitting
sounds simultaneously?
In order to answer this
question, we will next see what must
happen in order that we may perceive a
single tone.
Apart from our ear, every tone
is nothing more than the condensation
and rarefactino of a body repeated
several times in a second (at least
seven to eight times). If this occurs
in the same medium (the air) as that
with which we are surrounded, then the
membrane of our ear will be compressed
toward the drum-cavity by every
condensation, so that in the succeeding
rarefaction it moves back in the
oposite direction. These vibrations
occasion a lifting-up and falling-down
of the "hammer" (malleus bone) upon the
"anvil" (incus bone) with the same
velocity, or, according to others,
occasion an approach and a recession of
the atoms of the auditory ossicles, and
give rise, therefore, to exactly the
same number of concussions in the fluid
of the cochlaea, in which the auditory
nerve and its terminals are spread out.
The greater the condensation of the
sound-conducting medium at any given
moment, the greater will be the
amplitude of vibration of the membrane
and of the "hammer," and the more
powerful, therefore, the blow on the
"anvil" and the concussion of the
nerves through the intermediary action
of the fluid.
The function of the organs of
hearing, therefore, is to impart
faithfully to the auditory nerve, every
condensation and rarefaction occuring
in the surrounding medium.The function
of the auditory nerve is to bring to
our consciousness the vibrations of
matter resulting at the given time,
both according to their number and
their magnitude. Here, first certain
combinations acquire a distinct name:
here, first the vibrations become
musical tones or discords.
...". Reiss goes on
to write:
"As soon, therefore, as it shall be
possible at any place and in any
prescribed manner, to set up vibrations
whose curves are like those of any
given tone or combination of tones, we
shall receive the same impression as
that tone or combination of tones would
have produced upon us.

{Silvanus Thompson comments: This is
the fundamental principle, not only of
the telephone, but of the phonograph ;
and it is wonderful with what clearness
Reis had grasped his principle in
1861.}

Taking my stand on the preceding
principles, I have succeeded in
constructing an apparatus by means of
which I am in a position to reproduce
the tones of divers instruments, yes,
and even to a certain degree the human
voice. It is very simple, and can be
clearly explained in the sequel, by aid
of the figure: {ULSF: see image, figure
25}
In a cube of wood, r s t u v w x, there
is a conical hole, a, closed at one
side by the membrane b (made of the
lesser intestine of the pig), upon the
middle of which a little strip of
platinum is cemented as a conductor of
the current {or electrode}. This is
united with the binding-screw, p. From
the binding-screw n there passes
likewise a thin strip of metal over the
middle of the membrane, and terminates
here in a little platinum wire which
stands at right angles to the length
and breadth of the strip.

From the binding-screw, p, a
conducting-wire leads through the
battery to a distant station, ends
there in a spiral of copper-wire,
overspun with silk, which in turn
passes into a return-wire that leads to
the binding-screw, n.

The spiral at the distant station is
about six inches long, consists of six
layers of thin wire, and receives into
its middle as a core a knitting-needle,
which projects about two inches at each
side. By the projecting ends of the
wire the spiral rests upon two bridges
of a sounding-box. (This whole piece
may naturally be replaced by any
apparatus by means of which one
produces the well-known "galvanic
tones.")

If now tones, or combinations of tones,
are produced in the neighbourhood of
the cube, so that waves of sufficient
strength enter the opening a, they will
set the membrane b in vibration. At the
first condensation the hammer-shaped
little wire d will be pushed back. At
the succeeding rarefaction it cannot
follow the return-vibration of the
membrane, and the current going through
the little strip {of platinum} remains
interrupted so long as until the
membrane, driven by a new condensation,
presses the little strip (coming from
p) against d once more. In this way
each sound-wave effects an opening and
a closing of the current.

But at every closing of the circuit the
atoms of the iron needle lying in the
distant spiral are pushed asunder from
one another. (Muller-Pouillet, '
Lehrbuch der Physik,' see p. 304 of
vol. ii. 5th ed.). At the interruption
of the current the atoms again attempt
to regain their position of
equilibrium. If this happens then in
consequence of the action and reaction
of elasticity and traction, they make a
certain number of vibrations, and yield
the longitudinal tone of the needle.
{Silvanus Thompson comments that at any
single demagnetisation of the needle,
it vibrates and emits the same tone as
if it had been struck or mechanically
caused to vibrate longitudinally} It
happens thus when the interruptions and
restorations of the current are
effected relatively slowly. But if
these actions follow one another more
rapidly than the oscillations due to
the elasticity of the iron core, then
the atoms cannot travel their entire
paths. The paths travelled over become
shorter the more rapidly the
interruptions occur, and in proportion
to their frequency. The iron needle
emits no longer its longitudinal tone,
but a tone whose pitch corresponds to
the number of interruptions (in a given
time). But this is saying nothing less
than that the needle reproduces the
tone which was imparted to the
interrupting apparatus.

Moreover, the strength of this tone is
proportional to the original tone, for
the stronger this is, the greater will
be the movement of the drum-skin, the
greater therefore the movement of the
little hammer, the greater finally the
length of time during which the circuit
remains open, and consequently the
greater, up to a certain limit, the
movement of the atoms in the
reproducing wire {the knitting needle},
which we perceive as a stronger
vibration, just as we should have
perceived the original wave.

Since the length of the conducting wire
may be extended for this purpose, just
as far as in direct telegraphy, I give
to my instrument the name "Telephon."

As to the performance attained by the
Telephone, let it be remarked, that,
with its aid, I was in a position to
make audible to the members of a
numerous assembly (the Physical Society
of Frankfort-on-the-Main) melodies
which were sung (not very loudly) into
the apparatus in another house (about
three hundred feet distant) with closed
doors. Other researches show that the
sounding-rod {i.e. the knitting needle}
is able to reproduce complete triad
chords (" Dreiklange ") of a piano on
which the telephone {i.e. the
transmitter} stands; and that, finally,
it reproduces equally well the tones of
other instruments—harmonica,
clarionet, horn, organ-pipes, &c.,
always provided that the tones belong
to a certain range between F and f.
{Silvanus Thompson comments that this
range is simply due to the degree of
tension of the tympanum ; another
tympanum differently stretched, or of
different proportions, would have a
different range according to
circumstances}

It is, of course, understood that in
all researches it was sufficiently
ascertained that the direct conduction
of the sound did not come into play.
This point may be controlled very
simply by arranging at times a good
shunt-circuit directly across the
spiral {i.e. to cut the receiving
instrument out of circuit by providing
another path for the currents of
electricity}, whereby naturally the
operation of the latter momentarily
ceases.

Until now it has not been possible to
reproduce the tones of human speech
with a distinctness to satisfy
everybody. The consonants are for the
most part tolerably distinctly
reproduced, but the vowels not yet in
an equal degree. Why this is so I will
endeavour to explain.
..." Reiss then
concludes:
"...
Whether my views with respect to the
curves representing combinations of
tones are correct, may perhaps be
determined by aid of the new
phonautograph described by Duhamel.
(See Vierordt's ' Physiology,' p.
254.)

There may probably remain much more yet
to be done for the utilisation of the
telephone in practice (zur praktischen
Verwerthung des Telephons). For
physics, however, it has already
sufficient interest in that it has
opened out a new field of labour."63
Not
e that there is some confusion about
whether Leon Scott was the first to
record to a cylinder, or Duhamel' with
the "Vibrograph". Wilhelm Weber
recorded the sound vibrations of a
tuning fork onto a sooted glass plate
in 183064 65 66 67 . There is a claim
that Duhamel was the first to record
sound to a sooted glass cylinder in
1840.68 It seems clear that Reiss may
be referring to Duhamel to take
pressure off of himself for talking
about what might be technology
classified as secret by the government
military by referring to Duhamel - it
seems clear from the words of Silvanus
Thompson that Reiss was murdered by
galvanization at the age of 40. Perhaps
Reiss is hinting about the possibility
of recording the sounds for permenant
storage.69
(see 70 for full
translation in English) (The use of
"suggested" in the first sentence and
"opened out" in the last sentence
indicate that Reiss clearly understood
in 1860 about the secret of remote
muscle movement suggested images and
sounds and the massive aparteid of
insiders and outsiders, or included and
excluded. Was Reiss an insider or
outsider? Most insiders are not
complete insiders, and certainly must
be excluded from seeing many important
recordings.71 )

In 1862, Reis sends Professor
Poggendorff a paper on the telephone
for the Annalen Der Physiks and
Poggendorff rejects the paper. before
this in 1859, Reis sent a paper to
Poggendorff entitled "On the Radiation
of Electricity" which is now lost.72

Edison admits in court that he started
his investigation into the carbon
telephone by having a translation of
Legat's report on Reis' telephone.
Alexander Graham Bell also refers to
Reis in his "Researches in Electric
Telephony" read before the American
Academy of Sciences and Arts in May
1876, and the Society of Telegraph
Engineers in November 1877, refering to
the original paper in Dingler's
'Polytechnic Journal', and to Kuhn's
volume in Karsten's 'Encyclopaedia' in
which diagrams and descriptions of two
forms of Reis's telephone are given. In
addition, in his British patent, Bell
only claims "improvements in electric
telephony (transmitting or causing
sounds for Telegraphing Messages) and
Telephonic Apparatus.".73

Reis only lives to 40 years which is a
very short life74 , Silvanus Thompson
writes that a portrait of Reis is
"...modelled by the sculptor, A. C.
Rumpf, and "executed
galvanoplastically" by G. v. Kress."75
which implies that Reis was executed by
galvanization. Possibly Reis was an
excluded or outsider who duplicated
technology already discovered by
insiders, and rather than include or
negotiate with Reis insiders just
murdered Reis by galvanization which
stopped Reis' possible capitalization
on the telephone, microphone, and/or
speaker. In this way, the insiders
already in control of the distribution
and sales of microphones, and speakers
could maintain their monopoly or
oligopoly which still exists to this
day with the seeing of eyes and hearing
of thoughts.76

Some people credit Antonio Meucci, in
New York City in 1854.77 78 79 80

It seems unusual that Reiss did not
also report on the idea of adding a
feature to record sound using the
telautograph, and then simply play back
recorded sounds out loud with his
receiver/speaker.81

Still at the time there is no known
method of storing electric current for
a duration of time in wire, and the
first permanent storage of electrical
information does not occur at least
until Edison's tin foil phonograph. The
recording of the strength of an
electronic current will be recorded on
to plastic tape by recording the
varying intensity of light in 1923 by
Lee De Forest, and then magnetic tape
and disk, and burned by laser into
compact disks and DVDs.82
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
2. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
3. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
4. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
5. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
6. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
9. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
12. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Silvanus
Phillips Thompson, "Philipp Reis:
inventor of the telephone: A
biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ George Bartlett
Prescott, "The speaking telephone,
talking phonograph, and other
novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
18. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ George Bartlett
Prescott, "The speaking telephone,
talking phonograph, and other
novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
25. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
26. ^ P. Reiss, "Ueber Telephonie durch
den galvanischen Strom.", Jahresber. d.
Frankfurst. Ver. 1860-1861,
p.57-64. reprinted in Die Fortschritte
der Physik Berlin, 1863,
p171. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eA45AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA171&dq=reiss+date:1859
-1863&lr=#v=onepage&q=reiss%20date%3A185
9-1863&f=false Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...", 1883,
p50. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
kHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phili
p+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onepa
ge&q=&f=false {Philipp_Reis__inventor_o
f_the_telephone.pdf}
27. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
28. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
29. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
30. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
31. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
32. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
37. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ "Antonio Meucci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Meu
cci
42. ^ "History of the telephone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_telephone
43. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Antonio_Meucci.htm
44. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZiYZAAA
AIAAJ&q=ANTONIO+MEUCCI&dq=ANTONIO+MEUCCI

45. ^ Ted Huntington.
46. ^ Ted Huntington.
47. ^ Silvanus
Phillips Thompson, "Philipp Reis:
inventor of the telephone: A
biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
48. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ Silvanus
Phillips Thompson, "Philipp Reis:
inventor of the telephone: A
biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ George Bartlett
Prescott, "The speaking telephone,
talking phonograph, and other
novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
54. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
55. ^ Ted Huntington.
56. ^ George Bartlett
Prescott, "The speaking telephone,
talking phonograph, and other
novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
57. ^ Ted Huntington.
58. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
59. ^ Ted Huntington.
60. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
61. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
62. ^ P. Reiss, "Ueber Telephonie durch
den galvanischen Strom.", Jahresber. d.
Frankfurst. Ver. 1860-1861,
p.57-64. reprinted in Die Fortschritte
der Physik Berlin, 1863,
p171. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eA45AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA171&dq=reiss+date:1859
-1863&lr=#v=onepage&q=reiss%20date%3A185
9-1863&f=false Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...", 1883,
p50. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
kHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phili
p+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onepa
ge&q=&f=false {Philipp_Reis__inventor_o
f_the_telephone.pdf}
63. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
64. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
65. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
66. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
67. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
68. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
69. ^ Ted Huntington.
70. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
71. ^ Ted Huntington.
72. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
73. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
74. ^ Ted Huntington.
75. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
76. ^ Ted Huntington.
77. ^ "Antonio Meucci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Meu
cci
78. ^ "History of the telephone".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_telephone
79. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Antonio_Meucci.htm
80. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZiYZAAA
AIAAJ&q=ANTONIO+MEUCCI&dq=ANTONIO+MEUCCI

81. ^ Ted Huntington.
82. ^ Ted Huntington.
83. ^ George
Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking
telephone, talking phonograph, and
other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
84. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {10/26/1861}
85. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] Herbert Newton Casson, "The
history of the telephone",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4iU1AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
History+of+the+Telephone&as_brr=1#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[2] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[3] W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone, Its
History and Its Recent Improvements",
Nature, vol19, 11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20micr
ophone&f=false
[4] The Talking Machine
Industry http://www.archive.org/stream/
talkingmachinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachin
ein00mitcuoft_djvu.txt
(built in workshop behind Reis's house
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort, Germany83
 
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false

[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
139 YBN
[11/07/1861 AD] 5 		3493)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ Edward
Frankland, (obituary) Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
3. ^ Dictionary of National Biography
(1901) entry for Edward
Frankland http://books.google.com/books
?id=TCYJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=edward+fran
kland&as_brr=1#PPA238,M1
4. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
5. ^ Dictionary of National Biography
(1901) entry for Edward
Frankland http://books.google.com/books
?id=TCYJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=edward+fran
kland&as_brr=1#PPA238,M1 {11/07/1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[7] Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
[8] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
(St. Bartholomew's Hospital) London,
England4  
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 4 		2651) After the Union Pacific Railroad
is finished in 1869, much of the line
is relocated to run along the railroad
right-of-way (the land occupied by a
railroad especially for its main line)
to facilitate maintenance.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
2. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
4. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Western Union Corporation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6670/Western-Union-Corporation
USA3  
[1] Logo of The Western Union
Company COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Western_Union_money_transfer.png
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 6 7 		2927) John Ericsson (CE 1803-1889),
Swedish-American inventor1 , builds the
"Monitor", an iron ship.
Ericsson's ironclad
Monitor, with the first revolving iron
turret on a naval ship. It fought the
CSS Virginia (the former USS Merrimack)
to a draw on March 9, 1862 at the
Battle of Hampton Roads.2
The Monitor
is launched on January 30, 1862.3

Napoleon III had rejected Ericsson's
model ironclad warship in 1854.4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353.
2. ^ "John Ericsson".
The Oxford Companion to American
Military History. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 2000. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Ericsson
3. ^ "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2896/John-Ericsson
4. ^ "John Ericsson". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John%20Ericsson
5. ^ "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2896/John-Ericsson
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353. (1861,
launched on 01/30/1862)
7. ^ "John Ericsson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2896/John-Ericsson (1861, launched on
01/30/1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ericsson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ericss
on
[2] "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Eri
csson
New York City, NY, USA5
(presumably) 
[1] USS
Monitor http://www.history.navy.mil/pho
tos/sh-usn/usnsh-m/monitor.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:H59543.jpg

[2] John Ericsson (1803 - 1889),
Swedish-born inventor. Original print
in possession of National Archives. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Ericsson_2.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 12 		3015)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
2. ^ "Thomas Graham".
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Thomas Graham". A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
9. ^ "Thomas Graham".
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
10. ^ "Thomas Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp368-369.
11. ^ "Thomas Graham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Grah
am_%28chemist%29
[2]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html (1833)
[3]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html
[4] "Graham, Thomas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>. (1829)
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360. (1833)
(Mint) London, England11  
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 8 		3193)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392.
2. ^ "Albert von
Kölliker." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Kölliker, Rudolf Albert
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5943>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392.
6. ^ "Albert von
Kölliker." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
7. ^ "Koelliker, Rudolf Albert Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p495.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p392. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert von Kölliker." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[2] "Rudolf Albert von Kölliker".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Albe
rt_von_K%C3%B6lliker
[3] "Rudolph Albert Von Kolliker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolph_
Albert_Von_Kolliker
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany7  
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 7 		3214)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
2. ^ "Semmelweis,
Ignaz Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz
Phillipp", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p796.
5. ^
"Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
6. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
7. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ignaz Semmelweis." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[2] "Ignaz Semmelweis." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[3] "Ignaz Semmelweis." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[4] "Ignaz Semmelweis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[5] "Ignaz Philipp Semmelweiss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz_Phili
pp_Semmelweiss
[6] "Ignatz Philipp Semmelweiss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ignatz_P
hilipp_Semmelweiss
(University of Pest) Pest, (Hungary
since 1873 is:)Budapest6  
[1] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis01.jpg

[2] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis02.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 15 		3320) Loschmidt is the son of peasants,
but the village priest recognizes
Loschmidt's talent and pays for his
education.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
2. ^ Record ID3489.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
4. ^ "Johann Josef
Loschmidt." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jose
f-loschmidt
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p410.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
14. ^ "Johann Josef
Loschmidt." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jose
f-loschmidt
15. ^ "Johann Josef Loschmidt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jose
f-loschmidt {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Loschmidt, Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9002>
[2] "Joseph Loschmidt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Losc
hmidt
[3] "Loschmidt, Johann Joseph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p438
(Vienna RealSchul) Vienna, (now:)
Germany14  
[1] presumably from Chemische Studien
I PD/Corel
source: http://www.kfki.hu/chemonet/hun/
olvaso/histchem/mol/keplet.gif

[2] [t compared to modern
form] Molecular structural formulae, a
few of the many appearing for the first
time in Loschmidt's 1861 booklet,1
Chemische Studien I. Among its
innovations are the depictions of
double and triple carbon bonds for
ethylene and acetylene; the structure
of acetic acid; a correct prediction
for cyclopropane 21 years before it was
made; and the structures of benzoic
acid and aniline, two aromatic
molecules with benzene-like rings.
Loschmidt's role in the later discovery
that benzene itself is a monocyclic
six-carbon structure is still being
debated by historians. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://scitation.aip.org/journal
s/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_3/images/45_1
fig4.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 8 		3324)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p410.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Loschmidt, Joseph." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9002>.
5. ^ Record ID2407. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID3323. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Johann Josef
Loschmidt." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jose
f-loschmidt
8. ^ "Johann Josef Loschmidt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jose
f-loschmidt {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Loschmidt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Losc
hmidt
[2] "Loschmidt, Johann Joseph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p438.
(Vienna RealSchul) Vienna, (now:)
Germany7  
[1] Loschmidt, Johann Joseph (1821 -
1895). PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog
rafias/cientificos/l/img/loschmidt.jpg

[2] # Johann Josef Loschmidt
(1821–1895) # aus:
http://www.loschmidt.cz/loadframe.html?p
hotos.html, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/429px-Johann_Josef_Lo
schmidt.jpeg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 16 		3417)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ René
Vallery-Radot, R. L. Devonshire, "The
Life of Pasteur", Doubleday, Page &
Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
3. ^ René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
4. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p51. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA51,M1
5. ^ René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
6. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p51. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA51,M1
7. ^ René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://newman.baruch.cuny.edu/digital/20
01/swazey_reeds_1978/chap_02.htm
10. ^ Thomas D. Brock, "Milestones in
Microbiology 1546 to 1940", ASM Press,
1999, p
vi. http://books.google.com/books?id=q5
JHcs8w21gC&pg=PR6&lpg=PR6&dq=pasteur+186
1&source=web&ots=jhbbK5O--k&sig=pd3IXyWZ
rurSF7l5m5Z6VJrVZiM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&resnum=5&ct=result#PPR6,M1
11. ^ Pasteur, L. "Animalcules
infusoires vivant sans gaz oxygene
libre et determinant des
fermentations." Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci.
(Paris) 52:344-347, 1861
12. ^ René
Vallery-Radot, R. L. Devonshire, "The
Life of Pasteur", Doubleday, Page &
Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
13. ^ René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p51. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA51,M1
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
16. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p334. {1863} {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[6]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France15  
[1] Aerobically different bacteria
behave differently when grown in liquid
culture: 1: Obligate aerobic bacteria
gather at the top of the test tube in
order to absorb maximal amount of
oxygen. 2: Obligate anaerobic bacteria
gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen.
3: Facultative bacteria gather mostly
at the top, since aerobic respiration
is the most beneficial one; but as lack
of oxygen does not hurt them, they can
be found all along the test tube. 4:
Microaerophiles gather at the upper
part of the test tube but not at the
top. They require oxygen but at a low
concentration. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Anaerobic.png

[2] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 17 18 		3486) Broca founds the anthropology
laboratory at the École des Hautes
Études, Paris (1858), and the
Société d’Anthropologie de Paris
(1859), and then later in life the
Revue d’anthropologie (1872), and
establishes the École
d’Anthropologie, Paris (1876),
becomes its director.7

Broca is the first to trepan to treat
an abscess (is?8 ) on the brain.9
Trepanation is drilling a hole in the
skull and is the oldest surgical
procedure known to humans; skulls of
Cro-Magnon people estimated to be
40,000 years old have been discovered
with circular holes as large as 2
inches in diameter.10

In 1856 when an old skull is unearthed
in Neanderthal (a valley near
Düsseldorf in the Rhineland), Huxley
and Broca support the theory that the
skull of a primitive human while
Virchow thinks it is a congenital skull
malformation.11

Broca writes "Mémoires
d’anthropologie", 5 vol. (1871–78;
"Memoirs of Anthropology"), among other
works.12
Much of anthropology at this
time involves skull measurements,
following Retzius' distinction among
races on the basis of such
measurements.13

Broca considers the major human racial
groups as separate species.14
Broca is
appointed a member of the French
senate.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434.
2. ^ "Paul Broca."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80601/Paul-Broca>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Paul
Broca." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80601/Paul-Broca>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434.
10. ^ "trepanation."
Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2005. Answers.com
26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trepanation

11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434.
12. ^ "Paul Broca."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80601/Paul-Broca>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434.
14. ^ "Paul Broca."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80601/Paul-Broca>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434.
16. ^ "Broca, Pierre
Paul", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p141.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p433-434. {1861}
18. ^ "Paul
Broca." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80601/Paul-Broca>. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Paul Broca".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Paul
_Broca
[2] "Broca's area". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca%27s_a
rea
(University of Paris) Paris, France16
(presumably) 
[1] Taken from NIH publication 97-4257,
http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/ap
hasia.asp PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/BrocasAreaSmall.png

[2] Pierre Paul BROCA
(1824-1880): PD/Corel
source: http://www.itfnoroloji.org/semi2
/Broca.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 6 		3498)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bates, Henry Walter", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p66.
2. ^ "H. W. Bates."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/55845/H-W-Bates>.
3. ^ "Henry Walter Bates." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-walte
r-bates
4. ^ "Henry Walter Bates." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-walte
r-bates
5. ^ "H. W. Bates." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/55845/H-W-Bates>.
6. ^ "H. W. Bates." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/55845/H-W-Bates>. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434-435.
[2] "Henry Walter
Bates." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-walte
r-bates
[3] "Henry Walter Bates." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-walte
r-bates
[4] "Henry Walter Bates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Walte
r_Bates
[5] "Henry Walter Bates". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_Wa
lter_Bates
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Plate from Bates (1862)
illustrating Batesian mimicry between
Dismorphia species (top row, third row)
and various Ithomiini (Nymphalidae)
(second row, bottom row) Source
Henry Walter Bates 1862.
Contributions to an insect fauna of the
Amazon Valley. Lepidoptera:
Heliconidae. Trans. Linn. Soc. 23:
495-566. Date 1862 Author
Henry Walter Bates PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg

[2] Description photograph of
Bates Source Bates 1892 Naturalist on
River Amazons Date about 1870 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/HW_Bates_23_KB.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 12 		3499) In 1865 Schultze founds the
journal "Archiv für mikroskopische
Anatomie" and serves as its editor
until his death.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Max
Johann Sigismund Schultze." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-johann-
sigismund-schultze
4. ^ "Max Johann Sigismund Schultze."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-johann-
sigismund-schultze
5. ^ "Max Johann Sigismund Schultze." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-johann-
sigismund-schultze
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Max
Johann Sigismund Schultze".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Max_Joha
nn_Sigismund_Schultze
9. ^ Record ID3561. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Max
Schultze." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528413/Max-Johann-Sigismund-Schultze>.

11. ^ "Max Schultze." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528413/Max-Johann-Sigismund-Schultze>.

12. ^ "Max Schultze." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528413/Max-Johann-Sigismund-Schultze>.
{1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Johann Sigismund
Schultze". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Johann_
Sigismund_Schultze
[2] "Schultze, Max Johann Sigismund",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p789
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany11
 
[1] Max Schultze PD/Corel
source: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/im
ages/modeng/public/Wil4Sci/WilHi126.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 4 		3505) Thomas Henry Huxley (CE
1825-1895), English biologist1 , denies
that human and ape brains differ
significantly, sparking a raging
dispute with Richard Owen that brings
human evolution to public attention2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
2. ^ "Huxley, Thomas
Henry." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
3. ^ "Huxley, Thomas Henry." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
4. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[2] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henr
y_Huxley
[3] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
[4] "Huxley, Thomas Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p447-448.
(Royal School of Mines) London,
England3  
[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 4 		3511)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436-437.
2. ^ "Richard August
Carl Emil Erlenmeyer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
3. ^ (obituary)
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT
4. ^ "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Erlenmeyer, Richard August
Carl Emil", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p288
Heidelberg, Germany3
(presumably) 
[1] Erlenmeyer flask. Source
Self-made Date
2007-09-25 Author Nuno
Nogueira (Nmnogueira) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg

[2] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 5 6 		3541)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p440-441.
2. ^ "Karl
Gegenbaur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227773/Karl-Gegenbaur>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p440-441.
4. ^ "Carl
Gegenbaur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Carl_Geg
enbaur
5. ^ "Karl Gegenbaur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227773/Karl-Gegenbaur>. {1861}
6. ^ "Karl
Gegenbaur." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-gegenb
aur {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Gegenbaur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Gegenb
aur
[2] "Gegenbaur, Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p350
(U of Jena) Jena, Germany4  
[1] Photograph of German anatomist and
professor Carl Gegenbaur in suit (409
pixels wide). Source URL (from German
Wikipedia):
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Carl_g
egenbaur.jpg Since Carl Gegenbaur died
in 1903, the photo is over 100 years
old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/df/Carl-Gegenbaur-professor-e
lder-suit-photo-409px.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 5 		3582)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Friedrich August Kekule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_August_Kekule
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
4. ^ "August Kekule
von Stradonitz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 16 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[2] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[3] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 16
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[4] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
[5] "Kekule Von Stradonitz (Kekulé),
(Friedrich) August", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p480-481.
[6] Ernst von Meyer, translated by
George McGowan, "A History of Chemistry
from Earliest Times to the Present
Day", Macmillan and co., 1898,
p328-329. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0mJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Ueber+die+C
onstitution+und+die+Metamorphosen+der+ch
emischen+Verbindungen+und+%C3%BCber+die+
chemische+Natur+des+Kohlenstoffs&lr=&as_
brr=1&ei=VTTQSOOYDoPWsgO7w90z#PPA328,M1
[7] Aug. Kekulé (1857). "Ueber die s.
g. gepaarten Verbindungen und die
Theorie der mehratomigen Radicale".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 104
(2): 129–150.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18571040202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18571040202
[8] Aug. Kekulé (1858). "Ueber die
Constitution und die Metamorphosen der
chemischen Verbindungen und über die
chemische Natur des Kohlenstoffs".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 106
(2): 129–159.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18581060202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18581060202
[9] "Kekulé Memorial Lecture", Journal
of the Chemical Society, Chemical
Society (Great Britain), Royal Society
of Chemistry (Great Britain), v.73,
1898,
p97-138. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Tus4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=Friedrich+Aug
ust+Kekule+obituary&ei=oj3QSNmcGoH-sQPwl
OHbAw#PPA97,M1
(University of Ghent) Ghent, Belgium4
 
[1] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg

[2] English: Friedrich August Kekulé
von Stradonitz, german chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Frkekul%C3%A9.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 7 8 		3636)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p333.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
5. ^ "Voit, Carl
Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p910.
6. ^ "Voit,
Carl Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p910.
7. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454. {1861}
8. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p333. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl von Voit."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631930/Carl-von-Voit>
[2] "Carl von Voit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Vo
it
[3] "Carl Von Voit" (obituary),
Science, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, HighWire Press,
JSTOR (Organization), Moses King, 1908,
n.s., v.27
(1908),p315-316. http://books.google.co
m/books?id=2JkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA315&dq=
Carl+von+Voit&ei=PBzlSIK4M5j4MOuUvQI#PRA
1-PA315,M1
[4] "metabolism." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metabolism
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany6
 
[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

[2] Description Max Joseph von
Pettenkofer (1818-1901), german
chemist Source Originally from
ja.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-09-22 (original
upload date) Author de:Franz
Hanfstaengl (1804-1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Max_von_Pettenkofer.j
pg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 14 		3645)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
3. ^ C. E. Kenneth
Mees, "The Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
4. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
5. ^ "photography, history of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457919/photography>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586-588.
8. ^ "James
Clerk Maxwell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
9. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 09
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
10. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
11. ^ C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
12. ^ Richard C. Dougal, Clive A.
Greated, Alan E. Marson, Then and now:
James Clerk Maxwell and colour, Optics
& Laser TechnologyVolume 38, Issues
4-6, , Colour and Design in the natural
and man-made worlds, June-September
2006, Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
13. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
14. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[6]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[7] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[8]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[9] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[10]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[11] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[12] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[13]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html

[14] J.C. Maxwell, On the theory of
three primary colours, Proc R Inst G B
3 (1861), pp. 370–374. From James
Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, p445-450.
(King's College, exhibit at the Royal
Institution) London, England13  
[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 17 18 19 		3672) Former KGB agent Alexander
Litvinenko was poisoned with thallium
in London. Thallium is frequently
referred to as the poison of choice:
Only a gram of the colorless, odorless,
water-soluble heavy metal can kill. It
is as toxic as arsenic, and even more
so than lead.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
3. ^ "Crookes, Sir
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
10 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>.
4. ^ "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>.
5. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
6. ^ "Crookes, William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p215-217.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "thallium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 11 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thallium
10. ^ "thallium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thallium
11. ^ "thallium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 11 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thallium
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "thallium."
Authors. Answers Corporation, 2005.
Answers.com 11 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thallium
15. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
16. ^ "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>.
17. ^ "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>. {1861}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459. {1861}
19. ^
"Crookes, William", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[2] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[4] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[5] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
(private lab) London, England15 16
(presumably) 
[1] Thallium Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Thalli
um_1.jpg Date March 2006 Author
Tomihahndorf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Thallium.jpg

[2] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Tl-TableImage.png
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 18 		3779) Solvay invents a system of
economy that replaces money with a
complex credit system, which gains the
name "technocracy".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p332.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
7. ^ "Ernest Solvay."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-solv
ay
8. ^ "sodium carbonate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sodium-carb
onate
9. ^ "sodium carbonate." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sodium-carb
onate
10. ^ "Solvay, Ernest." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
636>.
11. ^ "Ernest Solvay." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-solv
ay
12. ^ "Solvay, Ernest." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
636>.
13. ^ "Solvay, Ernest." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
636>.
14. ^ "Ernest Solvay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-solv
ay
15. ^ "Solvay, Ernest." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
636>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
17. ^ "Ernest
Solvay." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-solv
ay
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Solvay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Solv
ay
[2]
"books?id=QhPpsUqUkZoC&pg=PA683&dq=alkal
ine intitle:britannica date:1910-1911
solvay&lr=&as brr=1&as
pt=ALLTYPES&ei=hnNcSdWtEJXSlQSymNRC".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alkali_M
anufacture
and http://books.google.com/books?id=
QhPpsUqUkZoC&pg=PA683&dq=alkaline++intit
le:britannica+date:1910-1911+solvay&lr=&
as_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=hnNcSdWtEJXSl
QSymNRC
[3] "Solvay, Ernest", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p820-821.
[4] "Sodium carbonate".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carb
onate
[5] "Solvay process". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvay_proc
ess
(Solvay factory) Charleroi, Belgium17
 
[1] Sodium carbonate Other names Soda
ash; washing soda [t what are dashed
lines and why is sodium not connected?
explain diagram, find 3d image] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sod
ium_carbonate

[2] Ernest Solvay (1838-1922)
PD/Corel
source: http://www.solvay.edu/images/Per
sonnes/ErnestSolvay.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 2 		4547)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1861
(guess}
unknown  
138 YBN
[01/27/1862 AD] 6 7 		3369) Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius
(KLoUZEUS) (CE 1822-1888), German
physicist1 , publishes his "sixth
memoir" on the mechanical theory of
heat, (translated from German) "On the
Application of the Theorem of the
Equivalence of Transformations to
Interior Work" (1862)2 , in which
Clausius concludes that it is
"impossible practically to arrive at
the absolute zero of temperature by any
alteration of the condition of a
body.".3 (This is somewhat abstract.
In addition, volume plays an important
role in temperature and/or motion
measurement. Absolute zero could be any
space free of photons, for example. It
may be possible that theoretically
photons packed together in a way unable
to move, in some dense object might be
the equivalent of absolute zero over
some volume of space, however, this {no
space for photons to move, even in the
densest star or galaxy} is an unlikely
phenomenon.4 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
2. ^ Rudolf Clausius,
Thomas Archer Hirst, John Tyndall, "The
Mechanical Theory of Heat: With Its
Applications to the Steam-engine
and...", J. Van Voorst,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=On+Se
veral+Convenient+Forms+of+the+Fundamenta
l+Equations+of+the+Mechanical+Theory+of+
Heat&source=web&ots=3bCIaMfz8P&sig=kWc0A
-YS1UWhLHRKN7na4fA5zN8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA215,M1
3. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p195-196.
6. ^ Rudolf
Clausius, Thomas Archer Hirst, John
Tyndall, "The Mechanical Theory of
Heat: With Its Applications to the
Steam-engine and...", J. Van Voorst,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=On+Se
veral+Convenient+Forms+of+the+Fundamenta
l+Equations+of+the+Mechanical+Theory+of+
Heat&source=web&ots=3bCIaMfz8P&sig=kWc0A
-YS1UWhLHRKN7na4fA5zN8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA215,M1
{01/27/08}
7. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>

[2] "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[4] "Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

(New Polytechnicum) Zurich, Germany5
 
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
138 YBN
[01/31/1862 AD] 19 20 		3685) Among lenses made under Clark's
direction are the 26-in. lens at the
U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington,
D.C.; the 36-in. lens at Lick
Observatory, California; and the 40-in.
lens at Yerkes Observatory, Wisconsin,
which is the largest refracting
telescope in the world.13 (still
true?14 )

Over the course of his life Clark will
discover 16 double stars.15
Clark's
father is a lens grinder who owns an
optical shop and Clark also follows in
this profession making telescopes
recognized around the planet.16 The
Clarks make some of the best telescopes
of the late 1800s.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Canis Major". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Canis_Ma
jor
2. ^ G. P. Bond, "On the Companion of
Sirius", American Journal of Science,
v33,
p286. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-r8EAAAAYAAJ
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p459.
4. ^ "Clark, Alvan",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p193.
5. ^ "Alvan
Graham Clark." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alvan-graha
m-clark
6. ^ "Canis Major". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Canis_Ma
jor
7. ^
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2000/00
65/index.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ G. P. Bond, "On the
Companion of Sirius", American Journal
of Science, v33,
p286. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-r8EAAAAYAAJ
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Alvan Graham Clark." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alvan-graha
m-clark
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Alvan Graham Clark." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alvan-graha
m-clark
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p459.
17. ^ "Alvan Graham
Clark." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alvan-graha
m-clark
18. ^ "Clark, Alvan", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p193.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p459. {01/31/1862}
20. ^ G. P.
Bond, "On the Companion of Sirius",
American Journal of Science, v33,
p286. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-r8EAAAAYAAJ {01/31/1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alvan Graham Clark"
(obituary), Proceedings of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences By
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
Metcalf and Co., 1898, Item notes: v.33
(1897-1898),
p520-524. http://books.google.com/books
?id=knkUAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA520&dq=alvan+g
raham+clark&ei=UhpQSdevOIuINpr31I4B#PRA1
-PA519,M1
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=e6ERAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=alvan+graham+clark&ei=
UhpQSdevOIuINpr31I4B#PPA136,M1
Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, USA18
 
[1] Alvan Graham Clark and his
assistant Carl Ludin (right) alongside
of the 40-inch Lens. Source
Astronomy and Astrophysics Yerkes
Observatory Date 1896 Author
Photo Credit: Yerkes Observatory PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Yerkes_Observatory_As
tro4p6.jpg

[2] Alvan Graham Clark PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/instruments/images/
tl_clark.jpg
138 YBN
[01/??/1862 AD] 38 		3654)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ Alfred Bork,
"Maxwell, Displacement Current, and
Symmetry", American Journal of Physics,
November
1963 http://scitation.aip.org/dbt/dbt.j
sp?KEY=AJPIAS&Volume=31&Issue=11 Volume
31, Issue 11, pp. 819-895, 1963,
p854-859.
3. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
4. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
5. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp. 411-432.
{Maxwell_direct_test_ISIS_1966.pdf}
6. ^ Alfred Bork, "Maxwell,
Displacement Current, and Symmetry",
American Journal of Physics, November
1963 http://scitation.aip.org/dbt/dbt.j
sp?KEY=AJPIAS&Volume=31&Issue=11 Volume
31, Issue 11, pp. 819-895, 1963,
p854-859.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
8. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On Physical Lines of Force",
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1
{Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p54.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"dielectric." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 16 Oct.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
ielectric>.
13. ^ "elasticity." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
16 Oct. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
lasticity>.
14. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ J. C.
Maxwell, "On Physical Lines of Force",
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1
{Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On
Physical Lines of Force", Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2
{Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
24. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p54.
32. ^ Edmund Taylor
Whittaker, "A History of the Theories
of Aether and Electricity from the Age
of Descartes to the Close of the
Nineteenth Century: from the age of
Descartes to the close of the
nineteenth century", Longmans, Green
and co., 1910,
p284. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CGJDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA274,M
1
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Edmund Taylor
Whittaker, "A History of the Theories
of Aether and Electricity from the Age
of Descartes to the Close of the
Nineteenth Century: from the age of
Descartes to the close of the
nineteenth century", Longmans, Green
and co., 1910,
p284. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CGJDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA274,M
1
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
03 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
38. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513. {01/1862 (Part 3}

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03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
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[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
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[8] Lewis Campbell, William
Garnett, "The Life of James Clerk
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[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) Maxwell as a young man at
Cambridge (ca. 1854) holding the colour
top (Reproduced by permission of the
Master and Fellows of Trinity College
Cambridge). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
138 YBN
[02/??/1862 AD] 8 		3655)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ J. C. Maxwell,
"On Physical Lines of Force",
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1
{Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
3. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
4. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
03 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
8. ^ J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines
of Force", Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
21 (Part 1 {Mar} and 2 {Apr}),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
{Jan} and 4 {Feb}) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+
Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513. {02/1862 (Part 4}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[5] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[6] "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
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[19] J. C. Maxwell, "On the Theory of
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[20] J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on
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[21] Richard C. Dougal, Clive A.
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[22] J.C. Maxwell, "On the theory of
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[23] H. Helmholtz, "Ueber die Theorie
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a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
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[24] "color." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
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[25] "Tetrachromacy". Wikipedia.
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[26] Robinson, J., Schmitt, E.A.,
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[27] J. Challis, "On
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(King's College) London, England7
 
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) Maxwell as a young man at
Cambridge (ca. 1854) holding the colour
top (Reproduced by permission of the
Master and Fellows of Trinity College
Cambridge). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
138 YBN
[02/??/1862 AD] 6 7 		3743)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches in
Spectrum-Analysis in Connexion with the
Spectrum of the Sun. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
163, 1873,
p639-658. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/3705445864711085/?p=7ebcdcbd
06ee478f9a5a3c9bdb0a7b90π=18 {Lockyer_
Norman_2_1873.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Mitscherlich, "Beiträge
zur Spectral-Analyse", Annalen Der
Physik, Volume 192, Issue 7, p
499-507. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489887/issue In his PT
article Lockyer cites which I cannot
find: Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1862,
p. 175.
3. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches
in Spectrum-Analysis in Connexion with
the Spectrum of the Sun. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
163, 1873,
p639-658. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/3705445864711085/?p=7ebcdcbd
06ee478f9a5a3c9bdb0a7b90π=18 {Lockyer_
Norman_2_1873.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Mitscherlich, "Beiträge
zur Spectral-Analyse", Annalen Der
Physik, Volume 192, Issue 7, p
499-507. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489887/issue In his PT
article Lockyer cites which I cannot
find: Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1862,
p. 175.
5. ^ Alexander Mitcherlich,
(Poggendorf's) Annalen Der Physik, No.
3, 1864, translated by Dr. E. Atkinson:
"On the Spectra of Compounds and of
Simple Substances.", Philosophical
Magazine, September 1864,
p169-189 http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:magazine+date:1864-1864
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=iDFYScnO
F4_2lATkntjSCA#PRA2-PA169,M1
6. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches in
Spectrum-Analysis in Connexion with the
Spectrum of the Sun. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
163, 1873,
p639-658. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/3705445864711085/?p=7ebcdcbd
06ee478f9a5a3c9bdb0a7b90π=18 {Lockyer_
Norman_2_1873.pdf} {1862}
7. ^ Alexander
Mitscherlich, "Beiträge zur
Spectral-Analyse", Annalen Der Physik,
Volume 192, Issue 7, p
499-507. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489887/issue In his PT
article Lockyer cites which I cannot
find: Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1862,
p. 175.

MORE INFO
[1] Norman Lockyer, "The
Chemistry of the Sun", Macmillan and
co.,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany5  		 
138 YBN
[07/19/1862 AD] 30 		3242) I think this debate about the
nature of temperature is interesting.
Is temperature only a measure of mass
density per unit space? or is it only
velocity of mass per unit space with no
regard to mass quantity? Or is
temperature dependent on both quantity
of mass and velocity of mass? It would
seem if higher density = higher
temperature, a solid would have a
higher temperature than a liquid or
gas, but perhaps the measuring device
does not intercept the moving particles
in a solid. In the center of a dense
object like the Sun, perhaps the
particles move less or not at all, so
is the temperature colder? Heat depends
to some extent on photons absorbed by
atoms, so does temperature relate to
velocity of photons absorbed or
quantity of photons absorbed or both or
neither? Is a volume of space with no
matter required for a temperature of
absolute 0 over that volume or can
photons or other matter be present?25

(I think that the lowering of
temperature may be from the simple fact
that the molecules are farther apart,
and therefore colliding less...perhaps
even distance between molecules/atoms
is temperature, I doubt that because
then dense solids would be hotter, etc.
It's less average velocity according to
Maxwell. Could be quantity of
collisions, but that is doubtful. But
clearly heating water for example,
involves more movement/collisions of
the molecules. I think the losing
energy because of overcoming a
gravitational? or some other attraction
theory is abstract, and needs to be
explained in terms of electron orbits
being closer, etc. 26 )
(the more photons
per volume the higher the temperature I
think, although it all depends on the
detection thermometer location – how
many photons are absorbed by the
mercury atoms. In addition temperature
is difficult to measure, and is
measured only in the space of the
mercury. How measured? If photons are
in a frequency reflected or not
absorbed by the mercury, they are not
included in measurement of temperature
– if all were absorbed, temperature
would be the equivalent measure of
number of absorbed photons-if all have
same velocity, and a measure of average
velocity of absorbed photons-if
different velocities27 )

I think the key to temperature (and
heat) is how temperature is measured.
For example, if measured by the size of
the volume occupied by mercury or some
other liquid, the mercury absorbing
free photons increases the temperature.
if measured by heat detectors in skin,
again the principle of how many free
photons are absorbed by molecules in
the detector are how heat is measured.
How are very low temperatures measured?
28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
3. ^ George Alfred
Goodenough, "Principles of
Thermodynamics", H. Holt and Company,
1911,
p275. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J9IEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA275&dq=%22joule-thomso
n+effect%22&as_brr=1#PPA275,M1
4. ^ "On the Thermal Effects of Fluids
in Motion. Part IV", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886),Volume 152,
(1862),pp579-589. http://journals.royal
society.org/content/m18p1268886t3773/ful
ltext.pdf {Joule_Thomson_06_19_1862.pdf
}
5. ^ James Prescott Joule, "Some
Remarks on Heat and the Constitution of
Elastic Fluids", Memoirs Manchester Lit
& Phil Soc vol ix p 107 Read Oct 3 1848
Also Phil Mag ser 4 vol xiv p 211.
From: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp290-297.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Cullen,
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8153>.
8. ^ Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric
Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis,
Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140.
9. ^ Essays and Observations, Physical
and Literary, vol 2, (Edinburgh, 1770).
10. ^
James Joule, "On the Changes of
Temperature produced by the Rarefaction
and Condensation of Air", Philosophical
Magazine, Series Series 3, May 1845.
contained in: James Prescott Joule,
William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp172-189.
http://books.google.com/books?id=UR5WA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Production+
of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22#PPA171
,M1
11. ^ "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>.
12. ^ Record ID3452. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Joule-Thomson effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule-Thoms
on_effect
14. ^ Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W.
(1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers'
Handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Co.. ISBN
0-07-049479-7.
15. ^ Bimalendu Narayan Roy (2002).
Fundamentals of Classical and
Statistical Thermodynamics. Wiley. ISBN
0-470-84313-6.
16. ^ Wayne C. Edmister and Byunk Ik
Lee (1984). Applied Hydrocarbon
Thermodynamics, 2nd edition (Volume 1),
Gulf Publishing. ISBN 0-87201-855-5.
17. ^
"Joule-Thomson effect." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4025>.
18. ^ James Prescott Joule, "Some
Remarks on Heat and the Constitution of
Elastic Fluids", Memoirs Manchester Lit
& Phil Soc vol ix p 107 Read Oct 3 1848
Also Phil Mag ser 4 vol xiv p 211.
From: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp290-297.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ James Prescott Joule, "Some
Remarks on Heat and the Constitution of
Elastic Fluids", Memoirs Manchester Lit
& Phil Soc vol ix p 107 Read Oct 3 1848
Also Phil Mag ser 4 vol xiv p 211.
From: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp290-297.
22. ^ James Prescott
Joule, "Some Remarks on Heat and the
Constitution of Elastic Fluids",
Memoirs Manchester Lit & Phil Soc vol
ix p 107 Read Oct 3 1848 Also Phil Mag
ser 4 vol xiv p 211. From: James
Prescott Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon
Playfair Playfair, William Thomson,
"The Scientific Papers of James
Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society,
1884, pp290-297.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
30. ^ James Prescott Joule, "Some
Remarks on Heat and the Constitution of
Elastic Fluids", Memoirs Manchester Lit
& Phil Soc vol ix p 107 Read Oct 3 1848
Also Phil Mag ser 4 vol xiv p 211.
From: James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884, pp290-297. (07/19/1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5] "Joule, Jame Prescott", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p469
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400
[8] "James Prescott
Joule." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[9] "Energy". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Energy
Salford, England29 (presumably-
verify) 
[1] Joule's experiment turning an
electromagnet in water between two
powerful permanent magnets to determine
current and temperature. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Produ
ction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22

[2] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg
138 YBN
[09/22/1862 AD] 5 6 		3287)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
2. ^ Léon Foucault, "Dètermination
Expérimentale de la Vitesse de la
Lumière" ("Experimental Determination
of the Speed of Light") Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp216-218. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
3. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
4. ^ Léon Foucault, "Dètermination
Expérimentale de la Vitesse de la
Lumière" ("Experimental Determination
of the Speed of Light") Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp216-218. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
(09/22/1862)
5. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault (09/1862)
(09/22/1862)
(09/1862)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405
[2] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[6] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[7] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[8] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[9] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[10] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[11] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[12]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[13]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[14] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[15]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=fr&tl=en
[16]
http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_txt

[17] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[18] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
[19] "gyroscope." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
[20] "gyroscope." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gyroscope
[21] Léon Foucault, "Dètermination
Expérimentale de la Vitesse de la
Lumière" ("Experimental Determination
of the Speed of Light") Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp219-226. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

[2] Illustration of the original
Foucault experiment from a 1851
newspaper. PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/paper.jpg
138 YBN
[11/04/1862 AD] 35 36 37 		3219) Philip Van Doren Stern writes
that "the definitive work on the
subject is 'The Machine Gun', a
four-volume work prepared for the (US27
) Navy Bureau of Ordnance by Lieutenant
Colonel George M. Chinn, lately of the
Marine Corps. (Volumes two and three of
this work are classified and not
available to the public)."28 29

A breech-loading weapon is a firearm (a
rifle, a gun etc.) in which the bullet
or shell is inserted or loaded at the
rear of the barrel, or breech; the
opposite of muzzle-loading. Modern mass
produced firearms are breech-loading
(though mortars are generally all
muzzle-loaded). Early firearms were
almost entirely muzzle-loading.30

The principle of a rapid fire gun is
simple, since the powder is in the
bullet casing, all that needs to be
automated is loading, igniting
(hammering) the powder, and unloading
the empty casing. It would seem faster
and less work to rotate the loading and
igniting unit instead of the barrels.
Parallellisation (of gun barrels)
speeds the firing process. Perhaps
multiple barrels could be loaded, fired
and cleared at the same time increasing
the quantity of projectiles. All moving
parts can be made automated
electronically.31 For example electric
motors now turn the barrels of modern
Gatling-style machine guns on
airplanes.32

In my opinion, some weapons such as
explosives and rapid fire guns need to
be carefully monitored and kept from
violent people. In particular those in
the United States who planned and
carried out 9/11, that did 7/7 in
England, the murderers of John and
Robert Kennedy, and any people involved
with the murder or assault of
nonviolent people should be not allowed
to use guns. Obviously, first those
people, the thousands involved in 9/11,
7/7, the Kennedy murders, Chandra Levy,
James Jay, Nicole Simpson and Ron
Goldman, Bonnie Bakley, JonBenet
Ramsey...all the laser
murderers...etc...the list is in the
thousands, who have not been punished
for their murders of nonviolent people,
need to have their crimes shown to the
public, and voted into prison first.33

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p396.
3. ^ "Richard
Jordan Gatling". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
4. ^ "Gatling gun." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6195>.
5. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel,
"The Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing
Company, New York, NY, 1965. {According
to
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.h
tm "The Gatling Gun" is the best and
possibly only definitive work that has
ever been written on the Gatling gun.}
6. ^
"Breech-loading weapon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech-load
ing_weapon
7. ^
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/richar
d-jordan-gatling-woi/
8. ^
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.h
tm
9. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel,
"The Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing
Company, New York, NY, 1965. {According
to
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.h
tm "The Gatling Gun" is the best and
possibly only definitive work that has
ever been written on the Gatling gun.}
10. ^
Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/richar
d-jordan-gatling-woi/
12. ^ "Gatling gun." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6195>.
13. ^ "camming." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
01 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
amming>.
14. ^
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/richar
d-jordan-gatling-woi/
15. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
16. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
17. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1957/6/1957_6_48.shtml
22. ^ "machine gun." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9742>.
23. ^ "Gatling gun." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6195>.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "machine gun."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9742>.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1957/6/1957_6_48.shtml
29. ^ George Morgan Chinn, "The machine
gun; history, evolution and development
of manual, automatic and airborne
repeating weapons. Prepared for the
Bureau of Ordnance, Dept. of the
Navy.", 1951
30. ^ "Breech-loading weapon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech-load
ing_weapon
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ "Gatling gun".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatling_gun

33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ "Richard Jordan
Gatling". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
35. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling (11/04/1862)
36. ^
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.h
tm (11/04/1862)
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396. (11/1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[3]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7J2rbUFy
J8 {modern Gatling guns on helicopters}
[4]
"Machine-Gun". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Machine-
Gun
Indianapolis, Indiana34
(presumably) 
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page

[2] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg
138 YBN
[12/04/1862 AD] 10 11 		3175)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ "Rutherfurd,
Lewis Morris." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
3. ^ B. A. Gould, "Memoir of Lewis
Morris Ruthurford 1816-1892",
(1895). http://books.nap.edu/html/biome
ms/lrutherfurd.pdf {Rutherfurd_Lewis_Mo
rris_Biography.pdf}
4. ^ "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ B. A. Gould,
"Memoir of Lewis Morris Ruthurford
1816-1892",
(1895). http://books.nap.edu/html/biome
ms/lrutherfurd.pdf {Rutherfurd_Lewis_Mo
rris_Biography.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Rutherfurd, Lewis
Morris." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
10. ^ B. A. Gould, "Memoir of Lewis
Morris Ruthurford 1816-1892",
(1895). http://books.nap.edu/html/biome
ms/lrutherfurd.pdf {Rutherfurd_Lewis_Mo
rris_Biography.pdf} (12/04/1862)
11. ^ "Rutherfurd,
Lewis Morris." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>. (1863)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lewis Morris Rutherfurd."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rutherfurd-
lewis-morris
[2] "Lewis Morris Rutherfurd".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Morri
s_Rutherfurd
[3] "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p601
[4] Lewis M Rutherfurd.
"Astronomical Observations with the
Sectroscope", American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879), New
Haven: May 1863, Vol. 35, Iss. 103;
pp71-78. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlin
k?index=2&did=338972901&SrchMode=1&sid=2
&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VNa
me=HNP&TS=1211851299&clientId=48051 {Ru
therfurd_1863_Spectroscope.pdf}
New York City, NY, USA9
(presumably) 
[1] [t Visible Spectra of sun, moon,
planets and stars black lines are
frequencies with no photons, notice sun
lines as reference for each] PD/Corel
source: Rutherfurd_1863_Spectroscope.pdf


[2] Scientist: Rutherford, Ernest
(1871 - 1937) Discipline(s): Physics
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.3 x 6.2 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R004-08a.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 14 		2861) Pure acetylene is a colorless gas
with a pleasant odour; as prepared from
calcium carbide it usually contains
traces of phosphine that cause an
unpleasant garliclike odor.10
Pure
acetylene under pressure in excess of
about 15 pounds per square inch or in
liquid or solid form explodes with
extreme violence.11

Edmund Davy (cousin and lab assistant
of Humprey Davy12 ) first made
acetylene in 1836 from a compound
produced during the manufacture of
potassium from potassium tartrate and
charcoal, which under certain
conditions yielded a black compound
decomposed by water with considerable
violence and the evolution of
acetylene. This compound was afterwards
fully investigated by J. J. Berzelius,
who showed it to be potassium carbide.
He also made the corresponding sodium
compound and showed that it evolved the
same gas, whilst in 1862 F. Wohler
first made calcium carbide, and found
that water decomposed it into lime and
acetylene. It was not, however, until
1892 that the almost simultaneous
discovery was made by T. L. Wilson in
America and H. Moissan in France that
if lime and carbon be fused together at
the temperature of the electric
furnace, the lime is reduced to
calcium, which unites with the excess
of carbon present to form calcium
carbide. The cheap production of this
material and the easy liberation by its
aid of acetylene at once gave the gas a
position of commercial importance.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
4. ^ "Calcium
carbide". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_car
bide
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "carbide8". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0238/carbide8
7. ^ "calcium carbide". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/calcium+carbide?c
at=technology
8. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
9. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
10. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
11. ^ "acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3510/acetylene
12. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir Humphry Davy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Hump
hry_Davy
13. ^ "Friedrich Wöhler". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
14. ^ "Friedrich Wöhler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler (1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wohler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
[2] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Acetylene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene
[5] "Acetylene". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Acetylen
e
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany13 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Calcium
Carbide after exposure to air. Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Date
2005-12-28 (original upload
date) Author Original uploader was
Rjb uk at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cac2.jpg

[2] Acetylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 4 		2884)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp345-346.
2. ^ "Julius
Plucker". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker
3. ^ "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker
4. ^ "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker (1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Plücker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C
3%BCcker
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Julius%20Pl%C3%BC
cker%20
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
188w pp88-106 Annalen der Physik
(Leipzig). 1799. 1858 (Bd. 179 = F. 2
/ Bd. 103)
[5]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?langpa
ir=deen
[6] The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
[7] "John Peter Gassiot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2π=5 Abstract of a Series
of Papers and Notes Concerning the
Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df
[9] "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Volume
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany3
 
[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plücker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. Plücker
published it in the Poggendorffs
annalen der Physik und Chemie
1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 4 		3037) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
publishes "The Various Contrivances by
which British and Foreign Orchids are
Fertilised by Insects" (1862) in which
Darwin shows that orchid's are not
"designed" by God but honed by
selection to attract insect
cross-pollinators; the petals guided
the bees to the nectaries, and pollen
sacs are deposited exactly where the
pollen can be removed by a stigma of
another flower.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1868) (1862)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
Downe, Kent, England3
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 17 18 		3146)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386.
2. ^ "Anders Jonas
Angstrom". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
3. ^ "Ångström, Anders Jonas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386.
9. ^ "Anders Jonas
Angstrom". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom (1862)
10. ^ Record ID2401.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ A. S.
Herschel, "On the Methods and Recent
Progress of Spectrum Analysis.",
Chemical News and Journal of Physics,
v4, 1869, p277.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vQUAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=bunsen+kir
chhoff+iron+sun+elements+copper&source=w
eb&ots=6fGfcnyWDI&sig=E5u8dxluMY8y0MLj5G
mYrxNLnnE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=8&ct=result#PPA277,M1
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ A. S. Herschel, "On the
Methods and Recent Progress of Spectrum
Analysis.", Chemical News and Journal
of Physics, v4, 1869, p277.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vQUAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=bunsen+kir
chhoff+iron+sun+elements+copper&source=w
eb&ots=6fGfcnyWDI&sig=E5u8dxluMY8y0MLj5G
mYrxNLnnE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=8&ct=result#PPA277,M1
16. ^ "Anders Jonas Ångstrom." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anders-jona
s-ngstrom
17. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom (1862)
18. ^ "Ångström, Anders
Jonas." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>. (1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Jonas Angström".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Jona
s_Angstr%C3%B6m
[2] "Ångström, Anders Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp22-23
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden16  
[1] From Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Angstrom_1869.pdf

[2] [t one of about 20 pages of solar
spectrum, with a compressed to 4 page
spectra of Aurora Borealis.] From
Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Recherches sur le spectre
solaire
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 10 		3165) Duchenne writes (translated from
French) "Frontispiece A to this text
volume illustrates the method of
electrization that I have used to
obtain an isolated contraction of the
facial muscles. The electrodes, held in
my right hand, communicate with my
inductior apparatus (this precise
apparatus, which I preferred for these
experiments, is better represented in
Plate 2b.) via some conducting wires
and are positioned to stimulate the
muscles of joy, (I, Plate 1 - muscles
on face). The expressive lines of joy
would have appeared on the face of the
subject if I had sent current through
my apparatus. But I must say that in
this case the laughter is natural! I
merely wanted to show a simulation of
one of my electrophysiological
experiments in this figure.
These
experiments were not as easy as one
might suppose from just looking at this
plate. They required a perfect
knowledge of the method, which I
invented, for limiting the electrical
excitation to each individual organ.
We
should recall the principles required
to perform electrization of the muscles
of the face to understand better the
electrophysiological photographs that
make up this Album:
(Electricity produced by
an induction apparatus is the only type
applicable to this kind of experiment;
I have called it faradism, and its use
faradization.)
1. The induction apparatus must be
adapted to these types of experiments.
The oscillations of its current must be
rapid and regular enough to avoid the
muscle trembling during contraction;
gradation of the current must be very
precise and adjusted to suit the
differing excitability of each of the
facial muscles.
2. The electrodes should be as
small as possible, so as not to obscure
the facial features. They are covered
with a damp material and placed on the
motor points. In the face, these motor
points are simplistically the points
under which the motor nerves enter the
facial muscles. We see them in Plate
2a, where the motor nerve fibers of the
facial muscles have been dissected with
the greatest care, and in which the
sensory nerves (from the Vth Nerve)
have been cut away.".6

Duchenne spends most of the book trying
to equate face muscle contractions with
emotions, however, I think the real
value of this work is in displaying
photographically the effects of
electricity on contracting muscles on a
human body. This work is so closely
related to the science of making
muscles move remotely, which has
developed into a massive secret
industry, the vast majority of research
being done secretly and still kept
secret to this very day.7

It is possible that facial expressions
were sexually selected or perhaps
increased the ability to survive.8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Guillaume Duchenne." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
2. ^ "Guillaume Duchenne." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 25
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison,
"An Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
Saunders, 1921,
pp690-692. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA690&dq=Guillaume+
Benjamin+Amand+Duchenne#PPA691,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Guillaume-Benjamin
Duchenne, edited and translated by R.
Andrew Cuthbertson, "The mechanism of
human facial expression", (Mécanisme
de la physionomie humaine, 1862),
1990. {duchenne_f001.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Duchenne,
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1344>.
10. ^ "Guillaume Duchenne." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 25
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guillaume-d
uchenne (1862)

MORE INFO
[1] A. W. Beveridge, and E. B.
Renvoize, "Electricity: A History of
its use in the Treatment of Mental
Illness in Britain During the Second
Half of the 19th Century", British
Journal of Psychiatry, 153, (1988),
pp157-162. http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/r
eprint/153/2/157.pdf {Electricity_Healt
h_157.pdf}
[2] "Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Guillaum
e_Benjamin_Amand_Duchenne
[3]
http://www.historiadelamedicina.org/duch
enne.htm
[4]
http://www.e-mergencia.com/html/historia
_ecg/
[5] H. S. J. Lee, H. Lee, "Dates in
Neurology", Informa Health Care,
2000. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dp_Hb0LvvXkC
[6]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?sl=fr&
tl=en
[7]
http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/67/
3/322
[8] Henry Lewis Jones, William Edward
Steavenson, "Medical Electricity: A
Practical Handbook for Students and
Practitioners", H. K. Lewis,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cAQ22qarfAcC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=remak+ele
ctricity&source=web&ots=4dD7qRqNhP&sig=9
8deF5qFnU4Q3tOI-P9EX_SpSVQ&hl=en#PPA4,M1

[9] Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne,
translated, edited and condensed by G.
V. Poore, "Selections from the Clinical
Works of Dr. Duchenne (de Boulogne),
The New Sydenham Society, London,
1883. {duchenne_s001.pdf}
Paris, France9  
[1] Duchenne de Boulogne (1806 -
1875) Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne and
assistant electrically stimulate the
face of a live subject in displaying an
expression. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Duchenne_de_Boulogne_
3.jpg

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 		3187)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp391-392.
2. ^ "Marignac,
Jean-Charles-Galinard de."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0924>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Jean Charles Galissard
de Marignac." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-charle
s-galissard-de-marignac
5. ^ "Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-charle
s-galissard-de-marignac (1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "index.php?title=Jean Charles
Galissard de
Marignac&oldid=209901679>.". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. "Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac." Wikipedia, The
Free Encyclopedia. 3 May 2008, 13:46
UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 27 May
2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac&old
id=209901679>
[2] "Jean Charles Galissard De
Marignac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Cha
rles_Galissard_De_Marignac
[3] "Marignac, Jean Charles Galissard
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p576
(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland4  
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 9 10 		3206)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Donders, Frans Cornelis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0909>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "pupil." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pupil
6. ^ "astigmatism." Encyclopedia of
Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/astigmatism

7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Donders, Franciscus
Cornelis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p259.
9. ^
"Donders, Frans Cornelis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0909>. (1862)
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395. (1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Cornelis
Donders". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Cornelis_Donders
[2] "ophthalmology." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
28 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
phthalmology>.
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands8  
[1] Scientist: Donders, Franciscus
Cornelis (1818 - 1889) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Alexander
Seitz (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.1 x 5.7 cm / Sheet: 10 x
6.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D4-14a.jpg

[2] Franciscus Cornelis
Donders PD/Corel
source: http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/s
ites/nnm.dossiers/contents/i002093/c.1.%
20donders.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 		3306)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406.
4. ^ "Alexandre-Emile
Béguyer de Chancourtois". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre-E
mile_B%C3%A9guyer_de_Chancourtois
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406. {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "periodic law." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0603>
[2] "Element". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
[3] "History of the periodic table".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_periodic_table
[4] "Béguyer de Chancourtois,
Alexandre-Émile", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p74.
(École Nationale Supérieure des Mines
de Paris) Paris, France4  
[1] Vis tellurique method of organizing
the Periodic table in 1862. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/05/Vis_tellurique_de_Chancour
tois.gif

[2] Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de
Chancourtois PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Alexandre-Emile_B%C3%
A9guyer_de_Chancourtois.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 13 		3310) Herbert Spencer (CE 1820-1903),
English sociologist, is an early
advocate of the theory of evolution1 ,
and popularizes the word "evolution"
and the phrase "survival of the
fittest".2

Thomas Malthus (CE 1766-1834) was the
first to put forward the view, in an
anonymous pamphlet in 1798, that
population is limited by food supply
and the theory that feeding poor people
only increases their suffering.3

In 1851 Spencer published "Social
Statics" (reissued in 1955), which
contains in embryo most of his later
views, including his argument in favor
of an extreme form of economic and
social laissez-faire (an economic
doctrine that opposes governmental
regulation of or interference in
commerce beyond the minimum necessary
for a free-enterprise system to operate
according to its own economic laws.4
).5

In this year Spencer starts publishing
"Synthetic Philosophy", a ten volume
work spread over many years, in which
all phenomena are to be interpreted
according to the principle of
evolutionary progress.6

Spencer enthusiastically elaborates on
Darwin's process of natural selection,
applying it to human society. Spencer
states "If they are sufficiently
complete to live, they do live, and it
is well they should live. If they are
not sufficiently complete to live, they
die, and it is best they should die.".
Social Darwinism, or Spencerism, is a
view of life which justifies opposition
to social reform on the basis that
reform interfered with the operation of
the natural law of survival of the
fittest.7

In 1884 Spencer argues that people who
are unemployable or burdens to society
should be allowed to die rather than be
made objects of help and charity. This
leads to a brutal form of
might-makes-right philosophy, where the
winner claims to be the fittest.
(Asimov says that this philosophy is
used in international relations and as
a glorification of war as a means of
weeding out the "unfit"). This view
justifies racist views where other
races or nations can be judged as
"unfit" (and dispensed with8 ). Spencer
throws a false claim of science over
brutal practices, and this tends to
discredit Darwinism among people who
feel kindness, pity and mercy to be
important values. Darwin has nothing to
do with the views of Spencer. (Asimov
states that evolution works over
millenia, where social evolution
happens over centuries.9 )10 (I think
this idea of insensitivity to poor
people suffering appeals generally to
wealthy people. Clearly evolution,
natural selection is happening to
humans, although perhaps people would
say that it is an unnatural selection
happening as the result of who has more
money, property, etc. The key idea is
that we should end involuntary
suffering, starvation, pain, etc for
all living objects as best as possible.
I think ultimately smart humans will
create a live that maximizes
intellectual and physical pleasure and
minimizes pain for the most if not all
species of Earth.11 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Spencer, Herbert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9066>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p407-408.
3. ^ Record ID2361.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "laissez-faire>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"laissez-faire." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. 20 Jun. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
aissez-faire>.
5. ^ "Spencer, Herbert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9066>.
6. ^ "Herbert Spencer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-spe
ncer
7. ^ "Herbert Spencer." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-spe
ncer
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p407-408.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Spencer, Herbert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9066>.
13. ^ "Spencer, Herbert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9066>. {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Spencer, Herbert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p824.
Brighton?, England12  
[1] Herbert Spencer c1880 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Spencer1.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 16 17 		3375)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lenoir, (Jean-Joseph-)
Étienne." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 8
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
762>.
2. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
4. ^ "Étienne
Lenoir." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>.
5. ^ Record ID3384. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Dugald Clerk,
"The Gas Engine", Scientific American
Supplement (Vol. 19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Étienne Lenoir."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
14. ^ William
Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A
Practical Treatise on the Internal
Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
15. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
16. ^ "Étienne Lenoir." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>. {1862}
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>
[2] "Étienne Lenoir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Lenoir
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
[4]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/engine.html
Paris14 , France15 (presumably) 
[1] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg

[2] Lenoir motor in the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 6 		3517) In 1877, Hoppe-Seyler founds and
edits the first journal dedicated to
biochemistry, "Zeitschrift für
Physiologische Chemie".2
Hoppe-Seyler's
student Miescher identifies the
nucleic acids.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438.
2. ^ "Ernst Felix
Hoppe-Seyler." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/271586/Ernst-Felix-Immanuel-Hoppe-Seyl
er>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438.
4. ^ "Hoppe-Seyler,
(Ernst) Felix (Immanuel)", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p437.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438. {1862}
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p332. {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hoppe-Seyler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoppe-Seyle
r
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany4  
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 		3521)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438.
2. ^ Fielding Hudson
Garrison, "An introduction to the
history of medicine", Saunders, 1921,
p610. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LOwAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT485&dq=lecithin+discov
ered&as_brr=1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Hoppe-Seyler, (Ernst)
Felix (Immanuel)", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p437.
5. ^
Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
introduction to the history of
medicine", Saunders, 1921,
p610. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LOwAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT485&dq=lecithin+discov
ered&as_brr=1 {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Felix Hoppe-Seyler."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/271586/Ernst-Felix-Immanuel-Hoppe-Seyl
er>.
[2] "Hoppe-Seyler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoppe-Seyle
r
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p332.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany4  
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 6 		3556)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
3. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
4. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
5. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1862}
6. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London By Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1 {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[4] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France4  
[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 4 		3559) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist,1 with
Péan de Saint Gilles, Berthellot
produces an equation for the reaction
velocity (1862). This is incorrect but
inspires Cato Guldberg and Peter Waage
to enunciate the law of mass action
(1864)2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ "Marcellin
Berthelot." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
3. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
4. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[4] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p90-91.
[5] M. Berthelot, edited by Dunod,
"Essai de mécanique chimique fondée
sur la thermochimie" Published by
Dunod,
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kbQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT1&dq=Essai+de+meca
nique+chimique+fondee+sur+la+thermochimi
e
(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France3  
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 4 		3574)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
2. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
3. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
4. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
[2] "Joseph Swan." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[4] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
Newcastle, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 		3664)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p456-457.
2. ^ "Charles
Friedel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-fri
edel
3. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
4. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
5. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedel, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
420>.
[2] J. H. GLADSTONE, "Professor Charles
Friedel" (obituary), Nature 60, 57 -
58 (18 May 1899), doi: 10.1038/060057a0
Ecole des Mines, Paris, France4
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist and mineralogist
Charles Friedel (1832-1899) Source:
http://www.impmc.jussieu.fr/impmc/Presen
tation/historique2.php PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Charles_Friedel.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 7 		3686) In 1858, Wundt becomes an
assistant to the physiologist Hermann
von Helmholtz.4

This new course comes following the
publication of his "Contributions to
the Theory of Sense Perception (1858
– 62)".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p459.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Wundt, Wilhelm", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p949.
5. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
6. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 22
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
7. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 22
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Wundt." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
[2] "Wilhelm Wundt." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
[3] "Wilhelm Wundt." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
[4] "Wilhelm Max Wundt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Max
_Wundt
[5] "Wilhelm Max Wundt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Max_Wundt
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany6  
[1] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Wundt.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Min
d/Images/39.GIF
137 YBN
[02/07/1863 AD] 13 		3760) In 1860, Newlands joins
Garibaldi's small army which invades
the Kingdom of Naples and joins it to
the Kingdom of Italy.9
Newlands
collected his various papers in On the
Discovery of the Periodic Law (1884).10

In 1887 Newlands is awarded the Davy
medal for the paper that 25 years
before he could not get published.11
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
2. ^ "Newlands, John
Alexander Reina." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
586>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p477.
5. ^ "John
Alexander Reina Newlands." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-alexan
der-reina-newlands
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
7. ^ John A. R.
Newlands, "On the Discovery of the
Periodic Law", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OysKESmPLNEC&pg=PR5&dq=On+the+Discovery+
of+the+Periodic+Law&lr=&ei=rzJaSdvjDpTUl
QTCxJzNBQ#PPR5,M1
8. ^ John A. R. Newlands, "On the
Discovery of the Periodic Law", E. & F.
N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OysKESmPLNEC&pg=PR5&dq=On+the+Discovery+
of+the+Periodic+Law&lr=&ei=rzJaSdvjDpTUl
QTCxJzNBQ#PPR5,M1
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
10. ^ "Newlands, John
Alexander Reina." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
586>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
12. ^ "Newlands, John
Alexander Reina", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p642.
13. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477. {02/07/1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Alexander Reina
Newlands." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-alexan
der-reina-newlands
[2] "John Alexander Reina Newlands".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Alexan
der_Reina_Newlands
[3] "John Alexander Reina Newlands".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Ale
xander_Reina_Newlands
(Royal Agricultural Society) London,
England12  
[1] Newlands' published table of 1864
in Chemical News PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=OysKESmPLNEC&pg=PR5&dq=On+the+Discovery
+of+the+Periodic+Law&lr=&ei=rzJaSdvjDpTU
lQTCxJzNBQ#PPA8,M1

[2] John Alexander Reina Newlands PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/John_Alexander_Reina_
Newlands.jpg
137 YBN
[02/18/1863 AD] 26 27 		3427) Huggins spends some time making
maps of the terrestrial elements before
moving to the stars, collaborating with
William Miller, professor of chemistry
at King's College, London.20
In 1856,
Huggins builds a private observatory at
Tulse Hill, London.21
After 1875
Huggins worked mainly in collaboration
with his wife, Margaret Lindsay Huggins
(CE 1848-1915)22 .23
Huggins is
president of the Royal Society from
1900 to 1905.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Huggins." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ "William
Huggins." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
4. ^ "Sir William Huggins".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
5. ^ Biographical Memoirs, By National
Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National
Academy of Sciences, 1895,
p81-140. http://books.google.com/books?
id=d3iph4B87oEC&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+Draper&
ei=55VYSZLJNZSokASEwJSuDw
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
8. ^ William
Huggins, William Allen Miller, "Note on
the Lines in the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
9. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
10. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "Note on the Lines in the
Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 12 -
1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ William Huggins,
William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
21. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
22. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
23. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
25. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
26. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "Note on the Lines in the
Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 12 -
1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
{02/18/1863}
27. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[6]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[7] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
(Tulse Hill)London, England25  
[1] ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
137 YBN
[05/22/1863 AD] 11 12 13 		3731) Wislicenus' father, a Lutheran
pastor7 , is ordered arrested in 1853
for unorthodox Bible studies, and the
family fleas to the USA.8
The old and
conservative Kolbe scorns Wislicenus'
support for Van't Hoff's 3D method.9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p334.
3. ^ J. Wislicenus,
"Studien zur Geschichte der Milchsaure
und ihrer Homologen", Ann. Chem. Pharm.
128 (1863), p. 1-67.
http://books.google.com/books?id=V4U8A
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0MmLVVIzWAwxz&lr=#PRA1-PA1,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ F. G. Riddell, M. J. T.
Robinson, J. H. van't Hoff and J. A. Le
Bel--their historical context,
Tetrahedron, Volume 30, Issue 13, 1974,
Pages 2001-2007, ISSN 0040-4020, DOI:
10.1016/S0040-4020(01)97330-2. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
THR-42HX73G-7V/2/26bf202915df8eb3b9f71e4
bea1f6268)
6. ^ "Johannes Wislicenus", Royal
Society (Great Britain), JSTOR
(Organization) (1907). Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Harrison
and Son.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8MwBAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PR8&dq=Wislicenus+chemistry
&lr=&as_brr=1#PRA1-PR3,M1. -
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
1907, volume 78, pages iii –
xii http://books.google.com/books?id=8M
wBAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PR8&dq=Wislicenus+chem
istry&lr=&as_brr=1#PRA1-PR3,M1
7. ^ "Johannes Wislicenus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-wi
slicenus
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p471.
10. ^ "Johannes
Wislicenus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Wislicenus
11. ^ J. Wislicenus, "Studien zur
Geschichte der Milchsaure und ihrer
Homologen", Ann. Chem. Pharm. 128
(1863), p. 1-67.
http://books.google.com/books?id=V4U8A
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0MmLVVIzWAwxz&lr=#PRA1-PA1,M1
{05/22/1863}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471. {1863}
13. ^ F. G.
Riddell, M. J. T. Robinson, J. H. van't
Hoff and J. A. Le Bel--their historical
context, Tetrahedron, Volume 30, Issue
13, 1974, Pages 2001-2007, ISSN
0040-4020, DOI:
10.1016/S0040-4020(01)97330-2. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
THR-42HX73G-7V/2/26bf202915df8eb3b9f71e4
bea1f6268) {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wislicenus, Johannes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
268>
[2] "Johannes Wislicenus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Wi
slicenus
[3] "Wislicenus, Johannes", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p944
[4] J. Wislicenus Ann. Chem.
Pharm. 166 (1873), p. 47
(Zurich University) Zurich,
Switzerland10  
[1] Description Picture of Johannes
Wislicenus, the chemist Source
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, A, volume 78, page iii Date
1907 Author P.F.F. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wislicenus_Johannes.j
pg
137 YBN
[11/05/1863 AD] 7 		3443)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ William Huggins,
"On the Spectra of Some of the Chemical
Elements", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p139-160. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/h71814n085106135/?p=7fbd1f7a
5554462cb581026a4b3db755π=0 {Huggins_S
pectra_elements_1863.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A. S. Herschel,
"On the Methods and Recent Progress of
Spectrum Analysis.", Chemical News and
Journal of Physics, v4, 1869, p277.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vQUAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=bunsen+kir
chhoff+iron+sun+elements+copper&source=w
eb&ots=6fGfcnyWDI&sig=E5u8dxluMY8y0MLj5G
mYrxNLnnE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=8&ct=result#PPA277,M1
6. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
7. ^ William Huggins, "On the Spectra
of Some of the Chemical Elements",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p139-160. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/h71814n085106135/?p=7fbd1f7a
5554462cb581026a4b3db755π=0 {Huggins_S
pectra_elements_1863.pdf} {11/05/1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[7]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[9] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[10]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[11] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[13] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[14] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[18] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
[19] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
[20] "Sir William Huggins".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins {1875}
[21] William Huggins, "On
the Photographic Spectra of Stars",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
171, 1880,
p669-690. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/903lv4817357g261/?p=0d247f6f
0ce04494a5dd9aaa65ae0186π=35 {Huggins_
Spectra_Stars_1880.pdf}
[22] William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins", p359-363
(Tulse Hill)London, England6  
[1] Spectra of Elements 1863 PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

[2] Spectrometer used [t Notice how
many prisms are used] PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 13 		2804) In 1865, after a major revision
of "the Principles of Geology" Lyell
fully adopts Darwin's conclusions and
adds powerful arguments of his own that
win new supporters to Darwin's theory.9


Darwin explains Lyell's hesitation in
accepting (the theory of natural
selection10 ) stating: "Considering his
age, his former views, and position in
society, I think his action has been
heroic.".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
3. ^ "Charles
Lyell". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Lyell+?ca
t=technology
4. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir Charles Lyell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Lyell
5. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp334-335.
7. ^ "Sir Charles
Lyell Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
8. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Sir Charles Lyell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Char
les_Lyell
9. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
12. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet
13. ^ "Sir Charles Lyell Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9503/Sir-Charles-Lyell-Baronet (1863)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Lyell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lye
ll
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ *
05:04, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
350x392 (23,102 bytes) (from meta;
Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here Date
Commons upload by Magnus Manske
14:47, 9 May 2006 (UTC) Author User
Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell.jpg

[2] Charles Lyell - Project Gutenberg
eText 16935 from The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch
Of His Life And Work, by P. Chalmers
Mitchell http://www.gutenberg.org/etext
/16935 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTe
xt_16935.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 10 11 12 		2869)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
5. ^ "edouard armand
isidore hippolyte lartet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
7. ^
http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/lstone_a.h
tml
8. ^ "edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy
9. ^ "Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
10. ^ "edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy (1863)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345. (1860) (1860)
12. ^
http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/lstone_a.h
tml (1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Édouard Lartet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d_Lartet
[2] "Edouard Lartet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edouard_
Lartet
[3] http://www.answers.com/Dryopithecus
(In a cave ) La Madelaine, Perigord7 ,
France8 9  
[1] the most remarkable of them all,
the celebrated La Madeleine carving. It
is engraved upon mammoth ivory and was
discovered in 1864 in the cave of La
Madeleine, Perigord, France, by M.
Louis Lartet. It was broken into five
fragments, and like the carving on the
Lenape Stone, which it singularly
resembles in general position, and in
the indecisive drawing of the back and
tail, unmistakably represents the
mammoth. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ls
tone_a.html

[2] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 12 		3016)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
2. ^ "UF6".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UF6
3. ^ "uranium hexafluoride."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 28
Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uranium-hex
afluoride
4. ^
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
6. ^
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Graham, Thomas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>.
10. ^
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
11. ^ "Thomas Graham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
12. ^
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restri
cted/2005/September/President.asp
(1863)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Grah
am_%28chemist%29
[2] "Thomas Graham". A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-grah
am
[3]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html
[4] "Thomas Graham", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp368-369.
(Mint) London, England11  
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 4 		3212)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395.
2. ^
http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/
timelines/mars_1700-1959.html (1858)
3. ^
"Secchi, (Pietro) Angelo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p793.
4. ^
http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/
timelines/mars_1700-1959.html (1858)
(1863)

MORE INFO
[1] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6512>
[2] "Angelo Secchi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
[3] "Angelo Secchi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm
[5]
http://chapters.marssociety.org/toronto/
Education/TL1700.shtml (1858)
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy3  
[1] Pietro Angelo Secchi (1818-1878),
Italian astronomer. Scientist:
Secchi, Angelo (1818 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 6.5 x 4.7 cm / Sheet: 10.5 x
6.5 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Angelo_Secchi.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 7 		3314) John Tyndall (CE 1820-1893),
Irish physicist1 publishes "Heat as a
Mode of Motion" which explains the
theory of heat as molecular vibration
according to the new development of
Maxwell.2 3 This book goes through
many editions.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
3. ^ John
Tyndall, "Heat a Mode of Motion", D.
Appleton and Company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3DUJAAAAIAAJ&dq=John+Tyndall&as_brr=1
4. ^ "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
5. ^ "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
6. ^ "Tyndall, John", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp891-892.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyndall, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>
[2] "Tyndall, John." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[3] "Tyndall, John." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[4] "John Tyndall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndal
l
[5] John Tyndale, "Faraday as a
Discoverer", D. Appleton,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wskKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=John
+Tyndall&as_brr=1
(Royal Institution) London, England5 6
 
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 22 		3351) Alexander Ellis translates this
book into English.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
11. ^ "Hermann von
Helmholtz" (Obituary). Royal Society
(Great Britain). (1894). Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
12. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413.
17. ^ "Helmholtz,
Hermann Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p408-410.
18. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410. {1862}
19. ^ "Hermann von
Helmholtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz {1863}
20. ^ "Hermann von
Helmholtz" (Obituary). Royal Society
(Great Britain). (1894). Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1 {1863}
21. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[6] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[7]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[8] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[9] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[10] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
[11] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[12] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[13] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA153,M1
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany21  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 15 16 		3396) Galton is a child prodigy.6
Galton
is first cousin to Darwin.7
The death
of Galton's father in 1844 leaves
Galton with a wealthy independence, and
he abandons his studying to be a
physician, to travel in Syria, Egypt,
and South-West Africa.8

Galton tests the efficacy of prayer by
statistical methods.9 (This would be
interesting if Galton finds that it
makes no difference, which is what I
would expect, although with the
thought-cam net, many humans try to
make prayers they hear in thought come
(or cam) true.10 ) (chronology11 )
Galton
wrote 9 books and some 200 papers on a
wide variety of topics.12
Under the
terms of Galton's will, a eugenics
chair is established at the University
of London.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
2. ^ "Francis
Galton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
4. ^ "Francis
Galton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
5. ^ "anticyclone." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nticyclone>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
8. ^ "Francis
Galton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Sir Francis Galton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 07
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/224628/Sir-Francis-Galton>.
13. ^ "Sir Francis Galton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 07
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/224628/Sir-Francis-Galton>.
14. ^ "Francis Galton." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417. {1863}
16. ^
"Francis Galton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Galton." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[2] "Francis Galton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gal
ton
[3] "Sir Francis Galton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fran
cis_Galton
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[5] "Galton, Francis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p273
London, England14 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 12 		3406)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420.
2. ^ (Obituary)
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Royal Society (Great Britain),
JSTOR (Organization), Taylor and
Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
(Obituary) Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization), Taylor
and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Rudolf
Leuckart." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/337674/Rudolf-Leuckart>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420.
11. ^ (Obituary)
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Royal Society (Great Britain),
JSTOR (Organization), Taylor and
Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
12. ^ (Obituary) Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
Taylor and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1 {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leuckart-ka
rl-georg-friedrich-rudolf
[2] "Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Georg_
Friedrich_Rudolf_Leuckart
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[4] "Leuckart, Karl Georg Friedrich
Rudolf", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p424
[5]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=de&tl=en
[6] (Obituary) Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization), Taylor
and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1 {1848}
(University of Giesen) Giesen,
Germany11 (presumably) 
[1] Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Leuckart_Rudolph_1822
-1898.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 11 		3414)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p334.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
9. ^ Record ID2302.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
11. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p334. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[6]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France10  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 11 12 		3487)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "indium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/286240/indium>.
2. ^ "indium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 26
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/indium
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p338,434.
4. ^ "Indium".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium
5. ^ "Indium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p338,434.
7. ^ "Indium".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "indium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/indium
10. ^ "Bergakademie Freiberg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergakademi
e_Freiberg
11. ^ "indium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/286240/indium>. {1863}
12. ^ "indium." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/indium
{1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "indium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2325/indium
[2] "Ferdinand Reich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_R
eich
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Ferdinand+Reich+?
cat=technology
[4]
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev/objev.htm (has portraits for
each element)
[5]
http://www.answers.com/precipitate
[6]
http://www.answers.com/indium?cat=health

[7]
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev/rei.htm
[8]
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/in.html
[9] "Indium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium
(1867)
(Freiberg University) Freiberg, Saxony,
Germany10  
[1] Ferdinand Reich
(1799-1882) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm

[2] Hieronymus Theodor Richter
(1824-1898) PD/Corel
source: same
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 8 9 		3537)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439.
2. ^ Agnes Mary
Clerke, A Popular History of Astronomy
During the Nineteenth Century, A. and
C. Black, 1902,
p146. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lvARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=%22Richard+Chri
stopher+Carrington%22&as_brr=1#PPA146,M1

3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p439.
4. ^ Agnes Mary
Clerke, A Popular History of Astronomy
During the Nineteenth Century, A. and
C. Black, 1902,
p146. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lvARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=%22Richard+Chri
stopher+Carrington%22&as_brr=1#PPA146,M1

5. ^ The American Journal of Science
and Arts, S. Converse, 1864,
p142-143. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P3MUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=%
22observations+on+the+spots%22&source=we
b&ots=MTn39EPbJF&sig=lAck4cl68yrdBMdKDwp
YkNJiFOo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnu
m=1&ct=result#PPA142,M1
6. ^ Agnes Mary Clerke, A Popular
History of Astronomy During the
Nineteenth Century, A. and C. Black,
1902,
p146. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lvARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=%22Richard+Chri
stopher+Carrington%22&as_brr=1#PPA146,M1

7. ^ "Carrington, Richard Christopher",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p169.
8. ^ George
Forbes, History of Astronomy, Plain
Label Books, 1921,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hcLXcpUDqPgC&pg=PA116&lpg=PA116&dq=%22ob
servations+at+redhill%22&source=web&ots=
OX3nMUR7GU&sig=CMWq-DowNZzfTfRBmCfuFT27b
P8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result#PPA125,M1 {1863}
9. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p330. {1859}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Christopher
Carrington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
04 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/97050/Richard-Christopher-Carrington>.

[2] "Richard Christopher Carrington".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Chr
istopher_Carrington
[3] "Richard Christopher Carrington".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Christopher_Carrington
[4]
http://www.solarstorms.org/SCarrington.h
tml
(Redhill Observatory) Surrey, England7
 		 
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 4 		3563)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ "Marcellin
Berthelot" (obituary), Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London By Royal
Society (Great Britain), JSTOR
(Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
3. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
4. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1 {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[4] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
[5]
"Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin Berthelot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France3  
[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 5 		3587) Marey writes more than 300
articles and seven books.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450.
2. ^
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/about/exhibit
ion/curatorscorner.html
3. ^ "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
4. ^ "Marey, Étienne-Jules", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p575.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne-Jules Marey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364535/Etienne-Jules-Marey>
[2] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2002.
Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] diagram Labeled diagram of a
sphygmograph as described below from
Handbook of the Sphygmograph: Being a
Guide to its Use in Clinical Research
by J. Burdon Sanderson, M.D.
F.R.S. PD/Corel
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/about
/exhibition/images/diagramT.jpg

[2] Étienne-Jules Marey around
1850.[wiki] [t He looks more like 40
here which would be 1870] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Marey.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 4 		3665)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p456-457.
2. ^ "Charles
Friedel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
3. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
4. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedel, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
420>.
[2] "Charles Friedel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-fri
edel
[3] J. H. GLADSTONE, "Professor Charles
Friedel" (obituary), Nature 60, 57 -
58 (18 May 1899), doi: 10.1038/060057a0
Ecole des Mines, Paris, France3
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist and mineralogist
Charles Friedel (1832-1899) Source:
http://www.impmc.jussieu.fr/impmc/Presen
tation/historique2.php PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Charles_Friedel.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 14 		3693) The father of Alfred, Immanuel
Nobel had failed at various business
ventures until moving to St. Petersburg
in 1837, where he succeeds as a
manufacturer of explosive mines and
machine tools. Alfred's newly
prosperous parents send him to private
tutors and Alfred is a competent
chemist by age 16 and fluent in
English, French, German, and Russian,
in addition to Swedish.5
Nobel's father
invents a submarine mine, which the
Russian government buys in 1842.6
While
visiting the USA, Nobel sees the value
of explosives in developing the
undeveloped USA.7
In 1862, Alfred Nobel
builds a small factory to manufacture
nitroglycerin, and at the same time
begins research in the hope of finding
a safe way to control nitroglycerin's
detonation.8

In 1864 Nobel's nitroglycerine
producing factory blows up in killing
his brother. The Swedish government
refuses to let Nobel rebuild his
factory.9 Nobel is undaunted and goes
on to build several factories to
manufacture nitroglycerin for use with
his blasting caps.10 Nobel hires a
barge anchored in the middle of Lake
Mälaren to continue 11

Nobel will obtained a total of 355
patents.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
2. ^ "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
3. ^ Record ID3224. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Henry De
Mosenthal, "The Life-Work of Alfred
Nobel", Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, v. 18 (Jan.-June
1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
5. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
8. ^ "Nobel,
Alfred Bernhard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
10. ^ "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
11. ^ Henry De Mosenthal, "The
Life-Work of Alfred Nobel", Journal of
the Society of Chemical Industry, v. 18
(Jan.-June 1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
12. ^
http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/alfred-
nobel/
13. ^
http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/alfred-
nobel/
14. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[2] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[3] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[4] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bern
hard_Nobel
[5] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel
[6] "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650
Paris, France13 (guess) 
[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

[2] Scientist: Nobel, Alfred Bernhard
(1833 - 1896) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 11.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-N001-23a.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 14 		3734) Baeyer proposed a "strain"
(Spannung) theory that helped explain
why carbon rings of five or six atoms
are so much more common than carbon
rings with other numbers of atoms.6
(chronology7 )
In 1875, Baeyer succeeds
Justus von Liebig as chemistry
professor at the University of Munich,
where he sets up an important chemical
laboratory in which many young chemists
of future prominence are trained.8
In
1881 the Royal Society of London awards
Baeyer the Davy Medal for his work with
indigo.9

In 1905 Baeyer wins the Nobel prize in
chemistry for his work in synthetic
carbon-based chemistry, and for his
synthesis of indigo.10

To celebrate his seventieth birthday
Baeyer's scientific papers are
collected and published in two volumes
(Gesammelte Werke, Brunswick, 1905).11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472.
2. ^ "Baeyer, Adolf
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
724>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472.
6. ^ "Baeyer, Adolf
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
724>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Baeyer, Adolf von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
724>.
9. ^ "Baeyer, Adolf von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
724>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472.
11. ^ "Johann
Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf Von Baeyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_F
riedrich_Wilhelm_Adolf_Von_Baeyer
12. ^ "Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf
Von Baeyer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_F
riedrich_Wilhelm_Adolf_Von_Baeyer
13. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1905/baeyer-bio.html
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolf von Baeyer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-von-b
aeyer
[2] "Adolf von Baeyer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-von-b
aeyer
[3] "Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von
Baeyer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Frie
drich_Wilhelm_Adolf_von_Baeyer
[4] "Baeyer, Adolf Johann Friedrich
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p51-52.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany12 13 (presumably) 
[1] Description Adolf von Baeyer's
Nobel prize photo Source Les Prix
Nobel, 1905[1][2] Date 1905 Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Adolf_von_Baeyer_%28N
obel_1905%29.jpg

[2] Baeyer, 1905 Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13250&rendTypeId=4
136 YBN
[02/23/1864 AD] 9 		3466) It is interesting that the
spectra reflected off atoms and
molecules is also characteristic of
them, for example the color in the
visible spectrum is different and
unique for many objects. In addition,
is there spectra for electron and
positron collisions? for proton and
antiproton collisions? What do those
spectra look like?7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp345-346.
2. ^ Henry Crew, The
Rise of Modern Physics, William and
Wilkins Company, 1935, p350.
3. ^ "On the
Spectra of Ignited Gases and Vapours,
with Especial Regard to the Different
Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous
Substance", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
4. ^ "On the Spectra of Ignited Gases
and Vapours, with Especial Regard to
the Different Spectra of the Same
Elementary Gaseous Substance",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "On the Spectra of
Ignited Gases and Vapours, with
Especial Regard to the Different
Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous
Substance", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "On the Spectra of
Ignited Gases and Vapours, with
Especial Regard to the Different
Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous
Substance", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
9. ^ "On the Spectra of Ignited Gases
and Vapours, with Especial Regard to
the Different Spectra of the Same
Elementary Gaseous Substance",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
{02/23/1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Plücker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C
3%BCcker
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Julius%20Pl%C3%BC
cker%20
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
188w pp88-106 Annalen der Physik
(Leipzig). 1799. 1858 (Bd. 179 = F. 2
/ Bd. 103)
[5]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?langpa
ir=deen
[6] The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
[7] "John Peter Gassiot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2π=5 Abstract of a Series
of Papers and Notes Concerning the
Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df
[9] "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Volume
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
[10] "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker (1862)
(University of Bonn) Bonn (and
Münster), Germany8  
[1] Nitrogen first order spectrum PD
source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf

[2] Nitrogen second order spectrum PD

source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf
136 YBN
[02/??/1864 AD] 11 		3742)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Alexander Mitcherlich,
Annalen Der Physik, No. 3, 1864,
translated by Dr. E. Atkinson: "On the
Spectra of Compounds and of Simple
Substances.", Philosophical Magazine,
September 1864,
p169-189 http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:magazine+date:1864-1864
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=iDFYScnO
F4_2lATkntjSCA#PRA2-PA169,M1
3. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches in
Spectrum-Analysis in Connexion with the
Spectrum of the Sun. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
163, 1873,
p639-658. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/3705445864711085/?p=7ebcdcbd
06ee478f9a5a3c9bdb0a7b90π=18 {Lockyer_
Norman_2_1873.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Mitcherlich, Annalen Der
Physik, No. 3, 1864, translated by Dr.
E. Atkinson: "On the Spectra of
Compounds and of Simple Substances.",
Philosophical Magazine, September 1864,
p169-189 http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:magazine+date:1864-1864
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=iDFYScnO
F4_2lATkntjSCA#PRA2-PA169,M1
5. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co.,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
6. ^ Alexander Mitcherlich, Annalen Der
Physik, No. 3, 1864, translated by Dr.
E. Atkinson: "On the Spectra of
Compounds and of Simple Substances.",
Philosophical Magazine, September 1864,
p169-189 http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:magazine+date:1864-1864
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=iDFYScnO
F4_2lATkntjSCA#PRA2-PA169,M1
7. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches in
Spectrum-Analysis in Connexion with the
Spectrum of the Sun. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
163, 1873,
p639-658. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/3705445864711085/?p=7ebcdcbd
06ee478f9a5a3c9bdb0a7b90π=18 {Lockyer_
Norman_2_1873.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Alexander
Mitcherlich, Annalen Der Physik, No. 3,
1864, translated by Dr. E. Atkinson:
"On the Spectra of Compounds and of
Simple Substances.", Philosophical
Magazine, September 1864,
p169-189 http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:magazine+date:1864-1864
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=iDFYScnO
F4_2lATkntjSCA#PRA2-PA169,M1
11. ^ Alexander Mitcherlich, Annalen
Der Physik, No. 3, 1864, translated by
Dr. E. Atkinson: "On the Spectra of
Compounds and of Simple Substances.",
Philosophical Magazine, September 1864,
p169-189 http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:magazine+date:1864-1864
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=iDFYScnO
F4_2lATkntjSCA#PRA2-PA169,M1
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany10  		 
136 YBN
[03/11/1864 AD] 22 		3691) Guldberg and his brother-in-law
Waage, publish these theories in a
pamphlet on this day, 03/11/1864.17
Wa
age is deeply involved in the
temperance (prohibition of alcohol18 )
movement.19
Guldberg is the
brother-in-law of Waage.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461,474.
2. ^ "mass action,
law of." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
286>.
3. ^ "Cato Maximilian Guldberg." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cato-maximi
lian-guldberg
4. ^ Waage, P.; C. M. Guldberg (1864),
tr. 1964. "Studies Concerning Affinity"
t actual title?. ^. Forhandlinger:
Videnskabs - Selskabet i Christinia:
35. English translation: P. Waage, C.
M. Guldberg, tr: Henry I. Abrash,
"Studies Concerning Affinity", 1864,
tr. 1964, Journal of Chemical Education
63: p1044 – 1047.
{Waage_Guldberg_JCE1986p1044_1864.pdf}

5. ^ "Chemical action". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chemical
_action
6. ^ "mass action, law of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
286>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Waage, P.; C. M. Guldberg
(1864), tr. 1964. "Studies Concerning
Affinity" t actual title?. ^.
Forhandlinger: Videnskabs - Selskabet i
Christinia: 35. English
translation: P. Waage, C. M. Guldberg,
tr: Henry I. Abrash, "Studies
Concerning Affinity", 1864, tr. 1964,
Journal of Chemical Education 63: p1044
– 1047.
{Waage_Guldberg_JCE1986p1044_1864.pdf}

9. ^ "Gulberg, Cato Maximilian",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p378.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461,474.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Cato Maximilian
Guldberg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cato-maximi
lian-guldberg
15. ^ "Gulberg, Cato Maximilian",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p378.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461,474.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461,474.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p461,474.
21. ^ Waage, P.;
C. M. Guldberg (1864), tr. 1964.
"Studies Concerning Affinity" t actual
title?. ^. Forhandlinger: Videnskabs -
Selskabet i Christinia: 35. English
translation: P. Waage, C. M. Guldberg,
tr: Henry I. Abrash, "Studies
Concerning Affinity", 1864, tr. 1964,
Journal of Chemical Education 63: p1044
– 1047.
{Waage_Guldberg_JCE1986p1044_1864.pdf}

22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461,474.
{03/11/1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Waage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Waage

[2] "Waage, Peter", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p917.
(Academy of Sciences) Cristiania (now
Oslo), Norway21  
[1] Photo of Guldberg and Waage from
the 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/91/Guldberg_Waage.jpg
136 YBN
[08/05/1864 AD] 12 		3178)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
2. ^ "Donati,
Giovanni Battista." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0903>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ G. B. Donati, Annali
dell'Istituto e Museo di Storia della
Scienza di Firenze per il 1865, Firenze
(I think this is the comet spectra
paper)
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
7. ^ "Donati,
Giovanni Battista." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0903>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Giovanni Battista
Donati." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-ba
ttista-donati
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
11. ^ Royal
Astronomical Society, "Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society",
Blackwell Scientific Publications,
1863, pp100-107. (translated to
English from Giovan Battista Donati,
"Memorie Astronomiche", Annals of the
Museum at Florence, 1860)
http://books.google.com/books?id=1AsAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Donati+Flo
rence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=P-e2Qh
Lbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFocn0&hl=
en#PPA103,M1
12. ^ "Donati, Giovanni Battista."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0903>. (08/05/1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Donati, Giovan Battista",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p209.
[2] "Giovanni
Battista Donati". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Donati
[3] "Giovanni Battista Donati".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Battista_Donati
[4]
http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIt740303/
PDF/2003MmSAI..74..556R.pdf
Florence, Italy11  
[1] [t Donati's stellar spectra. These
are difficult to read because Donati
give accompanying references for alpha,
beta, etc for example Sirius alpha is
the Sun's F line - 15'' of arc, where
Vega's alpha is the Sun's F line + 40''
of arc.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1AsAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Dona
ti+Florence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=
P-e2QhLbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFoc
n0&hl=en#PPA103,M1

[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg
136 YBN
[09/08/1864 AD] 16 17 		3428)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ William Huggins, William
Allen Miller, "On the Spectra of Some
of the Nebulae. By William Huggins,
F.R.A.S. A Supplement to the Paper 'On
the Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars
William Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A.
Miller, M.D., LL.D., Treas. and
V.P.P.S."', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
8. ^ Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
16. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf} {09/08/1864}
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427. {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
(Tulse Hill)London, England15  
[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg

[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g
136 YBN
[10/27/1864 AD] 24 		3657)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ James Clerk
Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field", Royal Society
Transactions, Vol. 155, 1865, p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_Ja
mes_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1
864.pdf} also in James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
3. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_Ja
mes_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1
864.pdf} also in James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A. F. Chalmers, "The
Limitations of Maxwell's
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 64,
No. 4 (Dec., 1973), pp. 469-483.
{Maxwell_Limits_Electromagnetic_ISIS_1
973.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A
Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic
Field", Royal Society Transactions,
Vol. 155, 1865, p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_Ja
mes_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1
864.pdf} also in James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Alfred Bork, "Maxwell,
Displacement Current, and Symmetry",
American Journal of Physics, November
1963 http://scitation.aip.org/dbt/dbt.j
sp?KEY=AJPIAS&Volume=31&Issue=11 Volume
31, Issue 11, pp. 819-895, 1963,
p854-859.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Alfred Bork,
"Maxwell, Displacement Current, and
Symmetry", American Journal of Physics,
November
1963 http://scitation.aip.org/dbt/dbt.j
sp?KEY=AJPIAS&Volume=31&Issue=11 Volume
31, Issue 11, pp. 819-895, 1963,
p854-859.
16. ^ "divergence." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 20 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/divergence
17. ^ "Div". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Div
18. ^ "curl." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 09 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/curl
19. ^ "Curl (mathematics)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curl_(mathe
matics)
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
24. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_Ja
mes_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1
864.pdf} also in James Clerk
Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I {10/27/1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[6]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
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http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
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[11] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
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[14] C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
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Professional Photographer, F.V.
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[17] J. C. Maxwell, "On the Theory of
Colours in relation to
Colour-Blindness", A Letter to Dr. G.
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[18] J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on
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[19] Richard C. Dougal, Clive A.
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00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=2d0
a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
Helmholtz, Translation (On the theory
of compound colours), Philos Mag 4
(1852) (4), pp.
519–534. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=gVQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:Magazine+date:1852-18
52&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=Cu_vSO24CJqktAOL99Fy#
PPA519,M1
[22] "color." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 13 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/color
[23] "Tetrachromacy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachroma
cy
[24] Robinson, J., Schmitt, E.A.,
Harosi, F.I., Reece, R.J., Dowling,
J.E. 1993. Zebrafish ultraviolet visual
pigment: absorption spectrum, sequence,
and localization. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. U.S.A. 90, 6009–6012
[25] J. Challis, "On
Theories of Magnetism and other Forces,
in reply to Remakrs by Professor
Maxwell.", Philosophical Magazine, vol
21, 1861,
p250-254. http://books.google.com/books
?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_
brr=1#PPA250,M1
[26] "dielectric." Dictionary.com
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16 Oct. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
ielectric>
[27] "elasticity." Dictionary.com
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16 Oct. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
lasticity>
[28] Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p54
[29] J. C. Maxwell,
"On Physical Lines of Force",
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1
and 2 ),1861
http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA
161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as
_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3
and 4 ) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQ
OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
s+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6Q31SPv2BZjMMP
zvnd4I#PPA12,M1 http://books.google.com
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Physical+Lines+of+Force%22&as_brr=1&ei=6
Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also
in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
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Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
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[30] "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
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[31] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910.
http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+history
+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electrici
ty&ei=drw5SajbLoKGkASt0fDJBw
[32] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910,
p284-285. http://books.google.com/books
?id=CGJDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA2
74,M1
[33] Electrodynamische
Maassbestimmungen. Leipzic Trans. vol.
i. 1849, and Taylor's Scientific
Memoirs, vol. v. art. xiv
[34] "Explicare
tentatur quomodo fiat ut lucis planum
polarizationis per vires electricas vel
magneticas declinatur" — Halis
Saxonum, 1858
[35] "On the Possible Density
of the Luminiferous Medium, and on the
Mechanical Value of a Cubic Mile of
Sunlight", Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh (1854), p.57
[36]
Experimental Researches, Series 19
[37]
Comptes Rendus (1856, second half year,
p. 529, and 1857, first half year,
p.1209)
[38] Faraday, Exp. Res. Series XI.;
Mossotti, Mem. della Soc. Italiana
(Modena), vol. XXIV. part II. p. 49
[39]
As, for instance, the composition of
glue, treacle, etc., of which small
plastic figures are made, which after
being distorted gradually recover their
shape
[40] James Clerk Maxwell, "A treatise
on electricity and magnetism.", 2 vol.,
1st ed, Oxford, 1881, p27. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=92QSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gmQSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd
edition, 1881: vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=FjwXAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&as_brr=1 vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=e_UEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1
[41] "Maxwell's equations". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s
_equations
[42] (original footnote:) Leipzig
Transactions, Vol. v. (1857), p. 260,
or Poggendorff's Annalen, Aug. 1856, p.
10
[43] (original footnote:) Comptes
Rendus, Vol. XXIX. (1849), p. 90
[44]
(original footnote:) Ibid. Vol. LV.
(1862), pp. 501, 792
[45] (original
footnote:) Philosophical Magazine, 1852
[46]
(original footnote:) Transactions of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1854
("Mechanical Energies of the Solar
System")
[47] (original footnote:) The
horizontal magnetic force at Kew is
about 1.76 in metrical units
[48] Maxwell,
article "Ether" for the Encyclopedia
Britannica (9th ed., Vol. 8, 1878);
Scientific Papers, Vol. 2, p. 772
[49]
"light." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
04 Nov. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/340440/light>
[50] Cyril Domb, "Book Review: The
Scientific Letters and Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", Journal of Statistical
Physics, Vol. 67, Nos. 3/4, 1992,
p.837. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/m2735011t646864x/fulltext.pdf
[51] James C. Maxwell, "On a method of
making a direct comparison of
electrostatic with electromagnetic
force; with a note on the
electromagnetic theory of light.",
Phil. Trans 158, 1868, pp643-658; Royal
Soc. Proc. 16, 1868, pp449-450; Phil.
Mag 36, 1868, pp. 316-317; Brit. Assoc.
Rep. 39, 1869, pp436-438. Scientific
Papers Vol. 2. pp 125-143
[52] James Clerk
Maxwell, "A treatise on electricity and
magnetism.", 2 vol., 1st ed, Oxford,
1881. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=92QSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gmQSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd
edition, 1881: vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=FjwXAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&as_brr=1 vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=e_UEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1
[53] P. M. Heimann, "Maxwell, Hertz,
and the Nature of Electricity", Isis,
v62, 1971, p149-157
[54] Duhem, Les theories
electriques, p. 223
[55] "The Mechanical
Universe" (Video), Episode 39
"Maxwell's Equations", California
Institute of Technology and Intelecom,
1985,
10:00. http://www.learner.org/resources
/series42.html also: http://video.goog
le.com/videoplay?docid=16912224714497340
99&ei=TZw4SYTMAoTyqAPn8fDKCA&q=james+cle
rk+maxwell&hl=en
[56] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p279-281
[57] Henry Crew, "The
Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and
Wilkens, Second Edition, 1935, p271
[58]
Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, First
Edition, 1928, p147-148
[59] Herbert Dingle,
"Science At The Crossroads", 1972,
p130-133
[60] Augusto Righi, tr: Augustus
Trowbridge, "Modern Theory of Physical
Phenomena", 1909, p12.
(King's College) London, England23
 
[1] [t Maxwell's 20 variables and 20
equations] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
vol1, p526-597.

[2] [t For brevity Maxwell uses J and
the ''divergence operator''] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
vol1, p526-597.
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 5 		2752) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, 1 publishes an
autobiography2 "Passages from the Life
of a Philosopher" (1864,London:
Longman).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp323-324.
2. ^ "Charles
Babbage". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Babbage?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
4. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
5. ^ "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage (1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Cambridge, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 7 		2994)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toeple
r.html
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toeple
r.html
3. ^ "schlieren photography."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/schlieren-p
hotography
4. ^ "schlieren photography." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/schlieren-p
hotography
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toeple
r.html
6. ^ "Riga". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3669/Riga
7. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toeple
r.html (1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Schlieren photography".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieren_p
hotography
(Polytechnic Institute of Riga) Riga5 ,
Latvia6 (presumably) 
[1] [t This is cool because this shows
different densities of air] Schlieren
photography (from the German word for
''streaks'') allows the visualization
of density changes, and therefore shock
waves, in fluid flow. Schlieren
techniques have been used for decades
in laboratory wind tunnels to visualize
supersonic flow about model aircraft,
but not full scale aircraft until
recently. Dr. Leonard Weinstein of NASA
Langley Research Center developed the
first Schlieren camera, which he calls
SAF (Schlieren for Aircraft in Flight),
that can photograph the shock waves of
a full sized aircraft in flight. He
successfully took a picture which
clearly shows the shock waves about a
T-38 Talon aircraft on December 13,
1993 at Wallops Island. The camera was
then brought to the NASA Dryden Flight
Research Center because of the high
number of supersonic flights
there. From
http://www1.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/
Schlieren/HTML/EC94-42528-1.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Schlieren_photography.jpg

[2] A schlieren photograph showing the
compression in front of an unswept wing
at Mach 1.2 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Schlierenfoto_Mach_1-2_gerader_Fl%C3%
BCgel_-_NASA.jpg
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 7 8 		3207)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395.
2. ^ "Donders, Frans
Cornelis." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0909>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395.
4. ^ "Donders, Frans
Cornelis." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0909>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395.
6. ^ "Donders,
Franciscus Cornelis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p259.
7. ^ "Donders, Frans Cornelis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0909>. (1864)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp394-395. (1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Cornelis
Donders". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Cornelis_Donders
[2] "ophthalmology." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
28 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
phthalmology>.
[3] "astigmatism." Encyclopedia of
Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/astigmatism

[4] "pupil." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pupil
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands6  
[1] Scientist: Donders, Franciscus
Cornelis (1818 - 1889) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Alexander
Seitz (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.1 x 5.7 cm / Sheet: 10 x
6.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D4-14a.jpg

[2] Franciscus Cornelis
Donders PD/Corel
source: http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/s
ites/nnm.dossiers/contents/i002093/c.1.%
20donders.jpg
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 4 		3277) (Sir) George Gabriel Stokes (CE
1819-1903), British mathematician and
physicist,1 publishes a paper on the
absorption spectrum of blood.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
2. ^ "Sir George
Gabriel, Bart Stokes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
3. ^ "George Gabriel Stokes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Stokes, Sir George Gabriel,
1st Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069777>
.
[2] "George Gabriel Stokes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
[3] "George Gabriel Stokes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gabr
iel_Stokes
[4] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[5] "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659.
[6] "Stokes's law."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>
.
[7] Victor J. Katz, "The History of
Stokes' Theorem", Mathematics Magazine,
Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp.
146-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26
90275?seq=4 {Stokes_George_Stokes_Theor
em_1979_2690275.pdf}
Cambridge, England3  
[1] [t Stokes' test
question.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2690
275?seq=4

[2] Picture of George G.
Stokes Source Memoir and Scientific
Correspondence of the Late Sir George
Gabriel Stokes, Bart Date
1857 Author George G. Stokes PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 6 7 		3410)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420-421.
2. ^
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HermitePoly
nomial.html
3. ^ Hermite, C. "Sur un nouveau
développement en série de fonctions."
Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 58,
93-100 and 266-273, 1864. Reprinted in
Hermite, C. Oeuvres complètes, tome 2.
Paris, pp. 293-308, 1908.
4. ^ "Charles
Hermite." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-her
mite
5. ^ "Charles Hermite." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>.
6. ^ Hermite, C. "Sur un nouveau
développement en série de fonctions."
Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 58,
93-100 and 266-273, 1864. Reprinted in
Hermite, C. Oeuvres complètes, tome 2.
Paris, pp. 293-308, 1908.
7. ^
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HermitePoly
nomial.html {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hermite." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-her
mite
[2] "Charles Hermite". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Her
mite
[3] "Hermite, Charles", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p330
[4]
http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Hermi
tePolynomials.html
[5] "Charles Hermite." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>. {1858}
[6] "Hermite
polynomials". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermite_pol
ynomials
(Collège de France) Paris, France5
(presumably) 
[1] The first five (probabilists)
Hermite polynomials. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hermite_poly.sv
g/450px-Hermite_poly.svg.png

[2] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.profcardy.com/matemat
icos/bHermite.jpg
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 6 		3445) Pierre Jules César Janssen
(joNSeN) (CE 1824-1907), French
astronomer,1 establishes that certain
dark bands in the solar spectrum are of
terrestrial origin and determines that
the intensity of these bands is
lessened at high elevations where the
atmosphere is less dense and increased
by high humidity.2 (verify high
humidity chronology3 )
In 1870, when
Paris is besieged during the
Franco-German War, Janssen fleas the
surrounded city in a balloon so that he
can reach the path of totality of a
solar eclipse in Africa. (His effort is
for nothing, since the eclipse is
obscured by clouds.)4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
2. ^ "Janssen, Pierre
Jules César", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459.
3. ^
Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Pierre Janssen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar
5. ^ "Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_J
ules_Cesar_Janssen
6. ^ "Janssen, Pierre Jules César",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459. {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Jules César
Janssen." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[2] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[3] "Pierre Janssen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jans
sen
(observed in Italy and Switzerland,
probably compiled at:) Paris, France5
(presumably) 
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 5 		3492)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ "Edward
Frankland." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Edward Frankland,
(obituary) Minutes of Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
5. ^ "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton
University, 2001. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[7] "cacodyl." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[8] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
[9] E. Frankland, "On the Influence of
Atmospheric Pressure upon Some of the
Phenomena of Combustion",
Journal Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 151, 1861,
p629-653. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/dk40422103500431/?p=9c8c616a
82c1407599247c232e8554b1π=26
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 3 		3502)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
2. ^ "Huxley, Thomas Henry." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
3. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1 {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Huxley, Thomas Henry."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[2] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[3] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henr
y_Huxley
[4] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
[5] "Huxley, Thomas Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p447-448
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
London, England2  
[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 4 		3569)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ Leicester, Henry
M. (1940). "Alexander Mikhailovich
Butlerov". Journal of Chemical
Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
3. ^ Leicester, Henry M. (1940).
"Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov".
Journal of Chemical Education 17 (May):
203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
4. ^ Leicester, Henry M. (1940).
"Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov".
Journal of Chemical Education 17 (May):
203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf} {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 .
[2] "Aleksandr Mikhailovich
Butlerov." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-m
ikhailovich-butlerov
[3] "Butlerov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlerov
[4] "Butlerov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158.
[5] Arbuzov,
B. A. (1978). "150th Anniversary of the
birth of A. M. Butlerov". Russian
Chemical Bulletin 27 (9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia3
 
[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png
136 YBN
[1864 AD] 6 7 		3757)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475-476.
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/milestones/milecyt
o/full/milecyto01.html
3. ^ Kühne, W. Untersuchungen uber das
Protoplasma und die Contractilitat (W.
Engelmann, Leipzig, 1864)
4. ^ Wilhelm
Kühne, "On the origin and the
causation of vital movement", Nature,
10/25/1888. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=r1cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA628&dq=K%C3%BChn
e,+W.+Untersuchungen+uber+das+Protoplasm
a+und+die+Contractility&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=
vNNYSeT4DI3WlQSq6MTuBw
5. ^ "Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p504.
6. ^
http://www.nature.com/milestones/milecyt
o/full/milecyto01.html {1864}
7. ^ Kühne, W.
Untersuchungen uber das Protoplasma und
die Contractilitat (W. Engelmann,
Leipzig, 1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Friedrich Kühne".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fri
edrich_K%C3%BChne
[2] "Willy Kuhne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Willy_Ku
hne
[3]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per103
[4]
http://www.medicusbooks.com/shop/USER_AR
TIKEL_HANDLING_AUFRUF.php?darstellen=1&K
ategorie_ID=23709〈=de&update_user_lang
=true&Ziel_ID=7806&javascript_enabled=tr
ue&PEPPERSESS=eb2b859175ce4ee19d9633f9c3
1fb318
[5] "Wilhelm Kühne." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
 
[1] Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img3930.jpg
135 YBN
[01/11/1865 AD] 10 		3429)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ William
Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the
Spectrum of the Great Nebula in the
Sword-Handle of Orion", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
10. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
{001/11/1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
(Tulse Hill)London, England9  
[1] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/149188main_orion_nebula.jpeg

[2] Orion spectrum PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".
135 YBN
[02/??/1865 AD] 4 		3465)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386.
2. ^ A. S. Herschel,
"On the Methods and Recent Progress of
Spectrum Analysis.", Chemical News and
Journal of Physics, v4, 1869, p277.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vQUAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=bunsen+kir
chhoff+iron+sun+elements+copper&source=w
eb&ots=6fGfcnyWDI&sig=E5u8dxluMY8y0MLj5G
mYrxNLnnE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=8&ct=result#PPA277,M1
3. ^ "Anders Jonas Ångstrom." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anders-jona
s-ngstrom
4. ^ A. S. Herschel, "On the Methods
and Recent Progress of Spectrum
Analysis.", Chemical News and Journal
of Physics, v4, 1869, p277.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vQUAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=bunsen+kir
chhoff+iron+sun+elements+copper&source=w
eb&ots=6fGfcnyWDI&sig=E5u8dxluMY8y0MLj5G
mYrxNLnnE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=8&ct=result#PPA277,M1 {02/1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Jonas Angström".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Jona
s_Angstr%C3%B6m
[2] "Ångström, Anders Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp22-23
[3]
"Ångström, Anders Jonas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>. (1862)
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden3  
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
135 YBN
[04/24/1865 AD] 28 		3370)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
2. ^ Clausius, R.
(1865), "Ueber verschiedene für die
Anwendung bequeme Formen der
Hauptgleichungen der mechanischen
Wärmetheorie", Annalen der Physik 125:
353-400. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k152107/f369.table English: Rud
olf Clausius, Thomas Archer Hirst, John
Tyndall, "The Mechanical Theory of
Heat: With Its Applications to the
Steam-engine and...", J. Van Voorst,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=On+Se
veral+Convenient+Forms+of+the+Fundamenta
l+Equations+of+the+Mechanical+Theory+of+
Heat&source=web&ots=3bCIaMfz8P&sig=kWc0A
-YS1UWhLHRKN7na4fA5zN8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=1&ct=result
3. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
4. ^ "Rudolf Clausius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
5. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p195-196.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"entropy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/entropy
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "entropy." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 30
Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/entropy
11. ^ "entropy." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/entropy
12. ^ Clausius, R. (1865), "Ueber
verschiedene für die Anwendung bequeme
Formen der Hauptgleichungen der
mechanischen Wärmetheorie", Annalen
der Physik 125:
353-400. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k152107/f369.table English: Rud
olf Clausius, Thomas Archer Hirst, John
Tyndall, "The Mechanical Theory of
Heat: With Its Applications to the
Steam-engine and...", J. Van Voorst,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=On+Se
veral+Convenient+Forms+of+the+Fundamenta
l+Equations+of+the+Mechanical+Theory+of+
Heat&source=web&ots=3bCIaMfz8P&sig=kWc0A
-YS1UWhLHRKN7na4fA5zN8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=1&ct=result
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Zeroth law of
thermodynamics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth_law_
of_thermodynamics
18. ^ The Mechanical Universe, episode
47, Entropy, 0:30.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p414-415.
21. ^ "Zeroth law of
thermodynamics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth_law_
of_thermodynamics
22. ^ "First law of thermodynamics".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_law_o
f_thermodynamics
23. ^ "Second law of thermodynamics".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_
of_thermodynamics
24. ^ "Third law of thermodynamics".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_law_o
f_thermodynamics
25. ^ "Fundamental thermodynamic
relation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental
_thermodynamic_relation
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p195-196.
28. ^ "Rudolf
Clausius." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius {04/24/1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>

[2] "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[4] "Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

[7] "entropy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/189035/entropy>
(New Polytechnicum) Zurich, Germany27
 
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
135 YBN
[08/12/1865 AD] 20 21 22 		3548) Lister is the son of Joseph
Jackson Lister (CE 1786-186915 ) who
had invented an achromatic
microscope.16
Lister receives his
formal schooling in two Quaker
institutions, which lay far more
emphasis on natural history and science
than do other schools.17
In 1885 Lister
succeeds Kelvin as president of the
Royal Society.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
2. ^ "Joseph Lister,
1st Baron Lister." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-list
er-1st-baron-lister
3. ^ "Joseph Lister, Baron Lister."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 08
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/343342/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-L
yme-Regis>.
4. ^ "Lister, Joseph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p548.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
6. ^ "Joseph Lister,
1st Baron Lister." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-list
er-1st-baron-lister
7. ^ Joseph Lister, "ON A NEW METHOD OF
TREATING COMPOUND FRACTURE, ABSCESS,
ETC. WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE
CONDITIONS OF SUPPURATION", The Lancet,
v89, issue 2272, March 16, 1867,
p326-329. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4B0GMN
4-V6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F16%2F186
7&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=4&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=e404f64de
15ddc571cd94cd1d4d51590 {Lister_Joseph_
1867.pdf} and vol89, issue
2273,p357-359. http://www.sciencedirect
.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4
B0GMWW-Y6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F23%
2F1867&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=3&_fmt=high
&_orig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanch
or=&view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_versi
on=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=01a0
c39475ece6067f0668f80ab82123 and
vol89, issue 2274,
p387-389. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498N8C
D-1RN&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F30%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7b658559
7824f00c8b565454f399889f and vol 89,
issue 2278,
p507-509. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498NB3
T-2CW&_user=4422&_coverDate=04%2F27%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c8e201eb
2e8a536dc7cd14929e399ce9
8. ^ "Joseph Lister, Baron Lister."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 08
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/343342/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-L
yme-Regis>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Joseph Lister, Baron
Lister." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
08 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/343342/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-L
yme-Regis>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
12. ^ "Joseph Lister,
Baron Lister." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 08 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/343342/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-L
yme-Regis>.
13. ^ "Joseph Lister, 1st Baron
Lister." Encyclopedia of Public Health.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-list
er-1st-baron-lister
14. ^ Joseph Lister, "ON A NEW METHOD
OF TREATING COMPOUND FRACTURE, ABSCESS,
ETC. WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE
CONDITIONS OF SUPPURATION", The Lancet,
v89, issue 2272, March 16, 1867,
p326-329. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4B0GMN
4-V6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F16%2F186
7&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=4&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=e404f64de
15ddc571cd94cd1d4d51590 {Lister_Joseph_
1867.pdf} and vol89, issue
2273,p357-359. http://www.sciencedirect
.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4
B0GMWW-Y6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F23%
2F1867&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=3&_fmt=high
&_orig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanch
or=&view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_versi
on=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=01a0
c39475ece6067f0668f80ab82123 and
vol89, issue 2274,
p387-389. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498N8C
D-1RN&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F30%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7b658559
7824f00c8b565454f399889f and vol 89,
issue 2278,
p507-509. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498NB3
T-2CW&_user=4422&_coverDate=04%2F27%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c8e201eb
2e8a536dc7cd14929e399ce9
15. ^ Record ID2556. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
17. ^ "Joseph Lister,
Baron Lister." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 08 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/343342/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-L
yme-Regis>.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442.
19. ^ Joseph Lister,
"ON A NEW METHOD OF TREATING COMPOUND
FRACTURE, ABSCESS, ETC. WITH
OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONDITIONS OF
SUPPURATION", The Lancet, v89, issue
2272, March 16, 1867,
p326-329. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4B0GMN
4-V6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F16%2F186
7&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=4&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=e404f64de
15ddc571cd94cd1d4d51590 {Lister_Joseph_
1867.pdf} and vol89, issue
2273,p357-359. http://www.sciencedirect
.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4
B0GMWW-Y6&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F23%
2F1867&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=3&_fmt=high
&_orig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanch
or=&view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_versi
on=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=01a0
c39475ece6067f0668f80ab82123 and
vol89, issue 2274,
p387-389. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498N8C
D-1RN&_user=4422&_coverDate=03%2F30%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7b658559
7824f00c8b565454f399889f and vol 89,
issue 2278,
p507-509. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-498NB3
T-2CW&_user=4422&_coverDate=04%2F27%2F18
67&_alid=787810659&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=d&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=4&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c8e201eb
2e8a536dc7cd14929e399ce9
20. ^ "Joseph Lister, Baron Lister."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 08
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/343342/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-L
yme-Regis>. {08/12/1865}
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p442. {1867}
22. ^
"Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-list
er-1st-baron-lister {reports results in
1867}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Lister, 1st Baron
Lister." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-list
er-1st-baron-lister
[2] "Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-list
er-1st-baron-lister
[3] "Joseph Lister". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_List
er
[4] "Joseph Lister Lister".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_L
ister_Lister
[5] "Scientific Papers; Physiology,
Medicine, Surgery, Geology: Physiology,
Medicine, Surgery, Geology ; with
Introduction and Notes" By
Hippocrates, Ambroise Paré, William
Harvey, Edward Jenner, Oliver Wendell
Holmes, Joseph Lister, Joseph Lister
Lister, Louis Pasteur, Charles Lyell,
Stephen Paget, Robert Willis, Frank
Faulkner, David Constable Robb, Harold
Clarence Ernst Translated by Stephen
Paget, Robert Willis, Frank Faulkner,
David Constable Robb, Harold Clarence
Ernst Published by P. F. Collier,
1910,
p269- http://books.google.com/books?id=
AshXx627UxYC&pg=PA270&dq=The+Collected+P
apers+of+Joseph,+Baron+Lister,&as_brr=1#
PPA269,M1
(University of Glasgow) Glagow,
Scotland19  
[1] Joseph Lister source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev/fig23.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Joseph_Lister.jpg

[2] Joseph Lister, 1857 Courtesy of
the Wellcome Trustees,
London PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/30/10230-004-A30E0562.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 15 16 		2633) August Ferdinand Möbius
(mOEBEUS) (CE 1790-1868), German
mathematician,1 discusses the
properties of one-sided surfaces in a
memoir, which includes the "Möbius
strip", a one-sided and one-edge
surface2 created by joining the ends
of a strip of paper after giving the
strip half a twist. This is the
beginning of topology, the branch of
mathematics that deals with those
properties of figures that are not
altered by deformations without
tearing.3

Möbius discovered this surface in
1858. The German mathematician Johann
Benedict Listing had discovered it a
few months earlier, but Listing did not
publish his discovery until 1861.4
Möb
ius is a descendant of Martin Luther
through his mother.5
From 1813 to 1814
Möbius studies theoretical astronomy
under Carl Friedrich Gauss at the
University of Göttingen.6
Möbius
then studies mathematics at the
University of Halle.7
In 1816 Möbius
obtains a position as a professor of
astronomy at Leipzig.8
From 1818 to
1821 Möbius supervises the
construction of the university's
observatory, and in 1848 is appointed
its director.9

Möbius publishes "De Computandis
Occultationibus Fixarum per Planetas"
(1815; "Concerning the Calculation of
the Occultations of the Planets"), "Die
Hauptsätze der Astronomie" (1836; "The
Principles of Astronomy") and "Die
Elemente der Mechanik des Himmels"
(1843; "The Elements of Celestial
Mechanics").10

In mathematics, Möbius publishes "Der
barycentrische Calkul" (1827; "The
Calculus of Centres of Gravity"), in
which Möbius introduces homogeneous
coordinates (the extension of
coordinates to include a "point at
infinity") into analytic geometry and
also deals with geometric
transformations, in particular
projective transformations. In the
"Lehrbuch der Statik" (1837; "Textbook
on Statics") Möbius gives a geometric
treatment of statics, a branch of
mechanics concerned with the forces
acting on static bodies such as
buildings, bridges, and dams.11
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314.
2. ^ "August
Ferdinand Mobius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314.
4. ^ "August
Ferdinand Mobius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314.
6. ^ "August
Ferdinand Mobius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
7. ^ "August Ferdinand Mobius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
8. ^ "August Ferdinand Mobius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
9. ^ "August Ferdinand Mobius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
10. ^ "August Ferdinand Mobius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
11. ^ "August Ferdinand Mobius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "August Ferdinand
Mobius". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p314. (1865)
15. ^ "August
Ferdinand Mobius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3115/August-Ferdinand-Mobius (1865)
16. ^ Ted
Huntington. (1865)

MORE INFO
[1] "August Ferdinand Möbius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Ferd
inand_M%C3%B6bius
[2]
http://www.answers.com/August%20Ferdinan
d%20M%C3%B6bius
[3] "Möbius strip". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6bius
_strip
George Peacock PEKoK 12 English
mathematician 1791-1858 (he with
Babbage, and John Herschel use the
nomenclature of Leibniz, which is
better than that of Newton (for
calculus13 )). (A states that English
math had suffered because of the
popularity of Newton). Leipzig,
Germany14 (presumably) 
[1] A photograph of a green paper
Möbius strip. David Benbennick took
this photograph on March 14, 2005. For
scale, the strip of paper is 11 inches
long; the long edge of a U.S. standard
piece of ''letter size'' paper. The
background is a piece of white paper.
The strip is held together by a piece
of clear duct tape, behind the
top-right curve. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M%C3%B6bius_strip.jpg

[2] August Ferdinand Möbius Source
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/informat
ion/kalenderblatt/kreisverwandteabbildun
gen/bilder/moebius-1000.png Date Autho
r Adolf Neumann (1825-1884) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:August_Ferdinand_M%C3%B6bius.png
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 5 		2991)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Holtz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Hol
tz
2. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
3. ^ George W. Jacoby, J. Ralph Jacoby,
"Electricity in Medicine", P.
Blakiston's son & co, (1919),
p27. http://books.google.com/books?id=R
3Yt1N-qotsC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=von+bose
+static+electricity&source=web&ots=TONId
nPt4n&sig=YMMbpDEnQe5ggeCrpmZn6q1a6x0&hl
=en#PPA27,M1
4. ^ "Wilhelm Holtz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Hol
tz
5. ^ George W. Jacoby, J. Ralph Jacoby,
"Electricity in Medicine", P.
Blakiston's son & co, (1919),
p27. http://books.google.com/books?id=R
3Yt1N-qotsC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=von+bose
+static+electricity&source=web&ots=TONId
nPt4n&sig=YMMbpDEnQe5ggeCrpmZn6q1a6x0&hl
=en#PPA27,M1 (1865)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/epapers.htm
l
[2]
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/holtz.html
Berlin, Germany4 (possibly) 
[1] Holtz's Influence Machine PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electrical
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 8 9 		2993) Toepler's influence machine
consists of two disks fixed on the same
shaft and rotating in the same
direction. Each disk carries two strips
of tin-foil extending nearly over a
semi-circle, and there are two field
plates, one behind each disk; one of
the plates is positively and the other
negatively electrified. The carriers
which are touched under the influence
of the positive field plate pass on and
give up a portion of their negative
charge to increase that of the negative
field plate; in the same way the
carriers which are touched under the
influence of the negative field plate
send a part of their charge to augment
that of the positive field plate. In
this apparatus one of the charging rods
communicates with one of the field
plates, but the other with the
neutralizing brush opposite to the
other field plate. So one of the field
plates would always remain charged when
a spark is taken at the transmitting
terminals.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toeple
r.html
2. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
3. ^ A. Toepler, "Ueber die Erzeugung
einer eigenthümlichen Art von
intensiven elektrischen Strömmen
vermittelst eines
Influenz-Elektromers," Poggendorff's
Annalen der Physik und Chemie, CXXV,
pp. 469-496, 1865.
4. ^ "Electrical".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
5. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toeple
r.html
7. ^ "Riga". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3669/Riga
8. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al (1865)
9. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toeple
r.html (1865)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Toep
ler
[2]
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/epapers.htm
l
(Polytechnic Institute of Riga) Riga6 ,
Latvia7  
[1] The first classic Toepler machine
(1865). PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/toepler.html

[2] August Toepler (Töpler) b.
September 7, 1836 - d. March 6,
1912 PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/toepler.html
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 10 		3122) (My own opinion on vivisection is
generally on the side of the rights of
those species with nervous systems to
feel no pain, and to live. Currently, I
vote against jailing, fining or
physically stopping those who perform
useful experiments on lower order
species, however, my own opinion is
against such experiments. I think the
popular opinion must create the
official laws that determine what is
and what is not punished. I feel most
strongly opposed to cutting into,
drugging, and/or restraining of humans,
and I extend this to primates, although
I support consensual experimenting. My
feelings are not absolute, and I think
I am interesting in seeing what is
happening. I think there are
possibilities of my vote in favor of
not punishing those who perform
experiments where there is no pain,
damage, or death to any mammals other
than primates. It seems very likely
that monkeys, mice, rabbits and other
mammals are currently being injected
with deadly viruses, bacteria and
protists, having nerves and muscles
severed, and being operated on while
still alive. Some of this experimenting
results in scientific gains, and some
is not worth the price of violating the
rights of a mammal, amphibian, or fish.
I think the public needs to examine
their opinions and the rights of other
living objects. The extremes are, on
one side, cutting into, poisoning, etc
humans while still alive for scientific
gain, which I think the majority oppose
and are willing to lose any science
that might be gained in the interest of
human rights, on the other extreme are
those who reject any experimentation on
living objects at all, even including
viruses, bacteria, protists and plants.
So clearly, we as individuals should
determine where exactly our views are
on this issue of experimenting on
living objects.8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^ "Bernard,
Claude." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
3. ^ "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
4. ^ "Bernard, Claude." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
5. ^ "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
10. ^ "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>. (1865)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude Bernard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[2] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[3] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[4] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[5] http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
(Sorbonne) Paris, France9  
[1] Sympathetic (red) and
parasympathetic (blue) nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Gray839.png

[2] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813
- 1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 8 		3126) (My own opinion on vivisection is
generally on the side of the rights of
those species with nervous systems to
feel no pain, and to live. Currently, I
vote against jailing, fining or
physically stoping those who perform
useful experiments on lower order
species, however, my own opinion is
against such experiments. I think the
popular opinion must create the
official laws that determine what is
and what is not punished. I feel most
strongly opposed to cutting into,
drugging, and/or restraining of humans,
and I extend this to primates, although
I support consensual experimenting. My
feelings are not absolute, and I think
I am interesting in seeing what is
happening. I think there are
possibilities of my vote in favor of
not punishing those who perform
experiments where there is no pain,
damage, or death to any mammals other
than primates. It seems very likely
that monkeys, mice, rabbits and other
mammals are currently being injected
with deadly viruses, bacteria and
protists, having nerves and muscles
severed, and being operated on while
still alive. Some of this experimenting
results in scientific gains, and some
is not worth the price of violating the
rights of a mammal, amphibian, or fish.
I think the public needs to examine
their opinions and the rights of other
living objects. The extremes are, on
one side, cutting into, poisoning, etc
humans while still alive for scientific
gain, which I think the majority oppose
and are willing to lose any science
that might be gained in the interest of
human rights, on the other extreme are
those who reject any experimentation on
living objects at all, even including
viruses, bacteria, protists and plants.
So clearly, we as individuals should
determine where exactly our views are
on this issue of experimenting on
living objects.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp381-382.
2. ^ "Bernard,
Claude." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
3. ^ "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
4. ^ "Bernard, Claude." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>.
5. ^ "Claude Bernard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Claude Bernard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp67-68.
8. ^ "Bernard, Claude."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8837>. (1865)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude Bernard".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Claude_B
ernard
[2] "Claude Bernard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-bern
ard
[3] "Claude Bernard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bern
ard
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Works by Claude Bernard at Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/brow
se/authors/b#a6553
[6] http://www.claude-bernard.co.uk/
[7] "chyle." The Oxford Companion
to the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chyle
[8] "somatic nervous system." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/somatic-ner
vous-system
[9] "autonomic nervous system." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autonomic-n
ervous-system
(Sorbonne) Paris, France7  
[1] Sympathetic (red) and
parasympathetic (blue) nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Gray839.png

[2] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813
- 1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 6 7 		3141)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/
GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JVTAD600002
1000004000881000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=ye
s
2. ^ Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston
Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The New
International Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry
Thurston Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The
New International Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip
5. ^ H. T. P. Sprengel, J. Chem. Soc.
18, 9
(1865). http://link.aip.org/link/?&l_cr
eator=getabs-normal&l_dir=FWD&l_rel=CITE
S&from_key=JVTAD600002100000400088100000
1&from_keyType=CVIPS&from_loc=AIP&to_j=J
CSOA9&to_v=18&to_p=9&to_loc=DOI&to_url=h
ttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1039%2Fjs865
180009b
6. ^ Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston
Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The New
International Encyclopædia", 1902,
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip (1865)
7. ^ H. T. P. Sprengel, J. Chem.
Soc. 18, 9
(1865). http://link.aip.org/link/?&l_cr
eator=getabs-normal&l_dir=FWD&l_rel=CITE
S&from_key=JVTAD600002100000400088100000
1&from_keyType=CVIPS&from_loc=AIP&to_j=J
CSOA9&to_v=18&to_p=9&to_loc=DOI&to_url=h
ttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1039%2Fjs865
180009b

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/aboutvacuum
tubes.html
[2] H. Sprengel, J. Franklin Inst. 81,
396
(1865). http://link.aip.org/link/?&l_cr
eator=getabs-normal&l_dir=FWD&l_rel=CITE
S&from_key=JVTAD600002100000400088100000
1&from_keyType=CVIPS&from_loc=AIP&to_j=J
FINAB&to_v=81&to_p=396&to_loc=DOI&to_url
=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2F001
6-0032%2866%2990466-2
[3] P. A. Redhead, The ultimate vacuum,
VacuumVolume 53, Issues 1-2, , May
1999, Pages
137-149. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TW4-3WC41PF-13/1/124b4
08e41b05b5d704ff7f49318d0d9) {Vacuum_19
99_sdarticle.pdf} (nice work with many
figures)
London, England5  
[1] Simplest form of Sprengel
pump PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/ejarchive/JS/
1865/JS865180009b.pdf

[2] The Sprengel pump PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 51 52 		3403) Mendel is raised in a rural
setting36 , having a childhood of
poverty37 . As the son of a peasant,
Mendel tends fruit trees for the lord
of a manor.38
Mendel's academic
abilities are recognized by the local
priest, who persuades Mendel's parents
to send him away to school at the age
of 11.39
Mendel takes the name "Gregor"
upon becoming a monk.40
In 1850, Mendel
fails an exam—introduced through new
legislation for teacher
certification—and is sent to the
University of Vienna for two years.
Mendel learns physics and mathematics,
working under Austrian physicist
Christian Doppler and mathematical
physicist Andreas von Ettinghausen.41

In 1854 mendel is employed as a teacher
at the Realschule (secondary school) in
Brünn.42
Mendel fails an examination 3
times and so does not qualify to teach
in more advanced schools than the
Brünn Realschule.43
Mendel reads
"Origin of Species" and writes notes in
his copy, but he never mentions Darwin
in his paper.44
In 1866 the Prussian
army under Otto von Bismarck takes over
Austria (and occupies Brünn).45
Mendel
keeps careful records of daily weather
(as Dalton had done).46 (Perhaps
Mendel has a systematic mind.47 )
Darwin
dies in 1882 never knowing that the
greatest weakness in his theory has
been solved.48
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gregor Mendel." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
3. ^ "Gregor Mendel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
4. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
5. ^ "Mendel, Johann Gregor", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p594-596.
6. ^ "Gregor Mendel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
7. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
8. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
10. ^ "Gregor
Mendel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
11. ^ Gregor Mendel, "Versuche über
Pflanzen-Hybriden" (1865)
http://www.mendelweb.org/MWGerText.htm
l English translation: "Experiments
in Plant
Hybridization" http://www.mendelweb.org
/Mendel.html
12. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
13. ^ Gregor Mendel, "Versuche über
Pflanzen-Hybriden" (1865)
http://www.mendelweb.org/MWGerText.htm
l English translation: "Experiments
in Plant
Hybridization" http://www.mendelweb.org
/Mendel.html
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Gregor Mendel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
16. ^ Gregor Mendel, "Versuche über
Pflanzen-Hybriden" (1865)
http://www.mendelweb.org/MWGerText.htm
l English translation: "Experiments
in Plant
Hybridization" http://www.mendelweb.org
/Mendel.html
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Gregor Mendel,
"Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden"
(1865)
http://www.mendelweb.org/MWGerText.htm
l English translation: "Experiments
in Plant
Hybridization" http://www.mendelweb.org
/Mendel.html
19. ^ Gregor Mendel, "Versuche über
Pflanzen-Hybriden" (1865)
http://www.mendelweb.org/MWGerText.htm
l English translation: "Experiments
in Plant
Hybridization" http://www.mendelweb.org
/Mendel.html
20. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
21. ^ "Phaseolus." Webster 1913
Dictionary. Patrick J. Cassidy, 1913.
Answers.com 11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaseolus-1

22. ^ Gregor Mendel, "Versuche über
Pflanzen-Hybriden" (1865)
http://www.mendelweb.org/MWGerText.htm
l English translation: "Experiments
in Plant
Hybridization" http://www.mendelweb.org
/Mendel.html
23. ^ Gregor Mendel, "Versuche über
Pflanzen-Hybriden" (1865)
http://www.mendelweb.org/MWGerText.htm
l English translation: "Experiments
in Plant
Hybridization" http://www.mendelweb.org
/Mendel.html
24. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
26. ^ "Gregor
Mendel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Gregor Mendel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
30. ^ "Mendel, Johann
Gregor", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p594-596.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
32. ^ "Mendel, Johann
Gregor", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p594-596.
33. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
34. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
35. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
36. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
38. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
39. ^ "Gregor
Mendel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
40. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
41. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
42. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
43. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
44. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
45. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
46. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
47. ^ Ted
Huntington.
48. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419.
49. ^ "Gregor
Mendel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
50. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
51. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419. {1865}
52. ^
"Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gregor Mendel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
(Natural Science Society) Brünn49 ,
Austria50 (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic) 
[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg

[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 4 		3514)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436-437.
2. ^ "Richard August
Carl Emil Erlenmeyer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
3. ^
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT
4. ^ "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 29
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Erlenmeyer, Richard August
Carl Emil", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p288
[2]
"Richard August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
(U of Heidelberg) Heidelberg, Germany3
 
[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 12 		3558) A year later, in 1866 Berthelot
enunciates the theory that the
production of mineral oils may
conceivably have been due to the action
of water and carbonic acid on
acetylides of the alkaline metals and
to the subsequent resolutions of
acetylene at a high temperature into
other hydrocarbons.9 (Might this be
important to the evolution of fats and
oils {lipids} on earth?10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ M. Berthelot,
edited by Dunod, "Essai de mécanique
chimique fondée sur la
thermochimie" Published by Dunod,
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kbQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT1&dq=Essai+de+meca
nique+chimique+fondee+sur+la+thermochimi
e
3. ^ "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p90-91.
4. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London By Royal Society (Great
Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Marcellin Pierre
Eugene Berthelot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
12. ^ "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p90-91. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France11  
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 13 14 		3583)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
6. ^ "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
7. ^ "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
8. ^ Aug. Kekulé (1865). "Sur la
constitution des substances
aromatiques". Bulletin de la Societe
Chimique de Paris 3 (2):
98–110. http://books.google.com/books
?id=bFsSAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0NsVdwsH1RBl1R&lr=#PPA98,M1
9. ^ Aug. Kekulé (1866).
"Untersuchungen uber aromatische
Verbindungen". Annalen der Chemie und
Pharmacie 137 (2): 129–36.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18661370202. http://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=b4U8AAAAIAAJ&pri
ntsec=frontcover&dq=editions:05RVM43C0aS
P8&lr=#PPA129,M1 {Kekule_Friedrich_1866
.pdf} {table:
Kekule_Friedrich_tafel2_1866.jpg} parti
al
translation: http://www.rod.beavon.clar
a.net/benzene2.htm
10. ^ "Kekulé Memorial Lecture",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
Chemical Society (Great Britain), Royal
Society of Chemistry (Great Britain),
v.73, 1898,
p97-138. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Tus4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=Friedrich+Aug
ust+Kekule+obituary&ei=oj3QSNmcGoH-sQPwl
OHbAw#PPA97,M1
11. ^ Aug. Kekulé (1866).
"Untersuchungen uber aromatische
Verbindungen". Annalen der Chemie und
Pharmacie 137 (2): 129–36.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18661370202. {Kekule_F
riedrich_1866.pdf} {table:
Kekule_Friedrich_tafel2_1866.jpg} http:
//books.google.com/books?id=b4U8AAAAIAAJ
&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:05RVM43
C0aSP8&lr=#PPA129,M1 partial
translation: http://www.rod.beavon.clar
a.net/benzene2.htm
12. ^ "August Kekule von Stradonitz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448. {1865}
14. ^
"August Kekule von Stradonitz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
{1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[2] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[3] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 16
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[4] "Kekule Von Stradonitz (Kekulé),
(Friedrich) August", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p480-481
[5] Ernst von Meyer, translated by
George McGowan, "A History of Chemistry
from Earliest Times to the Present
Day", Macmillan and co., 1898,
p328-329. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0mJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Ueber+die+C
onstitution+und+die+Metamorphosen+der+ch
emischen+Verbindungen+und+%C3%BCber+die+
chemische+Natur+des+Kohlenstoffs&lr=&as_
brr=1&ei=VTTQSOOYDoPWsgO7w90z#PPA328,M1
[6] Aug. Kekulé (1857). "Ueber die s.
g. gepaarten Verbindungen und die
Theorie der mehratomigen Radicale".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 104
(2): 129–150.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18571040202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18571040202
[7] Aug. Kekulé (1858). "Ueber die
Constitution und die Metamorphosen der
chemischen Verbindungen und über die
chemische Natur des Kohlenstoffs".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 106
(2): 129–159.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18581060202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18581060202
[8] "Friedrich August Kekule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_August_Kekule
(University of Ghent) Ghent, Belgium12
 
[1] Figures in: Aug. Kekulé (1865).
''Sur la constitution des substances
aromatiques''. Bulletin de la Societe
Chimique de Paris 3 (2):
98–110. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bFsSAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0NsVdwsH1RBl1R&lr=#PPA98,M1

[2] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 4 5 		3637)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Voit,
Carl Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p910.
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454. {1865}
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p338. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl von Voit."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631930/Carl-von-Voit>.
[2] "Carl von Voit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Vo
it
[3] "Carl Von Voit" (obituary),
Science, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, HighWire Press,
JSTOR (Organization), Moses King, 1908,
n.s., v.27
(1908),p315-316. http://books.google.co
m/books?id=2JkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA315&dq=
Carl+von+Voit&ei=PBzlSIK4M5j4MOuUvQI#PRA
1-PA315,M1
[4] "metabolism." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metabolism
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany3
 
[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

[2] Description Max Joseph von
Pettenkofer (1818-1901), german
chemist Source Originally from
ja.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-09-22 (original
upload date) Author de:Franz
Hanfstaengl (1804-1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Max_von_Pettenkofer.j
pg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 21 22 		3638)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
4. ^ "metabolism."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metabolism
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p338.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Carl von Voit."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631930/Carl-von-Voit>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
19. ^ "Carl Von Voit"
(obituary), Science, American
Association for the Advancement of
Science, HighWire Press, JSTOR
(Organization), Moses King, 1908, n.s.,
v.27
(1908),p315-316. http://books.google.co
m/books?id=2JkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA315&dq=
Carl+von+Voit&ei=PBzlSIK4M5j4MOuUvQI#PRA
1-PA315,M1
20. ^ "Voit, Carl Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454. {1865}
22. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p338. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl von Voit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Vo
it
(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany20  
[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

[2] Description Max Joseph von
Pettenkofer (1818-1901), german
chemist Source Originally from
ja.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-09-22 (original
upload date) Author de:Franz
Hanfstaengl (1804-1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Max_von_Pettenkofer.j
pg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 17 18 		3689) Sachs is an assistant to the
physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje
at the University of Prague.13

Sachs is the first to teach plant
physiology at a German university
(Prague, 1857-1859).14

Among his works are the famous (all
translated from German) "Textbook of
Botany" (1868, tr. 1882); "Lectures on
Physiology" (1882, tr. 1887); and
"History of Botany" (1875, tr. 1890).15

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p460-461.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p338.
4. ^ "Julius Von Sachs"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Royal Society (Great
Britain), 1898, v.62 (1897-98), p
xxiv-xxix. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=oOsAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT30&dq=Julius+von+
Sachs&ei=dYNRSZSzBI7ClQSykbCKDQ
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p460-461.
7. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
hl=en#de
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p460-461.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p460-461.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Sachs, (Ferdinand Gustav) Julius von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
651>.
14. ^ "Sachs, Julius Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p768.
15. ^ "Julius von Sachs." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-von-
sachs
16. ^ "Julius Von Sachs" (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Royal Society (Great Britain),
1898, v.62 (1897-98), p
xxiv-xxix. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=oOsAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT30&dq=Julius+von+
Sachs&ei=dYNRSZSzBI7ClQSykbCKDQ
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p460-461. {1865}
18. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p338. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius von Sachs".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_von_
Sachs
[2] "Julius Von Sachs". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_V
on_Sachs
[3]
Handbuch%20der%20Experimentalphysiologie
%20der%20Pflanzen
(Agricultural Academy) Poppelsdorf,
Germany16  
[1] Julius von Sachs PD (presumably)
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Julius_Sachs.jpg

[2] Sachs, Julius von PD
(presumably)
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/sachs.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 5 		3694)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
2. ^ "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
3. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
4. ^
http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/alfred-
nobel/
5. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[2] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[3] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[4] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bern
hard_Nobel
[5] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel
[6] "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650
Paris, France4 (guess) 
[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

[2] Scientist: Nobel, Alfred Bernhard
(1833 - 1896) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 11.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-N001-23a.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 25 		3702) Mendeléev is the youngest of a
family of 14 to 17 children.4
Mendeléev
's grandfather brought the first
printing press to Siberia and published
the first newspaper.5
Mendeléev
studies abroad for two years at the
University of Heidelberg, financed by a
government fellowship. Instead of
working closely with the prominent
chemists of the university, including
Robert Bunsen, Emil Erlenmeyer, and
August Kekulé, Mendeléev creates a
laboratory in his own apartment.6
Anothe
r source has Mendeléev working with
Bunsen before establishing his own
lab.7
In 1865 Mendeléev is appointed
professor of chemical technology at the
University of St. Petersburg.8
Mendelée
v became professor of general chemistry
in 1867 and continues to teach at the
University of St. Petersberg until
1890.9
According to Isaac Asimov, as
professor of chemistry at the
University of Saint Petersburg
Mendeléev is the most capable and
interesting lecturer in Russia.10
In
the 1870s the visit of a famous medium
to St. Petersburg drew him to publish a
number of harsh criticisms of "the
apostles of spiritualism".11
In 1876
Mendeléev divorces his wife and
marries a young art student.12 Another
source states that Mendeleev never
divorced and was illegally married a
second time.13
For his work on the
Periodic Law he was awarded in 1882, at
the same time as Lothar Meyer, the Davy
medal of the Royal Society.14
In 1899
Mendeleev, as chief of the Chamber of
Standard Weights and Measures (verify15
), introduces the metric system into
Russia.16
Mendeléev adheres to
Gerhardt's theories and opposes
Berzelius' electrical theory of the
formation of chemical compounds. As a
consequence of this, Mendeléev resists
Arrhenius' electrical theory, rejecting
the concept of the ion as an
electrically charged molecular
fragment, and refusing to recognize the
electron. In general, Mendeléev is
opposed to linking chemistry with
electricity and prefers associating
chemistry with physics as the science
of mass.17
In "Popytka khimicheskogo
ponimania mirovogo efira" (1902; "An
Attempt Towards a Chemical Conception
of the Ether"), Mendeleev explains
radioactivity as movements of ether
around heavy atoms, and tries to
classify ether as a chemical element
above the group of inert gases.18

In 1905 Mendeleev receives the Copley
medal of the Royal Society.19

Mendeleev's published works include 400
books and articles, and numerous
unpublished manuscripts are kept in the
Dmitry Mendeleyev Museum and Archives
at St. Petersburg State University.20

Over the course of his life, five
Russian universities elect Mendeleev as
an honorary member, Cambridge and
Oxford designate him an honored
scholar, and numerous academies and
societies elect him member. Few
Russians since have been able to match
Mendeleev's worldwide recognition.21
In
1955 a newly identified element, number
101 is named mendelevium.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
2. ^ "Mendeleev,
Dmitry Ivanovich", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p596-597.
3. ^ "Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
6. ^ "Mendeleyev,
Dmitry Ivanovich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
7. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry Ivanovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p596-597.
8. ^
"Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
9. ^ "Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
11. ^ "Mendeleyev,
Dmitry Ivanovich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
13. ^ "Dmitri
Mendeleev." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
14. ^ "Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleeff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dmitri_I
vanovich_Mendeleeff
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Dmitri Mendeleev."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
17. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry Ivanovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p596-597.
18. ^
"Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
19. ^ "Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleeff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dmitri_I
vanovich_Mendeleeff
20. ^ "Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
21. ^ "Dmitri Mendeleev." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
23. ^ "Mendeleev,
Dmitry Ivanovich", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p596-597.
24. ^ "Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
25. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry Ivanovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p596-597.
{1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dmitri Mendeleev." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[2] "Dmitri Mendeleev." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[3] "Dmitri Mendeleev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mend
eleev
(St. Petersburg Technological
Institute) St. Petersburg, Russia23 24
(presumably) 
[1] Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev as a
young man. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith
Memorial Collection, Department of
Special Collections, University of
Pennsylvania Library. PD/Corel
source: http://chemheritage.org/classroo
m/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/meye
r-mendeleev4.jpg

[2] Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev in his
study at home in 1904. Courtesy Edgar
Fahs Smith Memorial Collection,
Department of Special Collections,
University of Pennsylvania
Library. PD/Corel
source: http://chemheritage.org/classroo
m/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/meye
r-mendeleev3.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 		3709)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Odling, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p658.
2. ^ William Odling, "A Course
of Practical Chemistry", 2nd edition,
1865 http://books.google.com/books?id=A
m0DAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:0cFPkaQG8kSu 4th edition,
Longmans, Green,
1869. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=IgFIAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22a+course+of+pra
ctical+chemistry%22&printsec=frontcover&
source=web&ots=PNtTs6A1ZZ&sig=DobBuOFWIk
HrXND79Ask-9D8ARE
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Odling, William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p658.

MORE INFO
[1] W. Odling, "On the Natural
Groupings of Elements," Phil. Mag.,
1857, 13:423-439, 480-497.
http://books.google.com/books?id=B5QOA
AAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA156&dq=philosophical+ma
gazine+date:1857-1857&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt
=ALLTYPES&ei=SWZVSdWuBIbokASknfCaDw#PPA4
23,M1
[2] W. Odling, "On the Proportional
Numbers of the Elements," Quarterly
Journal of Science, 1864,1: 642-648.
[3] Heinz
Cassebaum, George B. Kauffman, "The
Periodic System of the Chemical
Elements: The Search for Its
Discoverer", Isis, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Autumn, 1971), pp.
314-327. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
9945?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=7&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[4] "William Odling". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Odl
ing
(St. Bartholomew's Hospital) London,
England4  
[1] Table I, Atomic Weights and
Symbols PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Am0DAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0cFPkaQG8kSu#PPA226,M1

[2] William Odling
(1829-1921) President of the RIC 1883
to 1888 President of the CS 1873 to
1875 PD
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Willia
mOdling_tcm18-75110.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 18 19 		3800) Kovalevski is a student of Haekel
and therefore a strong evolutionist.16

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489-490.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Kovalevsky, Aleksandr Onufriyevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
163>.
4. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine", Saunders, 1921,
p568-569. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA568&dq=alexander+K
ovalevsky&as_brr=1&ei=K5ReSayzBZOIkASHvp
DdCQ
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p489-490.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489-490.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"bilaminar." Webster 1913 Dictionary.
Patrick J. Cassidy, 1913. Answers.com
02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bilaminar
12. ^ "invagination." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/invaginatio
n
13. ^ "Kovalevsky, Aleksandr
Onufrievich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p499.
14. ^
Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Kovalevsky, Aleksandr
Onufriyevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
163>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489-490.
17. ^ "Kovalevsky,
Aleksandr Onufrievich", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p499.
18. ^ "Kovalevsky, Aleksandr
Onufriyevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
163>. {1865}
19. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison,
"An Introduction to the History of
Medicine", Saunders, 1921,
p568-569. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA568&dq=alexander+K
ovalevsky&as_brr=1&ei=K5ReSayzBZOIkASHvp
DdCQ {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Onufrievich
Kovalevski." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-o
nufrievich-kovalevski
[2] "Alexander Kovalevsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_K
ovalevsky
[3] Francis Maitland Balfour, "A
Treatise on Comparative Embryology",
Macmillan, 1885.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ov6Ax
qGEmzIC&pg=PA365&dq=%22Anatomy+and+Devel
opment+of+Phoronis%22&as_brr=1&ei=55heSa
2UIZWckASUvfzqCA#PPA344,M1
(St. Petersburg University) St.
Petersburg, Russia17  
[1] Alexander Kovalevsky Source
http://www.rulex.ru/portret/23-023.jp
g Date 19th Century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Kovalevsky.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 5 		3870)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
2. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
3. ^ "Otto Friedrich Carl Dieters".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Friedr
ich_Carl_Dieters
4. ^ Lewellys Franklin Barker, "The
Nervous System and Its Constituent
Neurones", Kimpton, 1901,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
F8Lqim_57sC&pg=PR11&dq=golgi+cell+type+1
&as_brr=1&ei=24WMSZLtPJH6lQSui6S7DQ#PPA1
0,M1
5. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
{1865}
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany3 4
 
[1] Otto Friedrich Carl Dieters
(1834-1863) to produce the most
accurate description yet of a nerve
cell, complete with axon and dendrites
(left).
source: http://neurophilosophy.files.wor
dpress.com/2006/08/neuron1deiters.JPG?w=
259&h=226

[2] English: en:Otto Friedrich Karl
Deiters Polski: pl:Otto Friedrich Karl
Deiters Source reprinted in:
Guillery RW. Observations of synaptic
structures: origins of the neuron
doctrine and its current status. Philos
Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 360, 1458,
1281-307. 2005. Date before
1863 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Deiters.JPG
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 2 		4548)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1865
(guess}
unknown  
134 YBN
[01/11/1866 AD] 5 		3431)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
5. ^ William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
} {01/11/1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England4  
[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg
134 YBN
[02/08/1866 AD] 10 		3921) Ludwig Edward Boltzmann
(BOLTSmoN) (CE 1844-1906), Austrian
physicist1 reads his paper before the
Academy of Vienna entitled "Ueber die
mechanische Bedeutung des zweiten
Hauptsatzes der Warmetheorie". This
paper opens (translated from German):
"T
he identity of the First Law of
Thermodynamics with the principle of
vis viva has long been known, on the
other hand the Second Law occupies a
peculiarly exceptional position, and
its proof is based on methods which are
not only uncertain here and there, but
are in no case obvious. The object of
this paper is to furnish a purely
analytical and perfectly general proof
of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, as
well as to investigate the
corresponding principle in
Mechanics.".2

Boltzmann tries to establish a
connection between the second law of
thermodynamics ("Heat cannot of itself
pass from a colder to a hotter body"3 )
and the mechanical principle of least
action ("in all the changes that take
place in
the universe, the sum of the
products of each body multiplied by the
distance it moves and by the speed with
which it moves is the least that is
possible."4 ).5
Boltzmann is a strong
supporter of atomism.6
According to the
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, Boltzmann engages in bitter
debates with those who are opposed to
"materialist" science and prefer
empirical theories to atomic models
such as Ernst Mach, Wilhelm Ostwald,
Pierre Duhem and George Hehn.7
Boltzmann
ends his life by hanging himself.8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ "Prof. Ludwig
Boltzmann", (obituary), Nature,
10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
3. ^ Record ID3364. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record
ID1967. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Boltzmann, Ludwig",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p115-116.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p500.
7. ^ "Boltzmann,
Ludwig", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116.
8. ^ S.Rajasekar, N.Athavan, "Ludwig
Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047
9. ^ "Prof. Ludwig Boltzmann",
(obituary), Nature, 10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
10. ^ "Prof. Ludwig Boltzmann",
(obituary), Nature, 10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
{02/08/1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltzmann, Ludwig Eduard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
519>
[2] "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[3] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[4] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[5] "Ludwig Boltzmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Bolt
zmann
[6] "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany)9  
[1] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg

[2] English: Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906), austrian
phyisicist Source
http://www.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~j
r/gif/phys/boltzmann2.jpg
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Boltzmann2.jpg
134 YBN
[05/17/1866 AD] 10 11 		3430)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ William Huggins,
William Allen Miller, "On the Spectrum
of a New Star in Corona Borealis",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume
15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
6. ^ Record ID3146.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Sir
William Huggins." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
10. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
{05/17/1866}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427. {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England9  
[1] Spectrum of absorption and spectrum
of bright lines forming the Compound
Spectrum of a New Star near epsilon
Coronae Borealis. PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j722186535000l64/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
134 YBN
[07/??/1866 AD] 16 		3304) In 1854, Field is one of the
founders of the New York, Newfoundland
and London Telegraph Company, formed to
lay a cable across the Atlantic Ocean.8
In 1856, Field helps organize a
British company, the Atlantic Telegraph
Company.9
In August 1857 the first of
several unsuccessful attempts to lay a
cable across the Atlantic Ocean are
made.10
Five attempts were made in
1857–58 and the first message goes
the length of the cable on August 16,
1858, but the cable ceases working
three weeks later.11
Field promotes
other oceanic cables, notably cables
from Hawaii to Asia and Australia.12
In
1877 Field resuscitates the New York
City elevated train system.13

Field dies poor because of shady
dealings of some of his financiers.14
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406.
2. ^ "Cyrus West
Field." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 19 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
3. ^ "Field, Cyrus W." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p406.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Cyrus West Field." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
8. ^ "Field, Cyrus W." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>.
9. ^ "Field, Cyrus W." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>.
10. ^ "Field, Cyrus W." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>.
11. ^ "Cyrus West Field." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
12. ^ "Cyrus West Field." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
13. ^ "Cyrus West Field." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406.
15. ^ "Field, Cyrus
W." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>.
16. ^ "Field, Cyrus W." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>. {07/1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus West Field".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_West_
Field
[2] "Cyrus West Field". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cyrus_We
st_Field
Atlantic Ocean15  
[1] Field, Cyrus West (1819 -
1892) Discipline(s): Science
Patron Original Dimensions: Graphic:
31 x 21.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x 25.9
cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F002-06a.jpg

[2] Cyrus West Field. Imperial
salted-paper print by the Mathew Brady
Studio 1858, National Portrait Gallery,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. secondary source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cyrus
Field.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/CyrusField.jpg
134 YBN
[09/??/1866 AD] 4 		3570)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ "Aleksandr
Butlerov." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
12 Sep. 2008 .
3. ^ Leicester, Henry M.
(1940). "Alexander Mikhailovich
Butlerov". Journal of Chemical
Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
4. ^ "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 . {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Mikhailovich
Butlerov." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-m
ikhailovich-butlerov
[2] "Butlerov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlerov
[3] "Butlerov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158.
[4] Arbuzov,
B. A. (1978). "150th Anniversary of the
birth of A. M. Butlerov". Russian
Chemical Bulletin 27 (9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/
[5] "Speyer." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/speyer
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia3
 
[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 5 		2949)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ "Carl Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
3. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
4. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi
5. ^ "Carl Jacobi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3197/Carl-Jacobi (1866)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav
_Jacob_Jacobi
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-gustav
-jakob-jacobi?cat=technology
[3] "Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Gus
tav_Jacob_Jacobi
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 (presumably) 
[1] Carl Jacobi (1804-1851) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Jacobi_%282%29.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 3 		3007) Johann von Lamont (lomoNT) (CE
1805-1879), Scottish-German
astronomer,1 publishes a major catalog
in six volumes (1866-74) of 34,674
small stars.

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp358-359.
2. ^ "Johann von
Lamont". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
6970/Johann-von-Lamont
3. ^ "Johann von Lamont." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-von-
lamont (1866-1874)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann von Lamont." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-von-
lamont
[2] "Johann Von Lamont". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_V
on_Lamont (1838)
[3] "Johann Von Lamont",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp516
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany2
 
[1] Johann Von Lamont
(1805-1879) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/sist_so
lar/images/lamont.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 6 7 		3140) Daubrée investigates methods of
origin and formation of minerals3
performing experiments on the
artificial production of minerals and
rocks4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p385.
2. ^
http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/timelin
e6.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p385.
4. ^ "Gabriel Auguste
Daubree". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gabriel_
Auguste_Daubree
5. ^ "Daubrée, Gabriel-Auguste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9438>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p385. (1866)
7. ^
http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/timelin
e6.html (1866)
(Ecole des Mines {Imperial School of
Mines}) Paris, France5  
[1] Gabriel Auguste Daubrée PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a3/Auguste_Daubree.gif
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 8 		3149)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p386.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p386.
4. ^ "Daniel
Kirkwood." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/daniel-kirk
wood
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p386.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Kirkwood, Daniel", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p489.
8. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p386. (1866)

MORE INFO
[1] "Kirkwood gaps."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5630>.
(Indiana University) Indiana, USA7
 
[1] Daniel Kirkwood PD/Corel
source: http://www.udel.edu/Archives/Arc
hives/images/pres/kirkwood.jpg

[2] This is a photo of American
astronomer Daniel Kirkwood (1814-1895),
who identified and explained the
''Kirkwood Gaps'' in the main asteroid
belt between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter and who explained that
Cassini's Division and Encke's Division
in the rings of Saturn are caused by
the gravitational effects of Saturn's
moons. PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/7b/Daniel_Kirkwood.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 13 		3162) Wunderlich publishes this as "Das
Verhalten der Eigenwärme in
Krankheiten." (Leipzig, Verlag von Otto
Wigand, 1866).11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp388-389.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp388-389.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/326
6.html
7. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/326
6.html
8. ^ "Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Reinho
ld_August_Wunderlich
9. ^ Mackowiak, P. A.; S. S. Wasserman,
M. M. Levine (1992-09-23). "A critical
appraisal of 98.6 degrees F, the upper
limit of the normal body temperature,
and other legacies of Carl Reinhold
August Wunderlich". JAMA 268 (12):
1578-1580.
doi:10.1001/jama.268.12.1578. Retrieved
on
2007-08-22. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cg
i/content/abstract/268/12/1578
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp388-389.
11. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/326
6.html
12. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/326
6.html
13. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/326
6.html (1866)
(Leipzig University) Leipzig, Germany12
 
[1] en:Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich,
(1815-1877) German physician and
medical scientist Source History of
Leipzig University,
http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~agintern/uni6
00/ug174.htm Date ? (Before
1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Carl_August_Wunderlic
h.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 5 		3267)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Adams, John Couch."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003668>
.
5. ^ "Adams, John Couch."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003668>
. (1866)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Couch Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
[2] "John Couch Adams." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
[3] "John Couch Adams." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
[4] "John Couch Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Couch_
Adams
[5] "John Couch Adams". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Cou
ch_Adams
(Cambridge Observatory) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] John Couch Adams PD
source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/I
mages/StarChild/scientists/adams_l1.jpg

[2] John Couch Adams. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68871&rendTypeId=4
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 9 		3357) I think it is possible that as a
realist and supporter of a mechanical
interpretation (for example
anti-vitalism), with this paper
Helmholtz tries to stop the growing
popularity of the abstract (and
inaccurate in my view) non-Euclidean
interpretation of space. However, it
seems clear that Helmholtz retreats and
abandons this effort within a few
years. In view of the massive growth of
a non-euclidean interpretation of the
universe with the theory of relativity,
it seems a good effort. Helmholtz
should have just let his single paper
stand as a historical objection and not
tried to smooth over and retreat from
the argument.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joan L. Richards, "The Evolution
of Empiricism: Hermann von Helmholtz
and the Foundations of Geometry", Brit.
J. Phil. Sci. a8 (1977),
p235-253. {Helmholtz_noneuclidean.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=8YaBuGc
mLb0C&pg=PA920&lpg=PA920&dq=%C3%9Cber+di
e+Thatsachen,+die+der+Geometrie+zum+Grun
de+liegen+geometry&source=web&ots=EJLcN0
mXsO&sig=7pRKAfGIDus0pQqSFUFEeBm219M&hl=
en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=resu
lt
4. ^ Joan L. Richards, "The Evolution
of Empiricism: Hermann von Helmholtz
and the Foundations of Geometry", Brit.
J. Phil. Sci. a8 (1977), p235-253.
{Helmholtz_noneuclidean.pdf}
5. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA253,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
"Helmholtz, Hermann
Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p408-410.
{1862}
9. ^ Joan L. Richards, "The Evolution
of Empiricism: Hermann von Helmholtz
and the Foundations of Geometry", Brit.
J. Phil. Sci. a8 (1977), p235-253.
{Helmholtz_noneuclidean.pdf} {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[6]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[7] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[8] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[9] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
[10] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[11] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[12] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz {1863}
[13] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1 {1863}
[14]
http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/R&H
.html http://books.google.com/books?i
d=u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_se
lected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA254,M1 {1863}
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany8  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 9 		3491)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ E.
Frankland F.R.S., "Contributions to the
notation of organic and inorganic
compounds", J. Chem. Soc., 1866, 19,
372.
http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals
/JS/article.asp?doi=JS8661900372 {Frank
land_Edward_Bond_1866.pdf}
4. ^ Colin A. Russell, "Edward
Frankland", Published by Cambridge
University Press, 2003,
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
o-2rWpwJevEC&pg=PA128&lpg=PA128&dq=edwar
d+frankland+bond&source=web&ots=kmaPiwTS
Kw&sig=-584qCUCLxf45dV-H5hb8e2Knd0&hl=en
&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#
PPA129,M1
5. ^ "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
6. ^ E. Frankland F.R.S.,
"Contributions to the notation of
organic and inorganic compounds", J.
Chem. Soc., 1866, 19, 372.
http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals
/JS/article.asp?doi=JS8661900372 {Frank
land_Edward_Bond_1866.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Edward Frankland,
(obituary) Minutes of Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
9. ^ "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
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(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
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Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
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<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
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http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
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[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton
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2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[7] "cacodyl." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
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2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[8] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
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rd_Frankland
[9] E. Frankland, "On the Influence of
Atmospheric Pressure upon Some of the
Phenomena of Combustion",
Journal Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 151, 1861,
p629-653. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/dk40422103500431/?p=9c8c616a
82c1407599247c232e8554b1π=26
(Royal Institution) London, England8
 
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 6 		3496)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ Dictionary of
National Biography,
http://books.google.com/books?id=TCYJA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=edward+frankland&as_
brr=1#PPA239,M1
3. ^ Philosophical Magazine, xxxi,
(1866), p485 , xxxii, (1866), p182.
4. ^
Edward Frankland, (obituary) Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
5. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
6. ^ Philosophical Magazine, xxxi,
(1866), p485 , xxxii, (1866), p182.

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Frankland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[2] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[3] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
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[4]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[5] Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie,
Bd. LXXI, s. 213, and journal of the
Chemical Society, vol. ii, p. 297.
[6] E.
Frankland, "On a New Series of Organic
Bodies Containing Metals",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=55e3df04
be284120b8404167191430abπ=19 and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
[7] "cacodyl." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[8] "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton
University, 2001. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[9] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327.
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
(Royal College) London, England5  
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 12 13 		3679)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Raymond Kane,
Raymond Kane and Heinz Sell,
"Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50
Years of Progress", The Fairmont Press,
Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
5. ^
http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0000302/abrams
_b.pdf
6. ^ Arpiarian, N. “The Centenary of
the Discovery of Luminescent Zinc
Sulphide.”, Proceedings of the
International Conference on
Luminescence, Budapest, (1966),
pp.903-906.
7. ^ Record ID3676. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0000302/abrams
_b.pdf
11. ^ William M. Yen, Shigeo Shionoya,
Hajime Yamamoto, "Fundamentals of
Phosphors", CRC Press, 2006,
p238. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZgJS52jG04YC&pg=PA238&dq=theodore+sidot&
as_brr=0&ei=jbpBSYCcJ4askAS5_63LDg#PPA23
8,M1
12. ^ Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I {1866}
13. ^ William
M. Yen, Shigeo Shionoya, Hajime
Yamamoto, "Fundamentals of Phosphors",
CRC Press, 2006,
p238. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZgJS52jG04YC&pg=PA238&dq=theodore+sidot&
as_brr=0&ei=jbpBSYCcJ4askAS5_63LDg#PPA23
8,M1 {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Phosphorescence".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
[2] "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>
[3] "Phosphorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus
[4] "luminescence." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
[5] "phosphor." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphor
[6] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulf
ide
[7] F. Licetus, Litheosphorus, sive de
lapide Bononiensi lucem in se conceptam
ab ambiente claro mox in tenebris mire
conservante, Utini, ex typ. N.
Schiratti, 1640. See
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[8] "Zinc sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_sulfid
e
(Sorbonne laboratory10 ) Paris,
France11  		 
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 15 16 17 18 		3695)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
3. ^ Record
ID2828. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record ID3108.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
6. ^ Henry De
Mosenthal, "The Life-Work of Alfred
Nobel", Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, v. 18 (Jan.-June
1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
7. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
9. ^ "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
10. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
12. ^ "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/alfred-
nobel/
15. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>. {1867}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463. {1866}
17. ^
"Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650. {patent)1867}
18. ^ Henry De Mosenthal,
"The Life-Work of Alfred Nobel",
Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, v. 18 (Jan.-June 1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
{1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[2] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[3] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[4] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bern
hard_Nobel
[5] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/indus
trial/articles/lundstrom/index.html
[7] Nobel's US patent with description
of dynamite, US#78,317 (1868-05-26)
Alfred Nobel, Improved explosive
compound. http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pd
f/foo.pl?number=78317
Paris, France14 (guess) 
[1] [t get better image of
dynamite] English: Diagram of
dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any
other type of absorbent material)
soaked in nitroglycerin. B.
Protective coating surrounding the
explosive material. C. Blasting
cap. D. Wire connected to the
blasting cap. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Dynamite-5.svg

[2] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 19 20 		3707) Haeckel's literary output is
enormous, and at the time of the
celebration of his sixtieth birthday at
Jena in 1894 Haeckel had produced 42
works with 13,000 pages, besides
numerous scientific memoirs.15

Building collections around his own,
Haeckel founded both the Phyletic
Museum in Jena and the Ernst Haeckel
Haus. The Haus contains Haeckel's books
and archives.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467.
2. ^ "Haeckel,
Ernst." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
750>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p338.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p338.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467.
6. ^ "Haeckel,
Ernst." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
750>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Haeckel, Ernst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
750>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p467.
12. ^ "Haeckel,
Ernst Heinrich Philipp August", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p385.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Ernst Heinrich
Haeckel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ernst_He
inrich_Haeckel
15. ^ "Ernst Heinrich Haeckel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ernst_He
inrich_Haeckel
16. ^ "Haeckel, Ernst." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
750>.
17. ^ "Haeckel, Ernst." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
750>.
18. ^ "Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp
August", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p385.
19. ^
"Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp
August", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p385.
{1866}
20. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p338. {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Haeckel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-haeck
el
[2] "Ernst Haeckel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-haeck
el
[3] "Ernst Haeckel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
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Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-haeck
el
[4] "Haeckel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haeckel
(Zoological Institute) Jena, Germany17
18  
[1] Ernst Haeckel: Christmas of 1860
(age 26) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Ernst_Haeckel_1860.jp
g

[2] Ernst Haeckel Library of
Congress PD
source: "Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich
Philipp August", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p385.
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 2 		3728)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p470-471.
2. ^ "Schiaparelli,
Giovanni Virginio." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
116>. {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Schiaparelli." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
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Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
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hiaparelli
[2] "Giovanni Schiaparelli." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
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[3] "Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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[4] "Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli".
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[5] "Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
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Scribner's Sons, (2000), p779-780.
[6]
http://www.bareket-astro.com/movies/come
t/69hesperia.html
(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy1
 
[1] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/GiovanniSchiaparelli.
jpg

[2] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://www.mallorcaweb.net/masm/
meteor/schiaparelli.gif
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 4 		3736) In 1874 Lockyer is awarded the
Rumsford medal.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
3. ^ Cortie, A.
L., "Sir Norman Lockyer, 1836-1920",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 53, p.233
(ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473. {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
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704>
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
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2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[5] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
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[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[7] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph
Norman" (Obituary Notice), Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 81, p.261 (MNRAS
Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261
[8]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
(at home, employed at War Office)
Wimbledon, England3  
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 9 10 		3744) Allbutt is also a health science
historian. Two of his most important
publications are" Diseases of the
Arteries, Including Angina Pectoris"
(1915) and "Greek Medicine in Rome"
(1921). Allbutt also edits "A System of
Medicine", 8 vol. (1896–99).5

Allbutt is a commissioner in lunacy
(from 1889 to 1892).6 (The word
"lunacy" is perhaps taken from the
Lunar society, which if true would be
evidence of an anti-science belief,
since the lunar society included some
of the smartest scientists. Perhaps
there was a theory that the moon is
linked to delusion or abnormal
behavior. In the 1800s, I think that
persecution by religious theory is
largely replaced by persecution by
psychology theory.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p473-474.
2. ^ "Allbutt, Sir
Thomas Clifford." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9005
775>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p473-474.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Allbutt, Sir Thomas Clifford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9005
775>.
6. ^ "Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Thom
as_Clifford_Allbutt
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J M S Pearce, "Sir Thomas
Clifford Allbutt", Journal of Neurology
Neurosurgery and Psychiatry
2003;74:1443. http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/c
ontent/full/74/10/1443
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p473-474. {1866}
10. ^
"Allbutt, Sir Thomas Clifford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9005
775>. {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Clifford Allbutt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Clif
ford_Allbutt
[2] "Clinical thermometer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_th
ermometer
(General Infirmary) Leeds, England8
 
[1] Allbutt, detail of a portrait by
Sir William Orpen The Mansell
Collection PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13529&rendTypeId=4
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 11 12 		3792)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
3. ^ "Kundt, August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
424>.
4. ^ "August Adolph Eduard Eberhard
Kundt". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_A
dolph_Eduard_Eberhard_Kundt
5. ^ Record ID2325. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "August
Adolph Eduard Eberhard Kundt".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_A
dolph_Eduard_Eberhard_Kundt
7. ^ A. Kundt, "Nachtrag zum Aufsatz",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 204 Issue 7,
1866, Page
496. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/cgi-bin/fulltext/112503038/PDFSTART tr
anslation?
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ A. Kundt,
"Nachtrag zum Aufsatz", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 204 Issue 7, 1866, Page
496. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/cgi-bin/fulltext/112503038/PDFSTART tr
anslation?
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487. {1866}
12. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p339. {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "August Adolph Eduard
Eberhard Kundt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Adol
ph_Eduard_Eberhard_Kundt
[2] "Kundt, August Adolph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p505.
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany10  
[1] August Kundt Both photographer and
subject are dead over 70 years.
Therefore in public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/AugustKundt.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 3 		6013)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Franz von Suppé." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/574614/Franz-von-Suppe>.
2. ^ "Franz von Suppé." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/574614/Franz-von-Suppe>.
3. ^ "Franz von Suppé." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/574614/Franz-von-Suppe>. {1866}
Vienna, Austria2  
[1] Description Deutsch: Franz von
Suppé English: Franz von Suppé PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Suppe_Franz_von.png
133 YBN
[12/19/1867 AD] 6 		3439)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ William Huggins,
"Description of a Hand
Spectrum-Telescope", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p241-243. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/r1581384p130n414/?p=c0fbb04e
13204c9f82248c86af6a33c2π=27 {Huggins_
Hand_Telescope_1867.pdf}
3. ^ William Huggins, "Description of a
Hand Spectrum-Telescope", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p241-243. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/r1581384p130n414/?p=c0fbb04e
13204c9f82248c86af6a33c2π=27 {Huggins_
Hand_Telescope_1867.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
6. ^ William Huggins, "Description of a
Hand Spectrum-Telescope", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p241-243. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/r1581384p130n414/?p=c0fbb04e
13204c9f82248c86af6a33c2π=27 {Huggins_
Hand_Telescope_1867.pdf} {12/19/1867}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[7]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[8] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[9]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[10] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[11] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[12] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[14] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[15] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[16] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[17] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
[19] William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Relative Behaviour of the H and
K Lines of the Spectrum of Calcium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 61, 1897,
p433-441. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w33711h437mkx432/?p=5225e8f0
1e454234a32634606346d6b6π=34 {Huggins_
Calcium_1897.pdf}
[20]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[21] William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Spectrum of the Spontaneous
Luminous Radiation of Radium at
Ordinary Temperatures",
Journal Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
72, 1903/1904,
p196-199. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w10432v5l31n1433/?p=892ba1bc
6f234e11b35a7cb1e3c129a5π=15 {Huggins_
Radium_1903.pdf} {07/17/1903}
[22] "Sir William
Huggins". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins {1903}
(Tulse Hill)London, England5  
[1] The achromatic object-glass marked
a is 1.2 inch in diameter, and has a
focal length of about 10 inches. The
eyepiece (b) consist of two
plano-convex lenses. As a large field
of view is of great inportance,
especially for its use as a
meteor-spectroscope, the field-lens is
made of nearly the same diameter as the
object-glass. ... before the
object-glass is fixed a direct-vision
prism (c), consisting of one prism of
dense flint glass, and two prisms of
crown glass. PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Hand_Telescope_1867.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 5 		2821)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p338.
2. ^ "Indium".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium
3. ^ "indium". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
2325/indium
4. ^ "Bergakademie Freiberg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergakademi
e_Freiberg
5. ^ "Indium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium
(1867)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinand Reich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_R
eich
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Ferdinand+Reich+?
cat=technology
[3]
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev/objev.htm (has portraits for
each element)
[4]
http://www.answers.com/precipitate
[5]
http://www.answers.com/indium?cat=health

[6]
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev/rei.htm
[7]
http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem
/in.html
(Freiberg University) Freiberg, Saxony,
Germany4  
[1] Ductile indium wire with a
thickness of about 3mm. Image taken by
User:Dschwen on January 5th 2006. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Indium_wire.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Reich
(1799-1882) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 6 		3147)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
5. ^ "Ångström, Anders Jonas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386. (1867)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Jonas Ångstrom." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anders-jona
s-ngstrom
[2] "Anders Jonas Angström".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Jona
s_Angstr%C3%B6m
[3] "Ångström, Anders Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp22-23
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden5  
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 11 		3176) In 1863 Rutherfurd becomes
convinced of the possibility of
obtaining better spectra by using a
diffraction
grating instead of prisms. The best
fine-ruled plates existing at the time
are those made by Nobertat Greifswald,
and largely employed for studying the
phenomena of interference and
determinations of wave-lengths.
Rutherfurd determines to prepare some
glass plates of this sort and adapt
them to a spectrometer. Nobert had
succeeded in ruling a few small groups
of lines on glass as tests for
microscopes with about 296 lines to the
millimeter—i. e., at intervals of
less than 3.4 microns—while for less
severe test-objects intervals of
eighteen microns sufficed; but his
method of ruling these and the
diffraction gratings is jealously
guarded as a "trade secret;" so that
Rutherfurd needs to devise and test his
own methods.
In 1867 Rutherfurd constructs an
elaborate ruling machine in which the
plate (holding a glass to be ruled8 )
is moved by a screw. Rutherfurd uses
wedge-shaped edged diamond points to
scratch the glass. By studying the
plates, Rutherfurd can
deduce the
nature and amount of the periodic error
of the screw and devises means for its
correction. Eventually Rutherfurd's
grating are better than those of
Nobert. The toothed wheels for this
machine Rutherfurd makes himself, on a
dividing circle more than two feet in
diameter, which he buys but refits. In
1870 Rutherfurd makes a grating on
glass, with 255 lines to the
millimeter. In 1875, or earlier,
Rutherfurd silvers the gratings with a
view to their more convenient
spectroscopic use, produces gratings
measuring about 16.4 millimeters by
24.5 millimeters and with 11,161 lines
at intervals of 680.4 to the
millimeter. Later still, similar
gratings are made on speculum metal, in
order to avoid the great wear upon the
diamond, and Mr. Chapman, his
assistant, produces a large number of
these. According to a biographer B. A.
Gould, with these gratings adjusted for
spectroscopic use Rutherfurd obtains,
from 1867 on, visual and photographic
results for the study of both solar and
stellar light, which command universal
admiration and are not equaled until
those of Draper many years later.9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p390.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
4. ^ "Rutherfurd,
Lewis Morris." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
5. ^ "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ B. A. Gould, "Memoir of Lewis
Morris Ruthurford 1816-1892",
(1895). http://books.nap.edu/html/biome
ms/lrutherfurd.pdf {Rutherfurd_Lewis_Mo
rris_Biography.pdf} (12/04/1862)
10. ^ B. A. Gould,
"Memoir of Lewis Morris Ruthurford
1816-1892",
(1895). http://books.nap.edu/html/biome
ms/lrutherfurd.pdf {Rutherfurd_Lewis_Mo
rris_Biography.pdf} (12/04/1862)
11. ^ B. A. Gould,
"Memoir of Lewis Morris Ruthurford
1816-1892",
(1895). http://books.nap.edu/html/biome
ms/lrutherfurd.pdf {Rutherfurd_Lewis_Mo
rris_Biography.pdf} (12/04/1862) (1867)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lewis Morris Rutherfurd."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rutherfurd-
lewis-morris
[2] "Lewis Morris Rutherfurd".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Morri
s_Rutherfurd
[3] "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p601
[4] Lewis M Rutherfurd.
"Astronomical Observations with the
Sectroscope", American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879), New
Haven: May 1863, Vol. 35, Iss. 103;
pp71-78. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlin
k?index=2&did=338972901&SrchMode=1&sid=2
&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VNa
me=HNP&TS=1211851299&clientId=48051 {Ru
therfurd_1863_Spectroscope.pdf}
[5] "Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4512>. (1863)
New York City, NY, USA10  
[1] [t Visible Spectra of sun, moon,
planets and stars black lines are
frequencies with no photons, notice sun
lines as reference for each] PD/Corel
source: Rutherfurd_1863_Spectroscope.pdf


[2] Scientist: Rutherford, Ernest
(1871 - 1937) Discipline(s): Physics
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.3 x 6.2 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R004-08a.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 5 		3184)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p390.
2. ^ "Ludwig, Carl
F.W.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Ludwig, Carl F.W.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>.
5. ^ "Ludwig, Carl F.W.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9277>. (1867)

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Ludwig." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-carl
-friedrich-wilhelm
[2] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedr
ich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[3] "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Ludwig
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Ludwig, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p440.
[6] Physician
and Surgeon, (Volume 27, Number 11,
November) 1905,
pp481-493. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=91cCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA481
(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany4  
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 15 		3210)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6512>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395.
7. ^ "Angelo Secchi."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi (1867)
8. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm
9. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Secchi, (Pietro)
Angelo", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p793.
15. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm (1867)

MORE INFO
[1] "Angelo Secchi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy14  
[1] Pietro Angelo Secchi (1818-1878),
Italian astronomer. Scientist:
Secchi, Angelo (1818 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 6.5 x 4.7 cm / Sheet: 10.5 x
6.5 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Angelo_Secchi.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 4 		3424)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p425.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
3. ^ "Alfred Russel Wallace."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634738/Alfred-Russel-Wallace>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p425. {1854} {1867}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Russel Wallace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_R
ussel_Wallace
[2] "Wallace, Alfred Russel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p919-920.
(around London) ?, England3  
[1] Description A.R. Wallace (age
24), 1848 Source Alfred Russel
Wallace: My Life (1905); Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page is
(was) here * 13:46, 5. Jun 2006
Holger.waechtler 599 x 802 (199.487
Byte) Date 1848; Commons upload by
Tohma 12:58, 5 June 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
_%2824%29.jpg

[2] Alfred Russel Wallace Français :
Photographie de Wallace prise à
Singapour en 1862. From
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15997 PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
_1862_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15997.pn
g
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 6 		3434)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p395.
2. ^ "Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
3. ^ Comptes Rendus, vol. lxviii,
p.761, and 'Le Soleil', Paris, 1870,
p354.
4. ^ "Note on the Spectrum of Uranus
and the Spectrum of Comet I., 1871",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 19,
1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
5. ^ "Secchi, (Pietro) Angelo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p793.
6. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13669a.h
tm {1867}

MORE INFO
[1] "Angelo Secchi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi
[2] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6512>.
[3] "Angelo Secchi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/angelo-secc
hi (1867)
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy5  
[1] Pietro Angelo Secchi (1818-1878),
Italian astronomer. Scientist:
Secchi, Angelo (1818 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 6.5 x 4.7 cm / Sheet: 10.5 x
6.5 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Angelo_Secchi.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 4 		3446)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
2. ^ "Janssen, Pierre
Jules César", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459.
3. ^
"Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_J
ules_Cesar_Janssen
4. ^ "Janssen, Pierre Jules César",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459. {1867}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Janssen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar
[2] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[3] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[4] "Pierre Janssen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jans
sen
(Possibly) Azores {archepelago in
Atlantic} or Trani {Apulia, Italy}3
(verify) 
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 6 7 		3485)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ "William
Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "siphon recorder."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 15
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/siphon-reco
rder
5. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
6. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin {1867}
7. ^
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/Patents.htm {1867}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p315
[6]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[7] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[8] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[9] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
[10]
Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[11] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland5  
[1] Thomson's siphon recorder from 1867
patent PD/Corel
source: http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Phy
sics3/Kelvin_online/siphon_recorder_Thom
son.gif

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 6 7 		3506)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
2. ^ "T.H. Huxley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
3. ^ "Thomas Henry Huxley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
4. ^ "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
5. ^ "Thomas Henry Huxley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
6. ^ "Huxley, Thomas Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p447-448. {1867}
7. ^ "T.H. Huxley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>. {1867-1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[2] "Huxley, Thomas Henry."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[3] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[4] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henr
y_Huxley
(Royal College of Surgeons) London,
England5  
[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 6 7 		3530) Gramme is an indifferent student,
prefering to work with his hands.3

In 1856 Gramme begins work in a Paris
factory that produces devices for the
infant electrical industry.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p341.
3. ^
"Zénobe-Théophile Gramme."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/240960/Zenobe-Theophile-Gramme>.
4. ^ "Zénobe-Théophile Gramme."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/240960/Zenobe-Theophile-Gramme>.
5. ^ "Zénobe-Théophile Gramme."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/240960/Zenobe-Theophile-Gramme>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438. {1867}
7. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p341. {1867}

MORE INFO
[1] "Zénobe-Théophile Gramme."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 02 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/z-nobe-gram
me
[2] "Zénobe Gramme". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A9nobe
_Gramme
[3] "Dynamo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dynamo
[4] "Gramme, Zénobe Théophile",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p369
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/gramme
.html
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Zénobe Gramme PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/gramme2.jpg

[2] Zénobe Gramme PD/Corel
source: http://depris.cephes.free.fr/aut
odidactes/Zenobe_GRAMME.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 4 		6004)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann II Strauss." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 2007. Answers.com 19
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-ii-s
trauss
2. ^ "Johann II Strauss." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 2007. Answers.com 19
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-ii-s
trauss
3. ^ "Johann II Strauss." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 2007. Answers.com 19
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-ii-s
trauss
4. ^ "Johann II Strauss." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 2007. Answers.com 19
Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-ii-s
trauss {1867}
Vienna, Austria3 (presumably) 
[1] Johann Strauss II (or Johann
Strauss the Younger, or Johann Strauss
Jr.) (October 25, 1825 - June 3,
1899) Source:
http://home.t-online.de/home/MV-herakubo
-strauss/hintergr.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Johann_Strauss_II_%28
3%29.jpg
133 YBN
[1867 AD] 3 		6014) Petrovich Modest Mussorgsky (CE
1839-1881), Russian composer, composes
"Night on Bald Mountain".1

FOOTNOTES
{1874}


Saint Petersberg, (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia2 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Modest
Musorsky Public Domain - photograph
of 1870 Date 1870 Source
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Modest_Musorgskiy%2C_
1870.jpg
132 YBN
[03/24/1868 AD] 4 		5834)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ZADOC P. DEDERICK, "IMPROVEMENT
IN STEAM-CARRIAGE", Patent number:
75874, Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 http://www.google.com/patents?id=d
6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs
_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ ZADOC P. DEDERICK, "IMPROVEMENT
IN STEAM-CARRIAGE", Patent number:
75874, Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 http://www.google.com/patents?id=d
6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs
_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ ZADOC P. DEDERICK, "IMPROVEMENT
IN STEAM-CARRIAGE", Patent number:
75874, Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 http://www.google.com/patents?id=d
6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs
_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ ZADOC P. DEDERICK, "IMPROVEMENT
IN STEAM-CARRIAGE", Patent number:
75874, Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 http://www.google.com/patents?id=d
6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs
_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
{03/24/1868}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.davidbuckley.net/DB/HistoryMa
kers/1868DederickSteamMan.htm
Newark, New Jersey, USA3  
[1] ZADOC P. DEDERICK, ''IMPROVEMENT IN
STEAM-CARRIAGE'', Patent number: 75874,
Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 http://www.google.com/patents?id=d
6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs
_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=g
bs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Image from: Patent number:
75874 Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 Inventor: ZADOC P. DEDERICK
source: http://www.davidbuckley.net/DB/H
istoryMakers/1868DederickSteamMan_files/
1868-DederickSteamMan600.jpg
132 YBN
[04/23/1868 AD] 10 		3435)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ William Huggins,
"On the Spectrum of the Great Nebula in
Orion, and on the Motions of Some Stars
towards or from the Earth", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf} {04/23/1868}
3. ^ William Huggins, "On the
Spectrum of the Great Nebula in Orion,
and on the Motions of Some Stars
towards or from the Earth", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf} {04/23/1868}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ William Huggins,
"On the Spectrum of the Great Nebula in
Orion, and on the Motions of Some Stars
towards or from the Earth", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
9. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
10. ^ William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf} {04/23/1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[19] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England9  
[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg
132 YBN
[06/23/1868 AD] 9 10 		6252)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p57.
2. ^ "typewriter." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/typewriter
3. ^ "typewriter." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/typewriter
4. ^ "typewriter." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/typewriter
5. ^ "Type Writing Machine.",
Scientific American, New (New York) 17
(1): 3, 1867-07-06, retrieved
2009-01-14
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Type Writing Machine.",
Scientific American, New (New York) 17
(1): 3, 1867-07-06, retrieved
2009-01-14
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p57.
9. ^
Sholes, Glidden & Soule, "Type Writing
Machine", Patent
79265 http://www.google.com/patents?id=
t7YAAAAAEBAJ {06/23/1868}
10. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p57. {1867}
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA8  
[1] Description Drawing for a
Typewriter, 06/23/1868. This is the
printed patent drawing for a typewriter
invented by Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W. Soule. From
the National Archives Date 23
June 1868 Source Patented Case
Files, 1836 - 1956; Records of the
Patent and Trademark Office; Record
Group 241; National Archives. (ARC
Identifier: 595503) Originally
uploaded by Brian0918 Author
Illustrator: Unknown Patent
assignees: Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W.
Soule Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain - published in USA
before 1923 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/TypewriterPatent1868.
jpg

[2] Image from: Sholes, Glidden &
Soule, ''Type Writing Machine'', Patent
79265 http://www.google.com/patents?id=
t7YAAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=t7YAAAAAEBAJ
132 YBN
[07/02/1868 AD] 6 		3432)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ "olefiant gas."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 16 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
lefiant gas>.
3. ^ William Huggins, "On the
Spectrum of Comet II., 1868.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 16,
1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
6. ^ William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf} {07/02/1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
(Tulse Hill)London, England5  
[1] [t Huggins comet comparison with
olefiant (ethylene) gas] PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

[2] Comet spectra PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".
132 YBN
[07/02/1868 AD] 6 		4020)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ William Huggins,
"Note on the Heat of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, v17, 1869,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CesAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309&lpg=PA309&dq=%22No
te+on+the+Heat+of+the+Stars%22&source=bl
&ots=KE46bXJotc&sig=-gbY5qNWVRYKJFccFGcC
qAA6j_A&hl=en&ei=Oo-qSqWCM42gswOpnsmCBQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v
=onepage&q=%22Note%20on%20the%20Heat%20o
f%20the%20Stars%22&f=false
3. ^ William Huggins, "Note on the Heat
of the Stars.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, v17, 1869,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CesAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309&lpg=PA309&dq=%22No
te+on+the+Heat+of+the+Stars%22&source=bl
&ots=KE46bXJotc&sig=-gbY5qNWVRYKJFccFGcC
qAA6j_A&hl=en&ei=Oo-qSqWCM42gswOpnsmCBQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v
=onepage&q=%22Note%20on%20the%20Heat%20o
f%20the%20Stars%22&f=false
4. ^ William Huggins, "Heat of the
Stars", Astronomical register, vol. 16,
p309. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/18
78AReg...16..309R
5. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
6. ^ William Huggins, "Note on the Heat
of the Stars.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, v17, 1869,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CesAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309&lpg=PA309&dq=%22No
te+on+the+Heat+of+the+Stars%22&source=bl
&ots=KE46bXJotc&sig=-gbY5qNWVRYKJFccFGcC
qAA6j_A&hl=en&ei=Oo-qSqWCM42gswOpnsmCBQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v
=onepage&q=%22Note%20on%20the%20Heat%20o
f%20the%20Stars%22&f=false {02/18/1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[18] "olefiant gas." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
16 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
lefiant gas>.
[19] William Huggins, "On the
Spectrum of Comet II., 1868.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 16,
1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53
(Tulse Hill)London, England5
(presumably) 
[1] figure from 02/18/2009 paper of
William Huggins - thermopile in
telescope[t] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CesAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309&lpg=PA309&dq=%22N
ote+on+the+Heat+of+the+Stars%22&source=b
l&ots=KE46bXJotc&sig=-gbY5qNWVRYKJFccFGc
CqAA6j_A&hl=en&ei=Oo-qSqWCM42gswOpnsmCBQ
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#
v=onepage&q=%22Note%20on%20the%20Heat%20
of%20the%20Stars%22&f=false

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
132 YBN
[09/??/1868 AD] 7 		3571)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ "Aleksandr
Butlerov." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
12 Sep. 2008 .
3. ^ "unsaturated." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/unsaturated

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Leicester, Henry
M. (1940). "Alexander Mikhailovich
Butlerov". Journal of Chemical
Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
7. ^ "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 . {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Mikhailovich
Butlerov." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-m
ikhailovich-butlerov
[2] "Butlerov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlerov
[3] "Butlerov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158
[4] Arbuzov,
B. A. (1978). "150th Anniversary of the
birth of A. M. Butlerov". Russian
Chemical Bulletin 27 (9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia6
 
[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png
132 YBN
[10/08/1868 AD] 14 15 		3922)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ "Boltzmann,
Ludwig", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116.
3. ^
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/bolt
z.htm
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ L. Boltzmann, "Studien
über das Gleichgewicht der lebendigen
Kraft zwischen bewegten materiellen
Punkten," Wien. Ber. 58, 517 (1868);
reprinted in Boltzmann's Abhandlungen,
Bd. 1, p. 49.
6. ^ "Boltzmann, Ludwig",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p115-116.
7. ^ "Foundations of
statistical mechanics 1845–1915",
Archive for History of Exact Sciences,
Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 4,
Number 3, January,
1967,p145-183. http://www.springerlink.
com/content/x48752278hl13853/
8. ^ "Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
562>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Prof. Ludwig
Boltzmann", (obituary), Nature,
10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
14. ^ "Boltzmann, Ludwig", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116. {1868}
15. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=bMQKAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=%22Studien+%C3%BCber+d
as+Gleichgewicht+der+lebendigen+Kraft+zw
ischen+bewegten+materiellen+Punkten%22&a
s_brr=1&ei=NSTCSe-oNISukASl0vz-DQ#PPA527
,M1 {10/08/1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltzmann, Ludwig Eduard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
519>
[2] "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[3] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[4] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[5] "Ludwig Boltzmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Bolt
zmann
[6] S.Rajasekar, N.Athavan, "Ludwig
Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047
[7] "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

[8] "Boltzmann factor." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltzmann-f
actor
[9] "Boltzmann factor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_f
actor
[10]
http://world.std.com/~mmcirvin/boltzmann
.html
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany)13  
[1] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg

[2] English: Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906), austrian
phyisicist Source
http://www.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~j
r/gif/phys/boltzmann2.jpg
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Boltzmann2.jpg
132 YBN
[11/23/1868 AD] 13 		3648)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"motion-picture technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394192/motion-picture-technology>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Louis Ducos du
Hauron." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
10 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Louis Ducos du
Hauron." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
10 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
13. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
{11/23/1868}
?, France12  
[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg

[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel

source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 7 		2677)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Royal Earl House". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Earl_
House
2. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65.
7. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p65. (1868)

MORE INFO
[1] "Royal House and the printing
telegraph". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
7477/Royal-House-and-the-printing-telegr
aph
New York City, New York, USA6   
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 4 		3036) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
publishes "Variation of Animals and
Plants under Domestication" (1868), in
which Darwin explores the causes of
variation in domestic breeds. Darwin
creates his hypothesis of "pangenesis"
to explain the discrete inheritance of
traits, imagining that each tissue of
an organism throws out tiny "gemmules",
which pass to the sex organs and permit
copies of themselves to be made in the
next generation. But Darwin's cousin
Francis Galton fails to find these
gemmules in rabbit blood, and the
theory is dismissed.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1868)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
Downe, Kent, England3
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 5 		3080)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
3. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
4. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
5. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1868)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5] "Robert
Bunsen." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany4  
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 9 		3418)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p553-535.
6. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
8. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
9. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7] René
Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth Emma Proby
Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His Life and
Labours", Longmans, Green, & co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[8] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France8  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 17 18 		3447)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
2. ^ "Pierre Jules
César Janssen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
3. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman"
(Obituary Notice), Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81, p.261 (MNRAS Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
5. ^ "Pierre Jules
César Janssen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
7. ^ Edward
Frankland, (obituary) Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
8. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>.
9. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman"
(Obituary Notice), Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81, p.261 (MNRAS Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Pierre Jules César Janssen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Pierre Jules César
Janssen." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
17. ^ "Pierre Jules César Janssen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen {1868}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p427-428. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Janssen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar
[2] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[3] "Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_J
ules_Cesar_Janssen
[4] "Janssen, Pierre Jules César",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459
[5] "Pierre
Janssen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jans
sen
[6] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[7] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[8] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[9] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[10] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551.
[11] Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[12]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
(?), India16  
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg

[2] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 8 9 		3495)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ Frankland,
Lockyer, "Preliminary Note of
Researches on Gaseous Spectra in
Relation to the Physical Constitution
of the Sun", Journal Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 17, 1868/1869,
p288-291. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/714t46272233x081/?p=4b4f4d0d
6db6416cb6955c3f69062267π=63 {Franklan
d_Lockyer_Helium_1868.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Sir Edward
Frankland". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Edward Frankland,
(obituary) Minutes of Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
8. ^ Frankland, Lockyer, "Preliminary
Note of Researches on Gaseous Spectra
in Relation to the Physical
Constitution of the Sun",
Journal Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
17, 1868/1869,
p288-291. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/714t46272233x081/?p=4b4f4d0d
6db6416cb6955c3f69062267π=63 {Franklan
d_Lockyer_Helium_1868.pdf} {02/11/1869}
9. ^ "Sir
Edward Frankland". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[7] Dictionary of National Biography
(1901) entry for Edward
Frankland http://books.google.com/books
?id=TCYJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=edward+fran
kland&as_brr=1#PPA238,M1
(Royal College) London, England7  
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 7 		3510) Erlenmeyer studies at Giessen
under Justus von Liebig and at
Heidelberg under Friedrich Kekulé,
both German chemists.3

Erlenmeye is among the first to adopt
structural formulas based on valence4 ,
Frankland's new theory5 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436-437.
2. ^ "Richard August
Carl Emil Erlenmeyer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
3. ^ "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 29
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ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
4. ^ "Richard August Carl Emil
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ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
5. ^ Record ID3489. Universe, Life,
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6. ^ "Richard
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Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
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ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
7. ^ "Richard August Carl Emil
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Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
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ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Erlenmeyer, Richard August
Carl EmilkUrbain-Jean-Joseph Le
Verrier", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p288
(Munich Polytechnic) Munich, Germany6
 
[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 5 		3523)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ "George
Johnstone Stoney." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-john
stone-stoney
3. ^ "George Johnstone Stoney." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-john
stone-stoney
4. ^ "Stoney, George Johnstone",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
5. ^ "George
Johnstone Stoney." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-john
stone-stoney {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Johnstone Stoney."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
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Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/567387/George-Johnstone-Stoney>.
[2] "George Johnstone Stoney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_John
stone_Stoney
(Queen's University) Dublin, Ireland4
 
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 4 		3661) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879)1 publishes "On a method of
making a direct comparison of
electrostatic with electromagnetic
force; with a note on the
electromagnetic theory of light.".2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ James C.
Maxwell, "On a method of making a
direct comparison of electrostatic with
electromagnetic force; with a note on
the electromagnetic theory of light.",
Phil. Trans 158, 1868, pp643-658; Royal
Soc. Proc. 16, 1868, pp449-450; Phil.
Mag 36, 1868, pp. 316-317; Brit. Assoc.
Rep. 39, 1869, pp436-438. Scientific
Papers Vol. 2. pp 125-143.
3. ^ "James Clerk
Maxwell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
4. ^ James C. Maxwell, "On a method of
making a direct comparison of
electrostatic with electromagnetic
force; with a note on the
electromagnetic theory of light.",
Phil. Trans 158, 1868, pp643-658; Royal
Soc. Proc. 16, 1868, pp449-450; Phil.
Mag 36, 1868, pp. 316-317; Brit. Assoc.
Rep. 39, 1869, pp436-438. Scientific
Papers Vol. 2. pp 125-143.

MORE INFO
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Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
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-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
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[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
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Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
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co.,
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[17] J. C. Maxwell, "On the Theory of
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[30] Electrodynamische
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[31] "Explicare
tentatur quomodo fiat ut lucis planum
polarizationis per vires electricas vel
magneticas declinatur" — Halis
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[32] "On the Possible Density
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[34]
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[35] Faraday, Exp. Res. Series XI.;
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(Modena), vol. XXIV. part II. p. 49.
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As, for instance, the composition of
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[39] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
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[42] (original footnote:) Leipzig
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[43] (original footnote:) Comptes
Rendus, Vol. XXIX. (1849), p. 90
[44]
(original footnote:) Ibid. Vol. LV.
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[45] (original
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[46] (original footnote:) Transactions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1854
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System").
[47] (original footnote:) The
horizontal magnetic force at Kew is
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[48] Charles
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[49] Maxwell, article "Ether" for the
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ZjlAw
Glenlair, England3  
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) Maxwell as a young man at
Cambridge (ca. 1854) holding the colour
top (Reproduced by permission of the
Master and Fellows of Trinity College
Cambridge). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 5 		3737)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^ "Lockyer, Sir
Joseph Norman" (Obituary Notice),
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 81, p.261
(MNRAS Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
3. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
4. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
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2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
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[5] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[7]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
(at home, employed at War Office) West
Hampstead, England4  
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 10 11 		3803) In 1875 Asimov claims Graebe
suffers a nervous breakdown, what
actually happens is an interesting
mystery. It looks like he lost all his
money in the inflation following WW I,
and died penniless.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490.
2. ^ "Graebe, Carl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
591>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Alizarin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alizarin

6. ^ "Dyeing". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dyeing
7. ^ "Graebe, Carl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
591>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490.
9. ^ "Graebe, Carl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
591>.
10. ^ "Graebe, Carl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
591>. {1868}
11. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p340. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Graebe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Graebe

[2] "Graebe, Karl James Peter", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
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(2000), p368.
[3] Maurice P. Crosland,
"Historical Studies in the Language of
Chemistry", Courier Dover Publications,
2004. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kwQQaltqByAC&pg=PA329&lpg=PA329&dq=Graeb
e+ortho+meta+para&source=web&ots=Z6903IU
CgQ&sig=4YeocW84y_x_XnJa7ofApm_T-i4
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany9
 
[1] Auf dem Bild ist Carl Graebe
abgebildet. Das Bild wurde am 13. Juli
1860 aufgenommen und ist somit älter
als 100 Jahre. Das Bild stammt aus dem
Archiv der Karlsruher Burschenschaft
Teutonia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/2/25/Carl_Graebe_1860-07-13.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD] 9 10 		3808)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491-492.
2. ^ "Breuer, Josef",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p137.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "respiration, human."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6614
3>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Hering-Breuer reflex."
Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary
Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C. Blood,
V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay, Elsevier,
2007. Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hering-breu
er-reflex
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491-492. {1868}
10. ^
"Breuer, Josef." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
389>. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Josef Breuer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breuer-jose
f
[2] "Josef Breuer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Breue
r
[3] "Sigmund Freud". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sigmund_
Freud
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany)8 (presumably) 
[1] Description Josef Breuer 1877
(35 years old). Published in his
Curriculum vitae. Reproduction from the
archive of Institute for the History of
Medicine, Vienna, Austria. Source
Albrecht Hirschmüller:
Physiologie und Psychoanalyse im Leben
und Werk Josef Breuers. Jahrbuch der
Psychoanalyse, Beiheft Nr. 4. Verlag
Hans Huber, Bern 1978. ISBN
3456806094. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Breuer_1877.jpg

[2] Josef Breuer in 1897 (Aet. 55 PD
source: http://www.pep-web.org/document.
php?id=se.002.0184.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 20 		3984) Westinghouse is the son of a
manufacturer of agricultural
implements, so as a child Westinghouse
has access to a machine shop.10
At age
15, Westinghouse designed and
constructed a rotary engine.11
Westingh
ouse serves in the union army in the
Civil War.12
Westinghouse accumulates
his fortune from the invention of the
air brake.13
Westinghouse is a prolific
inventor obtaining an average of more
than a patent a month during the
1880s.14
Over 400 patents are credited
to Westinghouse in his lifetime.15
Westi
nghouse's money is more or less
destroyed in the Panic of 1907.16
But
I imagine that much was restored in the
years after.17
Westinghouse dies in New
York March 12 1914. He was president of
some 30 corporations with a capital of
about $200,000,000, employing more than
50,000 persons.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ "George
Westinghouse." Who2? Biographies.
Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
6. ^ "George
Westinghouse". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
7. ^ "George Westinghouse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
8. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
11. ^ "George
Westinghouse". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
13. ^ "George
Westinghouse." Who2? Biographies.
Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
14. ^ "George Westinghouse."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
15. ^ "George Westinghouse." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
"George Westinghouse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
19. ^ "George Westinghouse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=144006

[2] Francis Ellington Leupp, "George
Westinghouse: his life and
achievements",
1918. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kyxVAAAAMAAJ&dq=George+Westinghouse:+His
+Life+and+Achievements&printsec=frontcov
er&source=bl&ots=bYX_7LBQuk&sig=LLulWodc
PtXz_paPRjS2eNcMUQ0&hl=en&ei=HjGcSofbLKD
nnQfqpv2nBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resul
t&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[3] Henry Goslee Prout, "A life of
George Westinghouse",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
K-BKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA287&dq=A+Life+of+Georg
e+Westinghouse#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Westinghouse Air Brake Company)
Pittsburg, PA, USA19  
[1] Westinghouse Steam and Air Brakes
(U.S. Patent
144,006) 10/28/1873 Description
Westinghouse Steam And Air
Brakes Source USP144006 Date
Author USP144006 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Z2NUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description George
Westinghouse.jpg George Westinghouse.
Library of Congress description:
''[George Westinghouse, half-length
portrait, facing front]'' Date
between 1900 and 1914 Source Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division [1], call number ''BIOG FILE -
Westinghouse, George, 1846-1914
[P&P]'' Author Joseph G.
Gessford PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/George_Westinghouse.j
pg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 9 10 		4049)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p514-515.
2. ^ S Jolles, "Paul
Langerhans", J Clin Pathol. 2002 April;
55(4): 243.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1769627
3. ^ Langerhans P., "Uber die nerven
der menschlichen haut.", Archives of
Pathological Anatomy
1868;44:325–37. http://books.google.c
om/books?id=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Pau
l+Langerhans+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=Paul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868
-1868&f=false in English "On the
nerves of the human skin"
4. ^ Online
'Mendelian Inheritance in Man' (OMIM)
Langerhans cell histiocytosis
-604856 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ent
rez/dispomim.cgi?id=604856
5. ^ Langerhans P., "Uber die nerven
der menschlichen haut.", Archives of
Pathological Anatomy
1868;44:325–37. http://books.google.c
om/books?id=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Pau
l+Langerhans+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=Paul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868
-1868&f=false in English "On the
nerves of the human skin"
6. ^ S Jolles,
"Paul Langerhans", J Clin Pathol. 2002
April; 55(4): 243.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1769627
7. ^ Langerhans P., "Uber die nerven
der menschlichen haut.", Archives of
Pathological Anatomy
1868;44:325–37. http://books.google.c
om/books?id=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Pau
l+Langerhans+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=Paul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868
-1868&f=false in English "On the
nerves of the human skin"
8. ^ "Langerhans,
Paul", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p518-519.
9. ^ S Jolles,
"Paul Langerhans", J Clin Pathol. 2002
April; 55(4): 243.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1769627 {1868}
10. ^
Langerhans P., "Uber die nerven der
menschlichen haut.", Archives of
Pathological Anatomy
1868;44:325–37. http://books.google.c
om/books?id=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Pau
l+Langerhans+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=Paul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868
-1868&f=false in English "On the
nerves of the human skin"

MORE INFO
[1] "Langerhans, islets of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
095>
[2] "Paul Langerhans." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/langerhans-
paul
[3] "Paul Langerhans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langer
hans
[4] "Langerhans cell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langerhans_
cell
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany8
 
[1] Langerhans cells from Table 12 of
1868 paper. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Paul+Langerhan
s+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Pa
ul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868-1868&f=fal
se

[2] German physician, Paul Langerhans
(1847-1888), discoverer of islets of
langerhans. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Paul_Langerhans.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 4 		6005) According to Encyclopedia
Britannica Brahms can be viewed as the
protagonist of the Classical tradition
of Joseph Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven
in a period when the standards of this
tradition are questioned or overturned
by the Romantics, and also that in
Vienna, Brahms' music suffers constant
attacks by the Wagnerites.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Brahms." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2011. Answers.com
19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-br
ahms
2. ^ "Johannes Brahms." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/77209/Johannes-Brahms>.
3. ^ "Johannes Brahms." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/77209/Johannes-Brahms>.
4. ^ "Brahms's Lullaby". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahms%27s_
Lullaby {1868 (published) (verify}
Vienna, Austria3 (presumably) 
[1] Johannes Brahms,
1853. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc. PD
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media//50/76550-050-79486108.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 3 		6015) Edvard (Hagerup) Grieg (CE
1843-1907), Norwegian composer,
composes "Piano Concerto in A minor"
(opus 16).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edvard Grieg." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edvard-grie
g
2. ^ "Edvard Grieg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/246022/Edvard-Grieg>.
3. ^ "List of compositions by Edvard
Grieg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Edvard_Grieg {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edvard Grieg." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edvard-grie
g
(Christiania now) Oslo, Norway2  
[1] escription English: Portrait of
Edvard Grieg, looking left. Carte de
visite with signature: the portrait was
published in The Leisure Hour
(1889).[1] An engraving of it was made
by T. Johnson and published in The
Century (1894).[2] Deutsch: Poträt
mit Edvard Grieg, nach links blickend.
Visitenkartenporträt mit
Unterschrift. Date March
1888 Source
http://www.bergen.folkebibl.no/cgi-bi
n/websok-grieg?mode=p&tnr=241950&st=a I
mmediate image source: Bergen Off.
Bibliotek: Griegsamlingen, image
#0241950 (Warning: the site has
misidentified the photograph; see the
cabinet card version page for details
of actual origin.) Author Elliott
& Fry: Joseph John Elliott
(1835–1903) and Clarence Edmund Fry
(1840–1897). Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Edvard_Grieg_%281888%
29_by_Elliot_and_Fry_-_02.jpg
131 YBN
[01/15/1869 AD] 53 54 		3315)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
2. ^ John Tyndall,
"On Chemical Rays, and the Light of the
Sky.", Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
3. ^ "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ John Tyndall, "On
Chemical Rays, and the Light of the
Sky.", Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ J. W. Strutt, "On the
Light from the Sky, its Polarization
and Colour.", Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol.
41, Feb 1871, p.107-120,274-279.
8. ^ Record ID3835.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Tyndall, John." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
10. ^ John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
11. ^ (original footnote:) Herschel's
'Meteorlogy,' Art. 233.
12. ^ (original
footnote:) 'Lectures on Sound,' p. 3
(Longmans.) Vol. V: (No. 49.)
13. ^
(original footnote:) I was not aware
when these words were written that this
observation was made by the
indefatigable Brewster. {ULSF: identify
which work and Brewster's particle
interpretation of polarization of light
from the sky}
14. ^ Record ID2522. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^
(original footnote:) Possibly a
photographic impression might be taken
long before the blue becomes visible,
for the ultra-blue rays are first
reflected. {ULSF: Was this done? If
light is a particle, I doubt a
phenomenon of an increase and then
decrease in ultra-violet passing into
violet then blue reflection would be
observed.}
16. ^ (original footnote:) For which I
have to thank the oblidging kindness of
Dr. Maxwell Simpson, F.R.S.
17. ^ John
Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays, and the
Light of the Sky.", Philosophical
Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
27. ^ "amyl nitrite." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 15 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/amyl-nitrit
e
28. ^ "vasodilator." Encyclopedia of
Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vasodilator

29. ^ "Amyl nitrite". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_nitrit
e
30. ^
http://epa.gov/ttn/atw/nsps/socww/pt60ap
pj.pdf#search=%221002-16-0%201-Pentyl%20
%22
31. ^ "Amyl nitrate." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/amyl-nitrat
e-2
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ "Amyl nitrite".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_nitrit
e
34. ^ "Amyl nitrate." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/amyl-nitrat
e-2
35. ^ Annual Report of the Board of
Regents of the Smithsonian Institute,
1888-1889,
p229. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LXIbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=spectrum+blue+s
ky+date:1700-1800&ei=-1R-SciLJ4PAlQSj8Lz
5CQ#PPA229,M1
36. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit of
the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
37. ^ Ted
Huntington.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted
Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Ted
Huntington.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ Ted Huntington.
46. ^ Ted
Huntington.
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Ted
Huntington.
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ Ted Huntington.
52. ^ "Tyndall,
John", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp891-892.
53. ^ John
Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays, and the
Light of the Sky.", Philosophical
Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429 {01/15/1869}
54. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyndall, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>
[2] "Tyndall, John." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[3] "John Tyndall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndal
l
[4] "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
[5] John Tyndale, "Faraday as a
Discoverer", D. Appleton,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wskKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=John
+Tyndall&as_brr=1
[6] John Tyndall, "Heat a Mode of
Motion", D. Appleton and Company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3DUJAAAAIAAJ&dq=John+Tyndall&as_brr=1
[7] "Butyl nitrate". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butyl_nitra
te
(Royal Institution) London, England52
 
[1] Figure from Tyndall 1869 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429#PPA435,M1

[2] Amyl nitrite C5H11NO2 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy
l_nitrite
131 YBN
[01/30/1869 AD] 14 		4839)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Marylyn Parins, "Sir Thomas
Malory: the critical heritage",
1995. http://books.google.com/books?id=
l2TuDbN4q9oC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=james
+t+knowles&source=bl&ots=zLdwZ20YN0&sig=
l7WX6xIuntU4hxGA0NSijKfGKuo&hl=en&ei=E07
kTPWuBo7CsAOkz6lm&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAQ#v
=onepage&q=james%20t%20knowles&f=false
2. ^ "The Twentieth century", Volume
11, p900,
06/1832. http://books.google.com/books?
id=noQPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA900&dq=brain+waves&
hl=en&ei=hNvDTMfEDoygsQPa88CPDA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEwQ
6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=brain%20waves&f=false

3. ^ J.T.K., "Brain Waves: A theory",
The Spectator, 01/30/1869.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Yr0-A
QAAIAAJ&pg=135 {Knowles_James_18690130.
pdf}
4. ^ James Knowles, "The Twentieth
Century", Volume 45, 1899,
p858. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VAADAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA858&lpg=PA858&dq=%22A+
collection+of+authenticated+ghost+storie
s+relating%22&source=bl&ots=vckDukC9Jc&s
ig=utc3VF95O58EuOt0gOa7rm7ItUU&hl=en&ei=
Lk3kTKXYGpLUtQPT7-xm&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&sqi=2&ved=0CCMQ6AEwA
w#v=onepage&q=%22A%20collection%20of%20a
uthenticated%20ghost%20stories%20relatin
g%22&f=false
5. ^ "Sir James Knowles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Knowles
6. ^ "Brain Waves: A theory", The
Spectator,
01/30/1869. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135 {Brain-Waves_
The_Spectator_18690130.pdf} and
{Knowles_James_18690130.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. T. K., "Brain Waves: A
theory", The Spectator,
01/30/1869. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135 {Brain-Waves_
The_Spectator_18690130.pdf} and
{Knowles_James_18690130.pdf}
9. ^ Eliakim Littell, Robert S.
Littell, Making of America Project,
"The living age", Volume 222, 1899,
p100. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lnJyembwQxsC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ J.T.K., "The Hypothesis
of Brain Waves", The Spectator,
01/30/1869,
p133. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=133
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Twentieth
century", Volume 11, p900,
06/1832. http://books.google.com/books?
id=noQPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA900&dq=brain+waves&
hl=en&ei=hNvDTMfEDoygsQPa88CPDA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEwQ
6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=brain%20waves&f=false

14. ^ J.T.K., "Brain Waves: A theory",
The Spectator,
01/30/1869. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135 {Brain-Waves_
The_Spectator_18690130.pdf}
and {Knowles_James_18690130.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Knowles (architect)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Knowl
es_(architect)
London, England13 (presumably)  
131 YBN
[02/12/1869 AD] 9 		3356) There is an interesting potential
similarity in a capacitor connected to
an inductor with a permanent magnet, in
that, perhaps running through the
center of a permanent magnet is a
capacitor where particles accumulate,
and then dissipate through the inductor
channels that run around the outer
layers. it seems like there are two
particle centers at each pole of a
permanent magnet, so perhaps this
theory is wrong. beyond that, how does
a permanent magnet, continue to supply
particles without losing them to heat
as a typical inductor-capacitor circuit
eventually does? Is there some constant
supply of free electrons, like some
kind of internal battery, in permanent
magnets?6

This is a major find, but is not listed
in most major sources, is this because
of the nature of electrical
oscillations relation to secret thought
seeing and spying technology or lack of
science education and understanding on
the part of historians?7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Leo Koenigsberger,
Frances Alice Welby, "Hermann Von
Helmholtz", Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA268,M1
3. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), p411-432.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/228514?seq
=7 {Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
4. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand, "Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen", J.A. Barth, 1882.
p526-530.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
09Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA526,M1
5. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA268,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Leo
Koenigsberger, Frances Alice Welby,
"Hermann Von Helmholtz", Clarendon
Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA268,M1
9. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA268,M1
{02/12/1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[7] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[8]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[9] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[10] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[11] Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen",
"Scientific Papers" (2 vol,
1882,1883) Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
TOC: vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=0Wo
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:09Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPP15,M1
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zW
oSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR27&dq=Wissenschaftliche+
Abhandlungen+helmholtz&as_brr=1#PPR37,M1
vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=4z4AAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP17,M1
[12] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[13] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[14] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[15] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
[16] "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410
[17] Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Ueber elektrische Oscillationen",
Verhdlgn. des naturh.-med. Vereins zu
Heidelberg. Bd. V, S, 27-31. -
Tageblatt der 43. Versammlung deutscher
Naturforscher und Aerzte zu Innsbruck
im September 1869. S. 105-108.
Abgedruckt in Wissenschaftl.
Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S. 531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1 {04/30/1869}
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany8  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
131 YBN
[02/18/1869 AD] 10 11 		4050)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p514-515.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p514-515.
3. ^ S Jolles,
"Paul Langerhans", J Clin Pathol. 2002
April; 55(4): 243.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1769627
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p514-515.
5. ^ "Langerhans,
islets of." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
23 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
095>.
6. ^ "Langerhans, islets of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
095>.
7. ^ "Langerhans, islets of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
095>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Langerhans, Paul",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p518-519.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p514-515. {1869}
11. ^
"Langerhans, Paul", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p518-519. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Langerhans." The
American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/langerhans-
paul
[2] "Paul Langerhans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langer
hans
[3] Langerhans P., "Uber die nerven der
menschlichen haut.", Archives of
Pathological Anatomy
1868;44:325–37. http://books.google.c
om/books?id=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Pau
l+Langerhans+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=Paul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868
-1868&f=false in English "On the
nerves of the human skin"
[4] "Langerhans
cell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langerhans_
cell
[5] Paul Langerhans, "Beiträge zur
mikroskopischen Anatomie der
Bauchspeicheldrüse.
Inauguraldissertation.", 02/18/1869.
Berlin. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=syAEPAAACAAJ&dq=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+mikr
oskopischen+Anatomie+der+Bauchspeicheldr
%C3%BCse.
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany9
 
[1] Langerhans cells from Table 12 of
1868 paper. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Paul+Langerhan
s+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Pa
ul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868-1868&f=fal
se

[2] German physician, Paul Langerhans
(1847-1888), discoverer of islets of
langerhans. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Paul_Langerhans.jpg
131 YBN
[03/06/1869 AD] 26 27 		3703) Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev
(meNDelAeF) (CE 1834-1907), Russian
chemist4 publishes his first periodic
table of elements.5
The problem of
inaccurate atomic weights was solved by
Stanislao Cannizzaro. Attempts to
organize the chemical elements by
increasing atomic weights had already
been made by Alexandre Émile Béguyer
de Chancourtois and by John Alexander
Reina Newlands.6

Mendeléev, like Newlands and Beguyer
de Chancourtois before him, starts to
arrange the elements in order of atomic
weight. Immediate he finds an
interesting thing in connection with
the property of valence, a concept put
forward 15 years before by Frankland.
Mendeléev finds that the first row,
starting with Lithium, has a valence of
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1 In this time, 63
elements are known. Mendeléev arranges
the elements in rows so that elements
with similar valence fall into a
vertical column. These elements also
show similarities in many other
chemical properties (like what?
appearance? density?7 ). Mendeléev's
table differs from Newlands' table in
that Newlands tried to force all the
elements into equal segments containing
6 elements each, where Mendeléev
recognizes that while the first two
periods contain seven elements, the
next contain seventeen each.8
Asimov
writes that for the first time in the
history of science, the work of a
Russian scientist is quickly
recognized.9
Mendeléev states the
periodic law "Elements placed according
to the value of their atomic weights
present a clear periodicity of
properties".10 (Mendeléev does not
use word atomic "mass"?11 )
The majority
of scientists do not accept
Mendeléev's periodic law; the first
textbook on organic chemistry to be
based on the law is published in 1874
by Richter in St. Petersburg.12

The periodic table and accompanying
observations are first presented to the
Russian Chemical Society on March 6,
1869. Mendeleev's colleague Nikolai
Menshutkin presents his paper because
Mendeleev is inspecting dairies in
Tversk.13 The paper is then published
in the first volume of the new
society's journal. This paper is titled
"Sootnoshenie svoistv s atomnym vesom
elementov" ("The Relation of the
Properties to the Atomic Weights of the
Elements") in the "Zhurnal Russkoe
Fiziko-Khimicheskoe Obshchestvo"
(Journal of the Russian Chemical
Society). That same year, a German
abstract of the paper, consisting of
the table and eight comments, is
published in "Zeitschrift für
Chemie".14

In the translated abstract mendeleev
writes (translated from a German
translation of Russian):
"On the
Relationship of the Properties of the
Elements to their Atomic Weights

By ordering the elements according to
increasing atomic weight in vertical
rows so that the horizontal rows
contain analogous elements, still
ordered by increasing atomic weight,
one obtains the following arrangement,
from which a few general conclusions
may be derived.

(see image)

1. The elements, if arranged
according to their atomic weights,
exhibit an evident stepwise variation
of properties.
2. Chemically analogous elements
have either similar atomic weights (Pt,
Ir, Os), or weights which increase by
equal increments (K, Rb, Cs).
3. The
arrangement according to atomic weight
corresponds to the valence of the
element and to a certain extent the
difference in chemical behavior, for
example Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F.
4. The
elements distributed most widely in
nature have small atomic weights, and
all such elements are marked by the
distinctness of their behavior. They
are, therefore, the representative
elements; and so the lightest element H
is rightly chosen as the most
representative.
5. The magnitude of the atomic
weight determines the properties of the
element. Therefore, in the study of
compounds, not only the quantities and
properties of the elements and their
reciprocal behavior is to be taken into
consideration, but also the atomic
weight of the elements. Thus the
compounds of S and Tl {sic--Te was
intended}, Cl and J, display not only
analogies, but also striking
differences.
6. One can predict the discovery of
many new elements, for example
analogues of Si and Al with atomic
weights of 65-75.
7. A few atomic weights
will probably require correction; for
example Te cannot have the atomic
weight 128, but rather 123-126.
8. From the
above table, some new analogies between
elements are revealed. Thus Bo (?)
{sic--apparently Ur was intended}
appears as an analogue of Bo and Al, as
is well known to have been long
established experimentally.".15

Some historians argue that the periodic
system is the result of the efforts of
six scholar with William Odling (CE
1829-1921) taking priority in
publishing a periodic table before
Mendeleev.16 17 18

The major drawbacks of Mendeleev's
table are that it has difficulty in
accommodating the rare-earth group and
that no provision is made for the
chemically inert elements, helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and
radon.19

(It seems interesting to me that the
order of element rows goes 2 8 8 18 18
32 32, which appears to have a dual
nature in growing size, as opposed to a
spherical growth which would, in my
view, be a linear or exponential series
such as 2 8 18 32 48 etc. Does this
reflect a dual nature of the atom?20 )

It is surprising but I cannot find an
English translation of Mendeleev's
classical 1869 paper.21

(I still think there is more to
understand about the atoms and the
periodic table, because why does it
have a dual nature as opposed to
spherical nature? Are there two parts
to every atom that must be completed
before going to the next level? Is the
atom made of moving parts, statics
parts, or both? Why are zinc and
cadmium a solid, but when we get to
mercury it is a liquid. What is special
and different about Technetium, why is
it not more like Manganese and Rhenium
(non radioactive), and why is Tc, a
radioactive element, in the middle of
nonradioactive elements? Interesting
that Copper and Gold are some of the
only non-gray metals, and are both in
the same column, but Silver is in
between them, what explains this color
difference? Why do the other elements
reflect/absorb different wavelengths of
visible light?22 )

(It is also interesting that there are
no valences higher than 7.23 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
6. ^ "Dmitri
Mendeleev." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
10. ^ "Mendeleev,
Dmitry Ivanovich", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p596-597.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry
Ivanovich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p596-597.
13. ^ Heinz Cassebaum, George B.
Kauffman, "The Periodic System of the
Chemical Elements: The Search for Its
Discoverer", Isis, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Autumn, 1971), pp.
314-327. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
9945?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=7&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle {Mendeleev_Dmitri_Is
is_1971.pdf}
14. ^ D. I. Mendeleev, "Sootnoshenie
svoistv s atomnym vesom elementov" (The
Relation of the Properties to the
Atomic Weights of the Elements),
Zhurnal Russkoe Fiziko-Khimicheskoe
Obshchestvo 1, 60-77 (1869) (Journal of
the Russian Chemical Society);
abstracted as "Uber die Beziehungen der
Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der
Elemente," in Zeitschrift für Chemie
12, 405-406 (1869); Note: I know of no
translation to English of the original
Mendeleev paper. abstract translated
and annotated
here: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/ea
/MENDELEEVann.HTML
15. ^ D. I. Mendeleev, "Sootnoshenie
svoistv s atomnym vesom elementov" (The
Relation of the Properties to the
Atomic Weights of the Elements),
Zhurnal Russkoe Fiziko-Khimicheskoe
Obshchestvo 1, 60-77 (1869) (Journal of
the Russian Chemical Society);
abstracted as "Uber die Beziehungen der
Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der
Elemente," in Zeitschrift für Chemie
12, 405-406 (1869); Note: I know of no
translation to English of the original
Mendeleev paper. abstract translated
and annotated
here: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/ea
/MENDELEEVann.HTML
16. ^ Heinz Cassebaum, George B.
Kauffman, "The Periodic System of the
Chemical Elements: The Search for Its
Discoverer", Isis, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Autumn, 1971), pp.
314-327. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
9945?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=7&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle {Mendeleev_Dmitri_Is
is_1971.pdf}
17. ^ W. Odling, "On the Natural
Groupings of Elements," Phil. Mag.,
1857, 13:423-439, 480-497.
18. ^ W. Odling, "On
the Proportional Numbers of the
Elements," Quarterly Journal of
Science, 1864,1: 642-648.
19. ^ "Dmitri
Mendeleev." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry
Ivanovich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p596-597.
25. ^ "Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
{03/06/1869}
27. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p342. {03/06/1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dmitri Mendeleev." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[2] "Dmitri Mendeleev." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[3] "Dmitri Mendeleev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mend
eleev
[4] "Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleeff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dmitri_I
vanovich_Mendeleeff
[5]
http://starina.library.tver.ru/us-35-1.h
tm
[6] Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev, George
Kamensky, Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
Translated by George Kamensky,
Contributor Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
"The Principles of Chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co.,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OqKMCLnvcdEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
Principles+of+Chemistry&as_brr=1&ei=_W9U
SfWmO4PAlQTOw7SEBA#PPP7,M1 1901
edition: http://www.archive.org/details
/principlesofchem00menduoft
[7] Stephen G. Brush, "The Reception of
Mendeleev's Periodic Law in America and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 87, No. 4 (Dec.,
1996), pp.
595-628. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
5195?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=5&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[8] Mendeleev, "The Periodic Law of the
Chemical Elements", Journal of the
Chemical Society By Chemical Society
(Great Britain), Royal Society of
Chemistry (Great
Britain) http://books.google.com/books?
id=Dtg4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA634&dq=The+Periodic
+Law+of+the+Chemical+Elements&ei=OndUSfk
ujZyRBJbOvd8D#PPA634,M1
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia24 25  
[1] Table from abstract of 1869
paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12,
405-406 (1869); PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea
chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel
op/mendel4.jpg

[2] Draft for first version of
Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February
1869). Courtesy Oesper Collection,
University of Cincinnati. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
meyer-mendeleev1.jpg
131 YBN
[04/30/1869 AD] 13 		3353) In 1870 Gustav Magnus' death
leaves an opening the prestigious chair
of physics at the University of Berlin.
Helmholtz and Kirchhoff are the primary
candidates, Kirchhoff is preferred but
refuses the post, and Helmholtz
accepts, but Helmholtz requires $4,000
taler a year plus the construction of a
new physics institute to be under his
full control, to which Prussia readily
agrees to his terms.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA268,M1 German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=3i1WAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_Vie
wAPI#PPR7,M1
2. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Ueber
elektrische Oscillationen", Verhdlgn.
des naturh.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg.
Bd. V, S, 27-31. - Tageblatt der 43.
Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und
Aerzte zu Innsbruck im September 1869.
S. 105-108. Abgedruckt in
Wissenschaftl. Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S.
531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1
3. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA268,M1 German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=3i1WAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_Vie
wAPI#PPR7,M1
4. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Ueber
elektrische Oscillationen", Verhdlgn.
des naturh.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg.
Bd. V, S, 27-31. - Tageblatt der 43.
Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und
Aerzte zu Innsbruck im September 1869.
S. 105-108. Abgedruckt in
Wissenschaftl. Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S.
531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1
5. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Ueber elektrische Oscillationen",
Verhdlgn. des naturh.-med. Vereins zu
Heidelberg. Bd. V, S, 27-31. -
Tageblatt der 43. Versammlung deutscher
Naturforscher und Aerzte zu Innsbruck
im September 1869. S. 105-108.
Abgedruckt in Wissenschaftl.
Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S. 531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1
8. ^ Thomas Preston, "The Theory of
Light", Macmillan and Co.,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JxoJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA538&lpg=PA538&dq=kelvi
n+1853+oscillation&source=web&ots=ubllj9
3e8h&sig=BDGP8dDfpaqgbST6LVTcBwIJWbM&hl=
en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=resul
t#PPA542,M1
9. ^ "Electrokinetics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrok
inetics
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann
Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p408-410.
12. ^
"Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
13. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Ueber elektrische Oscillationen",
Verhdlgn. des naturh.-med. Vereins zu
Heidelberg. Bd. V, S, 27-31. -
Tageblatt der 43. Versammlung deutscher
Naturforscher und Aerzte zu Innsbruck
im September 1869. S. 105-108.
Abgedruckt in Wissenschaftl.
Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S. 531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1 {04/30/1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[7] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[8]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[9] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[10] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[11] Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen",
"Scientific Papers" (2 vol,
1882,1883) Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
TOC: vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=0Wo
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:09Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPP15,M1
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zW
oSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR27&dq=Wissenschaftliche+
Abhandlungen+helmholtz&as_brr=1#PPR37,M1
vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=4z4AAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP17,M1
[12] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[13] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[14] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany12  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
131 YBN
[06/01/1869 AD] 36 37 		4006) Edison is the son of a Canadian
person whose grandfather was a US Tory
who fled to Canada after the
Revolutionary War. Edison's father fled
back to the USA after the Canadian
rebellion of 1837.5
Edison as a child
asks many questions, is reconized as
unusual by neighbors, and a
schoolteacher tells his mother that he
is "addled". Furious, Edison's mother
takes him out of school and home
schools him, being a teacher by
profession.6
Edison is a fast reader,
and remembers almost everything he
reads.7
Edison builds himself a
chemical laboratory, and to get money
for chemicals and equipment, he starts
to work at the age of 12 as a newsboy
on a train between Port Huron and
Detroit, in the state of Michigan.
During the stop at Detroit Edison
spends his time in the library (which
is evidence of the value of libraries
in contributing to science and general
education on earth8 ).9
In 1862, using
his small handpress in a baggage car,
Edison writes and prints a weekly
newspaper, the "Grand Trunk Herald",
which is circulates to 400 railroad
employees.10 This is the first
newspaper ever to be printed on a
train.11

Edison uses earnings from this paper to
make a chemical laboratory in the
baggage car, but a chemical fire
starts, and he and his equipment are
thrown off the train.12
In 1862 Edison
rescues a small boy on the train
tracks, and the grateful father, who
has no money, offers to teach Edison
telegraphy. As a telegrapher Edison
earns enough money to buy the writings
of Faraday which solidifies his
interest in electrical technology.13

In 1869 Edison goes to New York City to
find employment, and while in a
broker's office waiting to be
interviewed, a telegraph machine breaks
down, Edison is the only person there
who can fix it, and is promptly offered
a better job than he had expected to
get.14
Edison sells a stock ticker he
builds for $40,000 to the president of
a large Wall Street firm. (Edison
wanted to ask for $5,000 but lacked the
courage, and so asked the president to
make an offer.) Edison uses this money
to start a firm of consulting
engineers, and for the next six years
works in Newark, New Jersey.15

Edison works 24 hours a day sleeping in
small naps.16

From 1870 to 1875 Edison invents many
telegraphic improvements: transmitters;
receivers; the duplex (transmits and
receives telegraph messages on the same
wire17 ), quadruplex, and sextuplex
systems; and automatic printers and
tape.18

In 1876 Edison creates a laboratory in
Menlo Park, New Jersey19 , 12 miles
south of Newark20 , the first
industrial research laboratory on
earth21 . This lab will be an invention
factory, and Edison eventually has as
many as 80 scientists working for
him.22

Around 1900 Edison loses all his money
in an effort to develop a new method of
dealing with iron ore. (need more
info23 )24

When eight thousands attempts to create
a new storage battery fail, Edison
famously states "Well, at least we know
eight thousands things that don't
work.".25

During World War I Edison heads the
U.S. Navy Consulting Board and
contributes 45 inventions, including
substitutes for previously imported
chemicals (especially carbolic acid, or
phenol), defensive instruments against
U-boats, a ship-telephone system, an
underwater searchlight, smoke screen
machines, antitorpedo nets, turbine
projectile heads, collision mats,
navigating equipment, and methods of
aiming and firing naval guns. After the
war Edison establishes the Naval
Research Laboratory, the only American
institution for organized weapons
research until World War II.26 It
seems very likely that Edison provided
other secret products and services to
the US military, perhaps like seeing
eye images, thought-sound recordings,
remote muscle movements/galvanizations
- remote neuron activation, perhaps
wireless videophone services...and
similar secret inventions. Those people
interested in researching secret
technologies such as seeing and hearing
thought, and sending images and sounds
directly to brains and remote muscle
movements should closely examine all
available literature on and about
Thomas Edison - in particular Nature,
and other science journal articles on
Edison. Clearly Edison must have been
linked and involved in these industries
- although it is clear that they have
their origin in England, France,
Germany and Italy.27

Edison is famous for saying: "Genius is
one percent inspiration and 99 percent
perspiration", which expresses
skepticism about the power of
inspiration.28

Edison rejects religion stating: "So
far as religion of the day is
concerned, it is a damned fake...
Religion is all bunk." and rejects the
inaccurate belief in a "soul" stating:
"My mind is incapable of conceiving
such a thing as a soul. I may be in
error, and man may have a soul; but I
simply do not believe it.".29

Before he dies Edison has patents on
1,300 inventions, more than any other
inventor.30

Edison is called the Wizard of Menlo
Park.31

Asimov describes Edison as the greatest
inventor since Archimedes and possibly
of all time.32 (Although, there
remains the secret inventions of seeing
eyes and thought which may be William
Wollaston, hearing thought and sounds
heard by the brain, and remote neuron
activation, among other potential
secret inventions and inventors.33 )


(Edison is a fine example of how a poor
person can earn money through science,
in particular by using engineering
skills to construct devices that make
life better and more convenient for
many people - with thoughts of what the
future will look like - and trying to
capitalize on those future
conveniences.34 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
3. ^ Edison
04/27/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
10. ^ "Thomas
Edison." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
14. ^ Frank Lewis
Dyer, Thomas Commerford Martin,
"Edison: his life and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
19. ^ "Edison, Thomas
Alva." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
20. ^ "Thomas Edison." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
22. ^ "Edison, Thomas
Alva." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
23. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
26. ^ "Thomas
Edison." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 11 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
30. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
31. ^
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
36. ^ Edison's vote recorder patent of
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id
=k-REAAAAEBAJ&dq=vote&as_drrb_ap=q&as_mi
nm_ap=0&as_miny_ap=&as_maxm_ap=0&as_maxy
_ap=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1869&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1870
{06/01/1869}
37. ^ Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false {10/11/1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[14] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[15] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[16] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[17] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA35  
[1] Edison's patent of 06/01/1869 vote
recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=k-REAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
131 YBN
[09/01/1869 AD] 4 		3785) Cleveland Abbe (aBE) (CE
1838-1916), US meteorologist begins
sending daily weather bulletins, taking
advantage of telegraphic reports of
storms (as Henry at the Smithsonian
Institute had done)1 2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p484-485.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p343
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p343
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p484-485.
{09/01/1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cleveland Abbe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_A
bbe
Cincinnati, Ohio, USA3  
[1] Credit: National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration/Department
of Commerce [1] Cleveland
Abbe Source *
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/people/pers
0074.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/19/Cleveland_Abbe_pers0074.jp
g
131 YBN
[12/??/1869 AD] 13 14 15 		3626) In 1882, with Mendeleev, Meyer
receives the Davy medal for his work in
the development of the periodic law.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Julius
Lothar Meyer". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_L
othar_Meyer
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Julius Lothar
Meyer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_L
othar_Meyer
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450.
9. ^ "Lothar Meyer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/379472/Lothar-Meyer>.
10. ^
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/meyer-mendeleev.html
11. ^ "Julius Lothar Meyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-loth
ar-meyer
12. ^ "Julius Lothar Meyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-loth
ar-meyer
13. ^ Lothar Meyer, "Die Natur der
chemischen Elemente als Function ihrer
Atomgewichte;", Annalen der Chemie und
Pharmacie, 1870,
p354-364. {Meyer_Lothar_1869.pdf}
{12/1869}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450. {1870}
15. ^ "Lothar
Meyer." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/379472/Lothar-Meyer>. {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lothar Meyer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Loth
ar_Meyer
[2] "Raoult, François Marie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p602-603
[3]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/meyer.htm
l
(Karlsruhe Poltechnic Institute)
Karlsruhe, Baden12  
[1] [t Periodic table from 1869 paper.
Notice that the table reads vertically
as opposed to the traditional
horizontal orientation.] Lothar Meyer,
''Die Natur der chemischen Elemente als
Function ihrer Atomgewichte;'', Annalen
der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1870,
p354-364. {Meyer_Lothar_1869.pdf} PD/C
orel
source: Lothar Meyer, "Die Natur der
chemischen Elemente als Function ihrer
Atomgewichte;", Annalen der Chemie und
Pharmacie, 1870, p354-364,
p356. {Meyer_Lothar_1869.pdf}

[2] Table from Annalen der Chemie,
Supplementband 7, 354 (1870). Periodic
table according to Lothar Meyer,
1870 PD/Corel
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/M
EYER.JPG
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 3 		2685)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p113.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p113.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p113. (1869)
Yokohama, Japan2   
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 9 10 		2997)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Holtz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Hol
tz
2. ^ J. C. Poggendorff, "Zwei ältere
Influenzmaschinen in neuer Gestalt,"
Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, CXXXVI, pp. 171-173, 1869.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
15221w.chemindefer
3. ^
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/bonetti.htm
l
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/bonetti.htm
l
8. ^ "Wilhelm Holtz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Hol
tz
9. ^ J. C. Poggendorff, "Zwei ältere
Influenzmaschinen in neuer Gestalt,"
Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, CXXXVI, pp. 171-173, 1869.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
15221w.chemindefer
10. ^
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/bonetti.htm
l (1869)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/epapers.htm
l
Berlin, Germany8 (possibly) 
[1] [t Sectorless Wimshurst machine by
Holtz (and Poggendorf?)] PD/Corel
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k15221w.chemindefer
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 12 		3127)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp383-384.
2. ^ "Thomas
Andrews." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-andr
ews-irish-physical-chemist
3. ^ "Thomas Andrews". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
ndrews
4. ^ "Andrews, Thomas." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7496>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp383-384.
9. ^ "Thomas
Andrews." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-andr
ews-irish-physical-chemist
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Andrews, Thomas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7496>.
12. ^ "Thomas Andrews." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-andr
ews-irish-physical-chemist (1869)

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Andrews, "Note on the
Density of Ozone", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905),Volume 8, 1856/1857,
pp498-500. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/21j61u604653r990/?p=583e2a8
68be245b793af6e2f256d6a75&pi=23 Andrews
_Thomas_Ozone_1856.pdf
[2] "Thomas Andrews", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p22.
(Queen's College) Belfast, Ireland11
 
[1] [t This is the earliest top hat
I've seen] Thomas
Andrews. Photos.com/Jupiterimages
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
102322&rendTypeId=4
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 5 		3316) John Tyndall (CE 1820-1893),
Irish physicist1 is accused of
materialism and atheism after his
presidential address at the 1874
meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science in Belfast,
when he claims that cosmological theory
belongs to science rather than theology
and that matter has the power within
itself to produce life.2 Although
Tyndale is not so prominent as Huxley
in detailed controversy over
theological problems, Tyndale plays an
important part in educating the public
mind about natural philosophy, dogma
and religious authority.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
2. ^ "Tyndall, John",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp891-892.
3. ^ "John
Tyndall". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
4. ^ "Tyndall, John", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp891-892.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyndall, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>.
[2] "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[3] "Tyndall, John." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[4] "Tyndall, John." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[5] "John Tyndall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndal
l
[6] John Tyndale, "Faraday as a
Discoverer", D. Appleton,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wskKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=John
+Tyndall&as_brr=1
[7] John Tyndall, "Heat a Mode of
Motion", D. Appleton and Company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3DUJAAAAIAAJ&dq=John+Tyndall&as_brr=1
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 13 		3397) Galton tries to map the
distribution of good looks in England.7
 (chronology8 )

Galton, like Darwin wrongly thinks that
characteristics of individuals of two
different types will blend, and the
offspring will be in an intermediate
state. Mendel will show this to be not
true (that specific traits are
inherited? Clearly skin color appears
to sometimes blend the quantity of
melanin.9 ).10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
2. ^ "Francis
Galton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
3. ^ "Francis Galton." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
5. ^ "Francis
Galton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Francis Galton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
13. ^ "Francis Galton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Francis Galton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 07
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/224628/Sir-Francis-Galton>
[2] "Francis Galton." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[3] "Francis Galton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gal
ton
[4] "Sir Francis Galton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fran
cis_Galton
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[6] "anticyclone." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nticyclone>
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417. {1863}
[8]
"Francis Galton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton {1863}
[9] "Galton, Francis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p273
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 3 		3470)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Hittorf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268199/Johann-Wilhelm-Hittorf>.
2. ^ "Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p429.
3. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Hittorf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268199/Johann-Wilhelm-Hittorf>.
{1869}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp429-430.
[2] "Johann Wilhelm
Hittorf". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Hittorf
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/hittor
f.html
[4] W. Hittorf, "Ueber die Wanderungen
der Ionen während der Elektrolyse",
Pogg. Ann., 89 (1853),
p177-211. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112490676/issue {Hittorf_
Johann_1853.pdf}
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p323.
[6] A. Crum Brown, The Ions of
Electrolysis, Science, New Series, Vol.
15, No. 388 (Jun. 6, 1902), pp.
881-895.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627729 {
Brown_Ions_of_Electrolysis_1902.pdf}
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany
(presumably)2  
[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm Ostwald PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Johann_Wilhelm_Hittor
f.jpg

[2] Johann Wilhelm Hittorf PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/hittorf5.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 5 6 7 		3494)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir
Norman Lockyer, 1836-1920",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 53, p.233
(ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
5. ^
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html {1869}
6. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473. {1869}
7. ^
"Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[4] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[5] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[6] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph
Norman" (Obituary Notice), Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 81, p.261 (MNRAS
Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
(at home, employed at War Office) West
Hampstead, England4  
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 5 		3503)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
2. ^ "Huxley, Thomas
Henry." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "T.H. Huxley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[2] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henr
y_Huxley
[3] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
[4] "Huxley, Thomas Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p447-448
[5] "Huxley, Thomas Henry."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
London, England4  
[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 4 		3504)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436.
2. ^ "Huxley, Thomas
Henry." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
3. ^ "Huxley, Thomas Henry."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435-436. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "T.H. Huxley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277746/T-H-Huxley>
[2] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
[3] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henr
y_Huxley
[4] "Thomas Henry Huxley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_H
enry_Huxley
[5] "Huxley, Thomas Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p447-448
[6] "Huxley, Thomas Henry." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-henr
y-huxley
(University of London) London, England3
 (presumably) 
[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 11 12 		3531)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p343.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p438.
4. ^ Record
ID3532. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Dynamo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dynamo
6. ^ Record ID2247. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Record
ID2250. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record ID2705.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Zénobe-Théophile
Gramme." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
02 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/240960/Zenobe-Theophile-Gramme>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438. {1869}
12. ^
"Zénobe-Théophile Gramme."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/240960/Zenobe-Theophile-Gramme>.
{1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Zénobe-Théophile Gramme."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 02 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/z-nobe-gram
me
[2] "Zénobe Gramme". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A9nobe
_Gramme
[3] "Gramme, Zénobe Théophile",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p369
[4]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/gramme
.html
[5] Thomas Commerford Martin, Joseph
Wetzler, Louis Bell, "The Electric
Motor and Its Applications", The W.J.
Johnston company, ltd,
1892. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AcsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11&dq=Pacinotti&as_brr
=1#PPA12,M1
Paris, France10 (presumably) 
[1] La première machine de Zénobe
Gramme met en œuvre le principe
imaginé par Pacinotti. The first
machine of Zénobe Gramme implements
the principle imagined by
Pacinotti. PD/Corel
source: http://depris.cephes.free.fr/aut
odidactes/machine1_zenobe_gramme.jpg

[2] Scheme of the electromotor of
Gramme PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/gramme_motor_scheme1.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 8 		3718) Young is the first to photograph
the sun's corona.5
Young write some of
the most popular and useful general
astronomy textbooks of this period.6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p469.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p342.
4. ^ "Charles Augustus
Young." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-aug
ustus-young
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p469.
7. ^ "Charles
Augustus Young." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-aug
ustus-young
8. ^ "Young, Charles Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
055>. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.astro.umontreal.ca/~paulchar/
sp/images/young.html
(Dartmouth College) Hanover, New
Hampshire, USA7  
[1] Charles A. Young (1834-1908) PD
source: http://www.astro.umontreal.ca/~p
aulchar/sp/images/young.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 25 26 		3761) In 1914 Hyatt wins the Perkin
medal for celluloid.22
Hyatt owns a
factory that makes checkers and
dominos.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
2. ^ "John Wesley
Hyatt." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyatt-john-
wesley
3. ^ Record ID3131. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Hyatt, John
Wesley." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9041
686>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p477.
7. ^ "John Wesley
Hyatt." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyatt-john-
wesley
8. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/hyatt.htm
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/plastics.htm
10. ^ "celluloid." The Oxford Companion
to the Photograph. Oxford University
Press, 2005. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/celluloid
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89261/hyatt_john_wesley.html
13. ^ "John Wesley Hyatt." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyatt-john-
wesley
14. ^ "celluloid." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9022
027>.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
89261/hyatt_john_wesley.html
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Record ID3235. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p477.
24. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/hyatt.htm
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477. {1869}
26. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p343. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wesley Hyatt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley
_Hyatt
[2] "Celluloid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celluloid
Albany, NY, USA24  
[1] John Wesley Hyatt Celluloid
Corporation Records PD
source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/ar
chives/images/d8009-1.jpg

[2] John Wesley Hyatt PD
source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/ar
chives/images/d8009-2.jpg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 15 		3763) Markovnikov is an assistant to
Butlerov at Kazan University.12
From
1873 on Markovnikov is at the
University of Moscow, where he
establishes a new chemistry laboratory
and trains a generation of chemists.13

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478.
2. ^
http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry
/chemists/markovnikov.htm
3. ^ "Markovnikov, Vladimir
Vasilyevich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
024>.
4. ^ W. Markownikoff (1870). "Ueber die
Abhängigkeit der verschiedenen
Vertretbarkeit des Radicalwasserstoffs
in den isomeren Buttersäuren". Annalen
der Pharmacie 153 (1): 228–259.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18701530204. http://ww
w3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112332
794/abstract and W. Markownikoff
(1870). "Ueber die Abhängigkeit der
verschiedenen Vertretbarkeit des
Radicalwasserstoffs in den isomeren
Buttersäuren". Zeitschrift für
Chemie, 1870,
p421. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Q1wFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA421&lpg=PA421&dq=Ueber
+die+Abh%C3%A4ngigkeit+der+verschiedenen
+Vertretbarkeit+des+Radicalwasserstoffs+
in+den+isomeren+Butters%C3%A4uren&source
=bl&ots=eG9mS9zYuv&sig=SuO-jyUQmu57V_aFc
WdnxztpBmI#PPA421,M1
5. ^
http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry
/chemists/markovnikov.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478.
8. ^
http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry
/chemists/markovnikov.htm
9. ^ "Markovnikov, Vladimir
Vasilyevich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
024>.
10. ^ "Markovnikov, Vladimir
Vasilyevich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
024>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Hittorf, Johann
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p578.
13. ^
"Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p578.
14. ^ "Hittorf, Johann
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p578.
15. ^
"Markovnikov, Vladimir Vasilyevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
024>. {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vladimir Vasilevich
Markovnikov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Va
silevich_Markovnikov
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia14
 
[1] Portrait du chimiste Vladimir
Vasilevich Markovnikov Source
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portrait
s/PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_LName=Markov
nikov Date XIXe siècle PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q1wFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA421#PPA424,M1


source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.j
pg
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 7 		3804)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p490.
3. ^ "Graebe,
Carl." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
591>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Graebe, Carl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
591>.
7. ^ Maurice P. Crosland, "Historical
Studies in the Language of Chemistry",
Courier Dover Publications, 2004,
p329. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kwQQaltqByAC&pg=PA329&lpg=PA329&dq=Graeb
e+ortho+meta+para&source=web&ots=Z6903IU
CgQ&sig=4YeocW84y_x_XnJa7ofApm_T-i4
{1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Graebe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Graebe

[2] "Graebe, Karl James Peter", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p368
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p340
[4] "Alizarin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alizarin

[5] "Dyeing". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dyeing
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany6
 
[1] Auf dem Bild ist Carl Graebe
abgebildet. Das Bild wurde am 13. Juli
1860 aufgenommen und ist somit älter
als 100 Jahre. Das Bild stammt aus dem
Archiv der Karlsruher Burschenschaft
Teutonia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/2/25/Carl_Graebe_1860-07-13.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD] 23 24 		3927) Miescher is from a distinguished
scientific family from Basel in
Switzerland: both his father and uncle,
held the chair of anatomy at the
University of Basel.20

Miescher dies at age 51 of
Tuberculosis.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500-501.
2. ^ "Miescher,
Johann Friedrich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
601>.
3. ^ "Miescher, Johann Friedrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
601>.
4. ^ "Friedrich Miescher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-m
iescher
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500-501.
6. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
hl=en&sl=de&tl=en#de
7. ^ Miescher, Friedrich (1871). "Ueber
die chemische Zusammensetzung der
Eiterzellen". Med.-Chem. Unters. 4:
441–460.
8. ^ By Leopold Gmelin, Henry Watts,
Translated by Henry Watts, "Hand-book
of chemistry", Published by Printed for
the Cavendish Society, 1871, v. 1,
p467-468. http://books.google.com/books
?id=sg8AAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=Ueber+die+c
hemische+Zusammensetzung+der+Eiterzellen
+date:1871-1871&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1lTDSd2B
B4TskwSxm63_DQ
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500-501.
10. ^ "Miescher,
Johann Friedrich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
601>.
11. ^ "Friedrich Miescher." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-m
iescher
12. ^ "Miescher, Johann Friedrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
601>.
13. ^ "Friedrich Miescher." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-m
iescher
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500-501.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500-501.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Friedrich Miescher." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-m
iescher
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500-501.
22. ^ "Miescher,
Johann Friedrich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
601>.
23. ^ "Miescher, Johann Friedrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
601>. {1869}
24. ^ "Friedrich Miescher." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-m
iescher {1869}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Friedrich Miescher".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Frie
drich_Miescher
[2] "Miescher, Johann Friedrich II",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p606
[3]
Ueber%20die%20chemische%20Zusammensetzun
g%20der%20Eiterzellen
[4]
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/175
4.html
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany22  
[1] Friedrich Miescher
(scientist) Source copied from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/ima
ges/befo-miescher.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Friedrich_Miescher.jp
g
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 4 5 		6008)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
2. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
{1869(completed}
3. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
4. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
{1869(completed}
5. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky {revised 1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia3  
[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg
130 YBN
[04/28/1870 AD] 25 26 		3766) In 1875, Hitzig is named
professor at the University of Zurich,
and director of the Bergholzli mental
asylum there.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Julius Eduard Hitzig,
"Physiologische und klinische
Untersuchungen über das Gehirn" v.1,
A. Hirschwald,
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PwEGKIPaJX8C&pg=PA65&dq=Julius+Eduard+Hi
tzig+fritsch&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=6C1bSd7pBYL
KlQTDqZiGAg#PPR1,M1
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478-479.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p342.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478-479.
6. ^ Julius Eduard
Hitzig, "Physiologische und klinische
Untersuchungen über das Gehirn" v.1,
A. Hirschwald,
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PwEGKIPaJX8C&pg=PA65&dq=Julius+Eduard+Hi
tzig+fritsch&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=6C1bSd7pBYL
KlQTDqZiGAg#PPR1,M1
7. ^ Pietro Corsi, "The Enchanted Loom:
Chapters in the History of
Neuroscience", Oxford University Press,
1990,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
A9RqAAAAMAAJ&q=Julius+Eduard+Hitzig+frit
sch&dq=Julius+Eduard+Hitzig+fritsch&lr=&
ei=Ni1bSc6WF4r8lQTb9d3sCA&pgis=1
8. ^
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n18/histo
ry/stimulation_i.htm
9. ^ Fritsch, G. and Hitzig, E., "Ueber
die elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.
10. ^ (original footnote:)
Haller und Zinn., "Memories sur la
nature sensible et irritable du corps
animal.", Lausanne, 1756 tl., p201, et
suiv.
11. ^ (original footnote:) Schiff,
"Lehrbuch der Physiologie des
Menchen.", Lahr, 1858-1859. Vol. 1,
p.362.
12. ^ (original footnote:) Flourens,
"Recherches experimentales sur les
proprietes et les fonctions du systeme
nerveux dans les animaux vertebres
lleme ed. Paris, 1842. See also article
1 in Bonin book.
13. ^ (original footnote:)
Flourens, "Recherches experimentales
sur les proprietes et les fonctions du
systeme nerveux dans les animaux
vertebres lleme ed. Paris, 1842, p35.
See also article 1 in Bonin book.
14. ^
(original footnote:) Compare my paper:
Über die beim Galvanisiren des Kopfes
entstehenden Störungen der
Muskelinnervation und der Vorstellungen
vom Verhalten im Raume.
15. ^ "meninges."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
021>.
16. ^ "Meninges". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meninges
17. ^ (original translator's footnote:)
S.E. = Siemens Einheit, the reciprocal
of the resistance; thus 2S=1/2W,
4S=1/4W etc. (Transl.).
18. ^ (original
translator's? footnote:) Compare to
this Reichert. Der Bau des menschlichen
Gehirns, Leipzig, 1861. Abthl. p. 77.
19. ^
Owen, "On the Anatomy of Vertebrates",
Volume 3, London, 1868, p. 118.
20. ^
Fritsch, G. and Hitzig, E., "Ueber die
elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ "Hitzig, (Julius) Eduard",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p429.
24. ^ Fritsch,
G. and Hitzig, E., "Ueber die
elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.
25. ^ Fritsch, G. and
Hitzig, E., "Ueber die elektrische
Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns", Archiv
für Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1870,
p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960. {04/28/1870}
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p478-479. {1870}
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany24  
[1] Figure from original Fritsch and
Hitzig 1870 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_qkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+
Anatomie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftlic
he&as_brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PP
A313,M1

[2] Meninges of the central nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Illu_meninges.jpg
130 YBN
[08/28/1870 AD] 3 		5997)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Wagner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/633925/Richard-Wagner>.
2. ^ "Richard Wagner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/633925/Richard-Wagner>.
3. ^ "Richard Wagner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/633925/Richard-Wagner>. {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Wagner." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-wag
ner
[2] "Lohengrin (opera)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohengrin_%
28opera%29
Munich, Germany2  
[1] Richard Wagner PD
source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-ima
ges/Arts/Arts_/Pictures/2010/2/16/126632
5695718/Composer-Richard-Wagner-c-001.jp
g
130 YBN
[10/05/1870 AD] 		3951)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/28
114
2. ^ W. N. Shaw, "On experiments with
mercury electrodes.", Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
Volume 3,
http://books.google.com/books?id=zZw1A
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA309&dq=lippmann+mercury&lr=
#v=onepage&q=lippmann%20mercury&f=false
3. ^ Cromwell Fleetwood Varley,
"Polarization of Metallic Surfaces in
Aqueous Solutions. On a New Method of
Obtaining Electricity from Mechanical
Force, and Certain Relations between
Electro-Static Induction and the
Decomposition of Water", Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1871
161:129-136;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1871.0008. http://rstl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/161/
129.full.pdf+html
{Varley_Cromwell_1870.pdf}
4. ^ Cromwell Fleetwood Varley,
"Polarization of Metallic Surfaces in
Aqueous Solutions. On a New Method of
Obtaining Electricity from Mechanical
Force, and Certain Relations between
Electro-Static Induction and the
Decomposition of Water", Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1871
161:129-136;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1871.0008. http://rstl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/161/
129.full.pdf+html
{Varley_Cromwell_1870.pdf}
5. ^ Cromwell Fleetwood Varley,
"Polarization of Metallic Surfaces in
Aqueous Solutions. On a New Method of
Obtaining Electricity from Mechanical
Force, and Certain Relations between
Electro-Static Induction and the
Decomposition of Water", Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1871
161:129-136;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1871.0008. http://rstl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/161/
129.full.pdf+html
{Varley_Cromwell_1870.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record ID3950.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Lippmann." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[2] "Gabriel Jonas Lippmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jon
as_Lippmann
[3] "Photography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1908/lippmann-bio.html
[5] "Lippmann, Gabriel Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p547
[6] "Gabriel Lippmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[7]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/lippmann.html
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
[9] "Lippmann,
Gabriel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
7 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=cO4PAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA158&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%22
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lippm
ann%22&f=false
[11] The Electrical Review, Volume 7,
Volume 139,
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cREAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Gabriel+Lippmann
+date:1879-1879&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Gabriel%20Lippmann%20date%3A1879-1879&f
=false
[12] "Gabriel Lippmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[13] "Prof. G. Lippmann" (obituary),
Nature, Volume 107, August 18, 1921.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3-4RA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA788&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%
22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lip
pmann%22&f=false
[14] "C. F. Varley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._Varle
y
 
[1] Image from Varley 1870 paper of
Hydrogen gas exiting a mercury pool
from a platinum wire on shellac. PD
source: http://rstl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/161/129.full.pdf+html

[2] Cromwell Fleetwood Varley
(1828-1883) PD
source: http://teleramics.com/images/var
ley/cfvarley.jpg
130 YBN
[12/30/1870 AD] 53 54 		3835) Strutt studies sound, water and
earthquake waves.36

In his first paper, published in 1869,
Strutt gives a clear demonstration of
some aspects of the electromagnetic
theory of James Clerk Maxwell, in terms
of analogies that the average person
could understand.37 This paper is "On
some Electromagnetic Phenomena
considered in connexion with the
Dynamical Theory".38

In 1877, Strutt publishes the first
volume of "The Theory of Sound" (2vol,
1877-8), in which he examines
vibrations and the resonance of elastic
solids and gases.39

As second Cavendish professor of
experimental physics at Cambridge
(1879–84), after James Clerk Maxwell,
Rayleigh supervises the precise
determination of electrical
standards.40 Rayleigh helps to
establish accurate determination of
absolute units in electricity and
magnetism, Rowland in the USA also
contributing.41 Rayleigh leads a
program to redetermine the three
electrical constants, the ohm, the
ampere, and the volt which is completed
in 1884.42

In 1884, Rayleigh performs experiments
on the rotation of the plane of
polarized light first found by
Faraday.43

In 1891 Rayleigh succeeded John Tyndall
as professor of physics at the Royal
Institution in London.44

In 1904 Strutt wins the Nobel prize in
physics, and Ramsay in chemistry.
Strutt donates the money from the award
to Cambridge.45

In 1905 Strutt is the president of the
Royal Society.46

In 1908 Strutt is the chancellor of
Cambridge University.47

Like William James and Oliver Lodge,
Strutt grows interested in psychic
research around the turn of the
century.48

Over the course of his life Rayleigh
publishes over 450 scientific papers.49
50

Strutt's papers are published as
"Scientific papers (1869-1919)" (1899)
(6 vol.).51
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
2. ^ "Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, 3rd Baron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
821>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
6. ^ J. W. Strutt,
"On the Light from the Sky, its
Polarization and Colour.", Phil. Mag.,
S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279.
7. ^ "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>.
8. ^ J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ J. W. Strutt, "On the
Light from the Sky, its Polarization
and Colour.", Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol.
41, Feb 1871, p.107-120,274-279.
11. ^ J. W. Strutt, "On
the Light from the Sky, its
Polarization and Colour.", Phil. Mag.,
S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The
Brightness of the Twilight Sky and the
Density and Temperature of the
Atmosphere," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 28,
227-236
(1938) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-28-7-227
14. ^ Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press,
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1
15. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "Explanation of
the Brightness and Color of the Sky,
Particularly the Twilight Sky," J. Opt.
Soc. Am. 43, 113-118
(1953) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-43-2-113
16. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "Some Recent
Papers in the Journal of the Optical
Society of America," J. Opt. Soc. Am.
46, 5-9
(1956) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-46-1-5
17. ^ Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press,
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^
http://vidyaonline.org/arvindgupta/raman
.htm
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Record ID3881.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Abney, Festing, "Intensity of
Radiation through Turbid Media",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 40, 1886,
p378-380. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/un7357v3075751q1/fulltext.pd
f {Abney_Festing_turbid_1886.pdf}
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
37. ^ "Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, 3rd Baron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
821>.
38. ^ By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
39. ^ "Rayleigh, John William Strutt,
3rd Baron." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
821>.
40. ^ "Rayleigh, John William Strutt,
3rd Baron." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
821>.
41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
42. ^ "Strutt, John
William, Third Baron Rayleigh", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p844
43. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
"Preliminary Note on the Constant of
Electromagnetic Rotation of Light in
Bisulphide of Carbon.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society, June 18, 1884,
p146-147. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YwEWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146&lpg=PA146&dq=O
n+the+Constant+of+Electromagnetic+Rotati
on+of+Light+in+Bisulphide+of+Carbon.&sou
rce=bl&ots=VVq_5zCPPN&sig=FePZ_cjx2jWQNW
2z1oX6WPfk8H8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&
resnum=2&ct=result#PPA146,M1
44. ^ "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
45. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
46. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
47. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
48. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
49. ^ "Rayleigh,
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
821>.
50. ^ By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
51. ^ By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
52. ^ J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279.
53. ^ J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279. {written:)
12/30/1870 (published:) 02/1871}
54. ^ "John
William Strutt, 3rd baron Rayleigh".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Raylei
gh
[4] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[5] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871,
p.81-97
[6] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sc
attering
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=sQouAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA118&dq=strutt+1882&as_brr=1&e
i=tWx2SdeoApWYkwTxsoXIBg#PPA117,M1
(private laboratory) Terling Place,
England52  
[1] Figure 1 from Strutt 1870 In this
equation A=amplitude of light wave [t
presumably], β is the angle between
incident and resultant (or scattered)
light ray, m=number of particles, T is
the volume of the disturbing particle,
r = the distance of the point under
consideration from the disturbing
particle, D and D'=the original and
altered densities. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=RN8YZQVIou0C&pg=PA107&dq=strutt+1871+bl
ue&as_brr=1&ei=IS12SYXtBY6ukATUsM21CQ#PP
A113,M1

[2] Description: young; three-quarter
view; suit; sitting Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, Baron PD/Corel
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rayleigh_john_william_strutt_a3
.jpg
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 4 		2687)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p119.
3. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p119.
4. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p119. (1870)
3   
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 11 12 		3081)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
7. ^ "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
11. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1870)
12. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1870)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany10  
[1] Bunsen's ice calorimeter PD/Corel

source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_calorimeter.jpg

[2] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 8 		3361)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
2. ^ Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58-IA1&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA269,M1
3. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
4. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
5. ^ H. von Helmholtz, "Ueber die
Bewegungs- gleichungen der Elektricitat
fur ruhende leitende Korper," Journal
fur reine und angewandte Mathematik,
1870, 72:57-129. Reprinted in
Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen von
Hermann von Helmholtz, 3 vols.
(Leipzig:Barth, 1882- 1895), Vol. I,
pp. 543-628. For a discussion of
Helmholtz's theory see A. E. Woodruff,
"The Contributions of Hermann von
Helmholtz to Electrodynamics," Isis,
1968, 59:300-311.
6. ^ P. M. Heimann, "Maxwell,
Hertz, and the Nature of Electricity",
Isis, v62, 1971, p149-157.
7. ^ "Helmholtz,
Hermann Von", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p408-410.
8. ^ "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1 {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[4] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[5] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[8] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[9]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[10] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[11] Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
[12] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[13] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413
[15] Fielding Hudson
Garrison, "An Introduction to the
History of Medicine: With Medical
Chronology ...", W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany7  
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 13 14 		3634) Marsh is credited with the
discovery of more than a thousand
fossil vertebrates. Marsh publishes
major works on toothed birds, gigantic
horned mammals, and North American
dinosaurs.2
Marsh spends his entire
career at Yale University (1866–99)
as the first professor of vertebrate
paleontology in the United States.3
In
1866, Marsh persuades his rich uncle to
endow the Peabody Natural History
Museum at Yale.4
Marsh is a strong
supporter of Darwinian evolution.5
In
1870 Marsh organizes the first Yale
Scientific Expedition, in which he
(with a group of students6 ) explores
the Pliocene (5.3 to 1.8 million years
ago) deposits of Nebraska and the
Miocene (23.8 to 5.3 million years ago)
deposits of northern Colorado.7
Marsh
employs William F. Cody ("Buffalo
Bill") as a guide to scour the western
United States for fossils.8
A
succession of such expeditions follows
throughout the 1870s.9
Marsh competes
with Cope to find fossils. Together
they find enough bones of ancestral
horses to understand the complete line
of descent of the horse.10
From
1883-1895, Marsh is the President of
the National Academy of Sciences.11
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p452-453.
2. ^ "Othniel
Charles Marsh." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/366494/Othniel-Charles-Marsh>.
3. ^ "Othniel Charles Marsh."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/366494/Othniel-Charles-Marsh>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p452-453.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p452-453.
6. ^ "Othniel
Charles Marsh" (obituary), Annual
Report, Geological Survey (U.S.),
p189-204. http://books.google.com/books
?id=AboQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA189&dq=%22Othniel+
Charles+Marsh%22+obituary&ei=VgHlSPGhHor
WMLfZ9KMP
7. ^ "Othniel Charles Marsh."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/366494/Othniel-Charles-Marsh>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p452-453.
9. ^ "Othniel Charles
Marsh." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/othniel-cha
rles-marsh
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p452-453.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p452-453.
12. ^ Othniel
Charles Marsh, "Birds with Teeth",
s.n.,
1883,p50. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YfMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Othniel+Char
les+Marsh+odontornithes&as_brr=1&ei=HgTl
SM-LCZu8M56umQo#PPA45,M1
13. ^ Othniel Charles Marsh, "Birds
with Teeth", s.n.,
1883,p50. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YfMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Othniel+Char
les+Marsh+odontornithes&as_brr=1&ei=HgTl
SM-LCZu8M56umQo#PPA45,M1 {finds) 1870}
14. ^
"Othniel Charles Marsh" (obituary),
Annual Report, Geological Survey
(U.S.),
p189-204. http://books.google.com/books
?id=AboQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA189&dq=%22Othniel+
Charles+Marsh%22+obituary&ei=VgHlSPGhHor
WMLfZ9KMP {announces) 1873}

MORE INFO
[1] "Othniel Charles Marsh".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othniel_Cha
rles_Marsh
[2] "Othniel Charles Marsh".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Othniel_
Charles_Marsh
[3] "Marsh, Othniel Charles", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p579.
[4] O. C. Marsh, "New
Pterodactyl from the Jurassic of the
Rocky Mountains", The American Journal
of Science and Arts, S. Converse,
1878, Item notes: ser.3:v.16(1878),
p233-234. http://books.google.com/books
?id=M38UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA482&dq=intitle:Ame
rican+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle
:Science+date:1878-1878&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=
OgnlSIiQKpbKMK6N5BE#PPA233,M1
[5] O. C. Marsh, "Note on American
Pterodactyls", American Journal of
Science, v21, num124, 1881,
p342-343. http://books.google.com/books
?id=aPcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255&dq=%22Othniel+
Charles+Marsh%22+hesperornis&as_brr=1&ei
=MgPlSMzIB5PyMqr8-QI#PPA342,M1
[6] Othniel Charles Marsh, "Birds with
Teeth", s.n.,
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YfMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Othniel+Charles+
Marsh+odontornithes&as_brr=1&ei=HgTlSM-L
CZu8M56umQo#PPA45,M1
[7] "Hesperornis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperornis

Smoky Hill River, (Western) Kansas,
USA12  
[1] Description Hesperornis Regalis
drawn by O.C. Marsh. A
Hesperornithiformes. Please note that
this reconstruction is obsolete. The
bird was not able to assume such a
posture without disjointing its
legs. Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/bones/large/display_hutchinson_hespe
rornis.htm Date Pre-1923. Author
O.C. Marsh PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Hesperornis_Regalis_-
_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16474.jpg

[2] Description Othniel Charles
Marsh. Library of Congress description:
''Marsh, Prof. O.C. of Conn.''. Source
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division. Brady-Handy
Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04124.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH832- 175 [P&P] Date
between 1865 and 1880 Author
Mathew Brady or Levin Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Othniel_Charles_Marsh
_-_Brady-Handy.jpg
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 10 		3643)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
10. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588. {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[5] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[7]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[8] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[9]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[10] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[11]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[12] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
(family estate) Glenlair, England9
 
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 8 		3735)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472.
2. ^ "Baeyer, Adolf
Johann Friedrich Wilhelm", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p51-52.
3. ^ "Baeyer, Adolf Johann
Friedrich Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p51-52.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1905/baeyer-bio.html
7. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1905/baeyer-bio.html
8. ^ "Baeyer, Adolf Johann Friedrich
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p51-52. {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baeyer, Adolf von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
724>.
[2] "Adolf von Baeyer." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-von-b
aeyer
[3] "Adolf von Baeyer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-von-b
aeyer
[4] "Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von
Baeyer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Frie
drich_Wilhelm_Adolf_von_Baeyer
[5] "Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf Von
Baeyer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johann_F
riedrich_Wilhelm_Adolf_Von_Baeyer
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany7
 
[1] Description Adolf von Baeyer's
Nobel prize photo Source Les Prix
Nobel, 1905[1][2] Date 1905 Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Adolf_von_Baeyer_%28N
obel_1905%29.jpg

[2] Baeyer, 1905 Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13250&rendTypeId=4
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 8 		3777)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
2. ^ "Perkin, Sir
William Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>.
3. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "unsaturated." The
American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/unsaturated

6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Sir William Henry
Perkin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
8. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>. {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[2] "Sir William Henry Perkin." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[3] "William Henry Perkin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Perkin
[4] "William Henry Perkin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Perkin
[5] "Perkin, William Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p694-695
[6] "Perkin reaction".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkin_reac
tion
(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England7 (presumably) 
[1] # Description: Chemical structure
of Perkin reaction. # Author, date of
creation: selfmade by ~K, 11 June
2005. # Source: - # Copyright: GNU
Free Documentation License. (GFDL) GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Perkin_Reaction_Schem
e.png

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 8 		3778)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
2. ^ "Perkin, Sir
William Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482.
5. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p340.
6. ^ "coumarin." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coumarin
7. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
8. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>. {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[2] "Sir William Henry Perkin." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[3] "William Henry Perkin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Perkin
[4] "William Henry Perkin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Perkin
[5] "Perkin, William Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p694-695
[6] "unsaturated." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/unsaturated

[7] "Coumarin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coumarin
(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England7 (presumably) 
[1] Coumarin GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
marinv

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 7 		3909)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Schröter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr
%C3%B6ter
2. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
3. ^ Schroeter, J. "Ueber einige durch
Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."Beitr. Z.
Biol. D. Pflanzen1:2, 1870, 109-126.
4. ^
"Joseph Schröter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr
%C3%B6ter
5. ^ "Robert Koch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Mar. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/320834/Robert-Koch>.
6. ^ "Joseph Schröter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr
%C3%B6ter
7. ^ Schroeter, J. "Ueber einige durch
Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."Beitr. Z.
Biol. D. Pflanzen1:2, 1870, 109-126.
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)6  		 
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 4 		4701)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {1870 (guess}
London, England3 (guess)  
129 YBN
[01/07/1871 AD] 10 		3704)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
3. ^ "Dmitri
Mendeleev." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
5. ^ "Dmitri
Ivanovich Mendeleeff". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dmitri_I
vanovich_Mendeleeff
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
8. ^ "Mendeleev,
Dmitry Ivanovich", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p596-597.
9. ^ "Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
{01/07/1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dmitri Mendeleev." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[2] "Dmitri Mendeleev." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[3] "Dmitri Mendeleev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mend
eleev
[4]
http://starina.library.tver.ru/us-35-1.h
tm
[5] Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev, George
Kamensky, Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
Translated by George Kamensky,
Contributor Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
"The Principles of Chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co.,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OqKMCLnvcdEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
Principles+of+Chemistry&as_brr=1&ei=_W9U
SfWmO4PAlQTOw7SEBA#PPP7,M1 1901
edition: http://www.archive.org/details
/principlesofchem00menduoft
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p342
[7]
D. I. Mendeleev, "Sootnoshenie svoistv
s atomnym vesom elementov" (The
Relation of the Properties to the
Atomic Weights of the Elements),
Zhurnal Russkoe Fiziko-Khimicheskoe
Obshchestvo 1, 60-77 (1869) (Journal of
the Russian Chemical Society);
abstracted as "Uber die Beziehungen der
Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der
Elemente," in Zeitschrift für Chemie
12, 405-406 (1869); Note: I know of no
translation to English of the original
Mendeleev paper. abstract translated
and annotated
here: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/ea
/MENDELEEVann.HTML
[8] Stephen G. Brush, "The Reception of
Mendeleev's Periodic Law in America and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 87, No. 4 (Dec.,
1996), pp.
595-628. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
5195?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=5&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[9] Heinz Cassebaum, George B.
Kauffman, "The Periodic System of the
Chemical Elements: The Search for Its
Discoverer", Isis, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Autumn, 1971), pp.
314-327. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
9945?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=7&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[10] W. Odling, "On the Natural
Groupings of Elements," Phil. Mag.,
1857, 13:423-439, 480-497
[11] W. Odling, "On
the Proportional Numbers of the
Elements," Quarterly Journal of
Science, 1864,1: 642-648
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia8 9  
[1] Table from abstract of 1869
paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12,
405-406 (1869); PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea
chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel
op/mendel4.jpg

[2] Draft for first version of
Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February
1869). Courtesy Oesper Collection,
University of Cincinnati. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
meyer-mendeleev1.jpg
129 YBN
[01/??/1871 AD] 6 		3659)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356.
2. ^ Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen,
insbesondere über das Princip der.
Erhaltung der Energie,", Abhandlungen
Königl. Sächs. Gesellschaft der
Wissenchaften, mathematisch-physische
Klasse (Leipzig), Vol. 10,
pp1-61. English translation
in: Wilhelm Weber, "Electrodynamic
Measurements - Sixth Memoir, relating
specially to the principle of the
conservation of energy.", Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 43, 1872, p. 1-20 and
119-149. http://books.google.com/books?
id=NpYOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3&dq=w.+weber++cons
ervation+force&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=yWsPSbaUF
Y32sgOAp7izBw#PPA1,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen,
insbesondere über das Princip der.
Erhaltung der Energie,", Abhandlungen
Königl. Sächs. Gesellschaft der
Wissenchaften, mathematisch-physische
Klasse (Leipzig), Vol. 10,
pp1-61. English translation
in: Wilhelm Weber, "Electrodynamic
Measurements - Sixth Memoir, relating
specially to the principle of the
conservation of energy.", Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 43, 1872, p. 1-20 and
119-149. http://books.google.com/books?
id=NpYOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3&dq=w.+weber++cons
ervation+force&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=yWsPSbaUF
Y32sgOAp7izBw#PPA1,M1
5. ^ "Weber, Wilhelm Eduard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p925.
6. ^ Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen,
insbesondere über das Princip der.
Erhaltung der Energie,", Abhandlungen
Königl. Sächs. Gesellschaft der
Wissenchaften, mathematisch-physische
Klasse (Leipzig), Vol. 10,
pp1-61. English translation
in: Wilhelm Weber, "Electrodynamic
Measurements - Sixth Memoir, relating
specially to the principle of the
conservation of energy.", Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 43, 1872, p. 1-20 and
119-149. http://books.google.com/books?
id=NpYOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3&dq=w.+weber++cons
ervation+force&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=yWsPSbaUF
Y32sgOAp7izBw#PPA1,M1 {01/1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
[6] Wilhelm Weber, "Determinations of
Electrodynamic Measure, Concerning a
Universal Law of Electrical Action,
issued at the founding of the Royal
Scientific Society of Saxony on the day
of the 200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846".
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf A
shorter version is published in Annalen
der Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
[7] R. Kohlrausch,
Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maassbestimmungen insbesondere
Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
a summary is given as: Wilhelm Weber,
H. R. Kohlrausch, "Ueber die
Elektricitätsmenge, welche bei
galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9 (p
10-25).
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected
[8] Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf A
shorter version is published in Annalen
der Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
[9] Felix Klein,
Robert Hermann, Development of
Mathematics in the 19th Century, Math
Sci Press, 1979,
p22. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
M36hgqmOLkC&pg=PA17&dq=wilhelm+weber&lr=
&as_brr=1&ei=dKb_SJ6eJIjutAPDyO2SDA#PPA2
2,M1
[10] Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen: über ein allgemeines
Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung",
Abhandlungen der K. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Leipzig, 1846, p211-378.
in: Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst
Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard
Friedrich Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar
Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich
Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, "Wilhelm
Weber's Werke", J. Springer, 1893,
Bd.3,
p25-254. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA25,M1 tr
anslated to English: Wilhelm Weber,
Determinations of Electrodynamic
Measure, Concerning a Universal Law of
Electrical Action, issued at the
founding of the Royal Scientific
Society of Saxony on the day of the
200th anniversary celebration of
Leibniz's birthday, published by the
Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipzig
1846.
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/
Articles%202007/Weber_1846.pdf A
shorter version is published in
Annalen der Physik: Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen"
(Excerpt), Annalen der Physik, vol. 73,
pp 193-240. English
translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
[11] Andre Assis,
"Weber's electrodynamics", Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1994, p78-117.
[12] James
Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory of
the Electromagnetic Field", Royal
Society Transactions, Vol. 155, 1865,
p.
459-512. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423
d974410b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 also in
James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1,
p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
[13]
http://www.answers.com/weber?cat=technol
ogy
[14] "weber". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6383/weber
[15] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1846)
[16] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p356. (1846) (1846)
[17]
Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische
Maasbestimmungen", Abhandlungen der K.
Sächsischen Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Leipzig,
1848?, p?. Annalen der Physik, vol.
73, pp
193-240. http://books.google.com/books?
id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmu
ngen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmeng
e,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+d
urch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&a
s_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA215,M1 E
nglish translation: Wilhelm Weber, "On
the Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
(University of) Göttingen, Germany5
 
[1] [t Weber's equation from Scientific
Memoirs 1848] PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.

[2] Figures from Scientific Memoirs
1848 PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.
129 YBN
[02/??/1871 AD] 7 		3705) Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev
(meNDelAeF) (CE 1834-1907), Russian
chemist1 publishes a chemistry
textbook "Osnovy khimii" (2 vol.,
1868-1871; tr. 1905, "The Principles of
Chemistry"2 ), after finding nothing
that he can recommend as a text upon
being appointed chair of chemistry at
the University of St. Petersburg.3

According to Asimov this is one of the
best chemistry books ever written in
Russian.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
2. ^ "Dmitri
Mendeleev." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
3. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry Ivanovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p596-597.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
5. ^ "Mendeleev,
Dmitry Ivanovich", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p596-597.
6. ^ "Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
7. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry Ivanovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p596-597.
{02/1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dmitri Mendeleev." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[2] "Dmitri Mendeleev." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[3] "Dmitri Mendeleev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mend
eleev
[4] "Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleeff".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Dmitri_I
vanovich_Mendeleeff
[5]
http://starina.library.tver.ru/us-35-1.h
tm
[6] Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev, George
Kamensky, Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
Translated by George Kamensky,
Contributor Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
"The Principles of Chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co.,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OqKMCLnvcdEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
Principles+of+Chemistry&as_brr=1&ei=_W9U
SfWmO4PAlQTOw7SEBA#PPP7,M1 1901
edition: http://www.archive.org/details
/principlesofchem00menduoft
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p342
[8]
D. I. Mendeleev, "Sootnoshenie svoistv
s atomnym vesom elementov" (The
Relation of the Properties to the
Atomic Weights of the Elements),
Zhurnal Russkoe Fiziko-Khimicheskoe
Obshchestvo 1, 60-77 (1869) (Journal of
the Russian Chemical Society);
abstracted as "Uber die Beziehungen der
Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der
Elemente," in Zeitschrift für Chemie
12, 405-406 (1869); Note: I know of no
translation to English of the original
Mendeleev paper. abstract translated
and annotated
here: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/ea
/MENDELEEVann.HTML
[9] Stephen G. Brush, "The Reception of
Mendeleev's Periodic Law in America and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 87, No. 4 (Dec.,
1996), pp.
595-628. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
5195?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=5&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[10] Heinz Cassebaum, George B.
Kauffman, "The Periodic System of the
Chemical Elements: The Search for Its
Discoverer", Isis, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Autumn, 1971), pp.
314-327. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
9945?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=7&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[11] W. Odling, "On the Natural
Groupings of Elements," Phil. Mag.,
1857, 13:423-439, 480-497
[12] W. Odling, "On
the Proportional Numbers of the
Elements," Quarterly Journal of
Science, 1864,1: 642-648
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia5 6  
[1] Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev as a
young man. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith
Memorial Collection, Department of
Special Collections, University of
Pennsylvania Library. PD/Corel
source: http://chemheritage.org/classroo
m/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/meye
r-mendeleev4.jpg

[2] Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev in his
study at home in 1904. Courtesy Edgar
Fahs Smith Memorial Collection,
Department of Special Collections,
University of Pennsylvania
Library. PD/Corel
source: http://chemheritage.org/classroo
m/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/meye
r-mendeleev3.jpg
129 YBN
[05/10/1871 AD] 6 		3433)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ "Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
3. ^ "Note on the Spectrum of Uranus
and the Spectrum of Comet I., 1871",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 19,
1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
4. ^ "Note on the Spectrum of Uranus
and the Spectrum of Comet I., 1871",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 19,
1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
5. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
6. ^ "Note on the Spectrum of Uranus
and the Spectrum of Comet I., 1871",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 19,
1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf} {05/10/1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England5  
[1] [t Spectrum of Sun through Earth
atmosphere and Uranus] PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Uranus_1871.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
129 YBN
[08/??/1871 AD] 8 9 10 		3814) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
2. ^ "Hermann Karl
Vogel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
3. ^ H. Vogel, "Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze", Annalen der Physik, vol. 219,
Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://www3.interscience.wi
ley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFST
ART English translation H. Vogel,
"On the Spectra of Lightning"
4. ^ H. Vogel,
"Ueber die Spectra der Blitze", Annalen
der Physik, vol. 219, Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://www3.interscience.wi
ley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFST
ART English translation H. Vogel,
"On the Spectra of Lightning"
5. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
6. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
7. ^ H. Vogel, "Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze", Annalen der Physik, vol. 219,
Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://www3.interscience.wi
ley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFST
ART English translation H. Vogel,
"On the Spectra of Lightning"
8. ^ Hermann C.
Vogel, "Resultate spectralanalytischer
Beobachtungen, angestellt auf der
Sternwarte zu Bothkamp.", Astronomische
Nachrichten, 78, 16, 1872,
p250. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/cgi-bin/fulltext/112526975/PDFSTART h
ttp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journa
l/112579623/issue {Vogel_Hermann_Dopple
r_Sun_Rotation_1871.pdf} {08/1871}
9. ^ "Hermann
Karl Vogel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel {1871}
10. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=OZ4RAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA56&dq=vogel+doppler&lr=&as_br
r=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=rshjSdvxC5icMpizoY
gM {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Carl Vogel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[2] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p358
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/spag/ign/
events/pdf/wf-doppl.pdf
[9]
http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMe
dalists/Vogel/VogelBio.pdf
[10]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[11]
Resultate%20spectralanalytischer%20Beoba
chtungen%2C%20angestellt%20auf%20der%20S
ternwarte%20zu%20Bothkamp
[12] Hector Macpherson, "A century's
progress in astronomy", Blackwood and
sons,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1
(private observatory) Bothkamp,
Germany6 7  
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
129 YBN
[09/08/1871 AD] 11 12 		3113) Although the Royal Photographic
Society awards Maddox the Progress
Medal, its highest honor, Maddox dies
in poverty.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Leach Maddox." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-lea
ch-maddox
2. ^ "Richard Leach Maddox." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 17
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-lea
ch-maddox
3. ^ "Richard Leach Maddox." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 17
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-lea
ch-maddox
4. ^ "Richard Leach Maddox." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 17
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-lea
ch-maddox
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Richard Leach Maddox." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 17
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-lea
ch-maddox
9. ^ "Woolston, Hampshire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolston%2C
_Hampshire
10. ^ "Richard Leach Maddox",
"Transactions of the American
Microscopical Society", Blackwell
Publishing on behalf of American
Microscopical Society, Vol. 25,
Twenty-Sixth Annual Meeting (Sep.,
1904), pp.
155-159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/32
20875
11. ^
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/maddox.htm (09/08/1871)
12. ^ "Richard Leach
Maddox." The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press,
2005. Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-lea
ch-maddox (1871)

MORE INFO
[1] "photography, history of."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-252
852>.
[2] "Richard Leach Maddox". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Lea
ch_Maddox
[3] "Photography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy
[4]
http://www.ephotozine.com/article/A-brie
f-history-of-film
Woolston, Southhampton, England9 10
 
[1] Dr. Richard Leach MADDOX
(1816-1902) PD/Corel
source: http://webh01.ua.ac.be/elmc/webs
ite_FL/im_gesch/maddox.gif

[2] Richard Leach Maddox, 1816 -
1902 PD/Corel
source: http://www.cotianet.com.br/photo
/hist/Images/maddox.jpg
129 YBN
[11/17/1871 AD] 7 		4160)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp346-347.
2. ^ George Biddell
Airy, "On a Supposed Alteration in the
Amount of Astronomical Aberration of
Light, Produced by the Passage of the
Light through a Considerable Thickness
of Refracting Medium", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. January 1, 1871, 20:35-39;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1871.0011. http://book
s.google.com/books?id=DKsOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA
35&dq=%22on+a+supposed+alteration%22+dat
e:1870-1872+intitle:proceedings&as_brr=4
#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20supposed%20alte
ration%22%20date%3A1870-1872%20intitle%3
Aproceedings&f=false
3. ^ Ludwik Silberstein, "The theory of
relativity", 1914,
p38. http://books.google.com/books?id=f
WJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA38&dq=1871+airy+water+f
illed+telescope&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=187
1%20airy%20water%20filled%20telescope&f=
false
4. ^ George Biddell Airy, "On a
Supposed Alteration in the Amount of
Astronomical Aberration of Light,
Produced by the Passage of the Light
through a Considerable Thickness of
Refracting Medium", Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1871, 20:35-39;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1871.0011. http://book
s.google.com/books?id=DKsOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA
35&dq=%22on+a+supposed+alteration%22+dat
e:1870-1872+intitle:proceedings&as_brr=4
#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20supposed%20alte
ration%22%20date%3A1870-1872%20intitle%3
Aproceedings&f=false
5. ^ Albert A. Michelson and Edward W.
Morley, "On the Relative Motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous Ether",
American Journal of Science, s3, v34,
Num 203,
11/1887. http://books.google.com/books?
id=0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=one
page&q=michelson&f=false
6. ^ Ludwik Silberstein, "The theory of
relativity", 1914,
p38. http://books.google.com/books?id=f
WJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA38&dq=1871+airy+water+f
illed+telescope&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=187
1%20airy%20water%20filled%20telescope&f=
false
7. ^ George Biddell Airy, "On a
Supposed Alteration in the Amount of
Astronomical Aberration of Light,
Produced by the Passage of the Light
through a Considerable Thickness of
Refracting Medium", Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1871, 20:35-39;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1871.0011. http://book
s.google.com/books?id=DKsOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA
35&dq=%22on+a+supposed+alteration%22+dat
e:1870-1872+intitle:proceedings&as_brr=4
#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20supposed%20alte
ration%22%20date%3A1870-1872%20intitle%3
Aproceedings&f=false {11/17/1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Biddell Airy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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ell_Airy
[2] "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
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ge_Biddell_Airy
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "George Biddell Airy". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/George+Biddell+Ai
ry?cat=technology
[5] "Royal Greenwich Observatory".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
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4281/Royal-Greenwich-Observatory
[6] "Sir George Biddell Airy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
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http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5227/Sir-George-Biddell-Airy (1827)
[7] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp346-347. (1827)
(1827)
[8] ([table)
Greenwich, England6  
[1] George Biddell Airy (British
Astronomer), from en, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg
129 YBN
[12/??/1871 AD] 4 		3876)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
2. ^ Lamansky, Monatsberichte der
Konigl, Akademie der Wissenshaften zu
Berlin, 1871. translated: Lamansky,
"On the Heat Spectrum of the Sun and
the Lime-Light.", Philosophical
Magazine, April, 1872,
p282. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NpYOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:philosophical+date:1872-1872&ei=nZuQ
SYqnC4qakwTyvbXIBQ#PPA282,M1
3. ^ Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
4. ^ Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
{12/1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[3] "Herschel, John Frederick William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p416-417
[4] "John
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
[5] "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1839)
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p322.
[7] "Sir John
Herschel 1st Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
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0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
[8] John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
(Helmholtz Lab, U of Heidelberg)
Heidelberg, Germany3  		 
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 8 		2657) The term "baud" (used for
computer modems5 ), which is a measure
of symbols transmitted per second, is
named after Emile Baudot.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
2. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Émile
Baudot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_
Baudot
7. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
8. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (1871)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1
[2] "Julius Wilhelm Gintl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Gintl
[3] "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
France7  
[1] Émile Baudot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emile_Baudot.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 2 		2662)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chinese telegraph code".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_tel
egraph_code
2. ^ "Chinese telegraph code".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_tel
egraph_code (1871)
 
[1] English: Obsolete Chinese telegraph
codes from 0001 to 0200. Each cell of
the table shows a four-digit numerical
code written in Chinese, and a Chinese
character corresponding to the code.
This is part of Septime Auguste
Viguier''s New Book for the Telegraph
(電報新書)
published in Shanghai in 1872. Viguier
developed this code succeeding Hans
Carl Frederik Christian Schjellerup''s
earlier work. See en:Chinese telegraph
code. Source Sheet 13 of the
electronically reproduced New Book for
the Telegraph archived in the Royal
Library of Denmark. Date
1872 Author Septime Auguste
Viguer
(威基謁) Permission
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Obsolete_chinese_telegraph_code.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 5 		2686)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p115.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p115.
4. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p115.
5. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p115. (1871)
Yokohama, Japan4   
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 5 		3169)
FOOTNOTES
2. ^ "Karl Weierstrass." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl
Theodor Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724.
5. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl Theodor
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724. (1871)


MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[2] "Weierstrass, Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6438>.
[3] "Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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r_Wilhelm_Weierstrass
[4] "Karl Weierstrass." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Source from
de:Image:Karl_Weierstrass.jpg,
from
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Karl_Weierstrass.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 5 		3355)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz, "Ueber
elektrische Oscillationen", Verhdlgn.
des naturh.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg.
Bd. V, S, 27-31. - Tageblatt der 43.
Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und
Aerzte zu Innsbruck im September 1869.
S. 105-108. Abgedruckt in
Wissenschaftl. Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S.
531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Ueber elektrische Oscillationen",
Verhdlgn. des naturh.-med. Vereins zu
Heidelberg. Bd. V, S, 27-31. -
Tageblatt der 43. Versammlung deutscher
Naturforscher und Aerzte zu Innsbruck
im September 1869. S. 105-108.
Abgedruckt in Wissenschaftl.
Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S. 531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1
4. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
5. ^ Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Ueber elektrische Oscillationen",
Verhdlgn. des naturh.-med. Vereins zu
Heidelberg. Bd. V, S, 27-31. -
Tageblatt der 43. Versammlung deutscher
Naturforscher und Aerzte zu Innsbruck
im September 1869. S. 105-108.
Abgedruckt in Wissenschaftl.
Abhandlungen, Bd. I, S. 531. German:
http://books.google.com/books?id=0WoSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:09
Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPA531,M1 {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[4] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[7] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
[8]
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2
699/is_0004/ai_2699000496
[9] Helmholtz, Hermann
von."Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels
zur Untersuchung der Netzhaut im
lebenden Auge" (Description of an eye
mirror for the investigation of the
retina of the living eye). Berlin,
1851.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library
/data/lit1862? http://books.google.com/
books?id=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Beschre
ibung+eines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchu
ng+der+Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge&as_brr=
1
[10] Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
Introduction to the History of
Medicine: With Medical Chronology ...",
W. B. Saunders, 1914.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ke0IA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=helmholtz+
arch+anat+Physiol+1848&source=web&ots=UH
ZHV9kEU0&sig=RNIRNPKhJaJ-ME2zkvDl_VW9iSY
&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=r
esult
[11] Hermann von Helmholtz,
"Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen",
"Scientific Papers" (2 vol,
1882,1883) Names in German of all of
Helmholtz's published
works: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zWoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA608&dq=Beschreibung+e
ines+Augenspiegels+zur+Untersuchung+der+
Netzhaut+im+lebenden+Auge#PPA605,M1
TOC: vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=0Wo
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:09Sa-Y-HRWKCy-1a#PPP15,M1
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zW
oSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR27&dq=Wissenschaftliche+
Abhandlungen+helmholtz&as_brr=1#PPR37,M1
vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=4z4AAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP17,M1
[12] George Neil Stewart, "A Manual of
Physiology With Practical
Exercises" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=iklAAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA1102&ots=5cbPcuv
uyJ&dq=phakoscope&pg=PA1102&ci=107,1234,
822,252&source=bookclip"
[13] "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>
[14] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
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Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[15] "Hermann von Helmholtz"
(Obituary). Royal Society (Great
Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. London:
Printed by Taylor and
Francis. http://books.google.com/books?
vid=0CZkDzy7hqYWpJVqcWCZAHZ&id=5aUOAAAAI
AAJ&pg=PT17#PPT17,M1
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 3 4 		3518)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438.
2. ^ "Hoppe-Seyler,
(Ernst) Felix (Immanuel)", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p437.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438. {1871}
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p332. {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Felix Hoppe-Seyler."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/271586/Ernst-Felix-Immanuel-Hoppe-Seyl
er>.
[2] "Hoppe-Seyler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoppe-Seyle
r
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany2  
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 4 		3526)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p345.
3. ^ "Stoney, George
Johnstone", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p345. {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Johnstone Stoney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_John
stone_Stoney
[2] "George Johnstone Stoney." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-john
stone-stoney
[3] "Electron". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electron

[4] Proc. Brit. Ass. (Belfast, August
1874), "On the Physical Units of
Nature,"
[5] George Johnstone Stoney, "On the
Cause of Double Lines and of
Equidistant Satellites in the Spectra
of Gases", Trans. Royal Dublin Society
(1891), series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df}
[6] G. Johnstone Stoney, "Of the
'Electron', or Atom of Electricity",
PT, v38, 1894,
p418-420. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0GyjU2FgHeVMhRr9iumi5pf&lr=&as_
brr=1#PPA418,M1 and
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Stoney-1894.html
[7]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
(Queen's University) Dublin, Ireland3
 
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 5 		3542)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p440-441.
2. ^ "Carl
Gegenbaur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Carl_Geg
enbaur
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Carl Gegenbaur".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Carl_Geg
enbaur
5. ^ "Carl Gegenbaur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Carl_Geg
enbaur {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Gegenbaur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227773/Karl-Gegenbaur>.
[2] "Karl Gegenbaur." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-gegenb
aur
[3] "Karl Gegenbaur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Gegenb
aur
[4] "Gegenbaur, Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p350.
(U of Jena) Jena, Germany4  
[1] Photograph of German anatomist and
professor Carl Gegenbaur in suit (409
pixels wide). Source URL (from German
Wikipedia):
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Carl_g
egenbaur.jpg Since Carl Gegenbaur died
in 1903, the photo is over 100 years
old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/df/Carl-Gegenbaur-professor-e
lder-suit-photo-409px.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 8 		3560) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ "Berthelot,
Pierre Eugène Marcellin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p90-91.
3. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Marcellin Berthelot"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London By Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
piii-x. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KM0BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA604&dq=berthelot+obi
tuary#PRA1-PR7,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Marcellin Pierre Eugene
Berthelot". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
8. ^ "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p90-91. {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Marcellin Berthelot." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[3] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[4] M. Berthelot, edited by Dunod,
"Essai de mécanique chimique fondée
sur la thermochimie" Published by
Dunod,
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kbQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT1&dq=Essai+de+meca
nique+chimique+fondee+sur+la+thermochimi
e
(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France7  
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 6 7 		3575)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
2. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
4. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Sep. 2008 .
5. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson
Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445. {1871}
7. ^ "Sir
Joseph Wilson Swan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
{1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Swan." A Dictionary
of British History. Oxford University
Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 15 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[2] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
Newcastle, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 7 		3633)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p452-453.
3. ^ "Othniel Charles
Marsh". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Othniel_
Charles_Marsh
4. ^ "Othniel Charles Marsh"
(obituary), Annual Report, Geological
Survey (U.S.),
p189-204. http://books.google.com/books
?id=AboQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA189&dq=%22Othniel+
Charles+Marsh%22+obituary&ei=VgHlSPGhHor
WMLfZ9KMP
5. ^ O. C. Marsh, "New Pterodactyl from
the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains",
The American Journal of Science and
Arts, S. Converse, 1878, Item notes:
ser.3:v.16(1878),
p233-234. http://books.google.com/books
?id=M38UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA482&dq=intitle:Ame
rican+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle
:Science+date:1878-1878&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=
OgnlSIiQKpbKMK6N5BE#PPA233,M1
6. ^ O. C. Marsh, "New Pterodactyl from
the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains",
The American Journal of Science and
Arts, S. Converse, 1878, Item notes:
ser.3:v.16(1878),
p233-234. http://books.google.com/books
?id=M38UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA482&dq=intitle:Ame
rican+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle
:Science+date:1878-1878&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=
OgnlSIiQKpbKMK6N5BE#PPA233,M1
7. ^ "Othniel Charles Marsh."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/366494/Othniel-Charles-Marsh>. {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Othniel Charles Marsh".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othniel_Cha
rles_Marsh
[2] "Marsh, Othniel Charles", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p579
[3] O. C. Marsh, "Note on
American Pterodactyls", American
Journal of Science, v21, num124, 1881,
p342-343. http://books.google.com/books
?id=aPcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255&dq=%22Othniel+
Charles+Marsh%22+hesperornis&as_brr=1&ei
=MgPlSMzIB5PyMqr8-QI#PPA342,M1
[4] "Othniel Charles Marsh."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/othniel-cha
rles-marsh
(Upper Jurasic) Wyoming, USA6  
[1] Description Othniel Charles
Marsh. Library of Congress description:
''Marsh, Prof. O.C. of Conn.''. Source
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division. Brady-Handy
Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04124.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH832- 175 [P&P] Date
between 1865 and 1880 Author
Mathew Brady or Levin Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Othniel_Charles_Marsh
_-_Brady-Handy.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 4 		3666)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p456-457.
2. ^ "Charles
Friedel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
3. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
4. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedel, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
420>.
[2] "Charles Friedel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-fri
edel
[3] J. H. GLADSTONE, "Professor Charles
Friedel" (obituary), Nature 60, 57 -
58 (18 May 1899), doi: 10.1038/060057a0
Ecole Normal, Paris, France3
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist and mineralogist
Charles Friedel (1832-1899) Source:
http://www.impmc.jussieu.fr/impmc/Presen
tation/historique2.php PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Charles_Friedel.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 6 		3924)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ "Foundations of
statistical mechanics 1845–1915",
Archive for History of Exact Sciences,
Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 4,
Number 3, January,
1967,p145-183. http://www.springerlink.
com/content/x48752278hl13853/
3. ^ "Foundations of statistical
mechanics 1845–1915", Archive for
History of Exact Sciences, Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 4, Number
3, January,
1967,p145-183. http://www.springerlink.
com/content/x48752278hl13853/
4. ^ L. Boltzmann, "Uber die
Eigenschaften monocyclischer und
anderer damit verwandter Systeme",
Wien. Ber. 90, 231 (1884); Journal fur
die reine und angewandte Mathematik
98, 68 (1885).
5. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
6. ^ "Foundations of statistical
mechanics 1845–1915", Archive for
History of Exact Sciences, Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 4, Number
3, January,
1967,p145-183. http://www.springerlink.
com/content/x48752278hl13853/ {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltzmann, Ludwig Eduard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
519>
[2] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[3] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[4] "Ludwig Boltzmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Bolt
zmann
[5] "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

[6] "Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
562>
[7] "Boltzmann factor." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltzmann-f
actor
[8] "Boltzmann factor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_f
actor
[9] L. Boltzmann, "Studien über das
Gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft
zwischen bewegten materiellen
Punkten," Wien. Ber. 58, 517 (1868);
reprinted in Boltzmann's Abhandlungen,
Bd. 1, p. 49
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=bMQKAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=%22Studien+%C3%BCber+d
as+Gleichgewicht+der+lebendigen+Kraft+zw
ischen+bewegten+materiellen+Punkten%22&a
s_brr=1&ei=NSTCSe-oNISukASl0vz-DQ#PPA527
,M1
[11]
http://world.std.com/~mmcirvin/boltzmann
.html
[12]
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/bolt
z.htm
[13] S.Rajasekar, N.Athavan, "Ludwig
Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047
[14] "Boltzmann, Ludwig", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116.
[15] Boltzmann, L., 1872. Weitere
Studien über das Wärmegleichgewicht
unter Gasmolekülen. Kaiserl. Acad.
Wiss. Wien Sitzungsberichte Akademie
der Wissenschaften, II Abt. 66, pp.
275–370. (included in
Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, Vol. 1,
1909. 316-402.) English tr: "Further
Studies on the Thermal Equilibrium of
Gas Molecules". In Brush, S. G.,
Kinetic theory, vol 2. Oxford a.o.,
1966, 88-175.
[16] "Prof. Ludwig Boltzmann",
(obituary), Nature, 10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
[17]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[18] L. Boltzmann, "Einige allgemeine
Satze ueber Warmegleichgewicht", Wien.
Bet. 63, 679 (1871).
(University of Graz) Graz, Austria5
(presumably) 
[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 11 12 		4059) In his life Meyer publishes 275
papers himself.8
In 1897 Meyer kills
himself by drinking prussic acid.9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p517.
3. ^ "Meyer,
Viktor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>.
4. ^ E. Ador, Victor Meyer,
"Ueberführung der Brombenzoësäure in
Isophtalsäure", Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft, Volume 4 Issue
1,
p259-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=rmkoAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:040OobsMY2_qGL2Ocq&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Isophtals%C3%A4ure&f=false and: ht
tp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal
/112334028/abstract
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Meyer, Viktor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ OBITUARY., J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1897, 19 (11), pp 918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
10. ^ OBITUARY., J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1897, 19 (11), pp
918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517. {1871}
12. ^ "Meyer,
Viktor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>. {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Viktor Meyer." A Dictionary
of Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/viktor-meye
r-1
[2] "Viktor Meyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Meye
r
[3] "Victor Meyer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Victor_M
eyer
[4] "Victor Meyer", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p603
[5]
American chemical journal, Volume 19,
p812. http://books.google.com/books?id=
caEwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=Victor+Mayer+da
te:1897-1897&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Victor
%20Mayer%20date%3A1897-1897&f=false
[6] Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, Volume 16,
p786. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pOnNAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA786&dq=Victor+Maye
r+date:1897-1897&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
(University of Stuttgart), Stuttgart,
Germany10 (presumably) 
[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 20 		4069) Klein serves in Franco-Prussian
war.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p520.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520.
5. ^ Felix Klein,
"Über die sogenannte Nicht-Euklidische
Geometrie", Mathematische Annalen, vol
4, 1871, p573.
http://books.google.com/books?id=6UPWA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_n
avlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false also: K
lein, F., 1871b. "Über die sogenannte
Nicht-Euklidische Geometrie",(Erster
Aufsatz), GMA, vol. 1, pp.
254–305. English translation Felix
Klein, "On the so-called Non-Euclidean
Geometry"
6. ^ and Klein, F., 1872a. "Über
die sogenannte Nicht-Euklidische
Geometrie", (Zweiter Aufsatz), GMA,
vol. 1, pp. 311–343.
7. ^ "Klein, Christian
Felix", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p490-491.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ A History of
Non-Euclidean Geometry, Evolution of
the Concept of a Geometric Space, B. A.
Rosenfeld, 1988, p236-239,296-297.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ A History of
Non-Euclidean Geometry, Evolution of
the Concept of a Geometric Space, B. A.
Rosenfeld, 1988, p236-239,296-297.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520.
19. ^ "Klein, Felix."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
733>.
20. ^ "Klein, Felix." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
733>. {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Felix Klein." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-klein

[2] "Felix Klein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-klein

[3] "Christian Felix Klein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F
elix_Klein
[4] Felix Klein, "Zur Nicht-Euklidische
Geometrie", Mathematische Annalen, Bd.
37, S. 544
( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany19  
[1] Felix Klein (1849 - 1925) aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
PictDisplay/Klein.html Die
Urheberrechts-Schutzdauer für dieses
Bild ist abgelaufen, es ist somit
gemeinfrei („public domain“). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Felix_Klein.jpeg
128 YBN
[01/01/1872 AD] 		1249)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Binder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder
2. ^ "Binder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder
3. ^ "Binder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder
4. ^ "Windrows". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windrows
5. ^ "Swather". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swather
6. ^ "Binder". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder
? 
[1] McCormick Harvester and Binder of
1876 at work in the field -the first
practical self-binder ever
built Source McCormick Reaper
Centennial Source Material
(International Harvester Company:
Chicago) 1931 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 8 		3197) Aldol is an oily colorless liquid
obtained by the condensation of two
molecules of acetaldehyde. Aldol
contains an alcohol group (-OH) and an
aldehyde group (-CHO).5 The word
"aldol" also refers to any similar
aldehyde containing the group
CH3OH–CO–CHOH.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p393.
2. ^ "Charles Adolphe
Wurtz." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 27
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
3. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Adolphe_Wurtz
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "aldol." WordNet 1.7.1.
Princeton University, 2001. Answers.com
28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aldol
6. ^ "aldol." The American Heritage
Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aldol
7. ^ "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7617>.
8. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz (1872)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ado
lphe_Wurtz
[2] "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p949
(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France7  
[1] A typical Aldol reaction GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ald
ol_reaction

[2] Adolphe Wurtz. Courtesy of The
Edgar Fahs Smith Collection, Special
Collections Department, Van
Pelt- Dietrich Library Center,
University of Pennsylvania. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/23/ft5g500723/figures/ft5g500723
_00060.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 5 		3198)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p393.
2. ^ "Charles Adolphe
Wurtz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
3. ^ "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p949.
4. ^ "Wurtz, Charles-Adolphe."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7617>.
5. ^ "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz (1872)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ado
lphe-wurtz
[2] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ado
lphe_Wurtz
[3] "Charles Adolphe Wurtz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Adolphe_Wurtz
(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France4  
[1] Adolphe Wurtz. Courtesy of The
Edgar Fahs Smith Collection, Special
Collections Department, Van
Pelt- Dietrich Library Center,
University of Pennsylvania. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/23/ft5g500723/figures/ft5g500723
_00060.jpg

[2] An improved design was the ‘only
on the cheeks moustache’, developed
by Charles-Adolphe Wurtz PD/Corel
source: http://bp1.blogger.com/_mOsqmOB4
z3s/RebKTINh9oI/AAAAAAAAAWA/Mxvmb0dKPUM/
s1600/wurtz.JPG
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 6 		3317)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
3. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Tyndall, John", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp891-892.
6. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1 {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyndall, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>.
[2] "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[3] "Tyndall, John." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[4] "Tyndall, John." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[5] "John Tyndall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndal
l
[6] "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
[7] John Tyndale, "Faraday as a
Discoverer", D. Appleton,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wskKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=John
+Tyndall&as_brr=1
[8] John Tyndall, "Heat a Mode of
Motion", D. Appleton and Company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3DUJAAAAIAAJ&dq=John+Tyndall&as_brr=1
(Royal Institution) London, England5
 
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 9 10 		3566)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p444.
3. ^ "Ferdinand
Cohn." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
4. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
5. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
6. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Ferdinand Julius Cohn".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ferdinan
d_Julius_Cohn
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444. {1872}
10. ^ "Cohn,
Ferdinand Julius", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p200.
{1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinand Cohn." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[2] "Ferdinand Julius Cohn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_J
ulius_Cohn
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)8  
[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 10 		3630) Dedekind studies advanced
mathematics at the University of
Göttingen under the mathematician Carl
Friedrich Gauss.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451-452.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p451-452.
3. ^ "Richard
Dedekind." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/155414/Richard-Dedekind>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451-452.
5. ^ "Richard
Dedekind." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/155414/Richard-Dedekind>.
6. ^ Dedekind, Richard, "Essays on the
Theory of Numbers", Open Court
Publishing Company, Chicago, 1901. at
the Internet
Archive. http://www.archive.org/details
/essaysintheoryof00dedeuoft
7. ^ "Richard Dedekind." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ded
ekind
8. ^ "Richard Dedekind." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/155414/Richard-Dedekind>.
9. ^ "Richard Dedekind." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/155414/Richard-Dedekind>.
10. ^ "Richard Dedekind." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/155414/Richard-Dedekind>. {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Dedekind." The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ded
ekind
[2] "Richard Dedekind." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ded
ekind
[3] "Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Richard_Dedekind
[4] "Dedekind, (Julius Wilhelm)
Richard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p238
(Technical High School in Braunschweig)
Braunschweig, Germany9  
[1] Photo de Richard Dedekind vers
1850 Source
http://dbeveridge.web.wesleyan.edu/we
scourses/2001f/chem160/01/Photo_Gallery_
Science/Dedekind/FrameSet.htm Date
2007-02-10 (original upload
date) Author Jean-Luc
W Permission (Reusing this image)
La photo date de plus de 150 ans,
elle est domaine public PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Dedekind.jpeg

[2] Richard Dedekind
(1831–1916) PD/Corel
source: http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/dedekind-foundations/dedekind.png
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 10 11 12 		3732)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471.
2. ^ F. G. Riddell,
M. J. T. Robinson, J. H. van't Hoff and
J. A. Le Bel--their historical context,
Tetrahedron, Volume 30, Issue 13, 1974,
Pages 2001-2007, ISSN 0040-4020, DOI:
10.1016/S0040-4020(01)97330-2. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
THR-42HX73G-7V/2/26bf202915df8eb3b9f71e4
bea1f6268)
3. ^ "Johannes Wislicenus", Royal
Society (Great Britain), JSTOR
(Organization) (1907). Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Harrison
and Son.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8MwBAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PR8&dq=Wislicenus+chemistry
&lr=&as_brr=1#PRA1-PR3,M1. -
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
1907, volume 78, pages iii –
xii http://books.google.com/books?id=8M
wBAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PR8&dq=Wislicenus+chem
istry&lr=&as_brr=1#PRA1-PR3,M1
4. ^ F. G. Riddell, M. J. T. Robinson,
J. H. van't Hoff and J. A. Le
Bel--their historical context,
Tetrahedron, Volume 30, Issue 13, 1974,
Pages 2001-2007, ISSN 0040-4020, DOI:
10.1016/S0040-4020(01)97330-2. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
THR-42HX73G-7V/2/26bf202915df8eb3b9f71e4
bea1f6268)
5. ^ "Johannes Wislicenus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-wi
slicenus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471.
7. ^ "Johannes
Wislicenus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-wi
slicenus
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Johannes Wislicenus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Johannes
_Wislicenus
10. ^ F. G. Riddell, M. J. T. Robinson,
J. H. van't Hoff and J. A. Le
Bel--their historical context,
Tetrahedron, Volume 30, Issue 13, 1974,
Pages 2001-2007, ISSN 0040-4020, DOI:
10.1016/S0040-4020(01)97330-2. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
THR-42HX73G-7V/2/26bf202915df8eb3b9f71e4
bea1f6268) {1872}
11. ^ J. Wislicenus Ann.
Chem. Pharm. 166 (1873), p.
47. {cannot find on books.google.com}
{1872}
12. ^ "Johannes Wislicenus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-wi
slicenus {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wislicenus, Johannes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
268>.
[2] "Johannes Wislicenus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Wi
slicenus
[3] "Wislicenus, Johannes", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p944.
[4] J. Wislicenus, "Studien zur
Geschichte der Milchsaure und ihrer
Homologen", Ann. Chem. Pharm. 128
(1863), p. 1.
http://books.google.com/books?id=V4U8A
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0MmLVVIzWAwxz&lr=#PRA1-PA1,M1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p334.
(Zurich University) Zurich,
Switzerland9 (presumably) 
[1] Description Picture of Johannes
Wislicenus, the chemist Source
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, A, volume 78, page iii Date
1907 Author P.F.F. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wislicenus_Johannes.j
pg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 21 		3748) Draper serves in the Union army
as a surgeon.14

Henry Draper's father, John William
Draper, in 1840 had made the first
photograph of the Moon.15

Draper rules his own metal gratings.16


For his photography of the transit of
Venus in 1874, Congress orders a gold
medal struck in his honour.17
Draper's
widow establishes the Henry Draper
Memorial Fund at Harvard Observatory,
financing the making of the great
"Henry Draper Catalogue of stellar
spectra".18

(This seems very late for the first
photograph of the spectrum of a star,
in particular if people see thought in
1810.19 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Draper, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474-475.
3. ^ Henry Draper,
"15 Photographs of the Spectra of Venus
and a Lyrae", Am J Sci HI xiii 95 Feb
1877 Reprinted in Phil Mag Fifth
series, iii,
238. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
PcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=intitle:american+
intitle:journal+intitle:of+intitle:scien
ce+date:1877-1877&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALL
TYPES&ei=jJ1YSabSM5iMkASu3M3HDg#PPA95,M1

4. ^ Barker, George F. (1887). "On the
Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of
Stellar Spectra". Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 24:
166–172. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=KcAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA166&dq=On+the+Hen
ry+Draper+Memorial+Photographs+of+Stella
r+Spectra&ei=saBYSeydD43WlQSq6MTuBw
5. ^ Barker, George F. (1887). "On the
Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of
Stellar Spectra". Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 24:
166–172. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=KcAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA166&dq=On+the+Hen
ry+Draper+Memorial+Photographs+of+Stella
r+Spectra&ei=saBYSeydD43WlQSq6MTuBw
6. ^ Record ID3427. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p474-475.
8. ^ "Draper,
Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
9. ^ "Draper, Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p260-261.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Henry Draper,
"15 Photographs of the Spectra of Venus
and a Lyrae", Am J Sci HI xiii 95 Feb
1877 Reprinted in Phil Mag Fifth
series, iii,
238. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
PcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=intitle:american+
intitle:journal+intitle:of+intitle:scien
ce+date:1877-1877&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALL
TYPES&ei=jJ1YSabSM5iMkASu3M3HDg#PPA95,M1

12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p474-475.
15. ^ "Draper,
Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
16. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
17. ^ "Draper, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
18. ^ "Draper, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Henry Draper." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474-475. {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Drape
r
[2] Biographical Memoirs, By National
Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National
Academy of Sciences, 1895,
p81-140. http://books.google.com/books?
id=d3iph4B87oEC&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+Draper&
ei=55VYSZLJNZSokASEwJSuDw
(City University) New York City, NY,
USA20  
[1] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg

[2] Description English: Picture of
Henry Draper, the American physician
and astronomer Source
Frontispiece of Memoir of Henry
Draper; 1837-1882 Date
1888 Author George Frederick
Barker PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Draper_Henry_W_signat
ure.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 23 24 		3770) Between 1873 and 1893 Mach
develops optical and photographic
techniques for the measurement of sound
waves and wave propagation.15 In 1881
Mach proposes the use of electric
discharges to produce photographs with
extremely short exposure time.16
Einste
in will refer to the Mach principle,
which is Mach's view that the
properties of space have no independent
existence but are dependent on the mass
content and mass distribution within
it.17
(explain more accurately, to me
clearly there is space and matter in
space. One great question is: does
matter fill space, or is matter part of
space? In other words, does matter move
from space to space, or do the matter
and space move together? My own view is
that matter occupies space, and moves
from space to space. If matter is a
kind of space, then it is a different
kind, and that seem not logical to
me.18 )


According to Asimov, Mach is strongly
influenced by the "psychophysics" of
Fechner.19

Mach opposes the atomic theory, and
most things that are not proven through
direct sensory information.20

Mach rejects Einstein's theory of
relativity, and plans on writing a book
pointing out its flaws when he dies in
1916.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
2. ^ "Mach, Ernst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
725>.
3. ^ "Ernst Mach." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-mach
4. ^ "Berkeley, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>.
5. ^ Record ID3773. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
7. ^ (original
footnote:) Mach survived Einstein's
Special Theory of Relativity by more
than eleven years, at least eight of
which were very active years; but he
remained strongly opposed to it; and
though he alluded to it in the preface
to the last (seventh) German edition
(1912) of the Mechanik published during
his lifetime, the allusion was by way
of a compliment to the opponent of
Einstein, Hugo Dingler: Einstein's name
and that of the theory were not
mentioned.
8. ^ (original footnote:) This is not
the place to discuss other predecessors
of Mach, such as Leibniz.
9. ^ Karl Popper, "A
Note on Berkeley as Precursor of Mach
and Einstein.", Conjectures and
Refutations, Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1965.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Mach,
Ernst", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p564-565.
13. ^ "Mach, Ernst." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
725>.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Mach, Ernst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
725>.
16. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p357.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
22. ^ "Mach, Ernst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
725>.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480. {1872}
24. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p345. {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Mach." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-mach
[2] "Ernst Mach". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach
[3] "Ernst Mach". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ernst_Ma
ch
[4] "ernst mach". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ernst-
mach/
[5] Popper, Karl. 1953. “A Note on
Berkeley as Precursor of Mach and
Einstein.” In Conjectures and
Refutations. New York:
Harper. http://www.questia.com/read/781
46549?title=Conjectures%20and%20Refutati
ons%3a%20The%20Growth%20of%20Scientific%
20Knowledge
[6] Ronald Newburgh, "Did Berkeley
foreshadow Mach?", Am. J. Phys. 76, 189
(2008),
DOI:10.1119/1.2800357 http://scitation.
aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?pro
g=normal&id=AJPIAS0000760000020001890000
01&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes
(Charles University) Prague, Czech
Republic22  
[1] Description Ernst Mach,
1900 Source Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernst-Mach-1900.jpg

[2] Ernst Mach Source:
http://utf.mff.cuni.cz/Relativity/SCAN/M
ACH02.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ed/Ernst_Mach.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 9 10 		3911)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
2. ^ Brefeld, O. Botanische
Untersuchungen uber Schimmelpilze, Heft
I, Mucor mucedo, Chaetocladium Jones
ii, Piptocephalis Fresiana:
Zygomyceten, Leipzig, 1872.
3. ^ "Prof. O.
Brefeld" (obituary), nature 116,
369-369 (05 September
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v116/n2914/pdf/116369a0.pdf
4. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
5. ^ Brefeld, O. Botanische
Untersuchungen uber Schimmelpilze, Heft
I, Mucor mucedo, Chaetocladium Jones
ii, Piptocephalis Fresiana:
Zygomyceten, Leipzig, 1872.
6. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
hl=en&sl=de&tl=en#de
7. ^ "Prof. O. Brefeld" (obituary),
nature 116, 369-369 (05 September
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v116/n2914/pdf/116369a0.pdf
8. ^ "Prof. O. Brefeld" (obituary),
nature 116, 369-369 (05 September
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v116/n2914/pdf/116369a0.pdf
9. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731 {1872}
10. ^ Brefeld, O. Botanische
Untersuchungen uber Schimmelpilze, Heft
I, Mucor mucedo, Chaetocladium Jones
ii, Piptocephalis Fresiana:
Zygomyceten, Leipzig, 1872.

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Koch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Mar. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/320834/Robert-Koch>.
[2] "Julius Oscar Brefeld". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Osca
r_Brefeld
[3]
Botanische%20Untersuchungen%20aus%20dem%
20Gessammt%20gebiete%20der%20Mykologie
Berlin, Germany8   
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 18 		3923) Another explanation of the second
law of thermodynamics, that heat moves
from hot to cold, might be the
interpretation that masses tend to move
to where there is more space which can
hold them - or basically the view that
moving masses will naturally be
collided into more open spaces
(unmatter filled spaces) since there
are less spaces for them to exist in,
in a volume of more matter filled space
- or in a volume where the matter has a
higher velocity than an equivalent
adjacent volume of space. - In this
sense, this concept of the first law -
of heat moving toward cold - is the
natural result of
gravitation+inertia+collision in a
universe of matter-filled-space,
empty-space and time (or simply,
matter, space and time).14

I think a good effort might be to
relate temperature to average velocity
(and perhaps quantity of mass, or
average density of mass in a volume of
space) as opposed to average energy -
but possibly quantity of mass effects
temperature - then temperature has to
do with absorption of mass used for
measurement.15

It's interesting that lineages can be
seen in the history of science how
Boltzmann builds on Maxwell's work,
Maxwell built upon Thomsen's who built
on Joule's - in the heat as a
mechanical movement group and those
whose focus was thermodynamics, using
the concept of vis-viva and then energy
to describe the universe which shadowed
any other physics models.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ "Prof. Ludwig
Boltzmann", (obituary), Nature,
10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
{1872}
3. ^ "Boltzmann transport equation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 19
Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltzmann-t
ransport-equation
4. ^ S.Rajasekar, N.Athavan, "Ludwig
Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047
5. ^ "Boltzmann, Ludwig", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116.
6. ^ "Foundations of statistical
mechanics 1845–1915", Archive for
History of Exact Sciences, Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 4, Number
3, January,
1967,p145-183. http://www.springerlink.
com/content/x48752278hl13853/
7. ^ Boltzmann, L., 1872. Weitere
Studien über das Wärmegleichgewicht
unter Gasmolekülen. Kaiserl. Acad.
Wiss. Wien Sitzungsberichte Akademie
der Wissenschaften, II Abt. 66, pp.
275–370. (included in
Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, Vol. 1,
1909. 316-402.) English tr: "Further
Studies on the Thermal Equilibrium of
Gas Molecules". In Brush, S. G.,
Kinetic theory, vol 2. Oxford a.o.,
1966, 88-175.
8. ^ "Boltzmann transport
equation." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltzmann-t
ransport-equation
9. ^ "Foundations of statistical
mechanics 1845–1915", Archive for
History of Exact Sciences, Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 4, Number
3, January,
1967,p145-183. http://www.springerlink.
com/content/x48752278hl13853/
10. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
18. ^ "Prof. Ludwig Boltzmann",
(obituary), Nature, 10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
{1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltzmann, Ludwig Eduard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
519>
[2] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[3] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[4] "Ludwig Boltzmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Bolt
zmann
[5] "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

[6] "Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
562>
[7] "Boltzmann factor." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltzmann-f
actor
[8] "Boltzmann factor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_f
actor
[9] L. Boltzmann, "Studien über das
Gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft
zwischen bewegten materiellen
Punkten," Wien. Ber. 58, 517 (1868);
reprinted in Boltzmann's Abhandlungen,
Bd. 1, p. 49
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=bMQKAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=%22Studien+%C3%BCber+d
as+Gleichgewicht+der+lebendigen+Kraft+zw
ischen+bewegten+materiellen+Punkten%22&a
s_brr=1&ei=NSTCSe-oNISukASl0vz-DQ#PPA527
,M1
[11]
http://world.std.com/~mmcirvin/boltzmann
.html
[12]
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/bolt
z.htm
(University of Graz) Graz, Austria17
(presumably) 
[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 9 		3930) Cantor was hospitalized first in
18994 and dies in Halle University's
psychiatric clinic5 . (try to find
exact reason - checked in by self, or
did something unusual?6 )

The German mathematician Kronecker (who
famously said "God made the integers,
and all the rest is the work of
man”), strongly opposes Cantor's work
and blocks Cantor's appointment to the
faculty at the University of Berlin.7
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501-502.
2. ^ "Cantor, Georg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
3. ^ "Cantor, Georg", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p164-165.
4. ^ "Georg Cantor." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
5. ^ "Cantor, Georg", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p164-165.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Cantor, Georg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
8. ^ "Georg Cantor." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
9. ^ "Cantor, Georg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>. {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Cantor." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
[2] "Georg Cantor." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
[3] "Georg Cantor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Canto
r
(University of Halle) Halle, Germany8
 
[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg
127 YBN
[02/12/1873 AD] 17 		3336)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Willoughby Smith, "Effect of
Light on Selenium During the Passage of
An Electric Current", Nature, Volume 7,
Number 173, p303. (Communicated to the
Society of Telegraph Engineers,
February 12, by Mr. Latimer Clark, from
Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician to
the Telegraph Construction
Company.) {Smith_Willoughby_1873_seleni
um_007303e0.pdf}
2. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "solar cell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 26 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
5. ^ Record ID3308. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Willoughby
Smith, "Effect of Light on Selenium
During the Passage of An Electric
Current", Nature, Volume 7, Number 173,
p303. (Communicated to the Society of
Telegraph Engineers, February 12, by
Mr. Latimer Clark, from Mr. Willoughby
Smith, Electrician to the Telegraph
Construction
Company.) {Smith_Willoughby_1873_seleni
um_007303e0.pdf}
7. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
8. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6102>.
9. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
10. ^ Willoughby Smith, "Effect of
Light on Selenium During the Passage of
An Electric Current", Nature, Volume 7,
Number 173, p303. (Communicated to the
Society of Telegraph Engineers,
February 12, by Mr. Latimer Clark, from
Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician to
the Telegraph Construction
Company.) {Smith_Willoughby_1873_seleni
um_007303e0.pdf}
11. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
12. ^
http://www.geocities.com/neveyaakov/elec
tro_science/smith.html
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "photoelectric effect."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2009. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/photoelectr
ic-effect
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/SMITH_BIO.htm
l
17. ^ Willoughby Smith, "Effect of
Light on Selenium During the Passage of
An Electric Current", Nature, Volume 7,
Number 173, p303. (Communicated to the
Society of Telegraph Engineers,
February 12, by Mr. Latimer Clark, from
Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician to
the Telegraph Construction
Company.) {Smith_Willoughby_1873_seleni
um_007303e0.pdf} {02/12/1873}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willoughby Smith".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willoughby_
Smith
[2] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
Valentia, Ireland16  
[1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg

[2] Closed lid - high
resistance, open lid - low
resistance PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD] 5 		2782)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p328.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p328.
3. ^ "Johann
Heinrich von Madler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9910/Johann-Heinrich-von-Madler
4. ^ "Johann Heinrich Mädler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_M%C3%A4dler
5. ^ "Johann Heinrich Mädler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hein
rich_M%C3%A4dler (1873)
(Dorpat Observatory) Dorpat (Tartu),
Estonia3 4  
[1] from [1]
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N Sou
rce Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here *
12:23, 28 July 2004 Magnus Manske
1000x869 (79,491 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske
17:30, 26 May 2006 (UTC) Author
User Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Heinrich_M%C3%A4dler.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 6 		3049) Hermann Günther Grassmann (CE
1809-1877), German mathematician,1
writes a six-part "Wörterbuch zum
Rigveda" (1873-1875) which is a
complete glossery of the Rigveda (in
German2 ).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p369.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Hermann Günther Grassmann", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp370.
4. ^ "Grassmann, Hermann
Günther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
5. ^ "Szczecin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/szczecin
6. ^ "Hermann Günther Grassmann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp370. (1873)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Günther Grassmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_G%C
3%BCnther_Grassmann
[2] "Grassmann, Hermann Günther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>. (1873)
(Gymnasium in) Stettin4 , (Prussia now)
Poland5  
[1] Hermann Günther Grassmann
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Hgrassmann.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 12 		3371) Schliemann learns to read and
write fluently between 8 and 13
languages including Russian and both
ancient and modern Greek.7
Schlieman
makes a fortune at the time of the
Crimean War, mainly as a military
contractor.8
Schlieman publishes
"Ithaka, der Peloponnes und Troja"
("Ithaca, the Peloponnese, and Troy"),
in which he argues that Hisarlık, in
Asia Minor, and not Bunarbashi, a short
distance south of it, is the site of
ancient Troy and that the graves of the
Greek commander Agamemnon and his wife,
Clytemnestra, at Mycenae, described by
the Greek geographer Pausanias, are not
the tholoi (vaulted tombs) outside the
citadel walls but lay inside the
citadel.9
Schliemann publishes "Troja
und seine Ruinen" (1875; "Troy and Its
Ruins").10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415.
4. ^ "Heinrich
Schliemann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527668/Heinrich-Schliemann>.
5. ^ "Heinrich Schliemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527668/Heinrich-Schliemann>.
6. ^ "Heinrich Schliemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527668/Heinrich-Schliemann>.
7. ^ "Heinrich Schliemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527668/Heinrich-Schliemann>.
8. ^ "Heinrich Schliemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527668/Heinrich-Schliemann>.
9. ^ "Heinrich Schliemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
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12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415. {1873}

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127 YBN
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FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420-421.
2. ^ "Charles
Hermite." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>.
3. ^ "Circle". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Circle
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420-421.
5. ^ "number."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/422286/number>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420-421.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p347.
9. ^
"transcendental number." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 14
Jul. 2008.
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tal-number-2
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McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
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11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Charles Hermite."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263303/Charles-Hermite>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420-421. {1873}

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Answers.com 14 Jul. 2008.
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(Sorbonne) Paris, France15
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[2] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
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ome/grothkopf/fotos/math-ges/thumbs/081t
humb.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 12 		3586) Thomson is originally Wyville
Thomas Charles, but changes his name
when knighted.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449.
2. ^ "Sir C. Wyville
Thomson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/593056/Sir-C-Wyville-Thomson>.
3. ^ "fathom." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Sep.
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http://www.answers.com/topic/fathom
4. ^ "Sir C. Wyville Thomson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
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c/593056/Sir-C-Wyville-Thomson>.
5. ^ "Sir C. Wyville Thomson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
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c/593056/Sir-C-Wyville-Thomson>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Sir C.
Wyville Thomson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
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9. ^ "Charles Wyville Thomson." A
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10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449.
11. ^ "Sir C. Wyville
Thomson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/593056/Sir-C-Wyville-Thomson>.
12. ^ "Sir C. Wyville Thomson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
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c/593056/Sir-C-Wyville-Thomson>. {1873}

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[3] "Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville",
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(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
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127 YBN
[1873 AD] 14 		3662)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ James C.
Maxwell, "On a method of making a
direct comparison of electrostatic with
electromagnetic force; with a note on
the electromagnetic theory of light.",
Phil. Trans 158, 1868, pp643-658; Royal
Soc. Proc. 16, 1868, pp449-450; Phil.
Mag 36, 1868, pp. 316-317; Brit. Assoc.
Rep. 39, 1869, pp436-438. Scientific
Papers Vol. 2. pp 125-143.
3. ^ James Clerk
Maxwell, "A treatise on electricity and
magnetism.", 2 vol., 1st ed, Oxford,
1881. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=92QSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gmQSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd
edition, 1881: vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=FjwXAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&as_brr=1 vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=e_UEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Maxwell, James
Clerk", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p586-588
7. ^ P. M. Heimann, "Maxwell, Hertz,
and the Nature of Electricity", Isis,
v62, 1971, p149-157.
8. ^ James Clerk Maxwell,
"A treatise on electricity and
magnetism.", 2 vol., Oxford, 1892,
p260. http://books.google.com/books?id=
77WeOgAACAAJ&dq=A+Treatise+on+Electricit
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ZjlAw
9. ^ Lezioni Accademiche (Firenze,
1715), p. 25.
10. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A
treatise on electricity and
magnetism.", 2 vol., Oxford, 1892, 3rd
edition, Dover, 1954, v2, p492-493.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity from the Age of Descartes
to the Close of the Nineteenth Century:
from the age of Descartes to the close
of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
Green and co., 1910,
p300. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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1
13. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
14. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A treatise
on electricity and magnetism.", 2 vol.,
1st ed, Oxford, 1881. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=92QSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gmQSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd
edition, 1881: vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=FjwXAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&as_brr=1 vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=e_UEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 {1873}

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c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>
Glenlair, England13  
[1] Fig. 66 from Maxwell's ''A Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism'' which
shows the view that light is made of
two sine waves in an aether, one wihch
is an electric displacement and another
which is a magnetic force, both which
are 90 degrees to each other. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0w8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1#PP
A390,M1

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 6 		3753) In 1867 Proctor creates a map of
Mars and names the features on Mars
mostly after English astronomers, later
Schiaparelli renames them to more
objective, less nationalistic names.3

Proctor is a prolific writer and
authors many works intended to inform
the public of and popularize
astronomy.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p475.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475.
4. ^ "Richard Anthony
Proctor". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Anthony_Proctor
5. ^ "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p724-725.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475. {1873}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Anthony Proctor".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Ant
hony_Proctor
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Richard Anthony Proctor source:
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Richard_Anthony_Proct
or.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 33 		3758) In 1910 Waals wins the Nobel
prize in physics for his gas
equations.28

James Clerk Maxwell writes in Nature
"The molecular theory of the continuity
of the liquid and gaseous states forms
the subject of an exceedingly ingenious
thesis by Mr Johannes Diderik van der
Waals, a graduate of Leyden. There are
certain points in which I think he has
fallen into mathematical errors, and
his final result is certainly not a
complete expression for the interaction
of real molecules, but his attack on
this difficult question is so able and
so brave, that it cannot fail to give a
notable impulse to molecular science.
It has certainly directed the attention
of more than one inquirer to the study
of the Low-Dutch language in which it
is written.".29 (Is "Low Dutch" an
insult or describing a dialect of
Dutch?30 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
4. ^ "Molecule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

5. ^ "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

6. ^ "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

7. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
8. ^ "Van der Waals equation".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waa
ls_equation
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
11. ^ "Johannes
Diderik van der Waals." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
13. ^ "Johannes
Diderik van der Waals." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
14. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
15. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
16. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
17. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
18. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
19. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1910/waals-bio.html
20. ^ "Johannes Diderik van der Waals."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
29. ^ James Clerk
Maxwell, "On the Dynamical Evidence of
the Molecular Constitution of Bodies",
Nature, March 4, 1875,
p357-359. http://books.google.com/books
?id=vTUVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA359&dq=Johannes+Di
derik+Van+Der+Waals&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=3bNZ
SfvzO4S6lATQ5r2QBw
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Johannes Diderik Van
Der Waals, "Over de continuiteit van
den gas-en vloeistoftoestand", A. W.
Sigthoff, Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
32. ^ "Johannes Diderik van der Waals."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
33. ^ "Johannes Diderik van der Waals."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals {1873}

MORE INFO
[1] "Waals, Johannes Diederik van
der." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
810>
[2] "Johannes Diderik van der Waals."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
[3] "Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Di
derik_Van_Der_Waals
[4] "Waals, Johannes Diderik Van Der",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p917
[5] Robert
Bayness, "Critical Temperature of
Ethyene", Nature,
12/23/1880. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_i8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA186&dq=Over+de+c
ontinuiteit+van+den+gas-en+vloeistoftoes
tand&as_brr=1&ei=VMtZSd_uGovqkwTdkvjXDg
[6] John Henry Poynting, Joseph John
Thomson, "A Text-book of Physics", C.
Griffin,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eqgLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA152&dq=%22On+the+Conti
nuity+of+the+Liquid+and+Gaseous+States+o
f+matter%22+waals&ei=5s5ZScuMH5LElQSXnoi
mAg
(University of Leyden31 ) Leyden,
Netherlands32  
[1] Plate 5 figures from Van Der Waal
1873 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8lxMAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Phy
sical+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Soc
iety&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#
PPA499,M1

[2] Johannes Diderik van der
Waals source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_resu
lts.cfm?alpha_sort=w PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Johannes_Diderik_van_
der_Waals.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 4 5 		3809)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491-492.
2. ^ "Breuer, Josef",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p137.
3. ^ "Breuer,
Josef", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p137.
4. ^
"Breuer, Josef." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
389>. {1873}
5. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137. {1873}

MORE INFO
[1] "Josef Breuer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breuer-jose
f
[2] "Josef Breuer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Breue
r
[3] "Sigmund Freud". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sigmund_
Freud
[4] "respiration, human." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6614
3>.
[5] "Hering-Breuer reflex." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hering-breu
er-reflex
(in his own home) Vienna, Austria (now
Germany)3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Josef Breuer 1877
(35 years old). Published in his
Curriculum vitae. Reproduction from the
archive of Institute for the History of
Medicine, Vienna, Austria. Source
Albrecht Hirschmüller:
Physiologie und Psychoanalyse im Leben
und Werk Josef Breuers. Jahrbuch der
Psychoanalyse, Beiheft Nr. 4. Verlag
Hans Huber, Bern 1978. ISBN
3456806094. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Breuer_1877.jpg

[2] Josef Breuer in 1897 (Aet. 55 PD
source: http://www.pep-web.org/document.
php?id=se.002.0184.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 23 		3850) In 1876 Ferrier is a founding
member of the Physiological Society.14

In 1878, Ferrier is founding editor of
the journal "Brain"15 still published
today16 .

Ferrier has an important influence on
the science of brain surgery in urging
his colleagues to remove cerebral
lesions through operation.17

In 1882, a lawsuit is brought against
Ferrier for cruelty against animals. In
court Ferrier upholds the necessity and
value of animal experimentation and
wins the case.18

(I think there is definitely a line, in
my own opinion, that no species should
be made to endure pain and suffering,
and even damage at least to higher
order species. Clearly people accept
the painless murder of many species for
food and clothing, where I prefer the
alternative of only murdering plants,
fungi and protists for food and
clothing. I vote against punishing
those involved in clearly consensual
health science experimental
treatments.19 )

(I think the violent laws should extend
to all primates, and many mammals. In
particular I think the right to life
and to be free from pain should extend
to primates and mammals. Clearly
insects can be murdered. I support the
cruelty to animals law in which people
are punished for causing prolonged pain
in any species - although I doubt the
torture of insects and smaller species
would win a vote of jail-time for the
offender.20 )

(I think for useful scientific
research, I doubt a penalty of
imprisonment would win popular support,
or even fines, given the common murder
of many species for food. It probably
depends on the species, the quantity of
pain and suffering they are made to
endure, and the intended results. There
are examples of where experimentation
on other species directly leads to
increased understanding and cures. One
example, is stem cell research used in
purposely paralyzed mammals which
produced significant results that may
lead to a cure for paralysis in all
species. In this case, many people may
forgive the murder, assault, or
paralyzation of the less evolved
species, in order to find cures that
will stop the pain of many others. For
example, millions of ova and sperm die
every day, and I see nothing wrong with
using the cells of human blastulas so
long as there is no nervous system or
pain involved, in particular when these
cells are just going to be thrown away
otherwise. I think possibly that
animals caused to be in prolonged pain
is avoided generally speaking - Hitzig
gives an example of a dog in pain and
how unpleasant it was, in addition to
how it can be avoided. My vote is for
free info so everybody can see and
determine for each individual case if
the intentional damage is acceptable,
should be stopped, or punished, etc.
Clearly unconsensually damaging
developed humans outside of a woman's
womb is punishable with jail, and no
doubt many apparently useless or
pseudoscientific-based damage of
animals would not win popular
support.21 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495.
2. ^ David Ferrier,
"The Localization of Function in the
Brain", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1874,
p229-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=b5YsMcImObAC&pg=PA229&dq=david+ferri
er+date:1874-1874&lr=&ei=AwCBSdegMYbokAS
yqPXUBg#PPA229,M1
3. ^ David Ferrier, "Experimental
Researches in Cerebral Physiology and
Pathology", West Riding Lunatic Asylum
Medical Reports, Vol. III. 1873.
London, Smith, Elder and Co. 15,
Waterloo Place. Reprinted in J Anat
Physiol. 1873 November; 8(Pt 1):
152–155.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1319018 http://www.
pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?art
id=1319018&blobtype=pdf
4. ^ David Ferrier, "The Localization
of Function in the Brain", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1874,
p229-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=b5YsMcImObAC&pg=PA229&dq=david+ferri
er+date:1874-1874&lr=&ei=AwCBSdegMYbokAS
yqPXUBg#PPA229,M1
5. ^ "Ferrier, David", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p312.?
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Ferrier, David",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p312.?
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ David
Ferrier, "The Localization of Function
in the Brain", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1874,
p229-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=b5YsMcImObAC&pg=PA229&dq=david+ferri
er+date:1874-1874&lr=&ei=AwCBSdegMYbokAS
yqPXUBg#PPA229,M1
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Ferrier,
David", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p312.?
15. ^
"Ferrier, David", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p312.?
16. ^
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n18/histo
ry/ferrier_i.htm
17. ^ "Ferrier, David", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p312.?
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Ferrier, David",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p312.?
23. ^ David
Ferrier, "Experimental Researches in
Cerebral Physiology and Pathology",
West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical
Reports, Vol. III. 1873. London, Smith,
Elder and Co. 15, Waterloo
Place. Reprinted in J Anat Physiol.
1873 November; 8(Pt 1): 152–155.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1319018 http://www.
pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?art
id=1319018&blobtype=pdf

MORE INFO
[1] David Ferrier, "The Functions
of the Brain", G. P. Putnum's Sons,
1876. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=4FLdeC-35MgC&dq=%22The+Functions+o
f+the+Brain%22&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=KMqCRFDN0G&sig=Jctw2lT7onr2yNa
-ZM5zHybSWLQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPR3,M1
[2] David Ferrier, "Experiments on the
Brains of Monkeys", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, 1875, p409-
(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England22  
[1] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/ferrier.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 31 32 33 		3863) Golgi is the president of the
University of Pavia.25

In 1906 Golgi and Ramón y Cajal are
awarded a Nobel prize for work on the
structure of the nervous system.26 27

Golgi's works are published in "Opera
Omnia" (v1-3:1903, v4:1929) in 4
volumes.28 29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
2. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
3. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
4. ^ Lewellys Franklin Barker, "The
Nervous System and Its Constituent
Neurones", Kimpton, 1901,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
F8Lqim_57sC&pg=PR11&dq=golgi+cell+type+1
&as_brr=1&ei=24WMSZLtPJH6lQSui6S7DQ#PPA1
0,M1
5. ^ Camillo Golgi, "Sulla struttura
della sostanza grigia del cervello",
Gazzetta Medica Italiana (Lombardia),
1873, series 4, t. 6, 244-246, 1 pl.
6. ^
Lewellys Franklin Barker, "The Nervous
System and Its Constituent Neurones",
Kimpton, 1901,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
F8Lqim_57sC&pg=PR11&dq=golgi+cell+type+1
&as_brr=1&ei=24WMSZLtPJH6lQSui6S7DQ#PPA1
0,M1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record ID2580. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
10. ^ Lewellys Franklin Barker, "The
Nervous System and Its Constituent
Neurones", Kimpton, 1901,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
F8Lqim_57sC&pg=PR11&dq=golgi+cell+type+1
&as_brr=1&ei=24WMSZLtPJH6lQSui6S7DQ#PPA1
0,M1
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
Gustav Mann, "Physiological Histology,
Methods and Theory",
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pL8TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=golgi+1873&as_b
rr=1&ei=HyiKScnmLpTElQSd1qSZAg
14. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html
15. ^ Camillo Golgi, "Sulla struttura
della sostanza grigia del cervello",
Gazzetta Medica Italiana (Lombardia),
1873, series 4, t. 6, 244-246, 1 pl.
16. ^
Pietro Corsi, "The Enchanted Loom",
Oxford University Press, 1991,
p240-241.
17. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html
18. ^ Lewellys Franklin Barker, "The
Nervous System and Its Constituent
Neurones", Kimpton, 1901,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
F8Lqim_57sC&pg=PR11&dq=golgi+cell+type+1
&as_brr=1&ei=24WMSZLtPJH6lQSui6S7DQ#PPA1
0,M1
19. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
20. ^ Pietro Corsi, "The Enchanted
Loom", Oxford University Press, 1991,
p240-241.
21. ^
http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/200
6/08/29/the-discovery-of-the-neuron/
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
23. ^ Lewellys
Franklin Barker, "The Nervous System
and Its Constituent Neurones", Kimpton,
1901,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
F8Lqim_57sC&pg=PR11&dq=golgi+cell+type+1
&as_brr=1&ei=24WMSZLtPJH6lQSui6S7DQ#PPA1
0,M1
24. ^ Camillo Golgi, "Sulla fina
anatomia degli organ centrali del
sistema nervoso.", Riv. sper. di
freniatr., Reggio-Emilia, 1882, vol.
viii, pp. 165, 361; 1883, vol. ix, pp.
1, 161, 385; 1885, vol. xi, pp. 72,
193.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p497.
27. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
28. ^ Camillo Golgi, "Opera omnia"
"Vol. I. Istologia normale, (1870-83),
Vol. II. Istologia normale,
(1883-1902), Vol. III. Patologia
generale e Isto-patologia, (1868-94)",
Ulrico Hoepli, 1903.
29. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html
30. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497. {1873}
32. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>. {1873}
33. ^ "Camillo Golgi." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi {uses stain) c1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Golgi, Camillo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p364
[2] "Camillo Golgi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Gol
gi
[3] "Muscle And Nerve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Muscle_A
nd_Nerve
(Home for Incurables) Abbiategrasso,
Italy30  
[1] hippocampal tissue (left) and
cerebellar tissue (right) drawn in 1873
paper PD
source: http://neurophilosophy.files.wor
dpress.com/2006/08/golgi-hippo1.jpg?w=73
1&h=254

[2] Camillo Golgi PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 18 		3931) In 1908 Henri Poincaré remarks
that later generations would regard
Cantor's set theory "as a disease from
which one has recovered.".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501-502.
2. ^ "set theory."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
532>.
3. ^ "Cantor, Georg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
4. ^ "set theory." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
532>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Cantor, Georg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
7. ^ "Georg Cantor." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
8. ^ "Cantor, Georg", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p164-165.
9. ^ "Cantor, Georg", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p164-165.
10. ^ "Cantor, Georg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
11. ^ "Cantor, Georg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
12. ^ Georg Cantor, "Uber eine
Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller
reellen algebraischen Zahlen", Journal
für die reine und angewandte
Mathematik 0075-4102. ^ Cantor (1874)
volume: 77 page:
258. http://books.google.com/books?id=V
tUGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA258&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+E
igenschaft+des+Inbegriffes+aller+reellen
+algebraischen+Zahlen+date:1874-1874&as_
brr=1&ei=KYDDSZqcFY6QkASH1pCCDg
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501-502.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "Georg Cantor." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
17. ^ "Georg Cantor." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
18. ^ "Cantor, Georg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>. {1873}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Cantor." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
[2] "Georg Cantor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Canto
r
(University of Halle) Halle, Germany17
 
[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 26 27 28 29 		3950) It seems clear at this time that
people in science were engineering
devices with very small dimensions
aided by lens and gears.23

Some of Lippmann's colour photographs,
specially mounted for viewing at an
angle, are preserved in museums, the
finest collection being at the Preus
Museum at Horten, Norway.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
2. ^ Cromwell
Fleetwood Varley, "Polarization of
Metallic Surfaces in Aqueous Solutions.
On a New Method of Obtaining
Electricity from Mechanical Force, and
Certain Relations between
Electro-Static Induction and the
Decomposition of Water", Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1871
161:129-136;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1871.0008. http://rstl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/161/
129.full.pdf+html
3. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
5. ^ Gabriel
Lippmann, "Beziehungen zwischen den
capillaren und elektrischen
Erscheinungen", Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 225, Issue 8, Date:
1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
6. ^ Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
7. ^ Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
8. ^ Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
9. ^ Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
10. ^ W. N. Shaw, "On experiments with
mercury electrodes.", Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
Volume 3,
http://books.google.com/books?id=zZw1A
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA309&dq=lippmann+mercury&lr=
#v=onepage&q=lippmann%20mercury&f=false
11. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
12. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
13. ^ Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
14. ^ "meniscus". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eniscus
15. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/lippmann.html {1872}
16. ^ "Gabriel
Lippmann." The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press,
2005. Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
17. ^ Samuel Lawrence Bigelow,
"Theoretical and physical chemistry",
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kshAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA470&dq=lippmann+mercur
y&lr=#v=onepage&q=lippmann%20mercury&f=f
alse
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Lippmann,
Gabriel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
7 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>
21. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=cO4PAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA158&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%22
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lippm
ann%22&f=false
22. ^ The Electrical Review, Volume 7,
Volume 139,
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cREAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Gabriel+Lippmann
+date:1879-1879&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Gabriel%20Lippmann%20date%3A1879-1879&f
=false
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
25. ^ Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
26. ^ Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
{Lippmann_Gabriel_1873.pdf} translate
d to English as: Gabrial Lippmann,
"Connexion between Capillary and
Electrical Phenomena.", Philosophical
magazine, Series 4, Volume 47, Number
312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
27. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann {1873}
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506. {1875}
29. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/lippmann.html {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Jonas Lippmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jon
as_Lippmann
[2] "Photography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1908/lippmann-bio.html
[4] "Lippmann, Gabriel Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p547
[5] "Prof. G. Lippmann"
(obituary), Nature, Volume 107, August
18, 1921.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3-4RA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA788&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%
22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lip
pmann%22&f=false
University of Heidelberg, Germany25
 
[1] Capillary electrometer
COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE (Internet)
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_electrometer1.jpg

[2] Figures from Annalen Der Physik,
1873 PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 9 		4233)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "leprosy." Encyclopedia of
Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leprosy
2. ^ Gerhard Armauer Hansen,
“Undersøgelser angaaende
Spedalskhedens Aarsager”
(“Investigations Concerning the
Etiology of Leprosy”), in Norsk
magazin for laegevidenskaben, 3rd ser.,
4 no. 9 (1874), supp. 1–88, case
reports I—LIII; (presumably the
correct work)
3. ^ "leprosy." Encyclopedia of
Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leprosy
4. ^ "Hansen, Gerhard Henrik Armauer."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 101-103. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Feb.
2010.
5. ^ Gerhard Armauer Hansen,
“Bacillus leprace,” in Virchow’s
Arkiv für pathologische Anatomie und
physiologie und für klinische Medizin,
79 (1880), 32–42; (presumably the
correct article)
6. ^ "Neisser, Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010.
7. ^ "Hansen, Gerhard Henrik
Armauer." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 101-103.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010.
8. ^ "leprosy." Encyclopedia of
Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leprosy
9. ^ "Hansen, Gerhard Henrik Armauer."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 101-103. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Feb.
2010. {1873}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555
[2] "Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund Neisser". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ludw
ig_Sigesmund_Neisser
[3] Albert Neisser, "Über eine der
Gonorrboe eigenthümliche
Mierococcenform", Centralblatt für die
medizinischen Wissemchaften, 28 (1879),
497–500;
[4]
http://www.doctorsreview.com/node/615
[5] "Neisser, Albert Ludwig Sigesmund."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Feb.
2010.
[6] "Gerhard Armauer Hansen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Arm
auer_Hansen
Norway8  
[1] Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/53/Gerhard_Armauer_Hanse
n.jpg

[2] A photomicrograph of Mycobacterium
leprae taken from a leprosy skin lesion
(CDC, US Government public domain,
1979) Public Health Image Library
(PHIL) #2123 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Mycobacterium_leprae.
jpeg
126 YBN
[03/18/1874 AD] 4 		3483) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)1
invents a new deep sea sounding method
using piano forte wire2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ Magnus Maclean,
"Lord Kelvin" (obituary), Proceedings
of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow, 1908,
p71. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
3. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
4. ^ Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p71. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1 {03/18/1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[5] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p321.
[7]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[8] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[9] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[10] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
[11]
Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[12] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[13] William Thomson, "On Transient
Electric Currents", Glasgow
Philosophical Society Proceedings, Jan
1853 and Philosophical Magazine, Jun
1853. in William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p534-553. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result and http://gallica.bn
f.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95118c/f550
(currently can only save one page at a
time)
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland3  
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
126 YBN
[09/05/1874 AD] 19 20 		4134) In 1901 Van't Hoff receives the
Nobel prize in chemistry for his work
on solutions, and is the first to
receive the Nobel prize for
chemistry.15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535.
2. ^ "Hoff, Jacobus
Henricus van 't." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
699>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535.
5. ^ "Van’t Hoff,
Jacobus Henricus." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
575-581. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Voorstel tot uitbreiding der
tegenwoordig in de schekunde gebruikte
structuur-formules in de ruimte;
benevens een daarmeê samenhangende
opmerking omtrent het verband tusschen
optisch actief vermogen en chemische
constitutie van organische verbindingen
("Proposal for the Extension of the
Formulas Now in Use in Chemistry Into
Space: Together with a Related Remark
on the Relation Between the Optical
Rotating Power and the Chemical
Constitution of Organic Compounds":
Utrecht, 1874). It was translated into
French as “Sur les formules de
structure dans l’espace,” in
Archives néerlandaises des sciences
exactes et naturelles, 9 (1874),
445–454; and an English version,
"Structural Formulas in Space",
appeared in G. M. Richardson, ed., The
Foundations of Stereo Chemistry.
Memoirs by Pasteur, van’t Hoff, Lebel
and Wislicenus (New York, 1901),
37–46. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=T
he+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memo
irs+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebe
l+and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false
7. ^ Voorstel tot uitbreiding der
tegenwoordig in de schekunde gebruikte
structuur-formules in de ruimte;
benevens een daarmeê samenhangende
opmerking omtrent het verband tusschen
optisch actief vermogen en chemische
constitutie van organische verbindingen
("Proposal for the Extension of the
Formulas Now in Use in Chemistry Into
Space: Together with a Related Remark
on the Relation Between the Optical
Rotating Power and the Chemical
Constitution of Organic Compounds":
Utrecht, 1874). It was translated into
French as “Sur les formules de
structure dans l’espace,” in
Archives néerlandaises des sciences
exactes et naturelles, 9 (1874),
445–454; and an English version,
"Structural Formulas in Space",
appeared in G. M. Richardson, ed., The
Foundations of Stereo Chemistry.
Memoirs by Pasteur, van’t Hoff, Lebel
and Wislicenus (New York, 1901),
37–46. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=T
he+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memo
irs+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebe
l+and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ "Van’t Hoff, Jacobus Henricus."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 575-581. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Hoff, Jacobus Henricus
van 't." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
699>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535.
16. ^ "Hoff, Jacobus
Henricus van 't." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
699>.
17. ^ "Hoff, Jacobus Henricus van 't."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
699>.
18. ^ Voorstel tot uitbreiding der
tegenwoordig in de schekunde gebruikte
structuur-formules in de ruimte;
benevens een daarmeê samenhangende
opmerking omtrent het verband tusschen
optisch actief vermogen en chemische
constitutie van organische verbindingen
("Proposal for the Extension of the
Formulas Now in Use in Chemistry Into
Space: Together with a Related Remark
on the Relation Between the Optical
Rotating Power and the Chemical
Constitution of Organic Compounds":
Utrecht, 1874). It was translated into
French as “Sur les formules de
structure dans l’espace,” in
Archives néerlandaises des sciences
exactes et naturelles, 9 (1874),
445–454; and an English version,
"Structural Formulas in Space",
appeared in G. M. Richardson, ed., The
Foundations of Stereo Chemistry.
Memoirs by Pasteur, van’t Hoff, Lebel
and Wislicenus (New York, 1901),
37–46. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=T
he+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memo
irs+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebe
l+and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false
19. ^ Voorstel tot uitbreiding der
tegenwoordig in de schekunde gebruikte
structuur-formules in de ruimte;
benevens een daarmeê samenhangende
opmerking omtrent het verband tusschen
optisch actief vermogen en chemische
constitutie van organische verbindingen
("Proposal for the Extension of the
Formulas Now in Use in Chemistry Into
Space: Together with a Related Remark
on the Relation Between the Optical
Rotating Power and the Chemical
Constitution of Organic Compounds":
Utrecht, 1874). It was translated into
French as “Sur les formules de
structure dans l’espace,” in
Archives néerlandaises des sciences
exactes et naturelles, 9 (1874),
445–454; and an English version,
"Structural Formulas in Space",
appeared in G. M. Richardson, ed., The
Foundations of Stereo Chemistry.
Memoirs by Pasteur, van’t Hoff, Lebel
and Wislicenus (New York, 1901),
37–46. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=T
he+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memo
irs+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebe
l+and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{09/05/1874}
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535. {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacobus Henricus van 't
Hoff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/van-t-hoff-
jacobus-hendricus
[2] "Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/van-t-hoff-
jacobus-hendricus
[3] "Jacobus Henricus Van't Hoff".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Hen
ricus_Van%27t_Hoff
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1901/hoff-bio.html
[5]
http://www.knaw.nl/vanthoff/artikel.htm
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands17 18  
[1] Figures from English translation of
1874 van't Hoff work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The
+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memoir
s+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebel+
and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Picture of Van't
Hoff sources: http://nobelprize.org/no
bel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1901/hoff
-bio.html http://www.knaw.nl/vanthoff/a
rtikel.htm [t Notice the messy hair -
this ''messy hair'' style was popular -
I'm thinking Huxley - but that was long
fluffy side burns after the Darwin full
beard period - clearly Einstein does
the messy hair portrait - but others
did - after the loss of the wig - I
can't remember - possibly Fox
Talbot] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Vant_Hoff.jpg
126 YBN
[11/??/1874 AD] 25 26 		3992) Le Bel writes (translated from
French to English):(read full text with
text scrolling in video)20

Le Bel and Van't Hoff jointly receive
the Davy Medal in 1893.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p509.
3. ^ J. A. Le
Bel, "Sur les relations qui existent
entre les formules atomiques des corps
organiques, et le pouvoir rotatoire de
leur dissolutions", Bulletin de la
Société Chimique de France, Paris,
22:337
(1874) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7WNvFxwTvrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bul
letin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Chimique+d
e+France+date:1874-1875#v=onepage&q=bel&
f=false translated from French to
English: J. A. Bel, "On the relations
which exist between the atomic formulas
of organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions"
http://books.google.com/books?id=ja4RA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph+Ac
hille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {The_foundations_of_stereo_chemistry
.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ George Mann Richardson,
"The foundations of stereo chemistry:
memoirs by Pasteur, van't Hoff, Lebel
...", 1901, p
vi. http://books.google.com/books?id=ja
4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph
+Achille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. A.
Le Bel, "Sur les relations qui existent
entre les formules atomiques des corps
organiques, et le pouvoir rotatoire de
leur dissolutions", Bulletin de la
Société Chimique de France, Paris,
22:337
(1874) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7WNvFxwTvrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bul
letin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Chimique+d
e+France+date:1874-1875#v=onepage&q=bel&
f=false translated from French to
English: J. A. Bel, "On the relations
which exist between the atomic formulas
of organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions"
http://books.google.com/books?id=ja4RA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph+Ac
hille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {The_foundations_of_stereo_chemistry
.pdf}
9. ^ J. A. Le Bel, "Sur les relations
qui existent entre les formules
atomiques des corps organiques, et le
pouvoir rotatoire de leur
dissolutions", Bulletin de la Société
Chimique de France, Paris, 22:337
(1874) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7WNvFxwTvrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bul
letin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Chimique+d
e+France+date:1874-1875#v=onepage&q=bel&
f=false translated from French to
English: J. A. Bel, "On the relations
which exist between the atomic formulas
of organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions"
http://books.google.com/books?id=ja4RA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph+Ac
hille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {The_foundations_of_stereo_chemistry
.pdf}
10. ^ J. A. Le Bel, "Sur les relations
qui existent entre les formules
atomiques des corps organiques, et le
pouvoir rotatoire de leur
dissolutions", Bulletin de la Société
Chimique de France, Paris, 22:337
(1874) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7WNvFxwTvrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bul
letin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Chimique+d
e+France+date:1874-1875#v=onepage&q=bel&
f=false translated from French to
English: J. A. Bel, "On the relations
which exist between the atomic formulas
of organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions"
http://books.google.com/books?id=ja4RA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph+Ac
hille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {The_foundations_of_stereo_chemistry
.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Joseph Achille Le
Bel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-bel-jose
ph-achille
13. ^ "Joseph Achille Le Bel." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-bel-jose
ph-achille
14. ^ W. J. Pope, "Obituary notice:
Joseph Achille Le Bel, 1847–1930", J.
Chem. Soc., 1930, 2789 - 2791, DOI:
10.1039/JR9300002789 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/JR/article.asp?doi=
jr9300002789
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ M. J.-A. Lebel, "Sur la
dissymétrie et la création du pouvoir
rotatoire dans les dérivés
alcooliques du chlorure d'ammonium;",
Comptes Rendus, 112, 1891, p
724. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualis
eur?O=30000000030688
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
18. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p394.
19. ^ W. J. Pope,
"Obituary notice: Joseph Achille Le
Bel, 1847–1930", J. Chem. Soc., 1930,
2789 - 2791, DOI:
10.1039/JR9300002789 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/JR/article.asp?doi=
jr9300002789
20. ^ J. A. Le Bel, "Sur les relations
qui existent entre les formules
atomiques des corps organiques, et le
pouvoir rotatoire de leur
dissolutions", Bulletin de la Société
Chimique de France, Paris, 22:337
(1874) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7WNvFxwTvrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bul
letin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Chimique+d
e+France+date:1874-1875#v=onepage&q=bel&
f=false translated from French to
English: J. A. Bel, "On the relations
which exist between the atomic formulas
of organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions"
http://books.google.com/books?id=ja4RA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph+Ac
hille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {The_foundations_of_stereo_chemistry
.pdf}
21. ^ William Augustus Tilden, "The
progress of scientific chemistry in our
own times: with biographical notices",
1913,
p260. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SWU6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA260&dq=Joseph+Achille+
Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Joseph%20Ach
ille%20Le%20Bel&f=false
22. ^ "Le Bel, Joseph Achille", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p724-725. {1874}
23. ^ J. A. Le Bel,
"Sur les relations qui existent entre
les formules atomiques des corps
organiques, et le pouvoir rotatoire de
leur dissolutions", Bulletin de la
Société Chimique de France, Paris,
22:337
(1874) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7WNvFxwTvrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bul
letin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Chimique+d
e+France+date:1874-1875#v=onepage&q=bel&
f=false translated from French to
English: J. A. Bel, "On the relations
which exist between the atomic formulas
of organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions"
http://books.google.com/books?id=ja4RA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph+Ac
hille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {The_foundations_of_stereo_chemistry
.pdf}
24. ^ Hans Landolt, "The optical
rotating power of organic substances
and its practical
applications" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=wj793naWJcsC&pg=RA1-PA47&dq=Sur+
les+relations+qui+existent+entre+les+for
mules+atomiques+des+corps+organiques,+et
+le+pouvoir+rotatoire+de+leurs+dissoluti
ons&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Sur%20les%2
0relations%20qui%20existent%20entre%20le
s%20formules%20atomiques%20des%20corps%2
0organiques%2C%20et%20le%20pouvoir%20rot
atoire%20de%20leurs%20dissolutions&f=fal
se
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509. {1874}
26. ^ "Le Bel,
Joseph Achille", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p724-725. {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Le Bel, Joseph-Achille."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
457>
[2] "Joseph Achille Le Bel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Achi
lle_Le_Bel
(Ecole de Médecine22 ) Paris, France23
24  
[1] Photo of Joseph Achille Le Bel PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Le_Bel.jpg

[2] ''Le Bel, Joseph-Achille.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 1 Sept. 2009 . COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
25194&rendTypeId=4
126 YBN
[12/08/1874 AD] 13 14 		3855) Gill is educated in
clock-making.10
Gill plans and
supervised the building of an
observatory for Lord Lindsay at Dun
Echt, near Aberdeen (1872-1876).11
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
2. ^ "Gill, Sir
David." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 Feb.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
832>.
3. ^ "heliometer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heliometer
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=aUVAAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill+date:1
893-1893+parallax&lr=&ei=0NqISZTqNZTckwT
_wIjvBQ#PPT10,M1
5. ^ "Preparations for the Observation
of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December
8-9", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1
6. ^ Spencer Fullerton Baird, Annual
Record of Science and Industry for ...,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
6MXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXB
g#PPA15,M1
7. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Gill, David",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p358.
11. ^ "Gill,
David", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p358.
12. ^
"The Transit of Venus", Nature,
01/14/1875,
p214. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7C2XEHZsKCoC&pg=PA214&dq=gill+mauritius+
date:1870-1880&ei=tLWISaXDK5HGlQTsvcmYDQ
#PPA214,M1
13. ^ "Preparations for the Observation
of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December
8-9", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1 {12/08/1874}
14. ^ "The Transit of Venus",
Nature, 01/14/1875,
p214. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7C2XEHZsKCoC&pg=PA214&dq=gill+mauritius+
date:1870-1880&ei=tLWISaXDK5HGlQTsvcmYDQ
#PPA214,M1 {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "David Gill (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gill_
(astronomer)
[2] "Sir David Gill". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Gill
[3] "Obituary: Sir David Gill", The
Observatory, Vol. 37, p. 115-117
(1914). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I00
1.html
[4]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/Gill/index.html
[5] George Forbes, "The Transit of
Venus",
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SlZLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=gill+venus+date:
1874-1874&lr=&ei=IrqISaX8C4rIlQTewriXBg
Mauritius12  
[1] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

[2] David Gill PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I001
.html
126 YBN
[12/08/1874 AD] 9 10 		3856)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
2. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=f5AOAAA
AIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5vgkASMktnwB
g#PRA1-PA310,M1
3. ^ Spencer Fullerton Baird, Annual
Record of Science and Industry for ...,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
6MXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXB
g#PPA15,M1
4. ^ "opposition." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/opposition
5. ^ Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London,
1881. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TERJsJ0-VAwC&pg=PA62&dq=gill+ascension+d
ate:1882-1882+intitle:royal&lr=&ei=NdOIS
evkFYPIlQSj0rSfAw
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "opposition." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/opposition
8. ^ "Preparations for the Observation
of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December
8-9", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1 {12/08/1874}
9. ^ "Preparations for the
Observation of the Transit of Venus,
1874, December 8-9", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1 {12/08/1874}
10. ^ "The Transit of Venus",
Nature, 01/14/1875,
p214. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7C2XEHZsKCoC&pg=PA214&dq=gill+mauritius+
date:1870-1880&ei=tLWISaXDK5HGlQTsvcmYDQ
#PPA214,M1 {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gill, Sir David."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 Feb.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
832>
[2] "David Gill (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gill_
(astronomer)
[3] "Sir David Gill". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Gill
[4] "Gill, David", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p358
[5]
"Obituary: Sir David Gill", The
Observatory, Vol. 37, p. 115-117
(1914). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I00
1.html
[6]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/Gill/index.html
[7] George Forbes, "The Transit of
Venus",
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SlZLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=gill+venus+date:
1874-1874&lr=&ei=IrqISaX8C4rIlQTewriXBg
[8] "heliometer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heliometer
[9] Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 1877,
p308-339. http://books.google.com/books
?id=f5AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+as
cension+date:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5
vgkASMktnwBg#PRA1-PA308,M1
[10] Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
Ascension Island8  
[1] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

[2] David Gill PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I001
.html
126 YBN
[12/08/1874 AD] 12 13 		3857)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
2. ^
http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/his-astr
-gill_d-gallery.html
3. ^ David Gill, "On the Photographs of
the Great Comet", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, 1883,
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=G
3MEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53&dq=gill+comet+photog
raph+date:1883-1883&lr=&ei=KtWISfXuNpPOk
ASyq9DJBg#PPA53,M1
4. ^ "Obituary Notices : Fellows :-
Gill, David", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 75,
p.236. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1915MNRAS..75R.236./0000236.000
.html
5. ^ David Gill, "On the Photographs of
the Great Comet", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, 1883,
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=G
3MEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53&dq=gill+comet+photog
raph+date:1883-1883&lr=&ei=KtWISfXuNpPOk
ASyq9DJBg#PPA53,M1
6. ^ "Address of the Retiring President
of the Society, in awarding the Bruce
Medal to H. M. Astronomer, Dr. David
Gill". http://books.google.com/books?id
=5roOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=gill+date:1900-
1904+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=D-WISc7OHKWQ
kATLg52SAw#PPA49,M1
7. ^ "Gill, Sir David." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 3 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
832>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
10. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/nx55
16q376r82746/fulltext.pdf
11. ^ "Address of the Retiring
President of the Society, in awarding
the Bruce Medal to H. M. Astronomer,
Dr. David
Gill". http://books.google.com/books?id
=5roOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=gill+date:1900-
1904+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=D-WISc7OHKWQ
kATLg52SAw#PPA49,M1
12. ^ "Preparations for the Observation
of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December
8-9", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1 {12/08/1874}
13. ^ "The Transit of Venus",
Nature, 01/14/1875,
p214. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7C2XEHZsKCoC&pg=PA214&dq=gill+mauritius+
date:1870-1880&ei=tLWISaXDK5HGlQTsvcmYDQ
#PPA214,M1 {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "David Gill (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gill_
(astronomer)
[2] "Sir David Gill". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Gill
[3] "Gill, David", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p358
[4]
"Obituary: Sir David Gill", The
Observatory, Vol. 37, p. 115-117
(1914). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I00
1.html
[5]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/Gill/index.html
[6] George Forbes, "The Transit of
Venus",
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SlZLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=gill+venus+date:
1874-1874&lr=&ei=IrqISaX8C4rIlQTewriXBg
[7] "heliometer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heliometer
[8] Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 1877,
p308-339. http://books.google.com/books
?id=f5AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+as
cension+date:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5
vgkASMktnwBg#PRA1-PA308,M1
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=f5AOAAA
AIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5vgkASMktnwB
g#PRA1-PA310,M1
[10] Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
[11] Spencer Fullerton Baird, Annual
Record of Science and Industry for ...,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
6MXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXB
g#PPA15,M1
[12] "opposition." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/opposition
[13] Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London,
1881. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TERJsJ0-VAwC&pg=PA62&dq=gill+ascension+d
ate:1882-1882+intitle:royal&lr=&ei=NdOIS
evkFYPIlQSj0rSfAw
(Royal Observatory10 ) Cape of Good
Hope, Africa11  
[1] The Great Comet of 1882, discovered
by Finlay. This photo, taken by Gill,
was the first ever photograph of a
comet. It led Gill to the realisation
that phototgraphy can be used as a
method to study astronomy, and from
this realisation the first photographic
star catalogues were made, for example
the Cape Photographic Catalogue and the
Cape Photographic Durchmusterung. Gill
is considered as one of the pioneers of
astrophotography. PD
source: http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/
history-pictures/GComet82-01r.gif

[2] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg
126 YBN
[12/12/1874 AD] 13 14 		3872)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Captain J. Waterhouse, "On
Reversed Photographs of the Solar
Spectrum beyond the Red, obtained on a
Collodion Plate", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 24, 1875/1876,
p186-189. http://books.google.com/books
?id=MRVa8_iNs_sC&pg=PA186&dq=%22On+Rever
sed+Photographs+of+the+Solar+Spectrum%22
&as_brr=1&ei=zNaMSYu2LZbskgTy76zIBQ htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/a2
n6133392374462/?p=6969f2b4703f403bbbaa6a
92fdf2f324π=23
2. ^ Roger Child, "The Complete
Photographer", 1906,
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
R38hAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA275&lpg=PA275&dq=vogel
+extreme+red+photograph&source=web&ots=p
QeVP7sKfn&sig=vtPDgF5m0eg7n0WVXnrv7js6_A
M&hl=en&ei=KAaNSdbGGpGUsAOryPD-CA&sa=X&o
i=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA285,
M1
3. ^ "A Short History of Orthochromatic
Plates", The Photographic Times, 1906,
p561.
http://books.google.com/books?id=tO8WAAA
AYAAJ&pg=RA12-PA561&lpg=RA12-PA561&dq=vo
gel+extreme+red+photograph&source=web&ot
s=5vtLTypZHm&sig=3W4hGQCxe3QzDd5dZdrEWxb
YG_4&hl=en&ei=KAaNSdbGGpGUsAOryPD-CA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PRA1
2-PA561,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p492.
7. ^ "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
8. ^ Photographic News, Dec. 12, 1874.
9. ^
Captain W. De W. Abney, "Vogel's method
of Colour Photography", The
Photographic News, 08/08/1884,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Y7cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA500&dq=%22The+Photogra
phic+News%22+1874+vogel&ei=1N-MScyKFoTOl
QStyeDIBQ
10. ^ "On the Photographic Method of
Mapping the Least Refrangible End of
the Solar Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
11. ^ Record ID3873. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Vogel,
Hermann Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
13. ^ Photographic News, Jan. 1, 1875.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2hVnl
5U6scEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0c7yAhzKPFNeGUL-ML#PPA6,M1 {12/1874}
14. ^ "On
the Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{12/12/1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p358
[5] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[6] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[9] Hector Macpherson, "A century's
progress in astronomy", Blackwood and
sons, 1906,
p173-175. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
century%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuar
pf8I#PPA175,M1
[10] "Color photography". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_photo
graphy
(Astrophysical observatory) Potsdam,
Germany12  
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 7 		2656)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1 (1874)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Wilhelm Gintl".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Gintl
New Jersey, USA6   
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 7 		2661)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile
Baudot". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
4. ^
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1
5. ^ "Baudot code". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudot_code

6. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
7. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot (1874)

MORE INFO
[1] "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
[2] "Julius Wilhelm Gintl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Gintl
[3] "Émile Baudot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_
Baudot
France6  
[1] Émile Baudot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ita2.png

[2] Chart of International Telegraphic
Alphabet #2, also known as ''Baudot''
code. I drew this image myself.
Denelson83 23:32, 10 Dec 2004
(UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emile_Baudot.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 4 		3450)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
2. ^ "Janssen, Pierre
Jules César", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459.
3. ^
"Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_J
ules_Cesar_Janssen
4. ^ "Janssen, Pierre Jules César",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459. {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Janssen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar
[2] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[3] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[4] "Pierre Janssen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jans
sen
(?), Japan3  
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 6 		3527)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p349.
3. ^ Dr G. Johnstone
Stoney, Proc. Brit. Ass. (Belfast,
August 1874), "On the Physical Units of
Nature," Belfast meeting of the
British Association
4. ^ Royal Dublin Society, The
Scientific Proceedings of the Royal
Dublin Society, 1883,
p51-60. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=R79WAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=stoney+1874+on
+the+physical+units+of+nature&as_brr=1#P
PA51,M1
5. ^ "Stoney, George Johnstone",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
6. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p349. {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Johnstone Stoney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_John
stone_Stoney
[2] "George Johnstone Stoney." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-john
stone-stoney
[3] "Electron". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electron

[4] George Johnstone Stoney, "On the
Cause of Double Lines and of
Equidistant Satellites in the Spectra
of Gases", Trans. Royal Dublin Society
(1891), series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df}
[5] G. Johnstone Stoney, "Of the
'Electron', or Atom of Electricity",
PT, v38, 1894,
p418-420. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0GyjU2FgHeVMhRr9iumi5pf&lr=&as_
brr=1#PPA418,M1 and
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Stoney-1894.html
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
(Queen's University) Dublin, Ireland5
 
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 19 20 21 		3780) Boisbaudran comes from a wealthy
family of distillers of Cognac in
southwestern France. With independent
wealth and excited by the new
spectroscopy of Gustav Kirchhoff,
Boisbaudran builds his own
laboratory.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p483.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483.
4. ^ "Paul Emile
Lecoq de Boisbaudran." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483.
6. ^ "Paul Emile
Lecoq de Boisbaudran." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483.
8. ^ "Paul Emile
Lecoq de Boisbaudran." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Gallium".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gallium
12. ^ "gallium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gallium
13. ^ "gallium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gallium
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ "Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisbaudran." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran
18. ^ "Boisbaudran, Paul Emile Lecow
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p114.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483. {1874}
20. ^ "Paul
Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran {1874}
21. ^ "Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, Paul-Émile."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
575>. {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisbaudran." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran
(home lab) Cognac, France18
(presumably) 
[1] English: Crystals of 99.999%
gallium. Slovenščina: Kristaliziran
galij. Crystals of 99.999% gallium,
grown and photographed by myself in
February 2003. These particular
crystals took about 45 minutes to grow,
sitting in a plastic dish near a cool
window. The lumpiness on the surface
of these crystals is caused mainly by
me shifting the dish around to monitor
the progression of the crystal growth.
Crystals (of any material) need to be
totally undisturbed in order to grow
perfect, large, smooth facets. Each
time I moved the liquid around, it
interrupted the crystal growth. The
''lumps'' are actually tiny crystals
that started growing on the larger
facets, but got smoothed over due to
the liquid motion. If I had placed
this in a vibration-damped sandbox
(similar to a holography table) and not
disturbed it, the crystals would have
been even larger, more coherent, and
more stunning ;) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Gallium1_640x480.jpg

[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 10 		3795) Cleve disapproves of the young
Arrhenius's Ph.D. dissertation, but
twenty years later helps to pick
Arrhenius for a Nobel prize for that
same dissertation.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Per Teodor Cleve." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/per-teodor-
cleve
2. ^ "Cleve, Per Teodor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
355>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p488.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488.
10. ^ "Per Teodor
Cleve." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/per-teodor-
cleve {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cleve, Per Theodor", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p197
[2] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p352
[3] "Per Teodor Cleve".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Teodor_
Cleve
(Technological Institute in Stockholm)
Stockholm, Sweden9 (presumably) 
[1] English: Picture of Per Theodor
Cleve, the Swedish chemist and
geologist Source Page 39 of
Svenskt
porträttgalleri http://books.google.co
m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T
eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date
1903 Author Albin
Hildebrand PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Cleve_Per_Theodor.jpg


[2] Per Teodor Cleve PD
source: http://www.chemeddl.org/collecti
ons/ptl/PTL/chemists/bios/cleve.jpeg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 10 		3816)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
2. ^ "Vogel, Hermann
Karl." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
3. ^ "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Hector
Macpherson, "A century's progress in
astronomy", Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p173-175. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
century%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuar
pf8I#PPA175,M1
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
10. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>. {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p358
[5] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[6] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
(private observatory) Bothkamp,
Germany9  
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 14 15 		3869) Abney is a prolific author,
writing for both specialist
practitioners and amateurs.9 Abney
publishes a number of books to educate
the public including his first book
"Chemistry for Engineers" (1870).
Abney's second book, "Instruction in
Photography" (1871) becomes a standard
text.10

Abney's papers in the Royal Society
Catalog number over 100, and over 70 in
the "Photographic Journal".11
From
1893 to 1897 Abney is successively
president of the Royal Astronomical
Society and of the Physical Society.12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
2. ^ "Abney, Sir
William de Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
5. ^ "emulsion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
7. ^ Record ID3113.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "William de Wiveleslie
Abney." The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press,
2005. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
10. ^ "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3.
11. ^
"Obituary Notices of Fellows Deceased",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character
(1905-1934), Volume 99, Number 701 /
September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
12. ^ "Sir William De Wiveleslie
Abney". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
13. ^ "William de Wiveleslie Abney."
The Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498. {1874}
15. ^
"Abney, William De Wiveleslie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p3. {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "William de Wiveleslie
Abney". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[2] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
(School of Military Engineering)
Chatham, England13  
[1] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4

[2] William de Wiveleslie PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 10 		3889) James Geikie (CE 1839-19151 ),
publishes "The Great Ice Age" (CE
1874–84) which provides evidence that
there were several ice ages separated
by nonglacial epochs. Thomas Chrowder
Chamberlin (CE 1843-1928) contributes
the chapter on North America and shows
that some deposits are composed of at
least three layers. Chamberlin goes on
to establish four major ice ages, which
are named the Nebraskan, Kansan,
Illinoian, and Wisconsin after the
states in which they are most easily
studied.2
Chamberlin is the son of a
father who left North Carolina for
Illinois because he disapproved of
slavery.3
Chamberlin reports "Geology
of Wisconsin" (4 vol. 1877–83) which
examines the glacial deposits of the
state and the ancient coral reefs.4
In
1887 Chamberlin is President of the
University of Wisconsin.5
Chamberlin
establishes the "Journal of Geology".6
(chronology7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Geikie, James", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p350.
2. ^ "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498.
4. ^ "Chamberlin,
Thomas Chrowder." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9022
316>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498.
6. ^ "Chamberlin,
Thomas Chrowder", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p181.
7. ^
Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Geikie, James", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p350.
9. ^ "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p181.
10. ^
"Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
[2] "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
[3] "Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Chro
wder_Chamberlin
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p344.7]
[5] "James Geikie". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Ge
ikie
(Government Geological Survey)
Edinburgh, Scotland8 (and Wisconsin,
USA9 ) 
[1] Description Photo of Thomas
Chrowder Chamberlin in the
1870s Source University of
Wisconsin–Madison archive; obtained
from
http://www.gsajournals.org/perlserv/?req
uest=display-figures&name=i1052-5173-16-
10-30-f01 Date 1870s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/T.C.Chamberlin.gif
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 16 17 		4079) Kovalevsky is the daughter of a
general, who uses marriage at 18 to go
to Germany, where she is not allowed to
attend university lectures, but where
Weierstrass, impressed with her obvious
talent, tutors her privately.7
In 1868
she entered into a marriage of
convenience with Vladimir Kovalevsky, a
young paleontologist and a translator
of Darwin.8
Kovalevsky is elected into
the Swedish and Russian Academy of
Science.9 (first female?10 )
Kovalevsky
dies of pneumonia at age 41.11 (That
seems too young - perhaps neuron
written murder?12 )

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Kovalevsky is the first
woman in modern Europe to gain a
doctorate in mathematics, the first to
join the editorial board of a
scientific journal, and the first to be
appointed professor of mathematics.13

Kovalevskaya also gained a reputation
as a writer, an advocate of women's
rights.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522.
2. ^ "Kovalevskaya,
Sofya Vasilyevna." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
162>.
3. ^ Anne Charlotte Leffler, A. de
Furuhjelm, Annie Margaret Clive Bayley,
Sofʹi︠a︡ Vasilʹevna
Kovalevskai︠a, "Sonya Kovalevsky: a
biography", 1895.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p522.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522.
8. ^ "Sonya
Kovalevsky." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kovalevsky-
sonya
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Kovalevskaya, Sofya Vasilyevna."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
162>.
14. ^ "Kovalevskaya, Sofya Vasilyevna."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
162>.
15. ^ "Kovalevskaya, Sofya Vasilyevna."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
162>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522. {1874}
17. ^
"Kovalevskaya, Sofya Vasilyevna."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
162>. {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kovalevsky, Sonya", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p499.
[2] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
2000, p348.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany15  
[1] Deutsch: Photographie der
russischen Mathematikerin Sofja
Wassiljewna Kowalewskaja. Das Foto
entstand kurz nach 1880 und stammt
vermutlich aus der Sammlung des
Mittag-Leffler-Instituts der
Schwedischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Stockholm. Siehe auch:
Cordula Tollmien: Fürstin der
Wissenschaft. Die lebensgeschichte der
Sofja Kowalewskaja. Beltz & Gelberg,
1995. S.112, 191. Date
1880(1880) Source
http://www.goettinger-tageblatt.de/ne
wsroom/wissen/dezentral/wissenlokal/art4
263,603649 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Sofja_Wassiljewna_Kow
alewskaja_1.jpg

[2] ''Kovalevskaya, Sofya
Vasilyevna.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10382&rendTypeId=4
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 10 11 		4087) In 1909 Braun wins a share of a
Nobel prize in physics (with Marconi)
for Braun's improvements to radio
technology.7

Braun goes to America to testify in a
court case about radio patents but,
when the United States enters World War
I in 1917, he is detained as an alien
and dies in New York a year later.8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
2. ^ "Karl Ferdinand
Braun." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
8. ^ "Karl Ferdinand
Braun." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
9. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524. {1874}
11. ^ "Karl
Ferdinand Braun." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 02 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Braun, Ferdinand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
[3] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdin
and_Braun
[4] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), pp135
[5] Ferdinand Braun,
"Ueber die galvanische
Leitungsfähigkeit geschmolzener
Salze.", Berlin, Chem. Ges. Ber.,
7,1874, pp. 958-962; Annal. Phys.
Chem., Volume 230 Issue 2, Pages 161 -
196. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1875
AnP...230..161B
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4w
04AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=Ueber+d
ie+galvanische+Leitungsf%C3%A4higkeit+ge
schmolzener+Salze&source=bl&ots=BVk7avlu
2b&sig=zfGwwqpObGC92VZqX_DEfd2ExDQ&hl=en
&ei=TYPKStaNNYv-tQPe2oSiBQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=Ue
ber%20die%20galvanische%20Leitungsf%C3%A
4higkeit%20geschmolzener%20Salze&f=false

(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany9  
[1] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg

[2] Karl Ferdinand Braun when
older PD
source: http://phys.bspu.unibel.by/hist/
physport/gif/phys/braun.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 11 12 		4146) Fischer is the assistant of
Adolph von Baeyer for some time.4
In
1902 Fischer wins a Nobel prize in
chemistry for researches in sugar and
purines.5
Fischer loses 2 of 3 sons in
WW I.6 (again showing how terrible,
destructive, pointless and stupid war
and any violence against nonviolent
people is.7 )
Fischer ends his own life
when suffering from cancer.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
2. ^ "Hermann Emil
Fischer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
3. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
9. ^ "Fischer, Emil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>.
10. ^ "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
11. ^ "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>. {1875}
12. ^ "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Herman
n_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren,
Polypeptide und Proteine, 1899–1906
(Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id
=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Prot
eine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Y
k&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA
8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe,
1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPy
TLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
Germany9 10  
[1] Description Hermann Emil
Fischer.jpg Hermann Emil
Fischer Date 1902(1902) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Hermann_Emil_Fischer.
jpg

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 4 		5994)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Franz Liszt." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 19 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/franz-liszt

2. ^ "List of compositions by Franz
Liszt (S.351 – S.999)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Franz_Liszt_%28S.351_%E2%80
%93_S.999%29
3. ^ "Franz Liszt." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 19 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/franz-liszt

4. ^ "Franz Liszt." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 19 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/franz-liszt
 {1853 (starting in) (verify}
Weimar, Germany3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Franz List Date
1843 Source
pianoinstituut.nl Author
Herman Biow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Franz_Liszt_by_Herman
_Biow-_1843.png
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 5 		6000)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi
2. ^ "Aida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aida
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi
5. ^ "Giuseppe Verdi." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giuseppe-ve
rdi {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rigoletto (opera)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigoletto_%
28opera%29
[2] "La donna è mobile". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_donna_%C
3%A8_mobile
[3] "Giuseppe Verdi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/625922/Giuseppe-Verdi>.
Milan, Italy4  
[1] Picture of Giuseppe Verdi. taken by
Carjat, Etienne (1828-1906) Giuseppe
Verdi in 1876 by Etienne Carjat PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/GiuseppeVerdi.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 5 		6010) In 1876 an extraordinary
relationship begins to develop between
Tchaikovsky and Nadezhda von Meck, the
widow of a wealthy railroad tycoon
which is an important component of
their lives for the next 14 years. A
great admirer of his work, von Meck
chooses to become his patroness and
eventually arranges a regular monthly
allowance for him which enabled him in
1878 to resign from the conservatory
and devote his efforts to writing
music. Although he and his benefactor
agree never to meet, they engage in a
voluminous correspondence that
constitutes a remarkable historical and
literary record. They frankly exchange
their views on a broad spectrum of
issues. In 1890 Tchaikovsky is informed
by Nadezhda von Meck that she is close
to financial ruin and can not continue
his allowancem and their correspondence
comes to an end.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
2. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
3. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
4. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
5. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
{1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky
(Moscow Conservatory) Moscow, (U.S.S.R.
now) Russia4  
[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg
125 YBN
[03/03/1875 AD] 6 7 8 		6007)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Camille Saint-Saëns."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-sai
nt-sa-ns
2. ^ "Georges Bizet." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/67351/Georges-Bizet>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Carmen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen
5. ^ Curtiss M. Bizet and his world.
New York, Vienna House, 1958, Chapter
XXVII
6. ^ "Carmen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen
{03/03/1875(verify}
7. ^ Curtiss M. Bizet and his world.
New York, Vienna House, 1958, Chapter
XXVII {03/03/1875(verify}
{03/03/1875(verify(verify}
8. ^ "Camille Saint-Saëns."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-sai
nt-sa-ns {1875}
(Opéra-Comique) Paris, France4 5
(verify) 
[1] Georges Bizet Encyclopedia
Britannica PD
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media//15/142315-050-902CE5D5.jpg
125 YBN
[03/20/1875 AD] 21 22 		3674)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
3. ^ William
Crookes, "On Repulsion Resulting From
Radiation II", Phil. Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74 {Crookes_Will
iam_Repulsion_II_1875.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74 {Crookes_Will
iam_Repulsion_II_1875.pdf}
16. ^ William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74 {Crookes_Will
iam_Repulsion_II_1875.pdf}
17. ^ William Crookes, "The Bakerian
Lecture: On Radiant Matter
Spectroscopy. A New Method of Spectrum
Analysis.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
35,
1883. {Crookes_William_On_Radiant_Matte
r_Spectroscopy_A_New_Method_of_Spectrum_
Analysis_1853.pdf}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Crookes,
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217.
21. ^ William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74 {Crookes_Will
iam_Repulsion_II_1875.pdf} {(describes
improvements) 03/20/1875}
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p457-459. {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
(private lab) London, England20
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from 1875 ''On Repulsion..
II'' PD/Corel
source: William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74 {Crookes_Will
iam_Repulsion_II_1875.pdf}

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
125 YBN
[04/27/1875 AD] 9 		3851)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495.
2. ^ David Ferrier,
"Experiments on the Brains of Monkeys",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1875,
p409-432.
3. ^ David Ferrier, "Experiments on the
Brains of Monkeys", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, 1875, p409-432.
4. ^ David
Ferrier, "Experiments on the Brains of
Monkeys", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1875, p409-432.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ David
Ferrier, "Experiments on the Brains of
Monkeys", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1875, p409-432.
7. ^ David Ferrier,
"Experiments on the Brains of Monkeys",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1875,
p409-432.
8. ^ "Ferrier, David", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p312.
9. ^ David Ferrier,
"Experiments on the Brains of Monkeys",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1875,
p409-432. {04/27/1875}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n18/histo
ry/ferrier_i.htm
[2] David Ferrier, "The Functions of
the Brain", G. P. Putnum's Sons,
1876. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=4FLdeC-35MgC&dq=%22The+Functions+o
f+the+Brain%22&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=KMqCRFDN0G&sig=Jctw2lT7onr2yNa
-ZM5zHybSWLQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPR3,M1
[3] David Ferrier, "Experimental
Researches in Cerebral Physiology and
Pathology", West Riding Lunatic Asylum
Medical Reports, Vol. III. 1873.
London, Smith, Elder and Co. 15,
Waterloo Place. Reprinted in J Anat
Physiol. 1873 November; 8(Pt 1):
152–155.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1319018 http://www.
pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?art
id=1319018&blobtype=pdf
[4] David Ferrier, "The Localization of
Function in the Brain", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, 1874,
p229-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=b5YsMcImObAC&pg=PA229&dq=david+ferri
er+date:1874-1874&lr=&ei=AwCBSdegMYbokAS
yqPXUBg#PPA229,M1
(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England7 8  
[1] Figures from Ferrier's 1875
work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TasOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA409&dq=david+ferrier&
lr=&ei=qP-ASdq9CKWQkAT8l8XHCg#PPA410,M1

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg
125 YBN
[04/27/1875 AD] 5 		3852)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495.
2. ^ "Ferrier,
David", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p312.?
3. ^
David Ferrier, "Experiments on the
Brains of Monkeys", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, 1875, p409-.
4. ^ "Ferrier,
David", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p312.?
5. ^
David Ferrier, "Experiments on the
Brains of Monkeys", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, 1875, p409-.
{04/27/1875}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n18/histo
ry/ferrier_i.htm
[2] David Ferrier, "The Functions of
the Brain", G. P. Putnum's Sons,
1876. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=4FLdeC-35MgC&dq=%22The+Functions+o
f+the+Brain%22&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=KMqCRFDN0G&sig=Jctw2lT7onr2yNa
-ZM5zHybSWLQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPR3,M1
[3] David Ferrier, "Experimental
Researches in Cerebral Physiology and
Pathology", West Riding Lunatic Asylum
Medical Reports, Vol. III. 1873.
London, Smith, Elder and Co. 15,
Waterloo Place. Reprinted in J Anat
Physiol. 1873 November; 8(Pt 1):
152–155.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1319018 http://www.
pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?art
id=1319018&blobtype=pdf
[4] David Ferrier, "The Localization of
Function in the Brain", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, 1874,
p229-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=b5YsMcImObAC&pg=PA229&dq=david+ferri
er+date:1874-1874&lr=&ei=AwCBSdegMYbokAS
yqPXUBg#PPA229,M1
(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England3 4  
[1] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/ferrier.jpg
125 YBN
[08/28/1875 AD] 16 		5575) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Caton, "The
Electric Currents of the Brain",
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
3. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
5. ^ Emmanuel Donchin, "Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA,
1969. {evoked001.pdf}
6. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
7. ^ Emmanuel Donchin, "Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA,
1969. {evoked001.pdf}
8. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
9. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
10. ^ "Richard Caton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Cat
on
11. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
16. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} {08/28/1875}
Liverpool, England15  
[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html
125 YBN
[10/07/1875 AD] 10 		5332)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v17
/n419/abs/017035b0.html
2. ^ "animal learning." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1349539/animal-learning>.
3. ^ D. Spalding, "Instinct and
Acquisition", Nature, (07 October
1875), Volume 12 Number 310
pp489-508. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v12/n310/index.html {Spalding_
Douglas_18751007.pdf}
4. ^ "imprinting." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/imprinting
5. ^ "Konrad Lorenz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konrad-lore
nz
6. ^ "Konrad Lorenz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konrad-lore
nz
7. ^ "imprinting." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/imprinting
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p795-796.
9. ^ D. Spalding,
"Instinct and Acquisition", Nature, (07
October 1875), Volume 12 Number 310
pp489-508. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v12/n310/index.html {Spalding_
Douglas_18751007.pdf}
10. ^ D. Spalding, "Instinct and
Acquisition", Nature, (07 October
1875), Volume 12 Number 310
pp489-508. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v12/n310/index.html {Spalding_
Douglas_18751007.pdf} {10/07/1875}
Bristol, England9   
125 YBN
[10/??/1875 AD] 25 		3788) In 1863 Gibbs receives the first
doctorate of engineering to be
conferred in the United States (from
Yale18 ).19
From 1866 to 1869 Gibbs
studies in Paris, Berlin, and
Heidelberg, where his teachers are some
of the most distinguished
mathematicians and physicists on
earth.20

Maxwell constructs a model illustrating
a portion of Gibb's work and sends a
plaster cast to Gibbs.21 (chronology22
)

In 1901 the Copley medal of the Royal
Society of London is awarded to Gibbs
as being "the first to apply the second
law of thermodynamics to the exhaustive
discussion of the relation between
chemical, electrical and thermal energy
and capacity for external work.".23
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p485-486.
2. ^ "Josiah Willard
Gibbs." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willard-gib
bs
3. ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs, Henry
Andrews Bumstead, Ralph Gibbs Van Name,
"Scientific Papers of J. Willard
Gibbs", Longmans, Green and co., v.1,
1906 http://books.google.com/books?id=-
neYVEbAm4oC&pg=PA55&dq=On+the+Equilibriu
m+of+Heterogeneous+Substances&ei=t-5cSfG
kD4_QkwS8l9GFBg
4. ^ "Josiah Willard Gibbs".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Josiah_W
illard_Gibbs
5. ^ "Josiah Willard Gibbs." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willard-gib
bs
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Josiah Willard Gibbs".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Josiah_W
illard_Gibbs
8. ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs, Henry
Andrews Bumstead, Ralph Gibbs Van Name,
"Scientific Papers of J. Willard
Gibbs", Longmans, Green and co., v.1,
1906 http://books.google.com/books?id=-
neYVEbAm4oC&pg=PA55&dq=On+the+Equilibriu
m+of+Heterogeneous+Substances&ei=t-5cSfG
kD4_QkwS8l9GFBg
9. ^ "Gibbs, Josiah Willard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p356-357.
10. ^ "Gibbs, Josiah Willard",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p356-357.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p485-486.
19. ^ "Gibbs, J
Willard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
747>.
20. ^ "Josiah Willard Gibbs."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willard-gib
bs
21. ^ "Josiah Willard Gibbs."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willard-gib
bs
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Josiah Willard Gibbs".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Josiah_W
illard_Gibbs
24. ^ "Josiah Willard Gibbs."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willard-gib
bs
25. ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs, Henry
Andrews Bumstead, Ralph Gibbs Van Name,
"Scientific Papers of J. Willard
Gibbs", Longmans, Green and co., v.1,
1906 http://books.google.com/books?id=-
neYVEbAm4oC&pg=PA55&dq=On+the+Equilibriu
m+of+Heterogeneous+Substances&ei=t-5cSfG
kD4_QkwS8l9GFBg {10/1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Josiah Willard Gibbs".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah_Will
ard_Gibbs
(Yale College) New Haven, Connecticut,
USA24  
[1] Figures from Gibbs 1875 work. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-neYVEbAm4oC&pg=PA123

[2] Willard Gibbs
(young) http://www-history.mcs.st-andre
ws.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Gibbs.ht
ml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a4/A_young_Willard_Gibbs.jpg
125 YBN
[11/12/1875 AD] 3 		3873)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Captain J. Waterhouse, "On
Reversed Photographs of the Solar
Spectrum beyond the Red, obtained on a
Collodion Plate", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 24, 1875/1876,
p186-189. http://books.google.com/books
?id=MRVa8_iNs_sC&pg=PA186&dq=%22On+Rever
sed+Photographs+of+the+Solar+Spectrum%22
&as_brr=1&ei=zNaMSYu2LZbskgTy76zIBQ htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/a2
n6133392374462/?p=6969f2b4703f403bbbaa6a
92fdf2f324π=23
2. ^ Captain J. Waterhouse, "On
Reversed Photographs of the Solar
Spectrum beyond the Red, obtained on a
Collodion Plate", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 24, 1875/1876,
p186-189. http://books.google.com/books
?id=MRVa8_iNs_sC&pg=PA186&dq=%22On+Rever
sed+Photographs+of+the+Solar+Spectrum%22
&as_brr=1&ei=zNaMSYu2LZbskgTy76zIBQ htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/a2
n6133392374462/?p=6969f2b4703f403bbbaa6a
92fdf2f324π=23
3. ^ Captain J. Waterhouse, "On
Reversed Photographs of the Solar
Spectrum beyond the Red, obtained on a
Collodion Plate", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 24, 1875/1876,
p186-189. http://books.google.com/books
?id=MRVa8_iNs_sC&pg=PA186&dq=%22On+Rever
sed+Photographs+of+the+Solar+Spectrum%22
&as_brr=1&ei=zNaMSYu2LZbskgTy76zIBQ htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/a2
n6133392374462/?p=6969f2b4703f403bbbaa6a
92fdf2f324π=23 {11/12/1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "James S. Waterhouse." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-s-wat
erhouse
[2] "On the Photographic Method of
Mapping the Least Refrangible End of
the Solar Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
(Surveyor-General's Office) Calcutta,
India2  
[1] [t Spectrum of extreme red rays by
Waterhouse] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MRVa8_iNs_sC&pg=PA186&dq=%22On+Reversed
+Photographs+of+the+Solar+Spectrum%22&as
_brr=1&ei=zNaMSYu2LZbskgTy76zIBQ#PPA189,
M1
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 6 		2871)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p345.
2. ^ "Edouard Armand
Isidore Hippolyte Lartet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
3. ^ "edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy
4. ^ "edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy
5. ^ "Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7225/Edouard-Armand-Isidore-Hippolyte-La
rtet
6. ^ "edouard armand isidore hippolyte
lartet". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edouard-arm
and-isidore-hippolyte-lartet?cat=technol
ogy (1875)

MORE INFO
[1] "Édouard Lartet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d_Lartet
[2] "Edouard Lartet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edouard_
Lartet
[3] http://www.answers.com/Dryopithecus
[4]
http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/lstone_a.h
tml
Paris?,France5  
[1] the most remarkable of them all,
the celebrated La Madeleine carving. It
is engraved upon mammoth ivory and was
discovered in 1864 in the cave of La
Madeleine, Perigord, France, by M.
Louis Lartet. It was broken into five
fragments, and like the carving on the
Lenape Stone, which it singularly
resembles in general position, and in
the indecisive drawing of the back and
tail, unmistakably represents the
mammoth. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ls
tone_a.html

[2] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 8 		3436)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ "Sir William
Huggins". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Sir William Huggins".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
7. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
8. ^ "Sir William Huggins".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[7]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[9] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[10]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[11] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[13] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[14] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[18] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
[19] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England7  
[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 4 5 		3520)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Hoppe-Seyler, (Ernst) Felix
(Immanuel)", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p437.
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437-438. {1875}
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p332. {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Felix Hoppe-Seyler."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/271586/Ernst-Felix-Immanuel-Hoppe-Seyl
er>.
[2] "Hoppe-Seyler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoppe-Seyle
r
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=LOwAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PT485&dq=lecithin+discovered&as
_brr=1
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
Germany3  
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 13 		3567)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ "Ferdinand
Cohn." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
3. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200.
4. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
7. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124611/Ferdinand-Julius-Cohn>.
8. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200.
9. ^ "Ferdinand Cohn."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
10. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Ferdinand
Julius Cohn". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ferdinan
d_Julius_Cohn
13. ^ "Cohn, Ferdinand Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p200. {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinand Cohn." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[2] "Ferdinand Cohn." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 12 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-c
ohn
[3] "Ferdinand Julius Cohn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_J
ulius_Cohn
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)12  
[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 15 16 		3673)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
3. ^ "Crookes,
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
8. ^ "Sir William
Crookes". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
9. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
10. ^ "Sir William Crookes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
11. ^ William Crookes, "On Attraction
and Repulsion Resulting from
Radiation", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 164, 1874,
pp501-527. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/th5j7830243pq252/?p=2c75796
e244242cfba2c2163e2e51cfcπ=3 {Crookes_
William_1874.pdf}
12. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
13. ^ William Crookes, "On
Repulsion Resulting from Radiation.
--Part III.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
24, 1875/1876,
pp276-279. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/w24689r25um2q030/?p=3d7adab
d87f14b71883c3c49a101183bπ=47 {Crookes
_William_Repulsion_III_1874.pdf} see
also: {Crookes_William_Repulsion_IV_187
5.pdf}
and {Crookes_William_Radiometer.pdf}
14. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
15. ^ "Crookes, William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p215-217.
{1875}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459. {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
(private lab) London, England14
(presumably) 
[1] Crookes Radiometer — Taken March
of 2005 by Timeline. I took the photo
myself and am happy for it to be
distributed and used for any purpose
without restriction. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Crookes_radiometer.jp
g

[2] [t Figure of Oertling? balance in
vacuum from 1874 work ''On Attraction
and Repulsion''] PD/Corel
source: Crookes_William_1874.pdf
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 26 		3798) Cope publishes scientific papers
in his teens.7 (This is perhaps
evidence that people in their teens
deserve equal rights.8 )
cope is
independently wealthy.9
Cope is a
professor of comparative zoology and
botany at Haverford College,
Pennsylvania (1864–67).10
Cope serves
as paleontologist with the U.S.
Geological Survey.11
Cope is a Quaker
and refuses to carry a gun, despite the
danger from Native American people.
When surrounded by a group of hostile
Native American humans, Cope surprises
them by taking out and putting back his
false teeth over and over. Once all
have a chance to watch this, they let
him go.12
Cope competes with Othniel
Marsh for fossils, and between the two
they fill in the entire story of the
evolutionary history of the horse.13
Co
pe and Marsh have a bitter feud for
credit in being the first to discover
American fossil dinosaurs which damages
the reputations of both men.14
According
to historian Mark Jaffe, one reason
for the hostility between Cope and
Marsh, is that Marsh is a Darwinian and
Cope, raised a devout Quaker, can not
accept the absence of divine design in
nature. Cope is a leading exponent of
the "Neo-Lamarckian" school of
evolution. In the late 1800s,
Neo-Lamarckian evolution is more
popular in American than Darwinism.15
(Although see above quote which appears
to support natural selection and
survival of the fittest.16 )
Another
source states that during the 1860s
Marsh and Cope have a friendly
relationship, But when in the 1870's
Arthur Lakes and O. W. Lucas discover
dinosaurs in the Southwest United
states and begin to ship them to Cope
and Marsh, a harsh rivalry between
Marsh and Cope breaks out. Marsh hires
Lakes and Cope hires Lucas, and the
bonewar is on. This bonewar lasts until
their deaths.17
Similar to Lamarck,
Cope wrongly believes in inherited
characteristics. Believing that the
movements of animals helps alter and
develop the moving parts, Cope calls
this kinetogenesis.18
In 1868 Cope
attacks Darwin's theory of natural
selection.19
Cope publishes the
notable, "Reptilia and Aves of North
America" (1869–70)20 and "The
Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations
of the West" (1883)21 .
Financial
difficulties compelled him to accept a
position on the faculty of the
University of Pennsylvania
(1889–97).22
In his life, Cope
publishes 1,200 books and papers.23
Cop
e's large collection of fossil mammals
is now at the American Museum of
Natural History.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488-489.
2. ^ Edward Drinker
Cope, "The Relation of Man to the
Tertiary Mammalia", Vol. 6, Penn
Monthly, 1875,
p879-886. http://books.google.com/books
?id=KZmjGwAACAAJ&dq=Relation+of+Man+to+T
ertiary+Mammalia&as_brr=0&ei=sCZeSaGbE5u
KkASk5ozSCg {Cope_Edward_1875.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/eo
c.html
4. ^ "Cope, Edward Drinker", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p207.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488-489.
6. ^ Edward Drinker
Cope, "The Relation of Man to the
Tertiary Mammalia", Vol. 6, Penn
Monthly, 1875,
p879-886. http://books.google.com/books
?id=KZmjGwAACAAJ&dq=Relation+of+Man+to+T
ertiary+Mammalia&as_brr=0&ei=sCZeSaGbE5u
KkASk5ozSCg {Cope_Edward_1875.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p488-489.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Cope, Edward Drinker", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p207.
10. ^ "Cope, Edward Drinker."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9026
178>.
11. ^ "Cope, Edward Drinker."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9026
178>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488-489.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p488-489.
14. ^ "Cope,
Edward Drinker." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9026
178>.
15. ^
http://www.niagaramuseum.com/cope_articl
e.htm
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.dinodata.org/index.php?option
=com_content&task=view&id=1149&Itemid=10
8
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488-489.
19. ^ "Cope, Edward
Drinker", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p207.
20. ^
"Cope, Edward Drinker." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9026
178>.
21. ^ "Edward Drinker Cope." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-drin
ker-cope
22. ^ "Cope, Edward Drinker."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9026
178>.
23. ^ "Cope, Edward Drinker."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9026
178>.
24. ^ "Edward Drinker Cope." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-drin
ker-cope
25. ^ Edward Drinker Cope, "The
Relation of Man to the Tertiary
Mammalia", Vol. 6, Penn Monthly, 1875,
p879-886. http://books.google.com/books
?id=KZmjGwAACAAJ&dq=Relation+of+Man+to+T
ertiary+Mammalia&as_brr=0&ei=sCZeSaGbE5u
KkASk5ozSCg {Cope_Edward_1875.pdf}
26. ^ "Cope, Edward
Drinker", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p207.
{1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Drinker Cope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_D
rinker_Cope
[2] "Edward Drinker Cope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Drin
ker_Cope
[3] Osborn, Henry Fairfield (1978).
Cope: Master Naturalist: Life and
Letters of Edward Drinker Cope, With a
Bibliography of His Writings.
Manchester, New Hampshire: Ayer Company
Publishing. ISBN 0-405-10735-8.
(Read before the American Association
for the advancement of Science)
Detroit, Michegan, USA25  
[1] English: Cope, Edward Drinker
(1840-1897) Source Jordan, David
Starr (1910). Leading American Men of
Science. H. Holt and company, p.
312/3 http://www.oceansofkansas.com/ima
ges2/edcope.jpg Date 1910 Author
Marcus Benjamin PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Cope_Edward_Drinker_1
840-1897.png

[2] Edward Drinker Cope PD
source: http://www.niagaramuseum.com/ima
ges/cope2.jpg
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 9 		4172) Not yet twenty-five, Lorentz
accepts an appointment as chair of
theoretical physics at the University
of Leiden. The Leiden theoretical
physics chair is the first of its kind
in the Netherlands, and one of the
first in Europe.5

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica Lorentz is a joint winner
(with Pieter Zeeman) of the Nobel Prize
for Physics in 1902 for his theory of
electromagnetic radiation, which,
confirmed, by the findings of Zeeman,
give rise to Albert Einstein's special
theory of relativity.6

Lorentz supervises the enclosure of the
Zuider Zee, a project to make more
agricultural land out of a shallow
basin of the sea.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
2. ^ "Lorentz,
Hendrik Antoon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
3. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik
Antoon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
8. ^ "Lorentz,
Hendrik Antoon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
9. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>. {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[6] George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[7] H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative Motion
of the earth and the Ether", Konink.
Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
[8] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923
[9] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands8  
[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg


source:
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 4 5 		6009)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
4. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
{1876 (composed}
5. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia3  
[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 3 		6016)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edvard Grieg." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edvard-grie
g
2. ^ "Edvard Grieg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/246022/Edvard-Grieg>.
3. ^ "Edvard Grieg." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edvard-grie
g {1875}
Troldhaugen, Norway2  
[1] escription English: Portrait of
Edvard Grieg, looking left. Carte de
visite with signature: the portrait was
published in The Leisure Hour
(1889).[1] An engraving of it was made
by T. Johnson and published in The
Century (1894).[2] Deutsch: Poträt
mit Edvard Grieg, nach links blickend.
Visitenkartenporträt mit
Unterschrift. Date March
1888 Source
http://www.bergen.folkebibl.no/cgi-bi
n/websok-grieg?mode=p&tnr=241950&st=a I
mmediate image source: Bergen Off.
Bibliotek: Griegsamlingen, image
#0241950 (Warning: the site has
misidentified the photograph; see the
cabinet card version page for details
of actual origin.) Author Elliott
& Fry: Joseph John Elliott
(1835–1903) and Clarence Edmund Fry
(1840–1897). Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Edvard_Grieg_%281888%
29_by_Elliot_and_Fry_-_02.jpg
124 YBN
[02/14/1876 AD] 45 		4036) Both Bell's father and
grandfather had studied the mechanics
of sound, and Bell's father was a
pioneer teacher of speech to deaf
people.26
In 1871 Bell goes to Boston
to teach at Sarah Fuller's School for
the Deaf, the first such school on
earth. Bell also tutors private
students, including Helen Keller. As
professor of vocal physiology and
speech at Boston University in 1873,
Bell initiates conventions for teachers
of the deaf. Throughout his life Bell
continues to educate the deaf, and
founds the American Association to
Promote the Teaching of Speech to the
Deaf.27

Bell's other two brothers die of
Tuberculosis.28
Bell falls in love with
one of his deaf pupils.29
When Bell
refers sadly to Henry of his own lack
of electrical know-how, Henry tell Bell
"Get it!".30
James Clerk Maxwell
expected something far more complex of
a device that can carry a voice.31

Bell wins France's "Volta Price", and
with the prize money (50, 000 francs,
about $10, 000) starts the Volta
Laboratory in Washington, D.C. At the
laboratory Bell and associates work on
various projects during the 1880s,
including the photophone, induction
balance (metal detector), audiometer,
and phonograph improvements.32

Aviation is Bell's primary interest
after 1895.33
Bell experimentes with
hydrofoil boats and with airplanes as
early as the 1890s.34

Bell funds Samuel Langley.35 36
(plane, bolometer ... all research?)
Perhaps Langley's publication of the
heat sensing bolometer was Bell's and
other people's coordinated effort to
give the poor excluded victims of
remote neuron activation, seeing,
hearing and sending thought images and
sounds a better chance at figuring out
how to see thought. In addition,
Langley is affiliated with the US
Military - the Langley field being
named after Langley.37

In 1915 the first transcontinental
telephone line is opened, and Bell (in
the East) speaks again to his old
assistant Watson. Again Bell says
'Watson please come here. I want you.',
and Asimov comments this time instead
of the words going from one floor to
another they went from one coast to the
other.38

Bell performes studies on longevity.39
In 1918, Bell examines the familial
transmission of human longevity using
genealogical data on about 3,000
members of the Hyde family in New
England.40 (verify41 )

In his life Bell has 18 patents and 12
with collaborators. These include 14
for the telephone and telegraph, 4 for
the photophone, 1 for the phonograph, 5
for aerial vehicles, 4 for
hydroairplanes, and 2 for a selenium
cell.42

(Kind of interesting that Bell's later
work involves air planes - perhaps with
great wealth comes a desire to escape
the confines and limits of the earth.43
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
2. ^ "Bell, Alexander
Graham." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
3. ^ U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID3997. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
Silvanus Phillips Thompson, "Philipp
Reis: inventor of the telephone: A
biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
12. ^ "Alexander
Graham Bell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Alexander
Graham Bell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Alexander Graham
Bell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
18. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Alexander Graham
Bell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
27. ^ "Alexander
Graham Bell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
30. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
32. ^ "Alexander
Graham Bell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
33. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
34. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Reader's Companion to American History,
Eric Foner and John A. Garraty,
Editors, published by. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1991. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
35. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
36. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
39. ^ "Bell,
Alexander Graham", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
pp76-77.
40. ^
http://longevity-science.org/SocialBiolo
gy-02.htm
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ "Bell, Alexander
Graham." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ U.S. Patent 174,465
Improvement in Telegraphy, filed 14
February 1876, issued March 7, 1876
(Bell's first telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
45. ^ U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement
in Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465 {02/14/1876 (patent filed}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[3] Timeline of telephone
development http://wholesale.att.com/in
fo_and_events/phonehistory.html
Salem, Massachusetts, USA44  
[1] Figures 1-5 from Bell's 02/14/1876
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
124 YBN
[02/14/1876 AD] 7 		4037) Gray invented a number of
telegraphic devices and in 1869 was one
of two partners who founded what will
become Western Electric Company.4
(Perhaps Gray used the information
gathered from telegraphs to learn about
Reiss' invention - or perhaps from
secret hidden thought cameras and
microphones.5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gray, Elisha." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
801>.
2. ^ "Gray, Elisha." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
801>.
3. ^ "Gray, Elisha." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
801>.
4. ^ "Gray, Elisha." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
801>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Gray's telephone caveat
with drawings, filed on February 14,
1876
7. ^ "Gray, Elisha." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
801>. {02/14/1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Elisha Gray." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elisha-gray
-american-inventor
[2] "Elisha Gray". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisha_Gray

Chicago, Illinois, USA6  
[1] English: Comparison of the
illustration of the telephone in
Alexander Graham Bell's diaries and
Elisha Gray's patent application. Date
March 1876(1876-03) Source
Photo illustration based on
Alexander Graham Bell's notebooks and a
patent caveat filed by Elisha Gray.
Featured in Seth Schulman's book and
his notes at [1] Author Elisha
Gray and Alexander Graham Bell PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Bell-gray-smoking-gun
.png

[2] Elisha Gray, ca.1876. PD
source: http://lh3.ggpht.com/_AQlSC03Tea
Q/Rx4C1RR7RrI/AAAAAAAAA9U/DZG6an4YfIU/s5
12/gray1.jpg
124 YBN
[02/15/1876 AD] 24 		4065) Rowland is the first president of
the American Physical Society
(1899–1901).19
Rowland dies of
diabetes before Frederick Banting
figures out how to isolate insulin, a
treatment for diabetes.20 21
There is a
funny story about Rowland, in that
under oath, he testifies that he is the
greatest living american physicist, and
later explains that he had to say this
because he was under oath.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
2. ^ "Rowland, Henry
Augustus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
5. ^ "Rowland,
Henry Augustus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Henry Rowland, "On the
Magnetic Effect of Electric
Convection", American Journal of
Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
8. ^ Henry Rowland, "On the Magnetic
Effect of Electric Convection",
American Journal of Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Henry Rowland, "On the
Magnetic Effect of Electric
Convection", American Journal of
Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
11. ^ Henry Rowland, "On the Magnetic
Effect of Electric Convection",
American Journal of Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
12. ^ "Rowland, Henry Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "Rowland, Henry Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
21. ^ "Frederick
Banting." Who2? Biographies. Who2?,
2008. Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-b
anting
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
23. ^ Henry Rowland,
"On the Magnetic Effect of Electric
Convection", American Journal of
Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
24. ^ "Rowland, Henry Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Augustus Rowland."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[2] "Henry Augustus Rowland." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[3] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Augus
tus_Rowland
[4] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_Au
gustus_Rowland
[5] "Rowland, Henry Augustus", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p756
[6] Henry Augustus Rowland,
"The physical papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland, Johns Hopkins university ...",
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=henry+rowland+pap
ers&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(working for Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore) (University of Berlin)
Berlin, Germany23  
[1] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg
124 YBN
[05/01/1876 AD] 7 		3656)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Friedrich Kohlrausch, "Ueber das
Leitungsvermögen der in Wasser
gelösten Elektrolyte im Zusammenhang
mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
2. ^ Friedrich Kohlrausch, "Ueber das
Leitungsvermögen der in Wasser
gelösten Elektrolyte im Zusammenhang
mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
3. ^ Friedrich Kohlrausch, "Ueber das
Leitungsvermögen der in Wasser
gelösten Elektrolyte im Zusammenhang
mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Friedrich Kohlrausch,
"Ueber das Leitungsvermögen der in
Wasser gelösten Elektrolyte im
Zusammenhang mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
6. ^ "Kohlrausch, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p496.
7. ^
Friedrich Kohlrausch, "Ueber das
Leitungsvermögen der in Wasser
gelösten Elektrolyte im Zusammenhang
mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
{05/01/1876}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kohlra
usch.htm
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany5 6  
[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Georg Kohlrausch
PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch2.JPG

[2] Friedrich Kohlrausch PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch1.JPG
124 YBN
[09/??/1876 AD] 8 		3572)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
2. ^ Leicester, Henry
M. (1940). "Alexander Mikhailovich
Butlerov". Journal of Chemical
Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
3. ^ "tautomerism." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tautomerism

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
Leicester, Henry M. (1940). "Alexander
Mikhailovich Butlerov". Journal of
Chemical Education 17 (May): 203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
7. ^ Leicester, Henry M. (1940).
"Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov".
Journal of Chemical Education 17 (May):
203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
8. ^ Leicester, Henry M. (1940).
"Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov".
Journal of Chemical Education 17 (May):
203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf} {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 .
[2] "Aleksandr Mikhailovich
Butlerov." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-m
ikhailovich-butlerov
[3] "Butlerov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlerov
[4] "Butlerov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158.
[5] Arbuzov,
B. A. (1978). "150th Anniversary of the
birth of A. M. Butlerov". Russian
Chemical Bulletin 27 (9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/
[6] "unsaturated." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/unsaturated

(work done at St. Peterburg University,
paper presented at) Warsaw, Poland7
 
[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 3 		2688)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p108.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p108. (1876)
((Berlin or Frankfurt?)2 ) 
[1] Central Telegraph office in Berlin
1896 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 110
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 5 		3038)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp230-231.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
5. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1876)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
Downe, Kent, England4
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 7 		3039) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
publishes "The Different Forms of
Flowers on Plants of the Same Species"
(1877), which is the result of work
into the way evolution in some species
favors different male and female forms
of flowers to facilitate "outbreeding"
(as opposed to inbreeding, that is to
facilitate variety of mating partners2
).3 According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica Darwin had long been
sensitive to the effects of inbreeding
because he was himself married to a
Wedgwood cousin, as was his sister
Caroline.4

(To me, there is a strong natural
inclination towards variety even in
human sexuality. This phenomenon works
against monogamy {and some might argue
perhaps against reproducing in small
numbers, or perhaps responsible
parenting} in that for some humans sex
is better between two people the first
time, as opposed to later sex. In this
way, it appears that biologically many
humans are designed to prefer a wide
variety of sexual partners, a constant
stream of new partners, as opposed to a
single mate for repeated sex throughout
life, although the data on this
phenomenon is somewhat abstract and in
small quantity.5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
7. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1868) (1862) (1876)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
Downe, Kent, England6
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 10 		3040) Darwin's drawing of a hairy human
ancestor with pointed ears leads to a
number of caricatures in newspapers.8
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ Record ID2804. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
5. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
9. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
10. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1868) (1862) (1876)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
Downe, Kent, England9
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 5 		3041) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
publishes "The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals" (1872),
which is photographically illustrated
to show the continuity of emotions and
expressions between humans and
animals.2

The goal of this book is to disprove
the theory that facial expression are
only in humans.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^
http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialInt
roductions/Freeman_TheExpressionoftheEmo
tions.html {Darwin_1890_Expression_F114
6.pdf}
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
5. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1868) (1862) (1876)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
Downe, Kent, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Head of snarling dog. PD/Corel
source: Charles Darwin, The Expression
of the Emotions, p124

[2] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 4 		3042) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
writes his autobiography (1876-1881).
In this work Darwin writes about his
dislike of Christian myths of eternal
torment.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1876)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
Downe, Kent, England3
(presumably) 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother’s death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 8 		3050) Hermann Günther Grassmann (CE
1809-1877), German mathematician,1
translates the hymns of the Rig-Veda
(into German2 ) in "Rig-Veda.
Übersetzt und mit kritischen
Anmerkungen versehen" (1876-77).3

The linguistic law reformulated by (and
named for) Grassman holds that in
Indo-European bases, especially in
Sanskrit and Greek, successive
syllables may not begin with aspirates
(in linguistics the "H" sound4 ).5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p369.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Hermann Günther Grassmann", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp370.
4. ^ "aspirate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aspirate
5. ^ "Hermann Grassmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-gra
ssmann
6. ^ "Grassmann, Hermann Günther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7770>.
7. ^ "Szczecin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/szczecin
8. ^ "Hermann Günther Grassmann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp370. (1876)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Günther Grassmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_G%C
3%BCnther_Grassmann
(Gymnasium in) Stettin6 , (Prussia now)
Poland7  
[1] Hermann Günther Grassmann
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Hgrassmann.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 4 		3069)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp371-372.
2. ^ "Gray, Asa."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
3. ^ "Gray, Asa." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>.
4. ^ "Gray, Asa." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7800>. (1876)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/asa
/ASABIO.html
[2] "Asa Gray." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 06 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asa-gray
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussetts, USA3  
[1] Asa Gray (1810-1888) PD/Corel
source: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libra
ries/asa/gray.jpg

[2] Asa Gray 1886 [t verify date of
photo] PD/Corel
source: http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/200
1/PSCF9-01MilesFig1.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 5 6 		3484) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)1
invents a form of analog computer for
measuring tides in a harbour and for
calculating tide tables for any hour,
past or future2 .

Thomson also invents a mariner's
compass.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ "William
Thomson, Baron Kelvin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
4. ^ "William
Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
5. ^ http://www.bartleby.com/30/16.html
{1876}
6. ^
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/Patents.htm {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p321
[6]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[7] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[8] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[9] William Thomson, "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam", Proceedings Camb Phil, June
5 1848. and: Philosophical
Magazine, October 1848. also:
Joseph Sweetman Ames, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac, William Thomson Kelvin,
James Prescott Joule, "The Free
Expansion of Gases", Harper & brohers,
1898,
p73-82. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=DONAAAAAIAAJ&dq=On%20an%20absolute%20t
hermometric%20scale&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA73
&ci=90,1250,812,124&source=bookclip">The
Free Expansion of Gases Memoirs by
Gay-Lussac, Joule, and Joule and
Thomson By Joseph Sweetman Ames,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, William
Thomson Kelvin, James Prescott Joule
[10]
Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
[11] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[12] William Thomson, "On Transient
Electric Currents", Glasgow
Philosophical Society Proceedings, Jan
1853 and Philosophical Magazine, Jun
1853. in William Thomson Kelvin,
Mathematical and Physical Papers,
p534-553. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jzEJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&lpg=PA534&dq=%
22ON+TRANSIENT+ELECTRIC+CURRENTS:&source
=web&ots=hgpGsj5Sbd&sig=XPhnC7rch4Rp4jM3
SJdp-Fhcvo0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&re
snum=1&ct=result and http://gallica.bn
f.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95118c/f550
(currently can only save one page at a
time)
[13] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1908,
p71. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
wkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kelv
in&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1 {03/18/1874}
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland4  
[1] Tide predicting machine, by Sir
William Thomson in 1876. The
accompanying plaque says: this, the
first full sized machine for predicting
tides, combined ten tidal components
(one pulley for each componenet). It
could trace the heights of the tides
for one year in about four
hours. See-also
http://www.bartleby.com/30/16.html,
esp. figure 132. Location: Science
Museum, London. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/DSCN1739-thomson-tide
-machine.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 26 		3669) In 1861, Otto builds his first
gasoline-powered engine.22
In 1864,
Otto forms a partnership with the
German industrialist Eugen Langen.23
In
1867 Otto and Langen win a gold medal
at the Paris Exposition for an improved
engine that they develop together.24
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p457.
3. ^ "Otto,
Nikolaus August." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
684>.
4. ^ Dugald Clerk, "Flame the working
fluid in gas and petrol engines",
Nature, 04/04/1907,
p546-548. http://books.google.com/books
?id=atURAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=otto+engine
+coal+gas&ei=WBA_SaibG5qEkgSEzLzIDg
5. ^ Record ID3374. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID3373. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Nikolaus August
Otto." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikolaus-ot
to
8. ^ Record ID3386. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Otto,
Nikolaus August." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
684>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457.
15. ^ "Otto, Nikolaus
August." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
9 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
684>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457.
17. ^ "Nikolaus
August Otto." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 09
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikolaus-ot
to
18. ^ "Otto, Nikolaus August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
684>.
19. ^
"books?id=rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&l
r=&as brr=1#PPA497,M1". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne See
also; http://books.google.com/books?id=
rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&lr=&as_brr=
1#PPA497,M1
20. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion
...". http://books.google.com/books?id=
8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22ro
bert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web&
ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0
kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
1&ct=result#PPA102,M1
21. ^
"books?id=rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&l
r=&as brr=1#PPA497,M1". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne See
also; http://books.google.com/books?id=
rQD8PmXp54UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0Fzi3ej1Jw0pOhbEPQkI-Hb&lr=&as_brr=
1#PPA497,M1
22. ^ "Otto, Nikolaus August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
684>.
23. ^ "Otto, Nikolaus August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
684>.
24. ^ "Otto, Nikolaus August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
684>.
25. ^ "Nikolaus August Otto."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 09 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikolaus-ot
to
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blotto.htm
[2] W. E. Ayrton, "On the Economical
Use of Gas Engines for the Production
of Electricity", Nature, 01/19/1882,
p280-282 http://books.google.com/books?
id=PnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA282&dq=otto+engine+
coal+gas&ei=WBA_SaibG5qEkgSEzLzIDg#PPA28
0,M1
[3]
http://www.barsantiematteucci.it/inglese
/index.asp
(Gasmotoren-Frabrik Deutz AG) Deutz,
Cologne, Germany25  
[1] Otto Gas Engine PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA17,M1

[2] from german wiki: Nicolaus August
Otto - Foto ca. 100 Jahre alt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/archive/a/a6/2008081523045
0!4-Stroke-Engine.gif
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 5 		3696)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
4. ^ Henry De
Mosenthal, "The Life-Work of Alfred
Nobel", Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, v. 18 (Jan.-June
1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
5. ^ "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel {patent) 1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>
[2] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[3] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[4] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[5] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bern
hard_Nobel
[6] "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650
[7]
http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/indus
trial/articles/lundstrom/index.html
[8] Nobel's US patent with description
of dynamite, US#78,317 (1868-05-26)
Alfred Nobel, Improved explosive
compound. http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pd
f/foo.pl?number=78317
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

[2] Scientist: Nobel, Alfred Bernhard
(1833 - 1896) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 11.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-N001-23a.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 7 		3755)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475-476.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p351.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475-476.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p475-476.
6. ^ "Willy
Kuhne". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Willy_Ku
hne
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475-476. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Kühne." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne
[2] "Wilhelm Friedrich Kühne".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fri
edrich_K%C3%BChne
[3] "Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p504.
[4]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per103
[5] Kuehne W (1859) Untersuchungen
über Bewegungen und Veränderungen der
contractilen Substanzen. Archiv für
Anatomie. Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin Jahrgang
1859:748–835
http://books.google.com/books?id=dwUBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA748&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%B
Cber+Bewegungen+und+Ver%C3%A4nderungen+d
er+contractilen+Substanzen+date:1859-185
9&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=NMlYSb6
1FoyEkQT39_E0
[6]
http://www.medicusbooks.com/shop/USER_AR
TIKEL_HANDLING_AUFRUF.php?darstellen=1&K
ategorie_ID=23709〈=de&update_user_lang
=true&Ziel_ID=7806&javascript_enabled=tr
ue&PEPPERSESS=eb2b859175ce4ee19d9633f9c3
1fb318
[7] "alum." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/alum
[8] Kuehne W , "Ueber den
Sehpurpur" (pp.193-195), Zbl. med.
Wiss., 15/11. - Berlin, August
Hirschwald, 1877, 8°, pp.193-208
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany6  
[1] Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img3930.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 10 11 		3819) Linde's company also sells solid
water ice.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493.
3. ^ "Linde, Carl
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Linde, Carl von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>.
6. ^ "Karl von Linde." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-von-li
nde
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
9. ^ "Linde, Carl von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493. {1876}
11. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p351. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Paul Gottfried von
Linde". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Paul_G
ottfried_von_Linde
[2] "Refrigerating". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Refriger
ating
[3] "Linde, Carl Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p545
[4] "Karl Paul Von Linde",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Pergamon Press, 1914, v.178, (1914),
p113-114. http://books.google.com/books
?id=y-QGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=Carl+Paul+G
ottfried+von+Linde&as_brr=1&ei=Du9kSfCMG
JOIkAT1v7TWDQ#PPA113,M1
(Technische Hochschule) Munich,
Germany9  
[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf

[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 15 		3892) Koch serves as an army surgeon on
the Prussian side during the
Franco-Prussian War.11
Late in life
Koch divorces his wife and marries a
much younger woman, shocking the
Victorian society of the time.12
Koch
trains many prominent bacteriologists
such as Gaffky, Kitasato, Behring and
Ehrlich.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^ J Théodoridès,
"Casimir Davaine (1812-1882): a
precursor of Pasteur.", Med Hist. 1966
April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
3. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
4. ^ R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
5. ^ Record ID3893. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J
Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
7. ^ Record ID3900. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Andrew Hunt
Gordon, Calvin W. Schwabe, "The quick
and the dead: biomedical theory in
ancient Egypt", BRILL, 2004 ISBN
9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
9. ^ R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
10. ^ R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
14. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
15. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Koch." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[2] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[4] "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495
[5]
"Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
(District Medical Officer) Wollstein,
Germany14  
[1] figure from 1876 Koch paper PD
source: http://www.asm.org/ASM/files/CCL
IBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876p89.
pdf

[2] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 20 21 		3972)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lehmann, Otto", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p530.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Joseph William
Mellor, "A comprehensive treatise on
inorganic and theoretical chemistry,
Volume 1", 1922, p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse
4. ^ O. Lehmann, "Ueber physikalische
Isomerie", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p97-131,p120. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehma
nn+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O
.%20lehmann&f=false
5. ^ O. Lehmann, "Ueber das Wachsthum
der Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p453-496,p492. http://books.google.com/
books?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehm
ann+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
O.%20lehmann&f=false
6. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^ Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460. {kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee
-2002.pdf}
7. ^ "liquid crystal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-5185
5>.
8. ^ Timothy J. Sluckin, David A.
Dunmur, Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals
that flow: classic papers from the
history of liquid crystals", 2004,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
MEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azox
yphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0W
&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&e
i=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
{Crystals_That_Flow_2004.pdf}
9. ^ David J.R. Cristaldi, Salvatore
Pennisi and Francesco Pulvirenti,
"Liquid Crystal Display Drivers,
1 Techniques and Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/ {Liquid_Crystal_Display_Histo
ry_2009.pdf} {ULSF : note discovery,
classification, physics - implies this
pattern of scientific discovery and
then immediate government/military
classification of secrecy to the
scientific advance.}
10. ^ Joseph William Mellor,
"A comprehensive treatise on inorganic
and theoretical chemistry, Volume 1",
1922, p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse
11. ^ O. Lehmann, "Über fliessende
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1889.
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12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "liquid crystal."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
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5>.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ David J.R. Cristaldi,
Salvatore Pennisi and Francesco
Pulvirenti, "Liquid Crystal Display
Drivers, 1 Techniques and Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/ {Liquid_Crystal_Display_Histo
ry_2009.pdf} {ULSF : note discovery,
classification, physics - implies this
pattern of scientific discovery and
then immediate government/military
classification of secrecy to the
scientific advance.}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ O. Lehmann,
"Ueber physikalische Isomerie",
Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und
Mineralogie, Volume 20, 1877,
p97-131,p120. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehma
nn+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O
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18. ^ "Strasbourg I, II, and III,
Universities of." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
894>.
19. ^ David J.R. Cristaldi, Salvatore
Pennisi and Francesco Pulvirenti,
"Liquid Crystal Display Drivers,
1 Techniques and Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/ {Liquid_Crystal_Display_Histo
ry_2009.pdf} {ULSF : note discovery,
classification, physics - implies this
pattern of scientific discovery and
then immediate government/military
classification of secrecy to the
scientific advance.}
20. ^ Joseph William Mellor,
"A comprehensive treatise on inorganic
and theoretical chemistry, Volume 1",
1922, p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse {1876}
21. ^ O. Lehmann, "Ueber
physikalische Isomerie", Zeitschrift
für Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p97-131,p120. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehma
nn+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O
.%20lehmann&f=false {1876}

MORE INFO
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[4] Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge zur
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[8]
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[9] William Bragg, "Liquid Crystals",
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[10] J. D. Bernal and D. Crowfoot,
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DOI:
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tf9332901032
University of Strasbourg17 ,
Strasbourg, Alsace, 18 Germany(now in
France)19  
[1] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium Olcate,
and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

[2] Photo of Otto Lehmann (1855 -
1922), a German physicist. Picture
taken from publication [1] (an overview
of discovery of liquid crystals). PNG
format used not to reduce image quality
further. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2f/Otto_Lehmann.PNG
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 		3986)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456.
2. ^ James Clerk
Maxwell, "Matter and Motion.",
1876. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6WgSAAAAIAAJ&dq=james+clerk+maxwell+matt
er+and+motion&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=umpGiCjbGl&sig=xSiBRu8JCIFDPaekT
Vhie0Wj1h8&hl=en&ei=vhKcSrbNNIaKsgOal7ST
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586-588

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AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gmQSAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd
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Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
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(presumably) 
[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
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edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
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[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) Maxwell as a young man at
Cambridge (ca. 1854) holding the colour
top (Reproduced by permission of the
Master and Fellows of Trinity College
Cambridge). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 9 10 11 		4094)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
3. ^ "Goldstein,
Eugen." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Monatsberichte der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284.
5. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525. {1876}
10. ^
"Goldstein, Eugen." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
282>. {1876}
11. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eugen Goldstein." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-golds
tein
[2] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Golds
tein
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany8
 
[1] Eugen Goldstein 1850 - 1931 PD

source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 3 		6022)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Amilcare Ponchielli."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/469557/Amilcare-Ponchielli>.
2. ^ "Amilcare Ponchielli."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/469557/Amilcare-Ponchielli>.
3. ^ "Amilcare Ponchielli."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/469557/Amilcare-Ponchielli>. {1876}
Milan, Italy2 (presumably) 
[1] Amilcare Ponchielli UNKNOWN
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/252/240944.jpg
123 YBN
[04/14/1877 AD] 20 		4111) Berliner supports compulsory (a
law?11 ) pasteurizing of milk, which
will ultimately contribute to the
health of people in the USA.12
Berliner
does useful work on airplane motors.13
(more specific14 )

Berliner works as chief inspector for
the Bell Telephone Company.15

Berliners is a supporter of women
equality, and argues that women, given
the opportunities for education equal
to men, would equal men in the
sciences. In 1908 Berliner founds amd
funds the "Sarah Berliner Research
Fellowship". Mrs. Christine Ladd
Franklin, the first woman to earn a
doctor's degree at Johns Hopkins
University, is a charter member, and
Berliner also obtains the cooperation
of the American Association of
University Women. The fellowship is
made available for research in physics,
chemistry or biology. From 1909 to 1926
awards are given to women each year in
those fields as well as in psychology,
physiology, paleontology, geology,
nutrition, zoology and related
subjects.16

Berliner is agnostic and writes a book
("Conclusions") explaining his views,
which is published in 1889.17
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p529.
3. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html
4. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html
5. ^ Record ID3994. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p529.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p529.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
16. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berliner.html
17. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
18. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
19. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529. {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Berliner, Emil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
812>
[2] "Emile Berliner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-berli
ner
[3] "Emile Berliner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berli
ner
[4] Berliner's Patent "Combined
Telegraph and Telephone" of
06/04/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=YxBhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(own apartment18 ) Washington, DC,
USA19  
[1] Microphone of Caveat April 14, 1877
with mouthpiece added. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/mbrs/berl/
berlp/12040303v.jpg

[2] Emile Berliner with disc record
gramophone - photograph taken between
1910 and 1929. This is a cropped
version of the digital image from the
Library of Congress online collection.
there are no known restrictions on
publication, so this image appears to
be in the public domain; see catalog
information
below. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3
c24124 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Emile_Berliner_with_disc_r
ecord_gramophone_-_between_1910_and_1929
.jpg
123 YBN
[04/27/1877 AD] 29 30 		3994)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ "Edison, Thomas
Alva." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Edison, Thomas Alva." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ George Bartlett
Prescott, "The speaking telephone,
talking phonograph, and other
novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du
Moncel, "The telephone, the microphone,
and the phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
11. ^ W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone,
Its History and Its Recent
Improvements", Nature, vol19,
11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20micr
ophone&f=false
12. ^ Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
13. ^ Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
14. ^ Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
15. ^ "Under Pressure", The
Electrician, Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
16. ^ W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone,
Its History and Its Recent
Improvements", Nature, vol19,
11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20micr
ophone&f=false
17. ^ "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>.
18. ^ W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone,
Its History and Its Recent
Improvements", Nature, vol19,
11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20micr
ophone&f=false
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Edison 04/27/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
21. ^ Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
22. ^ Edison 04/27/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
23. ^ "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>.
24. ^ "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>.
25. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
26. ^ Record ID3997. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Record
ID4111. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Edison patent
203,014, April 30, 1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
29. ^ Edison 04/27/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
30. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>. {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[14] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA28  
[1] Edison's 04/27/1877 patent for the
carbon microphone (speaking
telegraph) PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
123 YBN
[04/27/1877 AD] 6 7 		4294)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Charles Susskind, "Observations
of Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation
before Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1
(Mar., 1964), pp. 32-42.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227753?seq
=11 {Maxwell_EM_before_Hertz_ISIS_1964.
pdf}
2. ^ Scientific American, 1875, 33:
385, 401.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Edison
patent 203,014, April 30, 1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Edison 04/27/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
7. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>. {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[14] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[15] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[16] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[17] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[18] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[20] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[21] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[22] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA5  
[1] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

[2] Description Thomas Edison and
his early phonograph. Cropped from
Library of Congress copy. Source
Brady-Handy Photograph Collection
(Library of Congress) -
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04044
Date circa 1877 (probably 18 April
1878, based on the extremely similar
photo [1]) Author Levin C. Handy
(per
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04326)
Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Edison_and_phonograph
_edit1.jpg
123 YBN
[06/??/1877 AD] 6 		3879)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Km8CAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA313&dq=P.+L.+Chastaing+date:1
878-1878&ei=Jx2SSbyIFZfGMoSgybIK
2. ^ "Photochemistry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photoche
mistry
3. ^ "oxidation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oxidation
4. ^ "reduction." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reduction
5. ^ M. P. CHASTAING, "Étude sur la
part de la lumière dans les actions
chimiques et en particulier dans les
oxydations.", Annales de chimie et de
physique, 1877,
p145-222. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Vis
ualiseur?O=30000000348510
6. ^ "Photochemistry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photoche
mistry {06/1877}
(Sorbonne laboratory) Paris, France5
(verify) 		 
123 YBN
[07/??/1877 AD] 5 6 		3749)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Draper, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
2. ^ Henrey Draper, "Discovery of
Oxygen in the Sun by Photography and a
new Theory the Solar Spectrum", Proc Am
Phil Soc, July 1877, 74, 80, Am J Sci
III, xiv, 39, 96, 1877.
3. ^ Biographical
Memoirs, By National Academy of
Sciences (U.S.), National Academy of
Sciences, 1895,
p81-140. http://books.google.com/books?
id=d3iph4B87oEC&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+Draper&
ei=55VYSZLJNZSokASEwJSuDw
4. ^ "Henry Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r
5. ^ Henrey Draper, "Discovery of
Oxygen in the Sun by Photography and a
new Theory the Solar Spectrum", Proc Am
Phil Soc, July 1877, 74, 80, Am J Sci
III, xiv, 39, 96, 1877. {07/1877}
6. ^
Biographical Memoirs, By National
Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National
Academy of Sciences, 1895,
p81-140. http://books.google.com/books?
id=d3iph4B87oEC&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+Draper&
ei=55VYSZLJNZSokASEwJSuDw {07/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474-475
[2] "Henry Draper".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Drape
r
[3] "John William Draper". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
[4] "Draper, Henry", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p260-261
[5] Henry Draper, "15 Photographs of
the Spectra of Venus and a Lyrae", Am J
Sci HI xiii 95 Feb 1877 Reprinted in
Phil Mag Fifth series, iii,
238. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
PcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=intitle:american+
intitle:journal+intitle:of+intitle:scien
ce+date:1877-1877&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALL
TYPES&ei=jJ1YSabSM5iMkASu3M3HDg#PPA95,M1

[6] Barker, George F. (1887). "On the
Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of
Stellar Spectra". Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 24:
166–172. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=KcAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA166&dq=On+the+Hen
ry+Draper+Memorial+Photographs+of+Stella
r+Spectra&ei=saBYSeydD43WlQSq6MTuBw
[7] "Henry Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r
(City University) New York City, NY,
USA4  
[1] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg

[2] Description English: Picture of
Henry Draper, the American physician
and astronomer Source
Frontispiece of Memoir of Henry
Draper; 1837-1882 Date
1888 Author George Frederick
Barker PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Draper_Henry_W_signat
ure.jpg
123 YBN
[08/11/1877 AD] 10 11 12 		3584)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p448-449.
2. ^ "Deimos."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/156109/Deimos>.
3. ^ "Asaph Hall." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
4. ^ Hall, A.; Observations of the
Satellites of Mars, Astronomische
Nachrichten, Vol. 91, No. 2161 (October
17, 1877, signed September 21 ,1877)
pp.
11/12–13/14 http://adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013.000.html

5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p448-449.
6. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=DNwfG5h
Q7-YC&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=Asaph+Hall+2
6+inch&source=web&ots=BoRArXsvpe&sig=puG
DNRSWYToDbpH6Rjnvo_pwEEk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&resnum=2&ct=result
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Asaph Hall." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
10. ^ "Asaph Hall." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1 {08/11/1877}
11. ^ "Mars". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Mars
{08/11/1877}
12. ^ Hall, A.; Observations of the
Satellites of Mars, Astronomische
Nachrichten, Vol. 91, No. 2161 (October
17, 1877, signed September 21 ,1877)
pp.
11/12–13/14 http://adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013.000.html
 {08/11/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Asaph Hall." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/252601/Asaph-Hall>
[2] "Asaph Hall." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 18 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
[3] "Asaph Hall". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asaph_Hall
[4] "Hall, Asaph", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p389
[5]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p448-449.
(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC,
USA9  
[1] Asaph Hall PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/photo/images/g269.jpg

[2] Image Source:
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/g
300.html Image Caption: Type:
Glass Plate #300 Page: 5 Number:
6 Volume: 2 Identifier: g300 Prof
Asaph Hall, Sr. Taken at Equatorial
Bldg Aug. 1899 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Professor_Asaph_Hall.
jpg
123 YBN
[08/17/1877 AD] 14 15 		3585)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p448-449.
2. ^ "Deimos."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/156109/Deimos>.
3. ^ "Asaph Hall." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
4. ^ Hall, A.; Observations of the
Satellites of Mars, Astronomische
Nachrichten, Vol. 91, No. 2161 (October
17, 1877, signed September 21 ,1877)
pp.
11/12–13/14 http://adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013.000.html

5. ^ "Asaph Hall." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Hall, A.; Observations of
the Satellites of Mars, Astronomische
Nachrichten, Vol. 91, No. 2161 (October
17, 1877, signed September 21 ,1877)
pp.
11/12–13/14 http://adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013.000.html

8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p448-449.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap010902.html
11. ^ "Asaph Hall." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Asaph Hall." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p448-449.
{08/17/1877}
15. ^ Hall, A.; Observations of the
Satellites of Mars, Astronomische
Nachrichten, Vol. 91, No. 2161 (October
17, 1877, signed September 21 ,1877)
pp.
11/12–13/14 http://adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013.000.html
 {08/17/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Asaph Hall." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/252601/Asaph-Hall>.
[2] "Asaph Hall." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 18 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asaph-hall-
1
[3] "Asaph Hall". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asaph_Hall
[4] "Hall, Asaph", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p389.
[5]
"Mars". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Mars
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=DNwfG5h
Q7-YC&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=Asaph+Hall+2
6+inch&source=web&ots=BoRArXsvpe&sig=puG
DNRSWYToDbpH6Rjnvo_pwEEk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&resnum=2&ct=result
(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC,
USA13  
[1] Title: Observations of the
Satellites of Mars Authors: Hall,
A. Journal: Astronomische Nachrichten,
volume 91, p.11 Bibliographic Code:
1878AN.....91...11H PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1878AN....
.91...11H&defaultprint=YES&page_ind=1&fi
letype=.pdf

[2] Asaph Hall PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/photo/images/g269.jpg
123 YBN
[08/28/1877 AD] 13 		4000)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Edison's Patent
on the pressure relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Edison's Patent on the
pressure relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Edison's Patent
on the pressure relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Edison 04/27/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Edison's Patent on the
pressure relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
11. ^ Record ID3997. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Edison's
Patent on the pressure relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
13. ^ Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false {08/28/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA12  
[1] Edison's 08/28/1877 patent for the
carbon pressure relay PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
123 YBN
[09/??/1877 AD] 6 7 		3729)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p470-471.
2. ^ "Schiaparelli,
Giovanni Virginio", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p779-780.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p470-471.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p470-471.
5. ^
"Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
116>.
6. ^ "Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
116>. {1877}
7. ^
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/Schiaparelli.html {09/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Schiaparelli." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-sc
hiaparelli
[2] "Giovanni Schiaparelli." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giovanni-sc
hiaparelli
[3] "Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Vi
rginio_Schiaparelli
[4] "Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Virginio_Schiaparelli
[5]
http://www.bareket-astro.com/movies/come
t/69hesperia.html
(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy5
 
[1] Giovanni Schiaparelli's map of
Mars, compiled over the period
1877-1886, used names based on
classical geography or were simply
descriptive terms; for example, Mare
australe (Southern Sea). Most of these
place names are still in use today.
Flammarion, La Planète Mars. PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4212/
p6.jpg

[2] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/GiovanniSchiaparelli.
jpg
123 YBN
[10/11/1877 AD] 16 		3925) (I think an important point is
showing how any of these equations are
found to be useful, practical and apply
accurately to observable phenomena.14 )
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ Record ID3364.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
4. ^ S.Rajasekar, N.Athavan, "Ludwig
Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047
5. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
6. ^ Record ID3370. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ S.Rajasekar,
N.Athavan, "Ludwig Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047
8. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
9. ^ "Über die Beziehung eines
allgemeine mechanischen Satzes zum
zweiten Hauptsatze der Wärmetheorie."
Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der
Wissen-schaften 75 (1877): 67-73.
(included in Wissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen, Vol. 2, 1909. 116-122.)
English tr; "On the Relation of a
General Mechanical Theorem to the
Second Law of Thermodynamics (1877)."
Kinetic Theory. Vol. 2. Ed. and Trans.
Stephen Brush. New York: Pergamon
Press, 1966: 188-93. (included in
Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, Vol. 2,
1909. 164-223.)
10. ^
http://depts.washington.edu/vienna/boltz
mann/boltzmannbib.htm
11. ^ "Prof. Ludwig Boltzmann",
(obituary), Nature, 10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
G9URAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA569&dq=Boltzmann&lr=&a
s_brr=1&ei=_f_BSYuOBYzOkATcx42ADg
12. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Ludwig
Boltzmann." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
16. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann {10/11/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltzmann, Ludwig Eduard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
519>
[2] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[3] "Ludwig Boltzmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Bolt
zmann
[4] "Boltzmann, Ludwig", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116
[5] "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

[6] "Foundations of statistical
mechanics 1845–1915", Archive for
History of Exact Sciences, Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 4, Number
3, January,
1967,p145-183. http://www.springerlink.
com/content/x48752278hl13853/
[7] "Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
562>
[8] "Boltzmann factor." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltzmann-f
actor
[9] "Boltzmann factor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_f
actor
[10] L. Boltzmann, "Studien über das
Gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft
zwischen bewegten materiellen
Punkten," Wien. Ber. 58, 517 (1868);
reprinted in Boltzmann's Abhandlungen,
Bd. 1, p. 49
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=bMQKAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=%22Studien+%C3%BCber+d
as+Gleichgewicht+der+lebendigen+Kraft+zw
ischen+bewegten+materiellen+Punkten%22&a
s_brr=1&ei=NSTCSe-oNISukASl0vz-DQ#PPA527
,M1
[12]
http://world.std.com/~mmcirvin/boltzmann
.html
[13]
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/bolt
z.htm
[14] Boltzmann, L., 1872. Weitere
Studien über das Wärmegleichgewicht
unter Gasmolekülen. Kaiserl. Acad.
Wiss. Wien Sitzb., II Abt. 66, pp.
275–370. English tr: "Further
Studies on the Thermal Equilibrium of
Gas Molecules". In Brush, S. G.,
Kinetic theory, vol 2. Oxford a.o.,
1966, 88-175
[15] "Boltzmann transport
equation." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltzmann-t
ransport-equation
(University of Graz) Graz, Austria15
 
[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg
123 YBN
[12/02/1877 AD] 28 29 30 		3688) When young Cailletet works in his
father's ironworks and later is in
charge of the works.25

Cailletet invented automatic cameras.26

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cailletet, Louis-Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
556>.
2. ^ M. L. Cailletet, "De la
condensation de l'oxygène et de
l'oxyde de carbone", Comptes Rendus,
vol 85, 1877, p1213.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?O=
30000000030423
3. ^ M. Cailletet, "Liquéfaction du
bioxyde d'azote", Comptes Rendus, vol
85, 1877,
p1016. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visual
iseur?O=30000000030423
4. ^ M. Cailletet, "Sur la
liquéfaction de l'acétylène",
Comptes Rendus, vol 85, 1877,
p851. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030423
5. ^ "Cailletet, Louis-Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
556>.
6. ^ "Cailletet, Louis Paul", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p160.
7. ^ Record ID3824. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record
ID2259. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p460.
10. ^ Thomas
O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid air and the
liquefaction of gases: a practical work
giving the entire",
p183-184. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p460.
12. ^ "Cailletet,
Louis-Paul." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
23 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
556>.
13. ^ Sloan, T. O'Connor (1920). Liquid
Air and the Liquefaction of Gases. New
York: Norman W.
Henley. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Li
quid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&a
s_brr=1#PPA173,M2 and http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=ZidIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=f
rontcover&dq=Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefac
tion+of+Gases&as_brr=1&source=gbs_book_o
ther_versions_r&cad=0_1
14. ^ Louis-Paul Cailletet, "Recherches
sur la liquéfaction des gaz", Annales
de chimie et de physique, 1878, 15:
p132-144. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k348551 see also Raoul
Pictet, "Mémoire sur la liquéfaction
de l’oxygène." Annales de chimie et
de physique 13 (1878):
145-229. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k34853b
15. ^ Sloan, T. O'Connor (1920). Liquid
Air and the Liquefaction of Gases. New
York: Norman W. Henley., p
175. http://books.google.com/books?id=e
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Liqui
d+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&as_b
rr=1#PPA173,M2 and http://books.google
.com/books?id=ZidIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=fron
tcover&dq=Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefactio
n+of+Gases&as_brr=1&source=gbs_book_othe
r_versions_r&cad=0_1
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Cailletet (July 1885).
"The Liquefaction Of Oxygen". Science 6
(128): 51–52.
doi:10.1126/science.ns-6.128.51. PMID
17806947. Condensed from La Nature,
May 16
{1885?} http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf
plus/1761231.pdf http://www.sciencemag.
org/content/volns-6/issue128/index.dtl
{Cailletet_Louis_1885.pdf}
18. ^ "Remarques de M. Berthelot,
relatives à la Communication
precédente", Comptes Rendus, Vol 85,
1877,
p1271. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Cadres
Fenetre?O=30000000030423&M=tdm
19. ^ M. L. Cailletet, "Sur la
condensation des gaz réputés
incoërcibles", Comptes Rendus, Vol 85,
1877,
p1270. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Cadres
Fenetre?O=30000000030423&M=tdm
20. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid
air and the liquefaction of gases: a
practical work giving the entire",
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Liqu
id+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Louis Paul Cailletet."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paul-
cailletet
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "Cailletet,
Louis-Paul." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
23 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
556>.
26. ^ "Louis Paul Cailletet."
AnswerNotes. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paul-
cailletet
27. ^ Scientific American Vol. XXXVIII
- No. 8 - February 23, 1878 -
Cailletet http://bern-1914.org/genf_189
6/rp11_sa_cailletet.html
28. ^ "Cailletet, Louis-Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
556>. {12/02/1877}
29. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane,
"Liquid air and the liquefaction of
gases: a practical work giving the
entire",
p172-202. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.} {12/02/1877}
30. ^ "M.
Dumas donne lecture d'une Lettre
adressée par M. L. Cailletet à M. H.
Sainte-Claire Deville, le 2 décembre,
et annonçant les résultats obtenus
pour la liquéfaction de l'oxygène", ,
Comptes Rendus, vol 85, 1877,
p1216. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Cadres
Fenetre?O=30000000030423&M=tdm
{12/02/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Paul Cailletet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paul_
Cailletet
[2] M. Dumas, "avant de faire
connaître à l'Académie les
résultats que viennent d'obtenir M. L.
Cailletet et M. Raoul Pictet, pour la
liquéfaction de l'oxygène, donne
lecture d'un passage des 'OEuvres de
Lavoisier"', Comptes Rendus, vol 85,
1877. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030423
[3] M. R. Pictet, "Expériences sur la
liquéfaction de l'oxygène", Comptes
Rendus, vol 85,
1877. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030423
(father's ironworks) Chatillon,
France27  
[1] Fig. 1. - Cailletet's Apparatus for
Liquefying Gases Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- bottom front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig1_72.gif


[2] Fig. 2. - Fig. 3. Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- top front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig2_3_72.g
if
123 YBN
[12/22/1877 AD] 15 16 		3961)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
2. ^ "Raoul Pictet."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/raoul-picte
t
3. ^ "Raoul Pictet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/raoul-picte
t
4. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid air
and the liquefaction of gases: a
practical work giving the entire",
p150-171. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.}
5. ^ "M. Dumas donne lecture
d'une Lettre adressée par M. L.
Cailletet à M. H. Sainte-Claire
Deville, le 2 décembre, et annonçant
les résultats obtenus pour la
liquéfaction de l'oxygène", , Comptes
Rendus, vol 85, 1877,
p1216. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Cadres
Fenetre?O=30000000030423&M=tdm
7. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid air
and the liquefaction of gases: a
practical work giving the entire",
p150-171. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
9. ^ "Pictet,
Raoul-Pierre", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p705.
10. ^
Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Raoul Pictet." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/raoul-picte
t
12. ^ M. R. Pictet, "Sur la
liquéfaction de l'hydrogène", Comptes
Rendus, vol 86, 1878, p106-107.
13. ^ Record
ID3824. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Thomas O'Conor
Sloane, "Liquid air and the
liquefaction of gases: a practical work
giving the entire",
p150-171. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.}
15. ^ "Raoul Pictet." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/raoul-picte
t {12/22/1877}
16. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid
air and the liquefaction of gases: a
practical work giving the entire",
p150-171. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.} {12/22/1877}


MORE INFO
[1] Raoul Pictet, "Mémoire sur
la liquefaction de l'oxygène, la
liquefaction et la solidification de
l'hydrogène: et sur les théories des
changement des corps", 1878.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nGA9AAA
AYAAJ&pg=PP2&dq=M%C3%A9moire+sur+la+liqu
%C3%A9faction+de+la+liqu%C3%A9faction+et
+la+solidification+de+l%27hydrog%C3%A8ne
+et+sur+les+th%C3%A9ories+des+changement
s+des+corps&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&
f=false
[2] M. R. Pictet, "Lettre à M. Dumas,
sur la densité de l'oxygène liquide",
Comptes Rendus, 1878, vol86, p37-38.
[3] The
New international encyclopædia, Volume
14,
p122. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TpUMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA122&dq=M%C3%A9moire+su
r+la+liqu%C3%A9faction+de+la+liqu%C3%A9f
action+et+la+solidification+de+l%27hydro
g%C3%A8ne+et+sur+les+th%C3%A9ories+des+c
hangements+des+corps&as_brr=1#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
[4] M. Dumas, "avant de faire
connaître à l'Académie les
résultats que viennent d'obtenir M. L.
Cailletet et M. Raoul Pictet, pour la
liquéfaction de l'oxygène, donne
lecture d'un passage des 'OEuvres de
Lavoisier"', Comptes Rendus, vol 85,
1877. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030423
[5] M. L. Cailletet, "De la
condensation de l'oxygène et de
l'oxyde de carbone", Comptes Rendus,
vol 85, 1877.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?O=
30000000030423
[6] M. R. Pictet, "Expériences sur la
liquéfaction de l'oxygène", Comptes
Rendus, vol 85,
1877. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030423
[7] M. L. Cailletet, "De la
condensation de l'oxygène et de
l'oxyde de carbone", Comptes Rendus,
vol 85, 1877, p1213.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?O=
30000000030423
University of Geneva, Switzerland14
 
[1] Apparatus Pictet uses to liquefy
gases PD
source: Raoul Pictet, Mémoire sur la
liquefaction de l'oxygène, la
liquefaction et la ..., p
109 http://books.google.com/books?id=nG
A9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=M%C3%A9moire+sur+
la+liqu%C3%A9faction+de+la+liqu%C3%A9fac
tion+et+la+solidification+de+l%27hydrog%
C3%A8ne+et+sur+les+th%C3%A9ories+des+cha
ngements+des+corps&as_brr=1&source=gbs_s
elected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false


[2] Description Pictet Raoul
signature.jpg Picture of Pictet, the
scientist Date 1920(1920) Source
Page 152 of Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases Author T.
O'Connor Sloan PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Pictet_Raoul_signatur
e.jpg
123 YBN
[12/24/1877 AD] 34 35 		4002)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
4. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
7. ^ Herbert
Treadwell Wade, "Phonograph", The New
international encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
10. ^ Herbert
Treadwell Wade, "Phonograph", The New
international encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
15. ^ Record ID3999.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "Charles Cros." The New Oxford
Companion to Literature in French.
Oxford University Press, 1995, 2005.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
17. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
18. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
19. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
20. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
21. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
22. ^ "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>.
23. ^ "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>.
24. ^ Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "The Telegraph and Its
Future", Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
27. ^ The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Edison
"improvements to phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
34. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ {12/24/1877}
35. ^ Francis
Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva Edison:
sixty years of an inventor's life",
1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{12/24/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[12] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[13] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[14] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[15] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[16] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[17] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[24] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] The Iron age, Volume 94, Issues
14-27 http://books.google.com/books?id=
Na0vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT22&dq=edison+phonograp
h+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[28]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA33  
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg

[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
123 YBN
[12/??/1877 AD] 4 		3619)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.79. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPA79,M1
2. ^ Record ID2812. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ John Joseph
Fahie, "A History of Wireless
Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902,
p.79. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPA79,M1
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.79. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPA79,M1 {12/1877}
Veinna3   
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 3 		2690) The first electrical telegraph
line in Tientsin (now Tianjin) China is
constructed between the castle of the
governor and the city arsenal by
students of the local mining school.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116. (1877)
Tientsin (now Tianjin), China2   
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 19 		3138)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
2. ^
http://www.valuablestones.com/synthetic_
gemstones.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
4. ^
http://www.valuablestones.com/synthetic_
gemstones.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.valuablestones.com/synthetic_
gemstones.htm
7. ^
http://www.valuablestones.com/synthetic_
gemstones.htm
8. ^ "luster." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
21 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
uster>.
9. ^ "adamantine." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
21 May. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
damantine>.
10. ^ "Artificial Gem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Artifici
al_Gem
11. ^ Edmond Fremy and C. Feil, "Sur la
production artificielle du corindon, du
rubis, et de differents silicates
crystallisees," Comptes rendus, vol.
lxxxv. p. 1029;
12. ^ "Frémy, Edmond."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5335>.
13. ^ "hydrofluoric acid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrofluori
c-acid
14. ^ "Edmond Fremy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edmond_F
remy
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p384.
16. ^ H. Groult, F.
Lantelme, M. Salanne, C. Simon, C.
Belhomme, B. Morel, F. Nicolas, Role of
elemental fluorine in nuclear field,
Journal of Fluorine ChemistryVolume
128, Issue 4, , Advances in Inorganic
Fluorine Chemistry, April 2007, Pages
285-295. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TGD-4MFJ2JM-1/1/05da2c
25fdbc8407440ef56294200325)
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Edmond Fremy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edmond_F
remy
19. ^ "Edmond Fremy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edmond_F
remy (1877)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmond Frémy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Fr%C
3%A9my
[2] "Fluorine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Fluorine

[3] "Edmond Frémy", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p329.
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France18
 
[1] Scientist: Fremy, Edmond (1814 -
1894) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.8 x 5.2 cm / Sheet: 10.4 x
6.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F005-09a.jpg

[2] synthetic ruby crystals grown in a
crucible PD
source: http://www.valuablestones.com/sy
nthe1.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 5 		3318)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
2. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
3. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1
4. ^ "Tyndall, John", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp891-892.
5. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1 {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyndall, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>.
[2] "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[3] "Tyndall, John." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[4] "Tyndall, John." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[5] "John Tyndall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndal
l
[6] "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
[7] John Tyndale, "Faraday as a
Discoverer", D. Appleton,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wskKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=John
+Tyndall&as_brr=1
[8] John Tyndall, "Heat a Mode of
Motion", D. Appleton and Company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3DUJAAAAIAAJ&dq=John+Tyndall&as_brr=1
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 7 		3342) Muybridge murders a man who had
sex with his wife, but is not
convicted.4 (This shows how acceptable
first degree murder and other violence
is at the time and ironically how
unacceptable consensual sex is.5 )
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
2. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
3. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
4. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
7. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eadweard Muybridge." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
[2] "Eadward Muybridge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadward_Muy
bridge
Sacramento, CA, USA6  
[1] Animated sequence of a race horse
galloping. Photos taken by Eadweard
Muybridge (died 1904), first published
in 1887 at Philadelphia (Animal
Locomotion). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Muybridge_race_horse_
animated.gif

[2] Portrait of Eadweard
Muybridge Source:
http://worlds2.tcsn.net/tcwf/web/muy/muy
3.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Muybridge-2.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 4 		3349)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
2. ^ "Eadward Muybridge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadward_Muy
bridge
3. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
4. ^ "Eadweard Muybridge." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eadweard Muybridge." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eadweard-mu
ybridge
Sacramento, CA, USA3  
[1] MUYBRIDGE, EADWEARD J., American
(b. England, 1830-1904) TITLE ON
OBJECT Studies in Zoopraxography
arranged for the Zoopraxiscope by
Edweard Muybridge DESCRIPTIVE TITLE
Mule Bucking and Kicking YEAR
1893 DIAMETER 12.4 inches Gift of
Kingston-on-Thames Public Library GEH
NEG: 16485; 01:1308:0001; OLD GEH
NUMBER: 3538:1 From the George Eastman
House Photography
Collections http://www.eastman.org/fm/p
recin/htmlsrc4/m200113080001_ful.html#to
pofimage PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Zoopraxiscope_16485u.
jpg

[2] MUYBRIDGE, EADWEARD J., American
(b. England, 1830-1904) TITLE ON
OBJECT Studies in Zoopraxography
arranged for the Zoopraxiscope by
Edweard Muybridge DESCRIPTIVE TITLE
Mule Bucking and Kicking YEAR
1893 DIAMETER 12.4 inches Gift of
Kingston-on-Thames Public Library GEH
NEG: 16485; 01:1308:0001; OLD GEH
NUMBER: 3538:1 From the George Eastman
House Photography
Collections http://www.eastman.org/fm/p
recin/htmlsrc4/m200113080001_ful.html#to
pofimage PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Zoopraxiscope_16485u.
gif
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 7 8 9 10 		3667)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p456-457.
2. ^ "Friedel,
Charles." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
9 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
420>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p486.
4. ^ "Charles
Friedel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
5. ^ "Charles Friedel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-fri
edel {1877}
6. ^ "Charles Friedel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
7. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel {1877}
8. ^ "Friedel, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
420>. {1877}
9. ^ "Charles Friedel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-fri
edel {1877}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p456-457. {1875}

MORE INFO
[1] J. H. GLADSTONE, "Professor
Charles Friedel" (obituary), Nature
60, 57 - 58 (18 May 1899), doi:
10.1038/060057a0
[2] "James Mason Crafts". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Mason
_Crafts
Sorbonne, Paris, France6  
[1] French chemist and mineralogist
Charles Friedel (1832-1899) Source:
http://www.impmc.jussieu.fr/impmc/Presen
tation/historique2.php PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Charles_Friedel.jpg

[2] JAMES MASON CRAFTS,
1839-1917 Photograph courtesy of the
MIT Museum PD/Corel
source: http://libraries.mit.edu/archive
s/mithistory/biographies/img/crafts.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 14 15 16 		3756)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p475-476.
2. ^ Pasquale J.
Accardo, The medical almanac: a
calendar of dates of significance to
the profession ..., Humana Press,
1992. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q67aO0fCeukC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=%22Fran
z+Christian+Boll%22&source=web&ots=1wdQV
hNZc7&sig=Zf66F3pVDnUjKck7nYoYk1nSUiM&hl
=en#v=onepage&q=%22Franz%20Christian%20B
oll%22&f=false
3. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate?hl
=en&sl=de&u=http://www.zeno.org/Pagel-19
01/A/Boll,%2BFranz%2BChristian&sa=X&oi=t
ranslate&resnum=7&ct=result&prev=/search
%3Fq%3D%2522Boll,%2BFranz%2522%2B1849%26
start%3D20%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN
4. ^ Kenney, Diana E. "Wald, George."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 211-216. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Wilhelm Kühne." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne
6. ^ Kuehne W , "Ueber den Sehpurpur"
(pp.193-195), Zbl. med. Wiss., 15/11. -
Berlin, August Hirschwald, 1877, 8°,
pp.193-208
7. ^ "alum." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/alum
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "eye." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eye
10. ^ "human eye." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1688997/human-eye>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Willy
Kuhne". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Willy_Ku
hne
14. ^ "Wilhelm Kühne." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne {1877}
15. ^ Kuehne W , "Ueber den
Sehpurpur" (pp.193-195), Zbl. med.
Wiss., 15/11. - Berlin, August
Hirschwald, 1877, 8°, pp.193-208
16. ^
http://www.medicusbooks.com/shop/USER_AR
TIKEL_HANDLING_AUFRUF.php?darstellen=1&K
ategorie_ID=23709〈=de&update_user_lang
=true&Ziel_ID=7806&javascript_enabled=tr
ue&PEPPERSESS=eb2b859175ce4ee19d9633f9c3
1fb318 {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Friedrich Kühne".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fri
edrich_K%C3%BChne
[2] "Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p504
[3]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per103
[4] Kuehne W (1859) Untersuchungen
über Bewegungen und Veränderungen der
contractilen Substanzen. Archiv für
Anatomie. Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin Jahrgang
1859:748–835
http://books.google.com/books?id=dwUBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA748&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%B
Cber+Bewegungen+und+Ver%C3%A4nderungen+d
er+contractilen+Substanzen+date:1859-185
9&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=NMlYSb6
1FoyEkQT39_E0
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p351
[6]
"Franz Christian Boll". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Chris
tian_Boll
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany13  
[1] Human eye cross-sectional view
grayscale Copyright: public domain,
credit to NIH National Eye Institute
requested. Original source:
http://www.nei.nih.gov/health/macularh
ole/index.asp PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Human_eye_cross-secti
onal_view_grayscale.png

[2] Description Eye pig cut
open.jpg You see the cut open
eyeball. Note the ''zooming'' effect of
the lens. The glibberisch stuff is the
vitreous humor (the filling of the
eye) Date 30 May
2006(2006-05-30) Source Own work
(self taken) Author Carsten
Niehaus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Eye_pig_cut_open.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 8 9 		3901)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^ "Koch, Heinrich
Hermann Robert", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p493-495.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
4. ^ Koch, "Verfahren
zur Untersuchung, zum Conservieren und
Photographieren der
Bakterien." Beiträge zur Biologie der
Pflanzen, 1877, 2:
399-434. Translation and abstract as:
"Methods for Studying, Preserving and
Photographing Bacteria. In: Raymond N.
Doetsch, Jr, editor: Microbiology:
Historical Contributions from 1776 to
1908. New Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers
University Press, 1960: 67-73.
5. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/298
7.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
8. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>. {1877}
9. ^ "Koch, Heinrich Hermann
Robert", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p493-495. {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Koch." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[2] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[4] J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[5] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[6] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[7] Verfahrungen zur Untersuchung, zum
Conserviren und Photographiren der
Bacterien. Beiträge zur Biologie der
Pflanzen, 1877, 2 (3): 300-434
[8] "Wrocław".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
Wollstein, Germany7  
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 12 		3928)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501.
2. ^ "Patrick
Manson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick
3. ^ P. Manson, "On the development of
Filaria sanguinis hominis, and on the
mosquito considered as a nurse".
Journal of the Linnean Soc 14 (1879),
pp. 304–311.
http://books.google.com/books?id=t6a1N
0AKiMgC&pg=PA304&dq=On+the+Development+o
f+Filaria+Sanguinis+Hominis,+and+on+the+
Mosquito+Considered+as+a+Nurse+date:1878
-1879&ei=XGPDSYSNNZ6skATP6un-DQ
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501.
5. ^ "Manson, Sir
Patrick." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9050
623>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501.
7. ^ "Manson, Sir
Patrick." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9050
623>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501.
9. ^ "Manson, Sir
Patrick." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9050
623>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Manson, Sir Patrick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9050
623>.
12. ^ "Patrick Manson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Patrick Manson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick
[2] "Manson, Patrick", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p573
Hong Kong11 (presumably) 
[1] Subject : Sir Patrick Manson
(1844-1922) British physician,
specialist about parasitology PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Mason_Patrick_1844-19
22.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 10 11 		3934) At 15, Pfeffer works for his
father, who is an apothecary.8
Pfeffer's
only son is killed in WWI 2 months
before the armistice.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502.
2. ^ "osmosis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
559>.
3. ^ "Pfeffer, Wilhelm Friedrich
Philipp", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p701-702.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502.
5. ^ Wilhelm Pfeffer,
"Osmotische Untersuchungen: Studien zur
Zellmechanik", W. Engelmann,
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9SkaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA176&dq=Osmotische+Unte
rsuchungen,+Studien+sur+Zellmechanik&as_
brr=1&ei=AcHDSfzMEYyokASTr9X_DQ#PPR3,M1
and http://www.archive.org/stream/osmot
ischeunters00pfef/osmotischeunters00pfef
_djvu.txt
6. ^ "Pfeffer, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
544>.
7. ^ "Pfeffer, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
544>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502.
10. ^ "Pfeffer,
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
544>. {1877}
11. ^ "Pfeffer, Wilhelm Friedrich
Philipp", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p701-702. {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Pfeffer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pfeffer-wil
helm
[2] "Wilhelm Pfeffer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Pfe
ffer
 
[1] Wilhelm Pfeffer Quelle
http://www.deutsche-botanische-gesell
schaft.de/html/043PfefferVita.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e2/Pfeffer.jpg

[2] Image from Pfeffer's 1877
work (rough translation of partial
description) As shown in Figure 5 to
be seen was the closed cell to a cork
guided by the rod attached to a
Cüvette established that the manometer
liquid immerses completely in Two
accurate thermometer measured the
temperature was about the cover is not
closed by opening the cork with
Cüvette a glass plate served to the
evaporation of liquid to prevent
it... PD An image from a three
dimensional computer simulation of the
process of osmosis. The blue mesh is
impermeable to the larger balls,
whereas all of the balls are (in the
animated version) bouncing about
according to the rules of physical
simulation of the kinetics of an ideal
gas. Averaged over long period of time,
each ball has has the same kinetic
energy as each of the other balls, even
though at any given moment the
velocities are distributed according to
the appropriate Boltzmann functions.
Likewise, each species (in this case
color) of balls (as a group) exerts
time averaged force (due to the
bouncing) upon the walls of the box,
which corresponds to the partial
pressure contribution associated with
that group. These properties emerge
even though the collision function used
in the simulation is trivial. User:
Lazarus666 GNU
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9SkaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14&source=gbs_toc_r&c
ad=0_0#PPA22,M1
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 3 		4039)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
2. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
3. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[3] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
Boston and New York, USA2  
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 10 		4051)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
2. ^ The Midland
naturalist: journal of the Midland
Union of Natural ..., Volume 7, 1884,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
gAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA65&dq=Vries+plasmol
ysis+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Vries%20plasmolysis%20date%3A1884-1884&
f=false
3. ^ Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
4. ^ The Midland naturalist: journal of
the Midland Union of Natural ...,
Volume 7, 1884,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
gAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA65&dq=Vries+plasmol
ysis+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Vries%20plasmolysis%20date%3A1884-1884&
f=false
5. ^ Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Albert Philson Brubaker, Augustus
Adolph Eshner, "Text-book of human
physiology", 1905,
p37. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
iKto86vysIC&pg=PA37&dq=Vries+plasmolysis
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Vries%20plasmolysi
s&f=false
7. ^ "Vries, Hugo De", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p914-915.
8. ^ "isotonic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
23 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i
sotonic>.
9. ^ Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
10. ^ Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Vries, Hugo de."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
778>.
[2] "Hugo de Vries." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[3] "Hugo de Vries." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[4] "Hugo de Vries." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[5] "Hugo Marie De Vries". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Marie_
De_Vries
The Haag, Netherlands9 (work possibly
done at University of Halle-Wittenberg,
Germany) 
[1] Figure from Hugo De Vries 1877
work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vri
es+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1
#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Hugo de Vries in the
1890s Description Hugo de Vries
2.jpg Hugo_de_Vries Date
1925(1925) Source Copy from:
Atlas van de geschiedenis der
geneeskunde, Amsterdam:Van Looy,
1925. Author J.G de Lint
(1867-1936), (illustrator is not
mentioned) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Hugo_de_Vries_2.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 11 		4055) Lilienthal is trained as a
mechanical engineer, and establishes
his own machine shop and flight factory
following service in the Franco-German
War.2

During the early days of the Industrial
Revolution, the idea of human flight is
ridiculed. But Lilienthal disregards
the social stigma associated with
flying machine inventors and applies
himself to the study of aerodynamic
forces and design concepts.3

In the 1870s Lilienthal begins to
conduct studies of the forces operating
on wings in a stream of air and
publishes his results in a book
entitled "Der Vogelflug als Grundlage
der Fliegekunst" ("Bird Flight as the
Basis of Aviation").4

Between 1891 and 1896, Lilienthal
completes some 2,000 flights in at
least 16 distinct glider types.5

Images of Lilienthal flying through the
air aboard his standard glider appear
in newspapers and magazines around the
earth and these pictures convince
millions of readers in Europe and the
United States that the age of flight is
now.6

On August 9, 1896, while testing a
glider with a new rudder design,
Lilienthal has a crash which breaks his
back, and he dies in a Berlin hospital
the next day.7

Otto's brother, Gustav Lilienthal (CE
1849-1933), continues Otto's flight
experiments after his brother's death.


The Wright brothers, also experienced
with gliders, will demonstrate that by
mounting an engine (with a propeller8 )
on a glider, it can be converted into
an airplane.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
2. ^ "Lilienthal,
Otto." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
256>.
3. ^ "Otto Lilienthal." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
4. ^ "Lilienthal, Otto." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
256>.
5. ^ "Lilienthal, Otto." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
256>.
6. ^ "Lilienthal, Otto." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
256>.
7. ^ "Lilienthal, Otto." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
256>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
10. ^ "Otto
Lilienthal." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 24 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516. {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Lilienthal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Lilien
thal
[2] "Flight". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Flight
[3] "Otto Lilienthal." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
(Weber Company and C. Hoppe machine
factory) Berlin, Germany10  
[1] Description: Otto
Lilienthal Source:
http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/ima
ges/f0061.jpg, originally uploaded to
en by User:Michael
Shields Photographer: A. Regis PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Otto-lilienthal.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 12 		4056)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Otto Lilienthal." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
3. ^ "Otto
Lilienthal." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 24 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p387.
5. ^ "Otto Lilienthal." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
6. ^ "Flight". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Flight
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
8. ^ "Flight".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Flight
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Otto Lilienthal."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
11. ^
http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/eba
rchi.htm
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516. {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lilienthal, Otto."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
256>
[2] "Otto Lilienthal." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-lilien
thal
[3] "Otto Lilienthal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Lilien
thal
[4] Evelyn Charles Vivian, William
Lockwood Marsh, "A history of
aeronautics",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
x_kgAAAAMAAJ&dq=borelli++flight+lilienth
al&as_brr=1&source=gbs_navlinks_s
Derwitz/Krilow (near Potsdam),
Germany10 11  
[1] Derwitz, Sept. 27,
1891. photographer (Carl
Kassner) photo-no: OLM F0811LF 55*97
mm albumen {ULSF some gliders are
albumen on cardboard this glider
apparently just albumin?} PD
source: http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/
olma/images/f019relo.jpg

[2] Otto Lilienthal and his Glider
(1893) In this photograph, Otto
Lilienthal (1848-96), a leading
innovator in aviation, descends in his
glider from the May Heights [Maihöhe]
near Steglitz, a Berlin suburb.
Lilienthal built the flight station –
consisting of a 13' shed on a large
hill – to ensure that he could fly
into the wind during his practice
flights. He designed and tested many
glider prototypes and carried out basic
research on the principles of flying,
laying the groundwork for the Wright
Brothers' invention. In this photo,
Lilienthal flies the model
“Maihöhe-Rhinow-Glider”
[Maihöhe-Rhinow-Apparat], the basis of
the later “Normal Glider”
[Normalapparat], which he eventually
modified into a biplane. He died from
injuries sustained during a glider
crash in 1896. Photo: Ottomar
Anschütz. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Otto-lilienthal.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 14 		4071) Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (PoVluF)
(CE 1849-1936), Russian physicologist1
publishes his first work, "Experimental
Data Concerning the Accommodating
Mechanism of the Blood Vessels", which
deals with the reflex regulation of the
circulation of blood.2 Pavlov
describes the role of the vagus nerve
as a regulator of blood pressure.3
(chronology - in this 1877 work?4 )
Pavlo
v is from a family of priests but at
the theological seminary he reads
Darwin's "Origin of Species" and finds
that his natural call is for science
and not priesthood.5
In 1904 Pavlov
receives the Nobel prize in medicine
and physiology.6
Asimov writes that
Pavlov is anti-communist (which form of
government did Pavlov support?7 ), but
the Soviet government does not punish
this, even building him a laboratory in
1935, and Pavlov is an ornament of
Russian science and a showpiece of
Soviet toleration.8
In 1923, after
returning from his first visit to the
United States Pavlov publicly denounces
Communism, stating that the basis for
international Marxism is false, and
says "For the kind of social experiment
that you are making, I would not
sacrifice a frog's hind legs!".9
(Notice the potential relation to
remote neuron writing {galvanization}
with frog legs.10 )
In 1927, distressed
that his was the only negative vote in
the Academy of Sciences against the
newly recommended "red professors",
Pavlov writes to Joseph Stalin,
protesting that "On account of what you
are doing to the Russian
intelligentsia—demoralizing,
annihilating, depraving them—I am
ashamed to be called a Russian!".11
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
2. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

3. ^ "Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p686-687.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
9. ^ "Pavlov, Ivan
Petrovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
811>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Pavlov, Ivan
Petrovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
811>.
12. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

13. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

14. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov
 {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ivan Pavlov." Encyclopedia
of Russian History. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[2] "Ivan Pavlov." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[3] "Ivan Petrovich Pavlov". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Petrov
ich_Pavlov
(Medico-Chirurgical Academy - renamed
in 1881 the Military Medical Academy)12
, St. Petersburg, Russia13  
[1] circa 1900: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936) the Russian physiologist,
awarded the Nobel prize for Medicine in
1904. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/getty/8/5/3274685.jpg

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 5 6 		4167)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
2. ^ "Petrie, Sir
Flinders." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
3. ^ Sir William Matthew Flinders,
"Inductive metrology: or, the recovery
of ancient measures from the
monuments",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PzgGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Indu
ctive+Metrology,+or+the+Recovery+of+Anci
ent+Measures+from+the+Monuments#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
4. ^ Sir William Matthew Flinders,
"Inductive metrology: or, the recovery
of ancient measures from the
monuments",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PzgGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Indu
ctive+Metrology,+or+the+Recovery+of+Anci
ent+Measures+from+the+Monuments#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
5. ^ "Petrie, Sir Flinders."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>. {1877}
6. ^ Sir William Matthew
Flinders, "Inductive metrology: or, the
recovery of ancient measures from the
monuments",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PzgGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Indu
ctive+Metrology,+or+the+Recovery+of+Anci
ent+Measures+from+the+Monuments#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir (William Matthew)
Flinders Petrie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[2] "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[3] "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[4] "Petrie, (William Matthew)
Flinders." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 549-550.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
Bromley, Kent, England4  
[1] Sir William Matthew Flinders
Petrie, in Jerusalem (ca. late
1930's) * Adapted from
http://www.egyptorigins.org/petriepics.h
tml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/5d/WMFPetrie.jpg

[2] William Matthew Flinders Petrie
(1853-1942) PD
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/pyramidtravelers3-4.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 9 10 		4194) In 1908 Ehrlich wins the Nobel
prize in medicine and physiology
(shared with Élie Mechnikov) for
Ehrlich's work on immunity and serum
therapy.5
In 1887 Ehrlich becomes a
teacher at the University of Berlin but
is not paid because of the anti-Jewish
feeling at the time – Ehrlich would
not renounce his Jewish upbringing.6
Ehr
lich's tomb, in a Jewish cemetery in
Frankfort, is desecrated by Nazi people
but restored after World War 2.7
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
3. ^ "Ehrlich,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
6. ^ "Paul Ehrlich."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
8. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1877}
10. ^ "Paul Ehrlich." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ehrlich, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
103>.
[2] "Paul Ehrlich." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[3] "Paul Ehrlich." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[4] "Paul Ehrlich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlic
h
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
[6] Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.;
Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N.
(2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th
ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 516–522.
ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
(Leipzig University) Leipzig, Germany8
 
[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg
122 YBN
[01/11/1878 AD] 8 		3962)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
2. ^ M. R. Pictet,
"Sur la liquéfaction de l'hydrogène",
Comptes Rendus, vol 86, 1878, p106-107.
3. ^ M.
L. Cailletet, "De la condensation de
l'oxygène et de l'oxyde de carbone",
Comptes Rendus, vol 85, 1877, p1213.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?O=
30000000030423
4. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid air
and the liquefaction of gases: a
practical work giving the entire",
p164-168. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.}
5. ^ M. L. Cailletet, "De la
condensation de l'oxygène et de
l'oxyde de carbone", Comptes Rendus,
vol 85, 1877, p1213.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?O=
30000000030423
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane,
"Liquid air and the liquefaction of
gases: a practical work giving the
entire",
p150-171. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.}
8. ^ M. R. Pictet, "Sur la
liquéfaction de l'hydrogène", Comptes
Rendus, vol 86, 1878, p106-107.
{01/11/1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Raoul Pictet." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/raoul-picte
t
[2] "Pictet, Raoul-Pierre", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p705.
[3] Raoul Pictet, "Mémoire sur
la liquefaction de l'oxygène, la
liquefaction et la solidification de
l'hydrogène: et sur les théories des
changement des corps", 1878.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nGA9AAA
AYAAJ&pg=PP2&dq=M%C3%A9moire+sur+la+liqu
%C3%A9faction+de+la+liqu%C3%A9faction+et
+la+solidification+de+l%27hydrog%C3%A8ne
+et+sur+les+th%C3%A9ories+des+changement
s+des+corps&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&
f=false
[4] M. R. Pictet, "Lettre à M. Dumas,
sur la densité de l'oxygène liquide",
Comptes Rendus, 1878, vol86, p37-38.
[5] The
New international encyclopædia, Volume
14,
p122. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TpUMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA122&dq=M%C3%A9moire+su
r+la+liqu%C3%A9faction+de+la+liqu%C3%A9f
action+et+la+solidification+de+l%27hydro
g%C3%A8ne+et+sur+les+th%C3%A9ories+des+c
hangements+des+corps&as_brr=1#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
[6] M. Dumas, "avant de faire
connaître à l'Académie les
résultats que viennent d'obtenir M. L.
Cailletet et M. Raoul Pictet, pour la
liquéfaction de l'oxygène, donne
lecture d'un passage des 'OEuvres de
Lavoisier"', Comptes Rendus, vol 85,
1877. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030423
[7] M. L. Cailletet, "De la
condensation de l'oxygène et de
l'oxyde de carbone", Comptes Rendus,
vol 85, 1877.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?O=
30000000030423
[8] M. R. Pictet, "Expériences sur la
liquéfaction de l'oxygène", Comptes
Rendus, vol 85,
1877. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030423
[9] "M. Dumas donne lecture d'une
Lettre adressée par M. L. Cailletet à
M. H. Sainte-Claire Deville, le 2
décembre, et annonçant les résultats
obtenus pour la liquéfaction de
l'oxygène", , Comptes Rendus, vol 85,
1877,
p1216. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Cadres
Fenetre?O=30000000030423&M=tdm
[10] Wroblewski, (translated from
Polish to English as): "On the Critical
Pressure of Hydrogen", Philosophical
Magazine, Series 5, Vol 39. Number 237,
Feb
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
148OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA206&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:magazine+date:1894-1896+p
ictet#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosophica
l%20intitle%3Amagazine%20date%3A1894-189
6%20pictet&f=false
University of Geneva, Switzerland7
 
[1] Apparatus Pictet uses to liquefy
gases PD
source: Raoul Pictet, Mémoire sur la
liquefaction de l'oxygène, la
liquefaction et la ..., p
109 http://books.google.com/books?id=nG
A9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=M%C3%A9moire+sur+
la+liqu%C3%A9faction+de+la+liqu%C3%A9fac
tion+et+la+solidification+de+l%27hydrog%
C3%A8ne+et+sur+les+th%C3%A9ories+des+cha
ngements+des+corps&as_brr=1&source=gbs_s
elected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false


[2] Description Pictet Raoul
signature.jpg Picture of Pictet, the
scientist Date 1920(1920) Source
Page 152 of Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases Author T.
O'Connor Sloan PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Pictet_Raoul_signatur
e.jpg
122 YBN
[04/29/1878 AD] 2 3 		3419)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^
http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/
articles/pasteur.htm#paperII
{04/29/1878}
3. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[5]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[6]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
[7] René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[8] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
[9] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France1  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
122 YBN
[04/??/1878 AD] 		4275)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred M. Mayer, "A note on
Experiments with floating Magnets;
showing the motions and arrangements in
a plane of freely moving bodies, acted
on by forces of attraction and
repulsion ; and serving in the study of
the directions and motions of the lines
of magnetic force.", The American
journal of science and arts, Series 3,
Vol 15, April and June 1878, p276,
477. http://books.google.com/books?id=6
gHSAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:HARVARD32044093299154&lr=#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
2. ^ Alfred M. Mayer, "On the
Morphological Laws of the
COnfigurations formed by Magnets
floating vertically and subjected to
the attraction of a superposed magnet;
with notes on some of the phenomena in
molecular structure which these
experiments may serve to explain and
illustrate", American journal of
science, Volume 116, Oct 1878,
p247. http://books.google.com/books?id=
F_gQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247&dq=Alfred+Mayer+ma
gnets&hl=en&ei=7TC6S73DCJH2sgPFv4zpDA&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved
=0CEgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Alfred%20Mayer%
20magnets&f=false
3. ^ H. A. M. Snelders, "A. M. Mayer's
experiments with floating magnets and
their use in the atomic theories of
matter", Annals of Science, Volume 33,
Issue 1 January 1976 , pages 67 - 80.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a751167426 {Mayer_Alf
red_M_1976_cr.pdf}
4. ^ Alfred M. Mayer, "A note on
Experiments with floating Magnets;
showing the motions and arrangements in
a plane of freely moving bodies, acted
on by forces of attraction and
repulsion ; and serving in the study of
the directions and motions of the lines
of magnetic force.", The American
journal of science and arts, Series 3,
Vol 15, April and June 1878, p276,
477. http://books.google.com/books?id=6
gHSAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:HARVARD32044093299154&lr=#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
5. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=9j0JAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=alfred+m+mayer+inauthor:
mayer&hl=en&ei=Mza6S-hrk-CxA8f6kekM&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0
CB4Q6AEwBA
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Figure from Mayer's April 1878
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6gHSAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:HARVARD32044093299154&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Alfred Marshall
Mayer PD
source: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp
/content~db=all~content=a751167426
122 YBN
[07/22/1878 AD] 16 17 18 19 		3949) George Darwin is the second son
of Charles Darwin.10

Darwin's scientific papers are
published in five volumes.11 12

(This paper is 93 pages long, and is
highly mathematical in the style of
Laplace, Maxwell, and Kelvin, etc. -
heavily mathematical and somewhat
abstract analysis rose to popularity
around the time of Laplace - while math
describes accurately physical
phenomena, the problem is that there
are so many particles, and many times,
mathematical quantities are highly
generalized, that the mathematical
model may not represent the physical
phenomenona.13 )

(How can we be sure that the motions of
the oceans might not speed up the
earth's rotational speed? EX: We need
to model the effect of a liquid on the
surface of a spinning sphere. Does the
rate of rotation decrease or increase?
Do the simulations result in different
results? Use different land masses,
different rates of friction on the
ocean floor. It is a very complex
model. Atoms of liquid are difficult to
model. I initially accepted this
conclusion, but now have questions,
because the number of atoms in the
ocean is so large, friction with the
sides of land very uneven, and the
possibility of the rotation speed
increasing. For a solid sphere,
theoretically there would be no
decelerating or accelerating (except as
a result of crustal changes). Adding
water in my novice view seems like it
might slow the earth by causing extra
frequencies, that tend to work against
the rotation. I can imagine that there
is someway of adding some material to a
sphere in a way to make it's rotation
speed up over time. It seems that
absent any force increasing rotation,
any rotating body could only slow down
over time, yet, somehow bodies around
stars start rotating, it is a
collective effect of the seemingly
random collisions of matter I think.
Without some external source of
acceleration, there would be no way to
increase velocity relative to the Sun,
however, acceleration from gravitation
may change since the distance of the
earth from the Sun may change. Other
planets and masses may impart
accleration on the Earth too. There
must be non-rotating objects in the
star system, perhaps some asteroids. Do
all asteroids have one axis rotations?
It's a complex simulation. It seems
that without any more collisions, there
is no way to add to the velocity of the
earth. But perhaps a push by water
could speed it up. I think a good case
can be made for the slowing of all
rotating bodies in the star system
based on an absence of any force to
accelerate them, although there is
nothing but photons and surface liquid
and gas to cause friction (perhaps
gravity might add to rotation of uneven
asteroids). If I had to guess, I would
guess that the earth and all other
planets are slowly slowing down, and
even the sun is slowing down as it
loses matter. If true, then the sun and
planets probably were orbiting faster
in the past (and each planet's year was
shorter). It is interesting to think
that the earth and other rotating
bodies might be slowing down, and
perhaps rotated faster in the past.14 )
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp505-506.
2. ^ G. H. Darwin,
"On the Precession of a Viscous
Spheroid, and on the Remote History of
the Earth", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1879 170:447-538;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1879.0073 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/170/4
47.full.pdf+html {Darwin_George_1879.pd
f}
3. ^ "George Darwin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-darw
in
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp505-506.
5. ^ Brush, S. G.,
"Early history of selenogony", "Origin
of the moon; Proceedings of the
Conference, Kona, HI, October 13-16,
1984" (A86-46974 22-91). Houston, TX,
Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1986, p.
3-15. Research sponsored by NSF and
Alfred P. Sloan
Foundation. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1986ormo.conf....3B
6. ^ "George Darwin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-darw
in
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "George Darwin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-darw
in
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp505-506.
11. ^
http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=scienti
fic+papers+george+darwin&fq=dt%3Abks&dbl
ist=638&start=11&qt=page_number_link
12. ^ "George Howard Darwin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Howa
rd_Darwin
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ G. H. Darwin,
"On the Precession of a Viscous
Spheroid, and on the Remote History of
the Earth", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1879 170:447-538;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1879.0073 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/170/4
47.full.pdf+html {Darwin_George_1879.pd
f}
16. ^ G. H. Darwin, "On the Precession
of a Viscous Spheroid, and on the
Remote History of the Earth", Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1879
170:447-538;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1879.0073 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/170/4
47.full.pdf+html {Darwin_George_1879.pd
f} {07/22/1878}
17. ^ "George Darwin." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-darw
in {1879}
18. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p352. {1879}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp505-506.
{c1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Darwin, Sir George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
407>
[2] "George Darwin." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-darw
in
[3] "Darwin, George Howard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p232
[4] "Sir George Howard Darwin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Howard_Darwin
[5] Naomi Oreskes, Homer Eugene
LeGrand, "Plate tectonics",
2001 http://books.google.com/books?id=j
jdL5PCZLTEC&pg=PA355&lpg=PA355&dq=osmond
+fisher+george+darwin+1879&source=bl&ots
=T_9vl9X7_p&sig=bStR2HPuou1gdlzGhL0K7IZE
DS0&hl=en&ei=FKZ8Ss7ZPI2AswO-_qzuCg&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=one
page&q=osmond%20fisher%20george%20darwin
%201879&f=false
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England15
 
[1] Image of Sir George Howard Darwin,
located at
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
D1-12a.jpg, accessed June 24,
2007. Subject died in 1912; image is
in the public domain. Information
included with image: Scientist:
Darwin, George Howard (1845 -
1912) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Print Artist: J. Russell &
Sons (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/dc/George_Darwin_sepia_tone.j
pg

[2] Sir George Darwin, portrait by M.
Gertler, 1912; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London ''Darwin, Sir George
Howard.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Aug.
2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
12423&rendTypeId=4
122 YBN
[07/??/1878 AD] 8 		4158) In 1907 Michelson wins the Nobel
prize in physics for his optical
studies. Michelson is the first
American to win a Nobel Prize.5
From
1923-1927 Michelson is the president of
National Academy of Sciences.6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ "Michelson,
Albert Abraham." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
7. ^ "Michelson,
Albert Abraham." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {07/1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[7] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[9] "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531
[11] George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[12] Hendrik Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the Earth and the Ether",
Versl. K. Akad. W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544
[14] Albert
Michelson, "Interference Phenomena in a
new Form of Refractometer",
Philosophical Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
(U.S. Naval Academy) Annapolis,
Maryland7  
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
122 YBN
[08/01/1878 AD] 14 		4019)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ "The Tasimeter",
Nature, 18, p368-370 (1878)
3. ^ Francis
Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison",
1915,
p100. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
4. ^ "The Tasimeter", Nature, 18,
p368-370 (1878)
doi:10.1038/018368b0. http://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg
=PA627&dq=intitle:nature+date:1878-1878#
v=onepage&q=edison&f=false http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v18/n457/pdf/01
8368b0.pdf
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ T. C. Mendenhall, "On the
Influence of Time on the Change in the
Resistance of the Carbon Disk of
Edison's Tasimeter", Phil Mag, 1882,
p115. http://books.google.com/books?id=
npAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA115&lpg=PA115&dq=tasim
eter&source=bl&ots=9rhdtfDckV&sig=_JYaLG
QGiaJ2bXb_paXLtXaImgE&hl=en&ei=yI6pSr_4E
pGSsgOX1NDyBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=9#v=onepage&q=tasimeter&f=fal
se
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Record ID3996. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^
Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p100. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Edison patent
465,971, "Means for transmitting
signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
14. ^ "The Tasimeter", Nature, 18,
p368-370 (1878) {08/01/1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[11] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[12] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[13] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[14] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[15] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[16] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[17] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[18] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[19] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[20] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[22]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[23] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[24] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[26] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[27] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[28] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
[29] Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p141. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
[30]
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
.asp
[31] "mains." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ains>
[32] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359
[33] Edison 1882 patent - I'm not sure
if this is first three-wire electrical
distribution
system http://www.google.com/patents?id
=9T1tAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=ininventor:edis
on&as_drrb_ap=b&as_minm_ap=0&as_miny_ap=
1881&as_maxm_ap=0&as_maxy_ap=1883&source
=gbs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[34] J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, Vol 42,
Num 254, July 1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[35] William Henry Preece, "On a
Peculiar Behaviour of Glow-Lamps when
raised to High Incandescence",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol 38, 1885,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nwMXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22on+a+peculia
r+behaviour+of+glow%22+date:1885-1885&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20peculiar%
20behaviour%20of%20glow%22%20date%3A1885
-1885&f=false
[36] Edison Patent
307031 http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&dq=307031
[37] Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[38] J. A. Fleming, "Problems in the
Physics of an Electric Lamp", Nature,
vol 42, Num 1078, 1890,
p198. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JDEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=edison+effect&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fa
lse
[39] John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
[40] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[41] Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[42] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p184-185. http://books.google.com/books
?id=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+e
dison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA13  
[1] Edison's micro-tasimeter PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v18/n457/pdf/018368b0.pdf

[2] Firgures 2 and 3 from Nature
article on Edison's tasimeter PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v18/n457/pdf/018368b0.pdf
122 YBN
[10/10/1878 AD] 11 		3878)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Record ID3844. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Prof. A. K.
Huntington" (obituary), Nature, 105,
04/29/1920,
271. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
rMCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA271&dq=BY+the+regretted
+death,+on+April+17&ei=-BSSSbeqH42ONvHSj
L0K http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v105/n2635/pdf/105271a0.pdf
3. ^
http://www.open.ac.uk/ou5/Arts/chemists/
person.cfm?SearchID=615
4. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}
5. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K.
Huntington, "Researches on the Action
of Organic Substances on the
Ultra-Violet Rays of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}
8. ^ Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Wil
liam_Festing_1881.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K.
Huntington, "Researches on the Action
of Organic Substances on the
Ultra-Violet Rays of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}
11. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf} {10/10/1878}
(King's College and Institute of
Chemistry) London, England10  
[1] Plate 21 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: W. N. Hartley, A. K.
Huntington, "Researches on the Action
of Organic Substances on the
Ultra-Violet Rays of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}

[2] Plate 25 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: same
122 YBN
[12/19/1878 AD] 4 		3105) (Sir) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist1
examines the differences in the
spectrum of positive and negative
electrodes in vacuum tubes.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
2. ^ William Groves,
"Note of and Experiment on the Spectrum
of the Electric Discharge",
Philosophical Transactions, 1878,
pp180-184. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/30360004q188t21n/?p=c483f1a
7e5d04fc4b68a1ba2b38c2d78&pi=3 {Graves_
Spectrum_of_Electric_Discharge.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove
4. ^ William Groves, "Note of and
Experiment on the Spectrum of the
Electric Discharge", Philosophical
Transactions, 1878,
pp180-184. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/30360004q188t21n/?p=c483f1a
7e5d04fc4b68a1ba2b38c2d78&pi=3 {Graves_
Spectrum_of_Electric_Discharge.pdf}
(12/19/1878)

MORE INFO
[1] "Grove, Sir William Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234>.
[2] Franklin Leonard Pope, "Modern
Practice of the Electric Telegraph: A
Handbook for Electricians and ...", D.
Van Nostrand, (1874),
pp15-19. http://books.google.com/books?
id=negOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=MODERN+PRACTIC
E+OF+THE+ELECTRIC+TELEGRAPH.+By+Frank+L.
+Pope#PPA15,M1
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1839)
[4] "Sir
William Robert Grove". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Robert_Grove (1839)
London, England3  
[1] Fill the porous cups nearly full of
strong nitric acid and place them
within the zincs, then turn the zincs
around so as to immerse the platina
strips in the nitric acid of the
adjoining cell, throughout the whole
series, as shown at T, in Fig. 5.
PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell3.gif

[2] Grove battery PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_battery100.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 11 		2995)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Wimshurst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wimsh
urst
2. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
3. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al
4. ^ "ebonite." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ebonite
5. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism", Macmillan, (1915),
p58. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckler
+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8v
IkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA&h
l=en#PPA58,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Record ID2816. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.hp-gramatke.net/history/engli
sh/page4000.htm
9. ^ "Clapham". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clapham
10. ^ "James Wimshurst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wimsh
urst
11. ^ "Electrical". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
al (1878)

MORE INFO
[1] George W. Jacoby, J. Ralph
Jacoby, "Electricity in Medicine: A
Practical Exposition of the Methods and
Use of ...", P. Blakiston's son & co,
(1919), p29
(Clapham9 ) London, England10
(presumably) 
[1] Wimshurst's Machine. PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Image:Electrical-7.jpg

[2] Suppose that the conditions are as
in the figure that is the segment A1 is
positive and the segment B1 negative.
Now, as A1 moves to the left and B1 to
the right, their potentials will rise
on account of the work done in
separating them against attraction.
When A1 comes opposite the segment B2
of the B plate, which is now in contact
with the brush Y, it will be at a high
positive potential, and will therefore
cause a displacement of electricity
along the the conductor between Y and
Y1 bringing a large negative charge on
B2 and sending a positive charge to the
segment touching. As A1 moves on, it
passes near the brush Z and is
partially discharged into the external
circuit. It then passes on until, on
touching the brush X it is put in
connection with X, and has a new
charge, this time negative, driven into
it by induction from B2. Positive
electricity, then, being carried by the
conducting patches from right to left
on the upper half of the A plate, and
negative from left to right on its
lower half. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:WimshurstElectricMachine.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 11 		3188) Ytterbium is named for Ytterby, a
town in Sweden.6
Ytterbium is a
metallic chemical element that has
symbol Yb, atomic number 70, atomic
mass (weight) 173.04, melting point
819°C; boiling point about 1,194°C;
relative density (specific gravity)
about 7.0 and valence +2 or +3.
Ytterbium is a soft, malleable,
ductile, lustrous silver-white metal.
Although ytterbium is one of the
rare-earth metals of the lanthanide
series in Group 3 of the periodic
table, in some of its chemical and
physical properties ytterbium more
closely resembles calcium, strontium,
and barium. Ytterbium exhibits
allotropy; at room temperature a
face-centered cubic crystalline form is
stable. The Yterrbium metal tarnishes
slowly in air and reacts slowly with
water but rapidly dissolves in mineral
acids. Ytterbium forms numerous
compounds, some of which are yellow or
green. The oxide (ytterbia, Yb2O3) is
colorless. Ytterbium is widely
distributed in a number of minerals,
for example, gadolinite, and monazite.
At about this same time C. A. von
Welsbach independently discovered
ytterbium and called it aldebaranium.7


Ytterbium has little commercial use.

Ytterbium is among the less-abundant
rare earths. Ytterbium occurs in minute
amounts in many rare-earth minerals
such as xenotime and euxenite and is
found in the products of nuclear
fission too. Natural ytterbium consists
of seven stable isotopes.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp391-392.
2. ^ "Jean Charles
Galissard De Marignac". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Cha
rles_Galissard_De_Marignac
3. ^ "ytterbium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8098>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp391-392.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"ytterbium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 27
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ytterbium
7. ^ "ytterbium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ytterbium
8. ^ "ytterbium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8098>.
9. ^ "Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-charle
s-galissard-de-marignac
10. ^ "Marignac, Jean-Charles-Galinard
de." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0924>.
11. ^ "Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-charle
s-galissard-de-marignac (1878)

MORE INFO
[1] "index.php?title=Jean Charles
Galissard de
Marignac&oldid=209901679>.". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. "Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac." Wikipedia, The
Free Encyclopedia. 3 May 2008, 13:46
UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 27 May
2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac&old
id=209901679>
[2] "Marignac, Jean Charles Galissard
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p576
(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland9 10  
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg

[2] Ytterbium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Yb%2C70.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 14 		3189) Gadolinium is a silvery-white,
malleable, ductile, metallic rare-earth
element obtained from monazite and
bastnaesite and used in improving
high-temperature characteristics of
iron, chromium, and related alloys.
Atomic number 64; atomic weight 157.25;
melting point 1,312°C; boiling point
approximately 3,000°C; relative
density (specific gravity) from 7.8 to
7.896; valence 3.4

Gadolinium has unusual magnetic
properties. At room temperature the
metal is paramagnetic, but it becomes
strongly ferromagnetic when cooled.5
Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism were
first identified by Michael Faraday in
1845.6
A paramagnetic material is a
substance in which an induced magnetic
field is parallel and proportional to
the intensity of the magnetizing field
but is much weaker than in
ferromagnetic materials.7 (This is
somehow different from simply having a
weaker magnetic field at a higher
temperature?8 ) Diamagnetic material is
a substance in which has a magnetic
permeability less than 1; materials
with this property are repelled by a
magnet and tend to position themselves
at right angles to magnetic lines of
force.9 (I think this clearly needs to
be shown in videos. In experimenting
with Bismuth metal powder I could not
detect any movement from a small
magnet.10 )

Gadolinium has the highest absorption
cross section for thermal neutrons of
any natural isotope of any element
(49,000 barns), which suggests its use
in nuclear reactor control rods.11
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp391-392.
2. ^ "gadolinium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5781>.
3. ^ "gadolinium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5781>.
4. ^ "gadolinium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gadolinium
5. ^ "gadolinium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gadolinium
6. ^ Record ID2714. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"paramagnetic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paramagneti
sm
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "diamagnetic."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diamagnetic
-electromagnetism
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "gadolinium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5781>.
12. ^ "Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-charle
s-galissard-de-marignac
13. ^ "Marignac, Jean-Charles-Galinard
de." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0924>.
14. ^ "Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-charle
s-galissard-de-marignac (1878)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
"Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac." Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. 3 May 2008, 13:46 UTC.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 27 May 2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac&old
id=209901679>
[2] "Jean Charles Galissard De
Marignac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Cha
rles_Galissard_De_Marignac
[3] "Marignac, Jean Charles Galissard
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p576
(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland12 13  
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg

[2] Slovenščina: Gadolinij v
epruveti. This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Gadolinium
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Gd%2C64.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 5 		3372)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mycenae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenae
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415.
3. ^ "Heinrich
Schliemann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527668/Heinrich-Schliemann>.
4. ^ "Heinrich Schliemann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527668/Heinrich-Schliemann>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415. {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Schliemann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-sc
hliemann
[2] "Heinrich Schliemann." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-sc
hliemann
[3] "Heinrich Schliemann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-sc
hliemann
[4] "Heinrich Schliemann". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Schliemann
[5] "Heinrich Schliemann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Sc
hliemann
[6] "Schliemann, Heinrich, Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p614.
Mycenae, Greece4  
[1] Funeral mask also known as
“Agamemnon Mask”. Gold, found in
Tomb V in Mycenae by Heinrich
Schliemann (1876), XVIth century BC.
National Archeological Museum,
Athens. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/MaskeAgamemnon.JPG

[2] The Lion Gate at Mycenae. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Lions-Gate-Mycenae.jp
g
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 11 		3576)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "incandescent lamp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
3. ^ "incandescent
lamp." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
6. ^
"incandescent lamp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
7. ^
Record ID2481. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "incandescent lamp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
11. ^ "incandescent lamp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 . {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
[2] "Joseph Swan." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[4] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
Newcastle, England10
(presumably) 
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 20 		3692) Bert is an anticlerical leftist
and represents Yonne in the Chamber of
Deputies (1872–86) and serves as
minister of education (1881–82) in
Léon Gambetta's Cabinet.16
Bert
argues for free public education and
the separation of church and state.17
Bert is one of the most determined
enemies of clericalism, and an ardent
advocate of "liberating national
education from religious sects, while
rendering it accessible to every
citizen.".18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461-462.
2. ^ "Bert, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
888>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461-462.
4. ^ "Bert, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
888>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461-462.
6. ^ "Bert, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
888>.
7. ^ "Bert, Paul", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p89-90.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Bert, Paul",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p89-90.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Bert, Paul", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p89-90.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Bert, Paul", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p89-90.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Bert, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
888>.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461-462.
18. ^ "Paul Bert".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Paul_Ber
t
19. ^ "Bert, Paul." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
888>.
20. ^ "Bert, Paul." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
888>. {1878}
(Sorbonne) Paris, France19  
[1] French physiologist and politician
Paul Bert (1833-1886) source:
http://www.pb.nogentsurmarne94.iae.pconl
ine.fr/paul_bert.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Paul_Bert_01.jpg

[2] Paul Bert BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
29879&rendTypeId=4
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 22 23 		3716) Langley writes "The New
Astronomy"15 (1884) and "Experiments
in Aerodynamics" (1891).16

A unit of radiation equal to 1 calorie
per square centimeter is called 1
Langley in his honor.17 (I think
"radiation" is generally defined as
light, electrons, and other particles
emited from objects, but it is really
too general to be useful in my
opinion.18 ) 19

Langley Field, Virginia, and the
Langley Research Center of NASA are
named in Langley's honor.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468-469.
2. ^ Langley, Samuel
Pierpont." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
103>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468-469.
4. ^ "Samuel Pierpont
Langley." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-pier
pont-langley
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Samuel Pierpont
Langley". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_P
ierpont_Langley
7. ^ (Original footnote: ) Very special
precaution must be taken to prevent the
screen itself from getting heated.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ (Original footnote: ) See Formula,
page 355.
10. ^ Samuel Langley, "The
Bolometer and Radient Energy",
Daedalus: Proceedings of the American
Academy of Sciences, 1881,
342-358. http://books.google.com/books?
id=n07Rg5LA2JkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:0NifNgdh7gsfQkuAoO&lr=&as_brr=1#
PPA342,M1
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Samuel Pierpont
Langley, "The New Astronomy", Houghton,
Mifflin,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8cIKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=+lan
gley&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=6Z5V
SYWUGZTElQTE4amuBg
16. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p362,373.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468-469.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
(Perhaps
the langley as a unit will get reduced
to photons absorbed/second/volume, once
the theory of light as a particle is
fully realized.)
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468-469.
21. ^ "Samuel
Pierpont Langley." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-pier
pont-langley
22. ^ Langley, Samuel Pierpont."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
103>. {1878}
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468-469. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Pierpont Langley."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-pier
pont-langley
[2] "Samuel Pierpont Langley".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Pier
pont_Langley
[3] "Langley, Samuel Pierpont", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p519
[4] "bolometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
503>
[5] "Bolometer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolometer
[6]
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Feature
s/Langley/langley_2.php
[7] Langley, SP. "The Bolometer.",
Nature, Volume 57, Issue 1487, pp.
620-622 (1898).
http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.103
8/025014a0 http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf
(Western University of Pennsylvania now
the University of Pittsburg) Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, USA21 (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 of Langley's bolometer
Nature article PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf

[2] Figure 2 of Langley's bolometer
Nature article PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 8 		3721)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p350.
3. ^ "Newcomb, Simon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p641-642.
4. ^ R. C.
Archibald, Bibliography of the Life and
Works of Simon Newcomb, Transactions of
the Royal Society of Canada, ser. 2 v.
11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Newcomb,
Simon", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p641-642.
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p350. {1860} {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Newcomb, Simon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
577>
[2] "Simon Newcomb." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[3] "Simon Newcomb." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[4] "Simon Newcomb." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[5] "Simon Newcomb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Newco
mb
[6] "Simon Newcomb". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Simon_Ne
wcomb
(Nautical Almanac Office) Washington,
DC, USA7  
[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 20 		3790) In 1914 Chardonnet is awarded the
Perkin medal for rayon.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
2. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
4. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
5. ^ "rayon."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rayon
6. ^ J. Westergren, "Properties of
Artificial Silk", Minutes of the
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=mggAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Hilaire+de
+Chardonnet&as_brr=1&ei=uiNdSd3ICIyEkQTh
stTlBw
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p487.
9. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p487.
15. ^
"Chardonnet, Hilaire Bernigaud, comte
de." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9022
512>.
16. ^ J. Westergren, "Properties of
Artificial Silk", Minutes of the
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=mggAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Hilaire+de
+Chardonnet&as_brr=1&ei=uiNdSd3ICIyEkQTh
stTlBw
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
18. ^ Raymond Bedell
Brownlee, Robert Warren Fuller,
William J. Hancock, Jessee Elon
Whitsit, "Chemistry of Common Things",
Allyn and Bacon,
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3hJIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Hilaire+de+Char
donnet&as_brr=1&ei=uiNdSd3ICIyEkQThstTlB
w
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p487. {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "rayon." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rayon
[2] "Hilaire de Chardonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilaire_de_
Chardonnet
[3]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blfabric.htm
[4]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ce-Co/
Chardonnet-Hilaire.html
 
[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg

[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 5 6 		3864)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
2. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
3. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
4. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
5. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html {1878}
6. ^
"Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Camillo Golgi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
[2] "Golgi, Camillo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p364
[3] "Camillo Golgi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Gol
gi
[4] "Muscle And Nerve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Muscle_A
nd_Nerve
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p358
[7]
Camillo Golgi, "Opera omnia" "Vol. I.
Istologia normale, (1870-83), Vol. II.
Istologia normale, (1883-1902), Vol.
III. Patologia generale e
Isto-patologia, (1868-94)", Ulrico
Hoepli, 1903
(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy3 4
 
[1] Golgi's drawing of the tendon organ
that now bears his name (from Opera
Omnia). PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/10.gif


[2] Camillo Golgi PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 4 		3902)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^ "Koch, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
3. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
4. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>. {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Koch." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[2] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[4] "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495
[5] J
Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[6] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[7] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[8]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
[9] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
(District Medical Officer) Wollstein,
Germany3  
[1] figures from Untersuchungen über
die Aetiologie der
Wundinfectionskrankheiten By Robert
Koch Published by F.C.W. Vogel,
1878 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1DUAAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA89,M
1

[2] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 15 		3964) It is noteworthy, or somewhat
unusual, that the reprint of the
obituary of Edward Pickering from
Science, by the National Academy of
Sciences10 , has the first phrase
changed from "By the death" to "At the
death". Perhaps, it may mean that
Pickering was murdered by galvanization
by owners or somebody using the
equipment owned by AT&T (since "At the"
- may suggest "AT&T"), if perhaps
insiders were somewhat unhappy about
such a galvanization. But perhaps it is
just a typo.11 Although Pickering was
in his late 70s, which is somewhat old.
EB2008 uses the word "utilized"12 ,
instead of uses, perhaps should be
"utility-ized"?13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509.
2. ^ E.C. Pickering,
"Statement of work done at the Harvard
observatory during the years
1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
3. ^ "Pickering, Edward Charles",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p704.
4. ^
"Pickering, Edward Charles", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p704.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "meridian>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "meridian." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 25 Aug.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>.
7. ^ "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Pickering, Edward
C., "Standard photographic magnitudes
of bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. :
The Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
10. ^ "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Pickering, Edward
Charles." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ E.C. Pickering,
"Statement of work done at the Harvard
observatory during the years
1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
15. ^ E.C. Pickering, "Statement of
work done at the Harvard observatory
during the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[2] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[6] Edward Charles Pickering,
"Compilation of the papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[8] Pickering, Edward Charles.
"Possibility of Errors in Scientific
Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference." Proceedings of
the American Society for Psychical
Research 1 (1885).
http://books.google.com/books?id=DEXOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Possibility+of+Errors
+in+Scientific+Researches,+Due+to+Though
t-Transference&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Poss
ibility%20of%20Errors%20in%20Scientific%
20Researches%2C%20Due%20to%20Thought-Tra
nsference&f=false
[9] Pickering, Edward Charles, and J.
M. Peirce. "Discussion of Returns in
Response to Circular No. 4."
Proceedings of the American Society for
Psychical Research 1 (July 1885).
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA14  
[1] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg

[2] image of Pickering and the women
on staff was taken on May 13, 1913 in
front of the newest and largest
building where most of the women
worked. PD
source: http://www.wellesley.edu/Astrono
my/Annie/Images/pickering.gif
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 3 		4041)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
2. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
3. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[3] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
New Haven, Connecticut, USA2  
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 8 		4063)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
2. ^ "Meyer, Viktor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>.
3. ^ "Viktor Meyer." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/viktor-meye
r-1
4. ^
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Meye
r
5. ^
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Victor_M
eyer
6. ^ "Victor Meyer", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p603.
7. ^
OBITUARY., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1897, 19
(11), pp 918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
8. ^ OBITUARY., J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1897, 19 (11), pp 918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland7 (presumably) 
Description Viktor Meyer.jpg Deutsch:
Portrait Date 1901(1901) Source
''History of Chemistry'' by F.
Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 10 		4083) Sharpey-Schäfer argues for equal
opportunities for women in health
science (medicine).4 (as doctors?5 )

Schäfer publishes two influential
works: Essentials of Histology (1885)
and Endocrine Organs (1916) and founds
the important Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Physiology in 1898.6
After
the tragic death of both his sons in
World War I Schäfer changed his own
name to the hyphenated
Sharpey-Schäfer7 taking the last name
of William Sharpey, his anatomy and
physiology teacher.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523.
2. ^ Sparrow EP,
Finger S., "Edward Albert Schäfer
(Sharpey-Schafer) and his contributions
to neuroscience: commemorating of the
150th anniversary of his birth.", J
Hist Neurosci. 2001
Mar;10(1):41-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/sites/entrez {Sharpey-Schafer_Edw
ard_2001.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Edward
Albert Sharpey-Schafer." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-albe
rt-sharpey-schafer
7. ^ "Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-albe
rt-sharpey-schafer
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523.
9. ^
"Sharpey-Schäfer, Edward Albert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp802-803.
10. ^ Sparrow
EP, Finger S., "Edward Albert Schäfer
(Sharpey-Schafer) and his contributions
to neuroscience: commemorating of the
150th anniversary of his birth.", J
Hist Neurosci. 2001
Mar;10(1):41-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/sites/entrez {Sharpey-Schafer_Edw
ard_2001.pdf} {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharpey-Schafer, Sir Edward
Albert." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
167>
[2] "Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Albe
rt_Sharpey-Schafer
(University College) London, England9
 
[1] Edward Albert Schafer
(Sharpey-Schafer) CE
1850-1935 COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE
source: http://melvyl.worldcat.org/oclc/
28180217?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww
.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontent%2Ftandf%2F
jhin%26checksum%3D0b0576b46d5e880b4ab721
e77fe56939&title=&linktype=opacFtLink
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 6 		4195)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
2. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
103>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
4. ^ Kumar, Vinay;
Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; &
Mitchell, Richard N. (2007). Robbins
Basic Pathology (8th ed.). Saunders
Elsevier. pp. 516–522. ISBN
978-1-4160-2973-1.
5. ^ "Paul Ehrlich." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549. {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Ehrlich." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Jan.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[2] "Paul Ehrlich." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[3] "Paul Ehrlich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlic
h
[4] "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
(Charité Hospital) Berlin, Germany5
 
[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg
121 YBN
[03/24/1879 AD] 14 15 		3797)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488.
2. ^ Nilson, Lars
Fredrik, "Sur l'ytterbine, terre
nouvelle de M. Marignac". Comptes
Rendus 88: 1879, p642–647. Ber.,
1879, 12,
p551. http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k30457.image.r=Nilson+1879.f639.lan
gFR English translation (identify
source of translation and
copyright) http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Disc-of-Scandium.ht
ml
3. ^ Nilson, Lars Fredrik (1880). "Sur
le poids atomique et sur quelques sels
caractéristiques du scandium". Comptes
Rendus 91: 1880, p118–121.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30485.image.r=Nilson+1879.f120.langFR
English translation (identify source of
translation and
copyright) http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Disc-of-Scandium.ht
ml
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p488.
7. ^ Nilson, Lars
Fredrik (1880). "Sur le poids atomique
et sur quelques sels caractéristiques
du scandium". Comptes Rendus 91: 1880,
p118–121.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30485.image.r=Nilson+1879.f120.langFR
English translation (identify source of
translation and
copyright) http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Disc-of-Scandium.ht
ml
8. ^ "scandium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scandium
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "scandium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scandium
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=pLMCAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA349&dq=Lars+Fredrik+Nilson&as
_brr=1&ei=jRleSaWBL5OMkATyn6H_BA
14. ^ Cleve, Compt. rend., 1879, 89,
419. Bull. Sac. chim., 1879, ii, 31,
486. "On Scandium", Chem. News, 1879,
40,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iJoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA48&dq=chemical+new
s+date:1879-1879&ei=ZApeSaCUG4q6kwSk8tHd
CQ#PRA1-PA159,M1 {03/24/1879}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p488. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "scandium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
027>
[2] "Lars Fredrik Nilson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Fredri
k_Nilson
[3] "Scandium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Scandium

[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fc8GAAA
AYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA416&dq=nilsen+date:1879-1
879+scandium&ei=pBdeSfeELIH4lQTbi8jRDg
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden.13  
[1] Scandium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Sc%2C21.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Lars Fredrik
Nilson, the Swedish chemist who
discovered scandium Source Nilson
Memorial Lecture in the Journal of the
Chemical Society, volume 77, between
pages 1276 and 1277 Date
1900 Author Otto
Petterson Permission (Reusing this
image) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Nilson_Lars_Fredrik.j
pg
121 YBN
[05/15/1879 AD] 7 8 		3847)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marie Alfred Cornu." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-alfre
d-cornu
2. ^ A. Cornu, "Sur la limite
ultra-violette du spectre solaire",
Comptes Rendus, Paris, 88, 1879:
1101-8.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113734?ori
gin=ads
and http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30457.image.r=cornu.langEN.f1095.tab
leDesMatieres
3. ^ Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press,
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1 {1878}
4. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit
of the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1
5. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
6. ^ A. Cornu, "Sur la limite
ultra-violette du spectre solaire",
Comptes Rendus, Paris, 88, 1879:
1101-8.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113734?ori
gin=ads
and http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30457.image.r=cornu.langEN.f1095.tab
leDesMatieres
7. ^ A. Cornu, "Sur la limite
ultra-violette du spectre solaire",
Comptes Rendus, Paris, 88, 1879:
1101-8.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113734?ori
gin=ads
and http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30457.image.r=cornu.langEN.f1095.tab
leDesMatieres {05/15/1879}
8. ^ Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press,
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1 {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marie Alfred Cornu".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Alfre
d_Cornu
[2] A. Cornu, "Sur l'absorption par
l'atmosphere des radiations
ultra-violettes", Comptes Rendus,
Paris, 91, 1879: 1285-90
[3] "Marie Alfred
Cornu". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marie_Al
fred_Cornu
Paris, France6  
[1] Title: Marie Alfred
Cornu Artist: Nadar Type: Giclee
Print Size: 18 x 24 in PD
source: https://www.allposters.co.uk/-sp
/Marie-Alfred-Cornu-Posters_i1590814_.ht
m

[2] French physicist Alfred Cornu
(1849-1902) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/962/00010066
2/ Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Alfred_Cornu.jpg
121 YBN
[07/22/1879 AD] 9 		3690) Nordenskiöld also writes
"Facsimile-atlas to the Early History
of Cartography" (1889) and "Periplus-An
Essay on the Early History of Charts
and Sailing Directions" (1897) which
lay the foundations of the history of
cartography.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p461.
2. ^ "Cailletet,
Louis Paul", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p652.
3. ^
"Cailletet, Louis Paul", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p652.
4. ^ "Nordenskiöld, Adolf
Erik, Baron." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
098>.
5. ^ "Cailletet, Louis Paul", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p652.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Cailletet, Louis
Paul", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p652.
8. ^
"Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik, Baron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
098>.
9. ^ "Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik,
Baron." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
098>. {Alaska) 07/22/1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nordenskjöld, Baron Nils
Adolf Erik." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-erik-
nordenski-ld
[2] "Nordenskjöld, Baron Nils Adolf
Erik." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-erik-
nordenski-ld
[3] "Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nils_Adolf_
Erik_Nordenski%C3%B6ld
[4] "Nils Adolf Erik, Baron
Nordenskiold". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Nils_Ado
lf_Erik,_Baron_Nordenskiold
Port Clarence, Alaska8  
[1] journey from 1878 * image made
by User:Nordelch with help of
www.aquarius.geomar.de *
information from a map at: Ethnographic
Museum Stockholm. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Nordenskiold_resa.gif


[2] Description A painting
showing Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld during
his exploration of arctic
regions Source Originally
uploaded on sv.wikipedia: 24 maj 2003
kl.22.42 by Den fjättrade ankan Date
1886 (painting itself) Author
Georg von Rosen (1843 - 1923,
painter) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%
C3%B6ld_m%C3%A5lad_av_Georg_von_Rosen_18
86.jpg
121 YBN
[08/22/1879 AD] 6 		3681)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ William Crookes,
"On Radiant Matter...", American
Journal of Science and Arts,
p241-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radia
nt+matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs
0cSSDw#PPA241,M1
3. ^ "Plasma (physics)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(phy
sics)
4. ^
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928PNAS..
.14..627L
5. ^ William Crookes, "On Radiant
Matter...", American Journal of Science
and Arts,
p241-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radia
nt+matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs
0cSSDw#PPA241,M1
6. ^ William Crookes, "On Radiant
Matter...", American Journal of Science
and Arts,
p241-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radia
nt+matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs
0cSSDw#PPA241,M1 {08/22/1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
[8] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity of
Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79
[9] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
and the Electron Theory", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68
[10] William Crookes, "The Emanations
of Radium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
71,
1902/1903. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p5726123522547p2/?p=5f8b4c2
c717e4aa79e1608ab6d0ecf81π=5
[11] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, Contributor Ethel Mary Terry,
"Introduction to General Chemistry",
McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1920,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA574,M
1
[12] "Spinthariscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spintharisc
ope
[13]
http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/
spinstory.htm
[14] Crookes, W., "Certain Properties
of the Emanations of Radium.".
Chemical News; Vol. 87:241; 1903
[15]
William Crookes, James Dewar, "Note on
the Effect of Extreme Cold on the
Emanations of Radium.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 72,
1903/1904. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=6170db3
0116342c2baad5cb1d8856256π=42
[16] "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
(British Association for the
Advancement of Science)Sheffield,
England5  
[1] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1

[2] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1
121 YBN
[10/21/1879 AD] 7 8 		4007) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, creates a
light bulb that burns for 40 continuous
hours.1

(Sir) Joseph Wilson Swan (CE 1828-1914)
had built an electric lamp that uses a
carbon fiber as a filament in 1860.2

Edison finds finds that a burned cotton
thread can function as a light bulb
filament for more time than other
materials.

Edison had spent $50,000 and a year to
realize that (the ultraexpensive3 )
platinum would not work as a filament.4


In 1878, when Edison announces that he
will solve the problem of producing
light from electricity, illuminating
gas stock prices fall.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Record ID3573.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
6. ^ "Edison,
Thomas Alva." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
{10/21/1879}
8. ^ Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=2
9HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+edison
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{10/21/1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[12] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[13] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[14] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[15] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[16] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[17] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[24] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[27] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[28] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA6 (presumably) 
[1] Edison's first incandescent
lamp PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+edis
on&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
121 YBN
[11/22/1879 AD] 8 		5653)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E.H. Hall: "On a New Action of
the Magnet on Electric
Currents". American Journal of
Mathematics vol 2, Sep. 1879,
p.287-292. http://www.stenomuseet.dk/sk
oletj/elmag/kilde9.html and
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2369245 {
Hall_Edwin_Herbert_18791119.pdf}
2. ^ "Hall effect." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hall-effect

3. ^ "Edwin Hall." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-hall
4. ^ E.H. Hall: "On a New Action of the
Magnet on Electric Currents". American
Journal of Mathematics vol 2, Sep.
1879,
p.287-292. http://www.stenomuseet.dk/sk
oletj/elmag/kilde9.html and
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2369245 {
Hall_Edwin_Herbert_18791119.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ E.H. Hall: "On a
New Action of the Magnet on Electric
Currents". American Journal of
Mathematics vol 2, Sep. 1879,
p.287-292. http://www.stenomuseet.dk/sk
oletj/elmag/kilde9.html and
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2369245 {
Hall_Edwin_Herbert_18791119.pdf}
8. ^ E.H. Hall: "On a New Action of the
Magnet on Electric Currents". American
Journal of Mathematics vol 2, Sep.
1879,
p.287-292. http://www.stenomuseet.dk/sk
oletj/elmag/kilde9.html and
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2369245 {
Hall_Edwin_Herbert_18791119.pdf}
{11/22/1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hall effect". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/252688/Hall-effect
[2] "Hall effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect

[3] "Edwin Hall". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hall
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA7  
[1] Description
Hall-Effect-diagram.svg English: Hall
effect Русский: Эффект
Холла Date 2011-03-15 13:26
(UTC) Source *
Hall-effect.png Author *
Hall-effect.png: [1] * derivative
work: Gregors (talk) 13:27, 15 March
2011 (UTC) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Hall-Effect-dia
gram.svg/1000px-Hall-Effect-diagram.svg.
png

[2] Edwin H. Hall (1855-1938) PD
source: http://www.physics.harvard.edu/i
mg/history/Hall.jpg
121 YBN
[12/11/1879 AD] 4 		3441)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^ William Huggins,
"On the Photographic Spectra of Stars",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
171, 1880,
p669-690. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/903lv4817357g261/?p=0d247f6f
0ce04494a5dd9aaa65ae0186π=35 {Huggins_
Spectra_Stars_1880.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
4. ^ William Huggins, "On the
Photographic Spectra of Stars",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
171, 1880,
p669-690. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/903lv4817357g261/?p=0d247f6f
0ce04494a5dd9aaa65ae0186π=35 {Huggins_
Spectra_Stars_1880.pdf} {12/11/1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[7]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[9] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[10]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[11] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[13] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[14] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[18] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
[19] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
[20] "Sir William Huggins".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins {1875}
(Tulse Hill)London, England3  
[1] Spectra of stars PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Spectra_Stars_1880.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
121 YBN
[12/17/1879 AD] 23 24 25 		3874)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Captain
W. De W. Abney, "On the Photographic
Method of Mapping the Least Refrangible
End of the Solar Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
4. ^ Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Obituary Notices of
Fellows Deceased", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character (1905-1934), Volume
99, Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
9. ^ Record ID3875.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
11. ^ "Obituary Notices of Fellows
Deceased", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character (1905-1934), Volume 99,
Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
12. ^ Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Wil
liam_Festing_1881.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Captain W. De W. Abney,
"On the Photographic Method of Mapping
the Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Obituary Notices of
Fellows Deceased", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character (1905-1934), Volume
99, Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
23. ^ Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{Abney_William_Infrared_1879.pdf}
{12/17/1879}
24. ^ "Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>. {1880}
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "William de Wiveleslie
Abney." The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press,
2005. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
[2] "William de Wiveleslie Abney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[3] "Sir William De Wiveleslie Abney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
[4] "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3
[5]
"emulsion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
[6] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
[7] John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England22  
[1] (figure from Abney 1879
paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/148420u840671470/fulltext.pdf

[2] (figure from Abney 1879
paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/148420u840671470/fulltext.pdf
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 13 		3550) Abel is born in London, the son
of a well-known musician.6
Abel
develops an early interest in science
after visiting his uncle A. J. Abel,
a mineralogist and pupil of Berzelius.7

Abel studies chemistry for six years
under A. W. von Hofmann at the Royal
College of Chemistry (established in
London in 1845).8
In 1852 Abel is
appointed lecturer in chemistry at the
Royal Military Academy in Woolwich,
succeeding Michael Faraday, who had
held that post since 1829.9
In 1854
until 1888 Abel serves as ordnance
chemist at the Chemical Establishment
of the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich,
establishing himself as the leading
British authority on explosives.10

Among Abel's books are - "Handbook of
Chemistry" (with C. L. Bloxam), "Modern
History of Gunpowder" (1866),
"Gun-cotton" (1866), "On Explosive
Agents" (1872), "Researches in
Explosives" (1875), and "Electricity
applied to Explosive Purposes" (1884).
Abel also writes several important
articles in the ninth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442-443.
2. ^ "Sir Frederick
Augustus Abel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fred
erick_Augustus_Abel
3. ^ "flash point." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/flash-point

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus
Abel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fred
erick_Augustus_Abel
6. ^ "Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
7. ^ "Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
8. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fred
erick_Augustus_Abel
9. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
10. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
11. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fred
erick_Augustus_Abel
12. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
13. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
{1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abel, Sir Frederick
Augustus." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 09
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
[2] "Frederick Augustus Abel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_A
ugustus_Abel
[3] "Cordite". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cordite
[4] Handbook of Chemistry: Theoretical,
Practical, and Technical by Frederick
Augustus Abel, Charles L Bloxam - 1854
- 681
pages http://books.google.com/books?id=
VdkHAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fred
erick+Augustus+Abel
[5] On Recent Investigations and
Applications of Explosive Agents: A
Lecture ... by Frederick Augustus Abel
- Explosives - 1871 - 40
pages http://books.google.com/books?id=
CGY1AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fred
erick+Augustus+Abel
(Royal Arsenal at Woolwich) Woolwich,
England12  
[1] Photograph of sectioned British 18
pounder field gun shrapnel round, World
War I. Exhibit is on display at the
Canadian War Museum, Ottowa. Catalogue
information : Artifact Number
20020045-592 Museum CWM Place of Use
Country - United Kingdom, Municipality
- no entry Place of Origin Country -
no entry, Municipality - no
entry Inscription 18 PR II
48 Measurements Height 8.5 cm, Length
12.5 cm, Width 57.0 cm Events
1914-1919 First World War Service
Component British Expeditionary
Force Category 05: tools and equipment
for science and
technology Sub-category E140:
armament, ammunition Caption Artillery
Shell, 18-pounder Additional
Information (corrected) : This cutaway
of an 18-pounder shell reveals the
shrapnel balls which were embedded in
resin to hold them in a stable
position. The fuze in the nose was time
set to ignite the powder charge in the
cavity in the base of the shell as it
approached the target. At this point
the shell was usually angling towards
the ground. This small explosion
propelled the balls forward out of the
case and they spread apart in a cone at
increased velocity forward and towards
the ground. The effect was of a large
shotgun blast fired from in front of
and above the target. The usual target
was barbed wire defences and
troops. In the cartridge below the
shell is a simulated bundle of cordite,
the propellant charge which fired the
shell. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Brisanzgranate_1_db.j
pg

[2] Frederick Augustus Abel,
engraving. Photos.com/Jupiterimages PD
/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/73/101973-004-F0247DE2.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 12 		3687) In 1881 Wundt will found the
first journal ("Philosophische Studien"
changed to "Psychologische Studien" in
19037 ) devoted to experimental
psychology.8

His later works include "Hypnotismus
and Suggestion" (1892)9 , "Outline of
Psychology" (1896) and "Ethnic
Psychology" (10 vol., 1900 – 20).10
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Max Wundt". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Max_Wundt
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p459.
3. ^ "Wilhelm Max
Wundt". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Max_Wundt
4. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p459.
9. ^ "Wilhelm Max
Wundt". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Max_Wundt
10. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 22
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
11. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 22
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
12. ^ "Wilhelm Wundt." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 22
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Wundt." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
[2] "Wilhelm Wundt." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wun
dt
[3] "Wilhelm Max Wundt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Max
_Wundt
[4] "Wundt, Wilhelm", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p949.
(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany11  
[1] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Wundt.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Min
d/Images/39.GIF
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 5 		3719)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469.
2. ^ "Young, Charles
Augustus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
055>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Young, Charles
Augustus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
055>.
5. ^ "Young, Charles Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
055>. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustus Young." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-aug
ustus-young
[2]
http://www.astro.umontreal.ca/~paulchar/
sp/images/young.html
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p342.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA4  
[1] Charles A. Young (1834-1908) PD
source: http://www.astro.umontreal.ca/~p
aulchar/sp/images/young.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 27 28 		3730) Other important work by Stefan
involves heat conduction in gases, and
in the theory of mutual magnetic
effects of two electric currents.
Stefan shows, in opposition to Ampere
and Grassman, that clear results can be
achieved only by means of the
Faraday-Maxwell theory of continuous
action.24 (more detail25 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471.
2. ^ "Joseph Stefan."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-stef
an
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Stefan, Josef", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p831.
6. ^
"Joseph Stefan." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-stef
an
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "power." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/power
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Stefan, Josef."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
525>.
12. ^ "Theory Of Radiation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theory_O
f_Radiation
13. ^ J. Stefan, "Über die Beziehung
zwischen der Wärmestrahlung und der
Temperatur",
Mathematische-Naturwissenschaftliche
Classe Abteilung, 2 79 (1879)
391–428. translation (full?): J.
Strnad, On Stefan’s radiation law,
researcher, Journal of Research and
Innovation in Slovenia 28 (3) (1998).
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ P.L. Dulong, A.T. Petit, Des
Recherches sur la Mesure des
Tempe´ratures et sur les Lois de la
communication de la chaleur, Annales de
Chimie et de Physique 7 (1817)
225–264.
16. ^ John Crepeau, Josef Stefan: His
life and legacy in the thermal
sciences, Experimental Thermal and
Fluid Science, Volume 31, Issue 7, July
2007, Pages 795-803, ISSN 0894-1777,
DOI:
10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2006.08.005. (
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art
icle/B6V34-4M2WP1X-1/2/b2779de075257a703
afabfc35deb08fd) Keywords: Josef
Stefan; Thermal conductivity; Radiation
heat transfer; Solid-liquid phase
change
17. ^ J. Tyndall, Heat Considered as a
Mode of Motion, Longman, Green,
Longman, Roberts and Green, London
(1865) (Chapter 12).
18. ^ F. de la
Provostaye and P. Desains, Mémoire sur
le rayonnement de la chaleur, Annales
de Chimie et de Physique 16 (1846), pp.
337–425.
19. ^ J.W. Draper, Scientific Memoirs:
Being Experimental Contributions to a
Knowledge of Radiant Energy, Sampson,
Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington,
London (1878) pp. 23–51.
20. ^ J. Ericsson,
The temperature of the surface of the
sun, Nature 5 (1872), pp. 505–507.
21. ^ John
Crepeau, Josef Stefan: His life and
legacy in the thermal sciences,
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science,
Volume 31, Issue 7, July 2007, Pages
795-803, ISSN 0894-1777, DOI:
10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2006.08.005. (
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art
icle/B6V34-4M2WP1X-1/2/b2779de075257a703
afabfc35deb08fd) Keywords: Josef
Stefan; Thermal conductivity; Radiation
heat transfer; Solid-liquid phase
change
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Stefan,
Josef", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p831.
25. ^
Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Stefan, Josef."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
525>.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471. {1879}
28. ^ "Stefan,
Josef." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
525>. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Stefan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-stef
an
[2] "Josef Stefan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Stefa
n
[3]
http://www.ijs.si/ijsw/Jo%C5%BEef_Stefan
_En ?
(Physical Institute, University of
Vienna) Vienna, Austria26  
[1] This is a reproduction of the
original schematic of the
diathermometer, used by Josef Stefan to
make the first accurate measurements of
the thermal conductivity of
gases.... PD (presumably)
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6V34-4M2WP1X-1-
9&_cdi=5720&_user=4422&_orig=search&_cov
erDate=07%2F31%2F2007&_sk=999689992&view
=c&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkzV&md5=0c1ac7840c58d4
8fc44e8f45b29ea8e8&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

[2] Jožef Stefan (1835-1893) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/60/Josefstefan.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 4 		3764)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p352.
3. ^ "Hittorf, Johann
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p578.
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Markovnikov, Vladimir
Vasilyevich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
024>.
[2] "Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Va
silevich_Markovnikov
[3]
http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry
/chemists/markovnikov.htm
[4] W. Markownikoff (1870). "Ueber die
Abhängigkeit der verschiedenen
Vertretbarkeit des Radicalwasserstoffs
in den isomeren Buttersäuren". Annalen
der Pharmacie 153 (1): 228–259.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18701530204.
(Moscow University) Moscow, Russia3
 
[1] Portrait du chimiste Vladimir
Vasilevich Markovnikov Source
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portrait
s/PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_LName=Markov
nikov Date XIXe siècle PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.j
pg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 7 8 9 		3782)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p483.
3. ^ "samarium."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samarium
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "samarium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samarium
6. ^ "Boisbaudran, Paul Emile Lecow
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p114.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483. {1879}
8. ^ "Paul
Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran {1879}
9. ^ "Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, Paul-Émile."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
575>. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisbaudran." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran
[2] "Gallium". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gallium
[3] (Comptes rendus, 1875, 81, p. 493,
and following years)
[4] "gallium." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gallium
[5] "Samarium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarium
(home lab) Cognac, France6
(presumably) 
[1] Summary: Samarium in a test tube
under Argon gas Source: German
wikipedia
(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Samar
ium_1.jpg); This imageis already under
Free license. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/21/427px-Samarium_1.jpg

[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 19 20 21 22 23 		3796)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cleve, Per Teodor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
355>.
2. ^ Cleve, Compt. rend., 1879, 89,
478. Chem. News, 1879, 40,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iJoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA48&dq=chemical+new
s+date:1879-1879&ei=ZApeSaCUG4q6kwSk8tHd
CQ#PRA1-PA125,M1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488.
4. ^ "holmium." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holmium
5. ^ "Per Teodor Cleve." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/per-teodor-
cleve
6. ^ Cleve, Compt. rend., 1879, 89,
478. Chem. News, 1879, 40,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iJoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA48&dq=chemical+new
s+date:1879-1879&ei=ZApeSaCUG4q6kwSk8tHd
CQ#PRA1-PA125,M1
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488.
8. ^ Cleve, Compt.
rend., 1879, 89, 478. Chem. News, 1879,
40,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iJoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA48&dq=chemical+new
s+date:1879-1879&ei=ZApeSaCUG4q6kwSk8tHd
CQ#PRA1-PA125,M1
9. ^ "holmium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holmium
10. ^ "holmium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holmium
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Per Teodor
Cleve." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/per-teodor-
cleve
14. ^ Cleve, Compt. rend., 1879, 89,
419. Bull. Sac. chim., 1879, ii, 31,
486. Chem. News, 1879, 40,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iJoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA48&dq=chemical+new
s+date:1879-1879&ei=ZApeSaCUG4q6kwSk8tHd
CQ#PRA1-PA159,M1
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Cleve, Compt. rend.,
1879, 89, 419. Bull. Sac. chim., 1879,
ii, 31, 486. Chem. News, 1879, 40,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iJoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA48&dq=chemical+new
s+date:1879-1879&ei=ZApeSaCUG4q6kwSk8tHd
CQ#PRA1-PA159,M1
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Cleve, Per Teodor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
355>.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p488. {1879}
20. ^ "Per
Teodor Cleve." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/per-teodor-
cleve {1879}
21. ^ "Cleve, Per Teodor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
355>. {1879}
22. ^ "Cleve, Per Theodor",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p197. {1879}
23. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p352. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Per Teodor Cleve".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Teodor_
Cleve
[2] "Holmium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmium
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden.18  
[1] Holmium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Ho%2C67.jpg

[2] Thulium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU English: Picture of Per
Theodor Cleve, the Swedish chemist and
geologist Source Page 39 of
Svenskt
porträttgalleri http://books.google.co
m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T
eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date
1903 Author Albin
Hildebrand PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Tm%2C69.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 9 		3853) For some time Flemming is an
assistant to Willy Kuhne at the
Institute of Physiology in Amsterdam.6

Flemming serves as physician on the
Prussian side in Franco-Prussion War of
1870.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
2. ^ "Flemming,
Walther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>.
3. ^ "Walther Flemming." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/flemming-wa
lther
4. ^ "Flemming, Walther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Walther Flemming." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/flemming-wa
lther
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
8. ^ "Flemming,
Walther", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p319.5. ^
9. ^ "Flemming, Walther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Flemming".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Fle
mming
(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany8
 
[1] Image provided by the Science Photo
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 12 13 14 		3958)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.jhu.edu/gazette/1994/aug2294/
remsen.html
2. ^ Richard L. Myers, "The 100 most
important chemical compounds: a
reference guide",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0AnJU-hralEC&pg=PA241&lpg=PA241&dq=Const
antin+Fahlberg+1850&source=bl&ots=oy9RHW
oWY9&sig=iBzMUL74MO5a_m306EC0t0B_tfA&hl=
en&ei=mxOPSsT7HoeCsgO0r7UO&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=Co
nstantin%20Fahlberg%201850&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p507.
4. ^ "saccharin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
643>.
5. ^ "saccharin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
643>.
6. ^ Ira Remsen, C. Fahlberg, "On the
Oxidation of substitution products of
aromatic hydrocarbons, On the oxidation
of orthotoluenesulphamide " American
chemical journal, 1880, p426-438.
7. ^
"saccharin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
643>.
8. ^ "saccharin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
643>.
9. ^
http://www.jhu.edu/gazette/1994/aug2294/
remsen.html
10. ^
http://www.jhu.edu/gazette/1994/aug2294/
remsen.html
11. ^
http://www.jhu.edu/gazette/1994/aug2294/
remsen.html
12. ^ "saccharin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
643>. {1879}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p507. {1879}
14. ^ Ira
Remsen, C. Fahlberg, "On the Oxidation
of substitution products of aromatic
hydrocarbons, On the oxidation of
orthotoluenesulphamide " American
chemical journal, 1880, p426-438.
{01/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Remsen, Ira." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
160>
[2] "Constantin Fahlberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantin_
Fahlberg
[3] "Remsen, Ira", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p740
[4]
http://hubpages.com/hub/Artificial-Sweet
eners-A-History
[5]
http://www.jhu.edu/gazette/2000/sep1100/
11remsen.html
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA11  
[1] Ira Remsen PD
source: http://hopkins.typepad.com/.a/6a
00d83451db8d69e2011278fa024c28a4-pi

[2] statues of Remsen and
Fahlberg from Smithsonian may be
PD COPYRIGHTED/FAIR USE
source: http://pus.sagepub.com/cgi/repri
nt/4/3/305.pdf?ck=nck
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 12 		4064) Frege is an extreme nationalist
(and racist6 ) who hates all non-German
races.7
According to the 2009
Encyclopedia Britannica: "Frege was, in
religion, a liberal Lutheran and, in
politics, a reactionary. He had a great
love for the monarchy and for the royal
house of Mecklenburg, and during World
War I he developed an intense hatred of
socialism and of democracy, to which he
came to ascribe the loss of the war and
the shame of the Treaty of Versailles.
A diary kept at the end of his life
reveals, as well, a loathing of the
French and of Catholics and an
anti-Semitism extending to a belief
that the Jews must be expelled from
Germany."8

With no regard to his racial beliefs,
Frege's contributinos to science appear
to be somewhat overvalued in some
sources - the 2009 Encyclopedia
Britannica has 7 pages on him.9 10
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517-518.
2. ^ "Frege,
Gottlob." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
314>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517-518.
8. ^ "Frege,
Gottlob." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
314>.
9. ^ "Frege, Gottlob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
314>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Frege, Gottlob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
314>.
12. ^ "Frege, Friedrich Ludwig
Gottlob", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p329.
{1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottlob Frege." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlob-fre
ge
[2] "Gottlob Frege." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlob-fre
ge
[3] "Gottlob Frege." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlob-fre
ge
[4] "Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_L
udwig_Gottlob_Frege
[5] "Begriffsschrift". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begriffssch
rift
[6] Gottlob Frege. Begriffsschrift:
eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete
Formelsprache des reinen Denkens.
Halle, 1879. Translations: 1) Bynum,
Terrell Ward, trans. and ed., 1972.
Conceptual notation and related
articles, with a biography and
introduction. Oxford Uni. Press. 2)
Bauer-Mengelberg, Stefan, 1967,
"Concept Script" in Jean Van
Heijenoort, ed., From Frege to Gödel:
A Source Book in Mathematical Logic,
1879-1931. Harvard Uni. Press.
[7]
http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~brianwc/fre
ge/fenglish.html
[8] "frege logic". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frege-
logic/
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany11
 
[1] From an English translation of
Gottlob's 1879 work COPYRIGHTED/FAIR
USE
source: Gottlob Frege. Begriffsschrift:
eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete
Formelsprache des reinen Denkens.
Halle, 1879. Translations: 1) Bynum,
Terrell Ward, trans. and ed., 1972.
Conceptual notation and related
articles, with a biography and
introduction. Oxford Uni. Press. 2)
Bauer-Mengelberg, Stefan, 1967,
"Concept Script" in Jean Van
Heijenoort, ed., From Frege to Gödel:
A Source Book in Mathematical Logic,
1879-1931. Harvard Uni.
Press. {Frege_Gottlob_1879.pdf}

[2] Photograph of Gottlob Frege, circa
1879. The photographer is unknown, but
it is out of copyright as it is about
130 years old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/99/Young_frege.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 6 		4106)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p528.
3. ^ "autoclave."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
357>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Chamberland, Charles
Edouard." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 188-189.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ R DURKAN, MB ÖZEL, B BAGIS, A,
"In vitro Comparison of Autoclave
Polymerization on the Transverse
Strength of Denture", Dental Materials
Journal,
2008. http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/artic
le/dmj/27/4/640/_pdf {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Chamberland".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cha
mberland
[2] (obituary), Revue scientifique,
Volume 81,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SpEKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA602&dq=autoclave+1879+
Chamberland&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=autocla
ve%201879%20Chamberland&f=false
(École Normale) Paris, France5  
[1] Rodwell Autoclaves GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f9/Sapphire.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 9 		4183) In 1910 Kossel wins the Nobel
prize in physiology and medicine for
his work on proteins and nucleic
acids.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
4. ^ Mary Ellen
Jones, "Albrecht Kossel, A Biographical
Sketch", Yale J Biol Med. 1953
September; 26(1): 80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed {1884}
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
6. ^ "Kossel, Karl
Martin Leonhard Albrecht." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 466-468. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
8. ^ "Albrecht
Kossel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ko
ssel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg ,
Germany8  
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 4 		4196)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
2. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ehrlich, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
103>.
[2] "Paul Ehrlich." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Jan.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[3] "Paul Ehrlich." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[4] "Paul Ehrlich." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[5] "Paul Ehrlich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlic
h
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
[7] Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.;
Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N.
(2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th
ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 516–522.
ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
(Leipzig University) Leipzig, Germany3
(presumably) 
[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 10 11 		4231) According to Asimov, Neisser's
attempts at inoculating against
syphilis may actually spread the
disease instead.5 Neisser is accused
of having "maliciously inoculated
innocent children with syphilis
poison", and a scandal results. Neisser
mistakenly draws on an analogy with the
serum therapy that Behring had used
against diphtheria and tetanus. Neisser
inoculates young prostitutes with what
is probably highly a infectious serum.6
 (voluntarily?7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Neisser, Albert
Ludwig Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 10.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
17-19. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 10 Feb. 2010.
3. ^ Albert Neisser,
"Über eine der Gonorrboe
eigenthümliche Mierococcenform",
Centralblatt für die medizinischen
Wissemchaften, 28 (1879), 497–500;
4. ^
"Neisser, Albert Ludwig Sigesmund."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Feb.
2010.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
6. ^ "Neisser, Albert
Ludwig Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 10.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
17-19. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 10 Feb. 2010.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Neisser,
Albert Ludwig Sigesmund." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 17-19. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Feb. 2010.
9. ^
http://www.doctorsreview.com/node/615
10. ^ "Neisser, Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010. {1879}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p555. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund
Neisser". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ludw
ig_Sigesmund_Neisser
(Oskar Simon’s clinic) Breslau,
Germany8 9  
[1] Description Albert
neisser.jpg English: Albert Neisser,
German bacteriologist who discovered
the Neisseria bacteria. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Albert_neisser.jpg

[2] Comparison of two culture media
types used to grow Neisseria
gonorrhoeae bacteria. Known as
overgrowth, note that the non-selective
w:en:chocolate agar medium on the left,
due to its composition, allowed for the
growth of organismal colonies other
than those of w:en:Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, while the selective
Thayer-Martin medium on the right,
containing antimicrobials that inhibit
the growth of organisms other than N.
gonorrhoeae, shows no overgrowth, but
is positive for N. gonorrhoeae
bacteria. Obtained from the CDC
Public Health Image Library. Image
credit: CDC/Renelle Woodall (PHIL
#6505), 1969 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae
_01.png
120 YBN
[01/01/1880 AD] 4 		4009)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ "Edison, Thomas
Alva." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
{01/01/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
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[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
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[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA3  
[1] Edison's first incandescent
lamp PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+edis
on&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Edison's Melon Park Laboratory in
the Winter of 1880 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false
120 YBN
[02/09/1880 AD] 8 		3420)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ Henry Smith
Williams, Edward Huntington Williams,
"A History of Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Henry Smith Williams,
Edward Huntington Williams, "A History
of Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p681-684.
7. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
8. ^ Henry Smith Williams, Edward
Huntington Williams, "A History of
Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1 {02/09/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7] René
Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth Emma Proby
Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His Life and
Labours", Longmans, Green, & co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[8] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
[9]
http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/
articles/pasteur.htm#paperII
[10] "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p532-535
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France7  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
120 YBN
[05/??/1880 AD] 6 7 		3750)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Draper, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
2. ^ Henry Draper, "On a Photograph of
Jupiter's Spectrum showing Evidence of
Intrinsic Light from that Planet", Am J
Sci, III, xx, 118-121, Aug 1880.
Monthly Not Astr Soc xl 433 436 May
1880. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mjM0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA33&dq=intitle:Monthly+
intitle:Notices+intitle:of+intitle:the+i
ntitle:Royal+intitle:Astronomical+intitl
e:Society+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=0&as
_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=Ta5YSdGZEobWlQTNmuXjBw#P
PA433,M1 and http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle
:American+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+int
itle:Science+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1
&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSC
A#PRA2-PA118,M1 and http://books.googl
e.com/books?id=aDkLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83&dq=O
n+a+Photograph+of+Jupiter%27s+Spectrum+s
howing+Evidence+of+Intrinsic+Light+from+
that+Planet&ei=sqlYSZvMOZDckATJo7yfAg
3. ^ Henry Draper, "On a Photograph of
Jupiter's Spectrum showing Evidence of
Intrinsic Light from that Planet", Am J
Sci, III, xx, 118-121, Aug 1880.
Monthly Not Astr Soc xl 433 436 May
1880. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle:America
n+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:Sci
ence+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=A
LLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSCA#PRA2-P
A118,M1 and http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aDkLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83&dq=On+a+Phot
ograph+of+Jupiter%27s+Spectrum+showing+E
vidence+of+Intrinsic+Light+from+that+Pla
net&ei=sqlYSZvMOZDckATJo7yfAg
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Henry Draper." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r
6. ^ Henry Draper, "On a Photograph of
Jupiter's Spectrum showing Evidence of
Intrinsic Light from that Planet", Am J
Sci, III, xx, 118-121, Aug 1880.
Monthly Not Astr Soc xl 433 436 May
1880. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle:America
n+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:Sci
ence+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=A
LLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSCA#PRA2-P
A118,M1 and http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aDkLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83&dq=On+a+Phot
ograph+of+Jupiter%27s+Spectrum+showing+E
vidence+of+Intrinsic+Light+from+that+Pla
net&ei=sqlYSZvMOZDckATJo7yfAg {05/1880}
7. ^
"Henry Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474-475
[2] "Henry Draper".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Drape
r
[3] "John William Draper". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
[4] "Draper, Henry", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p260-261
[5] Biographical Memoirs, By National
Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National
Academy of Sciences, 1895,
p81-140. http://books.google.com/books?
id=d3iph4B87oEC&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+Draper&
ei=55VYSZLJNZSokASEwJSuDw
[6] Henry Draper, "15 Photographs of
the Spectra of Venus and a Lyrae", Am J
Sci HI xiii 95 Feb 1877 Reprinted in
Phil Mag Fifth series, iii,
238. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
PcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=intitle:american+
intitle:journal+intitle:of+intitle:scien
ce+date:1877-1877&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALL
TYPES&ei=jJ1YSabSM5iMkASu3M3HDg#PPA95,M1

[7] Barker, George F. (1887). "On the
Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of
Stellar Spectra". Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 24:
166–172. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=KcAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA166&dq=On+the+Hen
ry+Draper+Memorial+Photographs+of+Stella
r+Spectra&ei=saBYSeydD43WlQSq6MTuBw
[8] Henry Draper, "Discovery of Oxygen
in the Sun by Photography and a new
Theory the Solar Spectrum", Proc Am
Phil Soc, July 1877, 74, 80, Am J Sci
III, xiv, 39, 96, 1877
(City University) New York City, NY,
USA5  
[1] Draper's photograph from the Royal
Astronomical Society PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mjM0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA33&dq=intitle:Monthly
+intitle:Notices+intitle:of+intitle:the+
intitle:Royal+intitle:Astronomical+intit
le:Society+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=0&a
s_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=Ta5YSdGZEobWlQTNmuXjBw#
PPA434,M1

[2] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg
120 YBN
[06/03/1880 AD] 17 		4038) inventors.about.com ends with the
sentence "Bell's photophone is
recognized as the progenitor of the
modern fiber optics that today
transport over eight percent of the
world's telecommunications." - and
perhaps this is analogous to 8% of
humans on earth see and hear thought -
that amounts to about 480 million
people of the 6 billion - and for the
USA, 24 million of the 300 million
people in the USA are allowed to pay
for the service of seeing and hearing
thought. But we can only guess. An
earlier estimate from insiders was 10%
for the USA - 30 million "insiders" of
the 300 million people living in the
USA.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
2. ^ U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
3. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
6. ^ Record ID4017. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Record
ID3612. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Alexander Graham Bell,
"On the Production and Reproduction of
Sound by Light", The American Journal
of Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
17. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm {06/03/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[4] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[5] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[6] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
[8] "Photophone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[9] "Charles Sumner Tainter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sum
ner_Tainter
(top of Franklin School) Washington, D.
C., USA16  
[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] (presumably Alexander Graham Bell
with his ''Photophone'') PD
source: http://www.utdallas.edu/~rms0230
00/photophone.jpg
120 YBN
[06/17/1880 AD] 		3829)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ George Downing
Liveing, James Dewar, "Collected Papers
on Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
3. ^ J. D. Liveing, J. Dewar, "On the
Spectrum of Water", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 30,
1879/1880,p580-582. http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/1q5j522621h55g48/?
p=a9c07abca3fa4b468e106fb5e0c291b0π=4
4. ^ J. D. Liveing, J. Dewar, "On the
Spectrum of Water", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 30,
1879/1880,p580-582. http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/1q5j522621h55g48/?
p=a9c07abca3fa4b468e106fb5e0c291b0π=4
5. ^ J. D. Liveing, J. Dewar, "On the
Spectrum of Water. No. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 33, 1881/1882,
p274-276.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/920r8ww04087j465/?p=2098166d8a0f48fb8
e3b53267a261baeπ=35
6. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07fπ=27

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[4]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[5]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[6] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[7] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[8] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[9]
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>
[10] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[11] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p365
[12]
"Scientific Uses of Liquid Air",
description of James Dewar's
lecture. from: Railway Locomotives and
Cars, v.68, Simmons-Boardman Pub.
Corp., 1894,
p132-134. http://books.google.com/books
?id=C-s6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132&dq="On+the+sci
entific+uses+of+liquid+air"&lr=&ei=g_FnS
YOhB4bWlQS9xIHWCw#PPA132,M1
[13] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar,
"Spectroscopic Studies on Gaseous
Explosions. No. I", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 36, 1883/1884,
p471-478. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/45845h5410l50412/?p=4ebf7fba
060a4b229786a9dac53f5b3bπ=47 http://jo
urnals.royalsociety.org/content/45845h54
10l50412/fulltext.pdf
[14] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "On
the Influence of Pressure on The
Spectra of Flames", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 49, 1890/1891,
p217-225. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/y274610r733h2227/?p=3a8370da
6e6b41948727a2920a03a1c7π=0 Abstract
of paper read before Royal Society on
Feb 19, 1891, Chemical News,
1891 http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
JwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA35&dq=james+dewar+d
ate:1891-1892+oxygen+blue&ei=MttsSYnSIYP
IlQTdhZx0#PRA1-PA143,M1
(Royal Institution) London, England6
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

120 YBN
[07/03/1880 AD] 6 		4045)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/help/about/abo
ut.dtl
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Science, Volume
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=aDk
LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=intitle:science+da
te:1880-1880#v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Science, Volume
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=aDk
LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=intitle:science+da
te:1880-1880#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{07/03/1880 (first article date}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
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[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
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[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
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[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago.". Dictionary.com
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lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat.". Dictionary.com
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[24]
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[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
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07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
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[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
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[30] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
[31] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
(229 Broadway) New York City, New York,
USA5  
[1] Edison's first incandescent
lamp PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+edis
on&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Edison's Melon Park Laboratory in
the Winter of 1880 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false
120 YBN
[09/20/1880 AD] 9 10 11 		3845)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.corpusetampois.com/cse-19-hau
tefeuille1903marquis.html
2. ^ Hautefeuille, Chappuis, "Sur la
liquefaction de l'ozone et sur sa
couleur a l'etat gazeux", Comptes
rendus, 91, 1880, p.
522-525. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:
/12148/bpt6k30485 English
translation: "On the Liquefaction of
Ozone, and on its Color in the Gaseous
State.", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, November, 1880,
p345-347. http://books.google.com/books
?id=m80GAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA345&dq=chappui
s+date:1880-1880&ei=A5h_Sf-HC5TMkAS21cmM
CA#PRA3-PA345,M1
3. ^ Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press, 2007,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1
4. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit of
the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1
5. ^ M. M. P. M., "Liquefaction of
Ozone", Nature, Oct. 14, 1880,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VMwKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=chappuis+date:1
880-1880&ei=A5h_Sf-HC5TMkAS21cmMCA
6. ^ "Properties of Ozone", American
Chemical Journal, 1881,
p433. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-WqqVnrmbD8C&pg=PA433&dq=chappuis+ozone+
date:1881-1881&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=rqd_SdTaC
oHmkgTPvLS_Bg#PPA433,M1
7. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit of
the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1
8. ^ Hautefeuille, Chappuis, "Sur la
liquefaction de l'ozone et sur sa
couleur a l'etat gazeux", Comptes
rendus, 91, 1880, p. 522-525. English
translation: "On the Liquefaction of
Ozone, and on its Color in the Gaseous
State.", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, November, 1880,
p345-347. http://books.google.com/books
?id=m80GAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA345&dq=chappui
s+date:1880-1880&ei=A5h_Sf-HC5TMkAS21cmM
CA#PRA3-PA345,M1
9. ^ J. Chappuis, "Sur Le Spectre
d'absorption de l'ozone", Comptes
Rendus, 1880,
p.985-986. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ar
k:/12148/bpt6k30485 {09/20/1880}
10. ^ Hautefeuille,
Chappuis, "Sur la liquefaction de
l'ozone et sur sa couleur a l'etat
gazeux", Comptes rendus, 91, 1880, p.
522-525. English translation: "On the
Liquefaction of Ozone, and on its Color
in the Gaseous State.", Journal of the
Franklin Institute, November, 1880,
p345-347. http://books.google.com/books
?id=m80GAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA345&dq=chappui
s+date:1880-1880&ei=A5h_Sf-HC5TMkAS21cmM
CA#PRA3-PA345,M1
11. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit of
the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1 {1880}
(Academy of Sciences) Paris, France8
 
[1] Léon Marquis Paul Hautefeuille
(1836-1902) 1903 PD
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cs
e-19-hautefeuille-1g2.jpg
120 YBN
[09/30/1880 AD] 6 		3751)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Draper, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
2. ^ Henry Draper, "On Photographs of
the Nebula in Orion", Am J Sci, III,
xx, 433, 1880; Phil Mag V x 388;
Comptes Rendus xci 688 xcii
178,904. http://books.google.com/books?
id=nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle:Amer
ican+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:
Science+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1&as_p
t=ALLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSCA#PRA
2-PA433,M1
3. ^ "Henry Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r
4. ^
http://www.saburchill.com/HOS/astronomy/
033.html
5. ^ "Henry Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r
6. ^ Henry Draper, "On Photographs of
the Nebula in Orion", Am J Sci, III,
xx, 433, 1880; Phil Mag V x 388;
Comptes Rendus xci 688 xcii
178,904. http://books.google.com/books?
id=nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle:Amer
ican+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:
Science+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1&as_p
t=ALLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSCA#PRA
2-PA433,M1 {09/30/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474-475
[2] "Henry Draper".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Drape
r
[3] "John William Draper". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
[4] "Draper, Henry", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p260-261
[5] Biographical Memoirs, By National
Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National
Academy of Sciences, 1895,
p81-140. http://books.google.com/books?
id=d3iph4B87oEC&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+Draper&
ei=55VYSZLJNZSokASEwJSuDw
[6] Henry Draper, "15 Photographs of
the Spectra of Venus and a Lyrae", Am J
Sci HI xiii 95 Feb 1877 Reprinted in
Phil Mag Fifth series, iii,
238. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
PcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=intitle:american+
intitle:journal+intitle:of+intitle:scien
ce+date:1877-1877&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALL
TYPES&ei=jJ1YSabSM5iMkASu3M3HDg#PPA95,M1

[7] Barker, George F. (1887). "On the
Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of
Stellar Spectra". Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 24:
166–172. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=KcAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA166&dq=On+the+Hen
ry+Draper+Memorial+Photographs+of+Stella
r+Spectra&ei=saBYSeydD43WlQSq6MTuBw
[8] Henry Draper, "Discovery of Oxygen
in the Sun by Photography and a new
Theory the Solar Spectrum", Proc Am
Phil Soc, July 1877, 74, 80, Am J Sci
III, xiv, 39, 96, 1877
[9] Henry Draper, "On
a Photograph of Jupiter's Spectrum
showing Evidence of Intrinsic Light
from that Planet", Am J Sci, III, xx,
118-121, Aug 1880. Monthly Not Astr Soc
xl 433 436 May
1880. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle:America
n+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:Sci
ence+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=A
LLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSCA#PRA2-P
A118,M1 and http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aDkLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83&dq=On+a+Phot
ograph+of+Jupiter%27s+Spectrum+showing+E
vidence+of+Intrinsic+Light+from+that+Pla
net&ei=sqlYSZvMOZDckATJo7yfAg
(City University) New York City, NY,
USA5  
[1] The 1882 photograph of the Orion
Nebula © Henry Draper PD
source: http://www.saburchill.com/HOS/as
tronomy/images/201105002.jpg

[2] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg
120 YBN
[09/??/1880 AD] 17 18 		3759)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1910/waals-bio.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
3. ^ van der Waals,
J. D., "Ueber die übereinstimmenden
Eigenschaften der Normallinien des
gesättigten Dampfes und der
Flüssigkeit", Beiblätter zu den
Annalen der Physik, Bund 5, 1881, p27,
p250,
p567. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA27,M1
 "Untersuchungen über die
übereinstimmenden Eigenschaften der
Zustandsgleichungen der verschiedenen
Körper." (" Studies on the
convergent properties of the state
equations of the different
body") http://books.google.com/books?id
=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA250,
M1 "Beiträge zu Kenntnis des Gesetzes
der übereinstimmenden Zustände"
("Contributions to knowledge of the law
of the matching
conditions") http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&
dq=editions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#P
PA567,M1 {note: Beiblätter zu den
Annalen der Physik" is "Supplements to
the Annals of Physics"} English
explanation (apparently this is mostly
Roth's own writing and has similar text
as van der Waal's paper): Johannes
Diderik Van Der Waals, tr.: Richard
Threlfall, John F Adair, "On the
Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States", Physical Memoirs of the London
Physical Society, vol 1, part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
4. ^ J. S. Rowlinson, "Legacy of van
der Waals", Nature 244, 414 - 417 (17
August 1973);
doi:10.1038/244414a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v244/n5416/abs/24441
4a0.html {Waals_Johannes_Van_Der_Nature
_1973_244414a0.pdf}
5. ^ Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals,
"Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand", A. W. Sigthoff,
Leyden, 1873. English
translation: Johannes Diderik Van Der
Waals, tr.: Richard Threlfall, John F
Adair, "On the Continuity of the Liquid
and Gaseous States", Physical Memoirs
of the London Physical Society, vol 1,
part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1910/waals-bio.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p476-477.
11. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1910/waals-bio.html
12. ^
http://www.sklogwiki.org/SklogWiki/index
.php/Law_of_corresponding_states
13. ^ van der Waals, J. D., "Ueber die
übereinstimmenden Eigenschaften der
Normallinien des gesättigten Dampfes
und der Flüssigkeit", Beiblätter zu
den Annalen der Physik, Bund 5, 1881,
p27, p250,
p567. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA27,M1
 "Untersuchungen über die
übereinstimmenden Eigenschaften der
Zustandsgleichungen der verschiedenen
Körper." (" Studies on the
convergent properties of the state
equations of the different
body") http://books.google.com/books?id
=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA250,
M1 "Beiträge zu Kenntnis des Gesetzes
der übereinstimmenden Zustände"
("Contributions to knowledge of the law
of the matching
conditions") http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&
dq=editions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#P
PA567,M1 {note: Beiblätter zu den
Annalen der Physik" is "Supplements to
the Annals of Physics"} English
explanation (apparently this is mostly
Roth's own writing and has similar text
as van der Waal's paper): Johannes
Diderik Van Der Waals, tr.: Richard
Threlfall, John F Adair, "On the
Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States", Physical Memoirs of the London
Physical Society, vol 1, part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Johannes
Diderik van der Waals." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
17. ^ van der Waals, J. D., "Ueber die
übereinstimmenden Eigenschaften der
Normallinien des gesättigten Dampfes
und der Flüssigkeit", Beiblätter zu
den Annalen der Physik, Bund 5, 1881,
p27, p250,
p567. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA27,M1
 "Untersuchungen über die
übereinstimmenden Eigenschaften der
Zustandsgleichungen der verschiedenen
Körper." (" Studies on the
convergent properties of the state
equations of the different
body") http://books.google.com/books?id
=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA250,
M1 "Beiträge zu Kenntnis des Gesetzes
der übereinstimmenden Zustände"
("Contributions to knowledge of the law
of the matching
conditions") http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&
dq=editions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#P
PA567,M1 {note: Beiblätter zu den
Annalen der Physik" is "Supplements to
the Annals of Physics"} English
explanation (apparently this is mostly
Roth's own writing and has similar text
as van der Waal's paper): Johannes
Diderik Van Der Waals, tr.: Richard
Threlfall, John F Adair, "On the
Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States", Physical Memoirs of the London
Physical Society, vol 1, part
3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8lx
MAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Physica
l+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Society
&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#PPA3
32-IA5,M1 {09/1880}
18. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1910/waals-bio.html {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Waals, Johannes Diederik van
der." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
810>.
[2] "Johannes Diderik van der Waals."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
[3] "Johannes Diderik van der Waals."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-di
derik-van-der-waals
[4] "Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Di
derik_Van_Der_Waals
[5] "Molecule". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Molecule

[6] "Waals, Johannes Diderik Van Der",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p917.
[7] James
Clerk Maxwell, "On the Dynamical
Evidence of the Molecular Constitution
of Bodies", Nature, March 4, 1875,
p357-359. http://books.google.com/books
?id=vTUVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA359&dq=Johannes+Di
derik+Van+Der+Waals&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=3bNZ
SfvzO4S6lATQ5r2QBw
[8] Robert Bayness, "Critical
Temperature of Ethyene", Nature,
12/23/1880. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_i8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA186&dq=Over+de+c
ontinuiteit+van+den+gas-en+vloeistoftoes
tand&as_brr=1&ei=VMtZSd_uGovqkwTdkvjXDg
[9]
http://www.springerlink.com/content/h4q7
w560qx418tm2/
[10]
http://www.historyofscience.nl/author.cf
m?RecordId=7
[11] "Law of corresponding states".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_corr
esponding_states
[12] Johannes Diderik van der Waals
"The law of corresponding states for
different substances", Proceedings of
the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie
van Wetenschappen 15 II pp. 971-981
(1913) http://www.digitallibrary.nl/pro
ceedings/search/detail.cfm?pubid=1493&vi
ew=image&startrow=1
[13]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
[14]
Ueber%20die%20%C3%BCbereinstimmenden%20E
igenschaften%20der%20Normallinien%20des%
20ges%C3%A4ttigten%20Dampfes%20und%20der
%20Fl%C3%BCssigkeit
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands16  
[1] Equation from van der Waals 1881
paper in Beiblatter zu den Annalen der
Physik, p568 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA568,
M1

[2] Johannes Diderik van der
Waals source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_resu
lts.cfm?alpha_sort=w PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Johannes_Diderik_van_
der_Waals.jpg
120 YBN
[10/10/1880 AD] 4 		3577)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
2. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
3. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
4. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan {10/10/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
[2] "Joseph Swan." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[4] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
[5] "incandescent lamp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
Newcastle, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
120 YBN
[11/23/1880 AD] 18 19 		3948) In 1907, Laveran wins a Nobel
Prize in physiology and medicine for
his finding concerning protists and
disease.15
Laveran's publishes many
writings.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p505.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p505.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p505.
6. ^ Laveran,
Alphonse." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
6 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
394>.
7. ^ "Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 06 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
8. ^ "Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
9. ^ "Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 06 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Neurological stamp,
Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran
(1845-1922)", Journal of Neurology,
Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
1999;67:520;
doi:10.1136/jnnp.67.4.520 Copyright ©
1999 by the BMJ Publishing Group
Ltd. http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/fu
ll/67/4/520
12. ^ "Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
13. ^ "Neurological stamp, Charles
Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845-1922)",
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and
Psychiatry 1999;67:520;
doi:10.1136/jnnp.67.4.520 Copyright ©
1999 by the BMJ Publishing Group
Ltd. http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/fu
ll/67/4/520
14. ^ "Nobel Lectures", Physiology or
Medicine 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing
Company, Amsterdam, 1967 from "Les Prix
Nobel" http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1907/laveran-bio.h
tml
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p505.
16. ^ Laveran,
Alphonse." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
6 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
394>.
17. ^ "Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 06 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p505. {11/23/1880}
19. ^ "Charles
Louis Alphonse Laveran." Encyclopedia
of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 06 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran {11/23/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Louis Alphonse
Laveran." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06
Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
[2] "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p524.
(Académie de Médecine) Paris,
France17  
[1] Charles-Louis-Alphonse Laveran.
Library of Congress PD
source: "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p524.

[2] BBC Hulton Picture
Library,''Laveran, Alphonse.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 6 Aug. 2009 .
source: http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-
12547/Laveran?&articleTypeId=50
120 YBN
[12/12/1880 AD] 5 		3846)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Chappuis, "Sur Le Spectre
d'absorption de l'ozone", Comptes
Rendus, 1880,
p.985-986. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ar
k:/12148/bpt6k30485 and
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30485.image.r=cornu.langEN.f987.tableDe
sMatieres
2. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit of
the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1 {1880}
3. ^ J.
Chappuis, "Sur Le Spectre d'absorption
de l'ozone", Comptes Rendus, 1880,
p.985-986. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ar
k:/12148/bpt6k30485 and
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30485.image.r=cornu.langEN.f987.tableDe
sMatieres
4. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit of
the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1 {1880}
5. ^ W. N.
Hartley, "On the Limit of the Solar
Spectrum, the Blue of the Sky, and the
Fluorescence of Ozone.", Nature, v39,
1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1 {1880}
{12/12/1880}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.corpusetampois.com/cse-19-hau
tefeuille1903marquis.html
[2] Hautefeuille, Chappuis, "Sur la
liquefaction de l'ozone et sur sa
couleur a l'etat gazeux", Comptes
rendus, 91, 1880, p.
522-525. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:
/12148/bpt6k30485 English
translation: "On the Liquefaction of
Ozone, and on its Color in the Gaseous
State.", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, November, 1880,
p345-347. http://books.google.com/books
?id=m80GAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA345&dq=chappui
s+date:1880-1880&ei=A5h_Sf-HC5TMkAS21cmM
CA#PRA3-PA345,M1
[3] Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press, 2007,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1
[4] M. M. P. M., "Liquefaction of
Ozone", Nature, Oct. 14, 1880,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VMwKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=chappuis+date:1
880-1880&ei=A5h_Sf-HC5TMkAS21cmMCA
[5] "Properties of Ozone", American
Chemical Journal, 1881,
p433. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-WqqVnrmbD8C&pg=PA433&dq=chappuis+ozone+
date:1881-1881&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=rqd_SdTaC
oHmkgTPvLS_Bg#PPA433,M1
(Academy of Sciences) Paris, France4
 
[1] Léon Marquis Paul Hautefeuille
(1836-1902) 1903 PD
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cs
e-19-hautefeuille-1g2.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 3 		2691) The "Imperial Chinese Telegraph
Company" (ICT) is founded by the
Chinese merchant Li Hongzhang in
cooperation with the government.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116. (1880)
(Tientsin (now Tianjin) or Shanghai?),
China2  		 
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 8 		3512)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436-437.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Richard August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
4. ^ "Erlenmeyer, Richard August Carl
Emil", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p288.
5. ^ "Richard
August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
6. ^
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT
7. ^ "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 29
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
8. ^ "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 29
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer {1880}
(Munich Polytechnic School) Munich,
Germany7  
[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 4 		3646)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
2. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
3. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
4. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
{1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Nipkow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Nipkow

[2]
http://users.swing.be/philippe.jadin/nip
kowdisk.htm
[3]
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/nipkow.ht
ml
[4] "Paul Gottlieb Nipkow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/415838/Paul-Gottlieb-Nipkow>.
?, France3  
[1] Paul Nipkow (Russian, German)
(1860–1940) PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow1.jpg

[2] German patent No. 30105 was
granted on 15th January 1885,
retroactive to 6th January
1884 PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow2.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 11 12 		3768) In 1881 Beilstein is elected to
the Russian Imperial Academy of
Sciences, while Mendeléev, Asimov
cites as the greater scientist, is
rejected. Asimov claims that Russian
science in the 1800s had a strongly
pro-German and anti-Russian
orientation.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479.
2. ^ "Beilstein,
Friedrich Konrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
144>.
3. ^ Friedrich Konrad Beilstein,
"Handbuch der organischen Chemie", L.
Voss, 1883. Volume
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=auP
14WcgS2UC Volume
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=_Pd
Kw_JBiUsC
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479.
5. ^ "Beilstein,
Friedrich Konrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
144>.
6. ^ "Beilstein, Friedrich Konrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
144>.
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p354.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479.
10. ^ "Beilstein,
Konrad Friedrich", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p75.
11. ^
"Beilstein, Friedrich Konrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
144>. {1880}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Konrad Beilstein."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-k
onrad-beilstein
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia10  
[1] From Handbuch der organischen
Chemie 1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=auP14WcgS2UC&printsec=titlepage#PPA358,
M1

[2] Scan of a picture of German
scientist Friedrich Konrad Beilstein
(who died in 1906) Source Journal
of Chemical Education, pages 310 –
316 Date 1938 Author Richter,
Friedrich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Beilstein_Friedrich_K
onrad.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 14 		3810) Although close for many years,
Breuer and Freud separate in 1896 and
never speak again due partly to
quarrels over their work.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491-492.
2. ^ "Breuer, Josef",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p137.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137.
5. ^ Breuer, Freud, "Ueber den
psychischen Mechanismus hysterischer
Phänomene", Wiederabdruck aus dem,
"Neurologischen Centralblatt", 1893,
Nr. 1 u. 2. Josef Breuer, Sigmund
Freud, "Studien über Hysterie", F.
Deuticke,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NQkZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP2&dq=inauthor:Breuer&a
s_brr=1&ei=EJpjSeTkFJmUMbTOkLEL English
translation: "On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena:
Preliminary communication" Sigmund
Freud, James Strachey, Anna Freud
Bernays, "Studies on Hysteria", Basic
Books, 2000.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr
=&id=AO_X3hZn5YwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Studi
es+on+hysteria&ots=lpZqidSrWt&sig=_txE1Q
laL_T9Hg_VmLMWPFB3vJg#PPA3,M1
6. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Breuer,
Josef", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p137.
13. ^
"Breuer, Josef", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p137.
14. ^
"Breuer, Josef", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p137.
{1873} {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Josef Breuer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breuer-jose
f
[2] "Josef Breuer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Breue
r
[3] "Sigmund Freud". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sigmund_
Freud
[4] "respiration, human." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6614
3>
[5] "Hering-Breuer reflex." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hering-breu
er-reflex
[6] "Breuer, Josef." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
389>.
(in his own home?) Vienna, Austria (now
Germany)13 (presumably) 
[1] Description Josef Breuer 1877
(35 years old). Published in his
Curriculum vitae. Reproduction from the
archive of Institute for the History of
Medicine, Vienna, Austria. Source
Albrecht Hirschmüller:
Physiologie und Psychoanalyse im Leben
und Werk Josef Breuers. Jahrbuch der
Psychoanalyse, Beiheft Nr. 4. Verlag
Hans Huber, Bern 1978. ISBN
3456806094. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Breuer_1877.jpg

[2] Josef Breuer in 1897 (Aet. 55 PD
source: http://www.pep-web.org/document.
php?id=se.002.0184.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 13 		3812) Nicolas Camille Flammarion
(FlomorEON) (CE 1842-1925), French
astronomer1 publishes "Astronomie
populaire" (1880, tr. 1907; "Popular
Astronomy")2 . Asimov states that this
is the best book of its kind produced
in the 1800s.3

In 1883 Flammarion creates a private
observatory at Juvisy (near Paris) and
continues his studies, especially of
double and multiple stars and of the
moon and Mars.4
Flammarion also
publishes several science fiction
novels.5
Flammarion writes a 500-page
manuscript on the universe at a young
age.6
Flammarion takes the side of
advanced life and canals on Mars (and
that all worlds are inhabited by living
beings).7
In 1887, Flammarion founds
the French Astronomical Society.8
Flamma
rion's later studies are on psychical
research, on which he wrote many works,
among them "Death and Its Mystery" (3
vol., 1920–21; tr. 1921–23)9 , and
"Des Forces naturelles inconnues"
(1865; "Unknown Natural Forces")10 .
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
2. ^ Camille
Flammarion, "Astronomie populaire",
1880. English translation: Camille
Flammarion, John Ellard Gore, "Popular
Astronomy", Chatto & Windus,
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6Ga4AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:flammarion&ei=dqRjSaqUHZSyMPOaoKoF
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
4. ^ "Camille
Flammarion." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-fla
mmarion
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p492.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
8. ^ "Flammarion,
Camille", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p317.
9. ^
"Camille Flammarion." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-fla
mmarion
10. ^ "Camille Flammarion."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-fla
mmarion
11. ^ "Flammarion, Camille", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p317.
12. ^ "Camille Flammarion." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-fla
mmarion
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Camille Flammarion".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Cam
ille_Flammarion
[2] Camille Flammarion, James Glaisher,
"The Atmosphere", Harper & Brothers,
1873. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aqwOAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:flammarion&ei=dqRjSaqUHZSyMPOaoKoF
Paris?, France11 12  
[1] Camille Flammarion PD
source: http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/B
ios/images/Flammarion.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 4 		3871)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
2. ^ "Abney, Sir
William de Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>.
3. ^ "Obituary Notices of Fellows
Deceased", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character (1905-1934), Volume 99,
Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
4. ^ "Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "William de Wiveleslie
Abney." The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press,
2005. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
[2] "William de Wiveleslie Abney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[3] "Sir William De Wiveleslie Abney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
[4] "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3
[5]
"emulsion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
[6] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England3  
[1] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4

[2] William de Wiveleslie PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 5 		3914)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ "Strasburger,
Eduard Adolf." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
3. ^ "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
4. ^ "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
5. ^ "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841-842.
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany4
 
[1] Description EStrasburger.jpg E
Strasburger Source The
Darwin-Wallace celebration held on
THURSDAY, IST JULY, 1908, BY THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON. �� Date
1908 (1908) Auteur Linnean
Society PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/EStrasburger.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 6 		4012)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p33. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false
5. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p33. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false
6. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p33. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false {late in 1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[30] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
(private lab) Menlo Park, NJ, USA5
 
[1] Edison's Menlo Park Steam
Dynamo PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 10 		4095)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
2. ^ "Goldstein,
Eugen." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Wiedemann’s Annalen der Physik,
11 (1880), 850.
4. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Eugen Goldstein,
(translated to English) "On the
Discharge in Rarefied Gases.", Phil
Mag, S 5, Vol 10, Num 61, Sept
1880,p173. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=WE8wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0yyWF2bLL6Red4KJQXWU2xQ&lr=#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
9. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goldstein, Eugen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
282>
[2] "Eugen Goldstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-golds
tein
[3] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Golds
tein
[4] Monatsberichte der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany9
 
[1] Eugen Goldstein 1850 - 1931 PD

source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 11 		4100) Milne has Japanese wife.8 (How
unusual "touch and sex partner" sounds,
but yet, somewhat accurate.9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526-527.
2. ^ "Milne, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
748>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526-527.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p526-527.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526-527.
6. ^ "Milne, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
748>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526-527.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Milne, John." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
748>.
11. ^ "Milne, John." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
748>. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Milne." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/milne-john
[2] "John Milne." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/milne-john
[3] "John Milne". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milne
[4] "Milne, John." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
406-407. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5]
http://www.lib.u-tokyo.ac.jp/tenjikai/te
njikai97/milne.html
[6] John Milne, "Seismology in Japan",
Nature, volume 22, issue 557,
07/01/1880,
p208. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=J&aulast=Milne
&atitle=Seismology+in+Japan&id=doi:10.10
38/022208a0&title=Nature&volume=22&date=
1880&spage=208&issn=0028-0836
[7]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blseismograph8.htm
[8]
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topi
cs/seismology/history/part08.php
(Imperial College of Engineering)
Tokyo, Japan10  
[1] A record obtained with a Milne
horizontal seismograph on April 5 1901.
As may be seen, the usefulness of
Milne's instrument was diminished by
its lack of damping. PD
source: http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1
/0/S/K/fig_23.gif

[2] From Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America. Vol. 59, No. 1, pp.
183-227. February, 1969. Figure 16.
Milne's instrument for recording the
relative motion of neighboring points
of ground (after Milne, 1888c). PD
source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
ing/topics/seismology/history/figures/fi
g_16.gif
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 11 		4232)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Neisser, Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010.
2. ^ Albert Neisser, "Über die
Aetiologie des Aussatzes",
Jahresbericht der Schlesischen
Gesellschaft für vaterländische
Kultur, 57 (1880), 65–72. (presumably
the correct paper)
3. ^ "leprosy."
Encyclopedia of Medicine. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 11 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leprosy
4. ^ "Neisser, Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010.
5. ^ "Hansen, Gerhard Henrik
Armauer." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 101-103.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010.
6. ^ Gerhard Armauer Hansen,
“Bacillus leprace,” in Virchow’s
Arkiv für pathologische Anatomie und
physiologie und für klinische Medizin,
79 (1880), 32–42; (presumably the
correct article)
7. ^ "Neisser, Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Neisser, Albert
Ludwig Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 10.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
17-19. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 10 Feb. 2010.
10. ^
http://www.doctorsreview.com/node/615
11. ^ "Neisser, Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-19.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Feb. 2010. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
[2] "Albert Ludwig
Sigesmund Neisser". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ludw
ig_Sigesmund_Neisser
[3] Albert Neisser, "Über eine der
Gonorrboe eigenthümliche
Mierococcenform", Centralblatt für die
medizinischen Wissemchaften, 28 (1879),
497–500;
(Oskar Simon’s clinic) Breslau,
Germany9 10 (presumably) 
[1] Description Albert
neisser.jpg English: Albert Neisser,
German bacteriologist who discovered
the Neisseria bacteria. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Albert_neisser.jpg

[2] A photomicrograph of Mycobacterium
leprae taken from a leprosy skin lesion
(CDC, US Government public domain,
1979) Public Health Image Library
(PHIL) #2123 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Mycobacterium_leprae.
jpeg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 19 20 		4348) Pierre is only 18 years old when
he and Jacques discover
piezoelectricity but the brothers
apparently do not publish until 1880.15

Pierre Curie was run over by a dray, a
low heavy sideless cart, on a Paris
street and died instantly in 1906.16
Was this perhaps a murder?17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
4. ^ "Pierre Curie."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
7. ^ "Curie, Pierre."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques
Curie, "Développement, par pression,
de l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/ {Curie_Jacques_and_Pier
re_N0003048_PDF_296_395_1880.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Curie, Pierre."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Pierre Curie."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581. {1880}
20. ^
Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Développement, par pression, de
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/ {Curie_Jacques_and_Pier
re_N0003048_PDF_296_395_1880.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[2] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
[3] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 383.
[4] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois du
dégagement de l’électricité par
pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881),
186.
[5] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
les phénomènes électriques de la
tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 350.
[6] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Les cristaux
héemièdres à faces inclinées, comme
sources constantes d’électricitè",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences,
93 (1881), 204.
[7] Pierre Curie,Jacques
Curie, "Contractions et dilatations
produites par des tensions électriques
dan les cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137.
[8] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France18  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 3 		4549)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{1880 (guess}
unknown  
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 3 		4550)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{1880 (guess}
unknown  
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 2 		4551)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1880
(guess}
unknown  
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 2 		4552)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1880
(guess}
unknown  
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 16 		5839) In 1862 Röntgen entered a
technical school at Utrecht, and is
unfairly expelled, accused of having
produced a caricature of one of the
teachers, which was in fact done by
somebody else.13
Röntgen publishes 55
scientific papers in his lifetime.14
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
5. ^ W. C.
Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
6. ^
http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-p
02-elact-pol.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber
die durch Electricität bewirkten Form-
und Volumenänderungen von
dielectrischen Körpern", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 247, Issue 13, pages
771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
14. ^ Richard Francis Mould, "A century
of x-rays and radioactivity in
medicine: with emphasis on photographic
records of the early years", ed2, CRC
Press,
1993. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IXPz7bVR7g0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+ce
ntury+of+x-rays&ei=eebDSZquLYzckQSC0-n-D
Q#PPT24,M1
15. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
16. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity" {09/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[8] "Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>
[9] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany15  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 6 		6011)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
2. ^ Lax, Roger; Frederick Smith
(1989). The Great Song Thesaurus.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.
230. ISBN 978-0-19-505408-8.
3. ^ "1812 Overture".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812_Overtu
re
4. ^ "1812 Overture". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812_Overtu
re
5. ^ "Peter Tchaikovsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
6. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
{1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "List of compositions by
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia5
(presumably) (verify) 
[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg
119 YBN
[01/05/1881 AD] 13 14 		3608)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
2. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
5. ^ "Photophone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p355.
7. ^ "evanescent." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
24 Sep. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
vanescent>.
8. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
9. ^ Shelford Bidwell, "Practical
Telephotography", Volume 76 Number
1974, Aug 29, 1907,
pp441-464. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v76/n1974/index.html {Bidwell_
Shelford_Practical_Telephotography_Natur
e_1907.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/?target=
SeeMedium&ObjectID={362EAEAA-D808-2BE4-8
8E7-CAB0D5B92C95}&s=S1&SearchString=bidw
ell&source=Search&viewby=images&
13. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf} {01/05/1881}
14. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm {1881}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wNURAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA546&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+photo
telegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpGgswOOu
uTeDg#PPA546,M1
[2] Marcus J. Martin, "The Electrical
Transmission of Photographs", Sir I.
Pitman & sons, ltd.,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Aw9IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Shelford+Bidwell
+phototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpG
gswOOuuTeDg#PPA12,M1
[3] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[4] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
[5] "Shelford Bidwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelford_Bi
dwell
[6] Shelford Bidwell, "Telegraphic
Photography and Electric Vision",
Nature, Volume 78 Number 2014 pp97-120,
(04 June 1908),
p105. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2014/index.html http://www.nat
ure.com/nature/journal/v78/n2014/pdf/078
105a0.pdf
London, England12 (presumably) 
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf

[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
119 YBN
[02/05/1881 AD] 13 		3877) In 1882, Abney is awarded the
Rumsford medal for these researches.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
2. ^ Captain Abney,
Lieut.-Colonel Festing , "On the
Influence of the Atomic Grouping in the
Molecules of Organic Bodies on Their
Absorption in the Infra-Red Region of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Wil
liam_Festing_1881.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Wil
liam_Festing_1881.pdf}
8. ^ Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Wil
liam_Festing_1881.pdf}
9. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Obituary Notices of
Fellows Deceased", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character (1905-1934), Volume
99, Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
12. ^ "Obituary Notices of Fellows
Deceased", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character (1905-1934), Volume 99,
Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
13. ^ Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Wil
liam_Festing_1881.pdf} {02/05/1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>
[2] "William de Wiveleslie Abney." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
[3] "William de Wiveleslie Abney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[4] "Sir William De Wiveleslie Abney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
[5] "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3
[6]
"emulsion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
[7] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
[8] Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
[9] John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England12  
[1] (Plate 86 from Abney and Festing
1881 paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979e2a
b457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Willia
m_Festing_1881.pdf}

[2] (Plate 87 from Abney and Festing
1881 paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979e2a
b457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Willia
m_Festing_1881.pdf}
119 YBN
[02/??/1881 AD] 14 15 		3421)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
4. ^ "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p532-535.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
p532-535.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
10. ^ "Pasteur,
Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
p532-535.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
14. ^ Henry Smith Williams, Edward
Huntington Williams, "A History of
Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1 {02/1881}
15. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
[8] René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[9] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
[10]
http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/
articles/pasteur.htm#paperII
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France13  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
119 YBN
[02/??/1881 AD] 10 11 		3422)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p532-535.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
10. ^ Henry Smith Williams, Edward
Huntington Williams, "A History of
Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1 {02/1881}
11. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
[8] René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[9] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
[10]
http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/
articles/pasteur.htm#paperII
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France9  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
119 YBN
[04/??/1881 AD] 18 		4256) The son of a bookseller, Thomson
enters Owens College, now the Victoria
University of Manchester when only 14
years old.8
Asimov states that through
Thomson's direction and inspired
teaching England maintains clear
leadership in the field of subatomic
physics for the first 3 decades of the
1900s.9
In 1906 Thomson wins the Nobel
prize in physics for work on the
electon.10
Seven of Thomson's research
assistants will win Nobel prizes.11

Thomson's son,Sir George Paget Thomson
(CE 1892–1975), will discover
electron diffraction, for which he
shares the 1937 Nobel Prize for physics
with Clinton J. Davisson (1881–1958),
who independently makes the same
discovery.12

In 1884 there was a transition from
Lord Rayleigh, who had succeeded
Maxwell, as Cavendish Professorship of
Experimental Physics, to Thomson.13
This may have been a somewhat important
transition from a wave interpretation
of light to a particle
interpretation.14 According to the
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, Thomson was surprised to be
elected, and some of Thomson's
competitors, who included Fitzgerald,
Glazebrook, Larmor, Reynolds, and
Schuster, were annoyed. Among the
electors were Stokes, William Thomson,
W. D. Niven, and George Darwin.15

In the course of his life, Thomson
publishes over a hundred scientific
papers.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p357.
3. ^ J. J. Thomson, On
the electric and magnetic effects
produced by the motion of electrified
bodies. Phil. Mag. II, April 1881,
p229. http://books.google.com/books?id=
O5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=On+the+electric
+and+magnetic+effects+produced+by+the+mo
tion+of+electrified+bodies.&cd=1#v=onepa
ge&q=On%20the%20electric%20and%20magneti
c%20effects%20produced%20by%20the%20moti
on%20of%20electrified%20bodies.&f=false
4. ^ Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false
5. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
12. ^ "Sir Joseph
John Thomson." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 03 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
13. ^ "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010.
14. ^
Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010.
16. ^ "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
17. ^ J. J. Thomson, On the electric
and magnetic effects produced by the
motion of electrified bodies. Phil.
Mag. II, April 1881,
p229. http://books.google.com/books?id=
O5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=On+the+electric
+and+magnetic+effects+produced+by+the+mo
tion+of+electrified+bodies.&cd=1#v=onepa
ge&q=On%20the%20electric%20and%20magneti
c%20effects%20produced%20by%20the%20moti
on%20of%20electrified%20bodies.&f=false
18. ^ J. J. Thomson, On the electric
and magnetic effects produced by the
motion of electrified bodies. Phil.
Mag. II, April 1881,
p229. http://books.google.com/books?id=
O5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=On+the+electric
+and+magnetic+effects+produced+by+the+mo
tion+of+electrified+bodies.&cd=1#v=onepa
ge&q=On%20the%20electric%20and%20magneti
c%20effects%20produced%20by%20the%20moti
on%20of%20electrified%20bodies.&f=false
{04/1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England17
 
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
119 YBN
[10/??/1881 AD] 4 		4010)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies,
"Edisonia," a brief history of the
early Edison electric lighting system",
1904,
p36. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false
3. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p36. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false
4. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p36. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false {10/1881}

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[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
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Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
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lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
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[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
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[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
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[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
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qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
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1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
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02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
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phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
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[30] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
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Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
(Paris International Exhibition) Paris,
France3  
[1] Edison's 1881 steam electric
generator PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
119 YBN
[12/15/1881 AD] 8 9 		3738)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
5. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "On the Iron
Lines Widened in Solar Spots",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 31,
1880/1881. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/806858137u0r5888/?p=149f9b4
bf4ee41088f3c5a073eedec5eπ=85 {Lockyer
_Norman_1881.pdf}
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, "On the Most
Widened Lines in Sun-Spot Spectra.
First and Second Series, from November
12, 1879, to October 15, 1881.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1883 vol:36 iss:1 pg:443.
http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_loc
al?sid=google&auinit=JN&aulast=Lockyer&a
title=On+the+Most+Widened+Lines+in+Sun-S
pot+Spectra.+First+and+Second+Series,+fr
om+November+12,+1879,+to+October+15,+188
1.&id=doi:10.1098/rspl.1883.0128 {Locky
er_Norman_1881_11.pdf}
7. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
8. ^ Norman Lockyer, "On the Most
Widened Lines in Sun-Spot Spectra.
First and Second Series, from November
12, 1879, to October 15, 1881.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1883 vol:36 iss:1 pg:443.
http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_loc
al?sid=google&auinit=JN&aulast=Lockyer&a
title=On+the+Most+Widened+Lines+in+Sun-S
pot+Spectra.+First+and+Second+Series,+fr
om+November+12,+1879,+to+October+15,+188
1.&id=doi:10.1098/rspl.1883.0128 {Locky
er_Norman_1881_11.pdf} {12/15/1881}
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[5] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[7] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph
Norman" (Obituary Notice), Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 81, p.261 (MNRAS
Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
[8]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England7  
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 4 		3043) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist1 ,
publishes his last major work "The
Formation of Vegetable Mould, through
the Action of Worms, with Observations
on Their Habits" (1881).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp364-368.
2. ^ "Darwin,
Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
3. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
4. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (1881)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
Downe, Kent, England3
(presumably) 
[1] The author of the website believes
this to be the last portrait of Darwin.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.thesecondevolution.co
m/darwin5.html

[2] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 5 		3330) Mortillet is a freethinker, takes
part in Revolution of 1848 and is
forced to leave France in 1849.3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p410-411.
2. ^ "Mortillet,
Louis-Laurent Gabriel De", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p624.
3. ^ "Mortillet, Louis-Laurent
Gabriel De", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p624.
4. ^
"Mortillet, Gabriel de." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3846>.
5. ^ "Mortillet, Louis-Laurent Gabriel
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p624. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel de Mortillet." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Archaeology. Oxford University Press,
2002, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-de-
mortillet
[2] "Louis Laurent Gabriel de
Mortillet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Laure
nt_Gabriel_de_Mortillet
(School of Anthropology) Paris, France4
 
[1] * Bildbeschreibung: Gabriel de
Mortillet (1821-1898), französischer
Prähistoriker * Quelle:
http://prehisto.ifrance.com/ *
Fotograf/Zeichner: unbekannt *
Datum: vor 1898 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/6/66/Gabriel_de_mortillet.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 7 8 		3715)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468.
2. ^ "Venn, John",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p903.
3. ^ John Venn
(1881). Symbolic logic. Chelsea
Publ.co..
(1881) http://books.google.com/books?id
=nisCAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=joh
n+venn&as_brr=1.
4. ^ "John Venn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Venn
5. ^ "Venn, John", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p903.
6. ^
"Venn, John", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p903.
7. ^
John Venn (1881). Symbolic logic.
Chelsea Publ.co..
(1881) http://books.google.com/books?id
=nisCAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=joh
n+venn&as_brr=1.
8. ^ "John Venn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Venn
{1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Venn." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-venn
(Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England6  
[1] Picture of John Venn, the British
mathematician Source Frontispiece
of Biographical history of Gonville and
Caius college, 1349-1897; containing a
list of all known members of the
college from the foundation to the
present time, with biographical
notes Date 1897 Author John
Venn PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Venn_John_signature.jpg

[2] Description Stained glass
window in the dining hall of Gonville
and Caius College, in Cambridge (UK),
commemorating John Venn, who invented
the concept of Venn diagram and was a
fellow of the college. The text on the
windows reads: JOHN VENN; FELLOW
1857–1923; PRESIDENT
1903–1923. Source Photo by
myself Date 28 April 2006 Author
User:Schutz. The stained glass was
designed by Maria McClafferty and
installed in 1989. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Venn-stainedglass-gon
ville-caius.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 14 15 		3793) Maxim is the eldest son of a
farmer who is a locally notable
mechanic, and is apprenticed at 14 to a
carriage maker.5
Maxim has an early
genius for invention, and obtains his
first patent in 1866, for a
hair-curling iron.6

Maxim spends time as a professional
prize fighter.7

For this generator Maxim receives the
Legion of Honour from France.8

In the 1890s Maxim experimented with
airplanes, producing one powered by a
light steam engine that dies rise from
the ground. Maxim recognizes that the
real solution to flight is the
internal-combustion engine but did not
develop any.9

Maxim receives 122 United States
patents and 149 British patents.10
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487-488.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p357.
3. ^ "Maxim, Sir
Hiram." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
540>.
4. ^ Hiram Stevens Maxim, "My Life",
Methuen & co., ltd., 1915,
128-129. http://books.google.com/books?
id=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA128,M1
5. ^ "Maxim, Sir Hiram." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
540>.
6. ^ "Maxim, Sir Hiram." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
540>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487-488.
8. ^ Hiram Stevens
Maxim, "My Life", Methuen & co., ltd.,
1915,
128-129. http://books.google.com/books?
id=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA128,M1
9. ^ "Maxim, Sir Hiram." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
540>.
10. ^ "Maxim." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hiram-steve
ns-maxim
11. ^ "Maxim, Sir Hiram." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
540>.
12. ^ Hiram Stevens Maxim, "My Life",
Methuen & co., ltd.,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nZdBAAAAIAAJ
13. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p357.
14. ^ Hiram Stevens Maxim, "My Life",
Methuen & co., ltd.,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nZdBAAAAIAAJ {1881}
15. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p357. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Maxim." The Oxford Companion
to Military History. Oxford University
Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hiram-steve
ns-maxim
[2] "Maxim." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hiram-steve
ns-maxim
[3] "Hiram Stevens Maxim". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiram_Steve
ns_Maxim
[4] "Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Hira
m_Stevens_Maxim
Paris, France11 12 13  
[1] [t Maxim's self-regulating
generator] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_1#PPA131,M1

[2] Hiram Stevens Maxim circa
1912 [edit]
Source http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalc
ollections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by
_name_display_results.cfm?scientist=Maxi
m,%20Hiram%20Stevens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/de/SIL14-M002-10a.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 18 		3907)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
3. ^
http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.ph
p?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id
=26
4. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
5. ^ Bizo, B. (1832) Biblioteca Ital.
di. Lett. Sci ed. Arti. 30. 275.
6. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
7. ^ Schroeter, J. "Ueber einige durch
Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."Beitr. Z.
Biol. D. Pflanzen1:2, 1870, 109-126.
8. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
9. ^ Koch, R. (1881) Zur Untersuchung
von pathogenen Organismen. Mitth. a. d.
Kaiserl. Gesundheitsampte 1: 1-48.
Cited in Milestones in Microbiology:
1556 to 1940, translated and edited by
Thomas D. Brock, ASM Press. 1998, p101
10. ^
http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.ph
p?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id
=26
11. ^
http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.ph
p?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id
=26
12. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
13. ^ Loeffler, F. (1884) Mittheil.
Kaiserl. Gesunheitsante. 2. cited in
Brock, T. (1998) Robert Koch: a life in
medicine and bacteriology. Science
Technical Publications. Madison, WI,
USA
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
15. ^
http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.ph
p?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id
=26
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
17. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
18. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
{1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>
[2] "Robert Koch." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[4] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[5] "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495
[6] J
Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[7] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[8] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[9] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
[11] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[12] "conjunctivitis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conjunctivi
tis
[13]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
[14]
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pageren
der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
(International Medical Congress)
London, England17  
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 9 		4040)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Trowbridge and Samuel
Sheldon, "Neutralization of Induction",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences"., Vol 24, Issue 16,
presented 05/28/1889,
p176-177. http://books.google.com/books
?id=nwIDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&dq=%22inductio
n+balance%22+bell#v=onepage&q=%22inducti
on%20balance%22%20bell&f=false
2. ^ Oliver Lodge, "On Intermittent
Current and the Induction-Balance",
Phil Mag, 1880,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
epAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232&dq=%22induction+ba
lance%22#v=onepage&q=%22induction%20bala
nce%22&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
6. ^ John Trowbridge
and Samuel Sheldon, "Neutralization of
Induction", Proceedings of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences"., Vol 24,
Issue 16, presented 05/28/1889,
p176-177. http://books.google.com/books
?id=nwIDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&dq=%22inductio
n+balance%22+bell#v=onepage&q=%22inducti
on%20balance%22%20bell&f=false
7. ^ Alexander Bell, "Upon the
electrical experiments to determine the
location of the bullet in...",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aG-7OQAACAAJ&dq=%22induction+balance%22+
bell
8. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
9. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
[7] U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
[8] "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
[9]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm
[10] "Photophone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[11] "Charles Sumner Tainter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sum
ner_Tainter
[12]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
[13]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/Metal_Detector.htm
(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA8  
[1] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
ssets/jb/gilded/jb_gilded_garshot_2_e.jp
g

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 11 		4136) In 1886 Halsted is the first
professor of surgery at Johns Hopkins
University, and establishes the first
separate surgical school in the USA
there.3
At Johns Hopkins, halsted
develops original operations for
hernia, breast cancer, goitre,
aneurysms, and intestinal and
gallbladder diseases.4
Halsted develops
an addiction to cocaine that requires 2
years to stop.5 But people of this
draconian age should remember that drug
addiction is no reason to be
imprisoned, and certainly not for more
than a week until an addiction is
physically gone.6
Halsted is
particularly noted for his skill in
breast amputations.7
Halsted sends his
shirts to Paris to have then
laundered.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
2. ^ "Halsted,
William Stewart." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
4. ^ "Halsted,
William Stewart." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>.
5. ^ "Halsted, William Stewart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
9. ^ "Halsted,
William Stewart." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>.
10. ^ "Halsted, William Stewart."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 77-78. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
11. ^ "Halsted, William Stewart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Stewart Halsted."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/halsted-wil
liam-stewart
New York City, NY, USA9 10  
[1] Halsted, 1905 Courtesy of the
Johns Hopkins Press PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
11256&rendTypeId=4

[2] William Stewart Halsted,
1852-1922, half-length portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/WilliamHalsted.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 44 45 		4157)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
3. ^ "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
4. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
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RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
6. ^ Albert A.
Michelson, "The relative motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous ether", The
American Journal of Science, Volume
122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
9. ^ "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Michelson, Albert Abraham." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
13. ^ Albert A. Michelson, "The
relative motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
14. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
18. ^ George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
20. ^ Hendrik
Lorentz, "The Relative Motion of the
Earth and the Ether", Versl. K. Akad.
W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892. {Lorentz_Hendrik_1892.pdf}
21. ^ Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Michelson,
Albert Abraham." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ "Michelson,
Albert Abraham." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
33. ^ Swenson, "The Ethereal Aether",
1972, p201.
34. ^ Miller, "Ether-Drift
Experiment", Phys Rev, s2, v20, July
1922, p26-30.
35. ^ Swenson, "The Ethereal
Aether", 1972, p222.
36. ^ Michelson, et al,
"Repetition of the Michelson-Morley
Experiment", Nature, 123:88 (January
19,
1929). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v123/n3090/abs/123088a0.html
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted
Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ "Michelson, A.A.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
43. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
44. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542. {1881}
45. ^
"Michelson, A.A.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[7] Albert Michelson,
"Interference Phenomena in a new Form
of Refractometer", Philosophical
Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany42 43  
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 25 		4349)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Contractions et dilatations produites
par des tensions électriques dan les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137.
3. ^ Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
5. ^ "Pierre Curie."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
6. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Contractions et dilatations produites
par des tensions électriques dan les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137.
8. ^ Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Curie, Pierre."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie,
"Développement, par pression, de
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/ {Curie_Jacques_and_Pier
re_N0003048_PDF_296_395_1880.pdf}
14. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 383.
15. ^
Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois du
dégagement de l’électricité par
pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881),
186.
16. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
les phénomènes électriques de la
tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 350.
17. ^
Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Les
cristaux héemièdres à faces
inclinées, comme sources constantes
d’électricitè", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 93 (1881),
204.
18. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Contractions et dilatations produites
par des tensions électriques dan les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137.
19. ^
Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Déformations électriques du quartz",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences,
95 (1882), 914.
20. ^ "Pierre Curie."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
25. ^ "Pierre Curie." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[3] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
(Sorbonne) Paris, France24  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
118 YBN
[01/12/1882 AD] 4 		4011)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies,
"Edisonia," a brief history of the
early Edison electric lighting system",
1904,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
4. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false {01/12/1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
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Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
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on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
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[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
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lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
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[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
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[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
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(57 Holborn Viaduct) London, England3
 
[1] first Central Station for
Incandescent lighting on earth. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Edison's 1881 steam electric
generator PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false
118 YBN
[01/14/1882 AD] 4 		4013)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies,
"Edisonia," a brief history of the
early Edison electric lighting system",
1904,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
4. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false {01/12/1882}
{01/14/1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[30] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
(Crystal Palace) Syndenham, England3
 
[1] Crystal Palace Electric Exposition
of 1882 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
118 YBN
[02/??/1882 AD] 5 6 		3996)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson, Jane
Smeal Thompson, "Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, his Life and Letters",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vb8EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Silv
anus+Phillips+Thompson+his+life+letters#
v=onepage&q=&f=false and
http://www.archive.org/details/silvanu
sphillips00thomrich
2. ^ Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
3. ^ "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
4. ^ "Thompson, Silvanus Phillips",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p274
5. ^ Silvanus
P. Thompson, "On the Electric
Resistance of Carbon under Pressure.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, Vol 13, Num
81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false {02/1882}
6. ^ "Under Pressure", The
Electrician, Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false {02/1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Silvanus P. Thompson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvanus_P.
_Thompson
(University College) Bristol, England4
 
[1] Description Thompson Silvanus
mature.jpg Picture of English
scientist, Silvanus Thompson Date
1920(1920) Source Silvanus
Thompson, His Life and Letters Author
Thompson and Thompson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Thompson_Silvanus_mat
ure.jpg
118 YBN
[03/24/1882 AD] 12 		3903) In 1905 Koch will win the Nobel
Prize in medicine and physiology for
findings relating to tuberculosis.10
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^ "Koch, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
3. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16899
4. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
5. ^ Robert Koch, "Die Aetiologie der
Tuberculose.", Berliner klinische
Wochenschrift, 1882, 19: 221-230.
http://books.google.com/books?id=kG1IG
QAACAAJ&dq=intitle:Berliner+klinische+in
title:Wochenschrift&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=A
LLTYPES&ei=eazASfy0MpPikATCvvTbCQ
6. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/298
7.html
7. ^ Robert Koch, "Die Aetiologie der
Tuberculose. Mittheilungen aus dem
Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte", 1884, 2:
1-88. Translated by S. Boyd as "The
Etiology of Tuberculosis". In:
Microparasites in Disease (1886):
67-201.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
9. ^ "Robert Koch."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
11. ^ "Koch, Heinrich
Hermann Robert", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p493-495.
12. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>. {03/24/1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Koch." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[2] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[4] J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[5] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[6] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[7] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
[8]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany11  
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
118 YBN
[03/??/1882 AD] 7 		3752)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Draper, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
149>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474-475.
3. ^ Henry Draper,
"On Photographs of the Spectrum of the
Nebula in Orion", Am J Sci, III, xxiii,
339-341, May, 1882.
http://books.google.com/books?id=tI4UA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA513&dq=intitle:American+int
itle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:Science+
date:1882-1882&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYP
ES&ei=gLNYSbrxKZCIkAS17ZDCBg#PPA339,M1
4. ^ Henry Draper, "On Photographs of
the Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion",
Am J Sci, III, xxiii, 339-341, May,
1882.
http://books.google.com/books?id=tI4UA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA513&dq=intitle:American+int
itle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:Science+
date:1882-1882&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYP
ES&ei=gLNYSbrxKZCIkAS17ZDCBg#PPA339,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Henry Draper." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-drape
r
7. ^ Henry Draper, "On Photographs of
the Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion",
Am J Sci, III, xxiii, 339-341, May,
1882.
http://books.google.com/books?id=tI4UA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA513&dq=intitle:American+int
itle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:Science+
date:1882-1882&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYP
ES&ei=gLNYSbrxKZCIkAS17ZDCBg#PPA339,M1
{03/1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Drape
r
[2] "John William Draper". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
[3] "Draper, Henry", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p260-261.
[4] Biographical Memoirs, By National
Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National
Academy of Sciences, 1895,
p81-140. http://books.google.com/books?
id=d3iph4B87oEC&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+Draper&
ei=55VYSZLJNZSokASEwJSuDw
[5] Henry Draper, "15 Photographs of
the Spectra of Venus and a Lyrae", Am J
Sci HI xiii 95 Feb 1877 Reprinted in
Phil Mag Fifth series, iii,
238. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
PcQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=intitle:american+
intitle:journal+intitle:of+intitle:scien
ce+date:1877-1877&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALL
TYPES&ei=jJ1YSabSM5iMkASu3M3HDg#PPA95,M1

[6] Barker, George F. (1887). "On the
Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of
Stellar Spectra". Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 24:
166–172. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=KcAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA166&dq=On+the+Hen
ry+Draper+Memorial+Photographs+of+Stella
r+Spectra&ei=saBYSeydD43WlQSq6MTuBw
[7] Henry Draper, "Discovery of Oxygen
in the Sun by Photography and a new
Theory the Solar Spectrum", Proc Am
Phil Soc, July 1877, 74, 80, Am J Sci
III, xiv, 39, 96, 1877.
[8] Henry Draper, "On
a Photograph of Jupiter's Spectrum
showing Evidence of Intrinsic Light
from that Planet", Am J Sci, III, xx,
118-121, Aug 1880. Monthly Not Astr Soc
xl 433 436 May
1880. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle:America
n+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:Sci
ence+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=A
LLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSCA#PRA2-P
A118,M1 and http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aDkLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83&dq=On+a+Phot
ograph+of+Jupiter%27s+Spectrum+showing+E
vidence+of+Intrinsic+Light+from+that+Pla
net&ei=sqlYSZvMOZDckATJo7yfAg
[9] Henry Draper, "On Photographs of
the Nebula in Orion", Am J Sci, III,
xx, 433, 1880; Phil Mag V x 388;
Comptes Rendus xci 688 xcii
178,904. http://books.google.com/books?
id=nHAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=intitle:Amer
ican+intitle:Journal+intitle:of+intitle:
Science+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=1&as_p
t=ALLTYPES&ei=XKtYSdO6Np3wkQSA87zSCA#PRA
2-PA433,M1
[10]
http://www.saburchill.com/HOS/astronomy/
033.html
(City University) New York City, NY,
USA6 (presumably) 
[1] The 1882 photograph of the Orion
Nebula © Henry Draper PD
source: http://www.saburchill.com/HOS/as
tronomy/images/201105002.jpg

[2] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg
118 YBN
[05/25/1882 AD] 13 		4066)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. A. Rowland, "Preliminary
notice of the results accomplished in
the manufacture and theory of gratings
for optical purposes", Philosophical
Magazine Series 5, 1882, volume: 13
issue: 84 page:
469. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
sGeEFAxsyYC&pg=PA469&lpg=PA469&dq=prelim
inary+notice+of+results+Rowland&source=b
l&ots=xke6bN1JJh&sig=9WoISLxOzB0k05ytBlV
DFHWjHeg&hl=en&ei=nSG9Suy7BoOasgP9xLAo&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=
onepage&q=preliminary%20notice%20of%20re
sults%20Rowland&f=false
2. ^ Proceedings, American
Philosophical Society (vol. 102, no. 5,
1958),
p484. http://books.google.com/books?id=
dlULAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA484&dq=rowland+diffrac
tion+grating&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=rowlan
d%20diffraction%20grating&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ H. A. Rowland, "Preliminary notice
of the results accomplished in the
manufacture and theory of gratings for
optical purposes", Philosophical
Magazine Series 5, 1882, volume: 13
issue: 84 page:
469. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
sGeEFAxsyYC&pg=PA469&lpg=PA469&dq=prelim
inary+notice+of+results+Rowland&source=b
l&ots=xke6bN1JJh&sig=9WoISLxOzB0k05ytBlV
DFHWjHeg&hl=en&ei=nSG9Suy7BoOasgP9xLAo&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=
onepage&q=preliminary%20notice%20of%20re
sults%20Rowland&f=false
7. ^ Proceedings, American
Philosophical Society (vol. 102, no. 5,
1958),
p484. http://books.google.com/books?id=
dlULAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA484&dq=rowland+diffrac
tion+grating&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=rowlan
d%20diffraction%20grating&f=false
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
9. ^ H. A. Rowland,
"Preliminary notice of the results
accomplished in the manufacture and
theory of gratings for optical
purposes", Philosophical Magazine
Series 5, 1882, volume: 13 issue: 84
page:
469. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
sGeEFAxsyYC&pg=PA469&lpg=PA469&dq=prelim
inary+notice+of+results+Rowland&source=b
l&ots=xke6bN1JJh&sig=9WoISLxOzB0k05ytBlV
DFHWjHeg&hl=en&ei=nSG9Suy7BoOasgP9xLAo&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=
onepage&q=preliminary%20notice%20of%20re
sults%20Rowland&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ H. A.
Rowland, "Preliminary notice of the
results accomplished in the manufacture
and theory of gratings for optical
purposes", Philosophical Magazine
Series 5, 1882, volume: 13 issue: 84
page:
469. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
sGeEFAxsyYC&pg=PA469&lpg=PA469&dq=prelim
inary+notice+of+results+Rowland&source=b
l&ots=xke6bN1JJh&sig=9WoISLxOzB0k05ytBlV
DFHWjHeg&hl=en&ei=nSG9Suy7BoOasgP9xLAo&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=
onepage&q=preliminary%20notice%20of%20re
sults%20Rowland&f=false
13. ^ H. A. Rowland, "Preliminary
notice of the results accomplished in
the manufacture and theory of gratings
for optical purposes", Philosophical
Magazine Series 5, 1882, volume: 13
issue: 84 page:
469. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
sGeEFAxsyYC&pg=PA469&lpg=PA469&dq=prelim
inary+notice+of+results+Rowland&source=b
l&ots=xke6bN1JJh&sig=9WoISLxOzB0k05ytBlV
DFHWjHeg&hl=en&ei=nSG9Suy7BoOasgP9xLAo&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=
onepage&q=preliminary%20notice%20of%20re
sults%20Rowland&f=false {05/25/1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Augustus Rowland."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[2] "Henry Augustus Rowland." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[3] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Augus
tus_Rowland
[4] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_Au
gustus_Rowland
[5] "Rowland, Henry Augustus", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p756
[6] Henry Augustus Rowland,
"The physical papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland, Johns Hopkins university ...",
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=henry+rowland+pap
ers&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] "Frederick Banting." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-b
anting
[8]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/rowland.html
[9] Henry Rowland, "On the Magnetic
Effect of Electric Convection",
American Journal of Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
[10] "Rowland, Henry Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore,
Maryland, USA12  
[1] Rowland with one of his ruling
engines at Johns Hopkins PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dlULAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg
118 YBN
[07/17/1882 AD] 13 		4825)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roger Luckhurst, "The Invention
of Telepathy 1870-1901", 2002, p76.
2. ^
Proceedings of the Society for
Psychical Research, V1, 1882-1883,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
NnWAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proce
edings+of+the+society+for+psychical+rese
arch&hl=en&ei=EMO8TKj-Kom2sAPamYD3Dg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=conceive%20of%20
nervous&f=false
3. ^ Proceedings of the Society for
Psychical Research, V1, 1882-1883,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
NnWAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proce
edings+of+the+society+for+psychical+rese
arch&hl=en&ei=EMO8TKj-Kom2sAPamYD3Dg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=conceive%20of%20
nervous&f=false
4. ^ Record ID4285. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Proceedings of the Society for
Psychical Research, V1, 1882-1883,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
NnWAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proce
edings+of+the+society+for+psychical+rese
arch&hl=en&ei=EMO8TKj-Kom2sAPamYD3Dg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=conceive%20of%20
nervous&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "William Barrett."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 18 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fle
tcher-barrett
13. ^ Proceedings of the Society for
Psychical Research, V1, 1882-1883,
p62. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
NnWAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proce
edings+of+the+society+for+psychical+rese
arch&hl=en&ei=EMO8TKj-Kom2sAPamYD3Dg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=conceive%20of%20
nervous&f=false {07/17/1882}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.pflyceum.org/205.html
[2] William Barrett,
"Thought-Transference", 1882
[3] William
Barrett, "On the Threshold of a New
World of Thought",
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WpzWAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=On+t
he+Threshold+of+a+New+World+of+Thought&h
l=en&ei=R9G8TPetIoOC8gaA0fzLDg&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] "William Fletcher Barrett".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fle
tcher_Barrett
(Royal College of Science) Dublin,
Ireland12  
[1] Sir William Fletcher Barrett -
Fonte: The Red Pill PD
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_wl3-kO
dl434/TIkiM363dlI/AAAAAAAAApk/gIZDJjktm4
A/s1600/Sir+William+Fletcher+Barret.jpg
118 YBN
[09/04/1882 AD] 12 		4014)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
2. ^
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
.asp
3. ^ "mains." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ains>.
4. ^
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
.asp
5. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false
6. ^
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
.asp
7. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electric
al++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=onepa
ge&q=holborn&f=false
8. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electric
al++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=onepa
ge&q=holborn&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies,
"Edisonia," a brief history of the
early Edison electric lighting system",
1904,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false
12. ^ Association of Edison
Illuminating Companies, "Edisonia," a
brief history of the early Edison
electric lighting system", 1904,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
xdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=&f=false {09/04/1882 (15:00}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
(Edison Electric illuminating Company,
255 and 257 Pearl Street), New York
City, NY, USA11  
[1] Dynamo room (presumably at Pearl
Street Station) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false

[2] The regulator and bulb rooms PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false
118 YBN
[12/??/1882 AD] 3 		3620)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1 {1882}
(Tuft's College) Boston, Massachusetts,
USA2  
[1] From Scientific American
Supplement, December 11,
1886 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 5 		3513)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436-437.
2. ^
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436-437.
4. ^
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT
5. ^
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
[2] "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 29
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
[3] "Erlenmeyer, Richard August Carl
Emil", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p288
(Munich Polytechnic School) Munich,
Germany4  
[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg

[2] Erlenmeyer PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_Art
icleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?do
i=CT9119901646&JournalCode=CT
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 3 		3515)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p436-437.
2. ^
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT
3. ^
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLink
ing/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CT9119
901646&JournalCode=CT {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
[2] "Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 29
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-aug
ust-carl-emil-erlenmeyer
[3] "Erlenmeyer, Richard August Carl
Emil", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p288.
(Munich Polytechnic School) Munich,
Germany2  
[1] Naphthalene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nap
hthalene

[2] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 28 		3516) Jean Martin Charcot (soRKO) (CE
1825-1893), French physician1 Charcot
presented a summary of his findings on
the phenomenon of mesmerism to the
French Academy of Sciences, where they
are favorably received2 , in this way
the phenomenon of mesmerism (hypnotism)
is officially recognized as a real and
legitimate phenomenon3 .

In his study of muscular atrophy,
Charcot described the symptoms of
locomotor ataxia, a degeneration of the
dorsal columns of the spinal cord and
of the sensory nerve trunks. He is also
first to describe the disintegration of
ligaments and joint surfaces
(Charcot’s disease, or Charcot’s
joint) caused by locomotor ataxia and
other related diseases or injuries.4
(chronology5 )


Charcot uses the techniques of
mesmerism6 (hypnosis) that Braid had
introduced, to treat hysteria.7
Charcot studies the cure of hysterical
disorders (psychoneuroses). These
disorders involve what appear to be
physiological disturbances such as
convulsions, paralyses, blindness,
deafness, anesthesias, and amnesias.
However, there is no evidence of
physiological abnormalities in
psychoneuroses since the root of the
problem is psychological (or based on
badly ordered neuron connections, as
opposed to physical problems with
neurons or neuron connections
themselves8 ). In Charcot's time
hysteria is thought to be a disorder
found only in women (the Greek word
hysterameans uterus). Charcot continues
to think of hysteria as a female
disorder.9

One of the major problems for
psychology in this time is determining
whether behavioral abnormalities
originate in psychological or in
physiological disturbances and, if
physiological, where in the central
nervous system the abnormality might be
located. Charcot becomes noted for his
ability to diagnose and locate the
physiological disturbances of nervous
system functioning.10 Charcot conducts
pioneering research in cerebral
localization, the determination of
specific sites in the brain responsible
for specific nervous functions, and
discovers miliary aneurysms (dilation
of the small arteries feeding the
brain), demonstrating their importance
in cerebral hemorrhage.11 5 (How was
this done, with electronic devices?13
)
(To me, hysteria is a questionable
disease, in addition to being somewhat
trivial and open to abuse in the form
of forced treatment. People can be
frantic, overly excited perhaps, but it
usually does not last in my experience,
and is not something that I interpret
as an abnormality or disease, but as a
natural, albeit maybe annoying,
physical part of genetic structure or
the result of learning.14 )


(Neurology is an actual science,
psychology is a dubious science, but as
long as it is consensual only and not
used as an excuse to imprison people
{for which only law is a valid excuse,
and then, the dubious theories of
psychology should not serve as the
basis for any law in my opinion}, I
think psychology should be legal. The
value of psychology is very doubtful to
me, but if people enjoy the drugs, or
consensual only treatments of those in
psychology I see no reason to outlaw
it, and perhaps there is a beneficial
purpose, if people truly feel they are
being helped, as is the case for any
drug or substance that directly harms
no other person.15 )

(Between neurology and psychology there
is a fine line, which separates these
two as completely different sciences. I
think it is important to be able to
distinguish between the two.16 )

(Does Charcot forcibly treat? drug?
restrain? objecting people?17 )
Charcot
is with Guillaume Duchenne one of the
founders of modern neurology.18 19

In 1862 Charcot establishes a major
neurological department at La
Salpêtrière Hospital20 for nervous
and mental disorders21 .
In 1887 Charcot
writes, "What I call psychology is the
rational physiology of the cerebral
cortex.". Charcot gives impetus to the
new field (of psychology22 ) with the
creation, in 1890, of the Laboratory of
Psychology at the Salpêtrière
hospital.23 24

In 1885 one of Charcot's students is
Freud who also becomes interested in
treating hysteria with hyponotism.25

Charcot’s writings include "Leçons
sur les maladies du système nerveux",
5 vol. (1872–83; "Lectures on the
Diseases of the Nervous System") and
"Leçons du mardi à la Salpêtrière"
(1888; "Tuesday Lessons at the
Salpêtrière").26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437.
2. ^ "Jean-Martin
Charcot." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 29 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
4. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/106349/Jean-Martin-Charcot>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Jean-Martin Charcot." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
10. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
11. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/106349/Jean-Martin-Charcot>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/106349/Jean-Martin-Charcot>.
19. ^ "Charcot, Jean-Martin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p183.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437.
21. ^ "Jean-Martin
Charcot." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/106349/Jean-Martin-Charcot>.
24. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
International Dictionary of
Psychoanalysis. The Gale Group, Inc,
2005. Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p437.
26. ^ "Jean-Martin
Charcot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/106349/Jean-Martin-Charcot>.
27. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
28. ^ "Jean-Martin Charcot."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Martin Charcot." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-martin
-charcot
[2] "Jean-Martin Charcot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Martin
_Charcot
[3] "Jean Martin Charcot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Mar
tin_Charcot
Paris, France27  
[1] Jean-Martin Charcot PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Jean-Martin_Charcot.j
pg

[2] Professor Jean-Martin Charcot
teaching at the Salpêtrière in Paris,
France: showing his students a woman
(''Blanche'' (Marie) Wittman) in an
''hysterical fit'' Wittman is
supported by Charcot's student Joseph
Babinski Painted in 1887 by André
Brouillet; Brouillet died in 1914 and
the painting is therefore now public
domain. Photo taken by myself in a
corridor of University Paris 5 where
the painting is exposed. Due to poor
lighting conditions, I had to get an
angle where reflected light would not
be a problem, which distorted the image
through perspective. I have tried to
put it back into shape. Fr :
Enseignement de Charcot à la
Salpêtrière : le professeur montrant
à ses élèves sa plus fidèle
patiente, « Blanche » (Marie)
Wittman, en crise d'hystérie. Détail
du tableau d'André Brouillet : « une
leçon clinique à la Salpêtrière »,
1887). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Pr_Charcot_DSC09405.j
pg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 12 		3528)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p438.
3. ^ "Hans Peter
Jorgen Julius Thomsen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hans_Pet
er_Jorgen_Julius_Thomsen
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Thomsen, Hans Peter Jörgen Julius",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p871.
7. ^ "Obituary
Notices of Fellows Deceased",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 84, No. 574 (Feb. 15, 1911), pp.
i-xxxvii+xxxviii
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93337?seq=
25 {Thomsen_Julius_obituary.pdf}
8. ^ "Obituary Notices of Fellows
Deceased", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 84, No. 574 (Feb. 15,
1911), pp. i-xxxvii+xxxviii
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93337?seq=
25 {Thomsen_Julius_obituary.pdf}
9. ^ Record ID2273. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Obituary
Notices of Fellows Deceased",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 84, No. 574 (Feb. 15, 1911), pp.
i-xxxvii+xxxviii
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93337?seq=
25 {Thomsen_Julius_obituary.pdf}
11. ^ "Thomsen, Hans Peter Jörgen
Julius", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p871.
12. ^
"Hans Peter Jorgen Julius Thomsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hans_Pet
er_Jorgen_Julius_Thomsen {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Thomsen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/593044/Julius-Thomsen>
[2] "Hans Peter Jørgen Julius
Thomsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Peter_
J%C3%B8rgen_Julius_Thomsen
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark11  
[1] Portrait and statue of Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius Thomsen (1826-1909),
Chemist Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1909-12-31 Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3460&q=SIL14-T002-01 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Accession number:
SIL14-T002-01 PD/Corel
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
109/2552817267_53206801d0.jpg?v=0

[2] Scientist: Thomsen, Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius (1826 -
1909) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15 x 11.5 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T002-01a.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 7 		3579)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p445.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Balfour Stewart." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/566011/Balfour-Stewart>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p445.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Balfour Stewart." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/566011/Balfour-Stewart>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p445. {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Balfour Stewart."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balfour-ste
wart
[2] "Balfour Stewart". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Ste
wart
[3] "Balfour Stewart". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Balfour_
Stewart
[4] "Stewart, Balfour", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p656.
[5] Balfour Stewart (obituary),
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, v46 (1889-90), 1890, p
ix. http://books.google.com/books?id=IO
oAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PR9#PRA1-PR9,M1
(Owens College) Manchester, England6
(presumably) 
[1] Balfour Stewart PD/Corel
source: http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/sol
ar-terrestrial-luminaries/image_tn/Stewa
rt.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 17 18 19 		3588)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450.
2. ^ "history of the
motion picture." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

3. ^ "Instantaneous Photography of
Birds In Flight", Nature, 05/25/1882,
p84-86.
4. ^ Record ID3342. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1880.htm

9. ^ "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450.
11. ^ "history of the
motion picture." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

12. ^ "Instantaneous Photography of
Birds In Flight", Nature, 05/25/1882,
p84-86.
13. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

14. ^ "Étienne-Jules Marey." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Marey,
Étienne-Jules", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p575
17. ^
"Étienne-Jules Marey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364535/Etienne-Jules-Marey> {1882}
18. ^
"Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey {1882}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2002.
Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
(College de France) Paris, France 16
(presumably) 
[1] Marey's photographic gun This item
is on display at the Musée des Arts et
Métiers, Paris Copyright © 2006
David Monniaux GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Fusil_de_Marey_p10403
53.jpg

[2] The Illustration to the left is
entitled ''Flight of the birds
according to the instantaneous
photographs of Mr. Marey'', From 1882
PD/Corel
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/marey_fusil_card.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 22 		3854)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "mitosis." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 30 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
7. ^ "Flemming,
Walther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>.
8. ^ "Flemming, Walther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>.
9. ^ Flemming, W. Zellsubstanz, Kern
und Zelltheilung (F. C. W. Vogel,
Leipzig,
1882). http://books.google.com/books?id
=ctYKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:00O7pRD4csxZlqPg
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
11. ^ "Flemming,
Walther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
13. ^ "Flemming,
Walther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
18. ^ "Walther
Flemming." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/flemming-wa
lther
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p495-496.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
"Flemming, Walther", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p319.5. ^
22. ^ "Flemming, Walther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>. {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Flemming".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Fle
mming
(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany21
 
[1] Illustration from Zellsubstanz,
Kern und Zelltheilung PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f2.gif

[2] Image provided by the Science
Photo Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 4 		3908)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
2. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
3. ^ "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495.
4. ^
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
{1882}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
[2] "Koch, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
[3] "Robert Koch." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[4] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[5] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[6] J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[7] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[8] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[9] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
[11] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[12] "conjunctivitis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conjunctivi
tis
[13]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
[14]
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pageren
der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
[15]
http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.ph
p?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id
=26
[16] Koch, R. (1881) Zur Untersuchung
von pathogenen Organismen. Mitth. a. d.
Kaiserl. Gesundheitsampte 1: 1-48.
Cited in Milestones in Microbiology:
1556 to 1940, translated and edited by
Thomas D. Brock, ASM Press. 1998, p101
[17]
Bizo, B. (1832) Biblioteca Ital. di.
Lett. Sci ed. Arti. 30. 275.
(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany3  
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 39 40 		3947) According to Asimov, Mechnikov
has poor eyesight, and a violent
temper.26

After his wife dies, Mechnikov tries to
end his own life by swallowing a large
dose of opium, but does not die.27

Virchow is not impressed after a
demonstration of phagocytes.28
In 1888
Pasteur invites the Russian Mechnikov
to join the Pasteur Institute which
Mechnikov does. (The French version of
Ilya is Élie Metchnikoff.)29
In 1895
On Pasteur's death Mechnikov succeeds
Pasteur as director of the Institute.30
Mechnikov believes that the natural
lifespan of humans is 150 years and
that drinking cultured milk helps a
person attain it.31
In 1908 Mechnikov
shares a Nobel Prize with Paul Ehrlich
for their researches illuminating the
understanding of immunity.32

Mechnikov publishes "The Comparative
pathology of inflammation" (1892) and
"Immunity in infectious diseases"
(1901).33

Mechnikov's later years are largely
centered studying aging factors in
humans and methods of inducing
longevity, which are discussed in "The
Nature of Man" (1904) and "The
Prolongation of Human Life" (1910).34

One biography of Metchnikoff was made
by his wife, Olga Metchnikoff, "Life of
Élie Metchnikoff" (trans. 1921).35
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metchnikoff
-elie
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
3. ^ "Metchnikoff,
Élie." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
5. ^ "Metchnikoff,
Élie." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
6. ^ "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p601.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
8. ^ "Metchnikoff,
Élie." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
9. ^ "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p601.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
11. ^ "Metchnikoff,
Elie", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p601.
12. ^
"Metchnikoff, Élie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
14. ^ "Metchnikoff,
Élie." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
15. ^ "Metchnikoff, Élie."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
20. ^
"intracellular". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i
ntracellular
21. ^ Metchnikoff O. "Life of Elie
Metchnikoff".Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co, 1921, p116. (translation from
French). http://books.google.com/books?
id=Y-MHAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=L
ife+of+Elie+Metchnikoff#v=onepage&q=one%
20day&f=false
22. ^ "Nobel Lectures, Physiology or
Medicine 1901-1921", Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
1967. first published in the book
series Les Prix
Nobel http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/medicine/laureates/1908/mechnikov-bio.
html
23. ^ E. Metchnikoff., "Untersuchung
ueber die intracellulare Verdauung bei
wirbellosen Tieren", Arbeiten dea zool.
ln»t. zn Wien, Bd. v. Heft ii. p. 141.
24.
^ Metchnikoff O. "Life of Elie
Metchnikoff".Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co, 1921, p119. (translation from
French). http://books.google.com/books?
id=Y-MHAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=L
ife+of+Elie+Metchnikoff#v=onepage&q=one%
20day&f=false
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
27. ^ "Nobel
Lectures, Physiology or Medicine
1901-1921", Elsevier Publishing
Company, Amsterdam, 1967. first
published in the book series Les Prix
Nobel http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/medicine/laureates/1908/mechnikov-bio.
html
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
30. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
32. ^
"Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p601.
33. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991.
34. ^ "Ilya Ilyich
Mechnikov." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 05 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metchnikoff
-elie
35. ^ "Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metchnikoff
-elie
36. ^ "Nobel Lectures, Physiology or
Medicine 1901-1921", Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
1967. first published in the book
series Les Prix
Nobel http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/medicine/laureates/1908/mechnikov-bio.
html
37. ^ "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p601.
38. ^ "Metchnikoff, Élie."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
39. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505. {1882}
40. ^
"Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p601.
{1882}

MORE INFO
[1] Tauber, Alfred I.,
Metchnikoff and the origins of
immunology: from metaphor to theory,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1991
[2]
Schmalstieg FC Jr, Goldman AS., "Ilya
Ilich Metchnikoff (1845-1915) and Paul
Ehrlich (1854-1915): the centennial of
the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine.", J Med Biogr. 2008
May;16(2):96-103. http://jmb.rsmjournal
s.com/cgi/content/full/16/2/96
[3] Karnovsky ML., "Metchnikoff in
Messina: a century of studies on
phagocytosis.", N Engl J Med. 1981 May
7;304(19):1178-80. (subscription)
[4] Breathnach CS.,
"Biographical sketches--No. 44.
Metchnikoff.", Ir Med J. 1984
Sep;77(9):303. http://www.imj.ie//Archi
ve/Metchnikoff.pdf
[5] Metchnikoff O. "Life of Elie
Metchnikoff".Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co, 1921. (translation from
French). http://books.google.com/books?
id=Y-MHAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=L
ife+of+Elie+Metchnikoff#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse http://www.archive.org/stream/life
ofeliemetchn00metciala/lifeofeliemetchn0
0metciala_djvu.txt
[6] Metchnikolf E. Ueber eine
Sporosspiizkrankheit der Daphnien.
Virchows Archiv für pathologische
Anatomie und Physiologie und für
klinische Medizin 1884; 96: 177-95.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AQ8BA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA54&dq=Archiv+OR+f%C3%BCr+OR
+pathologische+OR+Anatomie+inauthor:Virc
how&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_min
y_is=1884&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1884&a
s_brr=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] Elie Metchnikoff, "Lectures on the
comparative pathology of inflammation",
1893. (translated from
French) http://books.google.com/books?i
d=5ojk1BDdCqwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Un
tersuchungen+%C3%BCber+die+intracellul%C
3%A4re+Verdauung+bei+Wirbellosen+Tieren.
&source=gbs_book_other_versions_r&cad=7#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
(In his own private laboratory)36
Messina, Italy37 38  
[1] Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, by
Nadar. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ilja_Iljitsch_Metschn
ikow_Nadar.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Nobel
Prize in Physiology and Medicine,
1908. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ilya_Mechnikov_%28Nob
el_1908%29.png
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 21 		3956) Hall initially intended to enter
the ministry. Hall is inspired by a
partial reading of Physiological
Psychology (1873–74), by Wilhelm
Wundt, generally considered the founder
of experimental psychology. Hall then
studies in Germany becoming acquainted
with Wundt and the German physicist and
physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz.
There Hall discovers the value of the
questionnaire for psychological
research. Hall and his students will
devise more than 190 questionnaires
which stimulate the field of child
development.3 (Interesting that
psychology started in Germany and
spread to other nations.4 )

In 1878, Hall earns, from Harvard
University, the first Ph.D. degree in
psychology in America.5 (To me this
shows the seeds and growth of what in
some sense can be seen as a cancer,
until made "strictly-consensual only"
health care, or certainly at least
"treatment with no-objection only"
health care. The inaccurate claims of
pscyhological disorders have slowed the
stopping of violence - since those who
tell the truth about the JFK, MLK, RFK,
9/11 murders are labeled as "insane",
and the murderers continue to live free
and unknown by the majority. In
addition the stigma and fear of being
labeled with a psychological disorder
has slowed creativity and diversity.
Beyond this, the locking up of humans
without trial, injecting with drugs,
restraining, and holding indefinitely
all violate the most basic principles
of the 1200s habeus corpus law and many
other basic laws and principles.6 )

Hall pioneers the study of child
psychology.7 (psychology as applied to
adults and children too is in large
part a total pseudoscience, as far as I
can see. Perhaps there is value in
examining patterns of behavior and
certainly understanding physiological
development in humans and other
species.8 )

Hall gives an early impetus and
direction to the development of
psychology in the United States and is
frequently regarded as the founder of
child psychology and educational
psychology. Hall promotes the ideas of
Sigmund Freud.9

In 1888 Hall helps to establish Clark
University in Worcester, Massachusetts,
and becomes the university's president
and a professor of psychology.10 (This
shows how pseudoscience, and
involuntary torture was still very
respectable in 1889 and is even
today.11 )

(documentation of people in psychology
serves more to track the growth and
development of pseudoscience
industries, and has little if anything
to do with actual science (for example
sciences of health and healing).
However, I think, if voluntary only,
psychology, although with fraudulent,
highly abstract and speculative
theories rarely based on factual
science, may serve as experiment,
mainly in drugs (and other non-violent,
voluntary only methods, such as talk,
computer games, etc) might serve to
create new drugs that some people enjoy
voluntarily and find helpful in solving
abstract ununderstood individually
perceived problems.12 )

(I think the question for psychology
is, who tortured/treated involuntarily
and who did not? and in addition, who
subscribed to pseudoscience erroneous
theories? who worked against those
aims? I think those in psychology need
to work on a different definition of
"voluntary-only experimental
treatment/therapy for unknown disease
or unwanted behavior, thoughts or
beliefs". The key idea is "voluntary
only".13 )

(I equate the history of psychology
similar to the history of message
therapy, although message therapy
probably has less inaccurate claims,
and certainly no involuntary injection
or torture. Perhaps a closer comparison
is the history of prisons and treatment
of prisoners.14 )

(Clark, as is the case with many
soft-science people appears to me to be
highly over-valued with many
biographies, but few actual science
contributions, and possibly
undocumented human rights violations
such as involuntary drugging,
restraint, electrocution, etc.15 )

(One interesting book title by Hall:
Jesus, the Christ, in the Light of
Psychology (1917).16 This appears to
describe how people have drawn Jesus
over the centuries and how Jesus was
protrayed to reflect some belief.
Possibly there are minor
anti-religious, or exposing the truth
about religions, contributions there.17
)

(I think that in the transition from
religions to science, much if not all
of psychology will probably fall to the
past as more and more people focus on
science and accurate analysis of the
universe.18 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p507.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Hall,
G. Stanley." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
911>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Hall, G. Stanley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
911>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p507.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Hall,
G. Stanley." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
911>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p507.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Granville Stanley Hall, "Jesus,
the Christ, in the light of
psychology", Volume
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vHd
CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Jesus,+the+Christ,+i
n+the+Light+of+Psychology+(1917)%3B#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
(T)
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "G. Stanley Hall." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 21 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/g-stanley-h
all
20. ^ "Johns Hopkins University."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 21 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johns-hopki
ns-university
21. ^ "G. Stanley Hall." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/g-stanley-h
all {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "G stanley hall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_stanley_h
all
[2] "Hall, Granville Stanley", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p289.
Johns Hopkins University19 , Baltimore,
Maryland, USA20  
[1] G. Stanley Hall.jpg Granville
Stanley Hall, (February 1, 1844 - April
24, 1924) was a psychologist and
educator who pioneered the field
American psychology. Date circa
1910 Author source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/gw_44_
3/chameleon?search=KEYWORD&function=CARD
SCR&SourceScreen=INITREQ&sessionid=20061
01920214929759&skin=nlm&conf=.%2fchamele
on.conf&lng=en&itemu1=1035&u1=1035&t1=St
anley%20Hall&elementcount=3&pos=1&prevpo
s=1& Frederick Gutekunst,
Photographer. 1831-1917 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/G._Stanley_Hall.jpg

[2] Description Hall Freud Jung in
front of Clark 1909.jpg Group photo
in front of Clark University Sigmund
Freud, G. Stanley Hall, C.G.Jung; Back
row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones,
Sandor Ferenczi. Photo taken for Clark
University in Worcester, Massachusetts
publication. Date September
1909(1909-09) Source Sigmund
Freud museum Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_fr
ont_of_Clark_1909.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 7 		3965)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509.
2. ^ "Edward Charles
Pickering." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
3. ^ "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Pickering, Edward Charles", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p704.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509. {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, Edward Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>
[2] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[6] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[8] Edward Charles Pickering,
"Compilation of the papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[9] E.C. Pickering, "Statement of work
done at the Harvard observatory during
the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Edward Pickering, "The Objective
Prism",
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bWccAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA564&dq=pickering+p
hotograph+spectra+prism+objective&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Typical objective prism spectra
used for radial velocity measurements
of stars in Taurus. PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-build_image?bg=%23FFFFFF&
/seri/PA.../0046/600/0000008.000&db_key=
AST&bits=4&res=100&filetype=.gif

[2]
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1
938PA.....46....2M&db_key=AST&page_ind=6
&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=
YES [1] Digital ID: ggbain 06050
Source: digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 5 		4015)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p141. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
4. ^ Edison 1882 patent - not sure if
this is first three-wire electrical
distribution
system http://www.google.com/patents?id
=9T1tAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=ininventor:edis
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5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
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p359. {1882}

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(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA4 (presumably) 
[1] Edison's Jumbo Steam-Dynamo Num
9 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
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118 YBN
[1882 AD] 7 8 		4061)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Victor Meyer", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p603.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
3. ^ OBITUARY., J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1897, 19 (11), pp
918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
5. ^ OBITUARY., J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1897, 19 (11), pp
918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
6. ^ OBITUARY., J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1897, 19 (11), pp 918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517. {1882}
8. ^ OBITUARY.,
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1897, 19 (11), pp
918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
{announces)1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Meyer, Viktor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
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Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>.
[2] "Viktor Meyer." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/viktor-meye
r-1
[3] "Viktor Meyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[4] "Victor Meyer". Encyclopedia
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[5] American chemical journal, Volume
19,
p812. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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te:1897-1897&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Victor
%20Mayer%20date%3A1897-1897&f=false
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=false
[7] E. Ador, Victor Meyer,
"Ueberführung der Brombenzoësäure in
Isophtalsäure", Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft, Volume 4 Issue
1,
p259-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=rmkoAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:040OobsMY2_qGL2Ocq&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Isophtals%C3%A4ure&f=false and: ht
tp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal
/112334028/abstract
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland6 (presumably) 
[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 8 9 		4126) Lindemann spends 6 years trying
to solve Fermat's last theorem, and in
1907 publishes a very long paper in
which he claims to have succeeded,
however there is an error in the
beginning.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lindemann, Ferdinand von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
357>.
2. ^ "Lindemann, Ferdinand von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
357>.
3. ^ "Lindemann, Ferdinand von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
357>.
4. ^ Carl Louis Ferdinand von
Lindemann, "Über die Zahl π,” in
Mathematische Annalen, 25
(1882). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=7rEKAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=in
title:Mathematische+intitle:Annalen+date
:1882-1882&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=lind
emann&f=false
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p533.
6. ^ Carl Louis
Ferdinand von Lindemann, "Über die
Zahl π,” in Mathematische Annalen,
25
(1882). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=7rEKAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=in
title:Mathematische+intitle:Annalen+date
:1882-1882&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=lind
emann&f=false
7. ^ "Lindemann, Carl Louis Ferdinand."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 367-368. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p533. {1882}
9. ^
"Lindemann, Ferdinand von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
357>. {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Louis Ferdinand von
Lindemann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-louis-
ferdinand-von-lindemann
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany6 7  
[1] Description Carl Louis Ferdinand
von Lindemann.jpg Carl Louis
Ferdinand von Lindemann
(1852-1939) Date unknown Source
http://www.math.uha.fr/Pi/trans.htm
l PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Carl_Louis_Ferdinand_
von_Lindemann.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 6 		4130) Löffler works in the same
laboratory with Koch for a period of
time.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534.
2. ^ "Löffler,
Friedrich August Johannes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>.
3. ^ "glanders." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
972>.
4. ^ "Loeffler (Löffler), Friedrich
August Johannes." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 8.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
448-451. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Löffler, Friedrich August
Johannes." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>.
6. ^ "Löffler, Friedrich August
Johannes." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>. {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Löffler." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-johannes-loffler
(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany5  
[1] Friedrich Loeffler Date
created 22. Jan. 2006 Source
http://www.fli.bund.de/fileadmin/us
er_upload/Abbildungen/Historie/Prof._Fri
edrich_Loeffler_1852-1915_.jpg Author
Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut,
uploaded by Michael Ottenbruch PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Friedrich_Loeffler.jp
g
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 7 		4805)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telepathy." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/telepathy
2. ^
http://www.paranormal-encyclopedia.com/t
/telepathy/
3. ^ Journal of the Society for
Psychical Research, Volume 1,
1882-1883. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=QNnWAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=journal+of+t
he+society+for+psychical+research&hl=en&
ei=HnSiTNmpMYiWnAfQoqmJBA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA
#v=onepage&q=journal%20of%20the%20societ
y%20for%20psychical%20research&f=false
4. ^ Record ID4793. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Journal of
the Society for Psychical Research,
Volume 1,
1882-1883. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=QNnWAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=journal+of+t
he+society+for+psychical+research&hl=en&
ei=HnSiTNmpMYiWnAfQoqmJBA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA
#v=onepage&q=journal%20of%20the%20societ
y%20for%20psychical%20research&f=false
6. ^ "telepathy." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/telepathy
7. ^ "telepathy." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/telepathy
{1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederic William Henry
Myers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Wi
lliam_Henry_Myers
London, England6  
[1] Description Frederic William Henry
Myers by William Clarke
Wontner.jpg Frederic William Henry
Myers, by William Clarke Wontner, given
to the National Portrait Gallery,
London in 1938. See source website for
additional information. This set of
images was gathered by User:Dcoetzee
from the National Portrait Gallery,
London website using a special tool.
All images in this batch have a known
author, but have manually examined for
strong evidence that the author was
dead before 1939, such as approximate
death dates, birth dates, floruit
dates, and publication dates. Date
Unknown, but was given to the
National Portrait Gallery, London in
1938 Source National Portrait
Gallery, London: NPG 2928 William
Clarke Wontner UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Frederic_William_Henr
y_Myers_by_William_Clarke_Wontner.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 5 		6029)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Emil Waldteufel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634465/Emil-Waldteufel>.
2. ^ "Émile Waldteufel." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mile-waldte
ufel
3. ^ "Waldteufel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldteufel
4. ^ "Emil Waldteufel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634465/Emil-Waldteufel>.
5. ^ "Émile Waldteufel." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mile-waldte
ufel {1882}
Paris, France4 (guess) 
[1] Émile Waldteufel PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Waldteufel.jpg
117 YBN
[01/??/1883 AD] 7 8 		3733)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p471-472.
2. ^ Ringer, S. A
further contribution regarding the
influence of different constituents of
the blood on the contraction of the
heart. J. Physiol. 4, 29–43
(1883). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub
med/16991336?dopt=Abstract&holding=npg
http://jp.physoc.org/cgi/reprint/4/1/29
3. ^ Ernesto Carafoli, "The
calcium-signalling saga: tap water and
protein crystals", Nature Reviews
Molecular Cell Biology 4, 326-332
(April 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nrm/journal/v4/n
4/full/nrm1073.html?message=remove
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Ringer,
Sydney", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p747.
7. ^
Ringer, S. A further contribution
regarding the influence of different
constituents of the blood on the
contraction of the heart. J. Physiol.
4, 29–43
(1883). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub
med/16991336?dopt=Abstract&holding=npg
http://jp.physoc.org/cgi/reprint/4/1/29
{01/1883}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p361. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sydney Ringer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Ring
er
[2] "Vascular system". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Vascular
_system
(University College Hospital) London,
England6  
[1] Figure 1 : Sydney Ringer. This
image was kindly provided by A. K.
Campbell, Cardiff University, UK, and
is reproduced with permission from
University College London, UK. PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v4/n4/images/nrm1073-f1.jpg
117 YBN
[03/05/1883 AD] 9 		3880)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
2. ^ Captain Abney
and Lieut.-Colonel Festing,
"Atmospheric Absorption in the
Infra-Red of the Solar Spectrum.",
Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf}
3. ^ Captain Abney and Lieut.-Colonel
Festing, "Atmospheric Absorption in the
Infra-Red of the Solar Spectrum.",
Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf}
4. ^ Abney, Festing, "The Relation
between Electric Energy and Radiation
in the Spectrum of Incandescence
Lamps", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
37, 1884,
p157-173. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l101342qt1106163/fulltext.pd
f
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Abney, Festing,
"Absorption-Spectra Thermograms",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 38
,1884/1885,
p77-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/x4076g553r484u17/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=5
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Obituary Notices of
Fellows Deceased", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character (1905-1934), Volume
99, Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
9. ^ Captain Abney and Lieut.-Colonel
Festing, "Atmospheric Absorption in the
Infra-Red of the Solar Spectrum.",
Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf} {03/05/1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>
[2] "William de Wiveleslie Abney." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
[3] "William de Wiveleslie Abney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[4] "Sir William De Wiveleslie Abney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
[5] "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3
[6]
"emulsion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
[7] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
[8] Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
[9] John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
[10] Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4
[11] W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England8  
[1] Diagram from Abney Festing 1883
paper. In this image wavelengths
increase to the right, the infrared
being on the right beyond A. Absorption
is black while light is white.[t] PD
source: Captain Abney and
Lieut.-Colonel Festing, "Atmospheric
Absorption in the Infra-Red of the
Solar Spectrum.", Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf}

[2] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4
117 YBN
[03/??/1883 AD] 9 10 		4070)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p520.
3. ^ J. Kjeldahl,
Neue Methode zur Bestimmung des
Stickstoffs in organischen Körpern,
Fresenius' Zeitschrift für analytische
Chemie. XXII. Jahrgang.
1883. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/j8330h8k3168rn81/ English
translation: "A new method for the
determination of nitrogen in organic
matter", The Chemical News, 08/31/1883,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8-YEAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA192&dq=Kjeldahl+da
te:1883-1883&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Kjelda
hl&f=false
4. ^ "Johan Kjeldahl." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johan-kjeld
ahl
5. ^ "titration>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"titration." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
itration>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J.
Kjeldahl, Neue Methode zur Bestimmung
des Stickstoffs in organischen
Körpern, Fresenius' Zeitschrift für
analytische Chemie. XXII. Jahrgang.
1883. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/j8330h8k3168rn81/ English
translation: "A new method for the
determination of nitrogen in organic
matter", The Chemical News, 08/31/1883,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8-YEAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA192&dq=Kjeldahl+da
te:1883-1883&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Kjelda
hl&f=false
9. ^ J. Kjeldahl, Neue Methode zur
Bestimmung des Stickstoffs in
organischen Körpern, Fresenius'
Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie.
XXII. Jahrgang.
1883. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/j8330h8k3168rn81/ English
translation: "A new method for the
determination of nitrogen in organic
matter", The Chemical News, 08/31/1883,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8-YEAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA192&dq=Kjeldahl+da
te:1883-1883&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Kjelda
hl&f=false {03/1883}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p520. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johan Kjeldahl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Kjeld
ahl
[2] "Kjeldahl, Johann Gustav
Christoffer", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p756
(laboratory of brewer Carl Jacobsen)
Kopenhagen, Denmark8  
[1] Kjeldahl3.JPG English: Danish
chemist Johan Kjeldahl picture, circa
1880s. Date 1880s Source
Johan Kjeldahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/95/Kjeldahl3.JPG
117 YBN
[04/09/1883 AD] 16 		3955) Wroblewski endured a six-year
exile (in Siberia9 ) for participating
in the January Uprising (1863)10 , an
unsuccessful Polish rebellion against
Russian rule.11 .

In 1888, while working on the physical
properties of hydrogen, Zygmunt
Wróblewski is heavily burned and dies
soon afterwards at a Krakow hospital.12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Olszewski, Karol Stanislaw",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p948.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506-507.
3. ^ "Olszewski,
Karol Stanislaw", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p661.
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506-507.
5. ^
http://www.poland.gov.pl/Karol,Olszewski
,and,Zygmunt,Wroblewski:,condensation,of
,oxygen,and,nitrogen,1987.html
6. ^ {ULSF original footnote} S. v.
Wroblewski.
7. ^ Professors Sigm. von Wroblewski
and K. Olszewski, Anzeiger der
kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenseliaften in Wien, 1883, no. ix.
pp. 74, 75. translated to English in
Philosophical Magazine, S. 5, Vol 16,
Num 97, July 1883, p75. Professors
Sigm. von Wroblewski and K. Olszewski,
"On the Liquefaction of Oxygen and the
Congelation of Carbon Disulphide and
Alcohol."
8. ^ Professors Sigm. von Wroblewski
and K. Olszewski, Anzeiger der
kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Wien, 1883, no. xi.
pp. 91, 92. "On the Liquefaction of
Nitrogen and Carbonic
Oxide." http://books.google.com/books?i
d=Xk0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA75&dq=Wroblewski&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=Wroblewski&f=false
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506-507.
10. ^
http://www.poland.gov.pl/Karol,Olszewski
,and,Zygmunt,Wroblewski:,condensation,of
,oxygen,and,nitrogen,1987.html
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506-507.
12. ^
http://www.poland.gov.pl/Karol,Olszewski
,and,Zygmunt,Wroblewski:,condensation,of
,oxygen,and,nitrogen,1987.html
13. ^
http://www.poland.gov.pl/Karol,Olszewski
,and,Zygmunt,Wroblewski:,condensation,of
,oxygen,and,nitrogen,1987.html
14. ^
http://www.polradiologia.org/english/his
tory/histor3.html
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Professors Sigm. von
Wroblewski and K. Olszewski, Anzeiger
der kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenseliaften in Wien, 1883, no. ix.
pp. 74, 75. translated to English in
Philosophical Magazine, S. 5, Vol 16,
Num 97, July 1883, p75. Professors
Sigm. von Wroblewski and K. Olszewski,
"On the Liquefaction of Oxygen and the
Congelation of Carbon Disulphide and
Alcohol." {04/09/1883}

MORE INFO
[1] S. Wroblewski, Comptes
Rendus, Sept 28, 1885. (translated to
English): S. Wroblewski, "On the
Separation of Atmosopheric Air into Two
Different Liquids", Phil. Mag.,
http://books.google.com/books?id=bFUwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA463&dq=Wroblewski&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=Wroblewski&f=false
[2]
http://www.cm-uj.krakow.pl/radiologia/hi
storia_en.html
[3] Thomas O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid air
and the liquefaction of gases: a
practical work giving the entire",
p203-229. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false
Jagiellonian University, Krakow13 ,
Austria14 (now Poland)15  
[1] Wrobelski and Olszewski's apparatus
for liquefying gases. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Liq
uid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false

[2] Wrobelski and Olszewski's gas
compression vessel PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Liq
uid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false
117 YBN
[05/24/1883 AD] 3 		3683)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ William Crookes,
"On Radiant Matter Spectroscopy. A New
Method of Spectrum Analysis"
3. ^ William
Crookes, "On Radiant Matter
Spectroscopy. A New Method of Spectrum
Analysis" {05/24/1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
[8] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity of
Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79
[9] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
and the Electron Theory", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68
[10] William Crookes, "The Emanations
of Radium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
71,
1902/1903. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p5726123522547p2/?p=5f8b4c2
c717e4aa79e1608ab6d0ecf81π=5
[11] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, Contributor Ethel Mary Terry,
"Introduction to General Chemistry",
McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1920,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA574,M
1
[12] "Spinthariscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spintharisc
ope
[13]
http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/
spinstory.htm
[14] Crookes, W., "Certain Properties
of the Emanations of Radium.".
Chemical News; Vol. 87:241; 1903
[15]
William Crookes, James Dewar, "Note on
the Effect of Extreme Cold on the
Emanations of Radium.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 72,
1903/1904. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=6170db3
0116342c2baad5cb1d8856256π=42
[16] "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217
[17] William Crookes, "On
Radiant Matter...", American Journal of
Science and Arts,
p241-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radia
nt+matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs
0cSSDw#PPA241,M1
[18] "Plasma (physics)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(phy
sics)
[19]
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928PNAS..
.14..627L
(Bakerian Lecture, Royal Society)
London, England2  
[1] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1

[2] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1
117 YBN
[05/26/1883 AD] 8 		4076) Fleming was the author of more
than a hundred scientific papers and
books, including the influential "The
Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy"
(1906) and "The Propagation of Electric
Currents in Telephone and Telegraph
Conductors" (1911).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
2. ^ J. A. Fleming,
"On a Phenomenon of Molecular Radiation
in Incandescence Lamps.",
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+m
olecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phen
omenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps", Phil Mag,03/27/1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J. A. Fleming, "On a
Phenomenon of Molecular Radiation in
Incandescence Lamps.",
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+m
olecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phen
omenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. A. Fleming, "On a
Phenomenon of Molecular Radiation in
Incandescence Lamps.",
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+m
olecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phen
omenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false
{05/26/1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fleming, Sir John Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
540>
[2] "John Ambrose Fleming." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[3] "John Ambrose Fleming."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[4] "John Ambrose Fleming." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[5] "John Ambrose Fleming". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ambros
e_Fleming
[6] "Fleming, John Ambrose", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p319.
(Edison Electric Light Company) London,
England7  
[1] figure from 1883 paper showing
shadow from molecules exiting
filament. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+
molecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phe
nomenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg
117 YBN
[06/06/1883 AD] 20 		4339) In 1903 Arrhenius is awarded the
Nobel prize in chemistry.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
11. ^ "Svante
Arrhenius." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
12. ^ Svante Arrhenius, "Recherches sur
la conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes",
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rech
erches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galvan
ique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_DiL
MK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
13. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 296-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900169&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 296-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900169&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 296-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900169&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
20. ^ Svante
Arrhenius, "Recherches sur la
conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes",
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rech
erches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galvan
ique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_DiL
MK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false {06/06/1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>
[2] "Svante Arrhenius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[3] "Svante Arrhenius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[4] "Svante August Arrhenius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_Augu
st_Arrhenius
(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden19  
[1] table from: Recherches sur la
conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes By Svante
Arrhenius 06/06/1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rec
herches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galva
nique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_Di
LMK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q&f=false

[2] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg
117 YBN
[11/15/1883 AD] 15 16 17 18 19 		4016)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ "Edison, Thomas
Alva." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
3. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
4. ^ Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
5. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
7. ^ Edison Patent
307031 http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&dq=307031
8. ^ Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
9. ^ William Henry Preece, "On a
Peculiar Behaviour of Glow-Lamps when
raised to High Incandescence",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol 38, 1885,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nwMXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22on+a+peculia
r+behaviour+of+glow%22+date:1885-1885&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20peculiar%
20behaviour%20of%20glow%22%20date%3A1885
-1885&f=false
10. ^ J. A. Fleming, "Problems in the
Physics of an Electric Lamp", Nature,
vol 42, Num 1078, 1890,
p198. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JDEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=edison+effect&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fa
lse
11. ^ J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, Vol 42,
Num 254, July 1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
12. ^ Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
13. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
14. ^ "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>.
15. ^ Edison Patent
307031 http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&dq=307031
{11/15/1883}
16. ^ William Henry Preece, "On a
Peculiar Behaviour of Glow-Lamps when
raised to High Incandescence",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol 38, 1885,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nwMXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22on+a+peculia
r+behaviour+of+glow%22+date:1885-1885&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20peculiar%
20behaviour%20of%20glow%22%20date%3A1885
-1885&f=false {10/1884}
17. ^ J. A. Fleming, "A
Further Examination of the Edison
Effect in Glow Lamps.", Phil. Mag, S.
5, Vol 42, Num 254, July 1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e {1884}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513. {1883}
19. ^
"Edison, Thomas Alva." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[30] Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p141. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
[31]
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
.asp
[32] "mains." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ains>
[33] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359
[34] Edison 1882 patent - I'm not sure
if this is first three-wire electrical
distribution
system http://www.google.com/patents?id
=9T1tAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=ininventor:edis
on&as_drrb_ap=b&as_minm_ap=0&as_miny_ap=
1881&as_maxm_ap=0&as_maxy_ap=1883&source
=gbs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA14  
[1] Edison 11/14/1883 patent 307031
''Electrical Indicator'' exhibiting
Edison effect (thermionic
effect)[t] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] closeup of Edison 11/14/1883
patent 307031 ''Electrical Indicator''
exhibiting Edison effect (thermionic
effect)[t] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 9 		3400)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
3. ^ "Sir Francis
Galton." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
07 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/224628/Sir-Francis-Galton>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Francis Galton." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Galton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[2] "Francis Galton." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[3] "Francis Galton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gal
ton
[4] "Sir Francis Galton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fran
cis_Galton
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[6] "Galton, Francis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p273
[7] "anticyclone."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nticyclone>
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 6 		3407)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (Obituary) Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
Taylor and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p420.
3. ^ (Obituary)
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Royal Society (Great Britain),
JSTOR (Organization), Taylor and
Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
5. ^ (Obituary) Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Royal Society
(Great Britain), JSTOR (Organization),
Taylor and Francis, 1905,
p19. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
qkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Karl+Georg+Friedr
ich+Rudolf+Leuckart#PPA19,M1
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
{1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Leuckart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/337674/Rudolf-Leuckart>.
[2] "Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leuckart-ka
rl-georg-friedrich-rudolf
[3] "Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Georg_
Friedrich_Rudolf_Leuckart
[4] "Leuckart, Karl Georg Friedrich
Rudolf", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p424.
[5]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
sl=de&tl=en
(University of Liepzig) Liepzig,
Germany5 (presumably) 
[1] Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Leuckart_Rudolph_1822
-1898.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 8 9 		3578)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
3. ^ Record ID3132.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "incandescent lamp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
5. ^
"Sir Joseph Wilson Swan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
6. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p444-445.
7. ^ "Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
8. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 . {1883}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p444-445. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Swan." A Dictionary
of British History. Oxford University
Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 15 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[2] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
Newcastle, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 10 		3629) In 1850 Suess is imprisoned for
being on the side of the liberals
during a revolution in 1848.3 Another
source has Suess imprisoned simply for
participating in revolutionary
demonstrations of 1848.4
In 1856, Suess
is appointed extraordinary professor of
paleontology at the University of
Vienna without a doctorate degree.5
Fro
m 1873 on, Suess spends 30 years in the
Austrian legislature.6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451. ?
2. ^ "Eduard
Suess." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451. ?
4. ^ "Suess,
Eduard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p848.
5. ^
"Suess, Eduard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p848.
6. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451. ?
7. ^ "Eduard
Suess." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Suess, Eduard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p848.
10. ^ "Eduard Suess."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eduard Suess." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-sues
s
[2] "Eduard Suess." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-sues
s
[3] "Eduard Suess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Sues
s
[4] "Eduard Suess". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eduard_S
uess
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany8 )9  
[1] English: Eduard Suess (1831 –
1914), Austrian geologist Source
http://www.jamd.com/image/g/2638599
Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Eduard_Suess00.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 9 		3699) When World War I starts Weismann
renounces all his British honors and
awards.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
2. ^ "August
Weismann." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
3. ^ "Weismann, August (Friedrich
Leopold)." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
462>.
4. ^ "Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p928.
5. ^
"August Weismann." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
8. ^ "Weismann,
August Friedrich Leopold", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p928.
9. ^ "August Weismann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "August Weismann." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
[2] "August Friedrich Leopold
Weismann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Frie
drich_Leopold_Weismann
[3] "August Weismann". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
eismann
[4] Germ-Plasm, a Theory of Heredity
(1893)- Full online
text http://www.esp.org/books/weismann/
germ-plasm/facsimile/
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany8  
[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 10 		3710) In 1872 Daimler becomes technical
director in the firm of Nikolaus A.
Otto, the man who had invented the
four-stroke internal-combustion
engine.4
In 1882 Daimler and his
coworker Wilhelm Maybach left Otto's
firm and started their own
engine-building shop.5
In 1890 Daimler
founds the Daimler motor company.6
in
1899, the Daimler motor company
produces the first Mercedes automobile7
, which is named for the daughter of
the financier backing Daimler.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468.
2. ^ "Oil Engine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
3. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
4. ^ "Daimler, Gottlieb." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>.
5. ^ "Daimler, Gottlieb." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468.
7. ^ "Gottlieb
Daimler." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468.
9. ^ "Gottlieb
Daimler." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
10. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Motor Vehicles".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany9  
[1] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 19 		3771)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
2. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
3. ^ "Mach, Ernst", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p564-565.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
6. ^ Ernst Mach, "Die Mechanik in ihrer
Entwickelung, Historisch Kritisch
Dargestellt", F.A. Brockhaus,
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
x9Q2AAAAMAAJ English
translation: Ernst Mach, Translated by
Thomas Joseph McCormick, "The Science
of Mechanics", The Open court
publishing company,
1919. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HSQ6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Erns
t+Mach&lr=&ei=umtbSYOUDoX-kwTLlYlZ#PPR3,
M1
7. ^ W. A. Suchting, "Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and Motion
Berkeley's Criticism of Newton on Space
and Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2
(Summer, 1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf}
8. ^ Popper, Karl. 1953. "A Note on
Berkeley as Precursor of Mach and
Einstein.", Conjectures and
Refutations: The Growth of Scientific
Knowledge. New York:
Harper. http://www.questia.com/read/781
46549?title=Conjectures%20and%20Refutati
ons%3a%20The%20Growth%20of%20Scientific%
20Knowledge
9. ^ Ronald Newburgh, "Did Berkeley
foreshadow Mach?", Am. J. Phys. 76, 189
(2008),
DOI:10.1119/1.2800357 http://scitation.
aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?pro
g=normal&id=AJPIAS0000760000020001890000
01&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes
10. ^ Record ID3773. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ W. A.
Suchting, "Berkeley's Criticism of
Newton on Space and Motion Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and
Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Summer,
1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf}
12. ^ Popper, Karl. 1953. "A Note on
Berkeley as Precursor of Mach and
Einstein.", Conjectures and
Refutations: The Growth of Scientific
Knowledge. New York:
Harper. http://www.questia.com/read/781
46549?title=Conjectures%20and%20Refutati
ons%3a%20The%20Growth%20of%20Scientific%
20Knowledge
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Mach,
Ernst." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
725>.
19. ^ "Mach, Ernst", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p564-565. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Mach." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-mach
[2] "Ernst Mach." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-mach
[3] "Ernst Mach". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach
[4] "Ernst Mach". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ernst_Ma
ch
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p345
[6]
Die%20Mechanik%20in%20ihrer%20Entwicklun
g
[7] "Mach's “History of Mechanics”,
Nature 39, 556-556 (11 April
1889) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v39/n1015/pdf/039556a0.pdf
(Charles University) Prague, Czech
Republic18  
[1] Description Ernst Mach,
1900 Source Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernst-Mach-1900.jpg

[2] Ernst Mach Source:
http://utf.mff.cuni.cz/Relativity/SCAN/M
ACH02.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ed/Ernst_Mach.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 13 14 15 16 17 		3794) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487-488.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p487-488.
3. ^ "Maxim, Sir
Hiram." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
540>.
4. ^ Hiram Stevens Maxim, "My Life",
Methuen & co., ltd., 1915,
p170-172. http://books.google.com/books
?id=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_sel
ected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA170,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Hiram
Stevens Maxim, "My Life", Methuen &
co., ltd., 1915,
p170-172. http://books.google.com/books
?id=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_sel
ected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA170,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Hiram Stevens
Maxim, "My Life", Methuen & co., ltd.,
1915,
p170-172. http://books.google.com/books
?id=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_sel
ected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA170,M1
12. ^
http://www.danielprince.co.uk/History_of
_Hatton_Garden.html
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487-488. {1883}
14. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357. {1882}
15. ^
"Maxim machine gun." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
542>. {1884}
16. ^ "Maxim, Sir Hiram."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
540>. {1884}
17. ^
http://www.danielprince.co.uk/History_of
_Hatton_Garden.html {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Maxim." The Oxford Companion
to Military History. Oxford University
Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hiram-steve
ns-maxim
[2] "Maxim." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hiram-steve
ns-maxim
[3] "Maxim." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hiram-steve
ns-maxim
[4] "Hiram Stevens Maxim". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiram_Steve
ns_Maxim
[5] "Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Hira
m_Stevens_Maxim
[6] Hiram Stevens Maxim, "My Life",
Methuen & co., ltd.,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nZdBAAAAIAAJ
[7] Hiram Stevens Maxim, "My Life",
Methuen & co., ltd., 1915,
128-129. http://books.google.com/books?
id=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_sele
cted_pages&cad=0_1#PPA128,M1
(Maxim's shop, Hatton Garden) London,
England11 12  
[1] caption from ''My Life'': ''The
First Automatic Gun This gun fired at
the rate of 666 shots per minute, but
only a few of them were made. It was
followed by a much smaller, cheaper and
lighter gun which has become the
standard for the world.'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_1#PPA172-IA1,M1

[2] Hiram Stevens Maxim circa
1912 [edit]
Source http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalc
ollections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by
_name_display_results.cfm?scientist=Maxi
m,%20Hiram%20Stevens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/de/SIL14-M002-10a.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 9 		3815) More than half of these 4051
stars proof to be of Secchi's first
type (represented by Sirius, Vega,
Altair and other bluish-white stars,
characterized by the intensity of the
hydrogen lines).6 (Probably because
they are the brightest and easiest to
see.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
2. ^ Hector
Macpherson, "A century's progress in
astronomy", Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p175. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p358.
4. ^ Hector Macpherson, "A century's
progress in astronomy", Blackwood and
sons, 1906,
p175. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Hector Macpherson, "A
century's progress in astronomy",
Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p175. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p358. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910.
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[9]
http://bdaugherty.tripod.com/astronomy/b
erlin.html
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany8  
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 12 13 		3865)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
2. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
4. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
5. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
6. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
7. ^ Record ID3746. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Camillo
Golgi." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
11. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
12. ^ "Camillo Golgi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi {1883}
13. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p358. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Golgi, Camillo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p364
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html
[3] "Camillo Golgi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Gol
gi
[4] "Muscle And Nerve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Muscle_A
nd_Nerve
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
[6] Camillo Golgi, "Opera omnia" "Vol.
I. Istologia normale, (1870-83), Vol.
II. Istologia normale, (1883-1902),
Vol. III. Patologia generale e
Isto-patologia, (1868-94)", Ulrico
Hoepli, 1903
(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy10 11
 
[1] Camillo Golgi PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi.jpg

[2] Seated left to right: Perroncito,
Kölliker, Fusari Standing left to
right: Bizzozero, Golgi (here in his
late fifties). PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/2.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 5 		3904)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^ "Robert Koch."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

3. ^ "conjunctivitis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conjunctivi
tis
4. ^ "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495.
5. ^ "Robert
Koch." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 17
Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch
 {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
[2] "Robert Koch." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[4] J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[5] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[6] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[7] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
[8]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
[9] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany4  
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 5 		3916)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Beneden, Edouard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p79.
2. ^ G Hamoir, "The discovery
of meiosis by E. Van Beneden, a
breakthrough in the morphological phase
of heredity.", Int. J. Dev. Biol. 36:
9 - 15
(1992). http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/pape
r.php?doi=1627480
3. ^ "Beneden, Edouard van."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
551>.
4. ^ "Beneden, Edouard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p79.
5. ^ G Hamoir, "The discovery
of meiosis by E. Van Beneden, a
breakthrough in the morphological phase
of heredity.", Int. J. Dev. Biol. 36:
9 - 15
(1992). http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/pape
r.php?doi=1627480 {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] James R. Troyer, "John Henry
Schaffner (1866-1939) and Reduction
Division in Plants: Legend and Fact",
American Journal of Botany, Vol. 76,
No. 8 (Aug., 1989), pp.
1229-1246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2444831?seq=2
[2] VANBENEDEN. E. (1883, Recherches
sur la maturation de l'oeuf et la
fecondation. Ascanis megalocephala."
Arch. Biol. .4: 265-640
(University of Liege) Liege, Belgium4
 
[1] Images from Beneden's 1883
paper. PD
source: http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper
.php?doi=1627480&a=f

[2] E. Van Beneden with his second
daughter Nelly in 1891 in his country
home near Liege. PD
source: http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper
.php?doi=1627480&a=f
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 18 		3959)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
2. ^
http://www.ulg.ac.be/cms/c_35330/famous-
scholars-at-the-university-of-liege?hlTe
xt=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlM
ode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText
=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMod
e=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any
3. ^ Hamoir G., Int J Dev Biol. 1992
Mar;36(1):9-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/sites/entrez {Beneden_Van_Edouard_
Int_J_Dev_Biol_1992.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
6. ^ Hamoir G., Int J
Dev Biol. 1992
Mar;36(1):9-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/sites/entrez {Beneden_Van_Edouard_
Int_J_Dev_Biol_1992.pdf}
7. ^
http://www.ulg.ac.be/cms/c_35330/famous-
scholars-at-the-university-of-liege?hlTe
xt=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlM
ode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText
=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMod
e=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
9. ^ Hamoir G., Int J
Dev Biol. 1992
Mar;36(1):9-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/sites/entrez {Beneden_Van_Edouard_
Int_J_Dev_Biol_1992.pdf}
10. ^ "Beneden, Edouard van."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
551>.
11. ^ "Beneden, Edouard van."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
551>.
12. ^ Hamoir G., Int J Dev Biol. 1992
Mar;36(1):9-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/sites/entrez {Beneden_Van_Edouard_
Int_J_Dev_Biol_1992.pdf}
13. ^
http://www.ulg.ac.be/cms/c_5000/home
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Prof. E. van Beneden"
(obituary), Nature 83, 344-345 (19 May
1910)
doi:10.1038/083344a0 http://books.googl
e.com/books?id=nHkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA344&dq=
intitle:nature+Beneden+date:1910-1910#v=
onepage&q=intitle%3Anature%20Beneden%20d
ate%3A1910-1910&f=false
17. ^ VAN BENEDEN. E. (1883).
"Recherches sur la maturation de l'oeuf
et la fecondation Ascaris
megalocephala.", Arch. Biol, 4:
265-640. http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=aPYYAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA49
&dq=Van+Beneden+E&ots=PoCu8l1ocy&sig=sqi
0uQBs3vPZFhYrlImgh6HSdeE#v=onepage&q=Van
%20Beneden%20E&f=false
18. ^ "Beneden, Edouard Van", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p79. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "meiosis>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meiosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 21 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eiosis>
University of Liège, Liège, Belgium15
16 17  
[1] Edouard Van Beneden PD
source: http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/umdb/
wiki-bioscope/images/9/9b/Vanbeneden.jpg


[2] Plate 19 (apparently bottom half)
from 1883 work PD
source: Hamoir G., Int J Dev Biol. 1992
Mar;36(1):9-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/sites/entrez {Beneden_Van_Edouard_
Int_J_Dev_Biol_1992.pdf}
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 6 		3987) George Westinghouse (CE
1846-1914) US engineer,1 applies his
knowledge of air brakes to the problem
of safely piping natural gas2 .

Westinghouse develops a system of
transporting gases through pipes over
long distances, which makes gas ovens
and gas furnaces practical.3

This work enables Westinghouse to
understand the problems involved in
distributing electrical power.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ "Westinghouse,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
4. ^ "George
Westinghouse." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
5. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
6. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Westinghouse." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[2] "George Westinghouse." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[3]
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=144006

[4] "George Westinghouse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
[5] Francis Ellington Leupp, "George
Westinghouse: his life and
achievements",
1918. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kyxVAAAAMAAJ&dq=George+Westinghouse:+His
+Life+and+Achievements&printsec=frontcov
er&source=bl&ots=bYX_7LBQuk&sig=LLulWodc
PtXz_paPRjS2eNcMUQ0&hl=en&ei=HjGcSofbLKD
nnQfqpv2nBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resul
t&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Henry Goslee Prout, "A life of
George Westinghouse",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
K-BKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA287&dq=A+Life+of+Georg
e+Westinghouse#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Westinghouse Air Brake Company)
Pittsburg, PA, USA5 (presumably) 
[1] Westinghouse Steam and Air Brakes
(U.S. Patent
144,006) 10/28/1873 Description
Westinghouse Steam And Air
Brakes Source USP144006 Date
Author USP144006 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Z2NUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description George
Westinghouse.jpg George Westinghouse.
Library of Congress description:
''[George Westinghouse, half-length
portrait, facing front]'' Date
between 1900 and 1914 Source Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division [1], call number ''BIOG FILE -
Westinghouse, George, 1846-1914
[P&P]'' Author Joseph G.
Gessford PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/George_Westinghouse.j
pg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 5 		4044)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
"Alexander Graham Bell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
5. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
[7] U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
[8] "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
[9]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm
[10] "Photophone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[11] "Charles Sumner Tainter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sum
ner_Tainter
[12]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
[13]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/Metal_Detector.htm
[14] Alexander Bell, "Upon the
electrical experiments to determine the
location of the bullet in...",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aG-7OQAACAAJ&dq=%22induction+balance%22+
bell
[15] John Trowbridge and Samuel
Sheldon, "Neutralization of Induction",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences"., Vol 24, Issue 16,
presented 05/28/1889,
p176-177. http://books.google.com/books
?id=nwIDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&dq=%22inductio
n+balance%22+bell#v=onepage&q=%22inducti
on%20balance%22%20bell&f=false
[16] Oliver Lodge, "On Intermittent
Current and the Induction-Balance",
Phil Mag, 1880,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
epAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232&dq=%22induction+ba
lance%22#v=onepage&q=%22induction%20bala
nce%22&f=false
(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA4  
[1] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
ssets/jb/gilded/jb_gilded_garshot_2_e.jp
g

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 9 		4072)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
2. ^ "Pavlov, Ivan
Petrovich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p686-687.
3. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

8. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

9. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov
 {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
811>
[2] "Ivan Pavlov." Encyclopedia of
Russian History. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[3] "Ivan Pavlov." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[4] "Ivan Petrovich Pavlov". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Petrov
ich_Pavlov
(Military Medical Academy)7 , St.
Petersburg, Russia8  
[1] circa 1900: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936) the Russian physiologist,
awarded the Nobel prize for Medicine in
1904. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/getty/8/5/3274685.jpg

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 8 9 		4203)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550-551.
2. ^ Rubner, Max."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 585-586. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. 26
Jan. 2010
3. ^ Rubner, Max. 1883. Die
Vertretungswerthe der
hauptsächlichsten organischen
Nahrungsstoffe im Thierkörper.
Zeitschrift für Biologie 19:
313-396 http://books.google.com/books?i
d=JwcDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA313&dq=Thierk%C3%B6r
per.+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Biologie+date:
1883-1883&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Thie
rk%C3%B6rper.%20Zeitschrift%20f%C3%BCr%2
0Biologie%20date%3A1883-1883&f=false
4. ^ Rubner, Max." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
585-586. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. 26 Jan. 2010
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550-551.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Rubner,
Max. 1883. Die Vertretungswerthe der
hauptsächlichsten organischen
Nahrungsstoffe im Thierkörper.
Zeitschrift für Biologie 19:
313-396 http://books.google.com/books?i
d=JwcDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA313&dq=Thierk%C3%B6r
per.+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Biologie+date:
1883-1883&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Thie
rk%C3%B6rper.%20Zeitschrift%20f%C3%BCr%2
0Biologie%20date%3A1883-1883&f=false
8. ^ Rubner, Max." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
585-586. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. 26 Jan. 2010 {1883}
9. ^
Rubner, Max. 1883. Die
Vertretungswerthe der
hauptsächlichsten organischen
Nahrungsstoffe im Thierkörper.
Zeitschrift für Biologie 19:
313-396 http://books.google.com/books?i
d=JwcDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA313&dq=Thierk%C3%B6r
per.+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Biologie+date:
1883-1883&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Thie
rk%C3%B6rper.%20Zeitschrift%20f%C3%BCr%2
0Biologie%20date%3A1883-1883&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Rubner." A Dictionary of
Food and Nutrition. Oxford University
Press, 1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 26
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-rubner
[2] "Max Rubner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Rubner

(Physiology Institute) München,
Germany7  
[1] Max Rubner.jpg English: Max
Rubner Polski: Max Rubner Date
1899(1899) Source Katalog
der wissenschaftlichen Sammlungen der
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Author
[show] Wilhelm Höffert
(1860(1860)–1903(1903)) Date of
birth/death 1860(1860)
1903(1903) Work location
Dresden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Max_Rubner.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 44 45 		4245) Tesla is from a family of Serbian
origin. Tesla's father is an Orthodox
priest; and Tesla's mother is an
unschooled but highly intelligent.19

The unit of magnetic flux density
(symbol B) is named the tesla in
Tesla's honor.20
Magnetic flux density
is the amount of magnetic flux through
a unit area taken perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic flux. Also
called magnetic induction.21 Magnetic
flux is defined as the quantity of
magnetism, being the total number of
magnetic lines of force passing through
a specified area in a magnetic field.22
 (Those lines are presumably lines of
particles in my opinion, however, this
is not explicitly stated by
authoritative sources.23 )
(In particle
terms, perhaps the magnetic flux
density is the quantity of particles in
an electric current summed over an area
of space which includes various mediums
- like metals, and air in addition to
the empty space surrounding an
electromagnetic conductor.24 )

In 1932 Tesla publicly rejects the
theory that space can be curved stating
in the New York Herald Tribune:
"I hold
that space cannot be curved, for the
simple reason that it can have no
properties. It might as well be said
that God has properties. He has not,
but only attributes and these are of
our own making. Of properties we can
only speak when dealing with matter
filling the space. To say that in the
presence of large bodies space becomes
curved is equivalent to stating that
something can act upon nothing. I, for
one, refuse to subscribe to such a view
...".25 26 (verify27 ) (I reject the
curvature of space, because in
particular, surface geometry is
actually a subset of Euclidean
geometry, in addition to a simple 4
variable universe seems more logical,
intuitive and simple to me.28 )

In 1935 Tesla critisizes Einstein's
relativity work, calling it a:
"...
magnificent mathematical garb which
fascinates, dazzles and makes people
blind to the underlying errors. The
theory is like a beggar clothed in
purple whom ignorant people take for a
king ... its exponents are brilliant
men but they are metaphysicists rather
than scientists ...".29 30 31

Many sources claim Tesla is insane in
later life, but I think people need to
put things into perspective and realize
that there is a lot of propaganda and
money put towards the many times
completely inaccurate myth that all
scientists are insane (for example, the
"nutty professor"), much of this comes
from an anti-science anti-technology
group, in particular those trying to
preserve traditional religions. In
addition, when people talk about
Tesla's unusual activities, why are
these no comparisons to the illogical
nature of praying to a person who died
hundreds of years ago before going to
sleep as thousands do? Worshipping
relics of the past as if they had
supernatural properties...beliefs in
superstitions...horoscopes...fortune
telling...palm reading.... or to
worshipping a person who died thousands
of years ago every 7 earth
rotations....all activities which are
based on very inaccurate and doubtful
theories and beliefs - while perhaps
common and popular...they are certainly
not sane in the sense of being logical,
accurate, and wise activities. Beyond
this, at least Tesla never resorts to
violence - so no matter what inaccurate
beliefs, they never resulted in
violence - Tesla and many others
labeled with pseudoscience psychiatric
disorders express strong will power and
control to not engage in first-strike
violence against non-violent people,
while many so-called sane people show
much less restraint.32

In later life Tesla breeds pigeons and
lavishes his affection on them.33 (I
wonder how much is beyond simply a
hobby and love for birds. I think there
is a tradition to make usual behavior
appear unusual if there is a myth about
insanity.34 )
Tesla fights a long battle
with Marconi over priority in the
invention of radio.35

Asimov states that the last 25 years of
Tesla's life degenerated into wild
eccentricity.36 (Tesla tries to
develop a method of transporting
electricity without wires and would not
give up, and Westinghouse eventually
stops funding Tesla.37 )

While at his Colorado laboratory, Tesla
announced that he had received signals
from foreign planets, a statement that
is greeted with some skepticism.38
Encyclopedia Britannica states that
this claim is met with derision in some
scientific journals.39 This appears to
originate from a January 7, 1900
letter, Tesla writes to the Red Cross
stating that he received a message that
signaled "one ... two ... three ...".40


Among Tesla's public claims are: 1)
communication with other planets, 2)
his assertions that he could split the
Earth like an apple, and 3) his claim
of having invented a death ray capable
of destroying 10,000 airplanes at a
distance of 250 miles (400 km).41
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
3. ^ Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
5. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
7. ^ Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
8. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
9. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
12. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_warcur.ht
ml
14. ^ "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
15. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
16. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ Hellemans and Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", 1988, p299.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
21. ^ "magnetic flux
density." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
22. ^ "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ New York
Herald Tribune, 11 September 1932
26. ^
"Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ New York
Times, 11 July 1935, p 23, c.8
30. ^
"Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
36. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
37. ^ Ted
Huntington.
38. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
39. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
40. ^
http://www.teslasociety.com/airportbelgr
ade.htm
41. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
42. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
43. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
44. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>. {1883}
45. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[4] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[5] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[6]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[7] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[8] http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
Strasbourg, France42 43  
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 18 		4304) Tsiolkovsky has permanently
impaired hearing at age nine as a
result of scarlet fever and four years
later his mother dies.6 7
In 1881
Tsiolkovsky works out the kinetic
theory of gases, unaware that Maxwell
had already done this 25 years
earlier.8 9 (interesting that they
both reach the same conclusion that
velocity of particles is heat, while
there still exists a potential problem
with a constant velocity for photons
{or perhaps x or some smaller particle}
which may be the basis for all matter,
although I have doubts about a constant
velocity for any material object, and
there are possibilities for a constant
velocity for material particles. I view
all particles as material. In addition
to velocity, clearly quantity of space
and matter plays a part in my
opinion.10 )
In 1895 Tsiolkovsky's book
"Gryozy o zemle i nebe" (Dreams of
Earth and Sky) is published.
In 1896 Tsiolkovsky
publishes an article on communication
with inhabitants of other planets and
starts to write his largest and most
serious work on astronautics,
"Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means
of Reaction Devices", which deals with
theoretical problems of using rocket
engines in space, including heat
transfer, a navigating mechanism,
heating resulting from air friction,
and maintenance of fuel supply.11

Tsiolkovsky writes a science fiction
novel "Outside the Earth".12
Asimov
indicates Tsiolkovsky is held back by
the scientific backwardness of Tsarist
Russia.13 (there are few people that
contribute to science in Russia, but
then perhaps like China there is a
language barrier. Some in math, and
Mendeleev.14 )
Twenty-two years after his
death the Soviet government plans to
launch the first human-made satellite,
Sputnik 1, on the 100th anniversary of
Tsiolkovsky's birth, but is 29 days
late.15
Tsiolkovsky's grave has the
phrase "Mankind will not remain tied to
earth forever".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
2. ^ "Tsiolkovsky,
Konstantin Eduardovich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 482-484. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p387.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>.
7. ^ "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
9. ^ "Tsiolkovsky,
Konstantin Eduardovich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 26 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Tsiolkovsky,
Konstantin Eduardovich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 26 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
17. ^
"Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1883}
Borovsk, Russia17  
[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 9 		4336)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p576.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
6. ^ "Hadfield, Sir
Robert Abbott, Baronet." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 18 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
735>.
7. ^
http://www.google.com/patents?id=htdQAAA
AEBAJ&pg=PA1&dq=robert+hadfield&source=g
bs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=robe
rt%20hadfield&f=false
8. ^ "Hadfield, Robert Abbott."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 5. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901807&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576. {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Abbott Hadfield".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Abbo
tt_Hadfield
(Steel Works Company) Sheffield,
England7 8 (presumably) 
[1] Hadfield, Robert Abbott
(1858-1940) PD (Presumably)
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/Biographies/MainBiographies/H/Hadfie
ld/hadf.gif

[2] Hadfield, Robert Abbott
(1858-1940) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.erih.net/uploads/tx_u
serbiographie/hadfield.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 3 		6025) Léo Delibes (CE 1836-1891),
French opera and ballet composer,
composes the opera "Lakmé".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Léo Delibes." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/156555/Leo-Delibes>.
2. ^ "Léo Delibes." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/156555/Leo-Delibes>.
3. ^ "Léo Delibes." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/156555/Leo-Delibes>. {1883}
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Description Deutsch: Léo
Delibes, französisches Komponist,
Atelieraufnahme English: Léo Delibes,
french composer Date
Unknown Source
Bibliothek-uni-frankfurt.JPG Dieses
Bild der ist Teil der Porträtsammlung
Friedrich Nicolas Manskopf der
Universitätsbibliothek der Johann
Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt
am Main. Signatur: S36_F00336Beachte:
Diese Vorlage sagt nicht über den
Urbeherrechtsstatus des verwendeten
Bildes aus. Für diesen Zweck gibt es
Commons:Lizenzvorlagen. This image is
part of the Portrait Collection
Friedrich Nicolas Manskopf at the
library of the Johann Wolfgang
Goethe-University Frankfurt am Main.
ID: S36_F00336 Notice: This tag does
not indicate the copyright status of
the attached work. A normal copyright
tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Author Fritz Luckhardt
(1843–1894) Link back to Creator
infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Delibes_Leo_Luckhard.
png
116 YBN
[01/06/1884 AD] 18 19 		3621) Nipkow studies physiological
optics with Hermann von Helmholtz, and
physiological optics and
electro-physics with Adolf Slaby.16
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ John M. Sturge, Contributor Allen
Shepp, "Imaging Processes and
Materials: Neblette's", John Wiley and
Sons, 1989,
p41,69. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=dwv4w0OE-QIC&pg=RA1-PA41&dq=paul+nipko
w+1884&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=4WjhSO35CIP8jgHE9
ZivCQ&sig=ACfU3U0Og6edI9JynNZGGf1U95BVt0
RA7Q
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Paul Gottlieb Nipkow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/415838/Paul-Gottlieb-Nipkow>.
4. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
5. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blnipkov.htm
6. ^ Record ID3336. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blnipkov.htm
8. ^
http://users.swing.be/philippe.jadin/nip
kowdisk.htm
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blnipkov.htm
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Paul
Gottlieb Nipkow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/415838/Paul-Gottlieb-Nipkow>.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ John M. Sturge,
Contributor Allen Shepp, "Imaging
Processes and Materials: Neblette's",
John Wiley and Sons, 1989,
p41,69. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=dwv4w0OE-QIC&pg=RA1-PA41&dq=paul+nipko
w+1884&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=4WjhSO35CIP8jgHE9
ZivCQ&sig=ACfU3U0Og6edI9JynNZGGf1U95BVt0
RA7Q
16. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/nipkow.ht
ml
17. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/nipkow.ht
ml
18. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/nipkow.ht
ml {01/06/1884}
19. ^ "Paul Gottlieb Nipkow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/415838/Paul-Gottlieb-Nipkow>. {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Nipkow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Nipkow

Berlin, Germany17  
[1] Paul Nipkow (Russian, German)
(1860–1940) PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow1.jpg

[2] German patent No. 30105 was
granted on 15th January 1885,
retroactive to 6th January
1884 PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow2.jpg
116 YBN
[01/11/1884 AD] 14 		3859)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
2. ^ David Gill,
"Heliometer Determinations of Stellar
Parallax in the Southern Hemisphere",
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
Society, V. 48, 1884.
3. ^ "Researches on
Stellar Parallax made with the Cape
Heliometer", Monthly notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, 1901,
p268. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0zw0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA521&dq=gill+date:1901-
1901+parallax&lr=&ei=vt6IScacH5H6lQS8iKn
0BQ#PPA268,M1
4. ^ David Gill, "Heliometer
Determinations of Stellar Parallax in
the Southern Hemisphere", Memoirs of
the Royal Astronomical Society, V. 48,
1884.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Charles Augustus Young,
"The Elements of Astronomy", Ginn,
1901. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oJMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA387&dq=gill+date:1901-
1901+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=meKISfiPCoS6
kQTOpJnGBw#PPA319,M1
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Record ID2766. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ David Gill, "Heliometer
Determinations of Stellar Parallax in
the Southern Hemisphere", Memoirs of
the Royal Astronomical Society, V. 48,
1884.
12. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/nx55
16q376r82746/fulltext.pdf
13. ^ "Address of the Retiring
President of the Society, in awarding
the Bruce Medal to H. M. Astronomer,
Dr. David
Gill". http://books.google.com/books?id
=5roOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=gill+date:1900-
1904+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=D-WISc7OHKWQ
kATLg52SAw#PPA49,M1
14. ^ David Gill, "Heliometer
Determinations of Stellar Parallax in
the Southern Hemisphere", Memoirs of
the Royal Astronomical Society, V. 48,
1884. {01/11/1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "David Gill (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gill_
(astronomer)
[2] "Sir David Gill". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Gill
[3] "Gill, David", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p358
[4]
"Obituary: Sir David Gill", The
Observatory, Vol. 37, p. 115-117
(1914). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I00
1.html
[5]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/Gill/index.html
[6] George Forbes, "The Transit of
Venus",
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SlZLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=gill+venus+date:
1874-1874&lr=&ei=IrqISaX8C4rIlQTewriXBg
[7] "heliometer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heliometer
[8] Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 1877,
p308-339. http://books.google.com/books
?id=f5AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+as
cension+date:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5
vgkASMktnwBg#PRA1-PA308,M1
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=f5AOAAA
AIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5vgkASMktnwB
g#PRA1-PA310,M1
[10] Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
[11] Spencer Fullerton Baird, Annual
Record of Science and Industry for ...,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
6MXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXB
g#PPA15,M1
[12] "opposition." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/opposition
[13] Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London,
1881. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TERJsJ0-VAwC&pg=PA62&dq=gill+ascension+d
ate:1882-1882+intitle:royal&lr=&ei=NdOIS
evkFYPIlQSj0rSfAw
[14]
http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/his-astr
-gill_d-gallery.html
[15] "Gill, Sir David." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 3 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
832>
[16] "Preparations for the Observation
of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December
8-9", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1
[17] "The Transit of Venus", Nature,
01/14/1875,
p214. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7C2XEHZsKCoC&pg=PA214&dq=gill+mauritius+
date:1870-1880&ei=tLWISaXDK5HGlQTsvcmYDQ
#PPA214,M1
[18] "Obituary Notices : Fellows :-
Gill, David", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 75,
p.236. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1915MNRAS..75R.236./0000236.000
.html
(Royal Observatory12 ) Cape of Good
Hope, Africa13  
[1] parallaxes for stars seen from
southern hemisphere[t] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=F60RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0A8TmkWWqGBZ7Ts2lX#PRA1-PA188,M1

[2] PLATE I THE dotted lines represent
the form of the parallactic ellipse for
each star whose parallax has been
investigated in the preceding papers.
These ellipses have been laid down from
the following data: (see image
3) The reader must bear in mind that
these ellipses if drawn to scale would
be quite invisible to the naked eye.
The maximum parallax factor for
measures of distance from any star of
comparison is therefore represented
graphically not by AB (fig 5) but by AC
where CD is perpendicular to AC and
tangent to the ellipse. The graphical
construction of such figures has been
found by us to afford great facilities
in selecting stars of comparison. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=F60RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0A8TmkWWqGBZ7Ts2lX#PRA1-PA197,M1
116 YBN
[03/07/1884 AD] 24 		4209) When younger Eastman read in
British magazines that photographers
make their own gelatin emulsions.
Plates coated with this emulsion remain
sensitive after they are dry and can be
exposed at any time later as opposed to
wet plates. Using a formula taken from
one of these British journals, Eastman
begins making gelatin emulsions.9

Eastman starts his business
manufacturing dry plates in April
1880.10

Clearly Eastman's work is on the side
of bringing captured images to the
public - although these images are
mainly only of the visible spectrum and
do not include images or sound
recordings of thoughts - Eastman's work
clearly brings these awesome truths
many steps closer to the public. How
deeply was Eastman involved in neuron
reading and writing? Only the remaining
historical secret movies might tell us.
In Eastman's October 5, 1884 patent,
eastman uses the words "tension" and
"web", which imply either an awareness
of 1810 and the wireless internet, or
perhaps an echoing of neuron writing
done to Eastman without his
knowledge.11
Eastman is from poor
parents, and by working supports
himself at age 14.12
Eastman, as head
of a large business, introduces
sickness benefits, retirement
annuities, and life insurance for his
employees, long before these are
popular. 13 Eastman is also one of the
first to introduce the idea of profit
sharing as employees incentive.14
Eastma
n gives away half his fortune in 1924
in gifts totaling more than
$75,000,000.15
Eastman donates $54
million to the University of Rochester,
and $19 million to the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology so that others
may receive the education he never
had.16
Eastman systematically gives
money to the University of Rochester
(especially the medical school and
Eastman School of Music), Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Hampton
Institute, Tuskegee Institute,
Rochester Dental Dispensary, and
European dental clinics.17

Interesting that Eastman donates to
education and not religions.18

In 193219 , Eastman ends his own life
at age 77, leaving a note with the
words, "My work is done. Why wait?".

Eastman's house in Rochester, now known
as the George Eastman House, has become
a renowned archive and museum of
international photography in addition
to a popular tourist site.20


(Eastman's death sounds very
suspicious. In particular in an era of
secret neuron reading and writing. This
was just before world war 2, and
perhaps the message was written by the
murderers with the last word "why wait"
- perhaps hinting - this is why people
should wait to show and tell the public
about neuron reading and writing and
the massive injustice of a two tier
planet where one group of people sees a
square with the thought-images above
the head of each person, while the
other group of people does not even
know such technology has existed for
hundreds of years. In addition, "ww"
might be some reference to William
Wollaston who may have been the first
to see and/or hear thought images and
sounds, and finally a reference to
"world war" and an appeal to
nationalism and secrecy for the ironic
cause of national security.21

The kodak.com webpage states that
Eastman "... was a modest, unassuming
man... an inventor, a marketer, a
global visionary, a philanthropist, and
a champion of inclusion." - notice
"inclusion" - clearly Eastman brought
the average person closer to seeing
inside houses and heads than many
people.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^ Eastman's
gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
4. ^ "George
Eastman." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
5. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
6. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
7. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
8. ^ "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
9. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
10. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
14. ^ "Eastman,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 27
Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>.
15. ^ "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
17. ^ "George
Eastman." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
20. ^ "Eastman,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 27
Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Eastman's
gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
24. ^ Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false {03/07/1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[6] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[7] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA23  
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
116 YBN
[04/23/1884 AD] 9 10 11 12 		4206) Charles Parsons is the youngest
son of the famous astronomer William
Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse.5
In
retirement Parsons tries unsuccessfully
to make diamonds.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
4. ^ "Charles
Algernon Parsons." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-alg
ernon-parsons
5. ^
http://www.birrcastle.com/inventionsAndE
xperiments.asp
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
7. ^
http://www.birrcastle.com/inventionsAndE
xperiments.asp
8. ^ "Charles Algernon Parsons." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-alg
ernon-parsons
9. ^ US Patent
#328710 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false {04/23/1884}
10. ^
http://www.birrcastle.com/inventionsAndE
xperiments.asp {04/1884}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p551-552. {1884}
12. ^
"Parsons, Sir Charles Algernon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
570>. {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Algernon Parsons."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-alg
ernon-parsons
[2] "Charles Algernon Parsons".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alg
ernon_Parsons
[3]
http://www.houseofdavid.ca/parsons.htm
(Clarke, Chapman and Company7 )
Gateshead, England8  
[1] Drawing from 1884 patent - from US
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Charles Algernon Parsons
(1854–1931), British engineer,
inventor of the steam turbine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Charles_Algernon_Pars
ons.jpg
116 YBN
[08/10/1884 AD] 		4047) In 1910 Wallach is awarded a
Nobel in chemistry for his work on
terpenes.11
In his life Wallach
publishes 126 papers on the terpenes.12

At the start of World War I six of
Wallach's assistants are killed in
action.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p514.
2. ^ "Wallach, Otto."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
970>.
3. ^ O. Wallach, W. Brass, "Ueber das
Oleum Cynae; ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss
der Terpene", Justus Liebiegs Annalen
der Chemie,
p291. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KZU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=terpine+wallach
+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=ter
pene&f=false
4. ^ O. Wallach, "Ueber die
Bestandtheile einiger atherischer
Oele", Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie,
p314. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KZU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=terpine+wallach
+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=ter
pene&f=false
5. ^ Leopold Ruzicka, "Third Pedler
lecture. The life and work of Otto
Wallach", J. Chem. Soc., 1932, 1582 -
1597, DOI:
10.1039/JR9320001582 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/JR/article.asp?doi=
jr9320001582 {Wallach_Otto_obiituary_19
32.pdf}
6. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1910/wallach-bio.html
7. ^ "terpene." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terpenoid
8. ^ "turpentine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turpentine
9. ^ "Wallach, Otto." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
970>.
10. ^ "Otto Wallach." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-wallac
h
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p514.
12. ^ "Otto Wallach."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-wallac
h
13. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1910/wallach-bio.html
14. ^ "Wallach, Otto." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
970>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Wallach". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Wallac
h
[2] "Wallach, Otto", Concise Dictionary
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Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p920
[3]
"Terpene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany14
 
[1] Otto Wallach german chemist
(1847-1931) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Otto_Wallach.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 7 		3398)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
2. ^ "Francis
Galton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
4. ^
http://www.sonochemistry.info/Research.h
tm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
6. ^ "Francis
Galton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
7. ^ "Francis Galton." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Francis Galton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 07
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/224628/Sir-Francis-Galton>
[2] "Francis Galton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[3] "Francis Galton." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[4] "Francis Galton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gal
ton
[5] "Sir Francis Galton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fran
cis_Galton
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[7] "Galton, Francis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p273
[8] "anticyclone."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nticyclone>
London, England6  
[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 8 		3787)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p485.
2. ^ "Clemens
Alexander Winkler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemens_Ale
xander_Winkler
Germanium%2C%20Ge%2C%20ein%20neues%2C%20
nichtmetallisches%20Element
4. ^ "Clemens Alexander Winkler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemens_Ale
xander_Winkler
en
6. ^ "Winkler, Clemens Alexander."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
205>.
7. ^ "Clemens Winkler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clemens-win
kler
8. ^ "Clemens Alexander Winkler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemens_Ale
xander_Winkler {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Winkler, Clemens", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p943.
[2] "Germanium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Germaniu
m
[3] "germanium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
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Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/germanium
[4] "germanium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/germanium
[5] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.;
Wiberg, N. (2007). Lehrbuch der
Anorganischen Chemie, 102nd ed.. de
Gruyter.
[6] "Germanium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
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[7] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A.
(1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd
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[8] Audi, G. (2003).
"Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and
Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A
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[9]
Winkler, C. (1886). "Germanium, Ge, ein
neues, nichtmetallisches Element".
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft 19: 210–211.
doi:10.1002/cber.18860190156.
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90705g/f212.chemindefer http://dx.doi.o
rg/10.1002%2Fcber.18860190156
[10]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
[11] Winkler, Clemens (1902). Handbook
Of Technical Gas Analysis. London:
Taylor and Francis. pp. 336 – 350.
http://www.openlibrary.org/details/handb
ookoftechni031011mbp. Retrieved on 9
February 2008. (English
translation) and
http://books.google.com/books?id=rJZAA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Handbook+
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EkATq7MmhBw
[12]
http://www.chemeddl.org/collections/ptl/
PTL/chemists/bios/winkler.html
(Freiberg School of Mining) Freiberg,
Germany6 7  
[1] Description Drawing of
three-way stopcock Source Page 33
of Handbook of Technical
Gas-analysis Date 1902 Author
Clemens Winkler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Winkler_Clemens_stopc
ocks.jpg

[2] Description Picture of German
chemist Clemens Winkler (who died in
1904) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before
1904 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Winkler_Clemens.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 5 		3831)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ George Downing
Liveing, James Dewar, "Collected Papers
on Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
3. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar,
"Spectroscopic Studies on Gaseous
Explosions. No. I", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 36, 1883/1884,
p471-478. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/45845h5410l50412/?p=4ebf7fba
060a4b229786a9dac53f5b3bπ=47 http://jo
urnals.royalsociety.org/content/45845h54
10l50412/fulltext.pdf
4. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07fπ=27
5. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar,
"Spectroscopic Studies on Gaseous
Explosions. No. I", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 36, 1883/1884,
p471-478. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/45845h5410l50412/?p=4ebf7fba
060a4b229786a9dac53f5b3bπ=47 http://jo
urnals.royalsociety.org/content/45845h54
10l50412/fulltext.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[4]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[5]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[6] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[7] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[8] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[9]
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>
[10] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[11] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p365
[12]
"Scientific Uses of Liquid Air",
description of James Dewar's
lecture. from: Railway Locomotives and
Cars, v.68, Simmons-Boardman Pub.
Corp., 1894,
p132-134. http://books.google.com/books
?id=C-s6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132&dq="On+the+sci
entific+uses+of+liquid+air"&lr=&ei=g_FnS
YOhB4bWlQS9xIHWCw#PPA132,M1
[13] J. D. Liveing, J. Dewar, "On the
Spectrum of Water. No. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 33, 1881/1882,
p274-276.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/920r8ww04087j465/?p=2098166d8a0f48fb8
e3b53267a261baeπ=35
[14] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "On
the Influence of Pressure on The
Spectra of Flames", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 49, 1890/1891,
p217-225. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/y274610r733h2227/?p=3a8370da
6e6b41948727a2920a03a1c7π=0 Abstract
of paper read before Royal Society on
Feb 19, 1891, Chemical News,
1891 http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
JwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA35&dq=james+dewar+d
ate:1891-1892+oxygen+blue&ei=MttsSYnSIYP
IlQTdhZx0#PRA1-PA143,M1
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD] 5 		3905)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^ "Robert Koch."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

3. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
4. ^ "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
5. ^ "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch
 {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Koch." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[2] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[3] "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495.
[4] J
Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[5] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[6] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[7] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
[8]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
[9] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[10] "conjunctivitis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conjunctivi
tis
Egypt3 |India4 (more specific) 
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 5 		3906)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pageren
der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
3. ^ Robert Koch, Die Aetiologie der
Tuberculose." Mitt. Kaiser. Gesundh, 2,
1 (1884).
4. ^ "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495.
5. ^
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pageren
der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
{1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>
[2] "Robert Koch." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[4] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[5] J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[6] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[7] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[8] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
[10] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[11] "conjunctivitis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conjunctivi
tis
[12]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 19 20 		3926) Perhaps there should be
distinguished a difference between a
"black body", an "all color emitting
body" and a total reflective body.17
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ S.Rajasekar,
N.Athavan, "Ludwig Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047
3. ^ "Boltzmann, Ludwig", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p115-116.
4. ^ Record ID3730. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p500.
6. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
submit
7. ^ L. Boltzmann, "Über eine von Hrn.
Bartoli entdecke Beziehung der
Wärmestrahlung zum zweiten
Hauptsatze", Annalen der Physik und
Chemie 22 (1884), pp.
31–39. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487470/PDFSTART

8. ^
http://www.opticsinfobase.org/DirectPDFA
ccess/1FD5D567-BDB9-137E-CED3680BCF1EB49
5_3878.pdf?da=1&id=3878&seq=0&CFID=25437
192&CFTOKEN=60659010
9. ^ Ludwig Boltzmann,"Ableitung des
Stefan'schen Gesetzes, betreffend die
Abhängigkeit der Wärmestrahlung von
der Temperatur aus der
electromagnetischen Lichttheorie",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 258, Issue
6, 1884,
p291-294. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487438/PDFSTAR
T
10. ^ John Crepeau, Josef Stefan: His
life and legacy in the thermal
sciences, Experimental Thermal and
Fluid Science, Volume 31, Issue 7, July
2007, Pages 795-803, ISSN 0894-1777,
DOI:
10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2006.08.005. h
ttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/arti
cle/B6V34-4M2WP1X-1/2/b2779de075257a703a
fabfc35deb08fd
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ John Crepeau,
Josef Stefan: His life and legacy in
the thermal sciences, Experimental
Thermal and Fluid Science, Volume 31,
Issue 7, July 2007, Pages 795-803, ISSN
0894-1777, DOI:
10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2006.08.005. h
ttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/arti
cle/B6V34-4M2WP1X-1/2/b2779de075257a703a
fabfc35deb08fd
14. ^ Ludwig Boltzmann,"Ableitung des
Stefan'schen Gesetzes, betreffend die
Abhängigkeit der Wärmestrahlung von
der Temperatur aus der
electromagnetischen Lichttheorie",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 258, Issue
6, 1884,
p291-294. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487438/PDFSTAR
T
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "Ludwig Boltzmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
19. ^ S.Rajasekar, N.Athavan, "Ludwig
Edward
Boltzmann" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics
/0609047 {1884}
20. ^ "Boltzmann, Ludwig",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p115-116.
{1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltzmann, Ludwig Eduard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
519>.
[2] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[3] "Ludwig Boltzmann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ludwig-bolt
zmann
[4] "Ludwig Boltzmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Bolt
zmann
[5] "Prof. Ludwig Boltzmann",
(obituary), Nature, 10/4/1906,
p569. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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[15] Boltzmann, L., 1872. Weitere
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[17] "Über die Beziehung eines
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[19] Darrigol, Olivier. "From c-Numbers
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&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e1576&brand=eschol

(University of Graz) Graz, Austria18
 
[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
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116 YBN
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FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
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raham-bell
2. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
3. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell {1884}

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[2] "Alexander Graham Bell".
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[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
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telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
Boston and New York (City?), USA2
 
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
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=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
116 YBN
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FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522.
2. ^ "Gaffky, Georg
Theodor August", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p338.
3. ^
Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522.
5. ^ "Gaffky, Georg
Theodor August", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p338.
6. ^
"Gaffky, Georg Theodor August", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p338.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522. {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Theodor August
Gaffky". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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or_August_Gaffky
[2] "typhoid fever." Encyclopædia
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002>.
(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany6  
[1] The causative agent of typhoid
fever is the bacterium Salmonella
typhi. (Image courtesy of the Centers
for Disease Control and
Prevention.) PD
source: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/ima
ges/2007/08/01/health/adam/1048.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Georg Gaffky (1850-1918),
deutscher Arzt und Bakteriologe. Data
19 marca 2009(2009-03-19)
(original upload date) Źródło
Transferred from de.wikipedia PD
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pedia/commons/8/8c/Prof._Dr._G._Gaffky.j
pg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 20 21 		4097) Le Châtelier is the first to
translate the work of Gibbs into
French.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-526.
2. ^ "Le Chatelier,
Henry-Louis." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
462>.
3. ^ Cecil H. Desch D.Sc.Ph.D.F.R.S. ,
"The Le Chatelier memorial lecture", J.
Chem. Soc., 1938, 139 - 150, DOI:
10.1039/JR9380000139 http://www.rsc.org
/ejarchive/JR/1938/JR9380000139.pdf
4. ^ Cecil H. Desch D.Sc.Ph.D.F.R.S. ,
"The Le Chatelier memorial lecture", J.
Chem. Soc., 1938, 139 - 150, DOI:
10.1039/JR9380000139 http://www.rsc.org
/ejarchive/JR/1938/JR9380000139.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-526.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525-526.
7. ^ "Le
Chatelier, Henry-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
462>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-526.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525-526.
10. ^ "Henri
Louis Le Châtelier." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-louis
-le-chatelier {1884}
11. ^ "Le Chatelier,
Henry-Louis." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
462>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-526.
19. ^ "Le Châtelier,
Henry Louis." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 116-120.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
20. ^ "Le Chatelier, Henry-Louis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
462>. {1884}
21. ^ "Henri Louis Le
Châtelier." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-louis
-le-chatelier {1884}

MORE INFO
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[2] "Henri Louis Le Châtelier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Louis
_Le_Ch%C3%A2telier
(École des Mines) Paris, France19
 
[1] Description
Lechatelier.jpg Henry Le Chatelier
(1850-1936), an influential French
chemist of the 19th century Español:
Henry Le Châtelier Français : Henry
Le Chatelier Italiano: Henri Le
Châtelier Polski: Henri Louis Le
Chatelier Português: Henry Louis Le
Chatelier Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Lechatelier.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Lechatelier.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 7 		4107)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528.
2. ^ A Lustig, AJ
Levine, "One hundred years of
virology.", Journal of Virology,
1992. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/
picrender.fcgi?artid=241285&blobtype=pdf

3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528.
4. ^ "Chamberland,
Charles Edouard." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 3.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
188-189. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Chamberland, Charles
Edouard." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 188-189.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ A Lustig, AJ Levine, "One hundred
years of virology.", Journal of
Virology,
1992. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/
picrender.fcgi?artid=241285&blobtype=pdf
 {1884}

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[2] (obituary), Revue scientifique,
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Chamberland&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=autocla
ve%201879%20Chamberland&f=false
(École Normale) Paris, France6   
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 7 8 		4131)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534.
2. ^ "Löffler,
Friedrich August Johannes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534.
4. ^ Löffler,
"Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung der
Mikroorganismen für die Entstehung der
Diphtherie", in Mittheilungen am dem
kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamt, 2 (1884),
421-499;
http://books.google.com/books?id=VL8EA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PA601&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%B
Cber+die+Bedeutung+der+Mikroorganismen+f
%C3%BCr+die+Entstehung+der+Diphtherie+da
te:1884-1884&as_brr=4#v=onepage&q=Unters
uchungen%20%C3%BCber%20die%20Bedeutung%2
0der%20Mikroorganismen%20f%C3%BCr%20die%
20Entstehung%20der%20Diphtherie%20date%3
A1884-1884&f=false t find translation.
^
5. ^ "Loeffler (Löffler), Friedrich
August Johannes." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 8.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
448-451. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
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<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Löffler, Friedrich August
Johannes." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>.
7. ^ "Löffler, Friedrich August
Johannes." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>. {1884}
8. ^ "Loeffler (Löffler),
Friedrich August Johannes." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 448-451. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
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<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
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[1] "Friedrich Löffler." A
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Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
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[2] "glanders." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
972>
(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany6  
[1] Friedrich Loeffler Date
created 22. Jan. 2006 Source
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er_upload/Abbildungen/Historie/Prof._Fri
edrich_Loeffler_1852-1915_.jpg Author
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pedia/commons/a/ad/Friedrich_Loeffler.jp
g
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 12 13 		4182)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p545-546.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p545-546.
3. ^ HC Gram,
"Über die isolierte Färbung der
Schizomyceten in Schnitt-und
Trockenpräparaten", Fortschritte der
Medizin, 1884.
4. ^ "Hans Christian Gram." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-gram
5. ^ "Gram stain." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
629>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p545-546.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Gram
stain." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 2
Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
629>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Dr. Hans Christian
Jaochim Gram inventor of the Gram
stain, Primary care update for Ob/Gyns
1068-607X. ^ Madani (2003) volume:
10 issue: 5 page:
235 http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_
local?sid=google&auinit=K&aulast=Madani&
atitle=Dr.+Hans+Christian+Jaochim+Gram+i
nventor+of+the+Gram+stain&id=doi:10.1016
/S1068-607X(03)00055-6&title=Primary+car
e+update+for+Ob/Gyns&volume=10&issue=5&d
ate=2003&spage=235&issn=1068-607X
11. ^ "Hans Christian Gram." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-gram
12. ^ "Gram stain." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
629>. {1884}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p545-546. {1884}

MORE INFO
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Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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[2] "Gram, Hans Christian Joachim."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 495-496. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 2
Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(lab of microbiologist Karl
Friedländer10 ) Berlin, Germany11
 
[1] Hans Christian Joachim Gram,
1852-1938. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scielo.org.ve/img/fbp
e/rsvm/v23n2/image140.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 5 		4184)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p546.
3. ^ Mary Ellen
Jones, "Albrecht Kossel, A Biographical
Sketch", Yale J Biol Med. 1953
September; 26(1): 80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
4. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
5. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
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http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
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[4] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[5] "Kossel, Karl Martin Leonhard
Albrecht." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 466-468.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
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[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 4 		4185) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
2. ^ Mary Ellen
Jones, "Albrecht Kossel, A Biographical
Sketch", Yale J Biol Med. 1953
September; 26(1): 80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
3. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
4. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[4] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ko
ssel
[5] "Kossel, Karl Martin Leonhard
Albrecht." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 466-468.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 2
Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3
 
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 9 10 		4315)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568-569.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p568-569.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568-569.
4. ^ "Koller, Carl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
941>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568-569.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=OT-gAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA292&dq=Carl+Koller+1884&hl=en
&ei=smLbS5nALo-KsgPo_pBt&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568-569. {1884}
10. ^
"Koller, Carl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
941>. {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Koller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Koller

(General Hospital in Vienna) Vienna,
Austria8  
[1] Carl Coller.jpg Deutsch: Carl
Koller (1857-1944) Date “Foto,
um 1910.” Source
http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeiou.e
ncyclop.k/k561735.htm Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Carl_Coller.jpg
115 YBN
[01/30/1885 AD] 28 29 30 		3500) Balmer teaches at a girl's school
in Basel.23
From 1865-1890, Balmer
also lectures on geometry at the
University of Basel.24
Balmer reports
his find at age 60.25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ D.
Thorburn Burns, "Swiss contributions to
chemistry: five hundred years of
progress, from alchemy to a modern
science", Analytica Chimica Acta,
Volume 393, Issues 1-3, 30 June 1999,
Pages 3-10.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TF4-3X23GRD-2&_user
=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d
&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid
=4422&md5=1d8c4f6aed7612236bbe55ea5a9939
96#bb39
4. ^ "Johann Jakob Balmer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jako
b-balmer
5. ^ J.J. Balmer. "Notiz über die
Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs.",
Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Basel, 7 (1885) 548; 7
(1885) 750. and Annalen der Physik
und Chemie N.F. 25: 80–87,
1885. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112487600/abstract {Balmer_Jo
hann_1885.pdf} translated to
English: (as translated and published
by Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966) with omissions
filled in by Carmen
Giunta) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
balmer.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ D.
Thorburn Burns, "Swiss contributions to
chemistry: five hundred years of
progress, from alchemy to a modern
science", Analytica Chimica Acta,
Volume 393, Issues 1-3, 30 June 1999,
Pages 3-10.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TF4-3X23GRD-2&_user
=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d
&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid
=4422&md5=1d8c4f6aed7612236bbe55ea5a9939
96#bb39
9. ^ J.J. Balmer. "Notiz über die
Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs.",
Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Basel, 7 (1885) 548; 7
(1885) 750. and Annalen der Physik
und Chemie N.F. 25: 80–87,
1885. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112487600/abstract {Balmer_Jo
hann_1885.pdf} translated to
English: (as translated and published
by Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966) with omissions
filled in by Carmen
Giunta) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
balmer.html
10. ^ Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966),
p363-365. {Balmer.pdf}
11. ^ J.J. Balmer. "Notiz über die
Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs.",
Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Basel, 7 (1885) 548; 7
(1885) 750. and Annalen der Physik
und Chemie N.F. 25: 80–87,
1885. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112487600/abstract {Balmer_Jo
hann_1885.pdf} translated to
English: (as translated and published
by Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966) with omissions
filled in by Carmen
Giunta) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
balmer.html
12. ^ D. Thorburn Burns, "Swiss
contributions to chemistry: five
hundred years of progress, from alchemy
to a modern science", Analytica Chimica
Acta, Volume 393, Issues 1-3, 30 June
1999, Pages 3-10.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TF4-3X23GRD-2&_user
=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d
&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid
=4422&md5=1d8c4f6aed7612236bbe55ea5a9939
96#bb39
13. ^ J.J. Balmer. Ver. Natur. Ges.
Basel 8 (1890), p. 242.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435.
16. ^ "Johann Jakob
Balmer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jako
b-balmer
17. ^ "Johann Jakob Balmer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/50792/Johann-Jakob-Balmer>.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ J.J. Balmer. "Notiz
über die Spectrallinien des
Wasserstoffs.", Verhandlungen der
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel,
7 (1885) 548; 7 (1885)
750. and Annalen der Physik und
Chemie N.F. 25: 80–87,
1885. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112487600/abstract {Balmer_Jo
hann_1885.pdf} translated to
English: (as translated and published
by Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966) with omissions
filled in by Carmen
Giunta) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
balmer.html
20. ^ "Science", By American
Association for the Advancement of
Science, HighWire Press, JSTOR
(Organization) http://books.google.com/
books?id=AJUCAAAAYAAJ&dq=philosophical%2
0magazine%20balmer&lr=&as_brr=1&pg=PA77&
ci=465,830,425,130&source=bookclip
21. ^ "Balmer, Johann Jakob", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p56.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p435.
24. ^ "Johann
Jakob Balmer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/50792/Johann-Jakob-Balmer>.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p435.
26. ^ Henry A. Boorse
& Lloyd Motz, The World of the Atom,
Vol. 1 (New York: Basic Books, 1966),
p363-365. {Balmer.pdf}
27. ^ "Johann Jakob Balmer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/50792/Johann-Jakob-Balmer>.
28. ^ J.J. Balmer. "Notiz über die
Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs.",
Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Basel, 7 (1885) 548; 7
(1885) 750. and Annalen der Physik
und Chemie N.F. 25: 80–87,
1885. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112487600/abstract {Balmer_Jo
hann_1885.pdf} translated to
English: (as translated and published
by Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966) with omissions
filled in by Carmen
Giunta) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
balmer.html {01/30/1885}
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p435. {1885}
30. ^
"Theory Of Radiation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theory_O
f_Radiation {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Jakob Balmer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Jako
b_Balmer
(Secondary School26 ) Basel,
Switzerland27  
[1] [t one of Balmer's
tables] PD/Corel
source: Balmer_Johann_1885.pdf

[2] [t English translation of Blamer
table from 1885 work.] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/b
almer.html
115 YBN
[05/23/1885 AD] 31 		4017) It is interesting to note that at
this time, there has been no
heavier-than-air vehicle, rockets that
go above the earth atmosphere, or
photographs of the earth from orbit.29

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Edison patent 465,971,
"Means for transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Edison patent 465,971,
"Means for transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Edison patent 465,971,
"Means for transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
11. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
14. ^ Edison patent
465,971, "Means for transmitting
signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
15. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
16. ^ "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A
History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd,
Mead & Co., 1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
19. ^ Record ID2972. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Record
ID3440. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Record
ID2812. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Record ID3619.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Edison patent
465,971, "Means for transmitting
signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
31. ^ Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{05/23/1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
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[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
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Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
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[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
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%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
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[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
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lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
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=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
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[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
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[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
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=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
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[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[30] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
[31] Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p141. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
[32]
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
.asp
[33] "mains." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ains>
[34] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359
[35] Edison 1882 patent - I'm not sure
if this is first three-wire electrical
distribution
system http://www.google.com/patents?id
=9T1tAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=ininventor:edis
on&as_drrb_ap=b&as_minm_ap=0&as_miny_ap=
1881&as_maxm_ap=0&as_maxy_ap=1883&source
=gbs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[36] J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, Vol 42,
Num 254, July 1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[37] William Henry Preece, "On a
Peculiar Behaviour of Glow-Lamps when
raised to High Incandescence",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol 38, 1885,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nwMXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22on+a+peculia
r+behaviour+of+glow%22+date:1885-1885&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20peculiar%
20behaviour%20of%20glow%22%20date%3A1885
-1885&f=false
[38] Edison Patent
307031 http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&dq=307031
[39] Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[40] J. A. Fleming, "Problems in the
Physics of an Electric Lamp", Nature,
vol 42, Num 1078, 1890,
p198. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JDEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=edison+effect&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fa
lse
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA30  
[1] From Edison's 05/23/1885
patent ''Means for Transmitting
Signals Electrically'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] From Edison's 05/23/1885
patent balloon transceiver
(repeater) ''Means for Transmitting
Signals Electrically'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
115 YBN
[07/27/1885 AD] 10 		4078)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
2. ^ JA Fleming,
"Problems on the distribution of
electric currents in networks of
conductors treated by the Method of
Maxwell", Philosophical Magazine Series
5, vol 20, num 124, 09/1885,
p223. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA221&dq=JA+Fleming+date
:1885-1885+maxwell&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
right%20hand&f=false
3. ^ The Electrical engineer, Volume
10,
p194. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0AgAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA194&dq=JA+Fleming+righ
t-hand+rule&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=JA%20Fl
eming%20right-hand%20rule&f=false
4. ^ Albert P. Carman, Alexander Wilmer
Duff, "A text-book of physics",
p445. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7w9JAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA445&dq=JA+Fleming+righ
t-hand+rule&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=JA%20Fl
eming%20right-hand%20rule&f=false
5. ^ The Electrical engineer, Volume
10,
p194. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0AgAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA194&dq=JA+Fleming+righ
t-hand+rule&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=JA%20Fl
eming%20right-hand%20rule&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ JA
Fleming, "Problems on the distribution
of electric currents in networks of
conductors treated by the Method of
Maxwell", Philosophical Magazine Series
5, vol 20, num 124, 09/1885,
p223. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA221&dq=JA+Fleming+date
:1885-1885+maxwell&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
right%20hand&f=false
10. ^ JA Fleming, "Problems on the
distribution of electric currents in
networks of conductors treated by the
Method of Maxwell", Philosophical
Magazine Series 5, vol 20, num 124,
09/1885,
p223. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA221&dq=JA+Fleming+date
:1885-1885+maxwell&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
right%20hand&f=false {07/27/1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fleming, Sir John Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
540>
[2] "John Ambrose Fleming." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[3] "John Ambrose Fleming."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[4] "John Ambrose Fleming." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[5] "John Ambrose Fleming". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ambros
e_Fleming
[6] J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps", Phil Mag,03/27/1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[7] "Fleming, John Ambrose", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p319.
[8] J. A. Fleming, "On a
Phenomenon of Molecular Radiation in
Incandescence Lamps.",
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+m
olecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phen
omenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false
(University College) London, England9
 
[1] diagram of right hand rule PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7w9JAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA445&dq=JA+Fleming+rig
ht-hand+rule&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=JA%20F
leming%20right-hand%20rule&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg
115 YBN
[07/??/1885 AD] 11 		3827)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cailletet, Louis-Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
556>.
2. ^ Cailletet, Bouty, Journ. de
Physique, July 1885
3. ^ "Cailletet,
Louis-Paul." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
23 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
556>.
4. ^ Wroblewski, Comptes Rendus, 1885,
vol. ci., p. 161.
5. ^ James Dewar and J. A.
Fleming, "On the Electrical Resistance
of Pure metals, Alloys, and Non-metals
at the boiling-point of Oxygen.",
Philosophical Magazine, ser. 5, v34,
1892,
p.326. http://books.google.com/books?id
=IlIwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR6&dq=%22On+the+electr
ical+resistance+of+pure+metals%22+date:1
892-1892&ei=japnSa7mK5CQkQSJlpznAQ#PRA1-
PA326,M1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ James Dewar and
J. A. Fleming, "On the Electrical
Resistance of Pure metals, Alloys, and
Non-metals at the boiling-point of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, ser.
5, v34, 1892,
p.326. http://books.google.com/books?id
=IlIwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR6&dq=%22On+the+electr
ical+resistance+of+pure+metals%22+date:1
892-1892&ei=japnSa7mK5CQkQSJlpznAQ#PRA1-
PA326,M1
9. ^ Philosophical Magazine, ser. 5, v.
40, 1895,
p303. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DlYwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA310&lpg=PA310&dq=%22Th
e+variation+in+the+electrical+resistance
+of+bismuth%22&source=bl&ots=10Kb8IYqH7&
sig=LwvNX1Zr-EMvgGjSxf_jQMynfOQ#PPA303,M
1
10. ^ Scientific American Vol. XXXVIII
- No. 8 - February 23, 1878 -
Cailletet http://bern-1914.org/genf_189
6/rp11_sa_cailletet.html
11. ^ James Dewar and J. A. Fleming,
"On the Electrical Resistance of Pure
metals, Alloys, and Non-metals at the
boiling-point of Oxygen.",
Philosophical Magazine, ser. 5, v34,
1892,
p.326. http://books.google.com/books?id
=IlIwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR6&dq=%22On+the+electr
ical+resistance+of+pure+metals%22+date:1
892-1892&ei=japnSa7mK5CQkQSJlpznAQ#PRA1-
PA326,M1 {07/1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Paul Cailletet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paul_
Cailletet
[2] "Cailletet, Louis Paul", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p160
[3] Sloan, T. O'Connor (1920).
Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of
Gases. New York: Norman W.
Henley. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Li
quid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&a
s_brr=1#PPA173,M2 and http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=ZidIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=f
rontcover&dq=Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefac
tion+of+Gases&as_brr=1&source=gbs_book_o
ther_versions_r&cad=0_1
[4] Louis-Paul Cailletet, "Recherches
sur la liquéfaction des gaz", Annales
de chimie et de physique, 1878, 15:
p132-144. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k348551 see also Raoul
Pictet, "Mémoire sur la liquéfaction
de l’oxygène." Annales de chimie et
de physique 13 (1878):
145-229. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k34853b
[5] Sloan, T. O'Connor (1920). Liquid
Air and the Liquefaction of Gases. New
York: Norman W. Henley., p
175. http://books.google.com/books?id=e
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Liqui
d+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&as_b
rr=1#PPA173,M2 and http://books.google
.com/books?id=ZidIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=fron
tcover&dq=Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefactio
n+of+Gases&as_brr=1&source=gbs_book_othe
r_versions_r&cad=0_1
[6] Cailletet (July 1885). "The
Liquefaction Of Oxygen". Science 6
(128): 51–52.
doi:10.1126/science.ns-6.128.51. PMID
17806947. Condensed from La Nature,
May 16
http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/17
61231.pdf http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/volns-6/issue128/index.dtl
[7] "Louis Paul Cailletet." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paul-
cailletet
[8] "Louis Paul Cailletet."
AnswerNotes. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paul-
cailletet
(father's ironworks) Chatillon,
France10 (presumably) 
[1] Fig. 1. - Cailletet's Apparatus for
Liquefying Gases Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- bottom front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig1_72.gif


[2] Fig. 2. - Fig. 3. Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- top front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig2_3_72.g
if
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 10 		3711)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Daimler, Gottlieb."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>.
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
3. ^ "Daimler, Gottlieb." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Daimler, Gottlieb." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>.
7. ^ "Daimler, Gottlieb." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>.
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
9. ^ "Gottlieb Daimler." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
10. ^ "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottlieb Daimler." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
[2] James Edward Homans, James Edward
Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled
Vehicles: A Practical Treatise on the
Theory, Construction, Operation, Care
and Management of All Forms of
Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
[3] "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany9  
[1] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1

[2] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 4 		3712)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p359.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468.
3. ^ "Gottlieb
Daimler." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
4. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daimler, Gottlieb."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>
[2] "Gottlieb Daimler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
[3] "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles
[4] James Edward Homans, James Edward
Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled
Vehicles: A Practical Treatise on the
Theory, Construction, Operation, Care
and Management of All Forms of
Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany3  
[1] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG

[2] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 8 		3866)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
2. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p364.
4. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
7. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p364. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Camillo Golgi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
[2] "Golgi, Camillo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p364
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html
[4] "Camillo Golgi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Gol
gi
[5] "Muscle And Nerve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Muscle_A
nd_Nerve
[6] Camillo Golgi, "Opera omnia" "Vol.
I. Istologia normale, (1870-83), Vol.
II. Istologia normale, (1883-1902),
Vol. III. Patologia generale e
Isto-patologia, (1868-94)", Ulrico
Hoepli, 1903
[7] Umberto Muscatello,
"Golgi's Contribution To Medicine",
Brain Research Reviews, Volume 55,
Issue 1, August 2007, Pages 3-7.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6SYS-4NCR90H-1&_user
=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d
&view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_url
Version=0&_userid=4422&md5=e97a25995f5e2
9bde47e6e6cba96d50b
(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy6 7
 
[1] A typical rosette-shape of the
malarian parasite on the top, among red
blood cells. Photograph of an original
Golgi preparation preserved at the
Museum for the History of the
University of Pavia. PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/11.jpg


[2] The figure shows an original
micro-photogram, made by Golgi, of a
blood preparation from a patient
suffering from malaria. PD
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6SYS-4NCR90H-1&_image=B6SYS-4NCR
90H-1-6&_ba=&_user=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=ful
l&_orig=search&_cdi=4842&view=c&_isHiQua
l=Y&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVers
ion=0&_userid=4422&md5=08a8259faa5249cb5
ef439cf1852c67e
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 5 		3967)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
2. ^ "Pickering, Edward Charles",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p704.
3. ^ "Edward
Charles Pickering." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
4. ^ E.C. Pickering, "Statement of work
done at the Harvard observatory during
the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
5. ^ "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509.
[2] "Pickering,
Edward Charles." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>.
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[6] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[8] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[9] Edward Charles Pickering,
"Compilation of the papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10] "meridian>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meridian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>.
[11] "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>.
[12] Pickering, Edward C.,
"Standard photographic magnitudes of
bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. : The
Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
[13] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/
article-9066512>.
[14] Robert Grant Aitken, "The Binary
Stars", D.C. McMurtrie, 1918, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0wZDA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA27&dq=pickering+1889+ ursa
e+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQ
SAyenyCw
[15] "A New Spectroscopic
Binary",Nature, 10/01/1896, p527.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AWgAB3t
JTyIC&pg=PA527&dq=pickering+1889+ursae+m
ajoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQSAy
enyCw
[16] E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
[17] "Mizar." A Dictionary of
Astronomy. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 25
Aug. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
[18] "mizar>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "mizar." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 25 Aug.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
izar>.
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA4  
[1] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg

[2] image of Pickering and the women
on staff was taken on May 13, 1913 in
front of the newest and largest
building where most of the women
worked. PD
source: http://www.wellesley.edu/Astrono
my/Annie/Images/pickering.gif
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 15 		3985) From 1885-1888 Pickering is vice
president of the American Society for
Psychical Research and serves on the
society's Committee on Thought
Transference. Pickering participates in
the statistical analysis of experiments
in telepathy using cards, dice, and
numbers, a precursor to the methods
later championed by parapsychology.9
That the science of seeing, hearing and
sending images and sonuds to and from
brains got mixed into psychology is an
interesting phenomenon, because on the
negative side, it is more easily
dismissed as outlandish pseudoscience,
however, on the positive side, it
allows people to talk publicly about
the concept of seeing, hearing and
sending images and sounds to and from
brains. After the publication of
Kamitani and others in December, 2008,
talking about seeing, hearing and
sending images and sounds too and from
brains is entering into non-psychology
scientific and public discussion.10
Pickering writes: "Possibility of
Errors in Scientific Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference."11 and
"Discussion of Returns in Response to
Circular No. 4."12 . Possibly there are
solid hints about the names, dates and
other events surrounding the secrets
surrounding the seeing, hearing and
sending images and sounds to and from
brains and remote muscle contraction
(galvanization) in these works.13
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509.
2. ^ "Pickering,
William Henry", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p704-705.
3. ^ Pickering, Edward Charles.
"Possibility of Errors in Scientific
Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference." Proceedings of
the American Society for Psychical
Research 1 (1885).
http://books.google.com/books?id=DEXOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Possibility+of+Errors
+in+Scientific+Researches,+Due+to+Though
t-Transference&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Poss
ibility%20of%20Errors%20in%20Scientific%
20Researches%2C%20Due%20to%20Thought-Tra
nsference&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Pickering, Edward
Charles. "Possibility of Errors in
Scientific Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference." Proceedings of
the American Society for Psychical
Research 1 (1885).
http://books.google.com/books?id=DEXOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Possibility+of+Errors
+in+Scientific+Researches,+Due+to+Though
t-Transference&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Poss
ibility%20of%20Errors%20in%20Scientific%
20Researches%2C%20Due%20to%20Thought-Tra
nsference&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Pickering,
Edward Charles. "Possibility of Errors
in Scientific Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference." Proceedings of
the American Society for Psychical
Research 1 (1885).
http://books.google.com/books?id=DEXOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Possibility+of+Errors
+in+Scientific+Researches,+Due+to+Though
t-Transference&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Poss
ibility%20of%20Errors%20in%20Scientific%
20Researches%2C%20Due%20to%20Thought-Tra
nsference&f=false
9. ^ "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Pickering, Edward
Charles. "Possibility of Errors in
Scientific Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference." Proceedings of
the American Society for Psychical
Research 1 (1885).
http://books.google.com/books?id=DEXOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Possibility+of+Errors
+in+Scientific+Researches,+Due+to+Though
t-Transference&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Poss
ibility%20of%20Errors%20in%20Scientific%
20Researches%2C%20Due%20to%20Thought-Tra
nsference&f=false
12. ^ Pickering, Edward Charles, and J.
M. Peirce. "Discussion of Returns in
Response to Circular No. 4."
Proceedings of the American Society for
Psychical Research 1 (July 1885).
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Pickering, Edward Charles.
"Possibility of Errors in Scientific
Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference." Proceedings of
the American Society for Psychical
Research 1 (1885).
http://books.google.com/books?id=DEXOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Possibility+of+Errors
+in+Scientific+Researches,+Due+to+Though
t-Transference&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Poss
ibility%20of%20Errors%20in%20Scientific%
20Researches%2C%20Due%20to%20Thought-Tra
nsference&f=false
15. ^ Pickering, Edward Charles.
"Possibility of Errors in Scientific
Researches, Due to
Thought-Transference." Proceedings of
the American Society for Psychical
Research 1 (1885).
http://books.google.com/books?id=DEXOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Possibility+of+Errors
+in+Scientific+Researches,+Due+to+Though
t-Transference&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Poss
ibility%20of%20Errors%20in%20Scientific%
20Researches%2C%20Due%20to%20Thought-Tra
nsference&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[2] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[6] Edward Charles Pickering,
"Compilation of the papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] "meridian>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meridian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>.
[8] "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>.
[9] Pickering, Edward C.,
"Standard photographic magnitudes of
bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. : The
Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
[10] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[11] "Pickering, Edward Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>.
[12] E.C. Pickering, "Statement of work
done at the Harvard observatory during
the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
Bostom, Massachusetts, USA14  
[1] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION
NUMBER: LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital
file from original neg.) No known
restrictions on publication. MEDIUM:
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 7 		3990) George Westinghouse (CE
1846-1914) US engineer,1 imports a set
of Gaulard-Gibbs transformers and a
Siemens AC generator and creates an AC
electrical distribution system in
Pittsburgh.2

Perhaps the distribution of gas and
electricity led to the distribution of
secret microphones, cameras, neuron
activation devices, etc.? Perhaps
Westinghouse served as an alternative
neuron zapper to the phone company.3
In the biography, "His Life and
Achievements" there is no "galvanize",
but there is "camera" and "confederate"
in the same sentence.4

State how many people receive
electricity and/or gas from
Westinghouse to show growth of gas and
electricity distribution systems (along
with telephone). There are at least two
alternatives in providing people
electricity, gas, and other services:
1) send the electricity or gas to them
all from a central location, or 2) they
produce their own electricity and/or
gas individually.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ "Westinghouse,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Francis Ellington Leupp,
"George Westinghouse: his life and
achievements", 1918,
p288. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kyxVAAAAMAAJ&dq=George+Westinghouse:+His
+Life+and+Achievements&printsec=frontcov
er&source=bl&ots=bYX_7LBQuk&sig=LLulWodc
PtXz_paPRjS2eNcMUQ0&hl=en&ei=HjGcSofbLKD
nnQfqpv2nBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resul
t&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
7. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Westinghouse." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[2]
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=144006

[3] "George Westinghouse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
[4] "George Westinghouse." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[5] "George Westinghouse." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[6] Henry Goslee Prout, "A life of
George Westinghouse",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
K-BKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA287&dq=A+Life+of+Georg
e+Westinghouse#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Westinghouse Air Brake Company
(presumably)) Pittsburg, PA, USA6
 
[1] Description George
Westinghouse.jpg George Westinghouse.
Library of Congress description:
''[George Westinghouse, half-length
portrait, facing front]'' Date
between 1900 and 1914 Source Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division [1], call number ''BIOG FILE -
Westinghouse, George, 1846-1914
[P&P]'' Author Joseph G.
Gessford PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/George_Westinghouse.j
pg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 4 		4132)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534.
2. ^ "Löffler,
Friedrich August Johannes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>.
3. ^ "Loeffler (Löffler), Friedrich
August Johannes." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 8.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
448-451. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Löffler, Friedrich August
Johannes." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Löffler." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-johannes-loffler
[2] "glanders." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
972>.
(hygienic laboratory at the First
Garrison Hospital) Berlin, Germany3
 
[1] Friedrich Loeffler Date
created 22. Jan. 2006 Source
http://www.fli.bund.de/fileadmin/us
er_upload/Abbildungen/Historie/Prof._Fri
edrich_Loeffler_1852-1915_.jpg Author
Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut,
uploaded by Michael Ottenbruch PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Friedrich_Loeffler.jp
g
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 5 		4137)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
2. ^ "Halsted,
William Stewart." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
4. ^ "Halsted,
William Stewart." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
77-78. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Gale. University of California -
Irvine. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Halsted, William Stewart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Stewart Halsted."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/halsted-wil
liam-stewart
New York City, NY, USA4  
[1] William Stewart Halsted, 1852-1922,
half-length portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/WilliamHalsted.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 9 10 		4329) Auer's baronal motto is "more
light".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p576.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
4. ^ "praseodymium."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/praseodymiu
m
5. ^ "neodymium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neodymium
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
8. ^
http://www.althofen.at/AvW-Museum/Englis
ch/biographie_e.htm
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576. {1885}
10. ^
"Welsbach, Carl Auer, Freiherr von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Carl Auer von
Welsbach." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 5:
1800 to 1899. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 492.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408502839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Carl Auer von Welsbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Auer_v
on_Welsbach
[3] "Praseodymium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praseodymiu
m
[4] "Neodymium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium
(University of Vienna) Vienna8  
[1]
http://images-of-elements.com/praseodymi
um.php and position on periodic
table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra
seodymium

[2] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD] 7 8 		4330)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p576.
3. ^ "Welsbach,
Carl Auer, Freiherr von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>.
4. ^ "Welsbach mantle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsbach_ma
ntle
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.althofen.at/AvW-Museum/Englis
ch/biographie_e.htm
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576. {1885}
8. ^ "Welsbach,
Carl Auer, Freiherr von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Carl Auer von
Welsbach." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 5:
1800 to 1899. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 492.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408502839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Carl Auer von Welsbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Auer_v
on_Welsbach
[3] "Praseodymium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praseodymiu
m
[4] "praseodymium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/praseodymiu
m
[5] "Neodymium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium
[6] "neodymium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neodymium
(University of Vienna) Vienna6  
[1] Photo of a Coleman white gas
lantern mantle burning at its highest
setting. Taken by Fourpointsix, August
2008. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/97/Glowing_gas_mantle.jpg

[2] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD] 7 		4388) Bateson translates Mendel's
papers into English.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588.
2. ^ "Bateson,
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
731>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588.
4. ^ "Bateson,
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
731>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588.
6. ^ "Bateson,
William." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 505-506.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900298&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Bateson, William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
731>. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Bateson." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-bat
eson
[2] "William Bateson." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-bat
eson
[3] "William Bateson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bat
eson
(St. John’s College) Cambridge,
England6  
[1]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/images/
genetics/bateson2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Bateson2.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 13 		4461)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sauval, A. J., "Charles FIEVEZ;
13 Years of Spectroscopy at the
Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles
(1877-1890)", Workshop on Laboratory
and astronomical high resolution
spectra. Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Conference Series; Proceedings
of ASP Conference no. 81 held in
Brussels; Belgium 29 August - 2
September 1994 in honour of the 150th
birthday of Charles Vievez (1844-1890)
the pioneer of astronomical
spectroscopy in Belgium; San Francisco:
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
(ASP); c1995; edited by A.J. Sauval, R.
Blomme, and N. Grevesse,
p.3 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995
ASPC...81....3S
2. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the Influence of
Magnetism on the Nature of the Light
Emitted by a Substance.", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V43, N262, March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Thomas Preston, "Radiation
Phenomena in the Magnetic Field.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V45, N275,
April 1898,
p325. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thoma
s+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113u
y&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en&
ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#v
=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=f
alse
4. ^ M. Fievez, "De l'Influence du
Magnétisme sur les Caractères des
Raies spectrales", Bulletin de l'
Academie des Sciences de Belgique, S3,
Tome 9, 381, 1885
{Fievez_Charles_1885.pdf}
5. ^ M. Fievez, "Essai sur l'Origine
des Raies de Fraunhofer, en rapport
avec la Constitution du Soleil",
Bulletin de l' Academie des Sciences de
Belgique, S3, Tome 12, 30, 1886.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the
Influence of Magnetism on the Nature of
the Light Emitted by a Substance.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V43, N262,
March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605.
11. ^ Zeeman, P., "On
the Influence of Magnetism on the
Nature of the Light Emitted by a
Substance.", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
12. ^ Sauval, A. J., "Charles FIEVEZ;
13 Years of Spectroscopy at the
Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles
(1877-1890)", Workshop on Laboratory
and astronomical high resolution
spectra. Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Conference Series; Proceedings
of ASP Conference no. 81 held in
Brussels; Belgium 29 August - 2
September 1994 in honour of the 150th
birthday of Charles Vievez (1844-1890)
the pioneer of astronomical
spectroscopy in Belgium; San Francisco:
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
(ASP); c1995; edited by A.J. Sauval, R.
Blomme, and N. Grevesse,
p.3 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995
ASPC...81....3S
13. ^ M. Fievez, "De l'Influence du
Magnétisme sur les Caractères des
Raies spectrales", Bulletin de l'
Academie des Sciences de Belgique, S3,
Tome 9, 381, 1885

MORE INFO
[1] "Zeeman, Pieter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
299>
[2] "Pieter Zeeman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Zeem
an
[3] "Pieter Zeeman." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pieter-zeem
an
[4] Albert Michelson, "Light Waves and
their uses", 1902, p
107. http://books.google.com/books?id=p
rTvAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=light
+waves+and+their+uses&hl=en&ei=8DIlTOHxL
MGB8gbousS2Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
[5] "Zeeman,Pieter." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 597-599. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904772&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Royal Observatory of Brusells)
Bruselles, Belgium12  
[1] Image from: Thomas Preston,
''Radiation Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field.'', Philosophical Magazine, S5,
V45, N275, April 1898, p325. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thom
as+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113
uy&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en
&ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=
false

[2] Description Pieter
Zeeman.jpg Pieter Zeeman Date
ca. 1920(1920) Source
http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Zeeman.jpg Author This file is
lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD by age Other versions
Digital Library, Proceedings of the
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (KNAW) Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives http://www.knaw.nl/cfdata/digi
tal_library/output/proceedings/biography
.cfm?RecordId=39 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Pieter_Zeeman.jpg
114 YBN
[02/23/1886 AD] 12 		4431) Hall's teacher stated that any
body that can find a cheap way of
making aluminum would grow rich and
famous.9

After several failures to interest
financial backers, Hall obtains the
support of the Mellon family, and the
Pittsburgh Reduction Company (later the
Aluminum Company of America) is formed.
In 1890 Hall becomes the company's
first vice president. Hall leaves
Oberlin more than $5,000,000 after his
death.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597-598.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p597-598.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597-598.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Hall,
Charles Martin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
909>.
6. ^ "Hall, Charles Martin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 50-51. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901823&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p597-598.
10. ^ "Hall,
Charles Martin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
909>.
11. ^ "Hall, Charles Martin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
909>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597-598.
{02/23/1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Martin Hall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mar
tin_Hall
[2] US patent 400664, Charles Martin
Hall, "Process of Reducing Aluminium
from its Fluoride Salts by
Electrolysis", issued
1889-04-02 http://worldwide.espacenet.c
om/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=US&NR=40
0664&KC=&FT=E&locale=en_EP and
http://www.google.com/patents?id=LE1OAAA
AEBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=PROCESS+OF+REDUCING+ALUM
INIUM+FROM+ITS+FLUORIDE+SALTS+BY+ELECTRO
LYSIS&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yQtLT7TzK4qpiAKm9YHb
DQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=PROCESS%2
0OF%20REDUCING%20ALUMINIUM%20FROM%20ITS%
20FLUORIDE%20SALTS%20BY%20ELECTROLYSIS&f
=false
[3] US patent 400766, Charles Martin
Hall, "Process of Reducing Aluminium
from its Fluoride Salts by
Electrolysis", filing date: Jul 9, 1886
Issue date: Apr 2, 1889 Filing date:
Jul 9, 1886 Issue date: Apr 2,
1889 http://www.google.com/patents?id=k
X9OAAAAEBAJ
(Oberlin (Ohio) College Hall) Oberlin,
Ohio, USA11  
[1] Image from US patent 400766,
Charles Martin Hall, ''Process of
Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride
Salts by Electrolysis'', filing date:
Jul 9, 1886 Issue date: Apr 2,
1889 Filing date: Jul 9, 1886 Issue
date: Apr 2,
1889 http://www.google.com/patents?id=k
X9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=LE1OAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=PROCESS+OF+REDUC
ING+ALUMINIUM+FROM+ITS+FLUORIDE+SALTS+BY
+ELECTROLYSIS&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yQtLT7TzK4qp
iAKm9YHbDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
CharlesMartinHall.jpg English:
Charles Martin
Hall Български: Чарли
Мартин Хол -
портрет Date Source
Originally uploded on
en:File:CharlesMartinHall.jpg Author
Originally uploaded by
en:User:Sillybilly PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/CharlesMartinHall.jpg

114 YBN
[04/??/1886 AD] 14 15 		4415)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p594.
3. ^ "Héroult,
Paul Louis Toussaint." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 319. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p594.
6. ^ "Héroult,
Paul Louis Toussaint." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 319. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 319. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "cryolite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cryolite
9. ^ "cryolite." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 04 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cryolite
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594.
12. ^ "Héroult,
Paul-Louis-Toussaint." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
210>.
13. ^ "Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 319. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594. {04/1886}
15. ^
"Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 319. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {04/1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Louis Toussaint
Héroult". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Louis_
Toussaint_H%C3%A9roult
(family tannery) Gentilly, France13
 
[1] Heroult April 19, 1892 US
patent APPARATUS FOR PRODUCING
ALUMINIUM OR OTHER METALS PAUL
HXROULT PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Ps8_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] French physicist and inventor Paul
Héroult (1863-1914) From
en.wikipedia :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PaulH
eroult.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/PaulHeroult.jpg
114 YBN
[05/03/1886 AD] 8 		3881)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
2. ^ Abney, Festing,
"Intensity of Radiation through Turbid
Media", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
40, 1886,
p378-380. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/un7357v3075751q1/fulltext.pd
f {Abney_Festing_turbid_1886.pdf}
3. ^ Abney, "Transmission of Sunlight
through the Earth's Atmosphere",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. A (1887-1895),
Volume 178, 1887,
p51-283. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/v10832n2l8571385/fulltext.pdf

4. ^ Record ID3835. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Obituary Notices of
Fellows Deceased", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character (1905-1934), Volume
99, Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
8. ^ Abney, Festing, "Intensity of
Radiation through Turbid Media",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 40, 1886,
p378-380. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/un7357v3075751q1/fulltext.pd
f {Abney_Festing_turbid_1886.pdf}
{05/03/1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>
[2] "William de Wiveleslie Abney." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
[3] "William de Wiveleslie Abney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[4] "Sir William De Wiveleslie Abney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
[5] "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3
[6]
"emulsion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
[7] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
[8] Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
[9] John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
[10] Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4
[11] W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3
[12] Captain Abney and Lieut.-Colonel
Festing, "Atmospheric Absorption in the
Infra-Red of the Solar Spectrum.",
Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6
[13] Abney, Festing, "The Relation
between Electric Energy and Radiation
in the Spectrum of Incandescence
Lamps", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
37, 1884,
p157-173. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l101342qt1106163/fulltext.pd
f
[14] Abney, Festing,
"Absorption-Spectra Thermograms",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 38
,1884/1885,
p77-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/x4076g553r484u17/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=5
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England7 (verify) 
[1] Diagram from Abney Festing 1886
paper. The equation used
is: I0=Ie^kxl^-y I is original
intensity of original light, I0 is
intensity of light transmitted, x is
thickness (y is height?), and k is a
constant, l=lambda is the wavelength of
any ray.[t] PD
source: Abney, Festing, "Intensity of
Radiation through Turbid Media",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 40, 1886,
p378-380. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/un7357v3075751q1/fulltext.pd
f {Abney_Festing_turbid_1886.pdf}

[2] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4
114 YBN
[06/26/1886 AD] 8 9 		4139) In 1906 Moissan wins a Nobel
prize in chemistry for isolating
Fluorine (winning over Mendeléev by
one vote, who Asimov argues, probably
deserves the prize more).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p536-537.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p536-537.
3. ^ "fluorine."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fluorine
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p536-537.
7. ^ "Moissan,
Ferdinand-Frédéric-Henri." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 450-452. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p536-537.
{06/26/1886}
9. ^ H. Moissan (1886). "Sur la
décomposition de l'acide fluorhydrique
par un courant électrique". Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 103: 202.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
59r/f204.table. {09/02/1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Moissan, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
209>.
[2] "Ferdinand Frédéric Henri
Moissan." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-f
r-d-ric-henri-moissan
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1906/moissan-bio.html
[4] H. Moissan (1886). "Action d'un
courant électrique sur l'acide
fluorhydrique anhydre". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 102:
1543–1544.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
58f/f1541.chemindefer.
(École Supérieure de Pharmacie)
Paris, France7  
[1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD
source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p
ortrait01/Moissan.jpg

[2] Fluorine sample (gas, doesn't look
like much). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/F%2C9.jpg
114 YBN
[07/27/1886 AD] 12 13 14 		4096)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525.
5. ^ Goldstein,
"Über eine noch nicht untersuchte
Strahlungsform an der Kathode
inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ E. Goldstein, "On the
Canal Ray Group", Phil Mag,S6, V15,
N87,March 1908,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f_dbTfAUVZEC&pg=PA372&dq=intitle:Philoso
phical+Goldstein&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&
q=intitle%3APhilosophical%20Goldstein&f=
false
11. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
12. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false {07/27/1886}
13. ^ "Goldstein,
Eugen." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1886}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goldstein, Eugen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
282>.
[2] "Eugen Goldstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-golds
tein
[3] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Golds
tein
[4] Monatsberichte der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284.
[5] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Rays of positive electricity and their
application to chemical analyses,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tcxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+no
ch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+d
er+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Thomason, "Rays of Positive
Electricity", Nature, Vol 79, Num 2037,
11/12/1908,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=O
tYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=intitle:Nature+Ka
nalstrahlen#v=onepage&q=intitle%3ANature
%20Kanalstrahlen&f=false
(University of Berlin - verify) Berlin,
Germany11  
[1] Figure 2 from Goldstein's 1886
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine
+noch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+a
n+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%8
4#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Eugen Goldstein 1850 -
1931 PD
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 4 		3145) Gabriel Auguste Daubrée (DOBrA)
(CE 1814-1896), French geologist1 ,
categorizes meteorites and gives
information on their composition,
relationship to terrestrial rocks, and
their change in shape in passing
through the Earth atmosphere in
"Météorites et la constitution
géologique du globe" ("Meteorites and
the Geologic Constitution of the
World").2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p385.
2. ^ "Daubrée,
Gabriel-Auguste." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9438>.
3. ^ "Daubrée, Gabriel-Auguste."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9438>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p385. (1886)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Auguste Daubree".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gabriel_
Auguste_Daubree
[2] "Gabriel Auguste Daubrée".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Aug
uste_Daubr%C3%A9e
Paris, France3  
[1] Gabriel Auguste Daubrée PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a3/Auguste_Daubree.gif
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 7 		3170)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Karl Weierstrass." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
2. ^ "Karl Weierstrass." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-weiers
tra
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl
Theodor Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724.
5. ^ "Weierstrass, Karl Theodor
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 1,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981),
pp723-724. (1886)
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1886)
(1886)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Weierstrass, Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6438>
[3] "Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Theodo
r_Wilhelm_Weierstrass
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany6
 
[1] Source from
de:Image:Karl_Weierstrass.jpg,
from
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Karl_Weierstrass.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 8 		3426) Kronecker is a Jewish professor
at the University of Berlin starting in
1861 (even though not a Christian).6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Kronecker.html
4. ^ "Leopold Kronecker." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leopold-kro
necker
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426.
7. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Kronecker.html
8. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Kronecker.html {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leopold Kronecker."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/323773/Leopold-Kronecker>.
[2] "Leopold Kronecker." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leopold-kro
necker
[3] "Leopold Kronecker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Kro
necker
[4] "Kronecker, Leopold", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p502.
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany7
 
[1] Description Leopold
Kronecker Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Le
opold_Kronecker.jpg Date 01:15, 18
November 2006 Author Uploaded on En
by
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:SuperG
irl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/Leopold_Kronecker.jpg


[2] Leopold Kronecker 1823 - 1891,
Berlin PD/Corel
source: http://www.mathematik.ch/mathema
tiker/Kronecker.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 14 15 		3625)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450.
2. ^
"François-Marie Raoult." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/491336/Francois-Marie-Raoult>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "François-Marie
Raoult." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/491336/Francois-Marie-Raoult>.
5. ^ "François-Marie Raoult." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ma
rie-raoult
6. ^ "Francois Marie Raoult".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Francois
_Marie_Raoult
7. ^ "François-Marie Raoult."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/491336/Francois-Marie-Raoult>.
8. ^ "François-Marie Raoult."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/491336/Francois-Marie-Raoult>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"François-Marie Raoult." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ma
rie-raoult
12. ^ "François-Marie Raoult."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/491336/Francois-Marie-Raoult>.
13. ^ "Grenoble." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grenoble
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p450. {1886}
15. ^
"François-Marie Raoult." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fran-ois-ma
rie-raoult {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "François Marie Raoult".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Marie_Raoult
[2] "Raoult, François Marie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p736.
[3] "Raoult's law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoult%27s_
law
(University of Grenoble) Grenoble12 ,
France13  
[1] Description=Francois Marie Raoult,
french chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Raoult.jpg

[2] I have created this image to
better explain Negative deviation from
raoult's law PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Negative-deviation-from-ra
oults-law.jpeg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 6 		3632)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p452.
2. ^ "Manures And
Manuring". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Manures_
And_Manuring
3. ^ "Hellriegel, Hermann", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408.
4. ^ "Hellriegel, Hermann",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p408.
5. ^
"Bernburg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62477/Bernburg>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p452. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Hellriegel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Hel
lriegel
Anhalt-Bernburg4 , Germany5  
[1] Beschreibung Hermann Hellriegel
(1831–1895), deutscher
Agrikulturchemiker Quelle Archiv
Institut für Pflanzenbau und
Pflanzenzüchtung der Universität
Göttingen Urheber unbekannt Datum
vor 1895 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/0/05/Hermann_Hellriegel.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 6 7 		3741)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^ Norman Lockyer,
"The Meteoritic Hypothesis: A Statement
of the Results of a Spectroscopic
Inquiry Into the Origin of Cosmical
Systems", Macmillan, 1890,
p373. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Meteoritic+Hyp
othesis&printsec=frontcover&source=web&o
ts=ZmpLV_7_hw&sig=nvUGcW7SF6XaAnRP3y56Y5
b8pxk
3. ^ N. Lockyer, "The Sun and the
Stars", Nature, Vol 34, Num 871,
p227-230. {Lockyer_Norman_1886.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir
Norman Lockyer, 1836-1920",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 53, p.233
(ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Meteoritic
Hypothesis: A Statement of the Results
of a Spectroscopic Inquiry Into the
Origin of Cosmical Systems", Macmillan,
1890,
p373. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Meteoritic+Hyp
othesis&printsec=frontcover&source=web&o
ts=ZmpLV_7_hw&sig=nvUGcW7SF6XaAnRP3y56Y5
b8pxk {1886}
7. ^ N. Lockyer, "The Sun and the
Stars", Nature, Vol 34, Num 871,
p227-230. {Lockyer_Norman_1886.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>.
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[5] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551.
[7] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph
Norman" (Obituary Notice), Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 81, p.261 (MNRAS
Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
[8]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
[9] Norman Lockyer, "On the Most
Widened Lines in Sun-Spot Spectra.
First and Second Series, from November
12, 1879, to October 15, 1881.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1883 vol:36 iss:1 pg:443.
http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_loc
al?sid=google&auinit=JN&aulast=Lockyer&a
title=On+the+Most+Widened+Lines+in+Sun-S
pot+Spectra.+First+and+Second+Series,+fr
om+November+12,+1879,+to+October+15,+188
1.&id=doi:10.1098/rspl.1883.0128
[10] J. Norman Lockyer, "On the Iron
Lines Widened in Solar Spots",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 31,
1880/1881. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/806858137u0r5888/?p=149f9b4
bf4ee41088f3c5a073eedec5eπ=85
[11] Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co.,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England5
(presumably) 
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 9 10 		3769)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p479.
3. ^ "Beilstein,
Friedrich Konrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
144>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479.
6. ^ "Beilstein,
Friedrich Konrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
144>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479.
8. ^ "Beilstein,
Konrad Friedrich", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p75.
9. ^
"Beilstein, Friedrich Konrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
144>. {1886}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Konrad Beilstein."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-k
onrad-beilstein
[2] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p354.
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia8  
[1] From Handbuch der organischen
Chemie 1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=auP14WcgS2UC&printsec=titlepage#PPA358,
M1

[2] Scan of a picture of German
scientist Friedrich Konrad Beilstein
(who died in 1906) Source Journal
of Chemical Education, pages 310 –
316 Date 1938 Author Richter,
Friedrich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Beilstein_Friedrich_K
onrad.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 15 16 17 		3783)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483.
2. ^ William Crookes,
"On Some New Elements in Gadolinite and
Samarskite", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1886,
p502. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AgMWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA503&dq=dysprosium+spec
troscopy+boisbaudran&ei=WbNcSdPVIaWQkATq
55yDBw#PPA502,M1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483.
4. ^ "dysprosium."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dysprosium
5. ^ William Crookes, "On Some New
Elements in Gadolinite and Samarskite",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1886,
p502. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AgMWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA503&dq=dysprosium+spec
troscopy+boisbaudran&ei=WbNcSdPVIaWQkATq
55yDBw#PPA502,M1
6. ^ dysprosium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dysprosium
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "cermet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cermet
9. ^ "dysprosium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dysprosium
10. ^ "dysprosium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dysprosium
11. ^ Boisbaudran, Comptes Rendus, vol
102, 1886, p1003.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Boisbaudran, Paul Emile Lecow
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p114.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483. {1886}
16. ^ "Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, Paul-Émile."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
575>. {1886}
17. ^ "Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisbaudran." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisbaudran." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-emile-
lecoq-de-boisbaudran
[2] "Gallium". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gallium
[3] (Comptes rendus, 1875, 81, p. 493,
and following years)
[4] "gallium." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gallium
[5] "samarium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samarium
[6] "Dysprosium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysprosium
[7] Gardiner, "M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran"
obituary, Nature, 10/31/1912,
255-256. http://books.google.com/books?
id=jbUCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255&dq=dysprosium+s
pectroscopy+boisbaudran&ei=WbNcSdPVIaWQk
ATq55yDBw
(home lab) Cognac, France14
(presumably) 
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: English: Dysprosium
sample. Slovenščina: Disprozij v
epruveti. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Dy%2C66.jpg

[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 24 25 		3786)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Clemens Winkler." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clemens-win
kler
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p485.
3. ^ "Clemens
Winkler." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clemens-win
kler
4. ^ "Clemens Winkler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clemens-win
kler
5. ^ "germanium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/germanium
6. ^ "germanium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/germanium
7. ^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.;
Wiberg, N. (2007). Lehrbuch der
Anorganischen Chemie, 102nd ed.. de
Gruyter.
8. ^ "Germanium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium
9. ^ "Germanium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium
10. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw,
A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements
(2nd ed.), Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann
11. ^ "Germanium". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Germaniu
m
12. ^ "Germanium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium
13. ^ Audi, G. (2003). "Nubase2003
Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay
Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic
Mass Data Center) 679: 3–128.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
17. ^ Winkler, C. (1886). "Germanium,
Ge, ein neues, nichtmetallisches
Element". Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 19: 210–211.
doi:10.1002/cber.18860190156.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
90705g/f212.chemindefer http://dx.doi.o
rg/10.1002%2Fcber.18860190156
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p485.
en
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Winkler, Clemens
Alexander." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
205>.
23. ^ "Clemens Winkler." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clemens-win
kler
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p485. {1886}
25. ^ "Winkler,
Clemens Alexander." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
205>. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clemens Alexander Winkler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemens_Ale
xander_Winkler
[2] "Winkler, Clemens", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p943.
[3]
Germanium%2C%20Ge%2C%20ein%20neues%2C%20
nichtmetallisches%20Element
[4] Winkler, Clemens (1902). Handbook
Of Technical Gas Analysis. London:
Taylor and Francis. pp. 336 – 350.
http://www.openlibrary.org/details/handb
ookoftechni031011mbp. Retrieved on 9
February 2008. (English translation)
(Freiberg School of Mining) Freiberg,
Germany22 23  
[1] elementares Germanium Source:
German Wikipedia, original upload 3.
Sep 2004 by Gibe (selfmade) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Germanium.jpg

[2] Description Picture of German
chemist Clemens Winkler (who died in
1904) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before
1904 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Winkler_Clemens.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 30 31 		3799) Krafft-Ebing is professor of
psychiatry (Is called psychiatry?20 )
at Strasbourg (1872), Graz (1873), and
Vienna (1889).21

Krafft-Ebing is the director of an
insane asylum in Graz.22
Krafft-Ebing
publishes a textbook on psychiatry that
goes through seven editions in his
lifetime.23 (Is the issue of consent
ever raised? For example the view that
psychiatric disorder can be treated
without consent? This concept is still
popular - the view that the decision
and opinions, in particular the
objection of a person with a
psychiatric disorder can be overruled,
ignored, etc - is like the opinion of a
lesser species or possessed victim who
doesn't know what is good for
themselves.24 )
Krafft-Ebing performs
experiments in hypnosis.25
(One
interesting view of psychology is that,
the view I have of psychology, is that,
consent is required, or at least
objection must be honored. In terms of
crime, I view the reasons why as
secondary, as opposed to the modern
system which views supposed root causes
as more important than punishment of
crimes. So I reject the approach where
a person violating a law goes through a
decision branch between unconsensually
to a jail and a hospital, anywhere
along the line of the penal process. In
my view it must always be jail only,
and then if people want to consensually
only offer health services geared
towards reducing the repetition of
another similar crime that if fine. So
I basically reject the verdict of
non-responsible because of insanity -
although I accept the concept of
different levels of intent and
responsibility.26 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489.
2. ^ "Richard von
Krafft-Ebing." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-fre
iherr-von-krafft-ebing
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489.
4. ^ "Krafft-Ebing,
Richard, Freiherr von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
180>.
5. ^ Richard Krafft-Ebing,
"Psychopathia Sexualis", 1886. English
translation: Richard Krafft-Ebing,
Francis Joseph Rebman, "Psychopathia
Sexualis: With Especial Reference to
the Antipathic Sexual Instinct : a
Medico-forensic Study", Medical Art
Agency,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ARsiScIQ8J4C
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489.
7. ^ "Richard von
Krafft-Ebing." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-fre
iherr-von-krafft-ebing
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Richard Krafft-Ebing,
"Psychopathia Sexualis", 1886. English
translation: Richard Krafft-Ebing,
Francis Joseph Rebman, "Psychopathia
Sexualis: With Especial Reference to
the Antipathic Sexual Instinct : a
Medico-forensic Study", Medical Art
Agency,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ARsiScIQ8J4C
10. ^ "Paranoia". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Paranoia

11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "paresis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paresis
13. ^ "Krafft-Ebing, Richard, Freiherr
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
180>.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Richard von
Krafft-Ebing." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-fre
iherr-von-krafft-ebing
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p489.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ "Krafft-Ebing, Richard, Freiherr
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
180>.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Richard Krafft-Ebing,
"Psychopathia Sexualis", 1886. English
translation: Richard Krafft-Ebing,
Francis Joseph Rebman, "Psychopathia
Sexualis: With Especial Reference to
the Antipathic Sexual Instinct : a
Medico-forensic Study", Medical Art
Agency,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ARsiScIQ8J4C
28. ^ "Krafft-Ebing, Richard, Freiherr
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
180>.
29. ^ "Richard von Krafft-Ebing." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-fre
iherr-von-krafft-ebing
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p489. {1886}
31. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p365. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard von Krafft-Ebing".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_von
_Krafft-Ebing
Graz, Austria27 28 29  
[1] Richard von Krafft-Ebing with his
wife Maria Luise PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Krafft-Ebing.jpg

[2] Baron Richard von Krafft-Ebing.
Lithograph by Baelz. PD
source: http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeio
u.encyclop.data.image.k/k720800a.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 12 13 		3989) George Westinghouse (CE
1846-1914) US engineer,1 organizes the
Westinghouse Electric Company2 3 .

Westinghouse supports the side of
alternating current (as opposed to
direct current supported by Edison).4

Westinghouse acquires European patents
covering single-phase
alternating-current transmission5 and
buys the patents of Nikola Tesla's AC
motor (in May 18856 )7 .

Westinghouse hires Tesla to improve and
modify the motor for use in
Westinghouse's power system.8 .

(Do all nations use alternating
current?9 )
(Could have Edison and
Westinghouse provided both AC and DC?
There probably were patent limits with
AC, although it seems, like DC too
simple and old to be patented.10 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ "George
Westinghouse." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
3. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
5. ^ "George
Westinghouse." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
6. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
7. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
8. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Westinghouse,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
12. ^ "George Westinghouse."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse {1886}
13. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Westinghouse." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[2]
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=144006

[3] "George Westinghouse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
[4] "George Westinghouse." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[5] Francis Ellington Leupp, "George
Westinghouse: his life and
achievements",
1918. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kyxVAAAAMAAJ&dq=George+Westinghouse:+His
+Life+and+Achievements&printsec=frontcov
er&source=bl&ots=bYX_7LBQuk&sig=LLulWodc
PtXz_paPRjS2eNcMUQ0&hl=en&ei=HjGcSofbLKD
nnQfqpv2nBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resul
t&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Henry Goslee Prout, "A life of
George Westinghouse",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
K-BKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA287&dq=A+Life+of+Georg
e+Westinghouse#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Westinghouse Electric Company)
Pittsburg, PA, USA11
(presumably) 
[1] Description George
Westinghouse.jpg George Westinghouse.
Library of Congress description:
''[George Westinghouse, half-length
portrait, facing front]'' Date
between 1900 and 1914 Source Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division [1], call number ''BIOG FILE -
Westinghouse, George, 1846-1914
[P&P]'' Author Joseph G.
Gessford PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/George_Westinghouse.j
pg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 14 		4099) Hans is the brother of Eduard
Buchner who will win a Nobel prize.12
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526.
2. ^ "Buchner, Hans."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9017
876>.
3. ^ "Hans Buchner." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/buchner-han
s
4. ^ "Buchner, Hans." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9017
876>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p526.
13. ^ "Buchner,
Hans." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9017
876>.
14. ^ "Buchner, Hans." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9017
876>. {1886-1890 (get exact year}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Buchner (biologist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Buchne
r_(biologist)
[2] "Hans Buchner." Science and Its
Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 5: 1800 to 1899. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 379. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany13  
[1] Hans Buchner PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/buchnerh.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 6 7 		4135)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535.
2. ^ "Van’t Hoff,
Jacobus Henricus." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
575-581. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535.
4. ^ "Van’t Hoff,
Jacobus Henricus." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
575-581. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Van’t Hoff, Jacobus Henricus."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 575-581. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535. {1886}
7. ^
"Van’t Hoff, Jacobus Henricus."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 575-581. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacobus Henricus van 't
Hoff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/van-t-hoff-
jacobus-hendricus
[2] "Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/van-t-hoff-
jacobus-hendricus
[3] "Jacobus Henricus Van't Hoff".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Hen
ricus_Van%27t_Hoff
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1901/hoff-bio.html
[5]
http://www.knaw.nl/vanthoff/artikel.htm
[6] Voorstel tot uitbreiding der
tegenwoordig in de schekunde gebruikte
structuur-formules in de ruimte;
benevens een daarmeê samenhangende
opmerking omtrent het verband tusschen
optisch actief vermogen en chemische
constitutie van organische verbindingen
("Proposal for the Extension of the
Formulas Now in Use in Chemistry Into
Space: Together with a Related Remark
on the Relation Between the Optical
Rotating Power and the Chemical
Constitution of Organic Compounds":
Utrecht, 1874). It was translated into
French as “Sur les formules de
structure dans l’espace,” in
Archives néerlandaises des sciences
exactes et naturelles, 9 (1874),
445–454; and an English version,
"Structural Formulas in Space",
appeared in G. M. Richardson, ed., The
Foundations of Stereo Chemistry.
Memoirs by Pasteur, van’t Hoff, Lebel
and Wislicenus (New York, 1901),
37–46. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=T
he+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memo
irs+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebe
l+and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534-535.
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands5  
[1] Figures from English translation of
1874 van't Hoff work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The
+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memoir
s+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebel+
and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Picture of Van't
Hoff sources: http://nobelprize.org/no
bel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1901/hoff
-bio.html http://www.knaw.nl/vanthoff/a
rtikel.htm [t Notice the messy hair -
this ''messy hair'' style was popular -
I'm thinking Huxley - but that was long
fluffy side burns after the Darwin full
beard period - clearly Einstein does
the messy hair portrait - but others
did - after the loss of the wig - I
can't remember - possibly Fox
Talbot] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Vant_Hoff.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 7 		4168) Petrie theorizes about the origin
of the alphabet in "The Formation of
the Alphabet" (1912)4 . His views the
origin of the alphabet create strong
opposition.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
2. ^ "Petrie, Sir
Flinders." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
3. ^ "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
4. ^ William Matthew Flinders Petrie
(sir.), "The formation of the
alphabet",
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i9VyPgAACAAJ&dq=The+Formation+of+the+Alp
habet
5. ^ "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
6. ^ "Petrie, Sir Flinders."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
7. ^ "Petrie, Sir Flinders."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>. {1885 and 1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir (William Matthew)
Flinders Petrie." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[2] "Petrie, (William Matthew)
Flinders." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 549-550.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[3] Sir William Matthew Flinders,
"Inductive metrology: or, the recovery
of ancient measures from the
monuments",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PzgGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Indu
ctive+Metrology,+or+the+Recovery+of+Anci
ent+Measures+from+the+Monuments#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
[4] Flinders Petrie, Seventy Years in
Archaeology, 1931.
Nile River Delta, Egypt6  
[1] Statue from Naucratis COPYRIGHTED
source: Flinders Petrie, Seventy Years
in Archaeology, 1931.

[2] Naucratis, Egypt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau
cratis
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 4 		4197)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
2. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ehrlich, Paul."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
103>.
[2] "Paul Ehrlich." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Jan.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[3] "Paul Ehrlich." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[4] "Paul Ehrlich." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[5] "Paul Ehrlich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlic
h
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
[7] Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.;
Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N.
(2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th
ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 516–522.
ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
(Charité Hospital) Berlin, Germany3
(presumably) 
[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 5 		4359)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581.
2. ^ "Smith,
Theobald." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 24
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
301>.
3. ^ "Smith, Theobald." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 480-486. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904058&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Smith, Theobald." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 24 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
301>.
5. ^ "Smith, Theobald." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 480-486. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904058&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Theobald Smith." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theobald-sm
ith
[2] "Theobald Smith". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theobald_Sm
ith
(Columbian University, now George
Washington University), Washington,
D.C, USA4  
[1] Theobald Smith from
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Theobald_Smith.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 4 		6006) (Charles) Camille Saint-Saëns
(CE 1835-1921), French composer,
pianist and organist, composes "Le
carnaval des animaux" ("The Carnival of
The Animals").1

Saint-Saens is outspoken against the
music of Claude Debussy and the French
impressionist school.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Camille Saint-Saëns." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-sai
nt-sa-ns
2. ^ "Camille Saint-Saëns."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-sai
nt-sa-ns
3. ^ "The Carnival of the Animals".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carniva
l_of_the_Animals
4. ^ "Camille Saint-Saëns." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-sai
nt-sa-ns {1886}
Austria3 (verify) 
[1] Description Charles Camille
Saint-Saëns Français : Portrait de
Saint-Saëns Nederlands: Camille Saint
Saëns Português: Camille
Saint-Saëns Svenska: Camille
Saint-Saëns Date n.d. (ca.
1895?) Source Oronoz Leefoto:
http://www.oronoz.com/leefoto.php?refere
ncia=170771&usuario= Author
Gaspard-Félix Tournachon
(1820–1910 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Saintsaens.jpg
113 YBN
[02/21/1887 AD] 6 7 		4122)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Patent 378246,
487119 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Hj52AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p532.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p532.
4. ^ Patent
378246,
487119 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Hj52AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ Patent 378246,
487119 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Hj52AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Patent 378246,
487119 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Hj52AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false {02/21/1887}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p532. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frasch, Herman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
198>
[2] "Herman Frasch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Fras
ch
London, Ontario, Canada5  
[1] English: en:Hermann Frasch,
German-American petro-chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Hermann_Frasch.gif
113 YBN
[03/04/1887 AD] 13 14 		3713)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
3. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
5. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468.
8. ^
http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_
image.cfm?image_id=1261
9. ^
http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_
image.cfm?image_id=1261
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468.
12. ^ "Gottlieb
Daimler." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
13. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne {03/04/1887}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daimler, Gottlieb."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>
[2] "Gottlieb Daimler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
[3] "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles
[4] James Edward Homans, James Edward
Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled
Vehicles: A Practical Treatise on the
Theory, Construction, Operation, Care
and Management of All Forms of
Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
[5] Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
[6] William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany12  
[1] Gottlieb Daimler’s First
Automobile (March 8, 1886) ©
Bildarchiv Preußischer
Kulturbesitz COPYRIGHTED
source: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/images/20007006-r.jpg

[2] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG
113 YBN
[03/??/1887 AD] 55 		4285)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr
schnelle electrische Schwingungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31)
Issue 7, March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
5. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber
sehr schnelle electrische
Schwingungen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7, March 1887,
Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
9. ^ Record ID3440. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Record
ID2844. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Record ID2702.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Hertz,
Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Hertz, Heinrich
Rudolf." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 340-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Hertz,
Heinrich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 7
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>.
20. ^ "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Hertz,
Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
24. ^ "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
25. ^ Heinrich Hertz, "Memoirs,
Letters, Diaries", 1977, p345.
26. ^
"septicemia." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/septicemia
27. ^ Heinrich Hertz, "Memoirs,
Letters, Diaries", 1977, p345.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ H. Hertz,
"Ueber sehr schnelle electrische
Schwingungen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7, March 1887,
Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted
Huntington.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted
Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ Record ID4157.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ Thomas K. Simpson,
"Maxwell and the Direct Experimental
Test of His Electromagnetic Theory
Maxwell and the Direct Experimental
Test of His Electromagnetic Theory",
Isis, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 1966),
pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
45. ^ Charles Susskind, "Observations
of Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation
before Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1
(Mar., 1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
46. ^ Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
47. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p369.
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Ted
Huntington.
51. ^ Ted Huntington.
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ Ted
Huntington.
54. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
55. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false {03/1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[5] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894;
Jones, Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott,
George Adolphus, 1868- tr,
"Miscellaneous papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[6] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[7] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Wiedemann, Ebert, "On the Effect of
Light on the Electric Discharge", The
Electrical world, Volumes
11-12 http://books.google.com/books?id=
zYVMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123&dq=hertz++An+effec
t+of+ultraviolet+light+on+electrical+dis
charge&hl=en&ei=2vLES9fqKJOmswPOwfSCDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CEgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[9] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss des
ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric Discharge",
Journal of the Chemical Society:
Transactions, Volume 54, Part 1,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=l
dY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&as_drrb
_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&as_ma
xm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany54  
[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
113 YBN
[05/02/1887 AD] 14 		3762)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eastman/tim
eline/index_2.html {timeline_photograph
y_pbs_index_2.html}
2. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

3. ^ Goodwin's Patent
#610,861 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=bbZkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record ID3761.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2001/2/2001_2_44.shtml
8. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

9. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eastman/tim
eline/index_2.html {timeline_photograph
y_pbs_index_2.html}
10. ^ "George Eastman." Encyclopedia
of World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 28 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
11. ^ "Cinematograph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cinemato
graph
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "history of the motion
picture." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

14. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.
{1887}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450
[2] "Étienne-Jules
Marey." The Concise Grove Dictionary of
Art. Oxford University Press, Inc.,
2002. Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1880.htm

[4] "Marey, Étienne-Jules", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p575
[5] "Étienne-Jules Marey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364535/Etienne-Jules-Marey>
[6] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450
[8] "Photographic
film#History of film". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographi
c_film#History_of_film
Newark, New Jersey13  
[1] Goodwin's Patent
#610,861 PHOTOGRAPHIC PELLICLE AND
PROCESS OF PRODUCING SAME HANNIBAL
GOODWIN PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=bbZkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Reverend Hannibal Goodwin PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eas
tman/timeline/images/1887.jpg
113 YBN
[05/??/1887 AD] 18 19 		4286) (Hertz's full paper:13 )
Hertz
writes in (an English translation) "On
An Effect of Ultra-Violet Light Upon
The Electric Discharge":
"In a series of
experiments on the effects of resonance
between very rapid electric
oscillations which I have carried out
and recently published, two electric
sparks were produced by the same
discharge of an induction-coil, and
therefore simultaneously. One of these,
the spark A, was the discharge-spark of
the induction-coil, and served to
excite the primary oscillation. The
second, the spark B, belonged to the
induced or secondary oscillation. The
latter was not very luminous; in the
experiments its maximum length had to
be accurately measured. I occasionally
enclosed the spark B in a dark case so
as more easily to make the
observations; and in so doing I
observed that the maximum spark-length
became decidedly smaller inside the
case than it was before. On removing in
succession the various parts of the
case, it was seen that the only portion
of it which exercised this prejudicial
effect was that which screened the
spark B from the spark A. The partition
on that side exhibited this effect, not
only when it was in the immediate
neighbourhood of the spark B, but also
when it was interposed at greater
distances from B between A and B. A
phenomenon so remarkable called for
closer investigation. The following
communication contains the results
which I have been able to establish in
the course of the investigation :—

1. The phenomenon could not be traced
to any screening effect of an
electrostatic or electromagnetic
nature. For the effect was not only
exhibited by good conductors interposed
between A and B, but also by perfect
non-conductors, in particular by glass,
paraffin, ebonite, which cannot
possibly exert any screening effect.
Further, metal gratings of coarse
texture showed no effect, although they
act as efficient screens.

2. The fact that both sparks A and B
corresponded with synchronous and very
rapid oscillations was immaterial. For
the same effect could be exhibited by
exciting two simultaneous sparks in any
other way. It also appeared when,
instead of the induced spark, I used a
side-spark (this term having the same
significance as in my earlier paper).
It also appeared when I used as the
spark B a side-discharge (according to
Riess's terminology), such as is
obtained by connecting one pole of an
induction-coil with an insulated
conductor and introducing a spark-gap.
But it can best and most conveniently
be exhibited by inserting in the same
circuit two induction-coils with a
common interrupter, the one coil giving
the spark A and the other the spark B.
This arrangement was almost exclusively
used in the subsequent experiments. As
I found the experiment succeed with a
number of different induction-coils, it
could be carried out with any pair of
sets of apparatus at pleasure. At the
same time it will be convenient to
describe the particular experimental
arrangement which gave the best results
and was most frequently used. The spark
A was produced by a large Ruhmkorff
coil (a, Fig. 18), 52 cm. long and 20
cm. in diameter, fed by six large
Bunsen cells (b) and provided with a
separate mercury-break (c). With the
current used it could give sparks up to
10 cm. long between point and plate,
and up to about 3 cm. between two
spheres. The spark generally used was
one of 1 cm. length between the points
of a common discharger (d). The spark B
was produced by a smaller coil
(originally intended for medical use)
of relatively greater current-strength,
but having a maximum spark-length of
only 1/2-1 cm. As it was here
introduced into the circuit of the
larger coil, its condenser did not come
into play, and thus it only gave sparks
of 1 - 2 mm. length. The sparks used
were ones about 1 mm. long between the
nickelplated knobs of a Riess
spark-micrometer (f), or between brass
knobs of 5 to 10 cm. diameter. When the
apparatus thus arranged was set up with
both spark-gaps parallel and not too
far apart, the interrupter set going,
and the spark-micrometer drawn out just
so far as to still permit sparks to
pass regularly, then on placing a plate
(p) of metal, glass, etc., between the
two sparks-gaps d and f, the sparks are
extinguished immediately and
completely. On removing the plate they
immediately reappear.
3. The effect becomes
more marked as the spark A is brought
nearer to the spark B. The distance
between the two sparks when I first
observed the phenomenon was 1 1/2
metres, and the effect is, therefore,
easily observed at this distance. I
have been able to detect indications of
it up to a distance of 3 metres between
the sparks. But at such distances the
phenomenon manifests itself only in the
greater or less regularity of the
stream of sparks at B; at distances
less than a metre its strength can be
measured by the difference between the
maximum spark-length before and after
the interposition of the plate. In
order to indicate the magnitude of the
effect I give the following, naturally
rough, observations which were obtained
with the experimental arrangement shown
in Fig. 18 :—

{ULSF: table omitted}

It will be seen that, under certain
conditions, the sparking distance is
doubled by removing the plate.

4. The observations given in the
table may also be adduced as proofs of
the following statement which the
reader will probably have assumed from
the first. The phenomenon does not
depend upon any prejudicial effect of
the plate on the spark B, but upon its
annulling a certain action of the spark
A, which tends to increase the sparking
distance. When the distance between the
sparks A and B is great, if we so
adjust the spark-micrometer that sparks
no longer pass at B, and then bring the
spark-micrometer nearer to A, the
stream of sparks in B reappears; this
is the action. If we now introduce the
plate, the sparks are extinguished;
this is the cessation of the action.
Thus the plate only forms a means of
exhibiting conveniently and plainly the
action of the spark A. I shall in
future call A the active spark and B
the passive spark.

5. The efficiency of the active spark
is not confined to any special form of
it. Sparks between knobs, as well as
sparks between points, proved to be
efficient. Short straight sparks, as
well as long jagged ones, exhibited the
effect. There was no difference of any
importance between faintly luminous
bluish sparks and brilliant white ones.
Even sparks 2 mm. long made their
influence felt to considerable
distances. Nor does the action proceed
from any special part of the spark;
every part is effective. This statement
can be verified by drawing a glass tube
over the spark-gap. The glass does not
allow the effect to pass through, and
so the spark under these conditions is
inactive. But the effect reappears as
soon as a short bit of the spark is
exposed at one pole or the other, or in
the middle. I have not observed any
influence due to the metal of the pole.
And in arranging the experiment it is
not of importance that the active spark
should be parallel to the passive one.

6. On the other hand, the
susceptibility of the passive spark to
the action is to a certain extent
dependent upon its form. I could detect
no susceptibility with long jagged
sparks between points, and but little
with short sparks between points. The
effect was best displayed by sparks
between knobs, and of these most
strikingly by short sparks. It is
advisable to use for the experiments
sparks 1 mm. long between knobs of 5-10
mm. diameter. Still I have distinctly
recognised the effect with sparks 2 cm.
long. Perhaps the absolute lengthening
which such sparks experience is really
as great as in the case of shorter
sparks, but at all events the relative
increase in length is much smaller; and
hence the effect disappears in the
differences which occur between the
single discharges of the coil. I have
not discovered any perceptible
influence due to the material of the
pole. I examined sparks between poles
of copper, brass, iron, aluminium, tin,
zinc, and lead. If there was any
difference between the metals with
respect to the susceptibility of the
spark, it appeared to be slightly in
favour of the iron. The poles must be
clean and smooth; if they are dirty, or
corroded by long use, the effect is not
produced.

7. The relation between the two
sparks is reciprocal. That is to say,
not only does the larger and stronger
spark increase the spark-length of the
smaller one, but conversely the smaller
spark has the same effect upon the
sparklength of the larger one. For
example, using the same apparatus as
before, let us adjust the
spark-micrometer so that the discharge
in it passes over regularly; but let
the discharger be so adjusted that the
discharges of the large coil just miss
fire. On bringing the spark-micrometer
nearer we find that these discharges
are again produced; but that on
introducing a plate the action ceases.
For this purpose the spark of the large
coil must naturally be fairly
sensitive; and, inasmuch as long sparks
are less sensitive, the effect is not
so striking. If both coils are just at
the limit of their sparking distance
complications arise which have probably
no connection with the matter at
present under discussion. One
frequently has occasion to notice a
long spark being started by other ones
which are much smaller, and in part
this may certainly be ascribed to the
action which we are investigating. When
the discharge of a coil is made to take
place between knobs, and the knobs are
drawn apart until the sparks cease,
then it is found that the sparking
begins again when an insulated
conductor is brought near one of the
knobs so as to draw small side - sparks
from it. I have proved to my entire
satisfaction that the side-discharges
here perform the function of an active
spark in the sense of the present
investigation. It is even sufficient to
touch one of the knobs with a
nonconductor, or to bring a point
somewhat near it, in order to give rise
to the same action. It appears at least
possible that the function of an active
spark is here performed by the scarcely
visible side-discharges over the
surface of the nonconductor and of the
point.

8. The effect of the active spark
spreads out on all sides in straight
lines and forms rays exactly in
accordance with the laws of the
propagation of light. Suppose the axes
of both of the sparks used to be placed
vertically, and let a plate with a
vertical edge be pushed gradually from
the side in between the sparks. It is
then found that the effect of the
active spark is stopped, not gradually,
but suddenly, and in a definite
position of the plate. If we now look
along the edge of the plate from the
position of the passive spark, we find
that the active spark is just hid by
the plate. If we adjust the plate with
its edge vertical between the two
sparks and slowly remove it sideways,
the action begins again in a definite
position, and we now find that, from
the position of the passive spark, the
active spark has just become visible
beyond the edge of the plate. If we
place between the sparks a plate with a
small vertical slit and move it
backwards and forwards, we find that
the action is only transmitted in one
perfectly definite position, namely,
when the active spark is visible
through the slit from the position of
the passive spark. If several plates
with such slits are interposed behind
each other, we find that in one
particular position the action passes
through the whole lot. If we seek these
positions by trial, we end by finding
(most easily, of course, by looking
through) that all the slits lie in the
vertical plane which passes through the
two sparks. If at any distance from the
active spark we place a plate with an
aperture of any shape, and by moving
the active spark about fix the limits
of the space within which the action is
exerted, we obtain as this limit a
conical surface determined by the
active spark as apex and by the limits
of the aperture. If we place a small
plate in any position in front of the
active spark we find, by moving the
passive spark about, that the plate
stops the action of the active spark
within exactly the space which it
shelters from its light. It scarcely
requires to be explained that the
action is not only annulled in the
shadows cast by external bodies, but
also in the shadows of the knobs of the
passive spark. In fact, if we turn the
latter so that its axis remains in the
plane of the active spark, but is
perpendicular to it instead of being
parallel, the action immediately
ceases.

9. Most solid bodies hinder the
action of the active spark, but not
all; a few solid bodies are transparent
to it. All the metals which I tried
proved to be opaque, even in thin
sheets, as did also paraffin, shellac,
resin, ebonite, and india-rubber; all
kinds of coloured and uncoloured,
polished and unpolished, thick and thin
glass, porcelain, and earthenware;
wood, pasteboard, and paper; ivory,
horn, animal hides, and feathers;
lastly, agate, and, in a very
remarkable manner, mica, even in the
thinnest possible flakes. Further
investigation of crystals showed
variations from this behaviour. Some
indeed were equally opaque, e.g. copper
sulphate, topaz, and amethyst; but
others, such as crystallised sugar,
alum, calc-spar, and rock-salt,
transmitted the action, although with
diminished intensity; finally, some
proved to be completely transparent,
such as gypsum (selenite), and above
all rock-crystal, which scarcely
interfered with the action even when in
layers several centimetres thick. The
following is a convenient method of
testing :—The passive spark is placed
a few centimetres away from the active
spark, and is brought to its maximum
length. The body to be examined is now
interposed. If this does not stop the
sparking the body is very transparent.
But if the sparking is stopped, the
spark-gap must be shortened until it
comes again into action. An opaque
substance is now interposed in addition
to the body under investigation. If
this stops the sparking once more, or
weakens it, then the body must have
been at any rate partially transparent;
but if the plate produces no further
effect it must have been quite opaque.
The influence of the interposed bodies
increases with their thickness, and it
may properly be described as an
absorption of the action of the active
spark; in general, however, even those
bodies which only act as partial
absorbers, exert this influence even in
very thin layers.

10. Liquids also proved to be partly
transparent and partly opaque to the
action. In order to experiment upon
them the active spark was brought about
10 cm. vertically above the passive
one, and between both was placed a
glass vessel, of which the bottom
consisted of a circular plate of
rock-crystal 4 mm. thick. Into this
vessel a layer, more or less deep, of
the liquid was poured, and its
influence was then estimated in the
manner above described for solid
bodies. Water proved to be remarkably
transparent; even a depth of 5 cm.
scarcely hindered the action. In
thinner layers pure concentrated
sulphuric acid, alcohol, and ether were
also transparent. Pure hydrochloric
acid, pure nitric acid, and solution of
ammonia proved to be partially
transparent. Molten paraffin, benzole,
petroleum, carbon bisulphide, solution
of ammonium sulphide, and strongly
coloured liquids, e.g. solutions of
fuchsine, potassium permanganate, were
nearly or completely opaque. The
experiments with salt solutions proved
to be interesting. A layer of water 1
cm. deep was introduced into the
rock-crystal vessel; the concentrated
salt solution was added to this drop by
drop, stirred, and the effect observed.
With many salts the addition of a few
drops, or even a single drop, was
sufficient to extinguish the passive
spark; this was the case with nitrate
of mercury, sodium hyposulphite,
potassium bromide, and potassium
iodide. When iron and copper salts were
added, the extinction of the passive
spark occurred before any distinct
colouring of the water could be
perceived. Solutions of sal-ammoniac,
zinc sulphate, and common saltl
exercised an absorption when added in
larger quantities. On the other hand,
the sulphates of potassium, sodium, and
magnesium were very transparent even in
concentrated solution.

11. It is clear from the experiments
made in air that some gases permit the
transmission of the action even to
considerable distances. Some gases,
however, are very opaque to it. In
experimenting on gases a tube 20 cm.
long and 2.5 cm. in diameter was
interposed between the active and
passive sparks; the ends of this tube
were closed by thin quartz plates, and
by means of two side-tubes any gas
could at will be led through it. A
diaphragm prevented the transmission of
any action excepting through the glass
tube. Between hydrogen and air there
was no noticeable difference. Nor could
any falling off in the action be
perceived when the tube was filled with
carbonic acid. But when coal-gas was
introduced, the sparking at the passive
spark-gap immediately ceased. When the
coal-gas was driven out by air the
sparking began again; and this
experiment could be repeated with
perfect regularity. Even the
introduction of air with which some
coalgas had been mixed hindered the
transmission of the action. Hence a
much shorter stratum of coal-gas was
sufficient to stop the action. If a
current of coal-gas 1 cm. in diameter
is allowed to flow freely into the air
between the two sparks, a shadow of it
can be plainly perceived on the side
remote from the active spark, i.e. the
action of this is more or less
completely annulled. A powerful
absorption like that of coal-gas is
exhibited by the brown vapours of
nitrous oxide. With these, again, it is
not necessary to use the tube with
quartz-plates in order to show the
action. On the other hand, although
chlorine and the vapours of bromine and
iodine do exercise absorption, it is
not at all in proportion to their
opacity. No absorptive action could be
recognised when bromine vapour had been
introduced into the tube in sufficient
quantity to produce a distinct
coloration; and there was a partial
transmission of the action even when
the bromine vapour was so dense that
the active spark (coloured a deep red)
was only just visible through the
tube.

12. The intensity of the action
increases when the air around the
passive spark is rarefied, at any rate
up to a certain point. The increase is
here supposed to be measured by the
difference between the lengths of the
protected and the unprotected sparks.
In these experiments the passive spark
was produced under the bell-jar of an
air-pump between adjustable poles which
passed through the sides of the
bell-jar. A window of rock-crystal was
inserted in the bell-jar, and through
this the action of the other spark had
to pass. The maximum sparklength was
now observed, first with the window
open, and then with the window closed;
varying air-pressures being used, but a
constant current. The following table
may be regarded as typical of the
results :—
{ULSF: table omitted}
It will be seen
that as the pressure diminishes, the
length of the spark which is not
influenced only increases slowly; the
length of the spark which is influenced
increases more rapidly, and so the
difference between the two becomes
greater. But at a certain pressure the
blue glow-light (Glimmlicht) spread
over a considerable portion of the
cathode, the sparking distance became
very great, the discharge altered its
character, and it was no longer
possible to perceive any influence due
to the active spark.

13. The phenomenon is also exhibited
when the sparking takes place in other
gases than air; and also when the two
sparks are produced in two different
gases. In these experiments the two
sparks were produced in two small
tubulated glass vessels which were
closed by plates of rock-crystal and
could be filled with different gases.
The experiments were tried mainly
because certain circumstances led to
the supposition that a spark in any
given gas would only act upon another
spark in the same gas, and on this
account the four gases—hydrogen, air,
carbonic acid, and coal-gas—were
tried in the sixteen possible
combinations. The main conclusion
arrived at was that the above
supposition was erroneous. It should,
however, be added that although there
is no great difference in the
efficiency of sparks when employed as
active sparks in different gases, there
is, on the other hand, a notable
difference in their susceptibility when
employed as passive sparks. Other
things being equal, sparks in hydrogen
experienced a perceptibly greater
increase in length than sparks in air,
and these again about double the
increase of sparks in carbonic acid and
coal-gas. It is true that no allowance
was made for absorption in these
experiments, for its effect was not
known when they were carried out; but
it could only have been perceptible in
the case of coal-gas.

14. All parts of the passive spark do
not share equally in the action; it
takes place near the poles, more
especially near the negative pole. In
order to show this, the passive spark
is made from 1 to 2 cm. long, so that
the various parts of it can be shaded
separately. Shading the anode has but a
slight effect; shading the cathode
stops the greater part of the action.
But the verification of this fact is
somewhat difficult, because with long
sparks there is a want of distinctness
about the phenomenon. In the case of
short sparks (the parts of which cannot
be separately shaded) the statement can
be illustrated as follows :—The
passive spark is placed parallel to the
active one and is turned to right and
left from the parallel into the
perpendicular position until the action
stops. It is found that there is more
play in one direction than in the
other; the advantage being in favour of
that direction in which the cathode is
turned towards the active spark.
Whether the effect is produced entirely
at the cathode, or only chiefly at the
cathode, I have not been able to decide
with certainty.

15. The action of the active spark is
reflected from most surfaces. From
polished surfaces the reflection takes
place according to the laws of regular
reflection of light. In the preliminary
experiments on reflection a glass tube,
50 cm. long and 1 cm. in diameter, was
used; this tube was open at both ends,
and was pushed through a large sheet of
cardboard. The active spark was placed
at one end so that its action could
only pass the sheet by way of the tube.
If the passive spark was now moved
about beyond the other end of the tube
it was affected when in the
continuation of the tubular space and
then only; but in this case a far more
powerful action was exhibited than when
the tube was removed and only the
diaphragm retained. It was this latter
phenomenon that suggested the use of
the tube; of itself it indicates a
reflection from the walls of the tube.
The spark-micrometer was now placed to
one side of the beam proceeding out of
the tube, and was so disposed that the
axis of the spark was parallel to the
direction of the beam. The micrometer
was now adjusted so that the sparking
just ceased; it was found to begin
again if a plane surface inclined at an
angle of 45° to the beam was held in
it so as to direct the beam, according
to the usual law of reflection, upon
the passive spark. Reflection took
place more or less from glass,
crystals, and metals, even when these
were not particularly smooth; also from
such substances as porcelain, polished
wood, and white paper. I obtained no
reflection from a well-smoked glass
plate.

In the more accurate experiments the
active spark was placed in a vertical
straight line; at a little distance
from it was a largeish plate with a
vertical slit, behind which could be
placed polished plane mirrors of glass,
rock-crystal, and various metals. The
limits of the space within which the
action was exerted behind the slit were
then determined by moving the passive
spark about. These limits were quite
sharp and always coincided with the
limits of the space within which the
image of the active spark in the mirror
was visible. On account of the
feebleness of the action these
experiments could not be carried out
with unpolished bodies; such bodies may
be supposed to give rise to diffused
reflection.

16. In passing from air into a solid
transparent medium the action of the
active spark exhibits a refraction like
that of light; but it is more strongly
refracted than visible light. The glass
tube used in the reflection experiments
served here again for the rougher
experiments. The passive spark was
placed in the beam proceeding out of
the tube and at a distance of about 3 0
cm. from the end farthest from the
active spark; immediately behind the
opening a quartz-prism was pushed
sideways into the beam with its
refracting edge foremost. In spite of
the transparency of quartz, the effect
upon the passive spark ceased as soon
as the prism covered the end of the
tube. If the spark was then moved in a
circle about the prism in the direction
in which light would be refracted by
the prism, it was soon found that there
were places at which the effect was
again produced. Now let the passive
spark be fixed in the position in which
the effect is most powerfully
exhibited; on looking from this point
towards the tube through the prism the
inside of the tube and the active spark
at the end of it cannot be perceived;
in order to see the active spark
through the tube the eye must be
shifted backwards through a
considerable distance towards the
original position of the spark. The
same result is obtained when a
rock-salt prism is used. In the more
accurate experiments the active spark
was again fixed vertically; at some
distance from it was placed a vertical
slit, and behind this a prism. By
inserting a Leyden jar the active spark
could be made luminous, and the space
thus illuminated behind the prism could
easily be determined. With the aid of
the passive spark it was possible to
mark out the limits of the space within
which was exerted the action here under
investigation. Fig. 19 gives (to a
scale of 1/2) the result thus obtained
by direct experiment. The space a b c d
is filled with light; the space a' b'
c' d' is permeated by the action which
we are considering. Since the limits of
this latter space were not sharp, the
rays a' b' and c' d' were fixed in the
following way :—The passive spark was
placed in a somewhat distant position,
about c', at the edge of the tract
within which the action was exerted. A
screen m n (Fig. 19) with vertical edge
was then pushed in sideways until it
stopped the action. The position m of
its edge then gave one point of the ray
c' d'. In another experiment a prism of
small refracting angle was used, and
the width of the slit was made as
small, and the spark placed as far from
it as would still allow of the action
being perceived. The visible light was
then spread out into a short spectrum,
and the influence of the active spark
was found to be exerted within a
comparatively limited region which
corresponded to a deviation decidedly
greater than that of the visible
violet. Fig. 2 0 shows the positions of
the rays as they were directly drawn
where the prism was placed, r being the
direction of the red, v of the violet,
and w the direction in which the
influence of the active spark was most
powerfully exerted.


I have not been able to decide
whether any double refraction of the
action takes place. My quartz-prisms
would not permit of a sufficient
separation of the beams, and the pieces
of calc-spar which I possessed proved
to be too opaque.

17. After what has now been stated,
it will be agreed (at any rate until
the contrary is proved) that the light
of the active spark must be regarded as
the prime cause of the action which
proceeds from it. Every other
conjecture which is based on known
facts is contradicted by one or other
of the experiments. And if the observed
phenomenon is an effect of light at all
it must, according to the results of
the refraction-experiments, be solely
an effect of the ultra-violet light.
That it is not an effect of the visible
parts of the light is shown by the fact
that glass and mica are opaque to it,
while they are transparent to these. On
the other hand, the
absorption-experiments of themselves
make it probable that the effect is due
to ultra-violet light. Water,
rock-crystal, and the sulphates of the
alkalies are remarkably transparent to
ultra-violet light and to the action
here investigated; benzole and allied
substances are strikingly opaque to
both. Again, the active rays in our
experiments appear to lie at the
outermost limits of the known spectrum.
The spectrum of the spark when received
on a sensitive dry-plate scarcely
extended to the place at which the most
powerful effect upon the passive spark
was produced. And, photographically,
there was scarcely any difference
between light which had, and light
which had not, passed through coal-gas,
whereas the difference in the effect
upon the spark was very marked. Fig. 21
shows the extent of some of the spectra
taken. In a the position of the visible
red is indicated by r, that of the
visible violet by v, and that of the
strongest effect upon the passive spark
by w. The rest of the series give the
photographic impressions produced—b
after simply passing through air and
quartz, c after passing through
coal-gas, d after passing through a
thin plate of mica, and e after passing
through glass.

18. Our supposition that this effect
is to be attributed to light is
confirmed by the fact that the same
effect can be produced by a number of
common sources of light. It is true
that the power of the light, in the
ordinary sense of the word, forms no
measure of its activity as here
considered; and for the purpose of our
experiments the faintly visible light
of the spark of the induction-coil
remains the most powerful source of
light. Let sparks from any
induction-coil pass between knobs, and
let the knobs be drawn so far apart
that the sparks fail to pass; if now
the flame of a candle be brought near
(about 8 cm. off) the sparking begins
again. The effect might at first be
attributed to the hot air from the
flame; but when it is observed that the
insertion of a thin small plate of mica
stops the action, whereas a much larger
plate of quartz does not stop it, we
are compelled to recognise here again
the same effect. The flames of gas,
wood, benzene, etc., all act in the
same way. The nonluminous flames of
alcohol and of the Bunsen burner
exhibit the same effect, and in the
case of the candle-flame the action
seems to proceed more from the lower,
non-luminous part than from the upper
and luminous part. From a small
hydrogen flame scarcely any effect
could be obtained. The light from
platinum glowing at a white-heat in a
flame, or through the action of an
electric current, a powerful phosphorus
flame burning quite near the spark, and
burning sodium and potassium, all
proved to be inactive. So also was
burning sulphur; but this can only have
been on account of the feebleness of
the flame, for the flame of burning
carbon bisulphide produced some effect.
Magnesium light produced a far more
powerful effect than any of the above
sources ; its action extended to a
distance of about a metre. The
limelight, produced by means of coalgas
and oxygen, was somewhat weaker, and
acted up to a distance of half a metre;
the action was mainly due to the jet
itself: it made no great difference
whether the lime-cylinder was brought
into the flame or not. On no occasion
did I obtain a decisive effect from
sunlight at any time of the day or year
at which I was able to test it. When
the sunlight was concentrated by means
of a quartz lens upon the spark there
was a slight action; but this was
obtained equally when a glass lens was
used, and must therefore be attributed
to the heating. But of all sources of
light the electric arc is by far the
most effective; it is the only one that
can compete with the spark. If the
knobs of an induction-coil are drawn so
far apart that sparks no longer pass,
and if an arc light is started at a
distance of 1, 2, 3, or even 4 metres,
the sparking begins again
simultaneously, and stops again when
the arc light goes out. By means of a
narrow opening held in front of the arc
light we can separate the violet light
of the feebly luminous arc proper from
that of the glowing carbons; and we
then find that the action proceeds
chiefly from the former. With the light
of the electric arc I have repeated
most of the experiments already
described, e.g. the experiments on the
rectilinear propagation, reflection,
and refraction of the action, as well
as its absorption by glass, mica,
coal-gas, and other substances.

According to the results of our
experiments, ultra-violet light has the
property of increasing the sparking
distance of the discharge of an
induction-coil, and of other
discharges. The conditions under which
it exerts its effect upon such
discharges are certainly very
complicated, and it is desirable that
the action should be studied under
simpler conditions, and especially
without using an induction-coil. In
endeavouring to make progress in this
direction I have met with difficulties.
Hence I confine myself at present to
communicating the results obtained,
without attempting any theory
respecting the manner in which the
observed phenomena are brought
about.".14



A summary of Hertz's work "Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung" ("Influence
of Ultra-Violet Light on the Electric
Discharge") reads:
"The author has discovered
that ultra-violet radiation favours the
electric discharge between two
conductors in a remarkable way. As
sources of such radiation, the sun,
burning magnesium, or even ordinary
flame, may be used; but by far the most
effective are the electric arc and an
induced electric discharge. To produce
the phenomenon, the primary circuits of
two induction coils, a large one (10
cm.) and a smaller one (1 cm.), are
joined in circuit with the same battery
(six Bunsens) and interruptor. Perfect
synchronism in the induced discharge is
thus secured. The terminals of the
large coil being arranged to give a
good spark 1 cm. in length, the two
coils are placed close together, and an
opaque screen interposed. The terminals
of the small coil are then drawn apart
until sparks just cease to pass. On now
removing the screen the discharge is
re-established.

The author describes many experiments
to test the nature of the effect. The
influence is not electrical, since
non-conducting screens are effective as
well as metal plates. It varies in some
inverse ratio with the distance, and is
distinctly produced when the coils are
1 m. apart. In the above experiment,
the larger spark may be either short
and dense, or long and zig-zag, and
every part of it is effective. The
smaller spark, however, should be short
(between knobs) ; the seat of the
action upon it appears to be in the
neighbourhood of the cathode or
negative pole. The influence is
reciprocal; that is, the smaller spark
also favours the larger. The action is
propagated in straight lines, like
light, and may be reflected from
polished surfaces. It may also undergo
refraction ; but its refrangibility
(roughly measured by means of a quartz
prism) is much greater than that of the
violet rays. Most solid substances are
opaque to it; amongst these glass,
paper, agate, and mica, even in the
thinnest sheets, are noticeable.
Amongst crystalline substances, copper
sulphate, topaz, and amethyst are
opaque to it; but it is transmitted by
sugar, alum, calc-spar, and rock-salt;
transparent gypsum and rock crystal
transmit it perfectly. Amongst liquids,
water transmits it freely; sulphuric
and hydrochloric acids, alcohol, and
ether, less so; whilst melted paraffin
and petroleum, benzene, bisulphide of
carbon, ammonium hydrosulphide, and
coloured liquids generally, stop it
completely. Solutions of potassium,
sodium, and magnesium sulphates, are
fairly transparent to it; those of
mercuric nitrate, sodium thiosulphate,
potassium bromide and iodide, are very
opaque. Amongst gases, air, hydrogen,
and carbonic anhydride are very
transparent; chlorine, and bromine and
iodine vapours, partially so; and
coal-gas and nitric peroxide very
opaque.

Even an ordinary candle-flame may
produce effects similar to those
described, and may cause the
reappearance of sparks between the
terminals of an induction-coil after
they have been drawn so far apart that
the discharge has ceased. Similar
effects are produced by the luminous
flames of gas, wood, and benzene, and
the non-luminous flames of alcohol,
carbon bisulphide, and the Bunsen
burner. Incandescent platinum, and the
flames of sodium, potassium, sulphur,
and phosphorus, and of pure hydrogen,
are without effect. The effective rays
are more refrangible even than the
so-called photographic rays; for the
latter are not sensibly absorbed by
coal-gas.".15

(Possibly - that the effect is not
electrical may refer to light not being
an electric phenomenon - and kind of a
subtle putting forward of that secret
truth.16 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ H. Hertz.
"Ueber einen Einfluss des
ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
5. ^ "Hertz,
Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Record ID3336. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ H. Hertz. "Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung", ("An effect
of ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ H. Hertz.
"Ueber einen Einfluss des
ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
15. ^ H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Hertz, Heinrich
Rudolf." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 340-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric Discharge",
Journal of the Chemical Society:
Transactions, Volume 54, Part 1,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=l
dY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&as_drrb
_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&as_ma
xm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=hertz&f=false {05/1887}
19. ^ "Hertz,
Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
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[10] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[11] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[12] Wiedemann, Ebert, "On the Effect
of Light on the Electric Discharge",
The Electrical world, Volumes
11-12 http://books.google.com/books?id=
zYVMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123&dq=hertz++An+effec
t+of+ultraviolet+light+on+electrical+dis
charge&hl=en&ei=2vLES9fqKJOmswPOwfSCDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CEgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany17  
[1] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
113 YBN
[07/07/1887 AD] 12 		4046) Bell's share of the royalties
from the Graphophone finance the Volta
Bureau and the American Association to
Promote the Teaching of Speech to the
Deaf (since 1956 the Alexander Graham
Bell Association for the Deaf).10
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
2. ^ Charles Sumner Tainter Patent, Jul
7,
1887. http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=mH9UAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Charles Sumner Tainter, "The
Graphophone", The Electrical review,
Volume 23, 08/03/1888,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=Graphophone&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=Graphophone&f=false
4. ^ "Tainter, Charles Sumner."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9070
974>.
5. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
6. ^ "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
7. ^ Charles Sumner Tainter Patent, Jul
7,
1887. http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=mH9UAAAAEBAJ
8. ^ "Tainter, Charles Sumner."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9070
974>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Bell, Alexander
Graham." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
22 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
11. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
12. ^ Charles Sumner Tainter Patent,
Jul 7,
1887. http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=mH9UAAAAEBAJ {07/07/1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
[7] U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
[8]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm
[9] "Photophone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[10] "Charles Sumner Tainter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sum
ner_Tainter
[11]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
[12]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
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[13] Alexander Bell, "Upon the
electrical experiments to determine the
location of the bullet in...",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aG-7OQAACAAJ&dq=%22induction+balance%22+
bell
[14] John Trowbridge and Samuel
Sheldon, "Neutralization of Induction",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences"., Vol 24, Issue 16,
presented 05/28/1889,
p176-177. http://books.google.com/books
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on%20balance%22%20bell&f=false
[15] Oliver Lodge, "On Intermittent
Current and the Induction-Balance",
Phil Mag, 1880,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
epAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232&dq=%22induction+ba
lance%22#v=onepage&q=%22induction%20bala
nce%22&f=false
(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA11  
[1] Charles Sumner Tainter, ca. 1896.
From
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/images/PDRM0450b.jpg. The image is a
cutout of a scan of a newspaper page
(San Diego Union from September 30,
1917), see
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/tainter01.html). The image is thus
pre-1923, which makes it PD: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/26/Charles_Sumner_Tainter.jpg


[2] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
113 YBN
[07/??/1887 AD] 14 		4159)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p478.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
6. ^
http://translate.google.com
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Albert A. Michelson and
Edward W. Morley, "On the Relative
Motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous Ether", American Journal
of Science, s3, v34, Num 203,
11/1887. http://books.google.com/books?
id=0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=one
page&q=michelson&f=false
9. ^ Albert A. Michelson and Edward W.
Morley, "On the Relative Motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous Ether",
American Journal of Science, s3, v34,
Num 203,
11/1887. http://books.google.com/books?
id=0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=one
page&q=michelson&f=false
10. ^ Albert Einstein, "Äther und
Relativitätstheorie", ("Ether and the
Theory of Relativity"), 05/05/1920,
University of
Leyden. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/r56674848t254412/fulltext.pdf
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Michelson,
Albert Abraham." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
14. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {07/1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[7] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[8] "Michelson, A.A.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>
[9] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531
[10] George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[11] Hendrik Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the Earth and the Ether",
Versl. K. Akad. W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544
[13] Albert
Michelson, "Interference Phenomena in a
new Form of Refractometer",
Philosophical Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
(Case School of Applied Science)
Cleveland, Ohio, USA13  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from Michelson and
Morley's 1887 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
113 YBN
[09/26/1887 AD] 10 		4112) Émile Berliner (BARlENR) (CE
1851-1929), German-US inventor3
invents a flat phonograph record in
which the needle vibrates from side to
side as opposed to up and down which
Edison's phograph uses.4

Berliner's first discs are wax-coated
zinc pieces, on which a sound vibration
is carved. The discs are dipped in
acid, which burns the pattern into the
metal, and the wax is stripped. On
September 26, 1887, Berliner patents
his entire playback apparatus as the
"gramophone."5

Berliner displays his invention at the
Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in
1888, but first markets it in Germany.
A toy manufacturer, Kummerer &
Reinhardt of Waltershausen, produces
his gramophones. At this time, his
gramophone is turned by hand with a
crank. back in the USA, Berliner
employs several musicians to record on
his discs, and begins making discs from
a new material composed of shellac,
soot, and fur. In 1893, Berliner
secures investment from friends to
found the United States Gramophone
Company in order to market the
gramophone and control its patent
rights. In late 1895, investors
contribute another $25,000 to launch
the Berliner Gramophone Company, a
manufacturing enterprise. Initially,
sales of this new technology are slow,
but when Eldridge R. Johnson of New
Jersey introduces a wind-up spring
motor to replace the tedious hand-crank
in 1896, sales improve dramatically.
Over the next four years, nearly 25,000
of these motors are manufactured for
the Berliner Gramophone Company.6

The Berliner flat disk will eventually
replace Edison's cylinder phonograph7 ,
and amazing that these flat records
will last until the compact disk of the
1990s - while clearly much more
advanced technology is kept secret by
the phone company and those who
routinely read and write to and from
neurons8 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ Emile Berliner's patent of
11/07/1887 - to my understanding - the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder http://www.google.com/patents?
id=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p529.
5. ^ "Emile
Berliner." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Emile
Berliner." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {09/26/1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Berliner, Emil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
812>.
[2] "Emile Berliner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-berli
ner
[3] "Emile Berliner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berli
ner
[4]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html
[5] U.S. Patent 372,786 Gramophone
(horizontal recording), original filed
May 1887, refiled September 26, 1887,
issued November 8,
1887 http://www.google.com/patents?id=f
CRPAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
[6]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berliner.html
(own lab) Washington, DC, USA9  
[1] Berliner's 09/26/1887 patent for a
Grammophone [t The patent image
doesn't look like a flat disk] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=fCRPAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Emile Berliner with disc record
gramophone - photograph taken between
1910 and 1929. This is a cropped
version of the digital image from the
Library of Congress online collection.
there are no known restrictions on
publication, so this image appears to
be in the public domain; see catalog
information
below. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3
c24124 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Emile_Berliner_with_disc_r
ecord_gramophone_-_between_1910_and_1929
.jpg
113 YBN
[10/12/1887 AD] 17 18 		4246)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
4. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
5. ^ Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
11. ^ "Tesla,
Nikola." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
16. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {10/12/1887 (verify
this is the correct patent}
17. ^ Tesla Patent
381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
18. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {10/12/1887 (verify
this is the correct patent}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[5] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[6] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[9] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[11] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[12] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[13] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23, c.8
[14] New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
[15]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA15 16  
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
113 YBN
[11/07/1887 AD] 13 		4114) Émile Berliner (BARlENR) (CE
1851-1929), German-US inventor6
invents a flat phonograph record in
which the needle vibrates from side to
side as opposed to up and down which
Edison's phograph uses.7

Berliner's first discs are wax-coated
zinc pieces, on which a sound vibration
is carved. The discs are dipped in
acid, which burns the pattern into the
metal, and the wax is stripped. On
September 26, 1887, Berliner patents
his entire playback apparatus as the
"gramophone."8

Berliner displays his invention at the
Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in
1888, but first markets it in Germany.
A toy manufacturer, Kummerer &
Reinhardt of Waltershausen, produces
his gramophones. At this time, his
gramophone is turned by hand with a
crank. back in the USA, Berliner
employs several musicians to record on
his discs, and begins making discs from
a new material composed of shellac,
soot, and fur. In 1893, Berliner
secures investment from friends to
found the United States Gramophone
Company in order to market the
gramophone and control its patent
rights. In late 1895, investors
contribute another $25,000 to launch
the Berliner Gramophone Company, a
manufacturing enterprise. Initially,
sales of this new technology are slow,
but when Eldridge R. Johnson of New
Jersey introduces a wind-up spring
motor to replace the tedious hand-crank
in 1896, sales improve dramatically.
Over the next four years, nearly 25,000
of these motors are manufactured for
the Berliner Gramophone Company.9

The Berliner flat disk will eventually
replace Edison's cylinder phonograph10
, and amazing that these flat records
will last until the compact disk of the
1990s - while clearly much more
advanced technology is kept secret by
the phone company and those who
routinely read and write to and from
neurons11 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Emile Berliner's patent of
11/07/1887 - to my understanding - the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder http://www.google.com/patents?
id=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
#v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Emile Berliner's patent
of 11/07/1887 - to my understanding -
the first publicly known flat disk
sound
recorder http://www.google.com/patents?
id=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
#v=onepage&q=&f=false
4. ^ Emile Berliner's patent of
11/07/1887 - to my understanding - the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder http://www.google.com/patents?
id=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berliner.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p529.
8. ^ "Emile
Berliner." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
13. ^ Emile Berliner's patent of
11/07/1887 - to my understanding - the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder http://www.google.com/patents?
id=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
#v=onepage&q=&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Berliner, Emil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
812>.
[2] "Emile Berliner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-berli
ner
[3] "Emile Berliner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berli
ner
[4]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html
[5] U.S. Patent 372,786 Gramophone
(horizontal recording), original filed
May 1887, refiled September 26, 1887,
issued November 8,
1887 http://www.google.com/patents?id=f
CRPAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
(own lab) Washington, DC, USA12  
[1] Figure 1 from Berliner's 11/07/1887
patent - presumably the first publicly
known flat disk sound recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Figure 2 from Berliner's
11/07/1887 patent - presumably the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 5 		3083)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375.
2. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
5. ^ "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1887)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html
[5] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[6] "Robert
Bunsen." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany4  
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 4 		3697)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650.
2. ^ "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel
3. ^ Henry De Mosenthal, "The Life-Work
of Alfred Nobel", Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry, v. 18
(Jan.-June 1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
4. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
[2] "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
[3] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[4] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[5] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[6] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bern
hard_Nobel
[7]
http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/indus
trial/articles/lundstrom/index.html
[8] Nobel's US patent with description
of dynamite, US#78,317 (1868-05-26)
Alfred Nobel, Improved explosive
compound. http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pd
f/foo.pl?number=78317
Paris, France(presumably)3  
[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

[2] Scientist: Nobel, Alfred Bernhard
(1833 - 1896) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 11.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-N001-23a.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 17 18 		3739)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The
Chemistry of the Sun", Macmillan and
co., 1887,
p159-160. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+
of+the+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=we
b&ots=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzln
bs_iVyds
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph
Norman" (Obituary Notice), Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 81, p.261 (MNRAS
Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
9. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman"
(Obituary Notice), Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81, p.261 (MNRAS Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
10. ^ Norman Lockyer, "Studies in
Spectrum Analysis", D. Appleton and
Company, 1878,
p196. http://books.google.com/books?id=
380XAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=stud
ies+in+spectral+analysis&lr=&as_brr=0&as
_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=aU5YSYXTNYPAlQSx17zbAQ#P
PA196,M1
11. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co., 1887,
p266. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
17. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co.,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
18. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman"
(Obituary Notice), Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81, p.261 (MNRAS Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[5] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[7]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
[8] Norman Lockyer, "On the Most
Widened Lines in Sun-Spot Spectra.
First and Second Series, from November
12, 1879, to October 15, 1881.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1883 vol:36 iss:1 pg:443.
http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_loc
al?sid=google&auinit=JN&aulast=Lockyer&a
title=On+the+Most+Widened+Lines+in+Sun-S
pot+Spectra.+First+and+Second+Series,+fr
om+November+12,+1879,+to+October+15,+188
1.&id=doi:10.1098/rspl.1883.0128
[9] J. Norman Lockyer, "On the Iron
Lines Widened in Solar Spots",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 31,
1880/1881. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/806858137u0r5888/?p=149f9b4
bf4ee41088f3c5a073eedec5eπ=85
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England16
(presumably) 
[1] Fluted spectra PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA180,M1

[2] spectra of Stellar types PD/Corel

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA189,M1
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 14 		3772)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
2. ^ "Mach, Ernst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
725>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Mach, Ernst",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p564-565.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p479-480.
9. ^ Works of Ernst
Mach in German and English, in the
Internet
Archive http://www.archive.org/search.p
hp?query=creator%3A(Ernst%20Mach)
10. ^ E Mach, P Salcher,
"Photographische Fixierung der durch
Projectile in der Luft eingeleiteten
Vorgänge", Annalen Der Physik, vol.
268, Issue 10, 1881,
pp.277-291. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=STY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Photograp
hische+Fixirung+der+durch+Projectile+in+
der+Luft+eingeleiteten+Vorg%C3%A4nge+dat
e:1887-1887&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=x25bScjkMYOC
lQTHreGvBw#PPA277,M1 English
translation: Photographic fixation by
Projectile launched into the air
operations
Die%20Mechanik%20in%20ihrer%20Entwicklun
g
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Mach, Ernst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
725>.
14. ^ "Mach, Ernst", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p564-565. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Mach." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-mach
[2] "Ernst Mach." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-mach
[3] "Ernst Mach". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach
[4] "Ernst Mach". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ernst_Ma
ch
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p345.
[6] Ernst Mach, Translated by
Thomas Joseph McCormick, "The Science
of Mechanics", The Open court
publishing company,
1919. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HSQ6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Erns
t+Mach&lr=&ei=umtbSYOUDoX-kwTLlYlZ#PPR3,
M1
[7]
http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/3248.
html
[8]
Photographische%20Fixierung%20der%20durc
h%20Projectile%20in%20der%20Luft%20einge
leiteten%20Vorg%C3%A4nge
[9] Ernst Mach, Philip Edward Bertrand
Jourdain, "History and Root of the
Principle of the Conservation of
Energy", The Open Court Publishing Co.,
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
MWQSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93&dq=history+of+Mecha
nics+author:mach&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=YYhbSYq
JAoX-kwTLlYlZ#PPA5,M1
(Charles University) Prague, Czech
Republic13  
[1] Description Ernst Mach,
1900 Source Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/16/Bullet_in_flight.png

[2] One of the first photograps of the
bullet in flight made by Peter Salcher
with Ernest Mach in 1886 Source
http://pluslucis.univie.ac.at/PlusL
ucis/031/s22.pdf W. Gerhard Pohl:
''Peter Salcher und Ernst Mach
Schlierenfotografie von
Überschall-Projektilen'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernst-Mach-1900.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 4 		3957) Granville Stanley Hall (CE
1846-1924), US psychologist, founds the
American Journal of Psychology, the
first American journal in the field of
psychology and the second of any
significance outside Germany.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hall, G. Stanley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
911>.
2. ^ "Hall, G. Stanley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
911>.
3. ^ "Johns Hopkins University."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 21 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johns-hopki
ns-university
4. ^ "Hall, G. Stanley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
911>. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p507.
[2] "G. Stanley
Hall." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 21
Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/g-stanley-h
all
[3] "G stanley hall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_stanley_h
all
[4] Granville Stanley Hall, "Jesus, the
Christ, in the light of psychology",
Volume
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vHd
CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Jesus,+the+Christ,+i
n+the+Light+of+Psychology+(1917)%3B#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
[5] "Hall, Granville Stanley", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p289.
Johns Hopkins University2
(presumably), Baltimore, Maryland, USA3
 
[1] G. Stanley Hall.jpg Granville
Stanley Hall, (February 1, 1844 - April
24, 1924) was a psychologist and
educator who pioneered the field
American psychology. Date circa
1910 Author source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/gw_44_
3/chameleon?search=KEYWORD&function=CARD
SCR&SourceScreen=INITREQ&sessionid=20061
01920214929759&skin=nlm&conf=.%2fchamele
on.conf&lng=en&itemu1=1035&u1=1035&t1=St
anley%20Hall&elementcount=3&pos=1&prevpo
s=1& Frederick Gutekunst,
Photographer. 1831-1917 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/G._Stanley_Hall.jpg

[2] Description Hall Freud Jung in
front of Clark 1909.jpg Group photo
in front of Clark University Sigmund
Freud, G. Stanley Hall, C.G.Jung; Back
row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones,
Sandor Ferenczi. Photo taken for Clark
University in Worcester, Massachusetts
publication. Date September
1909(1909-09) Source Sigmund
Freud museum Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_fr
ont_of_Clark_1909.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 12 13 		3960)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
3. ^ "Beneden,
Edouard van." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
551>.
4. ^ "Beneden, Edouard Van", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p79. {1883}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p508.
6. ^ VAN BENEDEN.
E. and NEYT.A. (1887a). "Nouvelles
recherches sur la fecondation et la
division cellulaire karyokinetique chez
l'Ascaris du cheval. Moniteur beige.
20 aout 1887. num 232. 2497-2498.
7. ^ VAN
BENEDEN. E. and NEYT.A. (1887b).
Nouvelles recherches sur la fecondation
et la division mitotique chez
l'Ascaride megalocephale. Bull. Acad.
Royale Belgique 14 3eme serie:
215-295. http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=8sBOAAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&
dq=van+beneden+1887+neyt&ots=qpa9uJxeGj&
sig=wns_3Mx8olYmner_P3F4KL2TLfU#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false (translation to English)?
8. ^
Hamoir G., Int J Dev Biol. 1992
Mar;36(1):9-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/sites/entrez {Beneden_Van_Edouard_
Int_J_Dev_Biol_1992.pdf}
9. ^ "Prof. E. van Beneden" (obituary),
Nature 83, 344-345 (19 May 1910)
doi:10.1038/0
83344a0 http://books.google.com/books?i
d=nHkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA344&dq=intitle:natur
e+Beneden+date:1910-1910#v=onepage&q=int
itle%3Anature%20Beneden%20date%3A1910-19
10&f=false
11. ^ VAN BENEDEN. E. (1883).
"Recherches sur la maturation de l'oeuf
et la fecondation Ascaris
megalocephala.", Arch. Biol, 4:
265-640. http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=aPYYAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA49
&dq=Van+Beneden+E&ots=PoCu8l1ocy&sig=sqi
0uQBs3vPZFhYrlImgh6HSdeE#v=onepage&q=Van
%20Beneden%20E&f=false
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508. {1887}
13. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p366. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "meiosis>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meiosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 21 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eiosis>
[2]
http://www.ulg.ac.be/cms/c_35330/famous-
scholars-at-the-university-of-liege?hlTe
xt=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlM
ode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText
=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMod
e=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any
[3]
http://www.ulg.ac.be/cms/c_5000/home
University of Liège, Liège, Belgium9
10 11  
[1] Edouard Van Beneden PD
source: http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/umdb/
wiki-bioscope/images/9/9b/Vanbeneden.jpg


[2] Beneden and his daughter in 1891,
outside his home in Liege. PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/site
s/entrez
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 3 		4027)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
2. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
3. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
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[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
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[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
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[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
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[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
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[29] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
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[34] The Telegraphic Journal,
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[35] Edison "improvements to
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[37]
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[38] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
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(private lab) East Newark, New Jersey,
USA2 (presumably) 
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg

[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 8 		4048)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p514.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Otto
Wallach." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-wallac
h
4. ^ Otto Wallach, "Zur Kenntniss der
Terpene und atherischen Oele", Justus
Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, Vol238,
p78-89. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZvgtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA78&dq=wallach+terpin
e+date:1887-1887&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false Summary in English at: Journal
of the Chemical Society, Vol52,
p595. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B8M3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA595&dq=wallach+terpine
+date:1887-1887&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/history/histor
y1.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Otto Wallach." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-wallac
h
8. ^ "Otto Wallach." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-wallac
h {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wallach, Otto."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
970>
[2] "Otto Wallach". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Wallac
h
[3] "Wallach, Otto", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p920
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1910/wallach-bio.html
[5] "terpene." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terpenoid
[6] "Terpene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene
[7] "turpentine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turpentine
[8] O. Wallach, W. Brass, "Ueber das
Oleum Cynae; ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss
der Terpene", Justus Liebiegs Annalen
der Chemie,
p291. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KZU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=terpine+wallach
+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=ter
pene&f=false
[9] O. Wallach, "Ueber die
Bestandtheile einiger atherischer
Oele", Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie,
p314. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KZU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=terpine+wallach
+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=ter
pene&f=false
[10] Leopold Ruzicka, "Third Pedler
lecture. The life and work of Otto
Wallach", J. Chem. Soc., 1932, 1582 -
1597, DOI:
10.1039/JR9320001582 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/JR/article.asp?doi=
jr9320001582
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany7
 
[1] Otto Wallach german chemist
(1847-1931) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Otto_Wallach.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 7 8 		4098)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-526.
2. ^ Cecil H. Desch
D.Sc.Ph.D.F.R.S. , "The Le Chatelier
memorial lecture", J. Chem. Soc., 1938,
139 - 150, DOI:
10.1039/JR9380000139 http://www.rsc.org
/ejarchive/JR/1938/JR9380000139.pdf {Le
_Chatelier_Henri_memorial_1938.pdf}
3. ^ "Le Châtelier, Henry Louis."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 116-120. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Henri Louis Le Châtelier." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-louis
-le-chatelier
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Le Châtelier, Henry
Louis." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 116-120.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Cecil H. Desch D.Sc.Ph.D.F.R.S. ,
"The Le Chatelier memorial lecture", J.
Chem. Soc., 1938, 139 - 150, DOI:
10.1039/JR9380000139 http://www.rsc.org
/ejarchive/JR/1938/JR9380000139.pdf {Le
_Chatelier_Henri_memorial_1938.pdf}
{1887}
8. ^ "Henri Louis Le Châtelier." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-louis
-le-chatelier {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Le Chatelier, Henry-Louis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
462>.
[2] "Henri Louis Le Châtelier." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-louis
-le-chatelier
[3] "Henri Louis Le Châtelier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Louis
_Le_Ch%C3%A2telier
(École des Mines) Paris, France6
 
[1] Description
Lechatelier.jpg Henry Le Chatelier
(1850-1936), an influential French
chemist of the 19th century Español:
Henry Le Châtelier Français : Henry
Le Chatelier Italiano: Henri Le
Châtelier Polski: Henri Louis Le
Chatelier Português: Henry Louis Le
Chatelier Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Lechatelier.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Lechatelier.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 9 		4219)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Roozeboom, Hendrik Willem
Bakhuis." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 534-535.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 29
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Sur les différentes
formes de l’équilibre chimique
hétérogène", Recueil des travaux
chimique des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 6 (1887), 262–303.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Sur les différentes formes de
l’équilibre chimique hétérogène",
Recueil des travaux chimique des
Pays-Bas et de la Belgique, 6 (1887),
262–303.
9. ^ "Sur les différentes formes de
l’équilibre chimique hétérogène",
Recueil des travaux chimique des
Pays-Bas et de la Belgique, 6 (1887),
262–303.

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Willem Bakhuis
Roozeboom". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Wil
lem_Bakhuis_Roozeboom
(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands8  
[1] Hendrik Willem Bakhuis
Roozeboom PD
source: http://www.profburgwijk.nl/PBWar
chief/2006/Wijkkrant/Wijkkrant35/ills/Ro
ozeboomPortret.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 7 		4224) Johann Elster and Hans Geitel
jointly carry out and publish almost
all of their investigations from 1884
to 1920.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Record ID4016. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Elster,
Johann Philipp Ludwig Julius." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 354-357. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.elster-geitel.de/
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany6  
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 7 		4341)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
2. ^ "Svante
Arrhenius." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
3. ^ "Svante Arrhenius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
4. ^ "Svante Arrhenius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
5. ^ "Svante Arrhenius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
6. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
7. ^ "Svante Arrhenius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Svante Arrhenius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[2] "Svante Arrhenius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[3] "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 296-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900169&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Svante August Arrhenius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_Augu
st_Arrhenius
[5] Svante Arrhenius, "Recherches sur
la conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes",
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rech
erches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galvan
ique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_DiL
MK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
[7] "Arrhenius,
Svante August." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden6  
[1] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg

[2] Svante Arrhenius from German
Wikipedia: 19:30, 11. Sep 2004 . .
de:User:Matthias Bock (7044 Byte)
(Svante Arrhenius) Public Domain da
vor dem 1. Jan. 1923
veröffentlicht PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Arrhenius2.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 22 		4369) Electricity of heart beat
measured and recorded.13

Augustus Desire Waller (CE 1856-1922)
measures the electric potentials of the
heart muscle, finds them to coincide
with each heart muscle contraction, and
publishes the first electrocardiograph
images.14 15


Waller publishes his findings with
images in an 1887 report, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes Accompanying the Heart's Beat".
This is the first published account of
human electrocardiography.16 17

Waller uses zinc covered by leather and
moistened with salt-water to measure
the electricity.18

Waller records the electrical activity
of the living mammalian heart from the
body surface and in some of the
recordings associates that recording
with the mechanical apex beat. While
some of the recording devices are of
Waller's own devising Waller primarily
uses the Lippmann capillary
electrometer which consists largely of
a mercury column supporting a column of
dilute sulphuric acid. With the passage
of minute electric currents through the
instrument, the mercury column
fluctuates. A light transilluminating
the fluctuating level of the mercury
meniscus surface projects the mercury
column's movements. This discovery that
cardiac mechanical activity is
associated with the generation of
minute electrical currents which Waller
names "electrogram" defines the
remainder of Waller's career, as well
as being the beginning of a search in
the physiologic community for better
techniques for their detection and
recording. To record the light beam
photographically Waller devises a
technique of slowly moving a glass
photographic plate past the light beam
at a constant speed, using a spring
motor driven toy train. Willem
Einthoven will improve on the Waller
electrograms with a more robust and
sensitive string galvanometer.
Einthoven initially drops the
photographic plates at a controlled
speed, in a gravity and then later in a
motor driven track.19

Waller writes:
"IF a pair of electrodes (zinc
covered by chamois leather and
moistened with brine) are strapped to
the front and back of the chest, and
connected with a Lippmann's capillary
electrometer, the mercury in the latter
will be seen to move slightly but
sharply at each beat of the heart'. If
the movements of the column of mercury
are photographed on a travelling plate
simultaneously with those of an
ordinary cardiographic lever a record
is obtained as under (fig. 1) in which
the upper line h.h. indicates the
heart's movements and the lower line
e.e. the level of the mercury in the
capillary. Each beat of the heart is
seen to be accompanied by an electrical
variation.

The first and chief point to determine
is whether or no the electrical
variation is physiological, and not due
to a mechanical alteration of contact
between the electrodes and the chest
wall caused by the heart's impulse. To
ascertain this point accurate
time-measurements are necessary; a
physiological variation should precede
the movement
of the heart, while this could not
be the case if the variation were due
to altered contact. Fig. 2 is an
instance of such time-measurements
taken at as high a speed of the
travelling surface as may be used
without rendering the initial points of
the curves too indeterminate. It shews
that the electrical phenomenon begins a
little before the cardiographic
lever begins to rise.
The difference of time is however very
small, only about .025", and this
amount must further be diminished by
.01" which represents the "lost time"
of the cardiograph. The actual
difference is thus no greater than
.015", and the record is therefore,
although favourable to the
physiological interpretation, not
conclusively
satisfactory.

We know, from the experiment of the
secondary contraction made by
Helmholtz' on voluntary muscle, by
Kolliker and Muller and by Donders on
the heart, that the negative variation
of muscle begins before its visible
movement, and the current of action of
the heart begins before the
commencement of the heart's
contraction. For muscle the
time-difference given is 1/200", for
the heart (rabbit) 1/70"; for the
frog's heart the rheotome observations
of Marchand are to the effect that the
variation begins .01" to .04" after
excitation, while the contraction does
not begin until .11" to .33". The
capillary electrometer may with
advantage be employed to measure this
time-difference, the
electrical and the
mechanical events being simultaneously
recorded.
This I carried out on voluntary and
upon cardiac muscle with the same
instrument as that which I employed for
the human heart, and thus ascertained
that its indications are trustworthy in
this capacity.

In all these cases the antecedence of
the electrical variation is clear and
measurable. In the case of the excised
kitten's heart the time-difference is
about .05" with a length of contraction
of about 2", i.e. the interval
between the
electrical and the mechanical event is
increased in the sluggishly acting
organ. In the case of the human heart
the time difference appears to be about
.015" with a length of systole of
.35"-a value which corresponds with
that obtained by Donders for the
rabbit's heart in situ by the method of
the secondary contraction, viz.
1/70" (the
length of systole being presumably
about 1/3").

That a true electrical variation of the
human heart is demonstrable, may
further be proved beyond doubt by
leading off from the body otherwise
than from the chest wall. If the two
hands or one hand and one foot be
plunged into two dishes of salt
solution connected with the two sides
of the electrometer, the column of
mercury will be seen to move at each
beat of the heart, though less than
when electrodes are strapped to the
chest. The hand and foot act in this
case as leading off electrodes from the
heart, and by taking simultaneous
records of these movements of the
mercury and of the movements of the
heart it is seen that the former
correspond with the latter, slightly
preceding them and not succeeding them,
as would be the case if they depended
upon pulsation in the hand or foot.
This is unquestionable proof that the
variation is physiological, for there
is here of course no possibility of
altered contact at the chest wall, and
any mechanical alteration by arterial
pulsation could only produce an effect
.15" to .20" after the
cardiac impulse. A
similar result is obtained if an
electrode be placed in the mouth while
one of the extremities serves as the
other leading off electrode. The
electrical variation precedes the
heart's beat as in the
other cases
mentioned.

In conclusion it will be well to allude
to the difficulties which arise in the
interpretation of the character of the
electrical variation of the human
heart.

By mere inspection of the electrometer
it is often most difficult to determine
the direction of very rapid movements
of the mercury, and photography must be
employed. But even then, owing to the
small amplitude of movement, it is
still difficult to say whether the
variation consists of two movements,
and whether each movement indicates a
single or a double variation in the
same direction. Differences in the
position of the electrodes also give
rise to differences of the apparent
variation. Thus with the following
position of the electrodes (Hg
electrode over the apex beat, H2So4
electrode on the right side of the
back) the variation as watched through
the microscope appears usually
nN, and changes
to SN if the Hg electrode be shifted to
the sternum. If the Hg electrode is on
the back and the H2So4 electrode over
the apex beat, the variation appears to
be sS and to become nS when the H2So4
electrode is shifted away from the apex
beat. The variations accompanying the
heart's beat observed as carefully as
possible (without
the aid of photography) on a
healthy person with different positions
of the leading off electrodes were as
follows. It is to be remarked that the
direction of variation as observed in
this series is not such as to indicate
negativity
of the cardiac electrode but the
reverse.

{ULSF: table omitted}

It is on account of these sources of
doubt that I have not thought it
advisable at this stage to attempt a
definite interpretation of the
character of the variation, which
although as shewn, especially by the
experiments
illustrated in figs. 6 and 7, is
certainly physiological, may
nevertheless be physically complicated
by the conditions of demonstration on
the human body.".20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
2. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
3. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
5. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
6. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
7. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
8. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
9. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
10. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
11. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
12. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
13. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
14. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
15. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
16. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
17. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
18. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
19. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
20. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
21. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
22. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "A. D. Waller Obituary",
Nature, Vol 109, N2735, April 1, 1922,
p
418. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
vARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=obitua
ry+einthoven+intitle:nature&source=bl&ot
s=ku9EmPPB1V&sig=WZRcbRFA9qoQo4ip0qYobAQ
rYLk&hl=en&ei=1Wz9S6riB4XENr_F3d4H&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0C
CMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=obituary%20einthov
en%20intitle%3Anature&f=false
[2] "Augustus Desiré Waller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_De
sir%C3%A9_Waller
[3]
http://caribbean.scielo.org/scielo.php?s
cript=sci_arttext&pid=S0043-314420050003
00012&lng=en&nrm=
(St. Mary's Hospital) London, England21
 
[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD

source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf

[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg
112 YBN
[01/10/1888 AD] 6 		4023) Le Prince disappears in 1890 and
is never heard from again3 , perhaps he
was murdered to stop his priority to a
patent claim on moving pictures?4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Brian Coe, "William Friese Greene
and the Origins of Cinematography", The
Photographic Journal,
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/2/25.pdf
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/3/72.pdf http://screen.oxford
journals.org/cgi/reprint/10/4-5/129.pdf
{Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Brian_part1_
1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Br
ian_part2_1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_Will
iam_Coe_Brian_part3_1969.pdf}
2. ^ Brian Coe, "William Friese Greene
and the Origins of Cinematography", The
Photographic Journal,
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/2/25.pdf
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/3/72.pdf http://screen.oxford
journals.org/cgi/reprint/10/4-5/129.pdf
{Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Brian_part1_
1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Br
ian_part2_1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_Will
iam_Coe_Brian_part3_1969.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.nationalmediamuseum.org.uk/pd
fs/Pioneers%20of%20Early%20Cinema_1_LOUI
S%20AIM%C3%89%20AUGUSTIN%20LE%20PRINCE.p
df
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.nationalmediamuseum.org.uk/pd
fs/Pioneers%20of%20Early%20Cinema_1_LOUI
S%20AIM%C3%89%20AUGUSTIN%20LE%20PRINCE.p
df
6. ^ Brian Coe, "William Friese Greene
and the Origins of Cinematography", The
Photographic Journal,
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/2/25.pdf
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/3/72.pdf http://screen.oxford
journals.org/cgi/reprint/10/4-5/129.pdf
{Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Brian_part1_
1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Br
ian_part2_1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_Will
iam_Coe_Brian_part3_1969.pdf}
{01/10/1888}
New York City, NY, USA5
(presumably) 		 
112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD] 13 14 15 		3840)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Lord
Rayleigh, "On the Relative Densities of
Hydrogen and Oxygen", Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
4. ^ By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
5. ^ (original footnote:) "The Relative
Values of the Atomic Weights of
Hydrogen and Oxygen," by J. P. Cooke
and T. W. Richards, 'Amer. Acad.
Proc.,' vol 23, 1887.
6. ^ (original
footnote:) Address to Section A,
British Association 'Report,' 1882.
7. ^
(original footnote:) "On the
Composition of Water by Volume," by A.
Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887
(vol. 42, p. 396).
8. ^ Lord Rayleigh, "On
the Relative Densities of Hydrogen and
Oxygen", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
9. ^ Lord Rayleigh, "On the Relative
Densities of Hydrogen and Oxygen. II.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1892,
p448-463. http://books.google.com/books
?id=wwUWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:
1892-1892&as_brr=1&ei=lYN3Sd-GEoK0kASn1c
3ZBg#PPA448,M1
10. ^ R. J. Strutt, "On the Tendency of
the Atomic Weights to approximate to
Whole Numbers.", Philosophical
Magazine, S. 6, V. 1, March 1901,
p311-314. http://books.google.com/books
?id=CJAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&dq=strutt+atom
ic+weight&ei=Wl53ScT8JIGklQS0xMHmBA#PPA3
11,M1
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Strutt, John William,
Third Baron Rayleigh", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p844
13. ^ Lord Rayleigh, "On the
Relative Densities of Hydrogen and
Oxygen", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
{02/02/1888}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495. {1882}
15. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p359. {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Raylei
gh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron
Rayleigh". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871,
p.81-97
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279
[9] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sc
attering
[10] "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
(Strutt Laboratory) Terling, England12
 
[1] Description: young; three-quarter
view; suit; sitting Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, Baron PD/Corel
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rayleigh_john_william_strutt_a3
.jpg

[2] The Third Baron Rayleigh, John
William Strutt 12 November 1842 - 30
June 1919 PD/Corel
source: http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history
/historypictures/LordRayleigh.jpg
112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD] 16 		4288)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ H. Hertz, "On
the Speed of Diffusion of
Electrodynamic Actions", The Electrical
review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber
die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
8. ^ H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T {Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
16. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false {02/02/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>.
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany15  
[1] figure from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] table from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.
112 YBN
[02/??/1888 AD] 12 		4287)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ H. Hertz,
"Ueber die Einwirkung einer
geradlinigen electrischen Schwingung
auf eine benachbarte Strombahn",
Annalen der Physik, Feb 1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T {Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
{02/1888} Translated into
English: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Action of a Rectilinear
Electric Oscillation Upon A
Neighbouring Circuit", in "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p80. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "light." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 16 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9110
443>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Einwirkung einer geradlinigen
electrischen Schwingung auf eine
benachbarte Strombahn", Annalen der
Physik, Feb 1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T {Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
{02/1888} Translated into
English: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Action of a Rectilinear
Electric Oscillation Upon A
Neighbouring Circuit", in "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p80. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
7. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T {Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
{02/1888} Translated into
English: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Action of a Rectilinear
Electric Oscillation Upon A
Neighbouring Circuit", in "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p80. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ H.
Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung einer
geradlinigen electrischen Schwingung
auf eine benachbarte Strombahn",
Annalen der Physik, Feb 1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T {Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
12. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T {Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
{02/1888} Translated into
English: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Action of a Rectilinear
Electric Oscillation Upon A
Neighbouring Circuit", in "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p80. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[5] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[6] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[8] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[9] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[10] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[11] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[12] "Hertz, Heinrich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany11  
[1] Figure 22 from H. Hertz, ''Ueber
die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen
electrischen Schwingung auf eine
benachbarte Strombahn'', Annalen der
Physik, Feb 1888, p155-170. PD
source: H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888, p155-170.

[2] Figure 23 from H. Hertz, ''Ueber
die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen
electrischen Schwingung auf eine
benachbarte Strombahn'', Annalen der
Physik, Feb 1888, p155-170. PD
source: H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888, p155-170.
112 YBN
[04/??/1888 AD] 8 		4289)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ H. Hertz,
"Ueber electrodynamische Wellen im
Luftraume und deren Reflexion", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 (V. 34), Issue
8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber electrodynamische
Wellen im Luftraume und deren
Reflexion", Annalen der Physik, Volume
270 (V. 34), Issue 8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
5. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber electrodynamische
Wellen im Luftraume und deren
Reflexion", Annalen der Physik, Volume
270 (V. 34), Issue 8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber
electrodynamische Wellen im Luftraume
und deren Reflexion", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 270 (V. 34), Issue 8A,
Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
8. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber electrodynamische
Wellen im Luftraume und deren
Reflexion", Annalen der Physik, Volume
270 (V. 34), Issue 8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false {04/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[14] H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T
[15] H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[16] H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany7  
[1] Hertz, Heinrich. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 7
Apr. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
1218&rendTypeId=4

[2] Family Hertz with the sons (the
second from left is Heinrich) PD
source: http://www.ur5eaw.com/images/ham
_history/hertz/hertz_family.jpg
112 YBN
[05/03/1888 AD] 21 		3971)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph William Mellor, "A
comprehensive treatise on inorganic and
theoretical chemistry, Volume 1", 1922,
p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse
2. ^ Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge
zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
Wiener Monatschr, Monatshefte für
Chemie / Chemical Monthly, vol 9,
p421-441, 05/03/1888.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g7
g4323870t73170/ http://books.google.com
/books?id=hoQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Fried
rich+Reinitzer+kenntniss++date:1887-1890
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friedrich%20Re
initzer%20kenntniss%20%20date%3A1887-189
0&f=false {Reinitzer_Friedrich_1888.pdf
} English
translation: "Contributions to the
knowledge of cholesterol", Liquid
Crystals, Volume 5, Issue 1 1989 ,
pages 7-18.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a757135313 {Reinitzer
_Friedrich_in_English_1888.pdf}
3. ^ Timothy J. Sluckin, David A.
Dunmur, Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals
that flow: classic papers from the
history of liquid crystals", 2004,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
MEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azox
yphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0W
&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&e
i=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
{Crystals_That_Flow_2004.pdf}
4. ^
http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerp
ieces/quartz/inventors/liquid.html
5. ^
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Joseph William Mellor, "A
comprehensive treatise on inorganic and
theoretical chemistry, Volume 1", 1922,
p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse
8. ^
http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerp
ieces/quartz/inventors/liquid.html
9. ^
http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerp
ieces/quartz/inventors/liquid.html
10. ^
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
11. ^ O. Lehmann, "Über fliessende
Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Physikalische Chemie, vol. 4, p462-472,
1889.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ANicE
1Vep0oC&pg=PA462&dq=intitle:Zeitschrift+
+date:1889-1889+lehmann+krystalle#v=onep
age&q=intitle%3AZeitschrift%20%20date%3A
1889-1889%20lehmann%20krystalle&f=false
12. ^
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
13. ^
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
14. ^
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
15. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
prev=hp&hl=en&js=y&text=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zu
r+Kenntniss+des+Cholesterins+&file=&sl=d
e&tl=en&history_state0=#
16. ^ Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge
zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
Wiener Monatschr, Monatshefte für
Chemie / Chemical Monthly, vol 9,
p421-441, 05/03/1888.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g7
g4323870t73170/ http://books.google.com
/books?id=hoQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Fried
rich+Reinitzer+kenntniss++date:1887-1890
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friedrich%20Re
initzer%20kenntniss%20%20date%3A1887-189
0&f=false {Reinitzer_Friedrich_1888.pdf
} English
translation: "Contributions to the
knowledge of cholesterol", Liquid
Crystals, Volume 5, Issue 1 1989 ,
pages 7-18.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a757135313 {Reinitzer
_Friedrich_in_English_1888.pdf}
17. ^ Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge
zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
Wiener Monatschr, Monatshefte für
Chemie / Chemical Monthly, vol 9,
p421-441, 05/03/1888.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g7
g4323870t73170/ http://books.google.com
/books?id=hoQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Fried
rich+Reinitzer+kenntniss++date:1887-1890
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friedrich%20Re
initzer%20kenntniss%20%20date%3A1887-189
0&f=false {Reinitzer_Friedrich_1888.pdf
} English
translation: "Contributions to the
knowledge of cholesterol", Liquid
Crystals, Volume 5, Issue 1 1989 ,
pages 7-18.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a757135313 {Reinitzer
_Friedrich_in_English_1888.pdf}
18. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^ Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-2
002.pdf}
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
21. ^ Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge
zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
Wiener Monatschr, Monatshefte für
Chemie / Chemical Monthly, vol 9,
p421-441, 05/03/1888.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g7
g4323870t73170/ http://books.google.com
/books?id=hoQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Fried
rich+Reinitzer+kenntniss++date:1887-1890
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friedrich%20Re
initzer%20kenntniss%20%20date%3A1887-189
0&f=false {Reinitzer_Friedrich_1888.pdf
} English
translation: "Contributions to the
knowledge of cholesterol", Liquid
Crystals, Volume 5, Issue 1 1989 ,
pages 7-18.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a757135313 {Reinitzer
_Friedrich_in_English_1888.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Reinitzer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_R
einitzer
[2]
http://www.physics.upenn.edu/~kamien/chi
ralweb/timeline/index.html
[3] "Liquid crystal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crys
tal
[4] "liquid crystal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-5185
5>
[5] O. Lehmann, "Ueber physikalische
Isomerie", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p97-131. http://books.google.com/books?
id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehmann+da
te:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O.%20l
ehmann&f=false
[6] O. Lehmann, "Ueber das Wachsthum
der Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p453-496. http://books.google.com/books
?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehmann+d
ate:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O.%20
lehmann&f=false
[7] William Bragg, "Liquid Crystals",
nature, num 3360, March 24, 1934.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
133/n3360/pdf/133445a0.pdf
[8] J. D. Bernal and D. Crowfoot,
"Crystalline phases of some substances
studied as liquid crystals", Trans.
Faraday Soc. , 1933, 29, 1032 - 1049,
DOI:
10.1039/TF9332901032 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/TF/article.asp?doi=
tf9332901032
[9] David J.R. Cristaldi, Salvatore
Pennisi and Francesco Pulvirenti,
"Liquid Crystal Display Drivers,
1 Techniques and Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/
Institute of Plant Physiology at the
University of Prague, Prague, Austria20
 
[1] Deutsch: Der österreichische
Botaniker und Chemiker Friedrich
Reinitzer English: The Austrian
Chemist Fridrich Reinitzer Date
prior 1900 Source
http://liqcryst.chemie.uni-hamburg.de
/lcionline/liqcryst/lchistory/topics/c13
b5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Friedrich_Reinitzer_0
1.jpg

[2] Friedrich Reinitzer PD
source: http://www.merck.co.kr/Korean/ch
emicals/images/Reinitzer_klein.jpg
112 YBN
[09/08/1888 AD] 7 		6260) Smith was Vice President of the
Men's League for Women Suffrage.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Ob
erlin_Smith
2. ^ Oberlin Smith, "Some Possible
Forms of Phonograph", The Electrical
World, September 8, 1888,
p116 http://books.google.com/books?id=V
lVEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith article are missing.}
AND http://www.richardhess.com/tape/his
tory/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf
AND {Smith_Oberlin_Possible_Forms_of_Ph
onograph_18880908.pdf}
3. ^ Oberlin Smith, "Some Possible
Forms of Phonograph", The Electrical
World, September 8, 1888,
p116 http://books.google.com/books?id=V
lVEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith article are missing.}
AND http://www.richardhess.com/tape/his
tory/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf
AND {Smith_Oberlin_Possible_Forms_of_Ph
onograph_18880908.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Ob
erlin_Smith
5. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Ob
erlin_Smith
6. ^ "Oberlin Smith and the Invention
of Magnetic Sound Recording",
Compilation of Oberlin Smith
biographical and technical information
of his
inventions. http://www.richardhess.com/
tape/history/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.p
df {Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf}
7. ^ Oberlin Smith, "Some Possible
Forms of Phonograph", The Electrical
World, September 8, 1888,
p116 http://books.google.com/books?id=V
lVEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith article are missing.}
AND http://www.richardhess.com/tape/his
tory/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf
AND {Smith_Oberlin_Possible_Forms_of_Ph
onograph_18880908.pdf} {09/08/1988}
{09/08/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] Hunter, "Some Impossible
Forms of the Phonograph", The
Electrical World, September 22, 1888,
p157 {Hunter_Impossible_Forms_of_Phonog
raph_18880922.pdf}
Bridgeton, New Jersey, USA5 6  
[1] From Oberlin Smith, ''Some
Possible Forms of Phonograph'', The
Electrical World, September 8, 1888,
pp.
116 http://books.google.com/books?id=Vl
VEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith article are missing.}
AND http://www.richardhess.com/tape/his
tory/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf
AND {Smith_Oberlin_Possible_Forms_of_Ph
onograph_18880908.pdf} PD
source: http://www.richardhess.com/tape/
history/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf

[2] Description rare photo of
Oberlin Smith, first to suggest
magnetic recording Source
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/rec
ording/tape.html Article Oberlin
Smith Portion used
bust/portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Oberlin-smith-c1888.jpg
112 YBN
[09/??/1888 AD] 8 		3833)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ George Downing
Liveing, James Dewar, "Collected Papers
on Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
3. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "The
Absorption-spectrum, Luminous and
Ultra-violet, of large masses of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, s5,
v26, 1888,
p286-290. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Jk8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=dewar+date:
1888-1888+oxygen+intitle:philosophical&a
s_brr=1&ei=MAhtSajXOZHGlQTn7pmbDQ#PPA286
,M1
4. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07fπ=27
5. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "The
Absorption-spectrum, Luminous and
Ultra-violet, of large masses of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, s5,
v26, 1888,
p286-290. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Jk8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=dewar+date:
1888-1888+oxygen+intitle:philosophical&a
s_brr=1&ei=MAhtSajXOZHGlQTn7pmbDQ#PPA286
,M1 {09/1888}
6. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar,
"Notes on the Absorption-Spectra of
Oxygen and Some of Its Compounds",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 46, 1889,
p222-230. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m14rnl70273m4p1q/?p=8b76409b
b7bd41baad95a029101d6d02π=28
7. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07fπ=27
8. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "The
Absorption-spectrum, Luminous and
Ultra-violet, of large masses of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, s5,
v26, 1888,
p286-290. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Jk8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=dewar+date:
1888-1888+oxygen+intitle:philosophical&a
s_brr=1&ei=MAhtSajXOZHGlQTn7pmbDQ#PPA286
,M1 {09/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[4]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[5]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[6] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[7] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[8] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[9]
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>
[10] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[11] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p365
[12]
"Scientific Uses of Liquid Air",
description of James Dewar's
lecture. from: Railway Locomotives and
Cars, v.68, Simmons-Boardman Pub.
Corp., 1894,
p132-134. http://books.google.com/books
?id=C-s6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132&dq="On+the+sci
entific+uses+of+liquid+air"&lr=&ei=g_FnS
YOhB4bWlQS9xIHWCw#PPA132,M1
[13] J. D. Liveing, J. Dewar, "On the
Spectrum of Water. No. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 33, 1881/1882,
p274-276.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/920r8ww04087j465/?p=2098166d8a0f48fb8
e3b53267a261baeπ=35
[14] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar,
"Spectroscopic Studies on Gaseous
Explosions. No. I", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 36, 1883/1884,
p471-478. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/45845h5410l50412/?p=4ebf7fba
060a4b229786a9dac53f5b3bπ=47 http://jo
urnals.royalsociety.org/content/45845h54
10l50412/fulltext.pdf
[15] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "On
the Influence of Pressure on The
Spectra of Flames", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 49, 1890/1891,
p217-225. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/y274610r733h2227/?p=3a8370da
6e6b41948727a2920a03a1c7π=0 Abstract
of paper read before Royal Society on
Feb 19, 1891, Chemical News,
1891 http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
JwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA35&dq=james+dewar+d
ate:1891-1892+oxygen+blue&ei=MttsSYnSIYP
IlQTdhZx0#PRA1-PA143,M1
(Royal Institution) London, England7
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

112 YBN
[11/??/1888 AD] 6 		4290)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ H. Hertz,
"Die Kräfte electrischer Schwingungen,
behandelt nach der Maxwell'schen
Theorie", Annalen der Physik Volume
272 Issue 1, Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ H. Hertz, "Die
Kräfte electrischer Schwingungen,
behandelt nach der Maxwell'schen
Theorie", Annalen der Physik Volume
272 Issue 1, Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
6. ^ H. Hertz, "Die Kräfte
electrischer Schwingungen, behandelt
nach der Maxwell'schen Theorie",
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 Issue 1,
Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false {11/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>.
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[14] H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T
[15] H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[16] H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[17] H. Hertz, "Ueber electrodynamische
Wellen im Luftraume und deren
Reflexion", Annalen der Physik, Volume
270 (V. 34), Issue 8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany5  
[1] image from: H. Hertz, ''Die
Kräfte electrischer Schwingungen,
behandelt nach der Maxwell'schen
Theorie'', Annalen der Physik Volume
272 Issue 1, Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory'', ''Electric Waves'',
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962.

[2] image from H. Hertz, ''Die
Kräfte electrischer Schwingungen,
behandelt nach der Maxwell'schen
Theorie'', Annalen der Physik Volume
272 Issue 1, Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory'', ''Electric Waves'',
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962.
112 YBN
[12/13/1888 AD] 11 		4291)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ H. Hertz,
"Ueber Strahlen electrischer Kraft",
Sitzungsber. d. Berlin Akad. d. Wiss.,
12/13/1888 and Annalen der Physik
Volume 272 (V36), Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
5. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams & Wilkens Co, 1928,
p364-365.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
11. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[14] H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T
[15] H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[16] H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[17] H. Hertz, "Ueber electrodynamische
Wellen im Luftraume und deren
Reflexion", Annalen der Physik, Volume
270 (V. 34), Issue 8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[18] H. Hertz, "Die Kräfte
electrischer Schwingungen, behandelt
nach der Maxwell'schen Theorie",
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 Issue 1,
Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany10  
[1] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 10 		3402)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Boyd Dunlop." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173801/John-Boyd-Dunlop>.
2. ^ "tire." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596799/tire>.
3. ^
http://www.dunloptyres.co.uk/dunlop/hist
ory/
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Record ID3401. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.dunloptyres.co.uk/dunlop/hist
ory/
7. ^
http://www.dunloptyres.co.uk/dunlop/hist
ory/
8. ^ "John Boyd Dunlop." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173801/John-Boyd-Dunlop>.
9. ^
http://www.virtualscotland.co.uk/scotlan
d_articles/famous-scots/dunlop.htm
10. ^ "John Boyd Dunlop." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173801/John-Boyd-Dunlop>. {1888}
Belfast, Ireland9  
[1] Pneumatic Bicycle The son of
Scottish inventor John Dunlop, on the
first bicycle to have pneumatic tyres.
John Boyd Dunlop was born in Dreghorn,
Ayrshire, and worked as a vet in
Scotland and Ireland. He replaced the
solid rubber tyres of his child's
tricycle with an inflated rubber hose
and, although the idea had already been
patented by Robert William Thomson,
Dunlop founded a business to produce
his new pneumatic tyres and is credited
with their invention. (Photo by Three
Lions/Getty Images) * by Three
Lions * * reference:
2673445 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2673445&text=Robert+Willi
am+Thomson

[2] John Boyd Dunlop. He was the
inventor who founded the rubber company
that bears his name, Dunlop Tyres. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/John_Boyd_Dunlop_418p
x.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 4 		3631)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p451-452.
2. ^ "Richard
Dedekind." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ded
ekind
3. ^ "Richard Dedekind." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/155414/Richard-Dedekind>.
4. ^ "Richard Dedekind." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/155414/Richard-Dedekind>. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Dedekind." The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ded
ekind
[2] "Richard Dedekind." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ded
ekind
[3] "Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Richard_Dedekind
[4] "Dedekind, (Julius Wilhelm)
Richard", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p238.
(Technical High School in Braunschweig)
Braunschweig, Germany3  
[1] Photo de Richard Dedekind vers
1850 Source
http://dbeveridge.web.wesleyan.edu/we
scourses/2001f/chem160/01/Photo_Gallery_
Science/Dedekind/FrameSet.htm Date
2007-02-10 (original upload
date) Author Jean-Luc
W Permission (Reusing this image)
La photo date de plus de 150 ans,
elle est domaine public PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Dedekind.jpeg

[2] Richard Dedekind
(1831–1916) PD/Corel
source: http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/dedekind-foundations/dedekind.png
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 7 		3745) Waldeyer-Hartz's name originally
is just Waldeyer.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474.
2. ^ Andreas
Winkelmann, "Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz
(1836-1921): An anatomist who left his
mark", Clinical Anatomy Volume 20
Issue 3,
p231-234. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/113445565/abstract {Walde
yer-Hartz_Wilhelm.pdf}
en
4. ^ Waldeyer W. 1888. "Über
Karyokinese und ihre Beziehungen zu den
Befruchtungsvorgängen". Arch. f. mikr,
Anat. 1888, Bd. XXXII. 4. ^ T.
Cremera, C. Cremer, "Centennial of
Wilhelm Waldeyer's introduction of the
term 'chromosome' in 1888", Cytogenet
Cell Genet
1988;48:66-67. http://content.karger.co
m/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Doi=132591
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474.
6. ^
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per357
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried
von Waldeyer-Hartz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wi
lhelm_Gottfried_von_Waldeyer-Hartz
[2] "Waldeyer-Hartz, Wilhelm Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p918
[3] Fielding
Hudson Garrison, "An introduction to
the history of medicine", Saunders,
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
glY8SPSQWA4C&pg=PA471&dq=WilhelmWaldeyer
&ei=I2lYSdLDLZCIkAS17ZDCBg#PPA706,M1
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&
id=E0gaAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Wilhelm
+Waldeyer+%C3%9Cber+Karyokinese+und+ihre
+Beziehungen&ots=uc4hCQvJQn&sig=d0qkptH8
F_YOQedwam9nVyxfKg4#PPA7,M1
[5]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
[6]
%C3%9Cber%20Karyokinese%20und%20ihre%20B
eziehungen%20zu%20den%20Befruchtungsvorg
%C3%A4ngen
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany6
 
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz, German anatomist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Von-waldeyer-hartz.jpg

[2] Waldeyer-Hartz [Waldeyer], Wilhelm
von PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29768.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 11 		3801)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490.
2. ^ Emile Amagat,
"Compressibilite des gaz: oxygene,
hydrogene, azote et air jusqu'a 3000
atm", Comptes Rendus, cvii, 1888, p522.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f522.langFR
3. ^ Carl Barus, Robert Boyle, Émile
Hilaire Amagat, "The Laws of Gases",
Harper,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPP11,M1
4. ^ Emile Amagat, "Compressibilite des
gaz: oxygene, hydrogene, azote et air
jusqu'a 3000 atm", Comptes Rendus,
cvii, 1888, p522.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f522.langFR
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Amagat,
Émile", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p18.
8. ^
Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Carl Barus, Robert
Boyle, Émile Hilaire Amagat, "The Laws
of Gases", Harper,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPP11,M1
11. ^ Emile Amagat, "Compressibilite
des gaz: oxygene, hydrogene, azote et
air jusqu'a 3000 atm", Comptes Rendus,
cvii, 1888, p522.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f522.langFR

MORE INFO
[1] "Emile Amagat." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-amaga
t
[2] "Emile Hilaire Amagat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Hilai
re_Amagat
[3] Emile H Amagat, "Verification of
the van der Waals Law of Corresponding
Conditions", Compt rend, 1896, 123,
p30-35. Journal of the Chemical
Society, Chemical Society (Great
Britain), Royal Society of Chemistry
(Great Britain), v.72 pt.2
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tOY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA363&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPA363,M1
(faculte Libre des Sciences of Lyons)
Lyons, France10  
[1] Disposition for apparatus for very
high pressure PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA68,M1

[2] Figure 2: Pressure apparatus with
electric contacts. fig 3: piezometer
for Gases. fig 4: piezometer for
Liquids. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA63,M1
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 8 		3813) Nicolas Camille Flammarion
(FlomorEON) (CE 1842-1925), French
astronomer1 publishes "L'atmosphère:
météorologie populaire" (second
edition? first is 1872?2 1888; "The
Atmopshere: Popular Meterology")3 ,
which includes the famous "flat earth"
woodcut drawing (p. 163).4 5 (verify6
)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Camille
Flammarion, "L'atmosphère:
météorologie populaire", 1888.
(second edition? first is
1872?) English translation: Camille
Flammarion, James Glaisher, "The
Atmosphere", Harper & Brothers,
1873. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aqwOAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:flammarion&ei=dqRjSaqUHZSyMPOaoKoF
4. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios/Cami
lleFlammarion.html
5. ^ "Nicolas Camille Flammarion".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Cam
ille_Flammarion
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Camille Flammarion." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-fla
mmarion
8. ^ "Nicolas Camille Flammarion".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Cam
ille_Flammarion {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] Camille Flammarion, John
Ellard Gore, "Popular Astronomy",
Chatto & Windus,
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6Ga4AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:flammarion&ei=dqRjSaqUHZSyMPOaoKoF
[2] "Camille Flammarion." Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 06
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camille-fla
mmarion
[3] "Flammarion, Camille", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p317
Juvisy (near Paris), France7
(presumably) 
[1] The Flammarion woodcut is an
enigmatic wood engraving by an unknown
artist that first appeared in Camille
Flammarion's L'atmosphère:
météorologie populaire (1888). The
image depicts a man peering through the
Earth's atmosphere as if it were a
curtain to look at the inner workings
of the universe. The caption translates
to ''A medieval missionary tells that
he has found the point where heaven and
Earth meet...'' Source Camille
Flammarion, L'Atmosphere:
Météorologie Populaire (Paris, 1888),
pp. 163 Date 1888 Author
Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Flammarion.jpg

[2] Camille Flammarion PD
source: http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/B
ios/images/Flammarion.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 6 		3817)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p368.
3. ^ Hector Macpherson,
"A century's progress in astronomy",
Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p166. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p368. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910.
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[9]
http://bdaugherty.tripod.com/astronomy/b
erlin.html
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany5  
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 20 		3826) In 1875, Dewar is made a
professor at the University of
Cambridge, and in 1877 at the Royal
Institution in London, and holds both
posts throughout his life.7

In his early career Dewar writes papers
on measurement of high temperatures8 ,
for example, on the temperature of the
sun and of the electric spark, others
on electro-photometry and the chemistry
of the electric arc.(describe more with
original papers9 ) With Professor J. G.
Kendrick, of Glasgow, Dewar
investigates the physiological action
of light, and examines the changes
which take place in the electrical
condition of the retina under the
influence of light. (perhaps trying to
see thought/what eye sees from behind
head?10 ) 11 With Professor G. D.
Liveing, a colleague at Cambridge,
Dewar begins in 1878, a long series of
spectroscopic observations, the later
part which are devoted to the
spectroscopic examination of various
gaseous constituents separated from
atmospheric air by the aid of low
temperatures; and Dewar is joined by
Professor J. A. Fleming, of University
College, London, in the investigation
of the electrical behavior of
substances cooled to very low
temperatures.12 (finding a decrease in
electrical resistance at low
temperatures?13 )

From 1892-1893 Dewar and Fleming
measures the electrical resistance of
metals under very cold temperatures and
confirm that the resistance of many
metals is decreased by a decrease in
temperature.14 15

Dewar publishes many
papers, just over 100 in the
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London.16 17

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography states that "Dewar was a
superb experimentalist; he published no
theoretical papers.".18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Armstrong, H. E. (1928).
"Obituary of James Dewar". Journal of
the Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ G. D. Liveing,
J. Dewar, "Investigations on the
Spectrum of Magnesium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, Vol. 44,
1888,
p.241-252. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
pdfplus/114722.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Sir James Dewar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ James Dewar and J. A.
Fleming, "On the Electrical Resistance
of Pure metals, Alloys, and Non-metals
at the boiling-point of Oxygen.",
Philosophical Magazine, ser. 5, v34,
1892,
p.326. http://books.google.com/books?id
=IlIwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR6&dq=%22On+the+electr
ical+resistance+of+pure+metals%22+date:1
892-1892&ei=japnSa7mK5CQkQSJlpznAQ#PRA1-
PA326,M1
15. ^ Philosophical Magazine, ser. 5,
v. 40, 1895,
p303. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DlYwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA310&lpg=PA310&dq=%22Th
e+variation+in+the+electrical+resistance
+of+bismuth%22&source=bl&ots=10Kb8IYqH7&
sig=LwvNX1Zr-EMvgGjSxf_jQMynfOQ#PPA303,M
1
16. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=James+Dewar&sortorder=a
sc&o=1
17. ^
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=J.+Dewar&sortorder=asc&
o=1
18. ^ "Dewar, James", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p248.
19. ^ "Dewar, Sir James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
20. ^ G. D. Liveing, J. Dewar,
"Investigations on the Spectrum of
Magnesium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 44, 1888,
p.241-252. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
pdfplus/114722.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[3] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[6]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[7] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[8] J. Norman Lockyer, "Note on a
Recent Communication by Messrs. Liveing
and Dewar", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 29, (1879), pp.
45-47.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113733?seq=1

[9] J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches on
the Spectra of Meteorites. A Report to
the Solar Physics Committee",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 43, 1887,
p.117. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/0h52655555557735/
(Royal Institution) London, England19
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD] 6 		3915)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ "Strasburger,
Eduard Adolf." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
3. ^ "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
4. ^ Record ID3916. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Strasburger,
Eduard Adolf." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
6. ^ "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841-842.
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany5
 
[1] Description EStrasburger.jpg E
Strasburger Source The
Darwin-Wallace celebration held on
THURSDAY, IST JULY, 1908, BY THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON. �� Date
1908 (1908) Auteur Linnean
Society PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/EStrasburger.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 10 		3935)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ "Röntgen
(Roentgen), Wilhelm Conrad", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p751-752.
3. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker,
"History of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
4. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
5. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
6. ^ Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History
of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
7. ^ "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Röntgen, Wilhelm
Conrad." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
10. ^ "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
[7] Richard Francis Mould, "A century
of x-rays and radioactivity in
medicine: with emphasis on photographic
records of the early years", ed2, CRC
Press,
1993. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IXPz7bVR7g0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+ce
ntury+of+x-rays&ei=eebDSZquLYzckQSC0-n-D
Q#PPT24,M1
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany9  
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg

[2] Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print of
Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.
gif
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 9 		4025)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Marey, "Décomposition des
phases d'un mouvement au moyen d'images
photographiques successives,
recueillies sur une bande de papier
sensible qui se déroule;", Comptes
Rendus, 1888, p677. English
translation: http://www.precinemahistor
y.net/1885.htm
2. ^ M. Marey, "Décomposition des
phases d'un mouvement au moyen d'images
photographiques successives,
recueillies sur une bande de papier
sensible qui se déroule;", Comptes
Rendus, 1888, p677. English
translation: http://www.precinemahistor
y.net/1885.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450.
4. ^ M. Marey,
"Décomposition des phases d'un
mouvement au moyen d'images
photographiques successives,
recueillies sur une bande de papier
sensible qui se déroule;", Comptes
Rendus, 1888, p677. English
translation: http://www.precinemahistor
y.net/1885.htm
5. ^ M. Marey, "Décomposition des
phases d'un mouvement au moyen d'images
photographiques successives,
recueillies sur une bande de papier
sensible qui se déroule;", Comptes
Rendus, 1888, p677. English
translation: http://www.precinemahistor
y.net/1885.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Marey,
Étienne-Jules", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p575
9. ^
M. Marey, "Décomposition des phases
d'un mouvement au moyen d'images
photographiques successives,
recueillies sur une bande de papier
sensible qui se déroule;", Comptes
Rendus, 1888, p677. English
translation: http://www.precinemahistor
y.net/1885.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2002.
Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
[2]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1880.htm

[3] "Étienne-Jules Marey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364535/Etienne-Jules-Marey>
[4] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
(College de France) Paris, France 8
(presumably) 
[1] Marey's photographic gun This item
is on display at the Musée des Arts et
Métiers, Paris Copyright © 2006
David Monniaux GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Fusil_de_Marey_p10403
53.jpg

[2] The Illustration to the left is
entitled ''Flight of the birds
according to the instantaneous
photographs of Mr. Marey'', From 1882
PD/Corel
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/marey_fusil_card.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 9 		4067)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
2. ^ "Rowland, Henry
Augustus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
3. ^ Henry Augustus Rowland,
"Photographic map of the normal solar
spectrum",
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HjXLQAAACAAJ&dq=Photographic+Map+of+the+
Normal+Solar+Spectrum
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
5. ^ "Rowland, Henry
Augustus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Rowland, Henry
Augustus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
9. ^ "Rowland, Henry Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Augustus Rowland."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[2] "Henry Augustus Rowland." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[3] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Augus
tus_Rowland
[4] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_Au
gustus_Rowland
[5] "Rowland, Henry Augustus", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p756
[6] Henry Augustus Rowland,
"The physical papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland, Johns Hopkins university ...",
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=henry+rowland+pap
ers&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] "Frederick Banting." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-b
anting
[8] Henry Rowland, "On the Magnetic
Effect of Electric Convection",
American Journal of Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
[9]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/rowland.html
[10] H. A. Rowland, "Preliminary notice
of the results accomplished in the
manufacture and theory of gratings for
optical purposes", Philosophical
Magazine Series 5, 1882, volume: 13
issue: 84 page:
469. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
sGeEFAxsyYC&pg=PA469&lpg=PA469&dq=prelim
inary+notice+of+results+Rowland&source=b
l&ots=xke6bN1JJh&sig=9WoISLxOzB0k05ytBlV
DFHWjHeg&hl=en&ei=nSG9Suy7BoOasgP9xLAo&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=
onepage&q=preliminary%20notice%20of%20re
sults%20Rowland&f=false
[11] Proceedings, American
Philosophical Society (vol. 102, no. 5,
1958),
p484. http://books.google.com/books?id=
dlULAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA484&dq=rowland+diffrac
tion+grating&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=rowlan
d%20diffraction%20grating&f=false
[12] Henry Rowland, (obituary), The
Astrophysical journal, Volume 13, Num
4, 1901,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA245&dq=rowland+diffrac
tion+grating+date:1901-1901&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=rowland%20diffraction%20grating
%20date%3A1901-1901&f=false
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA8  
[1] Rowland with one of his ruling
engines at Johns Hopkins PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dlULAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 6 		4073)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
2. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

5. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

6. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov
 {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
811>.
[2] "Ivan Pavlov." Encyclopedia of
Russian History. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[3] "Ivan Pavlov." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[4] "Ivan Petrovich Pavlov". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Petrov
ich_Pavlov
[5] "Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p686-687.
(Military Medical Academy)4 , St.
Petersburg, Russia5  
[1] circa 1900: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936) the Russian physiologist,
awarded the Nobel prize for Medicine in
1904. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/getty/8/5/3274685.jpg

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 6 		4108)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528-529.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p528-529.
3. ^
"Beijerinck, Martinus Willem." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Beijerinck, Martinus Willem."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Beijerinck, Martinus Willem."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Beijerinck, Martinus Willem."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "virus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
000>.
[2] "Martinus Willem Beijerinck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinus_Wi
llem_Beijerinck
(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft,
Netherlands5  
[1] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG

[2] Martinus Willem Beijerinck 1851
-1931 PD
source: http://www.digitallibrary.nl/rel
ated_files/jpg/beijerinck.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 10 11 		4118) Beginning in 1883, Lodge becomes
interested in psychic
research—telepathy, telekinesis, and
communication with the dead—an
interest that is intensified after his
son’s death and his own retirement in
1919. On two occasions Lodge serves as
president of the Society for Psychical
Research.6 Perhaps Lodge was either
excluded from movies beamed in front of
his eyes or did get movies in front of
his eyes and worked to try to make
neuron reading and writing public.7

Lodge writes a book about photon
(wireless) communication in "Signalling
across space without wires: Being a
description of the work of Hertz and
His Successors".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529-530.
2. ^ Thomas K.
Simpson, "Maxwell and the Direct
Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228514.pdf {Maxwell_direct_test_I
SIS_1966.pdf}
3. ^ Oliver Lodge, "On the Measurement
of the Length of Electro-magnetic
Waves", Report of the British
Association, 1888,
58:567. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=N-s4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA567&dq=The+author+ha
s+been+endeavouring+to+manufacture+light
#v=onepage&q=The%20author%20has%20been%2
0endeavouring%20to%20manufacture%20light
&f=false
4. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228514.pdf {Maxwell_direct_test_I
SIS_1966.pdf}
5. ^ Oliver Lodge, "On the Measurement
of the Length of Electro-magnetic
Waves", Report of the British
Association, 1888,
58:567. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=N-s4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA567&dq=The+author+ha
s+been+endeavouring+to+manufacture+light
#v=onepage&q=The%20author%20has%20been%2
0endeavouring%20to%20manufacture%20light
&f=false
6. ^ "Lodge, Oliver Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 443-444. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 13 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Sir Oliver Lodge,
"Signalling across space without wires:
Being a description of the work of
Hertz and His Successors", - Edition:
3,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xsA3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
9. ^ "Lodge, Oliver Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 443-444. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 13 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228514.pdf {Maxwell_direct_test_I
SIS_1966.pdf} {1888}
11. ^ Oliver Lodge, "On
the Measurement of the Length of
Electro-magnetic Waves", Report of the
British Association, 1888,
58:567. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=N-s4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA567&dq=The+author+ha
s+been+endeavouring+to+manufacture+light
#v=onepage&q=The%20author%20has%20been%2
0endeavouring%20to%20manufacture%20light
&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[2] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[3] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 14
Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[4] "Oliver Joseph Lodge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Jose
ph_Lodge
[5] "Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
722>
(University College) Liverpool,
England9  
[1] English: Picture of Sir Oliver
Joseph Lodge, the British
scientist Date 1917(1917) Source
Page 19 of British Universities
and the War: A Record and Its
Meaning Author Herbert Albert
Laurens
Fisher http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZWcoNGuoaGQC&pg=PA20&dq=physics+oliver+
lodge&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA18-IA1,M2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Lodge_Oliver_Joseph_b
w.jpg

[2] Caricature of physicist and writer
Oliver Joseph Lodge, printed in
''Vanity Fair'' in 1904 Date
1904(1904) Source Cartoon
by Via
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-iden
tity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.j
pg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 37 		4179) According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Ostwald believes that
thermodynamics is the fundamental
theory of science and has roughly two
themes in his philosophy. First Ostwald
asserts the primacy of energy over
matter (matter being only a
manifestation of energy) in opposition
to widespread scientific materialism.
Ostwald reformulates older concepts of
dynamism dating back to Gottfried
Leibniz of the 1600s with the
principles of thermodynamics to form a
new metaphysical interpretation of the
world that he names "energetics".19 (I
think thermodynamics is inaccurate and
violates the principle of conservation
of matter and motion, and support a
material universe - the concept of
energy is also only a generalization in
my view, because mass and motion cannot
be converted into each other or
exchanged in the view I support.20 )
Secondly Ostwald asserts a form of
positivism in the sense of rejecting
theoretical concepts that are not
strictly founded on empirical
grounds.21
Ostwald is considered one of
the primary founders of modern physical
chemistry.22 Physical chemistry is
defined as the branch of chemistry that
deals with the interpretation of
chemical phenomena and properties in
terms of the underlying physical
processes, and with the development of
techniques for their investigation.23
In
1887 Ostwald with friend Van't Hoff
establish the first journal exclusively
for physical chemistry24 "Zeitschrift
für physikalische Chemie" (Journal of
Physical Chemistry)25 .
Ostwald has
Gibbs' work translated into German.26

In 1909 Ostwald wins the Nobel prize in
chemistry for his work on catalysis.27
(unclear 28 )
Ostwald rejects atom theory
until Perrin analyzes Brownian motion,
when a clearly visible phenomenon can
be easily measured.29

In 1889 Ostwald starts republishing
famous historical science papers in his
series "Klassiker der exakten
Wissenschaften" ("Classics of the Exact
Sciences"), with more than 40 books
published during the first four
years.30
Ostwald is the first exchange
professor at Harvard University and
gives a series of lectures
(1905–06).31
In 1902 Ostwald creates
a journal dedicated to the philosophy
of science.32
Ostwald views both war
and traditional religion as wasting
energy and dedicates himself to the
international peace movement and serves
as president of the Deutscher
Monistenbund, a scientistic
quasi-religion founded by the German
zoologist and evolutionary proponent
Ernst Haeckel.33

Ostwald's house is turned into a museum
after his death.34
In his life Ostwald
wrote 45 books and many booklets, about
500 scientific papers, some 5,000
reviews, and more than 10,000
letters.35
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
2. ^ Angewandte
Chemie International Edition, Volume
48, Issue 36, Pages
6600-6606. http://www3.interscience.wil
ey.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122458779/HTMLST
ART
3. ^ R Shridhar Gadre, Century of Nobel
Prizes:1909 Chemistry Laureate Wilhelm
Ostwald (1853-1932), RESONANCE,
2003. http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Ja
n2003/pdf/Jan2003p77-83.pdf
4. ^ Wilhelm Ostwald, “Über die
Dissoziationstheorie der
Elektrolyte,” in Zeitschrift für
physikalische Chemie, 2(1888), 120-130
5. ^
"Wilhelm Ostwald." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
6. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
7. ^ "Wilhelm Ostwald." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
8. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
9. ^ Record ID2498. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Wilhelm
Ostwald." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
11. ^ Ostwald, W. (1894). "Definition
der Katalyse." Zeitschrift für
physikalische Chemie, 15, 705-.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
17. ^ R Shridhar
Gadre, Century of Nobel Prizes:1909
Chemistry Laureate Wilhelm Ostwald
(1853-1932), RESONANCE,
2003. http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Ja
n2003/pdf/Jan2003p77-83.pdf
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
23. ^ "physical
chemistry." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 01
Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/physical-ch
emistry
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
25. ^ "Wilhelm
Ostwald." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
30. ^ "Ostwald,
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 1
Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
31. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
33. ^ "Ostwald,
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 1
Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
35. ^ "Ostwald,
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 1
Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
36. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
37. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>. {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Ostwald." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
[2] Deltete, Robert J. "Ostwald,
Friedrich Wilhelm." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 23.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
356-359. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[3] "Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Ostwald
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1909/ostwald-bio.html
(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany36  
[1] original
at http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 10 		4193) Roux is an assistant at Pasteur's
laboratory in Paris7 and is director
from 1904 until his death in 19338 .
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547.
2. ^ "Roux, Émile."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
235>.
3. ^ Roux and Yersin, 1888/1890 Roux,
E., Yersin, A., 1888/1890. Contribution
à l’étude de la diphthérie. 1st
mémoire Annales de l'Institut Pasteur
2, 629–661; 3ieme mém., ibid. 4
(1890) 385. (find original article)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p547.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547.
8. ^ "Roux, Émile."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
235>.
9. ^ "Roux, Émile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
235>.
10. ^ "Paul Roux." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-paul
-emile-roux {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Paul Émile Roux".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Paul
_%C3%89mile_Roux
[2] "Roux, Pierre Paul Émile."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 569. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 11
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France9
 
[1] Reid R. Microbes and Men, British
Broadcasting Company (BBC), ISBN
0-563-12469-5 (1974) p. 95 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a3/EmileRoux.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 6 7 		4210)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
3. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
5. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553. {1888}
7. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[6] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[7] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA5 (presumably) 
[1] Eastman's patent #388,850 for a
camera of 09/04/1888. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rAlvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] An early ad featuring a slogan
coined by Eastman. PD
source: http://www.kodak.com/US/images/e
n/corp/kodakHistory/WeddingGiftAd.gif
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 14 		4350)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie, "Sur
un électromètre à bilame de quartz",
Comptes Rendus, 106 (1888) 1287-1289.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?
Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-3062
3. ^ Pierre Curie, R. Blondlot, "Sur un
électromètre astatique, pouvant
servir comme wattmètre, Comptes
Rendus. T.107 (1888)
864-867. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visu
aliseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-3063
4. ^ Pierre Curie, "Sur une balance de
précision apériodique et à lecture
directe des derniers poids", Comptes
Rendus, T.108 (1889)
663-666. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visu
aliseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-3064
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
6. ^ "Pierre Curie."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
7. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Contractions et dilatations produites
par des tensions électriques dan les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137.
9. ^ Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914.
10. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Pierre Curie."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
14. ^ Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie, "Sur
un électromètre à bilame de quartz",
Comptes Rendus, 106 (1888) 1287-1289.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?
Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-3062

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[3] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
[4] Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie,
"Développement, par pression, de
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/
[5] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 383.
[6] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois du
dégagement de l’électricité par
pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881),
186.
[7] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
les phénomènes électriques de la
tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 350.
[8] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Les cristaux
héemièdres à faces inclinées, comme
sources constantes d’électricitè",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences,
93 (1881), 204.
[9] "Pierre Curie." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
(Sorbonne) Paris, France13  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 6 		4390) Fridtjof Nansen (noNSeN) (CE
1861-1930), Norwegian explorer1 and
five other people are the first to
cross Greenland by land, taking six
weeks to travel from the eastern shoe
to the inhabeted western shore.2

On
04/08/1895 Nansen reaches 86°14'
latitude, very near the north pole.3
In
1922 Nansen is awarded the Nobel Peace
prize for caring for prisoners of war,
those suffering in famines, the
displaced and persecuted.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588-589.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p588-589.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588-589.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p588-589.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588-589.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p588-589. {1888}
Greenland5  
[1] Description Fridtjof Nansen LOC
03377u.jpg Español: Fridtjof Nansen
vivió un tiempo de su vida en una casa
en Kongshaugen localizada por
Ask. English: Fridtjof Nansen. Date
1915-04-29 (date created or
published later by Bain) Source
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.0
3377 Author George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Fridtjof_Nansen_LOC_0
3377u.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 7 		4412)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p593.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p593.
3. ^ "Boveri,
Theodor." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 361-365.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900578&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Boveri, Theodor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 361-365. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900578&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Boveri, Theodor Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
998>.
6. ^ "Boveri, Theodor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 361-365. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900578&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Boveri, Theodor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 361-365. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900578&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Theodor Boveri." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-bov
eri
[2] "Theodor Boveri." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-bov
eri
[3] "Theodor Boveri". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Bov
eri
(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany6  
[1] Theodor Boveri 1862-1915 aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Forscher und Wissenschaftler im
heutigen Europa Bd. 2: Erforscher des
Lebens.
Oldenburg/Hamburg:Stalling [edit]
Summary Description Theodor
Boveri.jpg English: A portrait of
Theodor Boveri taken prior to
1915. Date prior to 1915 Source
Theodor Boveri 1862-1915 aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Forscher und Wissenschaftler im
heutigen Europa Bd. 2: Erforscher des
Lebens.
Oldenburg/Hamburg:Stalling Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Theodor_Boveri.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 6 7 		4448) Paschen is ousted from the
presidency of a scientific association
by the pro-Nazi Stark.3
Paschen
survives WW II and sees the defeat of
the Nazis but loses his house and
possessions in a bombing raid in 1943.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p603.
5. ^ "Paschen,
Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1888}
7. ^ Paschen,
“Vita,” Dissertation (1888);
“Antrittsrede,” in Sitzungsberichte
der Deutschen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1925), cii.

MORE INFO
[1] "spectral line series."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
036>.
[2] "Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Carl_
Heinrich_Friedrich_Paschen
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg ,
Germany5  
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 3 		6021) Erik (Alfred Leslie) Satie (CE
1866-1925), French composer, composes
"Gymnopédies".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Erik Satie." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 22 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erik-satie-
1
2. ^ "Erik Satie." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 22 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erik-satie-
1
3. ^ "Erik Satie." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 22 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erik-satie-
1 {1888}
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Description Erik Satie
(1866-1925) Date
1900-1975 Source
Bibliothèque nationale de France
[1] Author
Unattributed Permission (Reusing
this file) domaine public PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/73/Erik_Satie_-_BNF1.jpe
g
111 YBN
[01/20/1889 AD] 31 		4057) Eötvös is one of the founders
of the Hungarian Mathematical and
Physical Society.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ R. v.
Eötvös, Roland von Eotvos. "Uber die
Anziehung der Erde auf verschiedene
Substanzen.", Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn, 1890, Bd. 8, S.
65–68. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RBkYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=Uber+die+Anzi
ehung+der+Erde+auf+verschiedene+Substanz
en.#v=onepage&q=&f=false English
translation: R. v. Eötvös,"On the
Gravitation Produced by the Earth on
Different Substances",
01/20/1889. http://zelmanov.ptep-online
.com/papers/zj-2008-02.pdf {Eotvos_Rola
nd_2008.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p371.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p371.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
9. ^ "Baron József
Eötvös." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-zsef-e-tv
-s
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
11. ^ R. v. Eötvös,
Roland von Eotvos. "Uber die Anziehung
der Erde auf verschiedene Substanzen.",
Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn, 1890, Bd. 8, S.
65–68. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RBkYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=Uber+die+Anzi
ehung+der+Erde+auf+verschiedene+Substanz
en.#v=onepage&q=&f=false English
translation: R. v. Eötvös,"On the
Gravitation Produced by the Earth on
Different Substances",
01/20/1889. http://zelmanov.ptep-online
.com/papers/zj-2008-02.pdf {Eotvos_Rola
nd_2008.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ R. v. Eötvös, Roland
von Eotvos. "Uber die Anziehung der
Erde auf verschiedene Substanzen.",
Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn, 1890, Bd. 8, S.
65–68. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RBkYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=Uber+die+Anzi
ehung+der+Erde+auf+verschiedene+Substanz
en.#v=onepage&q=&f=false English
translation: R. v. Eötvös,"On the
Gravitation Produced by the Earth on
Different Substances",
01/20/1889. http://zelmanov.ptep-online
.com/papers/zj-2008-02.pdf {Eotvos_Rola
nd_2008.pdf}
14. ^ R. v. Eötvös, Roland von
Eotvos. "Uber die Anziehung der Erde
auf verschiedene Substanzen.",
Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn, 1890, Bd. 8, S.
65–68. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RBkYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=Uber+die+Anzi
ehung+der+Erde+auf+verschiedene+Substanz
en.#v=onepage&q=&f=false English
translation: R. v. Eötvös,"On the
Gravitation Produced by the Earth on
Different Substances",
01/20/1889. http://zelmanov.ptep-online
.com/papers/zj-2008-02.pdf {Eotvos_Rola
nd_2008.pdf}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
"Eötvös, Roland, Baron von,", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p286.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p516.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "Eötvös,
Roland, Baron von,", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p286.
30. ^
R. v. Eötvös, Roland von Eotvos.
"Uber die Anziehung der Erde auf
verschiedene Substanzen.",
Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn, 1890, Bd. 8, S.
65–68. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RBkYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=Uber+die+Anzi
ehung+der+Erde+auf+verschiedene+Substanz
en.#v=onepage&q=&f=false English
translation: R. v. Eötvös,"On the
Gravitation Produced by the Earth on
Different Substances",
01/20/1889. http://zelmanov.ptep-online
.com/papers/zj-2008-02.pdf {Eotvos_Rola
nd_2008.pdf}
31. ^ R. v. Eötvös, Roland von
Eotvos. "Uber die Anziehung der Erde
auf verschiedene Substanzen.",
Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn, 1890, Bd. 8, S.
65–68. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RBkYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=Uber+die+Anzi
ehung+der+Erde+auf+verschiedene+Substanz
en.#v=onepage&q=&f=false English
translation: R. v. Eötvös,"On the
Gravitation Produced by the Earth on
Different Substances",
01/20/1889. http://zelmanov.ptep-online
.com/papers/zj-2008-02.pdf {Eotvos_Rola
nd_2008.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eötvös, Roland, Baron
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
749>.
[2] "Baron József Eötvös." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-zsef-e-tv
-s
[3] "Loránd Eötvös". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lor%C3%A1nd
_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991.
[5]
http://www.kfki.hu/~tudtor/eotvos1/onehu
nd.html
[6]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/49325
74
[7]
http://www.mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/tarsad
/tudtan/eotvos/html/stepcikk.html
(given at Hungarian Academy of
Sciences, at the time worked at
University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary30  
[1] Fig. 1. Torsion balance used in
Eötvös' measurements PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.kfki.hu/~tudtor/eotvo
s1/onehund/onehund1.jpg

[2] Copied from
http://www.kfki.hu/~tudtor/eotvos1/eotvo
s_a.html which is a public domain, a
scientific institute of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences. The page itself is
''Sponsored by the Hungarian National
Cultural Fund (Nemzeti Kulturális
Alap) '' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Roland_Eotvos.jpg
111 YBN
[02/16/1889 AD] 8 		211) Dr. John A McWilliam reports in
the British Medical Journal his
experiments in which application of an
electrical impulse to the hearts of
animals and recommends electric shock
as a way of stimulating a feeble or
stopped heart into beating. McWilliam
also shows that electrical stimulation
can result in a stronger heart beat.3

McWilliam writes:
"... Such a mode
of excitation
seems to be available in the form of a
periodic series
of single induction shocks
sent through the heart at
approximately
the normal rate of cardiac action. A
single induction shock
readily causes a beat
in an inhibited heart, and a regular
series
of induction shocks (for example, sixty
or seventy per minute)
gives a regular series
of heartbeats at the same rate. Never
on
any occasion have I seen fibrillar
contraction excited by such a mode of
stimulation. In order to elucidate more
fully the influence
of a series of induction
shocks upon the inhibited heart, I
have
frequently (in the dog, cat, and
rabbit) performed such experiments
as the
following. The animal being
chloroformed, and
means being taken to
preserve, as far as possible, the
normal temperature,
the thorax and pericardial sac
were laid open; artificial
respiration was kept up
through a cannula introduced into the
trache
a. The heart was inhibited by
stimulation of the vagus
nerve in the neck,
and then a periodic series of induction
shocks
(regulated by a metronome) was applied
to the apex of the ven- tricles.
Contraction of the autricles and
ventricles was recorded
by an adaptation of the
graphic method; a blood-pressure
tracin
was simultaneously made in the usual
manner. In this way I
was able to obtain
an accurate record of the various
changes, while
at the same time some further
information was obtained by direct
inspection
of the heart. A series of single
induction shocks excites
a corresponding series
of cardiac beats; the ventricular
contraction
precedes the auricular contraction when
the exciting
shocks are applied to the
ventricles. Each systole causes the
ejet:-
tion of a considerable amount of blood
into the aorta and pulmonary
artery, and a marked
rise of the blood-pressure at each
beat. The
mean pressure is raised from the low
point to which it
had fallen ...
Such a
method, it seems to me, is the only
rational and effective
one for stimulating by
direct means the action of a heart
which
has been suddenly enfeebled or arrested
in diastole by causes of a
temporary and
transient character. Of course, at the
same time,
the expedient of artificial
respiration must by no means be
neglected,
but, on the contrary, most sedulously
attended to.".4

(Note that McWilliam uses the phrase
"borne in mind", which probably implies
that he gets D2B and to go public with
this may have been a collective D2B
decision.5 )
(Perhaps a similar
electrical stimulation could cause the
lung muscles to work.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 34850.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
2. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 34850.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
3. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 34850.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
4. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 34850.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ McWilliam JA
(1899). "Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man". Br Med J 1 (1468):
34850.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
8. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 34850.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland7  
[1] Figure 2 from: McWilliam JA
(1899). ''Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man''. Br Med J 1 (1468):
348–50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/1/146
8/348
111 YBN
[03/12/1889 AD] 11 		6255)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p60.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p60.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p60.
4. ^ U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange"
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ
5. ^ "telephone." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
6. ^ "telephone." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
7. ^ "telephone." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ U.S. Patent
447,918 Strowger switch "Automatic
Telephone Exchange" March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ
11. ^ U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange"
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ {03/12/1889}
Kansas City, Missouri, USA10  
[1] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch
''Automatic Telephone Exchange'' March
10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure from:
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCA
AAAEBAJ

[2] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch ''Automatic Telephone Exchange''
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure
from: http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PShCAAAAEBAJ
111 YBN
[03/14/1889 AD] 15 		3844)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir W. N. Harley, F. R. S."
(obituary), Nature 92, 102-103 (25
September
1913). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v92/n2291/pdf/092102a0.pdf
2. ^ Annual Report of the Board of
Regents of the Smithsonian Institute,
1888-1889,
p229. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LXIbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=spectrum+blue+s
ky+date:1700-1800&ei=-1R-SciLJ4PAlQSj8Lz
5CQ#PPA229,M1
3. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit of
the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ (original footnote:) "Sur
l'Absorption Atmospherique des
Radiations ultra-violettes," Journ. de
Physique, t. x. 1881.
7. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On
the Limit of the Solar Spectrum, the
Blue of the Sky, and the Fluorescence
of Ozone.", Nature, v39, 1889,
p474-477.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ W. N. Hartley,
"On the Limit of the Solar Spectrum,
the Blue of the Sky, and the
Fluorescence of Ozone.", Nature, v39,
1889, p474-477.
11. ^ "crepuscular." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/crepuscular

12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ W. N.
Hartley, "On the Limit of the Solar
Spectrum, the Blue of the Sky, and the
Fluorescence of Ozone.", Nature, v39,
1889, p474-477.
15. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the
Limit of the Solar Spectrum, the Blue
of the Sky, and the Fluorescence of
Ozone.", Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
{03/14/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] Walter Noel Hartley, "Air and
Its Relations to Life", D. Appleton,
1875. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kpcPAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:walter+inauthor:hartley&as_brr=1&ei
=dGB-ScnJDJTckwTcmty8Bg#PPR3,M1
(Royal College of Science) Dublin,
Ireland14  		 
111 YBN
[04/09/1889 AD] 9 10 		4211)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^ "George
Eastman." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 27 Jan.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
5. ^ Record ID3762.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Record ID4021. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false {04/09/1889}
9. ^ Reichenbach's Eastman
celluloid patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false {04/09/1889}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[8] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[9]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA8  
[1] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent #417,202 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg
111 YBN
[04/27/1889 AD] 8 		3805) In 1862 Dutton joins the Union
army, reaching the rank of major in
1890.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490-491.
2. ^ Clarence Edward
Dutton, "On Some of the Greater
Problems of Physical Geology", Bulletin
of the Philosophical Society of
Washington, Philosophical Society of
Washington (Washington,
D.C.) http://books.google.com/books?id=
nNcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Dutton+1889+On+S
ome+of+the+Greater+Problems+of+Physical+
Geology&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=X15iSfSNOKTGMr7w
kZUD#PPA51,M1
3. ^ Clarence Edward Dutton, "On Some
of the Greater Problems of Physical
Geology", Bulletin of the Philosophical
Society of Washington, Philosophical
Society of Washington (Washington,
D.C.) http://books.google.com/books?id=
nNcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Dutton+1889+On+S
ome+of+the+Greater+Problems+of+Physical+
Geology&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=X15iSfSNOKTGMr7w
kZUD#PPA51,M1
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490-491.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490-491.
7. ^ Clarence Edward
Dutton, "On Some of the Greater
Problems of Physical Geology", Bulletin
of the Philosophical Society of
Washington, Philosophical Society of
Washington (Washington,
D.C.) http://books.google.com/books?id=
nNcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Dutton+1889+On+S
ome+of+the+Greater+Problems+of+Physical+
Geology&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=X15iSfSNOKTGMr7w
kZUD#PPA51,M1
8. ^ Clarence Edward Dutton, "On Some
of the Greater Problems of Physical
Geology", Bulletin of the Philosophical
Society of Washington, Philosophical
Society of Washington (Washington,
D.C.) http://books.google.com/books?id=
nNcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Dutton+1889+On+S
ome+of+the+Greater+Problems+of+Physical+
Geology&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=X15iSfSNOKTGMr7w
kZUD#PPA51,M1 {04/27/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dutton, Clarence Edward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
624>
[2] "Clarence Edward Dutton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dutton-clar
ence-edward
[3] "Clarence Edward Dutton." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dutton-clar
ence-edward
[4] "Clarence Edward Dutton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Ed
ward_Dutton
[5] "Dutton, Clarence Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p270
Washington, D.C., USA.7  
[1] English: NOAA caption: Clarence
Edward Dutton, famous geologist of the
late Nineteenth Century. An originator
of the ''Theory of Isostasy,'' an early
seismologist, and the first to head the
USGS division of volcanic geology.
(1841-1912.) Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/pe
rs0069.htm -- NOAA's People Collection,
Image ID pers0069 Date
unknown Author photographer
unknown -- property of US National
Oceanic & Atmospheric
Administration PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Clarence_Dutton_NOAA.
jpg
111 YBN
[05/02/1889 AD] 30 		4117) FitzGerald greatly advances the
development of technical education in
Ireland.25
FitzGerald is one of the
initial group, which includes
Heaviside, Hertz, and Lorentz, that
takes Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory seriously and begins to explore
its consequences. FitzGerald extends
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of
light to try to explain light
reflection and refraction in terms of
waves in an ether medium, in his paper
"Electromagnetic Theory of the
Reflection and Refraction of Light"
(1878).26 27

In 1878 FitzGerald publishes a short
note on "On the Theory of Muscular
Contraction" which ends with the word
"tension".28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
2. ^ George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
3. ^ "Fitzgerald, George Francis."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 15-16. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 14
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Fitzgerald, George Francis."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 15-16. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 14
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
6. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the earth and the Ether",
Konink. Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
7. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923.
8. ^ Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf {FitzGerald_George_con
traction_ISIS_1966.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
10. ^ H. A. Lorentz,
"The Relative Motion of the earth and
the Ether", Konink. Akademie van
Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Verslagen
van der gewone Vergaderingen der Wis-
en Natuurkundige Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74
ff; also in H. A. Lorentz, Collected
Papers (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff,
1937), vol 4., pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
11. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Fitzgerald, George
Francis." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 15-16.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 14
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
14. ^ Stephen G. Brush, H. A. Lorentz,
George Francis FitzGerald, "Note on the
History of the FitzGerald-Lorentz
Contraction Note on the History of the
FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction", Isis,
Vol. 58, No. 2 (Summer, 1967), pp.
230-232 http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf
plus/228229.pdf {FitzGerald_George_ISIS
_1967.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
Albert Michelson, "Studies in Optics",
Chicago Universityt Press, 1927, p156.
19. ^
Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
26. ^
"Fitzgerald, George Francis." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 15-16. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 14 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
27. ^ George Francis Fitzgerald, "On
the Electromagnetic Theory of the
Reflection and Refraction of Light.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society,
10/26/1878. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=ERhWAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+Wri
tings+of+the+Late+George+Francis+FitzGer
ald&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=u7
5dLb8-3h&sig=Ohhp-FKswVVTUuFF5_RDXtjNcK0
&hl=en&ei=ZWDWStuzNJL8sQP1qfnTAg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CA4
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Electromagnetic%20Th
eory%20of%20the%20Reflection%20and%20Ref
raction%20of%20Light&f=false
28. ^ George Francis Fitzgerald, "The
scientific writings of the late George
Francis Fitzgerald",
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ERhWAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+Writings+
of+the+Late+George+Francis+FitzGerald&pr
intsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=u75dLb8-
3h&sig=Ohhp-FKswVVTUuFF5_RDXtjNcK0&hl=en
&ei=ZWDWStuzNJL8sQP1qfnTAg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CA4Q6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=&f=false
29. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
30. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false {05/02/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "FitzGerald, George Francis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
429>
[2] "George FitzGerald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-fitz
gerald
[3] "George Francis Fitzgerald".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fran
cis_Fitzgerald
[4] translated in: H. A. lorentz, A.
Einstein, H. Minkowski, and H. Weyl,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923
"Michelson's Interference Experiment,",
pp3-7. http://books.google.com/books?id
=yECokhzsJYIC&dq=The+Principle+of+Relati
vity&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=t
QNZxQlfjG&sig=BAnbHCYtDPVgWl4c2gYRscPMrt
I&hl=en&ei=fQbZSrHrAoLusgOA-MyiDA&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB
MQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Dublin, Ireland29  
[1] George Francis FitzGerald
(1851-1901). Date Unknown, but
1901 or earlier. Source Scanned
from Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 48. It was
scanned on an Epson Perfection 1250 at
400dpi, reduced to grayscale in
Photoshop, and saved as JPG using the
'Save for Web' optimizer. Originally
uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:51, 27
July 2004 by Grendelkhan. Author
Unknown. Permission (Reusing
this image) The photograph is
reprinted courtesy of the IEEE in
London (as stated in the credits in the
back of the book, p. 318), but its age
implies that it's public domain. (It
must have been taken in 1901 or
earlier.) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/George_Francis_FitzGe
rald.jpg
111 YBN
[06/03/1889 AD] 3 		4834)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letter
s.html
2. ^
http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letter
s.html
3. ^
http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letter
s.html {06/03/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
[2] "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
[3] "Guglielmo Marconi." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[4] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[7] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[8] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256.
[9] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505.
[10] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[11] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi:
The Man and His Wireless" (1937).
[12] W. P.
Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78.
[13] British
patent No. 12,039, Date of Application
2 June 1896; Complete Specification
Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July
1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[14] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[15] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[16] Marconi, U.S. Patent 0,668,315
"Receiver for electrical
oscillations". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?vid=668315
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland2  
[1] Scan of original plain paper
manuscript from Marconi Calling, see
link for more information. Also see a
copy of the telegraph instructions.
PD
source: http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/paper
s/radiotelegraphmessage.png

[2] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 54 55 56 57 		4021) Motion picture camera and
projector. Moving images captured and
stored on plastic film and projected
onto a screen. The moving images are
played together with sound from a
phonograph.21 22 23 24

William Friese-Greene (CE 1855-1921),
makes thin sheets of celluloid, which
he then cuts into a series of narrow
strips, and joins them together,
sensitized. Friese-Greene then takes a
series of photographs taken at about
thirty photos per second. He prepares
similar celluloid transparencies from
these negatives and exhibits these at
the Crystal Palace in 1889.25

William Friese-Greene and Mortimor
Evans patent (number 10,13126 ) the
first known plastic film strip moving
picture camera and projector.27 28
This is the first known perforated
celluloid film used for recording and
projecting images of moving objects.29
It seems clear that, if images of
thought were seen in 1810, that
capturing and projecting moving images
occurred much earlier, but was kept
secret from the public and not
immediately published.30

A few months earlier in the USA, the
George Eastman company had filed a
patent for celluloid photo-sensitized
roll film for still image capture on
April 09, 1889.31 Two years earlier in
the USA Hannibal Goodwin had patented
photo-sensitized celluloid roll film.32


A report on the perforated celluloid
film camera is published in the British
"Photographic News" on February 28
1890. On 18 March, Friese-Greene sends
a clipping of the story to Thomas
Edison, whose laboratory had been
developing a motion picture system
known as the Kinetoscope. The report is
reprinted in "Scientific American
Supplement" on April 19, 189033 . (Find
full documents of patent,
"Friese-Greene" book only has part and
there is no mention of plastic or
celluloid - but it is clearly a film
roll camera - although Marey had
accomplished this in 1888.34 )

In June 1889 Friese-Greene wrote to
Edison describing his camera.35 On
November 15, 1889 issue of the "Optical
Magic Lantern Journal" prints an
illustration and technical description
of Friese-Greene's celluloid movie
camera using the word "transparencies",
and including the information that
"...When the reproduction of speech is
also desired this instrument is used in
conjunction with the phonograph".36 37
The "Daily News" publishes an article
about the invention on December 6,
1889. (find both articles if possible38
) The Bath Photographic Society holds
the first public show of
motion-pictures taken on celluloid in
the rooms of the Bath Literary and
Scientific Society on February 25,
1890. In April 1890, the "Scientific
American Supplement" carries an article
on the Friese-Greene camera.39 40

According to at least one source, this
is the first practical moving image
capturing and playing camera.41

The Scientific American Supplement
article does not explicitly state that
this is a celluloid, transparent or
plastic film camera. The article
concludes "Mr. Greene stated to the
meeting that the latern had been
invented by an acquantance of his in
the west of England. By an improvement
upon that latern, now in the course of
manufacture, Mr. Greene hopes to be
able to reproduce upon the screen, by
means of photographs taken with his
machine camera, stret scenes full of
life and motion; also to represent a
man making a speech, with all the
changes in his countenance, and, at the
same time, to give the speech itself in
the actual tones of the man's voice by
means of a loud-speaking
phonograph.".42 This article also uses
the word "render" which is a very early
use of the secret keyword "render" in
1890, this keyword may imply that
people and other moving objects are
currently rendered in three-dimensions
in real-time by computers - as hard as
that is to believe. In fact, it seems
so difficult to accept, that this must
be viewed as highly speculative, but it
might fit if people saw thought in
October 1810. In particular thinking of
the precise pin-point accuracy needed
for galvanically contracting a muscle
by activating a single or small
quantity of neurons in a moving
object.43

In November 1910, a US court will rule
that Friese-Greene's patent has
priority over that over that of
Edison's.44 In a biography of
Friese-Greene the author writes "Many
people, and most Americans, gave Edison
credit for inventing the motion-picture
camera, though none of Edison's
biographer's seem to have attached much
importance to it. But the "Encyclopedia
Britannica", of which the tenth edition
was sold over here by "The Times" in
1902, gave the credit to Edison in
edition after edition.". 45 Perhaps
this is because Friese-Green did not
really sell and widely distribute the
moving camera as Edison did and clearly
Marey in France had a working film roll
camera, although with paper film,
before Friese-Greene (see 46 ) in 1888.
It seems clear that there are always
several people of each nation working
on the same technological advance like
the motion picture film camera47

Friese-Greene writes an article in 1889
describing how he captures an image
from his eye - by looking at an arc
light for a few seconds and then
exposing a photographic plate to his
eye, then using a microscope to confirm
that the image of the arc light is
captured on the photographic plate.
This is very close to talking about
capturing images from behind the head
of what the eyes see, and
thought-images.48 49

In 1888 Étienne Jules Marey (murA) (CE
1830-1904) used a roll of sensitized
paper to capture images of moving
objects, with an electromagnetic film
stopping device to avoid blurry
images.50

It should be noted that "Nature"
magazine for 1889 and 1890 list nothing
about Friese-Green's device of 1889,
and only mention Edison's work on the
phonograph, and an article about
Muybridge's photographs of the
galloping horse that refers to Marey.51


For excluded outsiders, there are many
questions about the life of
Friese-Greene. Was he an outsider who
figured out that people had kept seeing
eyes and thought a secret, to be
enjoyed by only a twisted elite few? Or
was Friese-Greene an insider (insofar
as an insider is defined as at least
regularly seeing and hearing
thoughts...at least at the consumer
"insider" level) that worked with other
insiders to bring some small
progressive technology to the public?
Was this plastic film movie camera at
this time, far outdated, behind the
phone company and government secret
electronic microscopic camera with
electronic digital storage media, what
was the nature of the storage being
used by those who see thought at this
time? Clearly the cameras and
microphones were "wireless" using low
frequency photons to transmit
ultimately to a large storage device,
presumably at the phone company and
secret military buildings. The one
biographical book on Friese-Greene
writes that Friese-Green "did SEE", but
it seems unlikely, and more likely that
Friese-Greene spent his entire life as
an outsided excluded person with most
of the rest of the public.52
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
2. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
3. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
4. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
5. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
6. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
7. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
8. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
9. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
10. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
11. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
12. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
13. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
14. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
15. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
16. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
17. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
18. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
19. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
20. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
21. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
22. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
23. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
24. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
25. ^
The Rotarian May 1936, p
44. http://books.google.com/books?id=vE
AEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=Friese-Greene&as_b
rr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
26. ^ Brian Coe, "William Friese Greene
and the Origins of Cinematography", The
Photographic Journal,
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/2/25.pdf
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/3/72.pdf http://screen.oxford
journals.org/cgi/reprint/10/4-5/129.pdf
{Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Brian_part1_
1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Br
ian_part2_1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_Will
iam_Coe_Brian_part3_1969.pdf}
27. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
28. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?}
29. ^ Brian Coe,
"William Friese Greene and the Origins
of Cinematography", The Photographic
Journal,
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/2/25.pdf
http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/r
eprint/10/3/72.pdf http://screen.oxford
journals.org/cgi/reprint/10/4-5/129.pdf
{Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Brian_part1_
1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_William_Coe_Br
ian_part2_1969.pdf} {Friese-Greene_Will
iam_Coe_Brian_part3_1969.pdf}
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Record ID4211.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Record ID3762. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
33. ^ "A Machine
Camera Taking Ten Photographs a
Second.", Scientific American
supplement, vol 29, Num 746,
04/19/1890,
p11921. {Friese-Greene_William_SciAm_18
900419.pdf}
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym
for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene:
Close-up of an Inventor", Marsland
Publications, 1948, p53-57. {ULSF:
copyright on work was now renewed and
so the book is now in the public domain
in the USA. Notice the pseudonym -
perhaps there was fear of being labeled
a "rat"?}
36. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
37. ^ "The Optical
magic lantern journal and photographic
enlarger", 1889. Vol. 1, No. 6 Nov 15,
1889,p44 and Vol. 1, No. 7, Dec. 1,
1889, and Vol. 1, No. 9, February
1890, and Vol. 1, No. 11, April 1890,
p83 http://books.google.com/books?id=sH
IzQAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:Optical+intitle:ma
gic
{Friese-Greene_Magic_Latern_1889115.pd
f}
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym
for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene:
Close-up of an Inventor", Marsland
Publications, 1948, p53-57. {ULSF:
copyright on work was now renewed and
so the book is now in the public domain
in the USA. Notice the pseudonym -
perhaps there was fear of being labeled
a "rat"?}
40. ^ "A Machine Camera Taking Ten
Photographs a Second.", Scientific
American supplement, vol 29, Num 746,
04/19/1890,
p11921. {Friese-Greene_William_SciAm_18
900419.pdf}
41. ^ Edgar Sanderson, John Porter
Lamberton, Charles Morris, "Six
thousand years of history, Part 20,
Volume 10 ",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b6nWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
42. ^ "A Machine Camera Taking Ten
Photographs a Second.", Scientific
American supplement, vol 29, Num 746,
04/19/1890,
p11921. {Friese-Greene_William_SciAm_18
900419.pdf}
43. ^ "A Machine Camera Taking Ten
Photographs a Second.", Scientific
American supplement, vol 29, Num 746,
04/19/1890,
p11921. {Friese-Greene_William_SciAm_18
900419.pdf}
44. ^ The Rotarian May 1936, p
44. http://books.google.com/books?id=vE
AEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=Friese-Greene&as_b
rr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
45. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
46. ^ Record ID4025.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^
Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made with
the Eye", "The Photographic times",
Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA469&dq=Friese-Gree
ne+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=F
riese-Greene&f=false
50. ^ Record ID4025. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
51. ^ Ted
Huntington.
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym
for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene:
Close-up of an Inventor", Marsland
Publications, 1948. {ULSF: copyright
on work was now renewed and so the book
is now in the public domain in the USA.
Notice the pseudonym - perhaps there
was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
54. ^
"William Friese-Greene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene {06/21/1889}
55. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?} {06/21/1889}
56. ^ Francis
Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison",
1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false {1882}
57. ^ Cecil Bembridge,
"Moving Pictures in Colors", Technical
World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e {1889}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

(Piccadilly) London, England53  
[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.

[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 8 		4024) The full text of the article
contains numerous hints and is as
follows:
"PHOTOGRAPHS MADE WITH THE EYE.
(Read before
the London and Provincial Photographic
Association.)

By way of preface to the subject I am
about to bring before you to-night, may
I ask if you have ever seen anything
with your eyes shut? And when I say
with your eyes shut, do not mistake me
and run away with the notion that I am
in any way referring to any imaginary
mental vision one can conjure up in the
dark. For instance, look at an object
that is fairly illuminated, steadily
for a few seconds, then suddenly close
your eyes, and a similar object can be
seen. I do not attempt to explain this,
though it is evidently governed by some
law; and it leads me at last, after no
end of failures, to the discovery which
is one of the subjects of my paper
to-night, namely, that you can obtain a
photograph with the human eye if you
have a light strong enough and a plate
sensitive enough. After no end of
failures, I obtained an impression with
the aid of an electric arc lamp, 2,000
candle-power, which I have at my place,
92 Piccadilly, for taking photographs.
I looked at the arc light for fifteen
seconds, then switched the light off
and exposed a very quick plate (a plate
coated in different layers, which makes
it much more sensitive), and held it to
my eye for a minute or more. On
developing it I found a spot, which
pleased me very much. If you put the
spot under a powerful microscope you
can see the image of the arc. I have,
obtained marks with the magnesium
flash-light, but they are not so good
as with the electric arc ; in fact,
there is nothing definite about them.

I have my flash-light here, so if any
of you would like to try the
experiment, I shall be very pleased to
watch the proceedings, for I begin to
value my eyes more than I did at first,
because after one experiment I did at
Piccadilly, I had a black spot hovering
about the retina for some days. With
Mr. Debenham's advice, and that of
others, I have come to the conclusion
that it is dangerous ; and the black
spot did not go off until I put a piece
of red glass before the arc light and
looked at it for two minutes, which
seemed to counterbalance the effect I
shall not try it many more times, for,
after all, sight is very precious. I
have only chanced one eye always, but
it may affect the other, so I intend to
be careful.

I may say, here, just one or two things
with regard to the eye. It is by it we
alone can judge, not only of its own
perfection, but also of the comparative
value of any given optical combination.
It is endowed with considerable freedom
of motion ; and no doubt we shall have
to go to the eye for many optical
points. I may here say the retina is a
transparent substance composed of nerve
fibres spread out into a thin layer,
and corresponding to the ground-glass
of the camera. The retina receives the
picture from the object in front, and
being connected with the optic nerve
behind, the picture is conveyed to the
brain. 1 believe if one could analyze
them, there are salts in the retina
corresponding to those used in
photography, though probably of a much
more sensitive nature ; and the
electric magnetic effect of light
conducts to the brain, where there is
always an alkali and acid to develop,
and the atom deposit in the cells can
be called at will to answer our memory.
Perhaps I am going a little too far,
both for myself and others who may
think in a similar way, also for those
who do not think in the same way ; but
there is no harm in giving you my
thoughts, as it seems to me we like
dabbling in ideas that are a perpetual
mystery. But now to offer some
suggestions with regard to the picture
produced by the eye. Can it be
reflected from the retina, from the
cornea, or from the back surface of the
lens ? Is there a kind of
phosphorescence which can affect a
photographic plate ? Is it some kind of
electric phenomena, and our latent
image a galvanic action ? Of course,
these suggestions are very wild ; for I
must confess although I discovered the
effect, I cannot explain it, and the
more I try to do so the more ignorant I
feel. It may lead to something
important as time rolls on. Photography
is now making huge strides ; its
history becomes a clueless labyrinth of
confusion and uncertainty ; it has
vigorous health and plenty of practical
and mental ingenuity always at hand,
which affords ample proof of the
earnestness with which experimental
investigators work. Experimenters
should work out their internal nature,
with the aid of experiments]of things
contained in the varied world around
them, then they will have something
original to tell us, and be continually
adding atoms to the progress of our
fascinating art. I know, for my own
part, I have formed a love and
veneration for photography—with all
its worry, disappointments,
etc.—which has almost the nature of a
passion ; 'every act of seeing leads to
consideration, consideration to
reflection, reflection to combination,
and combination to ideas which ought to
be worked out with method and system,
then we shall be sure to discover
something quite new and original,
especially if we work earnestly and
patiently.

Friese Greene.".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Friese-Greene,
"Photographs Made with the Eye", "The
Photographic times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108
4. ^ Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Friese-Greene,
"Photographs Made with the Eye", "The
Photographic times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108
7. ^ Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108
8. ^ "William Friese-Greene".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene {06/21/1889 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

[4] "A Machine Camera Taking Ten
Photographs a Second.", Scientific
American supplement, vol 29, Num 746,
04/19/1890, p11921
[5] Edgar Sanderson, John
Porter Lamberton, Charles Morris, "Six
thousand years of history, Part 20,
Volume 10 ",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b6nWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
(London and Provincial Photographic
Association) London, England7  
[1] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g

[2] William Friese-Green PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fal
se
111 YBN
[08/30/1889 AD] 19 		3973)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lehmann, Otto", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p530.
2. ^ David J.R. Cristaldi,
Salvatore Pennisi and Francesco
Pulvirenti, "Liquid Crystal Display
Drivers, 1 Techniques and Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/ {Liquid_Crystal_Display_Histo
ry_2009.pdf}
3. ^ O. Lehmann, "Über fliessende
Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Physikalische Chemie, vol. 4, p462-472,
1889.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ANicE
1Vep0oC&pg=PA462&dq=intitle:Zeitschrift+
+date:1889-1889+lehmann+krystalle#v=onep
age&q=intitle%3AZeitschrift%20%20date%3A
1889-1889%20lehmann%20krystalle&f=false
4. ^ Joseph William Mellor, "A
comprehensive treatise on inorganic and
theoretical chemistry, Volume 1", 1922,
p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse
5. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^ Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460. {kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee
-2002.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Joseph
William Mellor, "A comprehensive
treatise on inorganic and theoretical
chemistry, Volume 1", 1922, p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse
10. ^ O. Lehmann, "Über fliessende
Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Physikalische Chemie, vol. 4, p462-472,
1889.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ANicE
1Vep0oC&pg=PA462&dq=intitle:Zeitschrift+
+date:1889-1889+lehmann+krystalle#v=onep
age&q=intitle%3AZeitschrift%20%20date%3A
1889-1889%20lehmann%20krystalle&f=false
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ O. Lehmann, "Über
fliessende Krystalle.", Zeitschrift
für Physikalische Chemie, vol. 4,
p462-472, 1889.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ANicE
1Vep0oC&pg=PA462&dq=intitle:Zeitschrift+
+date:1889-1889+lehmann+krystalle#v=onep
age&q=intitle%3AZeitschrift%20%20date%3A
1889-1889%20lehmann%20krystalle&f=false
{08/30/1889} English translation: O.
Lehmann, "On Flowing Crystals",
Timothy J. Sluckin, David A. Dunmur,
Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals that flow:
classic papers from the history of
liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
{Crystals_That_Flow_2004.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ O. Lehmann, "Über fliessende
Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Physikalische Chemie, vol. 4, p462-472,
1889.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ANicE
1Vep0oC&pg=PA462&dq=intitle:Zeitschrift+
+date:1889-1889+lehmann+krystalle#v=onep
age&q=intitle%3AZeitschrift%20%20date%3A
1889-1889%20lehmann%20krystalle&f=false
17. ^ "Lehmann, Otto", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p530.
18. ^ "Karlsruhe."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
740>.
19. ^ O. Lehmann, "Über fliessende
Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Physikalische Chemie, vol. 4, p462-472,
1889.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ANicE
1Vep0oC&pg=PA462&dq=intitle:Zeitschrift+
+date:1889-1889+lehmann+krystalle#v=onep
age&q=intitle%3AZeitschrift%20%20date%3A
1889-1889%20lehmann%20krystalle&f=false
{08/30/1889} English translation: O.
Lehmann, "On Flowing Crystals",
Timothy J. Sluckin, David A. Dunmur,
Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals that flow:
classic papers from the history of
liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
Azoxyphenol
Ethers"&f=false {Crystals_That_Flow_200
4.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
[2]
http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerp
ieces/quartz/inventors/liquid.html
[3] "Friedrich Reinitzer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_R
einitzer
[4]
http://www.physics.upenn.edu/~kamien/chi
ralweb/timeline/index.html
[5] Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge zur
Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
Wiener Monatschr, Monatshefte für
Chemie / Chemical Monthly, vol 9,
p421-441, 05/03/1888.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g7
g4323870t73170/ http://books.google.com
/books?id=hoQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Fried
rich+Reinitzer+kenntniss++date:1887-1890
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friedrich%20Re
initzer%20kenntniss%20%20date%3A1887-189
0&f=false English
translation: "Contributions to the
knowledge of cholesterol", Liquid
Crystals, Volume 5, Issue 1 1989 ,
pages 7-18.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a757135313
[6]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
prev=hp&hl=en&js=y&text=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zu
r+Kenntniss+des+Cholesterins+&file=&sl=d
e&tl=en&history_state0=#
[7] "Liquid crystal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crys
tal
[8] "liquid crystal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-5185
5>
[9] O. Lehmann, "Ueber physikalische
Isomerie", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p97-131,p120. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehma
nn+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O
.%20lehmann&f=false
[10] O. Lehmann, "Ueber das Wachsthum
der Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p453-496,p492. http://books.google.com/
books?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehm
ann+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
O.%20lehmann&f=false
[11] "Otto Lehmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Lehman
n
[12] William Bragg, "Liquid Crystals",
nature, num 3360, March 24, 1934.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
133/n3360/pdf/133445a0.pdf
[13] J. D. Bernal and D. Crowfoot,
"Crystalline phases of some substances
studied as liquid crystals", Trans.
Faraday Soc. , 1933, 29, 1032 - 1049,
DOI:
10.1039/TF9332901032 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/TF/article.asp?doi=
tf9332901032
[14]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#

Technische Hochschule, Karlsruhe16 17 ,
Germany18  
[1] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium Olcate,
and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

[2] Photo of Otto Lehmann (1855 -
1922), a German physicist. Picture
taken from publication [1] (an overview
of discovery of liquid crystals). PNG
format used not to reduce image quality
further. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2f/Otto_Lehmann.PNG
111 YBN
[11/12/1889 AD] 17 		3966)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
2. ^ Robert Grant Aitken, "The Binary
Stars", D.C. McMurtrie, 1918, p27.
{examine the diagram - both stars orbit
around empty space - that is
impossible, clearly the two orbit each
other}
http://books.google.com/books?id=0wZDA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA27&dq=pickering+1889+ ursa
e+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQ
SAyenyCw
3. ^ "A New Spectroscopic
Binary",Nature, 10/01/1896, p527.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AWgAB3t
JTyIC&pg=PA527&dq=pickering+1889+ursae+m
ajoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQSAy
enyCw
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509.
5. ^ Anton Pannekoek,
"A History of Astronomy", Courier Dover
Publications, 1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
6. ^ E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
7. ^ "mizar>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"mizar." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
izar>.
8. ^ "Mizar." A Dictionary of
Astronomy. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 25
Aug. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
9. ^ E. C. Pickering, "On the
spectrum of zeta Ursae Majoris",
American Journal of Science,
ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
10. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
11. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
12. ^ Record ID3818. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Forest Ray
Moulton, "An introduction to
astronomy", p
512. http://books.google.com/books?id=m
g48AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA512&dq=vogel+pickering+
spectroscopic+binary#v=onepage&q=vogel%2
0pickering%20spectroscopic%20binary&f=fa
lse
14. ^ Record ID3818. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ E.C. Pickering, "Statement of
work done at the Harvard observatory
during the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
17. ^ E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp {11/12/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, Edward Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>
[2] "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[6] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[8] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[9] "Pickering, Edward Charles",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p704
[10] Edward
Charles Pickering, "Compilation of the
papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] "meridian>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meridian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>
[12] "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>
[13] Pickering, Edward C.,
"Standard photographic magnitudes of
bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. : The
Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
[14] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/
article-9066512>
[15]
http://vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu/alumni/
antonia-maury.html
[16] "Antonia Maury". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Mau
ry
[17] Dorrit Hoffleit, "Remeniscences on
Antonia Maury and the
c-Characteristic",
1994. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1994ASPC...
60..215H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=
YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA16  
[1] Spectrum of Mizar, showing double
lines above and single lines below
(period 20.5) days from Frost, Yerkes
Observatory. (presumably the two lines
on the far left are the hydrogen lines
- but why do the other lines
align?[t]) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mg48AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA512&dq=vogel+pickerin
g+spectroscopic+binary#v=onepage&q=vogel
%20pickering%20spectroscopic%20binary&f=
false

[2] Mizar and Alcor stars The image
was produced by WikiSky's image cutout
tool out of DSS2 data. See Copyright
notice. Source url:
http://server1.wikisky.org/imgcut.jsp?su
rvey=DSS2&img_id=all&angle=2&ra=13.39875
&de=54.92528&width=1800&height=1800&proj
ection=tan&jpeg_quality=0.9&interpolatio
n=bicubic CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Mizar_and_Alcor.jpg
111 YBN
[11/28/1889 AD] 21 22 23 		3818)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
2. ^ Vogel, H.C.,
Scheiner, "Der Vorsitzende berichtete
über die Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Robert Grant Aitken,
"The Binary Stars", D.C. McMurtrie,
1918, p27. {examine the diagram - both
star orbit around empty space - that is
impossible, clearly the two orbit each
other} http://books.google.com/books?id
=0wZDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27&dq=pickering+1889+
ursae+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI
3WlQSAyenyCw
5. ^ "A New Spectroscopic
Binary",Nature, 10/01/1896,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AWgAB3tJTyIC&pg=PA527&dq=pickering+1889+
ursae+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI
3WlQSAyenyCw
6. ^ E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science,
ser.3:v.39(1890). http://books.google.c
om/books?id=Q5MUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pick
ering+on+the+spectrum+of+ursae+majoris+d
ate:1890-1890&ei=eDNkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
7. ^
http://bdaugherty.tripod.com/astronomy/b
erlin.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Anton
Pannekoek, "A History of Astronomy",
Courier Dover Publications, 1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
11. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
12. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
13. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
14. ^ Hector Macpherson, "A
century's progress in astronomy",
Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p183. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p492.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Vogel,
Hermann Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
21. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) {11/28/1889}
22. ^ Hector Macpherson,
"A century's progress in astronomy",
Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p183. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1 {1889}
23. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p370. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[9] "Antonia Maury." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonia-mau
ry
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany20  
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 8 		3399)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
2. ^ "Francis
Galton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
3. ^ "Galton, Francis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p273.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Francis Galton." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
8. ^ "Francis Galton." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Francis Galton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 07
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/224628/Sir-Francis-Galton>
[2] "Francis Galton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[3] "Francis Galton." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[4] "Francis Galton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gal
ton
[5] "Sir Francis Galton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fran
cis_Galton
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[7] "anticyclone." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nticyclone>
London, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 25 26 		3549)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
2. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442-443.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
5. ^ "Abel, Sir
Frederick Augustus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442-443.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p442-443.
8. ^ "Sir
Frederick Augustus Abel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fred
erick_Augustus_Abel
9. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fred
erick_Augustus_Abel
10. ^ "Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Cordite". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cordite
13. ^ "Cordite". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cordite
14. ^ "Cordite". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cordite
15. ^ "Cordite". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cordite
16. ^ "Cordite". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cordite
17. ^ "Cordite". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cordite
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Abel, Sir
Frederick Augustus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
25. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
{1889}
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442-443. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abel, Sir Frederick
Augustus." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 09
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
[2] "Frederick Augustus Abel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_A
ugustus_Abel
[3] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[4] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[5] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[6] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[7] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[8] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056.
[9]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[10]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
London, England24 (presumably) 
[1] Photograph of sectioned British 18
pounder field gun shrapnel round, World
War I. Exhibit is on display at the
Canadian War Museum, Ottowa. Catalogue
information : Artifact Number
20020045-592 Museum CWM Place of Use
Country - United Kingdom, Municipality
- no entry Place of Origin Country -
no entry, Municipality - no
entry Inscription 18 PR II
48 Measurements Height 8.5 cm, Length
12.5 cm, Width 57.0 cm Events
1914-1919 First World War Service
Component British Expeditionary
Force Category 05: tools and equipment
for science and
technology Sub-category E140:
armament, ammunition Caption Artillery
Shell, 18-pounder Additional
Information (corrected) : This cutaway
of an 18-pounder shell reveals the
shrapnel balls which were embedded in
resin to hold them in a stable
position. The fuze in the nose was time
set to ignite the powder charge in the
cavity in the base of the shell as it
approached the target. At this point
the shell was usually angling towards
the ground. This small explosion
propelled the balls forward out of the
case and they spread apart in a cone at
increased velocity forward and towards
the ground. The effect was of a large
shotgun blast fired from in front of
and above the target. The usual target
was barbed wire defences and
troops. In the cartridge below the
shell is a simulated bundle of cordite,
the propellant charge which fired the
shell. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Brisanzgranate_1_db.j
pg

[2] Frederick Augustus Abel,
engraving. Photos.com/Jupiterimages PD
/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/73/101973-004-F0247DE2.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 7 8 9 		3701)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
3. ^ Essays Upon
Heredity (1889) Oxford Clarendon Press
- Full online text
http://www.esp.org/books/weismann/essa
ys/facsimile/
4. ^
http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.ht
m
5. ^ "August Friedrich Leopold
Weismann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Frie
drich_Leopold_Weismann
6. ^ "Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p928.
7. ^
http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.ht
m {1889 (verify}
8. ^ Essays Upon Heredity
(1889) Oxford Clarendon Press - Full
online text
http://www.esp.org/books/weismann/essa
ys/facsimile/ {1889 (verify}
9. ^ "August
Friedrich Leopold Weismann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Frie
drich_Leopold_Weismann {1889 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "August Weismann." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
[2] "August Weismann". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
eismann
[3] "Weismann, August (Friedrich
Leopold)." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
462>.
[4] "August Weismann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
[5] Germ-Plasm, a Theory of Heredity
(1893)- Full online
text http://www.esp.org/books/weismann/
germ-plasm/facsimile/
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany6  
[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 3 		3765)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478.
2. ^ "Hittorf, Johann
Wilhelm", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p578.
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Markovnikov, Vladimir
Vasilyevich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
30 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
024>.
[2] "Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Va
silevich_Markovnikov
[3]
http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry
/chemists/markovnikov.htm
[4] W. Markownikoff (1870). "Ueber die
Abhängigkeit der verschiedenen
Vertretbarkeit des Radicalwasserstoffs
in den isomeren Buttersäuren". Annalen
der Pharmacie 153 (1): 228–259.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18701530204.
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p352.
(Moscow University) Moscow, Russia2
 
[1] Portrait du chimiste Vladimir
Vasilevich Markovnikov Source
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portrait
s/PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_LName=Markov
nikov Date XIXe siècle PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.j
pg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 4 		3953)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
2. ^ "Prof. G.
Lippmann" (obituary), Nature, Volume
107, August 18, 1921.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3-4RA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA788&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%
22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lip
pmann%22&f=false
3. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
4. ^ "Prof. G. Lippmann" (obituary),
Nature, Volume 107, August 18, 1921.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3-4RA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA788&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%
22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lip
pmann%22&f=false {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Lippmann." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[2] "Gabriel Jonas Lippmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jon
as_Lippmann
[3] "Photography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1908/lippmann-bio.html
[5] "Lippmann, Gabriel Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p547
[6] "Gabriel Lippmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
[8]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/lippmann.html
[9] "Lippmann, Gabriel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=cO4PAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA158&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%22
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lippm
ann%22&f=false
[11] The Electrical Review, Volume 7,
Volume 139,
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cREAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Gabriel+Lippmann
+date:1879-1879&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Gabriel%20Lippmann%20date%3A1879-1879&f
=false
Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France3 (presumably) 
[1] Description Gabriel Lippmann
(1845-1921) Date Prior to
1913 Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/G_lippmann.jpg

[2] From Nobel Lectures, Physics
1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, 1967 Le Prix
Nobel PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1908/lippmann.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 18 19 		4074)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
2. ^ "gastric
gland>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc. "gastric
gland." Merriam-Webster's Medical
Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 28
Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
astric gland>.
3. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p368.
5. ^ "fistula." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
28 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
istula>.
6. ^ Todes, D. P. (1997). "Pavlov's
Physiological Factory," Isis. Vol. 88.
The History of Science Society, p.
205-246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
6572?&Search=yes&term=Physiological&term
=Pavlov%27s&term=Factory&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
DPavlov%2527s%2BPhysiological%2BFactory%
26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D14
%26Search.y%3D6%26Search%3DSearch&item=1
&ttl=15&returnArticleService=showArticle
 {Pavlov_Ivan_ISIS_1997.pdf}
7. ^ "gullet." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
28 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
ullet>.
8. ^ Todes, D. P. (1997). "Pavlov's
Physiological Factory," Isis. Vol. 88.
The History of Science Society, p.
205-246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
6572?&Search=yes&term=Physiological&term
=Pavlov%27s&term=Factory&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
DPavlov%2527s%2BPhysiological%2BFactory%
26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D14
%26Search.y%3D6%26Search%3DSearch&item=1
&ttl=15&returnArticleService=showArticle
 {Pavlov_Ivan_ISIS_1997.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Ivan
Pavlov." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

12. ^ "Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
811>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

17. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

18. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov
 {1889}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ivan Pavlov." Encyclopedia
of Russian History. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[2] "Ivan Pavlov." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[3] "Ivan Petrovich Pavlov". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Petrov
ich_Pavlov
[4] "Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p686-687
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1904/pavlov-bio.html
[6]
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bhpavl.html
(Military Medical Academy)16 , St.
Petersburg, Russia17  
[1] circa 1900: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936) the Russian physiologist,
awarded the Nobel prize for Medicine in
1904. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/getty/8/5/3274685.jpg

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 30 		4081) Heaviside is almost entirely
self-taught.22
Heaviside is forced to
publish his papers at his own expense
because of their unorthodoxy23 .
(Perhaps also because of his lack of
doctorate degree and no formal
education.24 )

Heaviside publishes "Electrical Papers"
in 1892, in which he makes use of an
unusual calculatory method called
operational calculus, now better known
as the method of Laplace transforms, to
study transient currents in networks.25
 According to Encyclopedia Britannica,
Heaviside's early results are not
recognized, possibly because the papers
are written using his own notation.26

A year later in 1893, Heaviside
publishes his "Electromagnetic Theory"
(1893–1912).27 28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522-523.
2. ^ "Heaviside,
Oliver." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9039
747>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ EDGAR C. SMITH, "Oliver
Heaviside (1850–1925)", Nature 165,
749-750 (13 May 1950)
doi:10.1038/165749a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
165/n4208/pdf/165991a0.pdf
{Heaviside_Oliver_1950.pdf}
5. ^ Lev B. Oken, "The Concept of
Mass", Physics Today, June 1981,
p11. http://www.worldscibooks.com/etext
book/6833/6833_02.pdf
6. ^ Paul J. Nahin, "Oliver Heaviside:
the life, work, and times of an
electrical genius of the ...",
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
e9wEntQmA0IC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=olive
r+heaviside+increases+mass+velocity&sour
ce=bl&ots=f0lTvztQRr&sig=wxcLSJPRy3eYM3F
sKbiV-_6cKDk&hl=en&ei=FNrLStiNB43IsAPP_M
mJAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Oliver Heaviside,
"Electromagnetic Theory", 1893, 1971,
p142.
12. ^ Oliver Heaviside, "On The
Electromagnetic Effects due to the
Motion of Electrification through a
Dielectric.", Phil Mag, S. 5., Vol 27,
Num. 167, April 1889,
p324. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WPg3vBQe1koC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ZWht-uQZCCecTLKePWuHRK&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=&f=false
13. ^ Lev B. Oken, "The Concept of
Mass", Physics Today, June 1981,
p11. http://www.worldscibooks.com/etext
book/6833/6833_02.pdf
14. ^ Paul J. Nahin, "Oliver Heaviside:
the life, work, and times of an
electrical genius of the ...",
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
e9wEntQmA0IC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=olive
r+heaviside+increases+mass+velocity&sour
ce=bl&ots=f0lTvztQRr&sig=wxcLSJPRy3eYM3F
sKbiV-_6cKDk&hl=en&ei=FNrLStiNB43IsAPP_M
mJAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522-523.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Henry
Crew, "The Rise of Modern Physics",
Williams & Wilkens Co, 1928, p280.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Oliver Heaviside,
"Electromagnetic Theory", 1893, 1971,
p142.
22. ^ "Heaviside, Oliver", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p404.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522-523.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ "Heaviside, Oliver."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9039
747>.
27. ^ Oliver Heaviside,
"Electromagnetic theory, Volume 1",
1893.
28. ^ "Heaviside, Oliver."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9039
747>.
29. ^ "Heaviside, Oliver."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9039
747>.
30. ^ EDGAR C. SMITH, "Oliver
Heaviside (1850–1925)", Nature 165,
749-750 (13 May 1950)
doi:10.1038/165749a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
165/n4208/pdf/165991a0.pdf
{Heaviside_Oliver_1950.pdf} {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Heaviside." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-heav
iside
[2] "Oliver Heaviside." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-heav
iside
[3] Oliver Heaviside, "Electrical
papers‎", Volume 1, 1894
http://books.google.com/books?id=_Zk
3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA464&dq=Oliver+Heaviside+v
olume+2#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] WILLIS JACKSON,"Life and Work of
Oliver Heaviside" (May 18,
1850-February 3, 1925) Nature 165,
991-993 (24 June 1950)
doi:10.1038/165991a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
165/n4202/pdf/165749a0.pdf
London, England29 (presumably) 
[1] Description Oliver
Heaviside2.jpg English: Artist died
>70yrs ago. Source:
http://www.jstor.org.proxy.library.ade
laide.edu.au/view/00963771/ap990561/99a0
0020/3?searchUrl=http%3a//www.jstor.org/
search/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26si%3d1%2
6Query%3doliver%2bheaviside&frame=nofram
e¤tResult=00963771%2bap990561%2b99
a00020%2b0%2c7F&userID=817f4eeb@adelaide
.edu.au/01cc993313496f10fbc86dba0&dpi=3&
config=jstor PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Oliver_Heaviside2.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD] 7 		4090) In 1913 Richet wins a Nobel prize
in medicine and physiology for work on
anaphylaxus.3

In later years Richet grows interested
in telepathy and extrasensory
perception.4 (Probably Richet's work
in this area might provide some
whistleblowing information to people
who have been excluded, which may be as
many as 90% of the humans on earth.
What kind of research into neuron
reading and writing did Richet discuss
and perform? How far did he get to
reading from or writing to neurons? Was
he an excluded or included? Was he
trying to expose it?5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-524.
2. ^ "Richet, Charles
Robert." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 425-432.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 8
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-524.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525-524.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Richet, Charles." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
586>.
7. ^ "Richet, Charles Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 425-432. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 8 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Richet." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
[2] "Charles Richet." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
[3] "Charles Richet." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 08 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
[4] "Charles Richet." Encyclopedia of
Occultism and Parapsychology. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 08 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
[5] "Charles Robert Richet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Richet
(University of Paris) Paris, France6
 
[1] w:Charles Robert Richet, vencedor
do Prémio Nobel de Medicina de
1913. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Charles_Robert_Richet
.gif
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 11 		4128) Ramón y Cajal is born in a
poverty stricken and isolated village
in Navarre, the son of a
barber-surgeon.3
In 1906 Ramón y Cajal
shares the Nobel prize for medicine and
physiology with Golgi.4
Ramón y Cajal
wrote some 20 books and 250 scientific
papers.5
Among Ramón y Cajal's many
books concerning nervous structure is
"Estudios sobre la degeneración y
regeneración del sistema nervioso", 2
vol. (1913–14; "The Degeneration and
Regeneration of the Nervous System")6
and the classic "Histology" (tr. 1933)7
.

Ramón y Cajal determined that Spain
should have a place on the scientific
and intellectual stage. He succeeds in
founding a Spanish school of
histology.8

It is rare to see a person (Ramon y
Cajal is one person - people might
think because of the "y" that this is
two people) in Spain credited for
science advances, and perhaps this is
because, like much of South America,
the terrible influence of the followers
of Jesus who have tended to frown upon
science, learning and all things
positive, logical and pleasureful,
although no evidence exists that Jesus
was opposed to science, learning or
consensual pleasure - and there were
contemporary and earlier scientists
like Thales, Anaxagoras, Archimedes,
Euclidos, etc - so plenty to comment on
- the view may have been one of either
not informed of these people's written
works, or informed but not caring
enough to comment or leave any record
expressing any opinion of science or
earlier or contemporary scientists. A
similar problem exists in Arab nations
because of similar views of many in
Islam. It is interesting to note any
comments Muhammad had about earlier and
contemporary scientists. Only a few
years after Muhammad, Al-Razi
criticizes Islam and religion in
general.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p533-534.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p533-534.
3. ^ "Ramón Y
Cajal, Santiago." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
273-276. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 21 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p533-534.
5. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal,
Santiago." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Ramón y Cajal, Santiago."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
608>.
7. ^ "Santiago Ramón y Cajal." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/santiago-ra
m-n-y-cajal
8. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal, Santiago."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal,
Santiago." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p533-534. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/santiago-ra
m-n-y-cajal
[2] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ra
m%C3%B3n_y_Cajal
(University of Barcelona) Barcelona,
Spain10  
[1] Visual cortex from 1899 Ramon y
Cajal work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Ramon y Cajal PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 12 13 		4225)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Elster and Geital, "Entladung
negativ elektrisierter Körper durch
Sonnen-und Tageslicht", Annalen der
Physik, 38, (1889), 497.
5. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Record ID3336. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
10. ^ "photoelectric
effect." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2009. Answers.com 05 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/photoelectr
ic-effect
11. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
12. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1889}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p555. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Elster, Johann Philipp
Ludwig Julius." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 354-357.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[2] http://www.elster-geitel.de/
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany11  
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 5 6 		4277)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p563.
2. ^ Shibasaburo
Kitasato, “Über den
Rauschbrandnadbacillus und sein
Culturfahren,” Zeitschrift für
Hygience und Infektionskrankheiten, 6
(1889), 105-116;
3. ^ "Kitasato, Shibasaburo."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 391-393. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902322&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Kitasato Shibasaburo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p563. {1889}
6. ^ "Kitasato
Shibasaburo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Shibasaburo Kitasato."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[2] "Shibasaburo Kitasato." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[3] "Shibasaburo Kitasato". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibasaburo
_Kitasato
[4] Shibasaburo Kitasato, “Über dem
Tetanusbacillus”, Zeitschrift für
Hygience und Infektionskrankheiten, 7
(1889), 225-234;
(Robert Koch’s laboratory) Berlin,
Germany3 4  
[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 8 9 		4278)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p563.
2. ^ "Kitasato
Shibasaburo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>.
3. ^ "Shibasaburo Kitasato." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
4. ^ "Shibasaburo Kitasato." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
5. ^ "Kitasato, Shibasaburo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 391-393. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902322&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Kitasato, Shibasaburo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 391-393. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902322&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Kitasato Shibasaburo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p563. {1889}
9. ^ "Kitasato
Shibasaburo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Shibasaburo Kitasato".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibasaburo
_Kitasato
[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato, “Über den
Rauschbrandnadbacillus und sein
Culturfahren,” Zeitschrift für
Hygience und Infektionskrankheiten, 6
(1889), 105-116;
[3] Shibasaburo Kitasato,
“Über dem Tetanusbacillus”,
Zeitschrift für Hygience und
Infektionskrankheiten, 7 (1889),
225-234;
(Robert Koch’s laboratory) Berlin,
Germany6 7  
[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 7 		4342)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
3. ^ "Arrhenius,
Svante August." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Arrhenius,
Svante August." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Svante Arrhenius." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[2] "Svante Arrhenius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[3] "Svante Arrhenius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[4] "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 296-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900169&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Svante August Arrhenius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_Augu
st_Arrhenius
[6] Svante Arrhenius, "Recherches sur
la conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes",
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rech
erches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galvan
ique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_DiL
MK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden6  
[1] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg

[2] Svante Arrhenius from German
Wikipedia: 19:30, 11. Sep 2004 . .
de:User:Matthias Bock (7044 Byte)
(Svante Arrhenius) Public Domain da
vor dem 1. Jan. 1923
veröffentlicht PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Arrhenius2.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 11 		4396) In 1905 Lenard is awarded the
Nobel prize in physics for studies of
cathode rays in open air.3

In August 1914 Lenard is swept along by
the wave of patriotism and nationalism.
Most scientists eventually find their
way back to a more sober view, but
Lenard persists in his position of
supernationalism.4

Lenard is openly anti-Semitic and
supports the Nazi doctrines, one of
only 2 important scientists, the other
being Stark. Lenard denounces "Jewish
science", perhaps forgetting his debt
to Hertz who is of Jewish descent.
Lenard denounces Einstein and the
theory of relativity purely on racial
grounds and advances no scientific
arguments of merit (of which there are
in my view more than one, for example
that space dilation is taken from an
excuse to save the ether theory, that
photons are probably the basis of all
matter, but obviously never on racial
grounds.5 ) Lenard rejects the theory
of quantum mechanics too. Lenard knows
Hitler personally and coaches Hitler on
the racial interpretation of physics.
This will help Hitler to ignore
progress in physics, in particular in
atomic research, and fail to develop
the atomic bomb, despite the German
people initially leading the field.6

For an examination of Hertz and
Lenard's relationship see "Heinrich
Hertz and Philipp Lenard: Two
Distinguished Physicists, Two Disparate
Men".7
(The rise of Nazism and
nationalism is Germany stopped the
solid lead in science they had, and
most science was geared towards war and
destruction, and based on fraudulent
false theories.8 )

(Perhaps Lenard represents the terrible
transistion from the wise days of
Bunsen, Kirckhoff, Helmholtz, Rontgen,
and Hertz, to the war-based views that
perhaps lead to or are popular up to
and including the time of World Wars 1
and 2.9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
2. ^ "Lenard,
Philipp." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 180-183.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
4. ^ "Lenard,
Philipp." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 180-183.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
7. ^ Joseph F.
Mulligan, "Heinrich Hertz and Philipp
Lenard: Two Distinguished Physicists,
Two Disparate Men", Physics in
Perspective (PIP), Volume 1, Number 4
/ December,
1999. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/ey675vh58f3p0965/
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Lenard,
Philipp." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 180-183.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Lenard, Philipp." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lenard, Philipp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
736>
[2] "Philipp Lenard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[3] "Philipp Lenard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[4] "Philipp Lenard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Len
ard
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany10  
[1] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 11 		4439) Nernst says that Roentgen should
have patented the X ray and got money
from it.5
In 1893 Nernst publishes a
textbook on theoretical chemistry which
makes use of the thermodynamic ideas of
people such as Ostwald.6
Both Nernst's
sons die in WW I.7
In 1920 Nernst wins
the Nobel prize in chemistry for his
third law of thermodynamics.8
Two of
Nernst's daughters marry Jewish people
and his last years are spent in
disfavor because this is a considerable
crime under Nazi rule in Germany
(Nernst dies in November 1941).9
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
3. ^ "Nernst,
Walther Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
10. ^ "Nernst,
Walther Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Nernst." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[2] "Walther Nernst." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[3] "Nernst, Hermann Walther." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 24. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 11 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903139&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Walther Nernst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Ner
nst
( University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany10  
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 17 18 		4521)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
4. ^ "Hale, George
Ellery." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 26-34.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ George E. Hale, "Photography of
the Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H {Hale_George_1890.pdf}

6. ^ George E. Hale, "Photography of
the Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H {Hale_George_1890.pdf}

7. ^ George E. Hale, "Photography of
the Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H {Hale_George_1890.pdf}

8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ George Ellery Hale, "The
new heavens", 1922
http://books.google.com/books?id=bx0SA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22The+Ne
w+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrCsAP1xL
jaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19395/19
395-h/19395-h.htm
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623. {1889}
18. ^
"Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hale, George Ellery."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
862>
[2] "George Ellery Hale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[3] "George Ellery Hale." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[4] "George Ellery Hale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elle
ry_Hale
[5] George E. Hale, "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/
10.1086/141581
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Boston, Massachusetts, USA16  
[1] Sun-spot vortex in the upper
hydrogen atmosphere PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bx0SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22
The+New+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrC
sAP1xLjaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=
false

[2] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 5 		6031)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Philip Sousa."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/555511/John-Philip-Sousa>.
2. ^ "John Philip Sousa." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-philip
-sousa
3. ^ "John Philip Sousa." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/555511/John-Philip-Sousa>.
4. ^ "John Philip Sousa." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-philip
-sousa
5. ^ "John Philip Sousa." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-philip
-sousa {1889}
(U.S. Marines) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA4  
[1] From
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/235_pos
.html, the Library of Congress Prints
and Photographs collection (reference
number LC-USZ62-110617), John Philip
Sousa by E. Chickering, 1900.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/JohnPhilipSousa-Chick
ering.LOC.jpg
110 YBN
[02/??/1890 AD] 17 18 		4223)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Recherches sur
la constitution des spectres
d’émission des éléments
chimiques", Kungliga Svenska
vetenskapsakademiens handlingar, n.s.
23. no. 11 (1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=9770N
wAACAAJ&dq=Recherches+sur+la+constitutio
n+des+spectres+d%E2%80%99%C3%A9mission+d
es+%C3%A9l%C3%A9ments+chimiques&cd=1 En
glish translation: "Research on the
Constitution of the Spectral Emissions
of the Chemical Elements" Possible
English translation: Johannes Rydberg,
"On the Structure of the Line-Spectra
of the Chemical Elements",
Philosophical Magazine, 5th ser., 29
(1890),
331–337; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331&dq=On+the+Str
ucture+of+the+Line-Spectra+of+the+Chemic
al+Elements&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20
Structure%20of%20the%20Line-Spectra%20of
%20the%20Chemical%20Elements&f=false
3. ^ "Johannes Rydberg." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ry
dberg
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Rydberg, Johannes Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
544>.
9. ^ "Recherches sur la constitution
des spectres d’émission des
éléments chimiques", Kungliga Svenska
vetenskapsakademiens handlingar, n.s.
23. no. 11 (1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=9770N
wAACAAJ&dq=Recherches+sur+la+constitutio
n+des+spectres+d%E2%80%99%C3%A9mission+d
es+%C3%A9l%C3%A9ments+chimiques&cd=1 En
glish translation: "Research on the
Constitution of the Spectral Emissions
of the Chemical Elements" Possible
English translation: Johannes Rydberg,
"On the Structure of the Line-Spectra
of the Chemical Elements",
Philosophical Magazine, 5th ser., 29
(1890),
331–337; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331&dq=On+the+Str
ucture+of+the+Line-Spectra+of+the+Chemic
al+Elements&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20
Structure%20of%20the%20Line-Spectra%20of
%20the%20Chemical%20Elements&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Johannes
Rydberg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 04 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ry
dberg
13. ^ "Johannes Rydberg." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ry
dberg
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Recherches sur la
constitution des spectres d’émission
des éléments chimiques", Kungliga
Svenska vetenskapsakademiens
handlingar, n.s. 23. no. 11 (1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=9770N
wAACAAJ&dq=Recherches+sur+la+constitutio
n+des+spectres+d%E2%80%99%C3%A9mission+d
es+%C3%A9l%C3%A9ments+chimiques&cd=1 En
glish translation: "Research on the
Constitution of the Spectral Emissions
of the Chemical Elements" Possible
English translation: Johannes Rydberg,
"On the Structure of the Line-Spectra
of the Chemical Elements",
Philosophical Magazine, 5th ser., 29
(1890),
331–337; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331&dq=On+the+Str
ucture+of+the+Line-Spectra+of+the+Chemic
al+Elements&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20
Structure%20of%20the%20Line-Spectra%20of
%20the%20Chemical%20Elements&f=false
16. ^ "Rydberg, Johannes Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
544>.
17. ^ "Recherches sur la constitution
des spectres d’émission des
éléments chimiques", Kungliga Svenska
vetenskapsakademiens handlingar, n.s.
23. no. 11 (1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=9770N
wAACAAJ&dq=Recherches+sur+la+constitutio
n+des+spectres+d%E2%80%99%C3%A9mission+d
es+%C3%A9l%C3%A9ments+chimiques&cd=1 En
glish translation: "Research on the
Constitution of the Spectral Emissions
of the Chemical Elements" {02/1890}
Possible English
translation: Johannes Rydberg, "On the
Structure of the Line-Spectra of the
Chemical Elements", Philosophical
Magazine, 5th ser., 29 (1890),
331–337; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331&dq=On+the+Str
ucture+of+the+Line-Spectra+of+the+Chemic
al+Elements&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20
Structure%20of%20the%20Line-Spectra%20of
%20the%20Chemical%20Elements&f=false
18. ^ "Rydberg, Johannes Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
544>. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Rydberg." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 04 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ry
dberg
[2] "Johannes Robert Rydberg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ro
bert_Rydberg
[3] "Rydberg, Johannes (Janne) Robert."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 42-45. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 3
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden16
 
[1] Rydberg equation form 1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9k8wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

[2] Description: middle age;
three-quarter view; moustache; gold
seal at lower left corner; 'Head of
physics Dept. at the State University
in Lund 1900-1919.' Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, W. F. Meggers
Collection Names: Rydberg, Johannes
Robert PD
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rydberg_johannes_a1.jpg
110 YBN
[06/11/1890 AD] 5 		3974)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Strasbourg I, II, and III,
Universities of." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
894>.
2. ^ David J.R. Cristaldi, Salvatore
Pennisi and Francesco Pulvirenti,
"Liquid Crystal Display Drivers,
1 Techniques and Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/ {Liquid_Crystal_Display_Histo
ry_2009.pdf} {ULSF : note discovery,
classification, physics - implies this
pattern of scientific discovery and
then immediate government/military
classification of secrecy to the
scientific advance.}
3. ^ L. Gattermann and A.
Ritschke, "Ueber Azoxyphenetoläther
(On Azoxyphenol Ethers)", Berichte der
Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, Vol.
23, pp. 1738–1750, 1890. (Currently,
and perhaps unusually, this volume is
not scanned by
Google:) http://books.google.com/books?
id=9cJwQAAACAAJ&dq=%22Berichte+der+Deuts
chen+Chemischen+Gesellschaft%22+date:189
0-1890&lr= from
Galica: {Gatterman_Liquid_Crystals_1890
.pdf} partial English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=
%22On+Azoxyphenol+Ethers%22&source=bl&ot
s=F3j9kWDX0W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8L
GF5M&hl=en&ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=on
epage&q=%22On%20Azoxyphenol%20Ethers%22&
f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
{06/11/1890}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerp
ieces/quartz/inventors/liquid.html
[2] "Friedrich Reinitzer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_R
einitzer
[3]
http://www.physics.upenn.edu/~kamien/chi
ralweb/timeline/index.html
[4] Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge zur
Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
Wiener Monatschr, Monatshefte für
Chemie / Chemical Monthly, vol 9,
p421-441, 05/03/1888.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g7
g4323870t73170/ http://books.google.com
/books?id=hoQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Fried
rich+Reinitzer+kenntniss++date:1887-1890
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friedrich%20Re
initzer%20kenntniss%20%20date%3A1887-189
0&f=false English
translation: "Contributions to the
knowledge of cholesterol", Liquid
Crystals, Volume 5, Issue 1 1989 ,
pages 7-18.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a757135313
[5]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
prev=hp&hl=en&js=y&text=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zu
r+Kenntniss+des+Cholesterins+&file=&sl=d
e&tl=en&history_state0=#
[6] "Liquid crystal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crys
tal
[7] "Otto Lehmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Lehman
n
[8]
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
[9] "Lehmann, Otto", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p530
[10]
O. Lehmann, "Ueber das Wachsthum der
Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p453-496,p492. http://books.google.com/
books?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehm
ann+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
O.%20lehmann&f=false
[11] H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE [0018-9219] Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page: 460
[12]
O. Lehmann, "Über fliessende
Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Physikalische Chemie, vol. 4, p462-472,
1889.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ANicE
1Vep0oC&pg=PA462&dq=intitle:Zeitschrift+
+date:1889-1889+lehmann+krystalle#v=onep
age&q=intitle%3AZeitschrift%20%20date%3A
1889-1889%20lehmann%20krystalle&f=false
[13] Joseph William Mellor, "A
comprehensive treatise on inorganic and
theoretical chemistry, Volume 1", 1922,
p645.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mXoGA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crystal%22
+lehmann+1889#v=snippet&q=%20lehmann&f=f
alse
[14] O. Lehmann, "Ueber physikalische
Isomerie", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p97-131,p120. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehma
nn+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O
.%20lehmann&f=false
[15] William Bragg, "Liquid Crystals",
nature, num 3360, March 24, 1934.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
133/n3360/pdf/133445a0.pdf
[16] J. D. Bernal and D. Crowfoot,
"Crystalline phases of some substances
studied as liquid crystals", Trans.
Faraday Soc. , 1933, 29, 1032 - 1049,
DOI:
10.1039/TF9332901032 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/TF/article.asp?doi=
tf9332901032
[17] "Ludwig Gattermann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Gatt
ermann
[18]
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/mecha
nic/pravidl2/gatt/g.htm
[19] Timothy J. Sluckin, David A.
Dunmur, Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals
that flow: classic papers from the
history of liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
 Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg,
Germany4  
[1] Ludwig Gattermann (1860-1920) PD
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/mechanic/pravidl2/gatt/g.gif

[2] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium
Olcate, and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false
110 YBN
[09/04/1890 AD] 7 8 		4301)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p567.
3. ^ J. E.
Keeler, "On the Motions of the
Planetary Nebulæ in the line of
Sight.", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V2, N2,
11/29/1890. http://articles.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_ke
y=AST&bibcode=1890PASP....2..265K&letter
=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_pa
per=YES&page=265&epage=265&send=Send+PDF
&filetype=.pdf
4. ^ J. E. Keeler, "On the Motions of
the Planetary Nebulæ in the line of
Sight.", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V2, N2,
11/29/1890. http://articles.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_ke
y=AST&bibcode=1890PASP....2..265K&letter
=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_pa
per=YES&page=265&epage=265&send=Send+PDF
&filetype=.pdf
5. ^ "Keeler, James Edward." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 270-271. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Keeler, James Edward." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 270-271. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ J. E. Keeler, "On the Motions of
the Planetary Nebulæ in the line of
Sight.", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V2, N2,
11/29/1890. http://articles.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_ke
y=AST&bibcode=1890PASP....2..265K&letter
=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_pa
per=YES&page=265&epage=265&send=Send+PDF
&filetype=.pdf {09/04/1890}
8. ^ "Keeler, James
Edward." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 270-271.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Keeler, James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
967>.
[2] "James Edward Keeler." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-edwar
d-keeler-american-astronomer
[3] "James Edward Keeler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edwar
d_Keeler
[4] James Keeler, “A Spectroscopic
Proof of the Meteoritic Constitution of
Saturn’s Rings,” in Astrophysical
Journal, 1 (1895),
416–427 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1895ApJ.....1..416K and
http://books.google.com/books?id=ExzOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Proo
f+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+Saturn
%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0
&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is
=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Spec
troscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Meteoric%
20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%20Rings
&f=false
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA6  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
110 YBN
[11/15/1890 AD] 8 		3243)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R.
Toppel, "The Gatling Gun",Arco
Publishing Company, New York, NY, 1965,
pp121-122.
2. ^ Scientific American (1845-1908).
New York: Nov 15, 1890. Vol. Vol.
LXIII., Iss. No. 20.; p.
303. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?in
dex=2&did=171682571&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1212686101&clientId=48051&aid=1 {
Gatling_electric.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald
R. Toppel, "The Gatling Gun",Arco
Publishing Company, New York, NY, 1965,
pp121-122.
5. ^ Scientific American (1845-1908).
New York: Nov 15, 1890. Vol. Vol.
LXIII., Iss. No. 20.; p.
303. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?in
dex=2&did=171682571&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1212686101&clientId=48051&aid=1 {
Gatling_electric.pdf}
6. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel,
"The Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing
Company, New York, NY, 1965, pp128-129.
7. ^ Paul
F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel, "The
Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing Company,
New York, NY, 1965, pp121-122.
8. ^ Paul F. Wahl
and Donald R. Toppel, "The Gatling
Gun",Arco Publishing Company, New York,
NY, 1965, pp121-122. (11/15/1890)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[3] "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
[4] "Breech-loading weapon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech-load
ing_weapon
[5]
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/richar
d-jordan-gatling-woi/
[6] "Gatling gun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatling_gun

[7]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7J2rbUFy
J8 {modern Gatling guns on helicopters}
[8] George
Morgan Chinn, "The machine gun;
history, evolution and development of
manual, automatic and airborne
repeating weapons. Prepared for the
Bureau of Ordnance, Dept. of the
Navy.", 1951
[9] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
[10] "Richard Jordan
Gatling". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
[11]
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1957/6/1957_6_48.shtml
(1893)
[12] "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling (1893)
New York City, NY, USA7  
[1] Firing the Gatling Gun by
electricity: (1) gun in operation; (2)
gun with electrical attachment; (3)
Crocker-Wheeler motor. PD/Corel
source: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?
index=2&did=171682571&SrchMode=3&sid=2&F
mt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName
=HNP&TS=1212686101&clientId=48051&aid=1

[2] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page
110 YBN
[12/17/1890 AD] 13 14 		4458) Steinmetz has a hunchback which
his father and grandfather also had.7
St
einmetz joins a student socialist club
at the University of Breslau, which was
banned by the government after becoming
affiliated with the German Social
Democrats. When some of his fellow
party members are arrested, Steinmetz
takes over the editorship of the party
newspaper, “The People's Voice.”
One of the articles Steinmetz writes is
considered inflammatory, the police
began a crackdown on the paper, and
Steinmetz has to leave Breslau (1888).

Steinmetz builds generators capable of
producing electricity at extremely high
potential (voltage8 ), high enough to
make large lightning bolts.9
Steinmetz's last major project working
at the General Electric Company, is
designing a generator that produces a
discharge of 10,000 amperes and more
than 100,000 volts, equivalent to a
power of more than 1,000,000 horsepower
for 1/100,000 of a second.10

Steinmetz holds 200 patents for
electrical inventions.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p604-605.
2. ^ "Steinmetz,
Charles Proteus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 24 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
559>.
3. ^ "Steinmetz, Charles Proteus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 24 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
559>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Charles
Steinmetz, "Note on the Law of
Hysteresis", Electrical Engineer,
12/17/1890. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_QkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Note%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20Hysteresi
s&source=gbs_book_other_versions#v=onepa
ge&q=Note%20on%20the%20Law%20&f=false
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p604-605.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p604-605.
10. ^ "Steinmetz,
Charles Proteus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 24 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
559>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p604-605.
12. ^ C. P.
Steinmetz, "On the Law of Hysteresis",
Part I and Part II, 1892, Vol 9. Part
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=DUt
LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA207&dq=steinmetz+%22On+th
e+law+of+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=G-IjTI3u
NoT48AbquMDLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=steinmetz%20%22On%20the%20law%20of%20h
ysteresis%22&f=false Part 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=DUtLA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA207&dq=steinmetz+%22On+the+
law+of+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=G-IjTI3uNo
T48AbquMDLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resu
lt&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=
steinmetz&f=false also
see: http://books.google.com/books?id=U
zpIHAAACAAJ&dq=steinmetz+%22On+the+law+o
f+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=6-EjTJywHsH58Ab
-psXMBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=7&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBg
13. ^ C. P. Steinmetz, "On the Law of
Hysteresis", Part I and Part II, 1892,
Vol 9. Part
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=DUt
LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA207&dq=steinmetz+%22On+th
e+law+of+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=G-IjTI3u
NoT48AbquMDLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=steinmetz%20%22On%20the%20law%20of%20h
ysteresis%22&f=false Part 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=DUtLA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA207&dq=steinmetz+%22On+the+
law+of+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=G-IjTI3uNo
T48AbquMDLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resu
lt&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=
steinmetz&f=false also
see: http://books.google.com/books?id=U
zpIHAAACAAJ&dq=steinmetz+%22On+the+law+o
f+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=6-EjTJywHsH58Ab
-psXMBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=7&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBg {12/17/1890}
14. ^ Charles
Steinmetz, "Note on the Law of
Hysteresis", Electrical Engineer,
12/17/1890. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_QkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Note%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20Hysteresi
s&source=gbs_book_other_versions#v=onepa
ge&q=Note%20on%20the%20Law%20&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Proteus Steinmetz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-pro
teus-steinmetz
[2] "Steinmetz, Charles Proteus."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 24-25. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904145&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] Charles Proteus Steinmetz, "Theory
and calculation of alternating current
phenomena", 1897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PUQOA
AAAYAAJ&dq=theory+and+Calculation+of+Alt
ernating+Current+Phenomena&source=gbs_na
vlinks_s
(Rudolf Eickemeyer's company) New York
City, USA12  
[1] figure from 1892 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_QkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Not
e%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20Hysteresis&sou
rce=gbs_book_other_versions#v=onepage&q=
Note%20on%20the%20Law%20&f=false

[2] tables from 1892 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_QkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Not
e%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20Hysteresis&sou
rce=gbs_book_other_versions#v=onepage&q=
Note%20on%20the%20Law%20&f=false
110 YBN
[12/26/1890 AD] 9 		4123) The Union Sulphur Company, of
which Frasch is president, becomes the
earth's leading sulfur-mining company.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p532.
2. ^ Patent
461,430 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ "Obituaries - Herman Frasch, Paul
L. V. Héroult". Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry 6 (6): 505–507.
1914.
doi:10.1021/ie50066a024. http://pubs.ac
s.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50066a024
4. ^ Patent
461,430 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ Patent
461,430 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p532.
7. ^ "Frasch,
Herman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
198>.
8. ^ Patent
461,430 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
9. ^ Patent
461,430 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false {12/26/1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Herman Frasch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Fras
ch
[2] Patent 378246,
487119 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Hj52AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
Cleveland, Ohio, USA8  
[1] English: en:Hermann Frasch,
German-American petro-chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Hermann_Frasch.gif

[2] Figures from Frasch's 1890
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 7 8 		3740) The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
state that Lockyer's "The Meteoritic
Hypothesis" (1890)4 propounds a
comprehensive scheme of cosmical
evolution, which has evoked more
dissent than approval.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
2. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The
Meteoritic Hypothesis: A Statement of
the Results of a Spectroscopic Inquiry
Into the Origin of Cosmical Systems",
Macmillan,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Meteoritic+Hyp
othesis&printsec=frontcover&source=web&o
ts=ZmpLV_7_hw&sig=nvUGcW7SF6XaAnRP3y56Y5
b8pxk
5. ^ "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
6. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
7. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Meteoritic
Hypothesis: A Statement of the Results
of a Spectroscopic Inquiry Into the
Origin of Cosmical Systems", Macmillan,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Meteoritic+Hyp
othesis&printsec=frontcover&source=web&o
ts=ZmpLV_7_hw&sig=nvUGcW7SF6XaAnRP3y56Y5
b8pxk
8. ^ Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473
[2] "Lockyer, Sir
Joseph Norman." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[5] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[7] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph
Norman" (Obituary Notice), Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 81, p.261 (MNRAS
Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261
[8]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
[9] Norman Lockyer, "On the Most
Widened Lines in Sun-Spot Spectra.
First and Second Series, from November
12, 1879, to October 15, 1881.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1883 vol:36 iss:1 pg:443.
http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_loc
al?sid=google&auinit=JN&aulast=Lockyer&a
title=On+the+Most+Widened+Lines+in+Sun-S
pot+Spectra.+First+and+Second+Series,+fr
om+November+12,+1879,+to+October+15,+188
1.&id=doi:10.1098/rspl.1883.0128
[10] J. Norman Lockyer, "On the Iron
Lines Widened in Solar Spots",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 31,
1880/1881. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/806858137u0r5888/?p=149f9b4
bf4ee41088f3c5a073eedec5eπ=85
[11] Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co.,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England6
(presumably) 
[1] Temperature Curve (provisional) PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Meteoritic+Hy
pothesis&printsec=frontcover&source=web&
ots=ZmpLV_7_hw&sig=nvUGcW7SF6XaAnRP3y56Y
5b8pxk#PPA375,M1

[2] Part of the spectrum of Carbon
B PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36&source=gbs_selecte
d_pages&cad=0_1#PPA45,M1
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 16 17 		3807) In 1876 James switches
professions from physiology to
psychology, a science in its infancy.
James views psychology as an
experimental science based on
physiology and not as a vague form of
philosophy.8

In later life James is interested in
"psychic research", which has grown
fashionable at the turn of the
century.9 (what does "psychic
research" mean? research into how the
brain functions? ultimately this
interest must have resulted in the work
of Pupin, the student of Hemholtz who
was very interested in the senses, and
perhaps tried to see thought.10 )

In 1907 James publishes "Pragmatism: A
New Name for Some Old Ways of
Thinking11 " in which he supports an
idea of reality based only on
experience.12 It is interesting how
this universe interpreted only by
sensed theory plays out into the 1900s.
The popular view is summed many times
with the question: if nobody can hear a
tree fall, does it actually fall? To me
the answer is yes, because I believe in
an external universe, even without
humans, but the other view is that the
universe does not exist without the
viewer. It is interesting that this
view seems so closely linked to George
Berkeley is his efforts to disprove the
theory of gravity and atheism of Newton
by appealing to all space, time and
motion as being relative as opposed to
absolute, and then to Mach whose work
inspires Einstein who accepts the
non-euclidean theory and
space-dilation. So are these simply
mistakes that the majority and in
particular wealthy people believe and
propagate or is there something more to
it? Is it just a coincidence and
piecing together of theories through
out history that many of these theories
seem to be found together or a directed
effort at inaccuracy and
misinformation? I don't know if it is
just mistaken beliefs or systematic
deception. I probably lean towards
honest mistaken views, with an element
of natural selection, as inaccurate,
abstract and complex ideas appeal to
the majority who have been tricked by
the obviously inaccurate claims of
religions.13

It is amazing how over-valued this
person is - even with no serious
science contributions - there is a lot
of data documented about this person.
What a terribly misplaced focus - and
so it is on all of psychology. For some
as of yet unexplained reasons,
psychology rose up and has found
enormous popularity among average
people. I think it has to do with
people being easily tricked by abstract
terminology, by authority, and abstract
theories about health and because they
never receive a basic history of
science. It's stomach turning to see
this kind of misplaced popularity - but
this is typical of the centuries under
Christianity and in particular the
secret of seeing, hearing and sending
images and sounds and remote neuron
activation where murderers hold vast
wealth and power and the honest are
murdered and persecuted. Documenting
some of this is important for the story
of the rise of pseudosciences, and
popular mistaken beliefs.14

(My current appraisal of psychology is
that 1) there needs to be the stringent
requirement of consent-only
incarceration and treatment, and at
least no-treatment-when-objection and
2) some parts of psychology may be
viewed as a science, which I would
describe as a science that seeks to
cure diseases perceived with no known
physiological cause, or in the realm of
healing people with perceived problems
through talking - in a similar way that
teaching the history of science may
have a healing effect in a person's
brain and mind. Unfortunately, the
unconsensual abuse of many millions of
people will, I think, always leave an
unpleasant association with psychology.
If consensual only, clearly the
popularity of psychology would go down
as would the money earning potential of
those in psychology. People would still
seek consensual psychology or
psychiatric health services. I think it
very well may be that psychology falls
to be similar to seeing a psychic,
astrologer, tribal witchdoctor, or
herbologist, and so-called homeopathic
health. science. It seems clear that
psychology has found a space where
physiology does not accommodate - in
perceived problems where there is no
physical explanation or cause, or a
person simply wants to talk toa
somebody. Definitely there is a focus
on the science of the "mind" as
something different from anatomy or
physiology of the brain. in some sense
the mind, in a physical sense is how
the brain is wired - the connections
the owner of the brain makes. My own
feeling is that, with certainly, I will
never need and certainly never buy the
services of a person in psychology.
Then thinking beyond this, I don't
think there is anybody who really
should buy psychology services - but of
course, if consensual and it helps a
person according to their own view, I
see nothing wrong with that, and I
think it can be called science when
consent and is experimentally shown to
improve a person according to their own
view. Possibly psychology should be
defined only as "Science of the mind".
It is amazing how this science has been
used, I think, unlike any other science
to violate and torture people's bodies.
Perhaps because when the issue is the
mind, as opposed to the brain, a person
can question all the words and writings
of another person as being
unrepresentative of their "sane" mind
and so the wants of one person can
therefore be set aside and replaced by
the wants of a different person. It is
the total loss of a person's right to
decide for themselves, to own property,
to reject health care operations,
etc.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p371.
3. ^ "James, William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p458.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ William James, The Principles of
Psychology, Henry Holt and Company,
1890. Vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=_iW
Wn3YlfsoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0wxLx4OQe983tc3WyAJ3sl0 Vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=dJw
RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0wxLx4OQe983tc3WyAJ3sl0
6. ^ William James, The Principles of
Psychology, Henry Holt and Company,
1890. Vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=_iW
Wn3YlfsoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0wxLx4OQe983tc3WyAJ3sl0 Vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=dJw
RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0wxLx4OQe983tc3WyAJ3sl0
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p491.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p371.
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p410.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491. {1890}
17. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p371. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "James, William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043
314>.
[2] "William James." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-jam
es
[3] "William James." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 05 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-jam
es
[4] "William James." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 05 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-jam
es
[5] "William James". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jam
es
[6] "William James (Philosopher)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
James_(Philosopher)
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] William James (1906) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Wm_james.jpg
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 12 		3968)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p370.
2. ^ "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p370.
4. ^ Pickering, E. C., "The Draper
Catalogue of stellar spectra
photographed with the 8-inch Bache
telescope as a part of the Henry Draper
memorial", Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, vol. 27,
pp.1-388. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu//full/1890AnHar..27....1P/0000010.
000.html
5. ^ "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/
article-9066512>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Pickering, E. C., "The
Draper Catalogue of stellar spectra
photographed with the 8-inch Bache
telescope as a part of the Henry Draper
memorial", Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, vol. 27,
pp.1-388. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu//full/1890AnHar..27....1P/0000010.
000.html
8. ^ Pickering, E. C., "The Draper
Catalogue of stellar spectra
photographed with the 8-inch Bache
telescope as a part of the Henry Draper
memorial", Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, vol. 27,
pp.1-388. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu//full/1890AnHar..27....1P/0000010.
000.html
9. ^
http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pog
ge/Ast162/Unit1/sptypes.html
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Pickering, Edward
Charles", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p704.
12. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p370. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509
[2] "Pickering,
Edward Charles." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[6] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[8] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[9] Edward Charles Pickering,
"Compilation of the papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10] E.C. Pickering, "Statement of work
done at the Harvard observatory during
the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11] "meridian>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meridian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>
[12] "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>
[13] Pickering, Edward C.,
"Standard photographic magnitudes of
bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. : The
Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
[14] Robert Grant Aitken, "The Binary
Stars", D.C. McMurtrie, 1918, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0wZDA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA27&dq=pickering+1889+ ursa
e+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQ
SAyenyCw
[15] "A New Spectroscopic
Binary",Nature, 10/01/1896, p527.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AWgAB3t
JTyIC&pg=PA527&dq=pickering+1889+ursae+m
ajoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQSAy
enyCw
[16] E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
[17] "Mizar." A Dictionary of
Astronomy. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 25
Aug. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>
[18] "mizar>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "mizar." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 25 Aug.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
izar>
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA11  
[1] page 197 of 1890 Draper
catalog column Res: The residuals
found by subtracting the mean
photographic magnitude from the
observed brightness of each spectrum,
... column ''F.K.'' - the intensity
of the line K, wave-length 393.7, and
the presence or absence of the F line,
wave-length 486.1, are indicated in
this column. column ''End'': When the
spectrum contains the series of lines
due to hydrogen, the line of shortest
wave-length visible in each spectrum is
given in this column. Thus gamma
denotes the the line whose wave-length
is 379.8, is the last one visible, and
the spectrum is not distinct enough
beyond that to show the line delta,
whose wave length is 377.1. The three
letters correspond to the three numbers
in the second column. A comparison of
these letters with the numbers in the
third column serves to inficate the
color of the star. When the hydrogen
lines are not present, the last line
visible is ordinarily K in the case of
faint stars. For the brighter stars the
presence of lines of shorter
wave-length is indicated in the
remarks. column R: the last coluumn
refers to the remarks at the end of the
Catalogue. PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-build_image?bg=%23FFFFFF&
/seri/AnHar/0027/600/0000212.000&db_key=
AST&bits=4&res=100&filetype=.gif

[2] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 5 6 		4138)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
2. ^ "Halsted,
William Stewart." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536.
4. ^ "Halsted,
William Stewart." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
77-78. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Gale. University of California -
Irvine. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p535-536. {1890}
6. ^
"Halsted, William Stewart."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
976>. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Stewart Halsted."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/halsted-wil
liam-stewart
(Johns Hopkins Medical School)
Bartimore, Maryland, USA4  
[1] William Stewart Halsted, 1852-1922,
half-length portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/WilliamHalsted.jpg
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 12 13 		4166)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p543.
3. ^ "Thomson,
Elihu." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 23
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
201>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Patent 451,345, Method of
Electrical
Welding http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=ztdHAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p543.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Thomson, Elihu."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 23 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
201>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543. {1890}
13. ^ "Thomson,
Elihu." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 23
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
201>. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomson, Elihu." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 361-362. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 23 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[2] "Elihu Thomson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elihu_Thoms
on
[3] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp. 32-42.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227753?seq
=11
Lynn, Massachusetts, USA11  
[1] Image from Elihu Thomson's
Transformer patent 454,090 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=p11NAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA1&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] English: Portrait of Elihu
Thomson, apparently about 27 years old,
since born 1853, making this photo at
about 1880. Date ca 1880 Source
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectroch
emistry/thomson.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Elihu_thomson_ca1880.
png
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 4 		4169)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
2. ^ "Petrie, Sir
Flinders." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
3. ^ "Petrie, Sir Flinders."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
4. ^ "Petrie, Sir Flinders."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir (William Matthew)
Flinders Petrie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[2] "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[3] "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[4] "Petrie, (William Matthew)
Flinders." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 549-550.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[5] Sir William Matthew Flinders,
"Inductive metrology: or, the recovery
of ancient measures from the
monuments",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PzgGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Indu
ctive+Metrology,+or+the+Recovery+of+Anci
ent+Measures+from+the+Monuments#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
Tel Hasi, Palestine3  
[1] Sir William Matthew Flinders
Petrie, in Jerusalem (ca. late
1930's) * Adapted from
http://www.egyptorigins.org/petriepics.h
tml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/5d/WMFPetrie.jpg

[2] William Matthew Flinders Petrie
(1853-1942) PD
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/pyramidtravelers3-4.jpg
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 13 		4173)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
5. ^ "Hendrik
Lorentz." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik
Antoon." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Lorentz,
Hendrik Antoon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik
Antoon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[5] George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[6] H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative Motion
of the earth and the Ether", Konink.
Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
[7] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923
[8] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands12  
[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg


source:
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 12 		4200) In 1901 Behring wins the first
Nobel prize in physiology and
medicine.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p549-540.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p563.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p549-540.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p549-540.
5. ^ Behring,
Kitasato, “Über das Zustandekommen
der Diptherie-Immunität und der
Tatanus-immunität bei Thieren,” in
Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 16
(1890), 1113-1114.
6. ^ "Kitasato, Shibasaburo."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 391-393. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902322&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Emil Adolph von Behring."
Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol.
2. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2004.
122-123. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p549-540.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p549-540.
11. ^ "Emil
Adolph von Behring." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 2. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 122-123. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 22
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p549-540. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Behring, Emil von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
139>
[2] "Emil Adolf von Behring." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 22
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-adolf-
von-behring
[3] "Emil Adolf von Behring."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-adolf-
von-behring
[4] "Emil Adolf von Behring." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emil-adolf-
von-behring
[5] "Emil Adolf von Behring".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Adolf_
von_Behring
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1901/behring-bio.html
[7] "Kitasato Shibasaburo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>.
[8] "Shibasaburo Kitasato." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[9] "Shibasaburo Kitasato." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[10] "Shibasaburo Kitasato". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibasaburo
_Kitasato
[11] Shibasaburo Kitasato, “Über den
Rauschbrandnadbacillus und sein
Culturfahren,” Zeitschrift für
Hygience und Infektionskrankheiten, 6
(1889), 105-116;
[12] Shibasaburo Kitasato,
“Über dem Tetanusbacillus”,
Zeitschrift für Hygience und
Infektionskrankheiten, 7 (1889),
225-234;
(Robert Koch Institute of Hygiene)
Berlin, Germany11  
[1] Description E A
Behring.jpg Emil von Behring Date
Unknown Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B0144
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/E_A_Behring.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 24 		4241) Freud praises cocaine highly,
which supposedly contributes to a wave
of cocaine addiction in Europe.18
In
1886 Freud enters private practice as a
neurologist.19
In 1938 one month after
the Nazi occupation of Austria, the 82
year old Freud is taken to safety in
London where he will spend the last
year of his life, dying of cancer of
the jaw.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Freud, Sigmund." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 171-181. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Feb. 2010
12. ^
"Freud, Sigmund." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 5.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
171-181. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Feb. 2010
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p558-560.
21. ^ "Freud,
Sigmund." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 171-181.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17
Feb. 2010
22. ^ "Sigmund Freud."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sigmund-fre
ud
23. ^ "Sigmund Freud." International
Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2005. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sigmund-fre
ud
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p558-560. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Freud, Sigmund."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
419>
[2] "Sigmund Freud." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sigmund-fre
ud
[3] "Sigmund Freud". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Fre
ud
(private practice at the Vienna
Institute for Child Diseases and
teaching at the University of Vienna)
Vienna, Austria21 22 23
(presumably) 
[1] Description Sigmund Freud
LIFE.jpg Deutsch: Sigmund Freud,
Begründer der Psychoanalyse, raucht
eine Zigarre. English: Sigmund Freud,
founder of psychoanalysis, smoking
cigar. Español: Sigmund Freud,
fundador del psicoanálisis,
fumando. Date 1922[1] Source
LIFE magazine logo.PNG This image
comes from the Google-hosted LIFE Photo
Archive where it is available under the
filename e45a47b1b422cca3. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
the copyright section in the template
documentation for more
information. Author Max
Halberstadt[1] (1882-1940) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jp
g
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 7 8 		4293) Thomson founds a company that
merges with Edison's company to form
General Electric in 1892.4
By the end
of his life Thomson holds some 700
patents and has received many awards.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
2. ^ Charles
Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp. 32-42.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227753?seq
=11 {Maxwell_EM_before_Hertz_ISIS_1964.
pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
5. ^ "Thomson,
Elihu." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 23
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
201>.
6. ^ "Thomson, Elihu." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 23 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
201>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543. {1890}
8. ^ "Thomson,
Elihu." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 23
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
201>. {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomson, Elihu." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 361-362. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 23 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[2] "Elihu Thomson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elihu_Thoms
on
[3] Patent 451,345, Method of
Electrical
Welding http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=ztdHAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
Lynn, Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Image from Elihu Thomson's
Transformer patent 454,090 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=p11NAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA1&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] English: Portrait of Elihu
Thomson, apparently about 27 years old,
since born 1853, making this photo at
about 1880. Date ca 1880 Source
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectroch
emistry/thomson.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Elihu_thomson_ca1880.
png
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 7 		4487) In 1913 Werner wins the Nobel
prize in chemistry for his coordination
theory.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Werner, Alfred." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 264-272. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613.
6. ^ "Werner,
Alfred." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 264-272.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ “Über räumliche Anordnung der
Atome in stickstoffhaltigen
Molekülen,” in Berichte der
Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 23
(1890), 11–30, English trans, in G.
B. Kauffman, “Foundation of Nitrogen
Stereochemistry: Alfred Werner’s
Inaugural Dissertation,” in Journal
of Chemical Education, 43 (1966), 155 -
165 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed043p155 {Werner_Alfred_1890_cr.pdf}
{note: actual translation not there -
is an abstract}

MORE INFO
[1] "Werner, Alfred."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
564>.
[2] "Alfred Werner." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-wern
er
[3] "Alfred Werner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wern
er
(Polytechnikum) Zurich, Switzerland6
 
[1] Alfred Werner PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Alfred_Werner.jpg
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 6 		6020) (Achille-)Claude Debussy
(1862-1918), French composer, composes
"Clair de Lune" ("Moonlight", in "Suite
bergamasque", 1890–1905).1

The title refers to a folk song that
was the conventional accompaniment of
scenes of the love-sick Pierrot in the
French pantomime.2 The name comes from
Paul Verlaine's poem of the same name
which also refers to 'bergamasques' in
its opening stanza, and should not be
confused with "Au clair de la lune" a
traditional song and the first publicly
known recorded song.3 4 (verify)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claude Debussy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 21 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154804/Claude-Debussy>.
2. ^ "Claude Debussy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 21 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154804/Claude-Debussy>.
3. ^ "Clair de lune (Debussy)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clair_de_lu
ne_%28Debussy%29
4. ^ http://www.firstsounds.org/sounds/
5. ^ "Claude Debussy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154804/Claude-Debussy>.
6. ^ "Claude Debussy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 21 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154804/Claude-Debussy>. {1890-1905}
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: French
composer Claude Debussy (1862-1918) by
Marcel Baschet (1862-1941) Date
1884 Source Bibliothèque
nationale de France [1] Author
Marcel
Baschet Permission (Reusing this
file) PD: ''Copyright : domaine
public.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Claude_Debussy_by_Mar
cel_Baschet_1884.jpg
109 YBN
[01/15/1891 AD] 8 		4257)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ J. J. Thomson,
"On the Rate of Propagation of the
Luminous Discharge of Electricity
through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. January 1, 1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
3. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
4. ^ Record ID2899. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Record
ID2900. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ J. J.
Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of
the Luminous Discharge of Electricity
through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. January 1, 1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
8. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false {01/15/1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[5] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[7]
J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the
cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38, 1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[8] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England7
 
[1] Figure From On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas.'' By J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental
Physics, Cambridge. Received January 2,
1891. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22the+velocity
+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge
+through+gases+thomson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=o
nepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propag
ation%22%20of%20electric%20discharge%20t
hrough%20gases%20thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
109 YBN
[01/30/1891 AD] 4 		4186)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
2. ^ Mary Ellen
Jones, "Albrecht Kossel, A Biographical
Sketch", Yale J Biol Med. 1953
September; 26(1): 80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
3. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
4. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed {1893}
{01/30/1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[4] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ko
ssel
[5] "Kossel, Karl Martin Leonhard
Albrecht." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 466-468.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 2
Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3
 
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
109 YBN
[03/17/1891 AD] 16 17 18 19 		3610)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Henry B. O. Davis, "Electrical
and Electronic Technologies: A
Chronology of Events and Inventors to
1900",Scarecrow Press, 1981,
p162. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QlkIAAAAIAAJ&q=electricity+noah+amstutz&
dq=electricity+noah+amstutz&ei=vCDcSM39L
KDitQPG2-XeDg&pgis=1
2. ^
http://www.historyforsale.com/html/prode
tails.asp?documentid=190290&start=2&page
=33
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ American Journal of
Photography, Thos. H. McCollin & Co,
Jan 1892 p34 and Mar 1892 p118-122.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox8TAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=artograph+am
stutz&source=web&ots=n3PGhESSfZ&sig=1elq
51aJPeupDYdQ_Yle2dkf_gk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA118,M1
5. ^ American Journal of Photography,
Thos. H. McCollin & Co, Jan 1892 p34
and Mar 1892 p118-122.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox8TAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=artograph+am
stutz&source=web&ots=n3PGhESSfZ&sig=1elq
51aJPeupDYdQ_Yle2dkf_gk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA118,M1
6. ^ American Journal of Photography,
Thos. H. McCollin & Co, Jan 1892 p34
and Mar 1892 p118-122.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox8TAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=artograph+am
stutz&source=web&ots=n3PGhESSfZ&sig=1elq
51aJPeupDYdQ_Yle2dkf_gk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA118,M1
7. ^ Charles Henry Cochrane, "The
Wonders of Modern Mechanism: A Résumé
of Recent Progress in Mechanical,
Physical, and Engineering Science",
J.B. Lippincott company, 1895,
p177-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6SNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA179&dq=Amstutz+tel
egraph&ei=yfrbSPrZDpGssgPvwN3eDg#PPA178,
M1
8. ^ American Journal of Photography,
Thos. H. McCollin & Co, Jan 1892 p34
and Mar 1892 p118-122.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox8TAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=artograph+am
stutz&source=web&ots=n3PGhESSfZ&sig=1elq
51aJPeupDYdQ_Yle2dkf_gk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA118,M1
9. ^ Alfred Thomas Story, "The Story of
Photography", Appleton,
(1898,1902),1912, p143-148. 1904
edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=XtAXAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:06
0gbUgc3wU9NL&as_brr=1 1909 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=NcRHAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:06
0gbUgc3wU9NL&as_brr=1 1912 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=ofcWAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=Amstutz+telegraph&ei=y
frbSPrZDpGssgPvwN3eDg#PPA143,M1
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "aught." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
26 Sep. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ught>.
12. ^ Alfred Thomas Story, "The Story
of Photography", Appleton,
(1898,1902),1912, p143-148. 1904
edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=XtAXAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:06
0gbUgc3wU9NL&as_brr=1 1909 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=NcRHAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:06
0gbUgc3wU9NL&as_brr=1 1912 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=ofcWAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=Amstutz+telegraph&ei=y
frbSPrZDpGssgPvwN3eDg#PPA143,M1
13. ^
http://www.historyforsale.com/html/prode
tails.asp?documentid=190290&start=2&page
=33
14. ^ "THE AMSTUTZ ELECTRO-ARTOGRAPH."
Scientific American (1845-1908). New
York: Apr 6, 1895. Vol. Vol. LXXII.,
Iss. No. 14.; p. 215 (1
page). http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?
index=5&did=173205161&SrchMode=1&sid=1&F
mt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName
=HNP&TS=1222386980&clientId=48051 {Amst
utz_Noah_sciam_1895.pdf} {Amstutz_Noah_
sciam_2_1895.pdf}
15. ^ American Journal of Photography,
Thos. H. McCollin & Co, Jan 1892 p34
and Mar 1892 p118-122.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox8TAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=artograph+am
stutz&source=web&ots=n3PGhESSfZ&sig=1elq
51aJPeupDYdQ_Yle2dkf_gk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA118,M1
16. ^
http://histv2.free.fr/anthologie.htm
{03/17/1891}
17. ^
http://www.hffax.de/history/html/histori
cal.html {05/1891}
and text is here too:
http://www.oldandsold.com/articles16/pho
tography-16.shtml 18. ^
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel3/1150/528
0/00206264.pdf?isnumber=5280∏=&arnumbe
r=206264&arSt=80&ared=86&arAuthor=Burns%
2C+R.W. {1893}
19. ^ Alfred Thomas Story, "The
Story of Photography", Appleton,
(1898,1902),1912, p143-148. 1904
edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=XtAXAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:06
0gbUgc3wU9NL&as_brr=1 1909 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=NcRHAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:06
0gbUgc3wU9NL&as_brr=1 1912 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=ofcWAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=Amstutz+telegraph&ei=y
frbSPrZDpGssgPvwN3eDg#PPA143,M1 {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] AMSTUTZ, Noah W., "Visual
Telegraphy," Electricity, 6, Feb. 28,
1894, pp. 77-80. Voir également
Electricity, 6, March 14, 1894, pp.
110-11
[2] "Pictorial Telegraphy", The
Electrical Review, v29, Jul-Dec 1891,
p643-645. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oQwAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA647&dq=electricity
+noah+amstutz&ei=vCDcSM39LKDitQPG2-XeDg#
PPA643,M1
Cleveland, Ohio, USA15  
[1] It was not until May, 1891, that N.
S. Amstutz, of Valparaiso, Indiana,
sent a picture over telegraph wires
twenty-five miles in length,
accomplishing the first successful
transmission . PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/history/asse
ts/images/Amstutz.jpg

[2] [t Presumably N S Amstutz, what
must be print from ink on wax engraved
copy] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ofcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=Amstutz+telegr
aph&ei=yfrbSPrZDpGssgPvwN3eDg#PPA145,M1
109 YBN
[03/26/1891 AD] 15 16 17 		3522) After graduation from Trinity
College, Dublin, in 1848 Stoney works
as an assistant to the astronomer, Lord
Rosse, at his observatory at
Parsonstown until 1853 when Stony is
appointed professor of natural
philosophy at Queen's College,
Galway.11
In 1857-1893 Stoney becomes
secretary of the Queen’s University
in Dublin12 13 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ George Johnstone
Stoney, "On the Cause of Double Lines
and of Equidistant Satellites in the
Spectra of Gases", Trans. Royal Dublin
Society (1891), series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
4. ^ Proc. Brit. Ass.
(Belfast, August 1874), "On the
Physical Units of Nature,"
5. ^ "George
Johnstone Stoney." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/567387/George-Johnstone-Stoney>.
6. ^ George Johnstone Stoney, "On the
Cause of Double Lines and of
Equidistant Satellites in the Spectra
of Gases", Trans. Royal Dublin Society
(1891), series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ George Johnstone Stoney,
"On the Cause of Double Lines and of
Equidistant Satellites in the Spectra
of Gases", Trans. Royal Dublin Society
(1891), series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "George
Johnstone Stoney." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-john
stone-stoney
12. ^ "George Johnstone Stoney."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/567387/George-Johnstone-Stoney>.
13. ^ "Stoney, George Johnstone",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
14. ^ "Stoney,
George Johnstone", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
15. ^
George Johnstone Stoney, "On the Cause
of Double Lines and of Equidistant
Satellites in the Spectra of Gases",
Trans. Royal Dublin Society (1891),
series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df} {03/26/1891}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438. {1891}
17. ^ "Stoney,
George Johnstone", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
{1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Johnstone Stoney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_John
stone_Stoney
[2] "Electron". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electron

[3] G. Johnstone Stoney, "Of the
'Electron', or Atom of Electricity",
PT, v38, 1894,
p418-420. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0GyjU2FgHeVMhRr9iumi5pf&lr=&as_
brr=1#PPA418,M1 and
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Stoney-1894.html
(Queen's University) Dublin, Ireland14
 
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
109 YBN
[04/25/1891 AD] 12 		4247)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^ Tesla Patent
454622 files 04/25/1891 System of
Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
3. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
4. ^ Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
7. ^ Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
8. ^ Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
9. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Tesla Patent 454622
files 04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
12. ^ Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[6] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[7] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[9] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[11]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[12] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[13] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[14] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[15] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23, c.8
[16] New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
[17] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[18] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[19] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[20]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA11  
[1] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD

source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
109 YBN
[05/20/1891 AD] 26 27 		4018) Edison will greedily try to claim
priority on the process of
"cinematography", but loses in court
because of earlier patents by Le
Prince22 , and Friese-Greene23 .24
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "history of the
motion picture." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

7. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
8. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
9. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
10. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
11. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
12. ^ Edison's Patent, "Kinetographic
Camera", filed
08/24/1891. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=A6RoAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
13. ^ Edison's patent, "Apparatus
for-exhibiting Photographs of Moving
Objects.", filed
08/24/1891. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=rmF2AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
14. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ 1891 Dickson Greeting
movie http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV
intjK5lKU {Edison_Thomas_Dickson_Greeti
ng_4014a_1891.mpg}
17. ^ 1891 Dickson Greeting
movie http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV
intjK5lKU {Edison_Thomas_Dickson_Greeti
ng_4014a_1891.mpg}
18. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
19. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

20. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
http://www.nationalmediamuseum.org.uk/pd
fs/Pioneers%20of%20Early%20Cinema_1_LOUI
S%20AIM%C3%89%20AUGUSTIN%20LE%20PRINCE.p
df
23. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=vEAEAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=Friese-Greene&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
26. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html {05/20/1891}
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
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qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
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[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
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[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
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1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
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Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
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[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
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Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
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http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
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02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
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5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
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[30] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
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Sept. 2009
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218>
[31] Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p141. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
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[32]
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
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[33] "mains." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ains>
[34] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359
[35] Edison 1882 patent - I'm not sure
if this is first three-wire electrical
distribution
system http://www.google.com/patents?id
=9T1tAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=ininventor:edis
on&as_drrb_ap=b&as_minm_ap=0&as_miny_ap=
1881&as_maxm_ap=0&as_maxy_ap=1883&source
=gbs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[36] J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, Vol 42,
Num 254, July 1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
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brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[37] William Henry Preece, "On a
Peculiar Behaviour of Glow-Lamps when
raised to High Incandescence",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol 38, 1885,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nwMXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22on+a+peculia
r+behaviour+of+glow%22+date:1885-1885&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20peculiar%
20behaviour%20of%20glow%22%20date%3A1885
-1885&f=false
[38] Edison Patent
307031 http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&dq=307031
[39] Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[40] J. A. Fleming, "Problems in the
Physics of an Electric Lamp", Nature,
vol 42, Num 1078, 1890,
p198. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JDEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=edison+effect&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fa
lse
[41] John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
[42] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[43] Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[44] Edison Kinetoscope movie of "Fred
Ott's Sneeze" copyrighted
01/09/1894 http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=2wnOpDWSbyw
(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey,
USA25  
[1] Sheet of images from one of the
three Monkeyshines films (ca.
1889–90) produced as tests of an
early version of the
Kinetoscope Description
MonkeyshinesStrip.jpg Filmstrip of
one of the three Monkeyshines films
produced by Thomas Edison's laboratory
in 1889–90 for the early cylinder
version of the Kinetoscope PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/MonkeyshinesStrip.jpg


[2] Figure 1 from Edison's 08/24/1891
patent
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=A6RoAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
109 YBN
[11/??/1891 AD] 6 7 		4292)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p375.
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber
den Durchgang der Kathodenstrahlen
durch dünne Metallschichten", Annalen
der Physik Volume 281, Issue 1, Pages
28 -
32. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507480/abstract English
translation: "On the passage of cathode
rays through thin metal films".
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber den Durchgang der
Kathodenstrahlen durch dünne
Metallschichten", Annalen der
Physik Volume 281, Issue 1, Pages 28 -
32. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507480/abstract English
translation: "On the passage of cathode
rays through thin metal films".
6. ^ H. Hertz,
"Ueber den Durchgang der
Kathodenstrahlen durch dünne
Metallschichten", Annalen der
Physik Volume 281, Issue 1, Pages 28 -
32. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507480/abstract English
translation: "On the passage of cathode
rays through thin metal films".
{11/1891}
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p375. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>.
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[14] H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T
[15] H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[16] H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[17] H. Hertz, "Ueber electrodynamische
Wellen im Luftraume und deren
Reflexion", Annalen der Physik, Volume
270 (V. 34), Issue 8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[18] H. Hertz, "Die Kräfte
electrischer Schwingungen, behandelt
nach der Maxwell'schen Theorie",
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 Issue 1,
Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[19] H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[20] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams & Wilkens Co, 1928,
p364-365.
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany5
 
[1] Hertz, Heinrich. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 7
Apr. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
1218&rendTypeId=4

[2] Family Hertz with the sons (the
second from left is Heinrich) PD
source: http://www.ur5eaw.com/images/ham
_history/hertz/hertz_family.jpg
109 YBN
[12/10/1891 AD] 12 13 		3822)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ James Dewar, Letter to President,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 50, 1892,
p247,261. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P6gOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247
5. ^ James Dewar, Letter to President,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 50, 1892,
p247,261. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P6gOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247
6. ^ James Dewar, Humphrey Owen Jones,
"On the Magnetic Permeability of Liquid
Oxygen and Liquid Air",Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p283-296. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0l13v534qj1xlh23/?p=ba531079
cd7b47cb8cfa0c3795e1302aπ=4
7. ^ J. A. Fleming, James Dewar, "On
the Magnetic Susceptibility of Liquid
Oxygen", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63,
1898,p311-329. http://journals.royalsoc
iety.org/content/tj78766853212804/?p=1dd
cc31e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=38
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Videos of
magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
11. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
12. ^ James Dewar, Letter to President,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 50, 1892,
p247,261. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P6gOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247 {12/10/1891}
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[3] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[6]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[7] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[8] J. Norman Lockyer, "Note on a
Recent Communication by Messrs. Liveing
and Dewar", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 29, (1879), pp.
45-47.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113733?seq=1

[9] G. D. Liveing, J. Dewar,
"Investigations on the Spectrum of
Magnesium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 44, 1888,
p.241-252. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
pdfplus/114722.pdf
[10] J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches on
the Spectra of Meteorites. A Report to
the Solar Physics Committee",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 43, 1887,
p.117. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/0h52655555557735/
[11]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=James+Dewar&sortorder=a
sc&o=1
[12]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=J.+Dewar&sortorder=asc&
o=1
[13] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
(Royal Institution) London, England11
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD] 5 6 		3639)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p453-454.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Voit, Carl Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p453-454. {1891}
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p372. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl von Voit."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631930/Carl-von-Voit>.
[2] "Carl von Voit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Vo
it
[3] "Carl Von Voit" (obituary),
Science, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, HighWire Press,
JSTOR (Organization), Moses King, 1908,
n.s., v.27
(1908),p315-316. http://books.google.co
m/books?id=2JkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA315&dq=
Carl+von+Voit&ei=PBzlSIK4M5j4MOuUvQI#PRA
1-PA315,M1
[4] "metabolism." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metabolism
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp397-398.
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany4
 
[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 7 		3746)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p474.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p474.
3. ^ Waldeyer,
"Ueber einige neuere Forschungen im
Gebiete der Anatomie des
Centralnervensystems", Deutsche med.
Wochenschr., Leipzig and Berlin, 1891,
xvii, 1244; 1267; 1287; 1331; 1352.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
introduction to the history of
medicine", Saunders, 1914,
p471. http://books.google.com/books?id=
glY8SPSQWA4C&pg=PA471&dq=WilhelmWaldeyer
&ei=I2lYSdLDLZCIkAS17ZDCBg#PPA706,M1
6. ^
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per357
7. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
introduction to the history of
medicine", Saunders, 1914,
p471. http://books.google.com/books?id=
glY8SPSQWA4C&pg=PA471&dq=WilhelmWaldeyer
&ei=I2lYSdLDLZCIkAS17ZDCBg#PPA706,M1
{1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried
von Waldeyer-Hartz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wi
lhelm_Gottfried_von_Waldeyer-Hartz
[2] "Waldeyer-Hartz, Wilhelm Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p918
[3] Andreas
Winkelmann, "Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz
(1836-1921): An anatomist who left his
mark", Clinical Anatomy Volume 20
Issue 3,
p231-234. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/113445565/abstract
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany6
 
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz, German anatomist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Von-waldeyer-hartz.jpg

[2] Waldeyer-Hartz [Waldeyer], Wilhelm
von PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29768.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 5 		3832)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ George Downing
Liveing, James Dewar, "Collected Papers
on Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
3. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "On
the Influence of Pressure on The
Spectra of Flames", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 49, 1890/1891,
p217-225. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/y274610r733h2227/?p=3a8370da
6e6b41948727a2920a03a1c7π=0 Abstract
of paper read before Royal Society on
Feb 19, 1891, Chemical News,
1891 http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
JwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA35&dq=james+dewar+d
ate:1891-1892+oxygen+blue&ei=MttsSYnSIYP
IlQTdhZx0#PRA1-PA143,M1
4. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07fπ=27
5. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "On
the Influence of Pressure on The
Spectra of Flames", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 49, 1890/1891,
p217-225. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/y274610r733h2227/?p=3a8370da
6e6b41948727a2920a03a1c7π=0 Abstract
of paper read before Royal Society on
Feb 19, 1891, Chemical News,
1891 http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
JwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA35&dq=james+dewar+d
ate:1891-1892+oxygen+blue&ei=MttsSYnSIYP
IlQTdhZx0#PRA1-PA143,M1

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[4]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[5]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[6] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[7] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[8] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[9]
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>
[10] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[11] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p365
[12]
"Scientific Uses of Liquid Air",
description of James Dewar's
lecture. from: Railway Locomotives and
Cars, v.68, Simmons-Boardman Pub.
Corp., 1894,
p132-134. http://books.google.com/books
?id=C-s6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132&dq="On+the+sci
entific+uses+of+liquid+air"&lr=&ei=g_FnS
YOhB4bWlQS9xIHWCw#PPA132,M1
[13] J. D. Liveing, J. Dewar, "On the
Spectrum of Water. No. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 33, 1881/1882,
p274-276.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/920r8ww04087j465/?p=2098166d8a0f48fb8
e3b53267a261baeπ=35
[14] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar,
"Spectroscopic Studies on Gaseous
Explosions. No. I", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 36, 1883/1884,
p471-478. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/45845h5410l50412/?p=4ebf7fba
060a4b229786a9dac53f5b3bπ=47 http://jo
urnals.royalsociety.org/content/45845h54
10l50412/fulltext.pdf
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD] 2 		3918)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p500. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841-842.
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany1
 
[1] Description EStrasburger.jpg E
Strasburger Source The
Darwin-Wallace celebration held on
THURSDAY, IST JULY, 1908, BY THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON. �� Date
1908 (1908) Auteur Linnean
Society PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/EStrasburger.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 25 26 		3952) In 1908, Lippmann will win the
Nobel prize in physics for his method
of color photography.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
2. ^ "Gabriel
Lippmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
3. ^ "Lippmann, Gabriel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
6. ^ "Lippmann,
Gabriel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
7 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>.
7. ^ "Prof. G. Lippmann" (obituary),
Nature, Volume 107, August 18, 1921.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3-4RA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA788&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%
22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lip
pmann%22&f=false
8. ^ Alphonse Berget, "Photographie des
couleurs par la méthode
interférentielle de m. Lippman",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LA8aAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA48&dq=Lippmann+date:18
91-1891++la+reproduction#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
9. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 07
Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
en
en
12. ^ Alphonse Berget, "Photographie
des couleurs par la méthode
interférentielle de m. Lippman",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LA8aAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA48&dq=Lippmann+date:18
91-1891++la+reproduction#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
13. ^ Anthony's photographic bulletin,
Volume 22, 1891,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SpgPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA309&dq=Lippmann+date:1
891-1891&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Lippmann%2
0date%3A1891-1891&f=false
14. ^ Alphonse Berget, "Photographie
des couleurs par la méthode
interférentielle de m. Lippman",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LA8aAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA48&dq=Lippmann+date:18
91-1891++la+reproduction#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
15. ^ "Photography in Colours.",
Nature, Volume 44, p194.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2zEVAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA195&dq=Lippmann+date:1891-189
1++la+reproduction#v=onepage&q=&f=false
16. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
fr
17. ^ Lippmann, "Sur l'obtention de
photographies en valeurs justes par
l'emploi de verres colores", Comptes
Rendus,
1889. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i_gEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA222&dq=Lippmann+da
te:1889-1889+orthochromatique#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
24. ^ "Lippmann,
Gabriel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
7 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>.
25. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann {1891}
26. ^ "Lippmann, Gabriel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Lippmann."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[2] "Gabriel Jonas Lippmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jon
as_Lippmann
[3] "Photography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1908/lippmann-bio.html
[5] "Lippmann, Gabriel Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p547
[6]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/lippmann.html
[7] Gabriel Lippmann, "Beziehungen
zwischen den capillaren und
elektrischen Erscheinungen", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 225,
Issue 8, Date: 1873, Pages: 546-561.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
translated to English as: Gabrial
Lippmann, "Connexion between Capillary
and Electrical Phenomena.",
Philosophical magazine, Series 4,
Volume 47, Number 312, April
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-PEMTo6NkacC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Gabriel+Lipp
mann%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%
20Lippmann%22&f=false
[8] Wilson's photographic magazine,
Volume 28, 1891, p
463. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
7oaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA463&dq=Lippmann+date:18
91-1891&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Lippmann%20
date%3A1891-1891&f=false
[9] Comptes Rendus, Volume 112, Issues
1-13,
p275-277. http://books.google.com/books
?id=kVkDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA230&dq=Lippmann+da
te:1891-1891+intitle:sciences&lr=&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=Lippmann&f=false
[10]
Sur%20l%27obtention%20de%20photographies
%20en%20valeurs%20justes%20par%20l%27emp
loi%20de%0Averres%20colores
[11] M. G. Lippmann, "La photographie
des couleurs", Comptes Rendus, 1891,
p274. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visuali
seur?O=30000000030688 English summary
in: Nature, 02/12/1891,
p360. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-cIKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA391&dq=intitle:%22natu
re%22+date:1891-1891+february#v=onepage&
q=%20colours&f=false
University of Paris, Sorbonne
Laboratories of Physical Research,
Paris, France24  
[1] Nature morte, 1891-1899 [t more
precise date for photo? and show images
of first color photo by
Lippmann] Photographer: Gabriel
Lippmann (1845-1929) Source:
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/hist
ory/lippmann.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Lippmann_photo_flower
s.jpg

[2] Self-portrait, ca. 1892 PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_autoport.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 10 		3963)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Olszewski, Karol Stanislaw",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p661.
2. ^
"ebullition". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
bullition
3. ^ Olszewski, Reports of the Cracow
Academy, vol 23, p385. translated into
English from Polish in: "On the
Critical Pressure of Hydrogen",
Philosophical Magazine, series 5,
vol39, num 237, Feb 1895,
p199-203. http://books.google.com/books
?id=148OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA206&dq=intitle:phi
losophical+intitle:magazine+date:1894-18
96+pictet#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3Amagazine%20date%3A1894
-1896%20pictet&f=false
4. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane, "Liquid air
and the liquefaction of gases: a
practical work giving the entire",
p203-229. http://books.google.com/books
?id=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
Liquid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false {U
LSF: This gives a good summary of the
issues and publications.}
5. ^ Olszewski, Reports of
the Cracow Academy, vol 23,
p385. translated into English from
Polish in: "On the Critical Pressure
of Hydrogen", Philosophical Magazine,
series 5, vol39, num 237, Feb 1895,
p199-203. http://books.google.com/books
?id=148OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA206&dq=intitle:phi
losophical+intitle:magazine+date:1894-18
96+pictet#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3Amagazine%20date%3A1894
-1896%20pictet&f=false
6. ^ Olszewski, Reports of the Cracow
Academy, vol 23, p385. translated into
English from Polish in: "On the
Critical Pressure of Hydrogen",
Philosophical Magazine, series 5,
vol39, num 237, Feb 1895,
p199-203. http://books.google.com/books
?id=148OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA206&dq=intitle:phi
losophical+intitle:magazine+date:1894-18
96+pictet#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3Amagazine%20date%3A1894
-1896%20pictet&f=false
7. ^
http://www.poland.gov.pl/Karol,Olszewski
,and,Zygmunt,Wroblewski:,condensation,of
,oxygen,and,nitrogen,1987.html
8. ^
http://www.polradiologia.org/english/his
tory/histor3.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Olszewski, Reports of
the Cracow Academy, vol 23,
p385. translated into English from
Polish in: "On the Critical Pressure
of Hydrogen", Philosophical Magazine,
series 5, vol39, num 237, Feb 1895,
p199-203. http://books.google.com/books
?id=148OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA206&dq=intitle:phi
losophical+intitle:magazine+date:1894-18
96+pictet#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3Amagazine%20date%3A1894
-1896%20pictet&f=false {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] S. Wroblewski, Comptes
Rendus, Sept 28, 1885. (translated to
English): S. Wroblewski, "On the
Separation of Atmosopheric Air into Two
Different Liquids", Phil. Mag.,
http://books.google.com/books?id=bFUwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA463&dq=Wroblewski&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=Wroblewski&f=false
[2]
http://www.cm-uj.krakow.pl/radiologia/hi
storia_en.html
[3] "Olszewski, Karol Stanislaw",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p948.
[4] S. v.
Wroblewski.
[5] Professors Sigm. von Wroblewski and
K. Olszewski, Anzeiger der kaiserlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien,
1883, no. xi. pp. 91, 92. "On the
Liquefaction of Nitrogen and Carbonic
Oxide." http://books.google.com/books?i
d=Xk0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA75&dq=Wroblewski&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=Wroblewski&f=false
[6] Professors Sigm. von Wroblewski and
K. Olszewski, Anzeiger der kaiserlichen
Akademie der Wissenseliaften in Wien,
1883, no. ix. pp. 74, 75. translated
to English in Philosophical Magazine,
S. 5, Vol 16, Num 97, July 1883,
p75. Professors Sigm. von Wroblewski
and K. Olszewski, "On the Liquefaction
of Oxygen and the Congelation of Carbon
Disulphide and Alcohol."
Cracow Academy6 , Crakow7 , Austria8
(now Poland)9  
[1]
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Karol_Olszewski.jpg

[2] Karol Olszewski PD
source:
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 2 3 		3969) 1903 Pickering is the first to
publish a photographic map of the
entire sky.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509. {1891}
3. ^
"Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, Edward Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>
[2] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[6] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[8] "Pickering, Edward Charles",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p704
[9] Edward
Charles Pickering, "Compilation of the
papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10] E.C. Pickering, "Statement of work
done at the Harvard observatory during
the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11] "meridian>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meridian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>
[12] "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>
[13] Pickering, Edward C.,
"Standard photographic magnitudes of
bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. : The
Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
[14] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/
article-9066512>
[15] Robert Grant Aitken, "The Binary
Stars", D.C. McMurtrie, 1918, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0wZDA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA27&dq=pickering+1889+ ursa
e+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQ
SAyenyCw
[16] "A New Spectroscopic
Binary",Nature, 10/01/1896, p527.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AWgAB3t
JTyIC&pg=PA527&dq=pickering+1889+ursae+m
ajoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQSAy
enyCw
[17] E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
[18] "Mizar." A Dictionary of
Astronomy. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 25
Aug. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>
[19] "mizar>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "mizar." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 25 Aug.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
izar>
[20] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p370
Arequipa, Peru1  
[1] Title: 24'' Bruce dome, HCO
Arequipa, Peru Variant Title: 24 inch
Bruce dome, HCO Arequipa, Peru Item
Identifier: LS16 (Harvard College
Observatory Library accession
number) Work Type: lantern
slides Date: between 1890 and
1910 Dimensions: 9 x 11
cm. Associated Name: Harvard
College Observatory (n.d.), Cambridge,
Massachusetts Location: Subject:
Arequipa, Peru Topics:
observatories; domes Note:
General: Title from ms. caption on
label. Title in accompanying
documentation: 24'' dome, Arequipa,
Peru. Record Identifier:
olvwork420512 PD
source: http://ids.lib.harvard.edu/ids/v
iew/12348920?width=1200&height=978&html=
y

[2] Bruce Telescope (Ariquipo[t]) PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=GyUDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA510&dq=pickering+phot
ographic+plate+objective+prism&lr=&as_br
r=1#v=onepage&q=pickering%20photographic
%20plate%20objective%20prism&f=false
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 8 		3993)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p509.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p394.
4. ^ W. J. Pope,
"Obituary notice: Joseph Achille Le
Bel, 1847–1930", J. Chem. Soc., 1930,
2789 - 2791, DOI:
10.1039/JR9300002789 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/JR/article.asp?doi=
jr9300002789
5. ^ M. J.-A. Lebel, "Sur la
dissymétrie et la création du pouvoir
rotatoire dans les dérivés
alcooliques du chlorure d'ammonium;",
Comptes Rendus, 112, 1891, p
724. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualis
eur?O=30000000030688
6. ^ J. A. Le Bel, "Sur les relations
qui existent entre les formules
atomiques des corps organiques, et le
pouvoir rotatoire de leur
dissolutions", Bulletin de la Société
Chimique de France, Paris, 22:337
(1874) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7WNvFxwTvrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bul
letin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Chimique+d
e+France+date:1874-1875#v=onepage&q=bel&
f=false translated from French to
English: J. A. Bel, "On the relations
which exist between the atomic formulas
of organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions"
http://books.google.com/books?id=ja4RA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph+Ac
hille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {The_foundations_of_stereo_chemistry
.pdf}
7. ^ Hans Landolt, "The optical
rotating power of organic substances
and its practical
applications" http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=wj793naWJcsC&pg=RA1-PA47&dq=Sur+
les+relations+qui+existent+entre+les+for
mules+atomiques+des+corps+organiques,+et
+le+pouvoir+rotatoire+de+leurs+dissoluti
ons&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Sur%20les%2
0relations%20qui%20existent%20entre%20le
s%20formules%20atomiques%20des%20corps%2
0organiques%2C%20et%20le%20pouvoir%20rot
atoire%20de%20leurs%20dissolutions&f=fal
se
8. ^ M. J.-A. Lebel, "Sur la
dissymétrie et la création du pouvoir
rotatoire dans les dérivés
alcooliques du chlorure d'ammonium;",
Comptes Rendus, 112, 1891, p
724. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualis
eur?O=30000000030688

MORE INFO
[1] "Le Bel, Joseph-Achille."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
457>.
[2] "Joseph Achille Le Bel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-bel-jose
ph-achille
[3] "Joseph Achille Le Bel." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-bel-jose
ph-achille
[4] "Joseph Achille Le Bel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Achi
lle_Le_Bel
[5] "Le Bel, Joseph Achille", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p724-725.
[6] William Augustus Tilden,
"The progress of scientific chemistry
in our own times: with biographical
notices", 1913,
p260. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SWU6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA260&dq=Joseph+Achille+
Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Joseph%20Ach
ille%20Le%20Bel&f=false
[7] George Mann Richardson, "The
foundations of stereo chemistry:
memoirs by Pasteur, van't Hoff, Lebel
...", 1901, p
vi. http://books.google.com/books?id=ja
4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Joseph
+Achille+Le+Bel&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
(Ecole de Médecine5 ) Paris, France6 7
 
[1] Photo of Joseph Achille Le Bel PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Le_Bel.jpg

[2] ''Le Bel, Joseph-Achille.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 1 Sept. 2009 . COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
25194&rendTypeId=4
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 10 11 		4147)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
2. ^ "Hermann Emil
Fischer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
3. ^ "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
10. ^ "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer {1891}
11. ^ "Fischer, Emil
Hermann." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Herman
n_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren,
Polypeptide und Proteine, 1899–1906
(Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id
=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Prot
eine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Y
k&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA
8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe,
1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPy
TLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Würzburg ) Würzburg ,
Germany9  
[1] Description Hermann Emil
Fischer.jpg Hermann Emil
Fischer Date 1902(1902) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Hermann_Emil_Fischer.
jpg

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 6 		4171)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
2. ^ "Petrie, Sir
Flinders." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Petrie, Sir Flinders." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
6. ^
http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/amarna
/index.html {1891-1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir (William Matthew)
Flinders Petrie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[2] "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[3] "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[4] "Petrie, (William Matthew)
Flinders." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 549-550.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5] Sir William Matthew Flinders,
"Inductive metrology: or, the recovery
of ancient measures from the
monuments",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PzgGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Indu
ctive+Metrology,+or+the+Recovery+of+Anci
ent+Measures+from+the+Monuments#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
[6] "William Matthew Flinders Petrie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mat
thew_Flinders_Petrie
Tell El-Amarna, Egypt5  
[1] Art of Amarna on the Palace
Pavement COPYRIGHTED
source: Flinders Petrie, Seventy Years
in Archaeology, 1931.

[2] Sir William Matthew Flinders
Petrie, in Jerusalem (ca. late
1930's) * Adapted from
http://www.egyptorigins.org/petriepics.h
tml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/5d/WMFPetrie.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 17 18 19 		4239) In 1881, working for Edison,
Acheson, had installed the first
electric lights in Italy, Belgium, and
France.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "silicon carbide." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silicon-car
bide
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
3. ^ "Acheson, Edward
Goodrich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 17
Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
529>.
4. ^ Acheson, G. (1893) U.S. Patent
492,767 "Production of artificial
crystalline carbonaceous
material" http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=U152AAAAEBAJ&dq=492767
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
7. ^ "Acheson,
Edward Goodrich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
529>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
9. ^ "silicon
carbide." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silicon-car
bide
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"silicon carbide." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silicon-car
bide
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
"Acheson, Edward Goodrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
529>.
16. ^ Acheson, G. (1893) U.S. Patent
492,767 "Production of artificial
crystalline carbonaceous
material" http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=U152AAAAEBAJ&dq=492767
17. ^ "silicon carbide." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silicon-car
bide {1891}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558. {1891}
19. ^
Acheson, G. (1893) U.S. Patent 492,767
"Production of artificial crystalline
carbonaceous
material" http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=U152AAAAEBAJ&dq=492767
{patented:)05/10/1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Goodrich Acheson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Good
rich_Acheson
[2] Edward Goodrich Acheson, "A
pathfinder: discovery, invention and
industry: how the world came to have
...",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Le9IAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Edwa
rd+Goodrich+Acheson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[3] George Iles, "Autobiography: Men of
science",
1909. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tGUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=Edward+Goodrich
+Acheson&as_brr=1&cd=4#v=onepage&q=Edwar
d%20Goodrich%20Acheson&f=false
(Carborundum Company) Monongahedla
City, Pennsylvania, USA16  
[1] From Acheson's patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=U152AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Edward Acheson in his lab PD
presumably
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev4/ach_soubory/acheson_l
ab.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 6 		4242)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p560.
3. ^ "Peary,
Robert Edwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 18 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
888>.
4. ^ "Peary, Robert Edwin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
888>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p560. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert E. Peary."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
[2] "Robert E. Peary." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
[3] "Robert Edwin Peary". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Edwi
n_Peary
[4] "Robert Edwin Peary." Science and
Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 5: 1800 to 1899. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 97. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 18 Feb. 2010.
Greenland5  
[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
. 04/1909 PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg

[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 8 9 		4417)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
3. ^ "Wolf,
Max." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Wolf, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595. {1891}
9. ^
"Wolf, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolf, Maximilian Franz
Joseph Cornelius." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 14.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
481-482. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Max Wolf". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Wolf
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany7  
[1] Description Max
Wolf.jpg Maximilian Franz Joseph
Cornelius Wolf (June 21, 1863–October
3, 1932), German astronomer Date
Source Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte,
Berlin http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9077333/Max-Wolf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Max_Wolf.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 4 		4488)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613.
2. ^ "Werner,
Alfred." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 264-272.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Werner, Alfred." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 264-272. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ “Beiträge zur Theorie der
Affinität und Valenz,” in
Vierteljahrsschrift der
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Zürich, 36 (1891). 129–169,
discussed in G. B. Kauffman, “Alfred
Werner’s Habilitationsschrift,” in
Chymia. 12 (1967), 183–187, English
trans. in G. B. Kauffman.
“Contributions to the Theory of
Affinity and Valence,” Journal of
Chemical Education, 43 (1966),
189–216.

MORE INFO
[1] "Werner, Alfred."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
564>.
[2] "Alfred Werner." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-wern
er
[3] "Alfred Werner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wern
er
[4] “Über räumliche Anordnung der
Atome in stickstoffhaltigen
Molekülen,” in Berichte der
Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 23
(1890), 11–30, English trans, in G.
B. Kauffman, “Foundation of Nitrogen
Stereochemistry: Alfred Werner’s
Inaugural Dissertation,” in Journal
of Chemical Education, 43 (1966), 155 -
165 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed043p155
(Polytechnikum) Zurich, Switzerland3
 
[1] Alfred Werner PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Alfred_Werner.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 4 		6030)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Juventino Rosas." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1310835/Juventino-Rosas>.
2. ^ "Juventino Rosas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juventino_R
osas
3. ^ "Juventino Rosas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juventino_R
osas
4. ^ "Juventino Rosas." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1310835/Juventino-Rosas>. {1891}
Michoacán, Mexico3 (verify) 
[1] Juventino Rosas 1894 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/00-deckblatt2.jpg
108 YBN
[05/??/1892 AD] 5 		3624)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902,
p161-176. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA171,M1 ALSO AT
http://earlyradiohistory.us/1901fa22.htm

3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902,
p161-176. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA171,M1 ALSO AT
http://earlyradiohistory.us/1901fa22.htm

4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902,
p161-176. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA171,M1 ALSO AT
http://earlyradiohistory.us/1901fa22.htm

5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902,
p161-176. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA171,M1 ALSO AT
http://earlyradiohistory.us/1901fa22.htm
{05/1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willoughby Smith".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willoughby_
Smith
[2] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
[3] "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6102>.
[4]
http://www.geocities.com/neveyaakov/elec
tro_science/smith.html
[5]
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/SMITH_BIO.htm
l
[6] Willoughby Smith, "Effect of Light
on Selenium During the Passage of An
Electric Current", Nature, Volume 7,
Number 173, p303. (Communicated to the
Society of Telegraph Engineers,
February 12, by Mr. Latimer Clark, from
Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician to
the Telegraph Construction Company.)
(Needles Lighthouse) Alum Bay 
[1] [t ''wireless'' telegraph signal
sent using water as an electrical
conductor.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA171,M1

[2] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg
108 YBN
[05/??/1892 AD] 5 		4399)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
2. ^ Philipp Lenard,
"Ueber die Electricität der
Wasserfälle", Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 282, Issue 8, Date:
1892, Pages:
584-636 {Lenard_Philipp_waterfall_elect
rifies_air_190205xx.pdf}
3. ^ Nature, Volume 46, May, 1895,
p67. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
EM5vOAfhM8C&pg=RA1-PA67&dq=Lenard&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1892&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1892&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=Lenard&f=false
4. ^ Philipp Lenard, "Ueber die
Electricität der Wasserfälle",
Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Volume
282, Issue 8, Date: 1892, Pages:
584-636 {Lenard_Philipp_waterfall_elect
rifies_air_190205xx.pdf}
5. ^ Philipp Lenard, "Ueber die
Electricität der Wasserfälle",
Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Volume
282, Issue 8, Date: 1892, Pages:
584-636 {Lenard_Philipp_waterfall_elect
rifies_air_190205xx.pdf} {05/1892}

MORE INFO
[1] Joseph F. Mulligan, "Heinrich
Hertz and Philipp Lenard: Two
Distinguished Physicists, Two Disparate
Men", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/ey675vh58f3p0965/
[2] "Lenard, Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
736>
[3] "Philipp Lenard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[4] "Philipp Lenard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[5] "Philipp Lenard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Len
ard
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany4
 
[1] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
108 YBN
[07/??/1892 AD] 6 7 		4363)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582.
2. ^ "Haffkine,
Waldemar Mordecai Wolfe." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 11-13. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901810&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582.
5. ^ "Haffkine,
Waldemar Mordecai Wolfe." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 11-13. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901810&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai
Wolfe." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 11-13.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901810&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {07/1892}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p582. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Waldemar Mordecai Wolff
Haffkine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldemar_Mo
rdecai_Wolff_Haffkine
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France5
 
[1] Waldemar Haffkine
(1860-1930) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/haf.jpg
108 YBN
[08/17/1892 AD] 3 		6259)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "zipper." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/zipper
2. ^ WHITCOMB L. JUDSON,
"SHOE-FASTENING", Patent number:
504037, Filing date: Aug 17, 1892,
Issue date: Aug 29,
1893 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
tVHAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ WHITCOMB L. JUDSON,
"SHOE-FASTENING", Patent number:
504037, Filing date: Aug 17, 1892,
Issue date: Aug 29,
1893 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
tVHAAAAEBAJ {08/17/1892}
Chicago, Illinois, USA2  
[1] Figure from: WHITCOMB L. JUDSON,
''SHOE-FASTENING'', Patent number:
504037, Filing date: Aug 17, 1892,
Issue date: Aug 29,
1893 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
tVHAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CtVHAAAAEBAJ
108 YBN
[08/??/1892 AD] 14 		3834)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ George Downing
Liveing, James Dewar, "Collected Papers
on Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
3. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "The
Absorption-spectrum, Luminous and
Ultra-violet, of large masses of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, s5,
v34, 1892,
p205-209. http://books.google.com/books
?id=IlIwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA205&dq=dewar+date:
1892-1892+oxygen+intitle:philosophical&a
s_brr=1&ei=HAZtSezKAo_GlQTdysXJCw#PPA205
,M1
4. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "The
Absorption-spectrum, Luminous and
Ultra-violet, of large masses of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, s5,
v34, 1892,
p205-209. http://books.google.com/books
?id=IlIwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA205&dq=dewar+date:
1892-1892+oxygen+intitle:philosophical&a
s_brr=1&ei=HAZtSezKAo_GlQTdysXJCw#PPA205
,M1
5. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "On
the Spectrum of Liquid Oxygen, and on
the Refractive Indices of Liquid
Oxygen, Nitrous Oxide, and Ethylene",
Philosophical Magazine, s5, v36, 1893,
p328-331. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DFMwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR7-IA1&dq=dewar+dat
e:1893-1893&ei=SAVtSba_HIXMkwSLsPD4CQ#PP
A328,M1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ James Dewar, J. A.
Fleming, "On the Changes Produced in
Magnetised Iron and Steels by Cooling
to the Temperature of Liquid Air",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905)", Volume 60,
1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07fπ=27
14. ^ G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "The
Absorption-spectrum, Luminous and
Ultra-violet, of large masses of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, s5,
v34, 1892,
p205-209. http://books.google.com/books
?id=IlIwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA205&dq=dewar+date:
1892-1892+oxygen+intitle:philosophical&a
s_brr=1&ei=HAZtSezKAo_GlQTdysXJCw#PPA205
,M1 {08/1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[4]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[5]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[6] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[7] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[8] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[9]
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>
[10] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[11] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p365
[12]
"Scientific Uses of Liquid Air",
description of James Dewar's
lecture. from: Railway Locomotives and
Cars, v.68, Simmons-Boardman Pub.
Corp., 1894,
p132-134. http://books.google.com/books
?id=C-s6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132&dq="On+the+sci
entific+uses+of+liquid+air"&lr=&ei=g_FnS
YOhB4bWlQS9xIHWCw#PPA132,M1
[13] J. D. Liveing, J. Dewar, "On the
Spectrum of Water. No. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 33, 1881/1882,
p274-276.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/920r8ww04087j465/?p=2098166d8a0f48fb8
e3b53267a261baeπ=35
[14] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar,
"Spectroscopic Studies on Gaseous
Explosions. No. I", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 36, 1883/1884,
p471-478. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/45845h5410l50412/?p=4ebf7fba
060a4b229786a9dac53f5b3bπ=47 http://jo
urnals.royalsociety.org/content/45845h54
10l50412/fulltext.pdf
[15] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "On
the Influence of Pressure on The
Spectra of Flames", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 49, 1890/1891,
p217-225. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/y274610r733h2227/?p=3a8370da
6e6b41948727a2920a03a1c7π=0 Abstract
of paper read before Royal Society on
Feb 19, 1891, Chemical News,
1891 http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
JwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA35&dq=james+dewar+d
ate:1891-1892+oxygen+blue&ei=MttsSYnSIYP
IlQTdhZx0#PRA1-PA143,M1
[16] G. D. Liveing, James Dewar, "The
Absorption-spectrum, Luminous and
Ultra-violet, of large masses of
Oxygen.", Philosophical Magazine, s5,
v26, 1888,
p286-290. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Jk8wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=dewar+date:
1888-1888+oxygen+intitle:philosophical&a
s_brr=1&ei=MAhtSajXOZHGlQTn7pmbDQ#PPA286
,M1
(Royal Institution) London, England13
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

108 YBN
[09/03/1892 AD] 15 16 17 		4316) In 1889 Barnard begins to
photograph the Milky Way with
large-aperture lenses, revealing much
new detail.7

In the 1890s Barnard sees craters on
Mars, when the sun is in a good
position to cast shadows on Mars, but
does not publish thinking it could be
an illusion, but his observation is
correct.8 9

In the course of his life, Barnard
discovers 16 comets.10

Barnard and Hale are the first to
realize that the dark patches in the
Milky Way are clouds of obscuring gas
and dust.11 (but what specifically are
they composed of? Hydrogen and Helium?
perhaps ice chunks of water and other
molecules?12 ) (chronology13 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Barnard, Edward Emerson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
2. ^ Barnard, E. E., "The period of
the fifth satellite of Jupiter",
Astronomical Journal, vol. 13, iss.
304, p. 141-142
(1893). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1893AJ.....13..141B
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p569.
4. ^ "Barnard, Edward
Emerson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Barnard, Edward
Emerson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
7. ^ "Barnard, Edward Emerson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
8. ^ "Barnard, Edward Emerson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p569.
10. ^ "Barnard,
Edward Emerson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p569.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Barnard, Edward Emerson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
15. ^ Barnard, E. E., "The period of
the fifth satellite of Jupiter",
Astronomical Journal, vol. 13, iss.
304, p. 141-142
(1893). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1893AJ.....13..141B {09/03/1892}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p569. {1892}
17. ^
"Barnard, Edward Emerson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Emerson Barnard." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-emer
son-barnard
[2] "Edward Emerson Barnard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-emer
son-barnard
[3] "Edward Emerson Barnard." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-emer
son-barnard
[4] "Barnard, Edward Emerson." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 463-467. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900271&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Edward Emerson Barnard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Emer
son_Barnard
[6]
http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/specco
l/exhibits/barnard/barnarde.shtml
(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton,
California, USA14  
[1] Jupiter's moon Amalthea
photographed by Galileo.jpg Courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/policy/
index.cfm Jupiter's moon Amalthea,
photographed by Galileo. Date
2004-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Curps at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-LAYOUT; PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Jupiter%27s_moon_Amal
thea_photographed_by_Galileo.jpg

[2] Edward Emerson Barnard Photo from
Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick
Observatory 16 December 1857 1917
Bruce Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Barnard/barnard.jpg
108 YBN
[12/??/1892 AD] 7 		4140)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p536-537.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p536-537.
3. ^ "Moissan,
Ferdinand-Frédéric-Henri." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 450-452. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p536-537.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Moissan, Ferdinand-Frédéric-Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 450-452. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ "Moissan,
Ferdinand-Frédéric-Henri." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 450-452. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {12/1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Moissan, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
209>.
[2] "Ferdinand Frédéric Henri
Moissan." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-f
r-d-ric-henri-moissan
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1906/moissan-bio.html
[4] H. Moissan (1886). "Action d'un
courant électrique sur l'acide
fluorhydrique anhydre". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 102:
1543–1544.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
58f/f1541.chemindefer.
[5] H. Moissan (1886). "Sur la
décomposition de l'acide fluorhydrique
par un courant électrique". Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 103: 202.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
59r/f204.table.
[6] "fluorine." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fluorine
(Academy of Sciences) Paris, France6
 
[1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD
source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p
ortrait01/Moissan.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 7 		3623) Preece attended graduate studies
at the Royal Institution of Great
Britain, London, under Michael
Faraday.4
Preece encourages Guglielmo
Marconi by obtaining assistance from
the Post Office in furthering
Marconi’s work. Preece also
introduces into Great Britain the first
telephones, patented by Alexander
Graham Bell.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir William Henry Preece."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474588/Sir-William-Henry-Preece>.
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902,
p158. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPA158,M1
3. ^ "Sir William Henry Preece."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474588/Sir-William-Henry-Preece>.
4. ^ "Sir William Henry Preece."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474588/Sir-William-Henry-Preece>.
5. ^ "Sir William Henry Preece."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474588/Sir-William-Henry-Preece>.
6. ^ "Sir William Henry Preece."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474588/Sir-William-Henry-Preece>.
7. ^ "Sir William Henry Preece."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474588/Sir-William-Henry-Preece>.
{1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Preece". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pre
ece
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] This is William Henry Preece, from
Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 60. The
photograph is reprinted courtesy of the
IEEE in London (as stated in the
credits in the back of the book, p.
318), but its age implies that it's
public domain. (It must have been made
in 1913 or earlier.) It was scanned on
an Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f1/William_Henry_Preece.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 11 12 		3700)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
2. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
hl=en#de
3. ^ "August Weismann". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/August_W
eismann
4. ^ "August Weismann." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p928.
11. ^
"Weismann, August Friedrich Leopold",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p928.
{18851892}
12. ^ "Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p928.
{18851892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Weismann, August (Friedrich
Leopold)." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
462>.
[2] "August Weismann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
[3] "August Friedrich Leopold
Weismann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Frie
drich_Leopold_Weismann
[4]
Das%20Keimplasma.%20Eine%20Theorie%20der
%20Vererbung
[5]
http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.ht
m
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany10  
[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 8 9 10 11 12 13 		3823)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Dewar, Sir James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1892}
9. ^ "Sir
James Dewar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar {1892}
10. ^ "Dewar, James", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p248. {1892}
11. ^ "Dewar, Sir James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>. {1892}
12. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
 {1872}
13. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p365. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[4] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[5]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[6]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[7] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
(Royal Institution) London, England7
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD] 12 		3867)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
2. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p373.
4. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html
5. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
6. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
7. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Camillo
Golgi." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
11. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p373. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Camillo Golgi." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
[2] "Golgi, Camillo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p364
[3] "Camillo Golgi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Gol
gi
[4] "Muscle And Nerve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Muscle_A
nd_Nerve
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
[6] Camillo Golgi, "Opera omnia" "Vol.
I. Istologia normale, (1870-83), Vol.
II. Istologia normale, (1883-1902),
Vol. III. Patologia generale e
Isto-patologia, (1868-94)", Ulrico
Hoepli, 1903
[7] Umberto Muscatello,
"Golgi's Contribution To Medicine",
Brain Research Reviews, Volume 55,
Issue 1, August 2007, Pages 3-7.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6SYS-4NCR90H-1&_user
=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d
&view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_url
Version=0&_userid=4422&md5=e97a25995f5e2
9bde47e6e6cba96d50b
(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy10 11
 
[1] A typical rosette-shape of the
malarian parasite on the top, among red
blood cells. Photograph of an original
Golgi preparation preserved at the
Museum for the History of the
University of Pavia. PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/11.jpg


[2] The figure shows an original
micro-photogram, made by Golgi, of a
blood preparation from a patient
suffering from malaria. PD
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6SYS-4NCR90H-1&_image=B6SYS-4NCR
90H-1-6&_ba=&_user=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=ful
l&_orig=search&_cdi=4842&view=c&_isHiQua
l=Y&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVers
ion=0&_userid=4422&md5=08a8259faa5249cb5
ef439cf1852c67e
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 6 		3932)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501-502.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p373.
3. ^ "Georg Cantor." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Georg Cantor." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p373. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cantor, Georg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
[2] "Georg Cantor." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
[3] "Georg Cantor." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
[4] "Georg Cantor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Canto
r
[5] "Cantor, Georg", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p164-165.
[6] Georg Cantor, "Uber eine
Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller
reellen algebraischen Zahlen", Journal
für die reine und angewandte
Mathematik [0075-4102] Cantor (1874)
volume: 77 page:
258. http://books.google.com/books?id=V
tUGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA258&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+E
igenschaft+des+Inbegriffes+aller+reellen
+algebraischen+Zahlen+date:1874-1874&as_
brr=1&ei=KYDDSZqcFY6QkASH1pCCDg
[7] "set theory." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
532>.
(University of Halle) Halle, Germany5
 
[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 14 		3933)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501-502.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p387.
3. ^ Georg Cantor,
Philip Edward Bertrand Jourdain,
"Contributions to the founding of the
theory of transfinite numbers", The
Open Court Publishing Company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mmoGAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cont
ributions+to+the+Founding+of+the+Theory+
of+Transfinite+Numbers&ei=IYvDScbwEaSOkQ
SYvLiFDg
4. ^ "Cantor, Georg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
5. ^ "Cantor, Georg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
082>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Cantor, Georg", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p164-165.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Cantor, Georg",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p164-165.
10. ^ "Georg
Cantor." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Georg
Cantor." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
14. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p387. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Cantor." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
[2] "Georg Cantor." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-canto
r
[3] "Georg Cantor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Canto
r
[4] Georg Cantor, "Uber eine
Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller
reellen algebraischen Zahlen", Journal
für die reine und angewandte
Mathematik [0075-4102] Cantor (1874)
volume: 77 page:
258. http://books.google.com/books?id=V
tUGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA258&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+E
igenschaft+des+Inbegriffes+aller+reellen
+algebraischen+Zahlen+date:1874-1874&as_
brr=1&ei=KYDDSZqcFY6QkASH1pCCDg
[5] "set theory." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
532>.
[6] "transfinite number." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
196>.
(University of Halle) Halle, Germany13
 
[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 32 		4174)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
2. ^ H. A. Lorentz,
"The Relative Motion of the earth and
the Ether", Konink. Akademie van
Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Verslagen
van der gewone Vergaderingen der Wis-
en Natuurkundige Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74
ff; also in H. A. Lorentz, Collected
Papers (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff,
1937), vol 4., pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
{Lorentz_Hendrik_1892.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ George FitzGerald, "The
Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere.",
Science, Vol 13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
5. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the earth and the Ether",
Konink. Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
{Lorentz_Hendrik_1892.pdf}
6. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923.
{Principle_of_Relativity_1923.pdf}
7. ^ Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf {FitzGerald_George_con
traction_ISIS_1966.pdf}
8. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
9. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the earth and the Ether",
Konink. Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
{Lorentz_Hendrik_1892.pdf}
10. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923.
{Principle_of_Relativity_1923.pdf}
11. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the earth and the Ether",
Konink. Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
{Lorentz_Hendrik_1892.pdf}
12. ^ Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
13. ^ Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
14. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Janssen, Michel and A.
J. Kox. "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ H. A.
Lorentz, "The Relative Motion of the
earth and the Ether", Konink. Akademie
van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam,
Verslagen van der gewone Vergaderingen
der Wis- en Natuurkundige Afdeeling,
1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A. Lorentz,
Collected Papers (The Hague: Martinus
Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4., pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
{Lorentz_Hendrik_1892.pdf}
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Record ID4177.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Théorie
simplified des phénomenes électriques
et optiques dans des corps en
mouvement.", Traduit de Versl. K. Akad.
Wetensch. Amsterdam 7, 507,
1899. "Simplified Theory of Electrical
and Optical Phenomena in Moving
Systems", Proceedings of the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences, 1899 1:
427–442. http://www.historyofscience.
nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=209&view=imag
e&startrow=1 http://en.wikisource.org/w
iki/Simplified_Theory_of_Electrical_and_
Optical_Phenomena_in_Moving_Systems {Lo
rentz_1899_1904_Einstein.pdf}
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik
Antoon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
32. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the earth and the Ether",
Konink. Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
{Lorentz_Hendrik_1892.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands31  
[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg


source:
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 8 9 		4236)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557.
2. ^ E. F. Armstrong,
"Charles Frederick Cross. 1855-1935",
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Dec.,
1935), pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
{Cross_Charles_obit_1935.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p557.
5. ^ E. F.
Armstrong, "Charles Frederick Cross.
1855-1935", Obituary Notices of Fellows
of the Royal Society, Vol. 1, No. 4
(Dec., 1935), pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
{Cross_Charles_obit_1935.pdf}
6. ^ E. F. Armstrong, "Charles
Frederick Cross. 1855-1935", Obituary
Notices of Fellows of the Royal
Society, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Dec., 1935),
pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
{Cross_Charles_obit_1935.pdf}
7. ^ E. F. Armstrong, "Charles
Frederick Cross. 1855-1935", Obituary
Notices of Fellows of the Royal
Society, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Dec., 1935),
pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
{Cross_Charles_obit_1935.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557. {1892}
9. ^ E. F.
Armstrong, "Charles Frederick Cross.
1855-1935", Obituary Notices of Fellows
of the Royal Society, Vol. 1, No. 4
(Dec., 1935), pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
{Cross_Charles_obit_1935.pdf} {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Frederick Cross".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fre
derick_Cross
[2] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan, J. F. Briggs, "A text-book
of paper-making", Edition: 4 - 1916 -
507
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=mqRAAAAAIAAJ&dq=Charles+Frederick+Cross
&as_brr=1&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[3] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan , "Researches on
cellulose" Volume I
(1895-1900) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=jYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e Volume II
(1900-1905) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=zYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=7#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume III
(1905-1910) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=MZ49AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=8#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume IV
(1910-1921) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_J09AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=6#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Cross and Bevan's private business)
New Court, Lincoln's Inn, England7
 
[1] Charles Frederick
Cross COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/768976.pdf
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 4 		4306)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
2. ^ "Tsiolkovsky,
Konstantin Eduardovich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 482-484. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky {1897} {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>
Kaluga, Russia3 (presumably) 
[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 10 		4310) In 1920 Sharrington is President
of the Royal Society.4
Sherrington
publishes text-books and papers on
neurophysiology.5
In 1932 Sharrington
with Edgar Adrian, win the Nobel Prize
in medicine and physiology.6 7
Sherringt
on lives to 95.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
2. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
5. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
7. ^ "Sherrington,
Sir Charles Scott." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
325>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
9. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ "Sherrington, Charles Scott."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Scott Sherrington."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[2] "Charles Scott Sherrington."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
(Brown Institution Animal Hospital)
London, England9  
[1] Charles Scott Sherrington Source :
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy of
the National Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg

[2] Plan of lumbar plexus from Gray's
anatomy. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Gray822.png
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 18 19 		4326) Diesel is a pacifist and
internationalist.12
Diesel is funded by
a St. Louis brewer and the first diesel
engine is built in the United States.13

In 1913 Diesel disappears from the deck
of the mail steamer "Dresen" while on
the way to London and is presumed to
have drowned.14 15 Perhaps neuron
writing - one of the list of millions
and millions of neuron writing victims
- the murderers probably never punished
or even seen by the public.16
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571.
2. ^ U.S. Patent
0,542,846 http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=oV5wAAAAEBAJ&dq=542846
3. ^ U.S. Patent
0,608,845 http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=vQVgAAAAEBAJ&dq=608845
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571.
9. ^ "Diesel,
Rudolf." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 12
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
393>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p571.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571.
14. ^ "Diesel,
Rudolf." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 12
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
393>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
"Diesel, Rudolf." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
393>.
18. ^ "Diesel, Rudolf." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
393>. {1892}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Diesel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-dies
el
[2] "Rudolf Diesel." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 5.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 7. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404701782&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Rudolf Diesel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Dies
el
(Carle von Linde firm) Berlin,
Germany17  
[1] figure from U.S. Patent
0,542,846 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=oV5wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Diesel
1883.jpg English: Rudolf Diesel,
inventor of the diesel engine Deutsch:
Rudolf Diesel, Erfinder des
Dieselmotors PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Diesel_1883.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 4 		4360)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581.
2. ^ "Smith,
Theobald." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 24
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
301>.
3. ^ "Smith, Theobald." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 24 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
301>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Theobald Smith." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theobald-sm
ith
[2] "Smith, Theobald." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 480-486. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904058&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Theobald Smith". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theobald_Sm
ith
(Columbian University, now George
Washington University), Washington,
D.C, USA3  
[1] Theobald Smith from
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Theobald_Smith.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 8 		4397)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Lenard, Philipp." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Lenard,
Philipp." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 180-183.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] Joseph F. Mulligan, "Heinrich
Hertz and Philipp Lenard: Two
Distinguished Physicists, Two Disparate
Men", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/ey675vh58f3p0965/
[2] "Lenard, Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
736>
[3] "Philipp Lenard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[4] "Philipp Lenard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[5] "Philipp Lenard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Len
ard
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany7  
[1] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 7 		4446)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p602.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p602.
3. ^ Dmitri
Ivanovsky, "O dvukh boleznyakh tabaka"
("On Two Diseases of Tabacco";St.
Petersburg, 1892)
4. ^ "Ivanovsky, Dmitri
Iosifovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 34-36.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902145&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Dmitri Ivanovsky, "O
dvukh boleznyakh tabaka" ("On Two
Diseases of Tabacco";St. Petersburg,
1892)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p602. {1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ivanovsky, Dmitry
Iosifovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 23
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043
075>
[2] "Dmitri Iosifovich Ivanovsky." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-iosi
fovich-ivanovsky
[3] "Dmitry Ivanovsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Ivan
ovsky
(St. Petersburg University) Saint
Petersburg, Russia6  
[1] Dmitry Ivanovsky (1864-1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/26/Ivanovsky.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 3 		6012)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
2. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
3. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585008/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky>.
{1892}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Tchaikovsky." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-ilyic
h-tchaikovsky
[2] "List of compositions by Pyotr
Ilyich Tchaikovsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_com
positions_by_Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky
[3] Lax, Roger; Frederick Smith (1989).
The Great Song Thesaurus. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. p. 230. ISBN
978-0-19-505408-8.
[4] "1812 Overture". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812_Overtu
re
Klin (outside Moscow), (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia2 (presumably) 
[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg
107 YBN
[03/04/1893 AD] 9 		3841)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
2. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
"On the Densities of the Principle
Gases.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1893,
p134-151. http://books.google.com/books
?id=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:
1893-1893&as_brr=1&ei=KYN3Se-sN5bskgTq7b
XHBg#PPA134,M1
3. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London,
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64e1e0840a6b
69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
5. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
"On an Anomaly encountered in
Determination of the Density of
Nitrogen Gas.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 1894,
p340-344. http://books.google.com/books
?id=t6gOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+date:1894-1894&as_br
r=1&ei=n4B3SYiGFonikATOldjRBg#PPA340,M1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Strutt, John William, Third Baron
Rayleigh", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p844
9. ^
Lord Rayleigh, "On the Densities of the
Principle Gases.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 1893,
p134-151. http://books.google.com/books
?id=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:
1893-1893&as_brr=1&ei=KYN3Se-sN5bskgTq7b
XHBg#PPA134,M1 {03/04/1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Raylei
gh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron
Rayleigh". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871,
p.81-97
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279
[9] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sc
attering
[10] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p359
[11]
By John William Strutt, Baron Rayleigh,
"Scientific papers (1869-1919)",
University Press, 1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
[12] R. J. Strutt, "On the Tendency of
the Atomic Weights to approximate to
Whole Numbers.", Philosophical
Magazine, S. 6, V. 1, March 1901,
p311-314. http://books.google.com/books
?id=CJAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&dq=strutt+atom
ic+weight&ei=Wl53ScT8JIGklQS0xMHmBA#PPA3
11,M1
[13] "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[14] (original footnote:) "The Relative
Values of the Atomic Weights of
Hydrogen and Oxygen," by J. P. Cooke
and T. W. Richards, 'Amer. Acad.
Proc.,' vol 23, 1887
[15] (original
footnote:) Address to Section A,
British Association 'Report,' 1882
[16]
(original footnote:) "On the
Composition of Water by Volume," by A.
Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887
(vol. 42, p. 396)
[17] Lord Rayleigh, "On
the Relative Densities of Hydrogen and
Oxygen", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
(Strutt Home Laboratory) Terling,
England8  
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA136,
M1

[2] Description: young; three-quarter
view; suit; sitting Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, Baron PD/Corel
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rayleigh_john_william_strutt_a3
.jpg
107 YBN
[04/17/1893 AD] 8 		4161)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ Albert-A.
MICHELSON, "Comparaison du mètre
international avec la longueur d'onde
de la lumière du cadmium.", Comptes
Rendus, v116, 1893,
p790. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k30724.r=michelson.f792.langEN tran
slation from French: Albert Michelson,
"Comparison of the International Metre
with the Wave-Length of the Light of
Cadmium.", Astronomy and astro-physics,
Volume 12,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_iKKbuNsc34C&pg=RA2-PA556&dq=michelson+d
ate:1893-1893#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
4. ^ Albert-A.
MICHELSON, "Comparaison du mètre
international avec la longueur d'onde
de la lumière du cadmium.", Comptes
Rendus, v116, 1893,
p790. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k30724.r=michelson.f792.langEN tran
slation from French: Albert Michelson,
"Comparison of the International Metre
with the Wave-Length of the Light of
Cadmium.", Astronomy and astro-physics,
Volume 12,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_iKKbuNsc34C&pg=RA2-PA556&dq=michelson+d
ate:1893-1893#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Michelson,
Albert Abraham." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Albert-A. MICHELSON, "Comparaison
du mètre international avec la
longueur d'onde de la lumière du
cadmium.", Comptes Rendus, v116, 1893,
p790. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k30724.r=michelson.f792.langEN tran
slation from French: Albert Michelson,
"Comparison of the International Metre
with the Wave-Length of the Light of
Cadmium.", Astronomy and astro-physics,
Volume 12,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_iKKbuNsc34C&pg=RA2-PA556&dq=michelson+d
ate:1893-1893#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{04/17/1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[7] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[9] "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531
[11] George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[12] Hendrik Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the Earth and the Ether",
Versl. K. Akad. W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544
[14] Albert
Michelson, "Interference Phenomena in a
new Form of Refractometer",
Philosophical Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
[15] Albert Michelson and Edward
Morley, "On a Method of making the
Wave-length of Sodium Light the actual
and practical standard of length",
American Journal of Science, V134,
1887,
p427. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[16] "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA7  
[1] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg

[2] Albert Michelson (verify) Photo
made in 1887 PD
source: http://home.att.net/~dblawren/im
ages3/A-Michelson2.jpg
107 YBN
[04/18/1893 AD] 11 12 		4393)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589.
2. ^ "Kennelly,
Arthur Edwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
091>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Kennelly,
Arthur Edwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
091>.
6. ^ "Kennelly, Arthur Edwin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
091>.
7. ^ Record ID4459. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Kennelly, Arthur Edwin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
091>.
10. ^ "Kennelly, Arthur Edwin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 288-289. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902280&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ A. E. Kennelly, "Impedance",
Transactions of the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers, Volume 10 By
American Institute of Electrical
Engineers,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3C0SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA226&dq=kennelly+impeda
nce&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_min
y_is=1893&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&a
s_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=kennelly%20impe
dance&f=false {04/18/1893}
12. ^ "Kennelly, Arthur
Edwin." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 288-289.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902280&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arthur E. Kennelly." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-edwi
n-kennelly
[2] "Arthur Edwin Kennelly". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Edwi
n_Kennelly
(Edison's company) West Orange, N.J.,
USA9 10  
[1] Figure 1 from ''Impedance'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3C0SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se

[2] Arthur E. Kennelly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wikitest/
images/c/ca/Arthur_E._Kennelly.jpg
107 YBN
[05/03/1893 AD] 6 		3888)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497-498.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ W. De
W. Abney, "On the Colours of Sky Light,
Sun Light, Cloud Light, and Candle
Light", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1893 54:2-4;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1893.0041. http://rspl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/54/3
26-330/2.full.pdf+html?sid=0bd9c343-dde0
-455d-8adf-8b188824baa0
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Obituary Notices of
Fellows Deceased", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character (1905-1934), Volume
99, Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
6. ^ Abney, Festing, "Intensity of
Radiation through Turbid Media",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 40, 1886,
p378-380. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/un7357v3075751q1/fulltext.pd
f {Abney_Festing_turbid_1886.pdf}
{05/03/1886} {05/09/1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>
[2] "William de Wiveleslie Abney." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
[3] "William de Wiveleslie Abney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[4] "Sir William De Wiveleslie Abney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
[5] "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3
[6]
"emulsion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
[7] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
[8] Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
[9] John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
[10] Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4
[11] W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3
[12] Captain Abney and Lieut.-Colonel
Festing, "Atmospheric Absorption in the
Infra-Red of the Solar Spectrum.",
Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6
[13] Abney, Festing, "The Relation
between Electric Energy and Radiation
in the Spectrum of Incandescence
Lamps", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
37, 1884,
p157-173. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l101342qt1106163/fulltext.pd
f
[14] Abney, Festing,
"Absorption-Spectra Thermograms",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 38
,1884/1885,
p77-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/x4076g553r484u17/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=5
[15] Abney, Festing, "Intensity of
Radiation through Turbid Media",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 40, 1886,
p378-380. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/un7357v3075751q1/fulltext.pd
f
[16] Abney, "Transmission of Sunlight
through the Earth's Atmosphere",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. A (1887-1895),
Volume 178, 1887,
p51-283. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/v10832n2l8571385/fulltext.pdf

(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England5 (verify) 
[1] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4

[2] William de Wiveleslie PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
107 YBN
[07/??/1893 AD] 12 		4459)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p604-605.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p604-605.
3. ^ Charles
Steinmetz, "Complex Quantities and
their Use in Electrical Engineering.",
Volume 1, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, International
electrical congress, Chicago,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8p8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&dq=steinmetz+1893+
chicago&hl=en&ei=7ewjTPGhEoL48Abv0aG4BQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=steinmetz&f=f
alse
4. ^ Charles Steinmetz, "Complex
Quantities and their Use in Electrical
Engineering.", Volume 1, American
Institute of Electrical Engineers,
International electrical congress,
Chicago,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8p8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&dq=steinmetz+1893+
chicago&hl=en&ei=7ewjTPGhEoL48Abv0aG4BQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=steinmetz&f=f
alse
5. ^ "Steinmetz, Charles Proteus."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 24-25. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904145&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p604-605.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Steinmetz, Charles Proteus." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 24-25. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904145&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Record ID4393. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Steinmetz, Charles Proteus."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 24-25. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904145&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Steinmetz, Charles Proteus."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 24-25. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904145&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {07/1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Steinmetz, Charles Proteus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 24 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
559>.
[2] "Charles Proteus Steinmetz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-pro
teus-steinmetz
[3] Charles Proteus Steinmetz, "Theory
and calculation of alternating current
phenomena", 1897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PUQOA
AAAYAAJ&dq=theory+and+Calculation+of+Alt
ernating+Current+Phenomena&source=gbs_na
vlinks_s
[4] C. P. Steinmetz, "On the Law of
Hysteresis", Part I and Part II, 1892,
Vol 9. Part
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=DUt
LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA207&dq=steinmetz+%22On+th
e+law+of+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=G-IjTI3u
NoT48AbquMDLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=steinmetz%20%22On%20the%20law%20of%20h
ysteresis%22&f=false Part 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=DUtLA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA207&dq=steinmetz+%22On+the+
law+of+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=G-IjTI3uNo
T48AbquMDLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resu
lt&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=
steinmetz&f=false also
see: http://books.google.com/books?id=U
zpIHAAACAAJ&dq=steinmetz+%22On+the+law+o
f+hysteresis%22&hl=en&ei=6-EjTJywHsH58Ab
-psXMBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=7&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBg
[5] Charles Steinmetz, "Note on the Law
of Hysteresis", Electrical Engineer,
12/17/1890. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_QkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Note%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20Hysteresi
s&source=gbs_book_other_versions#v=onepa
ge&q=Note%20on%20the%20Law%20&f=false
[6] Charles Proteus Steinmetz, Ernst
Julius Berg, "Theory and calculation of
alternating current phenomena",
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cfUOAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Theo
ry+and+Calculation+of+Alternating+Curren
t+Phenomena&hl=en&ei=X-wjTILlHIOC8gb26c2
tBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
(International Electrical Congress)
Chicago, Illinois, USA11  
[1] Figure 1 from Charles Steinmetz,
''Complex Quantities and their Use in
Electrical Engineering.'', Volume 1,
American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, International electrical
congress, Chicago, 1893. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8p8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&dq=steinmetz+1893
+chicago&hl=en&ei=7ewjTPGhEoL48Abv0aG4BQ
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=steinmetz%20
&f=false

[2] Steinmetz, Charles Proteus.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 24 June 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
26115&rendTypeId=4
107 YBN
[09/05/1893 AD] 4 		3244)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R.
Toppel, "The Gatling Gun",Arco
Publishing Company, New York, NY, 1965.
2. ^
Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R.
Toppel, "The Gatling Gun",Arco
Publishing Company, New York, NY, 1965.
4. ^
Paul F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel, "The
Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing Company,
New York, NY, 1965. (09/05/1893)
Indianapolis, Indiana3 (guess) 
[1] Strip feed for machine gun patent
page 1 PD/Corel
source: Paul F. Wahl and Donald R.
Toppel, "The Gatling Gun",Arco
Publishing Company, New York, NY,
1965,pp127-128.

[2] Strip feed patent page
2 PD/Corel
source: same
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 11 12 		3220)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1957/6/1957_6_48.shtml
4. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
5. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel,
"The Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing
Company, New York, NY, 1965, pp123-129.
6. ^ Paul
F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel, "The
Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing Company,
New York, NY, 1965, pp123-129.
7. ^ Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Nov 15,
1890. Vol. Vol. LXIII., Iss. No. 20.;
p.
303. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?in
dex=2&did=171682571&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt
=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=H
NP&TS=1212686101&clientId=48051&aid=1 {
Gatling_electric.pdf}
8. ^ Paul F. Wahl and Donald R. Toppel,
"The Gatling Gun",Arco Publishing
Company, New York, NY, 1965, pp140-141.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
11. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1957/6/1957_6_48.shtml
(1893)
12. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling (1893)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[3] "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Richard_
Jordan_Gatling
[4] "Breech-loading weapon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech-load
ing_weapon
[5]
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/richar
d-jordan-gatling-woi/
[6] "Gatling gun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatling_gun

[7]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7J2rbUFy
J8 {modern Gatling guns on helicopters}
[8] George
Morgan Chinn, "The machine gun;
history, evolution and development of
manual, automatic and airborne
repeating weapons. Prepared for the
Bureau of Ordnance, Dept. of the
Navy.", 1951
Hartford, Connecticut, USA10
(presumably) 
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page

[2] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 6 		3449) From 1891-1893 Janssen erects an
observatory on Mount Blanc.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
2. ^ "Pierre
Janssen." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Janssen, Pierre Jules
César", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459.
5. ^
"Pierre Jules César Janssen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
6. ^ "Pierre Janssen." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Jules César
Janssen." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[2] "Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_J
ules_Cesar_Janssen
[3] "Pierre Janssen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jans
sen
(Mount Blanc Observatory) Mount Blanc,
France5  
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 6 		3668)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p456-457.
2. ^ "Charles
Friedel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
3. ^ "carburet." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
09 Dec. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arburet>.
4. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
5. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel
6. ^ "Charles Friedel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Friedel {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedel, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Dec.
2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9035
420>.
[2] "Charles Friedel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-fri
edel
[3] J. H. GLADSTONE, "Professor Charles
Friedel" (obituary), Nature 60, 57 -
58 (18 May 1899), doi: 10.1038/060057a0
Sorbonne, Paris, France5  
[1] French chemist and mineralogist
Charles Friedel (1832-1899) Source:
http://www.impmc.jussieu.fr/impmc/Presen
tation/historique2.php PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Charles_Friedel.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 12 		3811) Josef Breuer (BROER) (CE
1842-1925), Austria physician,1 and
Sigmund Freud publish ("On the
psychical mechanism of hysterical
phenomena: preliminary communication",
1893)2 which becomes the foundation of
psychoanalysis3 . This is published in
book form as "Studien über Hysterie"
("Studies on Hysteria")4 in 1895.5

Breuer and Freud write:
"A chance observation
has led us, over a number of years, to
investigate a great variety of
different forms and symptoms of
hysteria, with a view to discovering
their precipitating cause - the event
which provoked the first occurence,
often many years earlier, of the
phenomenon in question. In the great
majority of cases it is not possible to
establish the point of origin by a
simple interrogation of the patient,
however thoroughly it may be carried
out. This is in part because what is in
question is often some experience which
the patient dislikes discussing; but
principally because he is genuinely
unable to recollect it and often has no
suspicion of the causal connection
between the precipitating event and the
pathological phenomenon. As a rule it
is necessary to hypnotize the patient
and to arouse his memories under
hypnosis of the time at which the
symptom made its first appearance; when
this has been done, it becomes possible
to demonstrate the connection in the
clearest and most convincing fashion.
This
method of examination has in a large
number of cases produced results which
seem to be of value from a theoretical
and a practical point of view.".6

Here is a modern definition of
"hysteria":
"The term 'hysteria' has been in use
for over 2,000 years and its definition
has become broader and more diffuse
over time. In modern psychology and
psychiatry, hysteria is a feature of
hysterical disorders in which a patient
experiences physical symptoms that have
a psychological, rather than an
organic, cause; and histrionic
personality disorder characterized by
excessive emotions, dramatics, and
attention-seeking behavior.".7

(I think it is obvious that "hysteria"
is hardly a disease, or if a problem,
at the very least certainly not a
serious problem.8 )
Although close for
many years, Breuer and Freud separate
in 1896 and never speak again due
partly to quarrels over their work.9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p491-492.
2. ^ Breuer, Freud,
"Ueber den psychischen Mechanismus
hysterischer Phänomene", Wiederabdruck
aus dem, "Neurologischen Centralblatt",
1893, Nr. 1 u. 2. Josef Breuer,
Sigmund Freud, "Studien über
Hysterie", F. Deuticke,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NQkZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP2&dq=inauthor:Breuer&a
s_brr=1&ei=EJpjSeTkFJmUMbTOkLEL English
translation: "On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena:
Preliminary communication" Sigmund
Freud, James Strachey, Anna Freud
Bernays, "Studies on Hysteria", Basic
Books, 2000.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr
=&id=AO_X3hZn5YwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Studi
es+on+hysteria&ots=lpZqidSrWt&sig=_txE1Q
laL_T9Hg_VmLMWPFB3vJg#PPA3,M1
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p377.
4. ^ Breuer, Freud, "Ueber den
psychischen Mechanismus hysterischer
Phänomene", Wiederabdruck aus dem,
"Neurologischen Centralblatt", 1893,
Nr. 1 u. 2. Josef Breuer, Sigmund
Freud, "Studien über Hysterie", F.
Deuticke,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NQkZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP2&dq=inauthor:Breuer&a
s_brr=1&ei=EJpjSeTkFJmUMbTOkLEL English
translation: "On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena:
Preliminary communication" Sigmund
Freud, James Strachey, Anna Freud
Bernays, "Studies on Hysteria", Basic
Books, 2000.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr
=&id=AO_X3hZn5YwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Studi
es+on+hysteria&ots=lpZqidSrWt&sig=_txE1Q
laL_T9Hg_VmLMWPFB3vJg#PPA3,M1
5. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137.
6. ^ Breuer, Freud, "Ueber den
psychischen Mechanismus hysterischer
Phänomene", Wiederabdruck aus dem,
"Neurologischen Centralblatt", 1893,
Nr. 1 u. 2. Josef Breuer, Sigmund
Freud, "Studien über Hysterie", F.
Deuticke,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NQkZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP2&dq=inauthor:Breuer&a
s_brr=1&ei=EJpjSeTkFJmUMbTOkLEL English
translation: "On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena:
Preliminary communication" Sigmund
Freud, James Strachey, Anna Freud
Bernays, "Studies on Hysteria", Basic
Books, 2000.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr
=&id=AO_X3hZn5YwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Studi
es+on+hysteria&ots=lpZqidSrWt&sig=_txE1Q
laL_T9Hg_VmLMWPFB3vJg#PPA3,M1
7. ^ "hysteria." Encyclopedia of
Medicine. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hysteria
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137.
10. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137.
11. ^ Breuer, Freud, "Ueber
den psychischen Mechanismus
hysterischer Phänomene", Wiederabdruck
aus dem, "Neurologischen Centralblatt",
1893, Nr. 1 u. 2. Josef Breuer,
Sigmund Freud, "Studien über
Hysterie", F. Deuticke,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NQkZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP2&dq=inauthor:Breuer&a
s_brr=1&ei=EJpjSeTkFJmUMbTOkLEL English
translation: "On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena:
Preliminary communication" Sigmund
Freud, James Strachey, Anna Freud
Bernays, "Studies on Hysteria", Basic
Books, 2000.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr
=&id=AO_X3hZn5YwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Studi
es+on+hysteria&ots=lpZqidSrWt&sig=_txE1Q
laL_T9Hg_VmLMWPFB3vJg#PPA3,M1
12. ^ "Breuer, Josef", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p137. {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Breuer, Josef."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
389>.
[2] "Josef Breuer." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breuer-jose
f
[3] "Josef Breuer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Breue
r
[4] "Sigmund Freud". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sigmund_
Freud
[5] "respiration, human." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6614
3>.
[6] "Hering-Breuer reflex." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hering-breu
er-reflex
(in his own home?) Vienna, Austria (now
Germany)10 11  
[1] Description Josef Breuer 1877
(35 years old). Published in his
Curriculum vitae. Reproduction from the
archive of Institute for the History of
Medicine, Vienna, Austria. Source
Albrecht Hirschmüller:
Physiologie und Psychoanalyse im Leben
und Werk Josef Breuers. Jahrbuch der
Psychoanalyse, Beiheft Nr. 4. Verlag
Hans Huber, Bern 1978. ISBN
3456806094. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Breuer_1877.jpg

[2] Josef Breuer in 1897 (Aet. 55 PD
source: http://www.pep-web.org/document.
php?id=se.002.0184.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 3 		3861) Dorothea Klumpke Roberts (CE
1861-1942) is the first woman to earn a
PhD at the University of Paris.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.aanc-astronomy.org/articles/d
orothea.html
2. ^
http://www.aanc-astronomy.org/articles/d
orothea.html
3. ^
http://www.aanc-astronomy.org/articles/d
orothea.html {1893}
(University of Paris) Paris, France2
 
[1] Dorothea Klumpke Roberts PD?
source: http://www.aanc-astronomy.org/ar
ticles/images/dorothea-aspkryoung.jpeg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 5 		3917)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Arnost Kleinzeller, "Ernest
Overton’s Contribution to the Cell
Membrane Concept: A Centennial
Appreciation" http://physiologyonline.p
hysiology.org/cgi/reprint/12/1/49.pdf
2. ^ Overton, E,. (1893). "Ueber die
Reduction der Chromosomen in den Kernen
der Pflanzen". Vierteljahrschrift
der naturforschenden Gesellschaft
Zurich, 38, 169-186.
3. ^ David Haig,
"Homologous Versus Antithetic
Alternation of Generations and the
Origin of Sporophytes", The Botanical
Review, The New York Botanical Garden,
2008. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/36728q5283m05524/fulltext.html
4. ^ Arnost Kleinzeller, "Ernest
Overton’s Contribution to the Cell
Membrane Concept: A Centennial
Appreciation" http://physiologyonline.p
hysiology.org/cgi/reprint/12/1/49.pdf
5. ^ James R. Troyer, "John Henry
Schaffner (1866-1939) and Reduction
Division in Plants: Legend and Fact",
American Journal of Botany, Vol. 76,
No. 8 (Aug., 1989), pp.
1229-1246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2444831?seq=2 {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] P. R. BELL, "INTRODUCTION",
Biological Reviews, v69, n3, 1994,
259-262
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland4  
[1] Ernest Overton PD
source: http://physiologyonline.physiolo
gy.org/cgi/reprint/12/1/49.pdf
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 5 		3988) George Westinghouse (CE
1846-1914) US engineer,1 wins
contracts for supplying alternating
current (AC) electricity for the
Chicago World's Fair and Niagara Falls,
which is a large victory for AC
electricity in the USA.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ "George
Westinghouse." Who2? Biographies.
Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
3. ^ "George Westinghouse." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
4. ^ "Westinghouse, George."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
677>.
5. ^ "George Westinghouse." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Westinghouse."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[2] "George Westinghouse." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-west
inghouse
[3]
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=144006

[4] "George Westinghouse". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/George_W
estinghouse
[5] Francis Ellington Leupp, "George
Westinghouse: his life and
achievements",
1918. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kyxVAAAAMAAJ&dq=George+Westinghouse:+His
+Life+and+Achievements&printsec=frontcov
er&source=bl&ots=bYX_7LBQuk&sig=LLulWodc
PtXz_paPRjS2eNcMUQ0&hl=en&ei=HjGcSofbLKD
nnQfqpv2nBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resul
t&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Henry Goslee Prout, "A life of
George Westinghouse",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
K-BKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA287&dq=A+Life+of+Georg
e+Westinghouse#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Westinghouse Electric Company)
Pittsburg, PA, USA3 4  
[1] Description George
Westinghouse.jpg George Westinghouse.
Library of Congress description:
''[George Westinghouse, half-length
portrait, facing front]'' Date
between 1900 and 1914 Source Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division [1], call number ''BIOG FILE -
Westinghouse, George, 1846-1914
[P&P]'' Author Joseph G.
Gessford PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/George_Westinghouse.j
pg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 5 		4116)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529-530.
2. ^ "Lodge, Oliver
Joseph." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-444.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 13
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Lodge, Oliver Joseph."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-444. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 13
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Lodge, Oliver Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 443-444. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 13 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[2] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[3] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 14
Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[4] "Oliver Joseph Lodge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Jose
ph_Lodge
[5] "Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
722>.
[6] Sir Oliver Lodge, "Signalling
across space without wires: Being a
description of the work of Hertz and
His Successors", - Edition: 3,
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xsA3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
(University College) Liverpool,
England4 (presumably) 
[1] English: Picture of Sir Oliver
Joseph Lodge, the British
scientist Date 1917(1917) Source
Page 19 of British Universities
and the War: A Record and Its
Meaning Author Herbert Albert
Laurens
Fisher http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZWcoNGuoaGQC&pg=PA20&dq=physics+oliver+
lodge&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA18-IA1,M2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Lodge_Oliver_Joseph_b
w.jpg

[2] Caricature of physicist and writer
Oliver Joseph Lodge, printed in
''Vanity Fair'' in 1904 Date
1904(1904) Source Cartoon
by Via
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-iden
tity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.j
pg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 4 		4187)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
2. ^ Mary Ellen
Jones, "Albrecht Kossel, A Biographical
Sketch", Yale J Biol Med. 1953
September; 26(1): 80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
3. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
4. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[4] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ko
ssel
[5] "Kossel, Karl Martin Leonhard
Albrecht." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 466-468.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 2
Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3
 
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 16 		4379) In 1896 Finsen establishes a
Light Institute in Copenhagen.12
In
1903 Finsen wins the Nobel Prize in
medicine and physiology.13
In 1904
Finsen dies at age 43.14 (cause? a
says failing health15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p585-586.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p585-586.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p585-586.
5. ^ "Finsen, Niels
Ryberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 28
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
312>.
6. ^ "Niels Ryberg Finsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niels-ryber
g-finsen
7. ^ "Niels Ryberg Finsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niels-ryber
g-finsen
8. ^ "Finsen, Niels Ryberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
312>.
9. ^ "Finsen, Niels Ryberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
312>.
10. ^ "Niels Ryberg Finsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niels-ryber
g-finsen
11. ^ "Finsen, Niels Ryberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
312>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p585-586.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p585-586.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p585-586.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"Finsen, Niels Ryberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
312>. {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Finsen, Niels Ryberg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 620-621. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901426&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Niels Ryberg Finsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Ryber
g_Finsen
 
[1] Niels Ryberg Finsen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Niels_ryberg.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 7 		4421) Henry Ford (CE 1863-1947) US
industrialist1 builds his first
working gasoline engine.2
Ford is a
machinist's apprentice at age 16.3
Ford
admires Hitler, and is openly
anti-Jewish. Asimov claims that Ford
was incredibly shrewd in business, but
stupid in intellectual matters.4
(probably from religion.5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
2. ^ "Ford, Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Ford, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596. {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Ford." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 08 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-ford
[2] "Henry Ford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford
(Detroit Edison Company) Detroit,
Michigan, USA6  
[1] Henry Ford's first car -
verify UNKNOWN
source: http://listsoplenty.com/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2010/03/Ford-first-car1.
jpg

[2] Henry Ford 1888 source:
http://www.gpschools.org/ci/depts/eng/k5
/third/fordpic.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Henry_Ford_1888.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 11 		4427) According to Asimov, Baekeland
planned to ask $50,000 and go down to
$25,000 but Eastman made an offer
first.7
Baekeland graduates high school
at 16, and gets a doctor's degree at
21.8
In 1924 Baekeland is the president
of American chemical society.9
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596-597.
2. ^ "Baekeland, Leo
Hendrik." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
719>.
3. ^ "Baekeland Leo Hendrik." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 385. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900218&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Baekeland, Leo Hendrik."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
719>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p596-597.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596-597.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p596-597.
10. ^
http://www.google.com/patents?id=hLVBAAA
AEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&source=gb
s_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
11. ^ "Leo Hendrik Baekeland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leo-baekela
nd {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leo Hendrik Baekeland."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 09 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leo-baekela
nd
[2] "Leo Hendrik Baekeland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Hendrik
_Baekeland
(Baekeland's business) New York City,
NY, USA10  
[1] Leo Baekeland UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/Le
o%20Hendrik%20Baekeland.jpg

[2] Leo Baekeland in lab UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/ba
ekeland.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 17 		4432) In 1911 Wein wins a Nobel prize
in physics for his work on black body
radiation.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
6. ^ "Wien, Wilhelm
Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 337-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904646&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
16. ^ "Wien, Wilhelm
Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 337-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904646&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599. {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
[3] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[4] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany16  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 6 		4440)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
( Interesting that water serves as like
the insulation on wires made of ions?)
5. ^
"Nernst, Walther Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Nernst." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[2] "Walther Nernst." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[3] "Nernst, Hermann Walther." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 24. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 11 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903139&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Walther Nernst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Ner
nst
( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany5  
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 7 		4449)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {c1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "spectral line series."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
036>.
[2] "Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Carl_
Heinrich_Friedrich_Paschen
[3] Paschen, “Vita,” Dissertation
(1888); “Antrittsrede,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1925),
cii.
(University of Hannover) Hannover ,
Germany6  
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 11 12 		4489)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613.
2. ^ "Werner,
Alfred." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 264-272.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613.
5. ^ "Werner,
Alfred." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 2
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
564>.
6. ^ "anion." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 02 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anionic
7. ^ "Werner, Alfred." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 264-272. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Werner, Alfred." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
564>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Werner, Alfred."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 264-272. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Werner, Alfred." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 264-272. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904608&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1893}
12. ^ Alfred Werner,
“Beitrag zur Konstitution
anorganischer Verbindungen,” in
zeitschrifit für anorganische Chemie,
3 (1893), 267–330. repr. as
Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten
Wissenschaften no. 212 (Leipzig, 1924),
English trans. in G. B. Kauffman,
Classics in Coordination Chemistry,
Part I. The selected Papers of Alfred
Werner (New York, 1968). 5–88:
“Beiträge zur Konstitution
anorganischer Verbindungen. I.” in
Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie,
12 (1893), 35–55.
“Beiträge…II,” Zeitschrift für
physikalische Chemie., 14 (1894),
506–521, and “Beiträge…III,”
Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie,
21 (1896), 225–238–Italian trans.
on Gazzetta chimica italiana, 2nd ser.,
23 (1893), 140–165, 24 (1894),
408–427, and 27 (1896), 299–316,
and English trans, of the first two
papers in G. B. Kauffman, Classics in
Coordination Chemistry, Part I (New
York, 1968), 89–139; “Beitag zur
Konstitution anorganischer
Verbindungen. XVII, Über
Oxalatodiäthy lendiaminkobaltisalze
(Coc2O4en2)x,” in Zeitschrift für
anorganische Chemie,, 21 (1899), 145–
158; Lehrbuch der Stereochemid (Jena,
1904) http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/109795190/abstract

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Werner." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-wern
er
[2] "Alfred Werner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wern
er
[3] “Über räumliche Anordnung der
Atome in stickstoffhaltigen
Molekülen,” in Berichte der
Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 23
(1890), 11–30, English trans, in G.
B. Kauffman, “Foundation of Nitrogen
Stereochemistry: Alfred Werner’s
Inaugural Dissertation,” in Journal
of Chemical Education, 43 (1966), 155 -
165 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed043p155
[4] “Beiträge zur Theorie der
Affinität und Valenz,” in
Vierteljahrsschrift der
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Zürich, 36 (1891). 129–169,
discussed in G. B. Kauffman, “Alfred
Werner’s Habilitationsschrift,” in
Chymia. 12 (1967), 183–187, English
trans. in G. B. Kauffman.
“Contributions to the Theory of
Affinity and Valence,” Journal of
Chemical Education, 43 (1966),
189–216.
(Polytechnikum) Zurich, Switzerland10
 
[1] From Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography COPYRIGHTED
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R2&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1
&contentSet=GALE

[2] Alfred Werner PD
source: CX2830904608&&docId=GALE
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 3 		6017)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonín Dvo?ák." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonin-dvo
rak
2. ^ "Antonín Dvo?ák." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonin-dvo
rak
3. ^ "Antonín Dvo?ák." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonin-dvo
rak {1893}
(National Conservatory) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] Description Foto ANton Dvorak
in 1868 Date 1868 Source
Programmaboek DGG 1977 Volledige
strijkkwartetten Author Anoniem
(Foto in Anton Dvorak museum) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Dvorak_1868.jpg
106 YBN
[01/19/1894 AD] 5 		3828)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Scientific Uses
of Liquid Air", description of James
Dewar's lecture. from: Railway
Locomotives and Cars, v.68,
Simmons-Boardman Pub. Corp., 1894,
p132-134. http://books.google.com/books
?id=C-s6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132&dq="On+the+sci
entific+uses+of+liquid+air"&lr=&ei=g_FnS
YOhB4bWlQS9xIHWCw#PPA132,M1
3. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07f&pi=27
4. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07f&pi=27
5. ^ James Dewar, J. A. Fleming, "On
the Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron
and Steels by Cooling to the
Temperature of Liquid Air", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905)", Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p57-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/03r6802g6xq32392/?p=43d56386df
ec4770860abc8e4e7dc07f&pi=27
{01/19/1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[4] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[5]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[6]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[7] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
[9] "Sir James
Dewar". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[10] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248.
[11]
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
[12] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[13] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p365.
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

106 YBN
[04/14/1894 AD] 5 6 		2996) M. Bonetti invents an influence
machine (static electricity
generator).

This machine is based on the Wimhurst
design but uses sectorless disks and
sets of several brushes in the
neutralizer bars. The idea of a
sectorless machine, can be traced back
to Holtz and Poggendorff, by 18691 2 .
In this configuration, output is taken
at the front disk only, combs (that do
not touch the disk3 ) are used instead
of (contact4 ) brushes in the
neutralizer bars, and a different
driving system is used.

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. C. Poggendorff, "Zwei ältere
Influenzmaschinen in neuer Gestalt,"
Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, CXXXVI, pp. 171-173, 1869.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
15221w
2. ^ J. C. Poggendorff, "Beitrag zur
näheren Kenntniss der Elektromaschine
zweiter Art," Poggendorff's Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, CL, no. 9, pp. 1-30,
1873.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/bonetti.htm
l (04/14/1894)
6. ^ "Machines d'induction
électrostatique sans secterus," La
Nature, 1089, 14 April 1894, pp.
305-306.
http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY2
8.42/309/100/536/0/0 (04/14/1894)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=
-3198901751334864120&q=bonetti+machine&e
i=LIYPSLm4BZzQ4gLAirSiBA&hl=en
[2]
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=
-3198901751334864120&q=bonetti+machine&e
i=LIYPSLm4BZzQ4gLAirSiBA&hl=en
[3]
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=
-3198901751334864120&q=bonetti+machine&e
i=LIYPSLm4BZzQ4gLAirSiBA&hl=en
[4]
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/epapers.htm
l
 
[1] Machine d'induction electrostatique
sans secteurs. PD
source: http://cnum.cnam.fr/GIFS/4KY28.4
2/0309.T.305.966.1417.gif

[2] Machine Wimshurst. Modele
cylindrique sans secteurs construit par
M Bonetti et expose a la Societe de
physique. PD
source: http://cnum.cnam.fr/GIFS/4KY28.4
2/0309.T.305.966.1417.gif
106 YBN
[05/??/1894 AD] 7 		4092) According to the Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Righi discovered
and described magnetic hysteresis in
1880, a few months before Warburg, who
is credited with the discovery, and
Righi also patented a microphone using
conductive powder and a loudspeaker.3
Magnetic hysterisis is the lagging of
the magnetization of ferromagnetic
material, such as iron, behind
variations of the magnetizing field.4

Righi is a prolific writer, writing
more than 130 papers before 1900.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
2. ^ "Righi,
Augusto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 460-461.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "hysteresis." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hysteresis
5. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1897} {05/1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Augusto Righi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Rig
hi
[2]
http://www.lsrighi.com/chieravamo/vita_r
ighi_english.htm
[3] Augusto Righi, L’ottica delle
oscillazioni elettriche (Bologna,
1897) http://books.google.com/books?id=
mFOpQAAACAAJ&dq=L%E2%80%99ottica+delle+o
scillazioni+elettriche
[4] "Augusto Righi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augusto_
Righi
(Institute of Physics, University of
Bologna) Bologna, Italy6  
[1] [t what is the black rectangle for
or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di
Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni
fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte:
Sito del Museo di Fisica di
Bologna) Date 2007-11-30
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg

[2] Augusto Righi's Laboratory :
generation and detection of electric
waves PD
source: http://www.lsrighi.com/image/lab
_onde.jpeg
106 YBN
[07/25/1894 AD] 8 		3611) In 1916 Jenkins helps found the
Society of Motion Picture Engineers,
later renamed the Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engineers
(SMPTE), and is elected as the
organization's first president.6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
2. ^ C. Francis JENKINS,
"Transmitting Pictures by
Electricity", The Electrical Engineer,
25 July 1894.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "television."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/J/html
J/jenkinschar/jenkinschar.htm
7. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/jenkins.h
tml
8. ^ C. Francis JENKINS, "Transmitting
Pictures by Electricity", The
Electrical Engineer, 25 July 1894.
{07/25/1894}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/jenkins189
4.htm
Washington, D.C., USA.7  
[1] C. Francis JENKINS, ''Transmitting
Pictures by Electricity'', The
Electrical Engineer, 25 July
1894. PD/Corel
source: http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/je
nkins1894a.JPG

[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
106 YBN
[10/??/1894 AD] 11 		4258) A possible pro-sexual reference,
in the Faraday style, may be found when
Thomson writes "The method I employed
is as follows :- ...".8 Notice the
"ass follows" then the universal penis
and testicles symbol ":-". The
funniness is that the method Thomson
employs is his penis. The sentence kind
of jumps out of the page and that gives
it humor too. But it's speculation.9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ J. J. Thomson,
"On the velocity of the cathode-rays".
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V38, N233,
Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
3. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
4. ^ "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
5. ^ Record ID4257. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J. J.
Thomson, "On the velocity of the
cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38, 1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the
velocity of the cathode-rays".
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V38, N233,
Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the
Rate of Propagation of the Luminous
Discharge of Electricity through a
Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
January 1, 1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
11. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity
of the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false {10/1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[6]
"Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England10
 
[1] Figure From On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas.'' By J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental
Physics, Cambridge. Received January 2,
1891. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22the+velocity
+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge
+through+gases+thomson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=o
nepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propag
ation%22%20of%20electric%20discharge%20t
hrough%20gases%20thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 6 		2692)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116.
6. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p116. (1894)
Tianjin (and Shanghai), China5   
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 6 7 		3144)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Georg W. A. Kahlbaum,
"Selbstthätige stetig wirkende
Quecksilberluftpumpe nach dem
Sprengel'schen System", Wiedemanns
Annalen, vol289,
issue9,(1894),p199-208.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112488713/PDFSTART
2. ^ Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston
Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The New
International Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip
3. ^ Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston
Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The New
International Encyclopædia", 1902,
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=VKEEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=RA4-PA10&lpg=RA4-PA10&dq=Georg+
W.+A.+Kahlbaum+basel&source=web&ots=3anQ
KefdN_&sig=uu5qSlr7JqZTX4nP4iorxTBUKm8&h
l=en
5. ^ Georg W. A. Kahlbaum,
"Selbstthätige stetig wirkende
Quecksilberluftpumpe nach dem
Sprengel'schen System", Wiedemanns
Annalen, vol289,
issue9,(1894),p199-208.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112488713/PDFSTART
6. ^ P. A. Redhead, The ultimate
vacuum, VacuumVolume 53, Issues 1-2, ,
May 1999, Pages
137-149. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TW4-3WC41PF-13/1/124b4
08e41b05b5d704ff7f49318d0d9) {Vacuum_19
99_sdarticle.pdf} (nice work with many
figures) (1894)
7. ^ Georg W. A. Kahlbaum,
"Selbstthätige stetig wirkende
Quecksilberluftpumpe nach dem
Sprengel'schen System", Wiedemanns
Annalen, vol289,
issue9,(1894),p199-208.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112488713/PDFSTART
(University of Basel4 ) Basel,
Switzerland5  
[1] Fig. 7. The ultimate vacuum from
1660 to 1900. Note the break in the
time scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 9 		3913)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/245
4.html
2. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=17297
3. ^ Yersin, A. 1894. La peste
bubonique a Hong Kong. C. r. Acad. Sci.
119: 356.
4. ^ Yersin, A. 1894. La peste
bubonique a Hong Kong. Ann. Inst.
Pasteur. 8: 662-667.
5. ^ Kitasato, S. 1894. The
bacillus of bubonic plague. Lancet 2:
428-430.
6. ^ Kitasato, S. 1894. Preliminary
notice of the bacillus of bubonic
plague. Practitioner 53: 311.
7. ^ Kitasato,
S. 1894. Preliminary notice of the
bacillus of bubonic plague. U. S.
Marine Hosp. Serv. P. 343.
8. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/245
4.html
9. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=17297 {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
[2] "Koch, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
[3] "Robert Koch." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[4] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[5] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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rmann_Robert_Koch
[6] "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495.
[7] J
Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[8] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[9] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
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[12] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
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[13] "conjunctivitis." The Columbia
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[14]
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[15]
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der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
[16]
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[17]
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p?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id
=26
[18] Koch, R. (1881) Zur Untersuchung
von pathogenen Organismen. Mitth. a. d.
Kaiserl. Gesundheitsampte 1: 1-48.
Cited in Milestones in Microbiology:
1556 to 1940, translated and edited by
Thomas D. Brock, ASM Press. 1998, p101
[19]
Bizo, B. (1832) Biblioteca Ital. di.
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[20]
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
[21] Schroeter, J. "Ueber einige durch
Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."Beitr. Z.
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[22]
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%C3%B6ter
[23]
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/b.gardner/Koch
.htm
Hong Kong8   
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 6 		3919)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ David Haig,
"Homologous Versus Antithetic
Alternation of Generations and the
Origin of Sporophytes", The Botanical
Review, The New York Botanical Garden,
2008. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/36728q5283m05524/fulltext.html
3. ^ Strasburger, E. 1894. The periodic
reduction of the number of the
chromosomes in the life-history of
living organisms. Annals of Botany 8:
281–316.
4. ^ James R. Troyer, "John Henry
Schaffner (1866-1939) and Reduction
Division in Plants: Legend and Fact",
American Journal of Botany, Vol. 76,
No. 8 (Aug., 1989), pp.
1229-1246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2444831?seq=2 {1893}
5. ^ "Strasburger, Eduard
Adolf." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
6. ^ Strasburger, E. 1894. The periodic
reduction of the number of the
chromosomes in the life-history of
living organisms. Annals of Botany 8:
281–316.

MORE INFO
[1] "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841-842.
[2] Arnost
Kleinzeller, "Ernest Overton’s
Contribution to the Cell Membrane
Concept: A Centennial
Appreciation" http://physiologyonline.p
hysiology.org/cgi/reprint/12/1/49.pdf
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany5
 
[1] Description EStrasburger.jpg E
Strasburger Source The
Darwin-Wallace celebration held on
THURSDAY, IST JULY, 1908, BY THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON. �� Date
1908 (1908) Auteur Linnean
Society PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/EStrasburger.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 4 		3929)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p501.
2. ^ "Patrick
Manson." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 20
Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick
3. ^ "Manson, Sir Patrick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9050
623>.
4. ^ "Patrick Manson." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Patrick Manson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick
[2] "Manson, Patrick", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p573
[3] P. Manson, "On the
development of Filaria sanguinis
hominis, and on the mosquito considered
as a nurse". Journal of the Linnean Soc
14 (1879), pp. 304–311.
http://books.google.com/books?id=t6a1N
0AKiMgC&pg=PA304&dq=On+the+Development+o
f+Filaria+Sanguinis+Hominis,+and+on+the+
Mosquito+Considered+as+a+Nurse+date:1878
-1879&ei=XGPDSYSNNZ6skATP6un-DQ
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Subject : Sir Patrick Manson
(1844-1922) British physician,
specialist about parasitology PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Mason_Patrick_1844-19
22.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 4 		4085)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p523.
3. ^
"Sharpey-Schäfer, Edward Albert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp802-803.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523. {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharpey-Schafer, Sir Edward
Albert." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
167>.
[2] "Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-albe
rt-sharpey-schafer
[3] "Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Albe
rt_Sharpey-Schafer
[4] Sparrow EP, Finger S., "Edward
Albert Schäfer (Sharpey-Schafer) and
his contributions to neuroscience:
commemorating of the 150th anniversary
of his birth.", J Hist Neurosci. 2001
Mar;10(1):41-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/sites/entrez
[5] Writer, Desmond (2004),
"Resuscitation Great. Sir Edward
Sharpey-Schafer and his simple and
efficient method of performing
artificial respiration.", Resuscitation
Volume 61, Issue 2, May 2004, Pages
113-116. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T19-4C9X19V
-2&_user=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search
&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00005
9600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=44
22&md5=64f4e665ec2aa9c778258a5425b8e5b9
[6] Schäfer EA. Description of a
simple and efficient method of
performing artificial respiration in
the human subject, to which is appended
instructions for the treatment of the
apparently drowned. Med Chir Trans
1904;87:609–614 (discussion pp.
615–623).
(University College) London, England3
 
[1] Edward Albert Schafer
(Sharpey-Schafer) CE
1850-1935 COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE
source: http://melvyl.worldcat.org/oclc/
28180217?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww
.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontent%2Ftandf%2F
jhin%26checksum%3D0b0576b46d5e880b4ab721
e77fe56939&title=&linktype=opacFtLink
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 3 		4110)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
2. ^ "Edward Walter
Maunder." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-walt
er-maunder
3. ^ "Edward Walter Maunder." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-walt
er-maunder {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Walter Maunder".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Walt
er_Maunder
(Royal Observatory) Greenwich,
England 
[1] Description Maunder Edward
Walter.jpg Photograph of Edward
Maunder, the astronomer Date
1905(1905) Source Opposite
page 192 of Astronomers of
Today Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Maunder_Edward_Walter
.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 8 9 		4115)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529-530.
2. ^ "Lodge, Sir
Oliver Joseph." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
722>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529-530.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Lodge, Sir Oliver
Joseph." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
722>.
8. ^ "Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
722>. {1894}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529-530. {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[2] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[3] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 14
Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[4] "Oliver Joseph Lodge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Jose
ph_Lodge
[5] "Lodge, Oliver Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 443-444. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 13 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
(Royal Institution) London, England7
 
[1] English: Picture of Sir Oliver
Joseph Lodge, the British
scientist Date 1917(1917) Source
Page 19 of British Universities
and the War: A Record and Its
Meaning Author Herbert Albert
Laurens
Fisher http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZWcoNGuoaGQC&pg=PA20&dq=physics+oliver+
lodge&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA18-IA1,M2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Lodge_Oliver_Joseph_b
w.jpg

[2] Caricature of physicist and writer
Oliver Joseph Lodge, printed in
''Vanity Fair'' in 1904 Date
1904(1904) Source Cartoon
by Via
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-iden
tity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.j
pg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 9 10 		4204)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550-551.
2. ^ Rubner, Max."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 585-586. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. 26
Jan. 2010
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550-551.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p550-551.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Rubner, Max."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 585-586. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. 26
Jan. 2010
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550-551. {1894}
10. ^
Rubner, Max." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 585-586.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
26 Jan. 2010 {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Rubner." A Dictionary of
Food and Nutrition. Oxford University
Press, 1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 26
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-rubner
[2] "Max Rubner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Rubner
[3] Rubner, Max. 1883. Die
Vertretungswerthe der
hauptsächlichsten organischen
Nahrungsstoffe im Thierkörper.
Zeitschrift für Biologie 19:
313-396 http://books.google.com/books?i
d=JwcDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA313&dq=Thierk%C3%B6r
per.+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Biologie+date:
1883-1883&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Thie
rk%C3%B6rper.%20Zeitschrift%20f%C3%BCr%2
0Biologie%20date%3A1883-1883&f=false
[4] M. Rubner, "Die Queue der
thierischen Wärme",Zeitschrift für
Biologie, 30 (1894),
73–142; http://books.google.com/books
?id=a_geAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:OCLC1643168&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany8
 
[1] Max Rubner.jpg English: Max
Rubner Polski: Max Rubner Date
1899(1899) Source Katalog
der wissenschaftlichen Sammlungen der
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Author
[show] Wilhelm Höffert
(1860(1860)–1903(1903)) Date of
birth/death 1860(1860)
1903(1903) Work location
Dresden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Max_Rubner.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 13 		4220) In 1887 Takamine founds the
chemical fertilizer industry in Japan
when he builds the first
super-phosphate factory in Tokyo, the
Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company.8 9

(Takamine and this time may mark the
beginning of the rise of Japanese
modern science and technology which
will greatly advance, in particular
with the computer, image and sound and
data capture and storage, robot, and
vehicle industries.10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553-554.
2. ^ "Takamine,
Jokichi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 2
Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
005>.
3. ^ "hydrolyze." WordNet 1.7.1.
Princeton University, 2001. Answers.com
02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrolyze
4. ^ "Takamine, Jokichi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
005>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553-554.
6. ^ "Jokichi
Takamine." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jokichi-tak
amine
7. ^ "Jokichi Takamine." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jokichi-tak
amine
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553-554.
9. ^ "Takamine,
Jokichi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 2
Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
005>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Takamine, Jokichi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
005>.
12. ^ "Jokichi Takamine." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jokichi-tak
amine
13. ^ "Jokichi Takamine." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jokichi-tak
amine {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jokichi Takamine." Science
and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and
Josh Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949.
Detroit: Gale, 2000. 194. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 2 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
(His private laboratory) Tokyo, Japan11
12 (presumably) 
[1] Jokichi Takamine.jpg English:
Jokichi Takamine Polski: Jokichi
Takamine Date circa 1920 Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/servlet/v
iew/search?q=208204&search=Search IHM
Author
anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Jokichi_Takamine.jpg

[2] Jokichi Takamine, founder of the
Nippon Club in New York 100 years ago,
is the subject of an ongoing exhibition
depicting the life of the chemist and
industrialist. PHOTO COURTESY OF THE
GREAT PEOPLE OF KANAZAWA MEMORIAL
MUSEUM VIA THE NIPPON CLUB/KYODO PD
source: http://www.japantimes.co.jp/imag
es/photos2005/nn20050402f2a.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 8 		4226)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Elster, Johann Philipp Ludwig
Julius." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 354-357.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Elster and Geital, "Abhängigkeit
der Intensität des photoelektrischen
Stromes von der Lage der
Polarisationsebene des erregenden
Lichtes zu der Oberfläche der
Kathode", in Sitzungsberichte der
Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften
(1894); Annalen der Physik, 55 (1895),
684, and 61 (1897), 445; Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 10 (1909), 457.
5. ^ "Elster,
Johann Philipp Ludwig Julius." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 354-357. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.elster-geitel.de/
[2] "photoelectric effect."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2009. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/photoelectr
ic-effect
[3] Elster and Geital, "Entladung
negativ elektrisierter Körper durch
Sonnen-und Tageslicht", Annalen der
Physik, 38, (1889), 497.
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany7  
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 2 3 		4237)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557.
2. ^ E. F. Armstrong,
"Charles Frederick Cross. 1855-1935",
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Dec.,
1935), pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
{Cross_Charles_obit_1935.pdf} {1894}
3. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/ca.htm
{1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Frederick Cross".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fre
derick_Cross
[2] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan, J. F. Briggs, "A text-book
of paper-making", Edition: 4 - 1916 -
507
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=mqRAAAAAIAAJ&dq=Charles+Frederick+Cross
&as_brr=1&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[3] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan , "Researches on
cellulose" Volume I
(1895-1900) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=jYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e Volume II
(1900-1905) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=zYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=7#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume III
(1905-1910) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=MZ49AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=8#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume IV
(1910-1921) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_J09AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=6#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4]
http://www.plastiquarian.com/crossbevan.
htm
(Cross and Bevan's private business)
New Court, Lincoln's Inn, England1
 
[1] Charles Frederick
Cross COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/768976.pdf

[2] Edward John Bevin PD presumably
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/ima
ges/people/bevan.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 8 		4279)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p563.
2. ^ "Kitasato,
Shibasaburo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 391-393.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6
Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902322&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Shibasaburo Kitasato, Email von
Behring; “The Plague at Hong Kong,”
Lancet (11 August 1894), p. 325;
4. ^
Shibasaburo Kitasato, “The Bacillus
of Bubonic Plague,” Lancet (25
August 1894), p. 428-430.
5. ^ "Kitasato
Shibasaburo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>.
6. ^ "Kitasato, Shibasaburo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 391-393. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902322&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Kitasato Shibasaburo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>.
8. ^ "Kitasato Shibasaburo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>. {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Shibasaburo Kitasato."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[2] "Shibasaburo Kitasato." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[3] "Shibasaburo Kitasato". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibasaburo
_Kitasato
[4] Shibasaburo Kitasato, “Über den
Rauschbrandnadbacillus und sein
Culturfahren,” Zeitschrift für
Hygience und Infektionskrankheiten, 6
(1889), 105-116;
[5] Shibasaburo Kitasato,
“Über dem Tetanusbacillus”,
Zeitschrift für Hygience und
Infektionskrankheiten, 7 (1889),
225-234;
Hong Kong6 7  
[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 6 		4305)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
2. ^ "Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky
3. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>
Kaluga, Russia5  
[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 6 7 		4311)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
2. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Sherrington, Charles Scott." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Sherrington, Charles Scott."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1894}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p568. {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sherrington, Sir Charles
Scott." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
325>.
[2] "Charles Scott Sherrington." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[3] "Charles Scott Sherrington."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=gbxLAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA417&dq=decerebrate+rigidity&h
l=en&ei=wlDbS-lygdayA6KUnLAB&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AE
wAQ#v=onepage&q=decerebrate%20rigidity&f
=false
(Brown Institution Animal Hospital)
London, England5  
[1] Charles Scott Sherrington Source :
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy of
the National Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 10 		4318)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dubois, Eugène." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
330>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570.
3. ^ Dubois, M. E. F.
T., 1894: Pithecanthropus erectus, eine
menschenähnliche Uebergangsform aus
Java. Batavia,
1894. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EW_yQAAACAAJ&dq=%22Pithecanthropus+erect
us%22+Java&hl=en&ei=PerpS-SuNIXwsgO_8qjk
Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA
4. ^ "Marie Eugène François Thomas
Dubois." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-duboi
s
5. ^ "skullcap." WordNet 1.7.1.
Princeton University, 2001. Answers.com
11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/skullcap
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570.
7. ^ "Dubois,
Eugène." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
330>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570.
9. ^ "Dubois,
Eugène." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
330>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570. {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] Theunissen, Bert. "Dubois,
Marie Eugène François Thomas."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 312-316. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905630&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] Dubois, The Place of
“Pithecanthropus” in the
Genealogical Tree, Nature 53, 245 - 247
(1896)
http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.103
8/053245b0
Java8 9  
[1] Description
Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg original
fossils of Pithecanthropus erectus
(now Homo erectus) found in Java in
1891 Date Source personal
scan Author personal scan
120 Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Pithecanthropus-erect
us.jpg

[2] Figure from article by Dubois PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v53/n1368/pdf/053245b0.pdf
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 21 		4333) A book of Tyndall's popular
essays on science turns him from
liberal arts to physics.16
In 1890
Pupin joins the faculty of Columbia.17

Pupin's autobiography "From Immigrant
To Inventor" wins the Pulitzer Prize in
1924.18 (Does this FITI have a meaning
of fight-eye?19 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
4. ^ Record ID4285.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Michael Idvorsky Pupin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in {1894}
7. ^ Dugald C. Jackson, "Michael
Idvorsky Pupin (1858-1935)",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 72, No. 10
(May, 1938), pp. 379-385.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p576.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p576.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p576.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ "Michael Idvorsky Pupin." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in
21. ^ "Michael Idvorsky Pupin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pupin, Michael Idvorsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
932>
[2] "Pupin, Michael Idvorsky." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 213. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903540&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA20  
[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg
105 YBN
[01/31/1895 AD] 45 		3842) Both Ramsay and Rayleigh win a
Nobel award in 1904 for the discovery
of argon.41

Ramsay blows his own glass
instruments.42
According to the
Encyclopedia Britannica, Ramsay's
discovery of the noble gases makes him
the most famous chemist in Britain.43
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
2. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
5. ^ Lord
Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon, a New
Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
6. ^ William Crookes, "On the Spectra
of Argon.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895, p287-289.
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1
7. ^ K. Olszewski, "The Liquefaction
and Solidification of Argon.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895, p290-292.
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA290,M1
8. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Spark
Spectrum of Argon as it appears in the
Spark Spectrum of Air.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, 1895,
p293-296.
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA293,M1
9. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-2599
91>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Record ID2571.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
14. ^ (original
footnote:) Rayleigh, "On an Anomaly
encountered in Determinations of the
Density of Nitrogen Gas." 'Roy. Soc.
Proc.,' vol. 55, p. 340, 1894.
15. ^
(original footnote:) 'Chemical News,'
vol. 65, p. 301, 1802.
16. ^ (original
footnote:) 'Proc. Phys. Soc.,' 1893, p.
147.
17. ^ (original footnote:) The
arrangements for the experiments upon
this branch of the subject were left
entirely in Professor Ramsay's hands.
18. ^
(original footnote:) Kundt and Warburg,
'Pogg. Ann.,' vol. 157, p. 353 (1876).
19. ^
Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon,
a New Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
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37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted
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40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
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42. ^ Isaac Asimov,
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Sir William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
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45. ^
Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon,
a New Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
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p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
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e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
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AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
{01/31/1895}

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[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
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igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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gh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
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822>
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron
Rayleigh". Encyclopedia Britannica.
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liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
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[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
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p.81-97
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
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Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
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1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
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s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
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SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
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SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
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Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1888,
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intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
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[14] (original footnote:) "The Relative
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[15] (original
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[16]
(original footnote:) "On the
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Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887
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[17] Lord Rayleigh, "On an
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p340-344. http://books.google.com/books
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[18] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Densities
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XHBg#PPA134,M1
(Own Laboratory) Terling, England44
 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD

[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
105 YBN
[03/06/1895 AD] 11 12 		4351)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
3. ^ Pierre
Curie, "Propriétés magnétiques des
corps a diverses températures",
Annales de chimie et de physique, 7th
ser., 5 (1895), 289.
4. ^ Pierre Curie,
"Propriétés magnétiques des corps à
diverses températures",
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QhMywOm_yNsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Prop
ri%C3%A9t%C3%A9s+magn%C3%A9tiques+des+co
rps+a+diverses+temp%C3%A9ratures&source=
bl&ots=YmD5anmoPh&sig=MmSCfrO7DtSGt2wnnU
VzwCgQeI0&hl=en&ei=Z8z2S5StKZPcNc-8iNsF&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Pierre Curie, "Propriétés
magnétiques des corps a diverses
températures", Annales de chimie et de
physique, 7th ser., 5 (1895), 289.
8. ^
Pierre Curie, "Propriétés
magnétiques des corps à diverses
températures",
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QhMywOm_yNsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Prop
ri%C3%A9t%C3%A9s+magn%C3%A9tiques+des+co
rps+a+diverses+temp%C3%A9ratures&source=
bl&ots=YmD5anmoPh&sig=MmSCfrO7DtSGt2wnnU
VzwCgQeI0&hl=en&ei=Z8z2S5StKZPcNc-8iNsF&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ "Pierre Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
10. ^ "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
11. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {03/06/1895}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[3] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
[4] Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie,
"Développement, par pression, de
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/
[5] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 383
[6] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois du
dégagement de l’électricité par
pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881),
186
[7] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
les phénomènes électriques de la
tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 350
[8] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Les cristaux
héemièdres à faces inclinées, comme
sources constantes d’électricitè",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences,
93 (1881), 204
[9] Pierre Curie,Jacques
Curie, "Contractions et dilatations
produites par des tensions électriques
dan les cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137
[10] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914
[11] Pierre Curie, Propriétés
magnétiques des corps à diverses
températures Note de P. Curie. C.R.
T.115 (1892) 805-808
[12] Pierre Curie, Sur
l'emploi des condensateurs à anneau de
garde et des condensateurs
absolus Note de P. Curie. C.R. T.115
(1892) 1068-1072
[13] Pierre Curie, Sur les
propriétés magnétiques de l'oxygène
à diverses températures Note de P.
Curie. C.R. T.115 (1892) 1292-1295
[14] Pierre
Curie, Propriétés magnétiques des
corps à diverses températures Note
de P. Curie. C.R. T.116 (1893) 136-139
[15]
Pierre Curie, Propriétés magnétiques
du fer à diverses températures Note
de P. Curie. C.R. T.118 (1894) 796-800
et 859-862
[16] Pierre Curie, Propriétés des
corps magnétiques à diverses
températures Note de P. Curie. C.R.
T.118 (1894) 1134-1136
(Sorbonne) Paris, France10  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
105 YBN
[03/26/1895 AD] 17 18 19 		4141)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
2. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
4. ^ "Ramsay, Sir
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record ID3447. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ William
Ramsay, "The gases of the atmosphere:
the history of their discovery",
1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
10. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
11. ^ "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
12. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
13. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
16. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
17. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{03/26/1895}
18. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>. {1895}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
(University College) London, England15
16  
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
105 YBN
[04/??/1895 AD] 6 		4032)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Motion_Pictures_Vitascope.htm
2. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1895.htm

3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Motion_Pictures_Vitascope.htm
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Motion_Pictures_Vitascope.htm
5. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1895.htm

6. ^ "Lumière, Auguste Marie Louis
Nicolas." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-lumi-
re {04/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of the motion
picture." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
18 Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

[2] "Woodville Latham". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodville_L
atham
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=xfnNAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA730&dq=Eidoloscope&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=Eidoloscope&f=false
[4] Latham's patent filed 06/01/1896 of
a projecting
kinetoscope http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=EAJmAAAAEBAJ&dq=woodville+latham
[5]
http://www.victorian-cinema.net/machines
.htm
New York City, NY, USA5
(presumably) 
[1] Panoptikon (Woodville
Latham) Primitive projector, in
which the two-inch film moved
continuously. The first to be used for
commercial film shows in 1895. Later
(as the Eidoloscope) an intermittent
mechanism was added PD
source: http://www.victorian-cinema.net/
panoptikon.jpg

[2] Major Woodville Latham PD
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/woodvillelatham_photo.jpg
105 YBN
[05/05/1895 AD] 17 		4345) In December 1905 Popov is ordered
by the governor of St. Petersburg to
take repressive measures against
student political disturbances. Popov
refuses, and this event severely
affects his health. Popov dies soon
afterward.14 (It looks like Popov was
probably murdered - in particular only
aged around 47.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p579-580.
2. ^ "Popov,
Aleksandr." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 20
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
849>.
3. ^ "Popov, Aleksandr." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
849>.
4. ^ Popov, “Ob otnoshenii
metallicheskikh poroshkov k
elektricheskim kolebaniam” (“On the
Relation of Metallic Powders to
Electrical Oscillations”), Zhurnal
Russkago fiziko-khimicheskago
obshchestva . . . 27 (1895), 7 May
1895, 259–260.
5. ^ Popov, “Pribor dlya
obnaruzhenia i registratssi
elektricheskikh kolebany” (“An
Apparatus for Detecting and Recording
Electrical Oscillations”), Zhurnal
Russkago fiziko-khimicheskago
obshchestva, 28 (Jan 1896), 1–4,
English trans.: Electrical Review
(London), 47 (1900), 845–846, and
882–883. {Popov_Alexander_189601xx.pd
f}
6. ^ "Alexander Stepanovich Popov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-s
tepanovich-popov
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p579-580.
8. ^ "Popov,
Aleksandr." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 20
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
849>.
9. ^ "Alexander Stepanovich Popov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-s
tepanovich-popov
10. ^ Popov, “Pribor dlya
obnaruzhenia i registratssi
elektricheskikh kolebany” (“An
Apparatus for Detecting and Recording
Electrical Oscillations”), Zhurnal
Russkago fiziko-khimicheskago
obshchestva, 28 (Jan 1896), 1–4,
English trans.: Electrical Review
(London), 47 (1900), 845–846, and
882–883. {Popov_Alexander_189601xx.pd
f}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Popov, Aleksandr Stepanovich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 93-94. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903477&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Popov, Aleksandr."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
849>.
17. ^ "Popov, Aleksandr." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
849>. {05/05/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Stepanovich
Popov." Encyclopedia of Russian
History. The Gale Group, Inc, 2004.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-s
tepanovich-popov
[2] "Alexander Stepanovich Popov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_S
tepanovich_Popov
[3]
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wikitest/images/1
/1f/Konstantinova.pdf
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia16  
[1] Figure 2 from: Popov, “Pribor
dlya obnaruzhenia i registratssi
elektricheskikh kolebany” (“An
Apparatus for Detecting and Recording
Electrical Oscillations”), Zhurnal
Russkago fiziko-khimicheskago
obshchestva, 28 (Jan 1896), 1–4,
English trans.: Electrical Review
(London), 47 (1900), 845–846, and
882–883. {Popov_Alexander_189601xx.pd
f} PD
source: Popov_Alexander_189601xx.pdf

[2] Description Popov.jpg English:
Alexander Stepanovich
Popov Русский: Попов,
Александр
Степанович Date This
photoimage was taken before 1906,
because Popov died in January
13/December 31 1905/6 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9a/Popov.jpg
105 YBN
[05/13/1895 AD] 9 10 		4534) In 1927 Wilson wins the Nobel
prize in physics for the cloud
chamber.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
2. ^ "Wilson, Charles
Rees." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 420-423.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 16
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
4. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
8. ^ C. T. R.
Wilson, "On the Formation of Cloud in
the Absense of Dust", Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
Volume 8,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
9. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
{05/13/1895}
10. ^ "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {08/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England8  
[1] FIGURE 1. Wilson’s 1895
apparatus. The gas to be expanded is in
the glass vessel A, which itself is
placed inside a glass bottle B, which
is partially filled with water so as to
trap the gas in the inner vessel. The
air above the water in the bottle is
connected with an evacuated vessel F by
tubes D and G, to which are fitted
valves E and K, the latter of which is
normally closed When this valve is
quickly opened, the air at the top of
the bottle B rushes into the evacuated
vessel F and the water in B rises until
it fills the top of the bottle, and by
doing so, closes the valve E, so
stopping further expansion of the gas
in A. By suitably adjusting the initial
volume of the gas in A and the amount
of water in B, the relative expansion
of the gasin Acan be precisely
controlled. PD
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg
105 YBN
[05/29/1895 AD] 13 14 15 		3820)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493.
2. ^ Record ID3688.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493.
4. ^ Record ID3242.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Karl von Linde." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-von-li
nde
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Karl Paul Von Linde",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Pergamon Press, 1914, v.178, (1914),
p113-114. http://books.google.com/books
?id=y-QGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=Carl+Paul+G
ottfried+von+Linde&as_brr=1&ei=Du9kSfCMG
JOIkAT1v7TWDQ#PPA113,M1
10. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
11. ^ Carl Linde, "Process of Producing
Low Temperatures, the Liquefaction of
Gases, and the Separation of the
Constituents of Gaseous Mixtures", US
patent #727650,
1895. http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/np
h-Parser?patentnumber=727650 {Linde_Car
l_pat727650_1895.pdf}
12. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
13. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
{05/29/1895}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493. {1895}
15. ^ "Linde,
Carl von." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Paul Gottfried von
Linde". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Paul_G
ottfried_von_Linde
[2] "Refrigerating". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Refriger
ating
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p351
[4]
"Linde, Carl Von", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p545
(Munich Thermal Testing Station)
Munich, Germany12  
[1] Image from 1895 patent PD
source: http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/n
ph-Parser?patentnumber=727650

[2] Sketch of the first air
liquefaction plant of 1895 PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf
105 YBN
[06/20/1895 AD] 8 		4450)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ Runge and
Paschen. “Über das Spectrum des
Heliums,” in Sitzungsberichte der
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1895), 593,
639–643, presented 20 June 1895:
“Über die Bestandtheile des
Cleveit-Gases,” ibid., 749,
759–763. presented 11 July 1895;
Runge to Kayser, 15 May 1895 and 13
July 1895.
3. ^ Runge and Paschen, “Über
die Serienspectra der Elemente. Saue
toff. Schwefel und Selen.” in Annalen
der Physik, 61 (1697), 641–686.
4. ^ "Runge,
Carl David Tolmé." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
610-615. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 24 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903781&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Nature, V52, N1344,
August 1, 1895,
p327. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZkYCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA484&dq=intitle:nature+
LII&hl=en&ei=U5wjTODOIp_hnQeqyO0m&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CD
AQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=runge&f=false
7. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Runge and Paschen. “Über das
Spectrum des Heliums,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1895), 593, 639–643, presented 20
June 1895: “Über die Bestandtheile
des Cleveit-Gases,” ibid., 749,
759–763. presented 11 July 1895;
Runge to Kayser, 15 May 1895 and 13
July 1895. {06/20/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "spectral line series."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
036>.
[2] "Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Carl_
Heinrich_Friedrich_Paschen
[3] Paschen, “Vita,” Dissertation
(1888); “Antrittsrede,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1925),
cii.
[4] "Solar and terrestrial Helium", The
Chemical News, V71, N1855, June 14,
1895,
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YCLOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&v
ed=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
[5] "Carl David Tolmé Runge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_David_
Tolm%C3%A9_Runge
[6] henry Wilde, "On Helium and its
place in the Natural Classification of
Elementary Substances", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V400, N246, November
1895,
p466. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DlYwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&v
ed=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
(University of Hannover) Hannover ,
Germany7  
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg

[2] Description
CarleRunge.jpg Français : Portrait
de Carl David Tolmé Runge English:
Picture of en:Carl David Tolmé
Runge. Photographer and subject are
dead for >70years and therefore in the
public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ Date
2006-11-18 (first version);
2007-06-24 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was SuperGirl at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Kushboy at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/CarleRunge.jpg
105 YBN
[11/05/1895 AD] 78 79 		3936) Members of the New Jersey State
government try to create a law banning
the use of X rays in opera glasses to
protect women's privacy.70
In 1896
Roentgen shares the Rumford medal with
Lenard.71
In 1901 Roentgen wins the
first Nobel prize in physics.72
Roentgen
rejects offer of ennoblement and the
right to add "von" before his last
name.73
Roentgen dies in somewhat poor
finances74 from the hyper-inflation
that followed World War I.75
The unit
of X-ray dosage is called the
roentgen.76
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
6. ^ "Röntgen,
Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
8. ^ "Röntgen,
Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
12. ^ Richard
Francis Mould, "A century of x-rays and
radioactivity in medicine: with
emphasis on photographic records of the
early years", ed2, CRC Press,
1993. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IXPz7bVR7g0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+ce
ntury+of+x-rays&ei=eebDSZquLYzckQSC0-n-D
Q#PPT24,M1
13. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
14. ^ Richard Francis Mould, "A century
of x-rays and radioactivity in
medicine: with emphasis on photographic
records of the early years", ed2, CRC
Press,
1993. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IXPz7bVR7g0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+ce
ntury+of+x-rays&ei=eebDSZquLYzckQSC0-n-D
Q#PPT24,M1
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
18. ^ A. A. C.
Swinton, "Professor Rontgen's
Discovery.", Nature, 01/23/1896,
p276. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1
19. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y018
34708jv32h41/fulltext.pdf
20. ^ W. C. Rontgen, George Sarton,
"The Discovery of X-Rays The Discovery
of X-Rays", Isis, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Mar.,
1937), pp.
349-369. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
4922?&Search=yes&term=R%C3%B6ntgen&list=
hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch
%3FQuery%3DR%25C3%25B6ntgen%26jc%3Dj1001
94%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D8%26Search.y%3
D-1%26Search%3DSearch&item=2&ttl=76&retu
rnArticleService=showArticle {Roentgen_
Sartan_Isis_1937.pdf}
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
28. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
29. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams & Wilkens Co, 1928,
p325-326.
30. ^ "Rontgen Rays and the Royal
Society", Science, 03/06/1896,
p351 http://books.google.com/books?id=4
Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF+
RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#P
PA235,M1
31. ^ "The Rontgen Rays", Nature,
02/20/1896,
p377-378. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfr
pMZG4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1
32. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
33. ^ W. C. Rontgen, George Sarton,
"The Discovery of X-Rays The Discovery
of X-Rays", Isis, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Mar.,
1937), pp.
349-369. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
4922?&Search=yes&term=R%C3%B6ntgen&list=
hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch
%3FQuery%3DR%25C3%25B6ntgen%26jc%3Dj1001
94%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D8%26Search.y%3
D-1%26Search%3DSearch&item=2&ttl=76&retu
rnArticleService=showArticle {Roentgen_
Sartan_Isis_1937.pdf}
34. ^ "The Velocity of Propagation of
X-Rays", Nature, 12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
35. ^ "Blondlot, Rene-Prosper", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp106-107.
36. ^ "The Velocity of
Propagation of X-Rays", Nature,
12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
37. ^ Record ID3983. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ "The Rontgen Rays", Nature,
n1376, v53, 03/12/1896,
p449. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1
40. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF+RADIAT
ION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA409,
M1
41. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF+RADIAT
ION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA401,
M1
42. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF+RADIAT
ION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA465,
M1
43. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams & Wilkens Co, 1928,
p325-326.
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ Ted Huntington.
46. ^ Henry Crew,
"The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams
& Wilkens Co, 1928, p325-326.
47. ^ Ted
Huntington.
48. ^ H. H. Rossi and A. M. Kellerer,
"Roentgen", Radiation Research, Vol.
144, No. 2 (Nov., 1995), pp.
124-128. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888
/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=HH&aulast=R
ossi&atitle=Roentgen&id=doi:10.2307/3579
251
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ A. A. C. Swinton, "On
Professor Röntgen's Discovery",
Nature, No. 1396, Vol. 53, January 23,
1896,
p276-277. http://books.google.com/books
?id=i38CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0fgH2gN07jy_fqcH7VKkybi&lr=#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false
51. ^ Ted Huntington.
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ Ted
Huntington.
54. ^ Ted Huntington.
55. ^ Ted Huntington.
56. ^ Ted
Huntington.
57. ^ Ted Huntington.
58. ^ Ted Huntington.
59. ^ Ted
Huntington.
60. ^ Ted Huntington.
61. ^ Ted Huntington.
62. ^ Ted
Huntington.
63. ^ Ted Huntington.
64. ^ Ted Huntington.
65. ^ Ted
Huntington.
66. ^ Ted Huntington.
67. ^ Ted Huntington.
68. ^ Ted
Huntington.
69. ^ Ted Huntington.
70. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
71. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
72. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
73. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
74. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
75. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y018
34708jv32h41/fulltext.pdf
76. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
77. ^ "Röntgen,
Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
78. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
{11/05/1895}
79. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
{11/05/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[8] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[9] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History
of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
[10]
http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/
200708/history.cfm
[11] R. W. Wood, "The n-Rays.", Nature,
n1822, v70, 09/29/1904,
p530-531. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Qn0CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:nature+date:1904-1904&ei=wADJSd7
UN4TIlQScj-3_DQ#PPA530,M1
[12] Rene Blondlot, tr:Julien Francois
William Garcin, "'N' rays", Longmans,
Green, and co.,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Jpg3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=N+ra
ys+a+collection+of+papers&ei=DsTISdm3N4T
ckASbmYHLAw
[13]
www.rexresearch.com/blondlot/nrays.htm
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany77  
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg

[2] Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print of
Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.
gif
105 YBN
[12/28/1895 AD] 9 		4031)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

2. ^ "Lumière, Auguste Marie Louis
Nicolas." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-lumi-
re
3. ^ "Lumière, Auguste Marie Louis
Nicolas." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-lumi-
re
4. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

5. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

6. ^
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1895.htm

7. ^ "Lumière, Auguste Marie Louis
Nicolas." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-lumi-
re
8. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

9. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.
{12/28/1895 (first commercial
demonstration}
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Several Seconds Of “L'Arrivée
d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat”
(Arrival Of A Train At La Ciotat
Station) from 1895 PD
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/ciotat_animation_small.gif

[2] Auguste Lumière (left) and Louis
Lumière (right) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Fratelli_Lumiere.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 8 		3529)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Obituary Notices of Fellows Deceased",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 84, No. 574 (Feb. 15, 1911), pp.
i-xxxvii+xxxviii
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93337?seq=
25 {Thomsen_Julius_obituary.pdf}
4. ^ "Obituary Notices of Fellows
Deceased", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 84, No. 574 (Feb. 15,
1911), pp. i-xxxvii+xxxviii
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93337?seq=
25 {Thomsen_Julius_obituary.pdf}
5. ^ Zeitsch. anorg. Chem, 1895, vol 9,
p 283 and in English Journ Chem Soc,
1896, vol 70, II, p16.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p438.
7. ^ "Thomsen,
Hans Peter Jörgen Julius", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p871.
8. ^ "Obituary Notices of
Fellows Deceased", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 84, No. 574
(Feb. 15, 1911), pp. i-xxxvii+xxxviii
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93337?seq=
25 {Thomsen_Julius_obituary.pdf}
{1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Thomsen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/593044/Julius-Thomsen>.
[2] "Hans Peter Jørgen Julius
Thomsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Peter_
J%C3%B8rgen_Julius_Thomsen
[3] "Hans Peter Jorgen Julius Thomsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hans_Pet
er_Jorgen_Julius_Thomsen
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark7  
[1] Portrait and statue of Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius Thomsen (1826-1909),
Chemist Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1909-12-31 Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3460&q=SIL14-T002-01 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Accession number:
SIL14-T002-01 PD/Corel
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
109/2552817267_53206801d0.jpg?v=0

[2] Scientist: Thomsen, Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius (1826 -
1909) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15 x 11.5 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T002-01a.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 5 		3722)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p386.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Simon
Newcomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Simon_Ne
wcomb
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p386. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Newcomb, Simon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
577>
[2] "Simon Newcomb." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[3] "Simon Newcomb." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[4] "Simon Newcomb." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[5] "Simon Newcomb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Newco
mb
[6] "Newcomb, Simon", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p641-642
[7] R. C. Archibald,
Bibliography of the Life and Works of
Simon Newcomb, Transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
(Nautical Almanac Office) Washington,
DC, USA4  
[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 13 		3954)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
2. ^
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/C/coelostat.html
3. ^ M. G. Lippmann, "Sur un coelostat,
ou appareil à miroir, donnant une
image du Ciel immobile par rapport à
la Terre", Comptes rendus. May, 1895.
p1015-1019.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?
O=30000000030761
4. ^ "coelostat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Aug. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124198/coelostat>.
5. ^ "Lippmann, Gabriel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
453>
6. ^ "coelostat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Aug. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124198/coelostat>.
7. ^
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/C/coelostat.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ M. G. Lippmann, "Sur un
coelostat, ou appareil à miroir,
donnant une image du Ciel immobile par
rapport à la Terre", Comptes rendus.
May, 1895. p1015-1019.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?
O=30000000030761
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "coelostat."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Aug. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/124198/coelostat>.
12. ^ "Gabriel Lippmann." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
13. ^ M. G. Lippmann, "Sur un
coelostat, ou appareil à miroir,
donnant une image du Ciel immobile par
rapport à la Terre", Comptes rendus.
May, 1895. p1015-1019.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?
O=30000000030761 {05/15/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Jonas Lippmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jon
as_Lippmann
[2] "Photography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1908/lippmann-bio.html
[4] "Lippmann, Gabriel Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p547
[5] "Prof. G. Lippmann"
(obituary), Nature, Volume 107, August
18, 1921.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3-4RA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA788&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%
22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lip
pmann%22&f=false
[6] "Gabriel Lippmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
07 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[7] "meniscus". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eniscus
[8] Samuel Lawrence Bigelow,
"Theoretical and physical chemistry",
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kshAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA470&dq=lippmann+mercur
y&lr=#v=onepage&q=lippmann%20mercury&f=f
alse
[9] "Gabriel Lippmann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabriel-lip
pmann
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp506.
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=cO4PAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA158&dq=%22Gabriel+Lippmann%22
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22Gabriel%20Lippm
ann%22&f=false
[12] The Electrical Review, Volume 7,
Volume 139,
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cREAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Gabriel+Lippmann
+date:1879-1879&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Gabriel%20Lippmann%20date%3A1879-1879&f
=false
[13] W. N. Shaw, "On experiments with
mercury electrodes.", Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
Volume 3,
http://books.google.com/books?id=zZw1A
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA309&dq=lippmann+mercury&lr=
#v=onepage&q=lippmann%20mercury&f=false
[14] Cromwell Fleetwood Varley,
"Polarization of Metallic Surfaces in
Aqueous Solutions. On a New Method of
Obtaining Electricity from Mechanical
Force, and Certain Relations between
Electro-Static Induction and the
Decomposition of Water", Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1871
161:129-136;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1871.0008. http://rstl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/161/
129.full.pdf+html
Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France12 (presumably) 
[1] Capillary electrometer
COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE (Internet)
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_electrometer1.jpg

[2] Figures from Annalen Der Physik,
1873 PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 11 12 		3991) Interesting that Baumann dies so
closely to the year of his big
discovery.8 In the "Science" obituary,
the death is described using the word
"suggestion" which is a key word,
"baumann was actively engaged in the
solution of many probelms suggested by
this last great discovery when, after
an illness of only two days, death put
an end to a brief but brilliant
career.".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p388.
3. ^ "flocculent."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 01 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
locculent>.
4. ^ "flocs." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 01 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
locs>.
5. ^ Eugen Baumaxk, Zeit physiol. Chem
1895, 21, 319—330. translated from
German to English as: Normal
Occurrence of Iodine in the Body.",
Journal of the Chemical Society, Volume
70, Part 2,
p263. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kes4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA487&dq=Eugen+Baumann&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Eugen%20Baumann&f=fa
lse
6. ^ By Eugen Baumann and Ernst Roos
(ZM. physiol. Chem., 1896, 21,
481—493). translated into English
as: "Iodine Compounds in the
Thyroid.", Journal of the Chemical
Society, Volume 70, Part
2 http://books.google.com/books?id=kes4
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA487&dq=Eugen+Baumann&as_br
r=1#v=onepage&q=Eugen%20Baumann&f=false
7. ^ Eugen Baumann (Zeit. physiol.
Chem., 1896, 22, 1—17). translated
from German to English: "Iodine in the
Thyroid".
http://books.google.com/books?id=kes4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA487&dq=Eugen+Baumann&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=Eugen%20Baumann&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Professor Eugen Baumann
(obituary), Science, Volume 5,
p51-53. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=mXwCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Eugen+Baumann&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Eugen%20Baumann&f=f
alse
10. ^ Professor Eugen Baumann
(obituary), Science, Volume 5,
p51-53. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=mXwCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Eugen+Baumann&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Eugen%20Baumann&f=f
alse
11. ^ Eugen Baumaxk, Zeit physiol. Chem
1895, 21, 319—330. translated from
German to English as: Normal
Occurrence of Iodine in the Body.",
Journal of the Chemical Society, Volume
70, Part 2,
p263. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kes4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA487&dq=Eugen+Baumann&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Eugen%20Baumann&f=fa
lse
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p509. {1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. A. Kossel (1897).
"Obituary: Eugen Baumann". Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 30
(3): 3197–3213.
doi:10.1002/cber.189703003150. http://e
n.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berichte_der_deutsc
hen_chemischen_Gesellschaft
(University of Freiberg) Freiberg,
Germany10  
[1] Beschreibung Eugen Baumann
(1846 - 1896), deutscher
Chemiker Quelle
Bioanalytical.com Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
Unbekannter Fotograf Datum
vor 1896 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e5/Eugen_Baumann.jpg

[2] Eugen Baumann PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/Baumann.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 6 		4029)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmrr
g.html
3. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
4. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
5. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Edison_Motion_Pictures.htm
6. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
{1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Cros." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
[2] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
[3] "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>
[4] "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>
[5] Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
[6] "The Telegraph and Its Future",
Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[9] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
[11] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph
[12] Video of constructing an Edison
Battery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
K84PywMwjZg
[13] "Nickel-iron battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-iron
_battery
[14] "nickel-iron accumulator." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nickel-iron
-accumulator-1
[15]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
[16] "Storage Battery, Edison",
"Compendium of the world's progress
during the ...", 1902,
p736. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k1MAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA736&dq=thomas+edis
on+nickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20ba
ttery&f=false
(Edison's Black Maria Studio) West
Orange, New Jersey, USA4 5  
[1] Frames from early experimental
attempt to create sound motion pictures
by the Edison Manufacturing Company.
W.K.L. Dickson plays the violin in
front of a horn connected to a cylinder
recording machine. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/dancemp.jpg

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 4 		4175)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
2. ^ "Lorentz,
Hendrik Antoon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[5] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[6] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[7] George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[8] H. A. Lorentz, "The Relative Motion
of the earth and the Ether", Konink.
Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, Verslagen van der gewone
Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige
Afdeeling, 1892, 1:74 ff; also in H. A.
Lorentz, Collected Papers (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), vol 4.,
pp219-223.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8Q9WA
AAAMAAJ&q=The+Relative+Motion+of+the+ear
th+and+the+Ether&dq=The+Relative+Motion+
of+the+earth+and+the+Ether
[9] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10] Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands3  
[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg


source:
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 11 		4176)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
2. ^ H. A. Lorentz,
"Michelson's Interference Experiment",
translated from: "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at:
http://www.lawebdefisica.com/arts/lorent
z/ {Principle_of_Relativity_1923.pdf}
3. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Michelson's
Interference Experiment", translated
from: "Versuch einer Theorie der
elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at:
http://www.lawebdefisica.com/arts/lorent
z/ {Principle_of_Relativity_1923.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Record ID4157. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Albert Michelson,
"Studies in Optics", Chicago
Universityt Press, 1927, p156.
9. ^ Record
ID4117. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik
Antoon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
11. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Michelson's
Interference Experiment", translated
from: "Versuch einer Theorie der
elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at:
http://www.lawebdefisica.com/arts/lorent
z/ {Principle_of_Relativity_1923.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[5] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923.
[6] Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf
[7] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>.
[9] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands10  
[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg


source:
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 5 		4188)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
2. ^ Mary Ellen
Jones, "Albrecht Kossel, A Biographical
Sketch", Yale J Biol Med. 1953
September; 26(1): 80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
3. ^ "Albrecht Kossel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
4. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
5. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ko
ssel
[4] "Kossel, Karl Martin Leonhard
Albrecht." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 466-468.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 2
Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany4  
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 14 		4201) Jules Henri Poincaré (PwoNKorA)
(CE 1854-1912), French mathematician1
develops the theory of topology in his
"Analysis Situs" (1895). Analysis Situs
is the name for the theory of topology
(also known as surface geometry2 ) at
the time.3
Before this Poincaré had
worked on celestial mechanics, the
three-body problem.4 5 This is before
computers, and equations can take days
to calculate and plot. Now calculating
the mutual effect, moving, and plotting
millions of points according to
Newton's law of gravity may take only
seconds.6

In examining the positions of celestial
orbits Poincaré discovers that even
small changes in the initial conditions
can produce large, unpredictable
changes in the resulting orbit.7 This
idea of a small change in initial
conditions causing largely different
results relates to what is now called
chaos theory.8 Poincaré summarizes
his new mathematical methods in
astronomy in "Les Méthodes nouvelles
de la mécanique céleste", 3 vol.
(1892, 1893, 1899; "The New Methods of
Celestial Mechanics").9

In 1905, Poincaré writes a paper on
the motion of the electron, which,
according to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, with other papers of his at
this time, comes close to anticipating
Albert Einstein's discovery of the
theory of special relativity. But
Poincaré never takes the decisive step
of combining space and time into
space-time.10

Poincaré does theoretical work on
tides and rotating fluid spheres which
support the work of G. H. Darwin.11

Poincaré's first cousin Raymond
Poincaré is President of France during
World War I.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Poincaré, Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
534>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550.
5. ^ "Poincaré,
Henri." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 22
Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
534>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Poincaré, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
534>.
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p403.
9. ^ "Poincaré, Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
534>.
10. ^ "Poincaré, Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
534>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p550.
13. ^ "Jules
Henri Poincaré." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-poinc
ar
14. ^ "Poincaré, Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
534>. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jules Henri Poincaré."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-poinc
ar
[2] "Jules Henri Poincaré." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-poinc
ar
[3] "Jules Henri Poincaré". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Henri
_Poincar%C3%A9
[4] "Jules Henri Poincaré."
Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol.
12. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2004.
365-366. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
(University of Paris) Paris, France13
 
[1] Henri Poincaré, photograph from
the frontispiece of the 1913 edition of
''Last Thoughts'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/JH_Poincare.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 15 		4208) Hampson also published two
volumes of science for the public:
"Radium Explained" (1905)11 and
"Paradoxes of Science"(1906)12 .13
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p552.
3. ^ William
Hampson, "Self-Intensive Refrigeration
of Gases: Liquid Air and Oxygen",
reprinted in Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, 17 (1898), 411.
4. ^
Mansel Davies, "William Hampson
(1854-1926): A Note", The British
Journal for the History of Science,
Vol. 22, No. 1 (Mar., 1989), pp.
63-73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4026
679 {Hampson_William_A_Note_4026679.pdf
}
5. ^ Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh,
"Investigations into the properties of
substances at low temperatures, which
have led, amongst other things, to the
preparation of liquid helium". Nobel
Lecture, December 11, 1913.
6. ^ "Hampson,
William." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 93-94.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 27
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Mansel Davies, "William Hampson
(1854-1926): A Note", The British
Journal for the History of Science,
Vol. 22, No. 1 (Mar., 1989), pp.
63-73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4026
679 {Hampson_William_A_Note_4026679.pdf
}
8. ^ "Hampson, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 93-94. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ William
Hampson, "Radium explained: a popular
account of the relations of radium to
the ...",
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZX3vofYCNyQC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
12. ^ William Hampson, "Paradoxes of
nature and science",
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jo4KAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:ISBN0766135330#v=onepage&q=&f=false

13. ^ "Hampson, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 93-94. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
14. ^ Hampson 1896 patent for
refrigerating
apparatus: http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=RcpdAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
15. ^ Mansel Davies, "William Hampson
(1854-1926): A Note", The British
Journal for the History of Science,
Vol. 22, No. 1 (Mar., 1989), pp.
63-73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4026
679 {Hampson_William_A_Note_4026679.pdf
} {1895}
London, England14 (presumably) 
[1] Image of refrigerating apparatus
from 1896 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=RcpdAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 4 		4243)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert E. Peary." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560.
3. ^ "Robert E.
Peary." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
4. ^ "Robert E. Peary." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert E. Peary." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
[2] "Robert Edwin Peary". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Edwi
n_Peary
[3] "Robert Edwin Peary." Science and
Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 5: 1800 to 1899. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 97. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
Greenland3  
[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
. 04/1909 PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg

[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 7 		4302)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p567.
3. ^ James
Keeler, “A Spectroscopic Proof of the
Meteoritic Constitution of Saturn’s
Rings,” in Astrophysical Journal, 1
(1895),
416–427 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1895ApJ.....1..416K and
http://books.google.com/books?id=ExzOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Proo
f+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+Saturn
%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0
&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is
=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Spec
troscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Meteoric%
20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%20Rings
&f=false
4. ^ "Keeler, James Edward." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 270-271. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ James Keeler, “A Spectroscopic
Proof of the Meteoritic Constitution of
Saturn’s Rings,” in Astrophysical
Journal, 1 (1895),
416–427 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1895ApJ.....1..416K and
http://books.google.com/books?id=ExzOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Proo
f+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+Saturn
%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0
&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is
=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Spec
troscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Meteoric%
20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%20Rings
&f=false
6. ^ "Keeler, James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
967>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Edward Keeler." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-edwar
d-keeler-american-astronomer
[2] "James Edward Keeler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edwar
d_Keeler
(Allegheny Observatory) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA6  
[1] Figure 1 from Keeler's 1895
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ExzOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopi
c+Proof+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+
Saturn%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_min
m_is=0&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_m
axy_is=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%
20Spectroscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Met
eoric%20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%2
0Rings&f=false

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 10 		4420) In 1947 Walden publishes an
important history of chemistry.8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p595.
3. ^ "Paul
Walden." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-walden

4. ^ "Walden, Paul." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
919>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record ID3411. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595.
9. ^ "Walden, Paul
(also known as Pavel Ivanovich
Valden)." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 124-125.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904541&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Walden". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Walden

(Riga Polytechnical School) Riga,
Latvia9  
[1] Description Paul
Walden.jpg English: Paul Walden (1863
– 1957), Latvian-German chemist Date
Source
http://www.li.lv/images_new/Valdens
.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/Paul_Walden.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 7 		4513) Sabine does not get a doctorate
degree before teaching.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p620-621.
2. ^ "Sabine, Wallace
Clement Ware." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p620-621.
4. ^ "Sabine, Wallace
Clement." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 12
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
626>.
5. ^ "Sabine, Wallace Clement Ware."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Sabine, Wallace Clement Ware."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Sabine, Wallace Clement Ware."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wallace Clement Sabine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Cle
ment_Sabine
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA6  
[1] Description Sabine.png English:
Photograph of Wallace Clement Sabine -
Harvard University Date
1922(1922) Source Collected
Papers on Acoustics Author
Wallace Clement Sabine PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Sabine.png
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 14 		4703) In 1919 Bordet wins the Nobel
prize in medicine and physiology for
work on complement fixation.10
Bordet
holds out against the theory of
viruses, thinking the bacteriophages
identified by Twort are not living
organisms but only toxins, that is
non-living chemicals.11
Bordet
contributes significantly to the
foundation of serology, the study of
immune reactions in body fluids.12
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
2. ^ "Bordet, Jules."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
3. ^ "peritoneum." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 02 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peritoneum
4. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 300-301. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
6. ^ "Bordet, Jules."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 300-301. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
8. ^ "Bordet, Jules."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 300-301. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
12. ^ "Bordet,
Jules." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 2
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
13. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
14. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jules Bordet." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jules-borde
t
[2] "Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Jean_
Baptiste_Vincent_Bordet
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France13
 
[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 12 13 		4717) Perrin supports the De Gaulle
(anti-Nazi) government in France from
the USA after France fell to the
Nazism.9

(For the pronounciation of Perrin's
last name is "PeraN" correct? because I
don't think there is an "a" sound in
the French language - but perhaps there
was adapted from England for English
words, for example.10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
3. ^ J. Perrin,
"Nouvelles proprietes des rayons
cathodiques.",Comptes Rendus, V121,
1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN {Perrin_
Jean_1895.pdf} English
translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
5. ^ J. Perrin,
"Nouvelles proprietes des rayons
cathodiques.",Comptes Rendus, V121,
1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN {Perrin_
Jean_1895.pdf} English
translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
6. ^ Report of the annual meeting of
the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Issue 66, 1896,
p702. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lOs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA701&dq=cathode+rays+Pe
rrin&hl=en&ei=Ku1ZTLbSAYK-sQOt-KyrCA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cathode%20rays%2
0Perrin&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ "Perrin, Jean Baptiste." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 524-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903358&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632. {1895}
13. ^
"Perrin, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
322>. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[3] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Perrin
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[5] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, "Introduction to general
chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
(École Normale) Paris, France11  
[1] Figure from J. Perrin, ''Nouvelles
proprietes des rayons
cathodiques.'',Comptes Rendus, V121,
1895, p1130. PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN

[2] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 8 		4810)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Annie Wood Besant, Charles
Webster Leadbeater, Thought-forms,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5Rc81HHJz2gC&dq=thought+forms+annie+besa
nt&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&e
i=ow-lTL-dDIjCsAP1zIj-Dg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAw#
v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ "Hyppolite Baraduc." Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 30
Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyppolite-b
araduc
3. ^ Annie Wood Besant, Charles Webster
Leadbeater, Thought-forms,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5Rc81HHJz2gC&dq=thought+forms+annie+besa
nt&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&e
i=ow-lTL-dDIjCsAP1zIj-Dg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAw#
v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Hyppolite Baraduc." Encyclopedia of
Occultism and Parapsychology. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 30 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyppolite-b
araduc
8. ^ "Hyppolite Baraduc." Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 30
Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyppolite-b
araduc {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] Schenkel, Elmar and Welz,
Stefan, "Magical objects: things and
beyond" http://books.google.com/books?h
l=en&lr=&id=P_wcLQ-hKOYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA127
&dq=Hyppolite+Baraduc+1895&ots=Fcz8v2iQC
u&sig=-5TmWiRIDr0KUxibg99lXZLt8Tw#v=onep
age&q=Hyppolite%20Baraduc%201895&f=false

(Sorbonne) Paris, France7   
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 37 		4826) In 1894 Marconi reads an article
about the electromagnetic waves
uncovered by Hertz eight years earlier,
and realizes that radio waves might be
used in signaling, and by the end of
the year is ringing a bell at a
distance of thirty feet.15
In 1895
Marconi sends a signal from his house
to his garden, and later over a mile
and a half.16
In 1896 The Italian
government is uninterested (in
Marconi's radio message sending17 ) and
Marconi goes to England (his mother is
Irish and speaks perfect English) where
he sends a signal nine miles.18
In 1897
in Italy Marconi sends a signal from
land to a warship 12 miles.19
In 1898
in England, Marconi sends a signal 18
miles.20
1899 Marconi uses the word
"rendered" in a paper on wireless
telegraphy.21
In 1904 a demonstration
of radio operation is very popular at
the St, Louis World's Fair.22
(How
would have seeing and hearing thought
been? That would have been popular.23
)
In 1909 Marconi shares the Nobel Prize
in physics with Braun.24 (Mainly
Marconi developed the process Hertz
first found, but Marconi must have made
some improvements, and transmitting a
signal over the Atlantic Ocean is
important.25 )
Marconi is in charge of
Italy's radio service during World War
I.26
Marconi enthusiastically supports
Mussolini's Fascist government.27
Marco
ni is sent as a delegate to the peace
conference of World War I in Paris
(1919) and there signs the peace
treaties with Austria and with
Bulgaria.28
From 1921 on Marconi uses
his steam yacht "Elettra" as home,
laboratory, and mobile receiving
station in propagation experiments.29
(Interesting that perhaps being at sea
he wanted to be able to detect people
or particle devices trying to move
close to him, although this would
require underwater sensors too.30 )
In
1929 Marconi is created marchese and
nominated to the Italian senate.31
In
1930 Marconi is chosen president of the
Royal Italian Academy.32

(It's not clear if Marconi was aware of
neuron reading and writing before going
public with his radio communication
devices. Being from a wealthy family
implies that Marconi is somehow
selected by the insider group to bring
wireless particle communication to the
public. This also implies that the
Marconi family may have been a secret
provider of radio service already - and
simply extend it to the public at small
"phony" planned increments
demonstrating devices they were
surpassed long before.33 )

(Possibly something started the public
release of wireless communication.
Joseph Henry, Ampere, Faraday, Edison
and others had already publicly
described electric induction to
communicate signals from one wire to
another. But clearly, to bring
particle (wireless) message sending to
the masses instead of keeping it for an
elite few must have required some kind
of volitility inside the group
maintaining the secret telegraph and
neuron reading/writing networks - which
ultimately is the telegraph and
telephone companies, and presumably the
military part of governments.34 )

Accoring Answers Biographies Marconi is
educated by private tutors and attended
the Livorno (Leghorn) technical
institute for a short time. In his 1899
paper, Marconi cites help from
assistants. This may imply possibly
that Marconi supervised wireless work
done by others without actually
assembling devices himself, in
particular as a wealthy person most
likely involved in ownership,
development and administration of
neuron reading and writing. Possibly
Marconi was some kind of counter to
AT&T because the initials att are used
by Marconi in 1899 and by others in
biographies of Marconi. An alternative
theory is that Marconi was a subset of
AT&T to make them not appear too
large.]

(The view from those who control neuron
reading and writing must be an
incredibly interesting view - and is
somewhat difficult to imagine for those
who do not see people's thought
screens. It seems clear that these
people are familiar with most of the
typical thought images that people
have, and how to minimally activate
certain neurons in any humans brain to
get them to move and make decisions
that those neuron writers want them to
make. In particular, the view must have
been terrible during the World Wars.
Clearly those humans in the
telecommunications had the best view of
all the eyes and thoughts - and perhaps
even used neuron writing to advance the
poor people employed in the militaries.
Perhaps even some part of the wars were
fought virtually by humans controlling
computers, which in turn fight against
each other using poor humans in the
armies more or less as unthinking pawn
on a chess board - absolutely
controlling their every movement. It's
not clear how advanced the particle
beam technology was and is, but
clearly, it has rendered and continues
to render and track many objects on
earth in real-time.35 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
2. ^ "Marconi,
Guglielmo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 98-99.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
4. ^ Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ Joseph Henry, "On Induction from
Ordinary Electricity; and on the
Oscillatory Discharge.", Proceedings of
the American Philosophical Society,
vol. II, 1842,
p193-196. http://www.jstor.org/stable/p
dfplus/3143547.pd
6. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
10. ^ Record ID4345.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
21. ^ G. Marconi,
"Wireless Telegraphy", proceedings of
the institution of electrical
engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
27. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
28. ^ "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
29. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
32. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
37. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[5] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[6] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[7] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The
Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly,
"Marconi", 1972
(father’s estate) Bologna, Italy36
 
[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

104 YBN
[01/24/1896 AD] 4 5 		3941)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Charles Dolley, "Rontgen Rays
From the Electric Arc", Science,
p358-359.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF+RADI
ATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA35
8,M1
2. ^ "Silvanus P. Thompson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvanus_P.
_Thompson
3. ^ London, Electrician, January
24,1896.
4. ^ Charles Dolley, "Rontgen Rays From
the Electric Arc", Science, p358-359.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF+RADI
ATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA35
8,M1 {01/24/1896}
5. ^ London, Electrician, January
24,1896. {01/24/1896}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-b
in/nph-iarticle_query?1917MNRAS..77..305
.?
(City and Guilds Technical College)
Finsbury, England2 3  		 
104 YBN
[01/26/1896 AD] 3 		3939)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Rontgen Rays", Nature,
n1376, v53, 03/12/1896,
p449. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1
2. ^ "The Rontgen Rays", Nature, n1376,
v53, 03/12/1896,
p449. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1
3. ^ "The Rontgen Rays", Nature, n1376,
v53, 03/12/1896,
p449. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1 {01/26/1896}
(Reale Istituto Veneto di science)
Veneto, Italy2  		 
104 YBN
[02/10/1896 AD] 5 		3938)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Blythswood, "The New Actinic
Rays", Nature, n1372, vol53,
02/13/1896,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1
2. ^ Pupin, "Rontgen Rays", Science,
02/14/1896,
p231. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF
+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#
PPA235,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Blythswood, "The New
Actinic Rays", Nature, n1372, vol53,
02/13/1896,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1
5. ^ Blythswood, "The New Actinic
Rays", Nature, n1372, vol53,
02/13/1896,
p340. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZG
4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1 {02/10/1896}
Renfrew, England4   
104 YBN
[02/12/1896 AD] 7 		4334)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ Michael Pupin,
"From Immigrant To Inventor", 1922,
p306-310.
3. ^ Michael Pupin, "From Immigrant To
Inventor", 1922, p306-310.
4. ^ Michael Pupin,
"From Immigrant To Inventor", 1922,
p306-310.
5. ^ Michael Pupin, "From Immigrant To
Inventor", 1922, p306-310.
6. ^ "Michael Idvorsky
Pupin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in
7. ^ Michael Pupin, "From Immigrant To
Inventor", 1922, p306-310. {02/12/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pupin, Michael Idvorsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
932>
[2] "Michael Idvorsky Pupin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in
[3] "Pupin, Michael Idvorsky." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 213. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903540&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] Dugald C. Jackson, "Michael
Idvorsky Pupin (1858-1935)",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 72, No. 10
(May, 1938), pp. 379-385
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA6  
[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg
104 YBN
[02/22/1896 AD] 4 		3940)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Charles Dolley, "Rontgen Rays
Present in Sunlight", Science,
p357-358.
2. ^ Record ID5665. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=ERoCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA596&lpg=PA596&dq=seneca+Egber
t+rontgen+rays+photographs&source=bl&ots
=UHuJje1bBR&sig=AhsihHq3R-zWgnvBxHKLsWcv
Wio&hl=en&ei=ptnESfXtL4H0sAPXxsDYBg&sa=X
&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
4. ^ Charles Dolley, "Rontgen Rays
Present in Sunlight", Science,
p357-358. {02/22/1896}
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA3
(presumably) 		 
104 YBN
[02/24/1896 AD] 11 		4150) Henri Becquerel is a member of a
scientific family extending through
several generations, the most notable
being his grandfather Antoine-César
Becquerel (1788–1878), his father,
Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel
(1820–1891), and his son Jean
Becquerel (1878–1953).7
Becquerel's
father, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel did
important work with fluorescence.8
In
1903 Becquerel shares the Nobel prize
in physics with the Curies.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ "Becoquerel,
Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
558-561. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Henri Becquerel (1896).
"Sur les radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22&
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
10. ^
"Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
11. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {02/24/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France10
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
104 YBN
[03/02/1896 AD] 16 		4151)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
3. ^ H. Becquerel,
"Sur les radiations invisibles émises
par les corps phosphorescents", Comptes
Rendus 122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
4. ^ 4. ^ Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur
les radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
5. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
(SO4(UO)K+H2O)
7. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
15. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
16. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {02/24/1896}
{03/02/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France15
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
104 YBN
[03/03/1896 AD] 9 		4535)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
2. ^ C. T. R. Wilson,
"The Effect of Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
3. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
9. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
[7] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8, 1895,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England8  
[1] FIGURE 1. Wilson’s 1895
apparatus. The gas to be expanded is in
the glass vessel A, which itself is
placed inside a glass bottle B, which
is partially filled with water so as to
trap the gas in the inner vessel. The
air above the water in the bottle is
connected with an evacuated vessel F by
tubes D and G, to which are fitted
valves E and K, the latter of which is
normally closed When this valve is
quickly opened, the air at the top of
the bottle B rushes into the evacuated
vessel F and the water in B rises until
it fills the top of the bottle, and by
doing so, closes the valve E, so
stopping further expansion of the gas
in A. By suitably adjusting the initial
volume of the gas in A and the amount
of water in B, the relative expansion
of the gasin Acan be precisely
controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg
104 YBN
[03/09/1896 AD] 9 10 		3937)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1896. also in; Annalen
der Physik, Volume 300 Issue 1, 1898,
p12-18.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112506661/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: "A New Form of
Radiation", Science, v3, n72,
05/15/1896,
p726. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF
+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#
PPA726,M1
3. ^ "accumulator." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/accumulator

4. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1896. also
in; Annalen der Physik, Volume 300
Issue 1, 1898, p12-18.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112506661/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: "A New Form of
Radiation", Science, v3, n72,
05/15/1896,
p726. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF
+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#
PPA726,M1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Röntgen,
Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
8. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1896. also
in; Annalen der Physik, Volume 300
Issue 1, 1898, p12-18.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112506661/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: "A New Form of
Radiation", Science, v3, n72,
05/15/1896,
p726. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF
+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#
PPA726,M1
9. ^ Richard Francis Mould, "A century
of x-rays and radioactivity in
medicine: with emphasis on photographic
records of the early years", ed2, CRC
Press,
1993. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IXPz7bVR7g0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+ce
ntury+of+x-rays&ei=eebDSZquLYzckQSC0-n-D
Q#PPT24,M1 {03/09/1896}
10. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1896. also in; Annalen
der Physik, Volume 300 Issue 1, 1898,
p12-18.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112506661/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: "A New Form of
Radiation", Science, v3, n72,
05/15/1896,
p726. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF
+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#
PPA726,M1 {03/09/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[8] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[9] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History
of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
[10] Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan. 23, 1896,
p274. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf http://w
eb.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roentgen.html
[11]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
[12] H. H. Rossi and A. M. Kellerer,
"Roentgen", Radiation Research, Vol.
144, No. 2 (Nov., 1995), pp.
124-128. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888
/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=HH&aulast=R
ossi&atitle=Roentgen&id=doi:10.2307/3579
251
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany7 8  
[1] xray photo of frog by E. Waymouth
Reid and J. P. Kuenen in Nature 1375
vol 53 1896 Notice collapsed lung -
confirmed on dissection. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZ
G4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1

[2] Leather case containing
eye-glasses. made by M. I. Pupin, in
Science, vol3 n59, 1896, p235. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+O
F+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg
#PPA234-IA2,M1
104 YBN
[03/18/1896 AD] 8 		4276)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^ Nikola Tesla,
"On Roentgen Rays - Latest Results",
Electrical Review — March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
3. ^ Nikola Tesla, "On Roentgen Rays -
Latest Results", Electrical Review —
March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
4. ^ Nikola Tesla, "On Roentgen Rays -
Latest Results", Electrical Review —
March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
5. ^ Francke L. Woodward, "Effects of
Roentgen Rays upon a Beam of Light.",
Electrical Engineer, V. 23, 06/30/1897,
p735. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eY8_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA735&dq=crookes+rontgen
+molecules+date:1895-1895&hl=en&ei=WqS7S
4SIFYXiswOm4rx-&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=crookes%20rontgen%20molecules%20date%
3A1895-1895&f=false
6. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
7. ^ Nikola Tesla, "On Roentgen Rays -
Latest Results", Electrical Review —
March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
8. ^ Nikola Tesla, "On Roentgen Rays -
Latest Results", Electrical Review —
March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
{03/18/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[5] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[6] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[9] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[11] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[12] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[13] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[14] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[15] Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[16] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[17] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[18] "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm
[19] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23,
c.8 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/A
rticles/jul_11_1935b.htm
[20]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
[21] "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[22] Tesla patent
#645576 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
(Private Lab) New York City, NY, USA6 7
 (presumably) 
[1] Image from Tesla's 1897 patent
#65576 System of Transmission of
Electric Energy PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
104 YBN
[03/25/1896 AD] 5 		4152)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ H. Becquerel,
"Sur les radiations invisibles émises
par les sels d’uranium," ibid.,
Comptes Rendus 122 (1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
3. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
4. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false {03/25/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
[2] "Henri Becquerel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[4] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[6] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France4
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
104 YBN
[04/06/1896 AD] 5 		4335)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ "Pupin, Michael
Idvorsky." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 17
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
932>.
3. ^ Michael Pupin, "From Immigrant To
Inventor", 1922, p306-310.
4. ^ "Michael Idvorsky
Pupin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in
5. ^ Michael Pupin, "From Immigrant To
Inventor", 1922, p306-310. {04/06/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Idvorsky Pupin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in
[2] "Pupin, Michael Idvorsky." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 213. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903540&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] Dugald C. Jackson, "Michael
Idvorsky Pupin (1858-1935)",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 72, No. 10
(May, 1938), pp. 379-385.
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA4  
[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg
104 YBN
[04/23/1896 AD] 7 		4033)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and
register of important events ...,
Volume 2, 1899,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
k60YAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA439&dq=vitascope&as_br
r=1#v=onepage&q=vitascope&f=false
2. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

3. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
4. ^
http://www.victorian-cinema.net/armat.ht
m
5. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Motion_Pictures_Vitascope.htm
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Motion_Pictures_Vitascope.htm
7. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Motion_Pictures_Vitascope.htm
{04/23/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[11] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[12] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[13] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[14] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[15] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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[16] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
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Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
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y%22&f=false
[17] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[18] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[19] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
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=onepage&q=&f=false
[20] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
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"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
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[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
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http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
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[22]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[23] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[24] Edison's Patent on the pressure
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203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
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=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
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18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
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[27] Edison "improvements to
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218>
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Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
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epage&q=&f=false
[30]
http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
.asp
[31] "mains." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ains>
[32] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359
[33] Edison 1882 patent - I'm not sure
if this is first three-wire electrical
distribution
system http://www.google.com/patents?id
=9T1tAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=ininventor:edis
on&as_drrb_ap=b&as_minm_ap=0&as_miny_ap=
1881&as_maxm_ap=0&as_maxy_ap=1883&source
=gbs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[34] J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, Vol 42,
Num 254, July 1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[35] William Henry Preece, "On a
Peculiar Behaviour of Glow-Lamps when
raised to High Incandescence",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol 38, 1885,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nwMXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22on+a+peculia
r+behaviour+of+glow%22+date:1885-1885&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20peculiar%
20behaviour%20of%20glow%22%20date%3A1885
-1885&f=false
[36] Edison Patent
307031 http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&dq=307031
[37] Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[38] J. A. Fleming, "Problems in the
Physics of an Electric Lamp", Nature,
vol 42, Num 1078, 1890,
p198. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JDEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=edison+effect&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fa
lse
[39] John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
[40] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[41] Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[42] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p184-185. http://books.google.com/books
?id=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+e
dison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[43] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
[44]
doi:10.1038/018368b0. http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA627&dq
=intitle:nature+date:1878-1878#v=onepage
&q=edison&f=false http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v18/n457/pdf/018368b0.pd
f
[45] T. C. Mendenhall, "On the
Influence of Time on the Change in the
Resistance of the Carbon Disk of
Edison's Tasimeter", Phil Mag, 1882,
p115. http://books.google.com/books?id=
npAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA115&lpg=PA115&dq=tasim
eter&source=bl&ots=9rhdtfDckV&sig=_JYaLG
QGiaJ2bXb_paXLtXaImgE&hl=en&ei=yI6pSr_4E
pGSsgOX1NDyBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=9#v=onepage&q=tasimeter&f=fal
se
[46] Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[47] "The Tasimeter", Nature, 18,
p368-370 (1878)
[48] Armat Vitascope patent
filed
09/18/1903 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=9rJ9AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[49] "Vitascope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitascope
[50] "Thomas Armat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Arma
t
(Koster and Bial's Music Hall) New York
City, NY, USA6  
[1] 1896 poster advertising the
Vitascope Source:http://hdl.loc.gov/l
oc.pnp/ppmsca.05943 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8c/Vitascope.jpg

[2] (1866-1948) Thomas J. Armat PD
source: http://www.victorian-cinema.net/
armat.jpg
104 YBN
[04/??/1896 AD] 25 		4445) Carver was the son of a slave
woman owned by Moses Carver.11
In 1865
slavery outlawed in the USA.12
In 1889
Carver is the first black person to
attend Simpson College in Indianola,
Iowa.13
After graduating from Simpson,
Carver graduates from Iowa State
Agricultural College at the head of his
class.14
In 1892 Carver earns a
master's degree and joins the staff of
Iowa State Agricultural College.15
In
1896 Carver accepts a job for $1500 a
year plus room and board, turning away
other offers with more money, to be a
professor at Tuskegee Institute, in
Alabama, a black college founded by
Booker T. Washington, to help young
black people get a higher education
which Booker T. Washington himself had
been unable to find.16
In 1939 Carver
is awarded the Roosevelt medal.17

Late in his career Carver declines an
invitation to work for Thomas A. Edison
at a salary of more than $100,000 a
year. Presidents Calvin Coolidge and
Franklin D. Roosevelt visit him, and
his friends included Henry Ford and
Mohandas K. Gandhi. In 1931 Joseph
Stalin invites Carver to superintend
cotton plantations in southern Russia
and to make a tour of the Soviet Union,
but Carver refuses.18

In 1953 the plantation on which Carver
was born is made a national monument.19

Asimov describes Carver as a "chemical
Burbank", developing not new plant
varieties but new plant products.20
Asi
mov explains that Carver serves as an
example of the use of educating people
of every race.21

(It is interesting how people see
things differently and appear to have
different callings perhaps based mostly
on their education, upbringing or
surroundings, but perhaps somethings
are genetic.22 )

(This story of Carter and Booker T too
are wonderful and inspirational
stories, that I think would be nice to
see on the big screen, or even
television, but as of yet, no.23 )
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
2. ^ "Carver, George
Washington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 23
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
575>.
3. ^ "George Washington Carver." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wash
ington-carver
4. ^ "George Washington Carver." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wash
ington-carver
5. ^ "peanut butter." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peanut-butt
er
6. ^ "Carver, George Washington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
575>.
7. ^ "George Washington Carver."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wash
ington-carver
8. ^ "George Washington Carver."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wash
ington-carver
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Carver, George Washington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
575>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
18. ^ "Carver,
George Washington." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
575>.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p601-602.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ "Carver, George Washington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
575>.
25. ^ "George Washington Carver."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wash
ington-carver {04/1896 (date of joining
Tuskegee University}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Washington Carver".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wash
ington_Carver
(Tuskegee University) in Tuskegee,
Alabama, USA24  
[1] George Washington Carver UNKNOWN
source: http://www.campsilos.org/mod4/im
ages/carver.jpg

[2] Description George Washington
Carver.jpg Picture of George
Washington Carver taken by Frances
Benjamin Johnston in 1906 Date
1906(1906) Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ppmsc.03252 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Author Frances
Benjamin Johnston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/George_Washington_Car
ver.jpg
104 YBN
[05/06/1896 AD] 11 		3717)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Langley, Samuel Pierpont."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
103>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468-469.
3. ^ "Samuel Pierpont
Langley". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_P
ierpont_Langley
4. ^ Langley, Samuel Pierpont."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
103>.
5. ^ "Samuel Pierpont Langley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_P
ierpont_Langley
6. ^ Langley, Samuel Pierpont."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
103>.
7. ^ "Samuel Pierpont Langley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_P
ierpont_Langley
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468-469.
9. ^ Langley, Samuel
Pierpont." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
103>.
10. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p389.
11. ^ "Samuel Pierpont Langley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Samuel_P
ierpont_Langley {05/06/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Pierpont Langley."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-pier
pont-langley
[2] "Samuel Pierpont Langley." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/samuel-pier
pont-langley
[3] "Samuel Pierpont Langley".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Pier
pont_Langley
[4] "Langley, Samuel Pierpont", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p519.
[5] "bolometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
503>.
[6] Samuel Pierpont Langley, "The New
Astronomy", Houghton, Mifflin,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8cIKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=+lan
gley&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=6Z5V
SYWUGZTElQTE4amuBg
[7] "Bolometer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolometer
[8]
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Feature
s/Langley/langley_2.php
[9] Langley, SP. "The Bolometer.",
Nature, Volume 57, Issue 1487, pp.
620-622 (1898).
http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.103
8/025014a0 http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf
[10] Samuel Langley, "The Bolometer and
Radient Energy", Daedalus: Proceedings
of the American Academy of Sciences,
1881,
342-358. http://books.google.com/books?
id=n07Rg5LA2JkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:0NifNgdh7gsfQkuAoO&lr=&as_brr=1#
PPA342,M1
[11] (Original footnote: ) Very special
precaution must be taken to prevent the
screen itself from getting heated.
[12]
(Original footnote: ) See Formula, page
355.
Potomac River, Washington DC, USA9 10
 
[1] English: Category:Samuel Pierpont
Langley's steam engine powered aircraft
''Aërodrome No. 5'' in flight on 1896
May 6.[1] An instantaneous photograph
by Alexander Graham Bell.[1] (3 March
1847 – 2 August 1922). Source
Page 4 from Aërial Locomotion:
With a Few Notes Date printed
1907 Author Alexander Graham
Bell PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey%27s_steam_A%C3%ABrodrome_No._5_in_fli
ght.png

[2] Samuel Pierpont Langley, pioneer
aviator and 3rd Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institute. This picture is
undated but from the Smithsonian, so it
was probably taken during his tenure
there (1887-1906). It is in the public
domain as produced by the United States
Government, and also because published
before 1923. From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Samue
l_Pierpont_Langley.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey.jpg
104 YBN
[05/12/1896 AD] 7 		4340)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ New York Times, "FLUOROSCOPE A
SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S INVENTION SHOWN
AT THE ELECTRICAL EXPOSITION. Visitors
Ushered into a Darkened Room, Where
They Placed Their Hands Behind the
Screen and Saw Their Bones -- One Woman
Touched the Wires and Received a Slight
Shock -- A Talk with the Inventor --
Other Attractions of the Show.", May
12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF {E
dison_Fluoroscope_1896.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
Herbert Treadwell Wade, "Phonograph",
The New international encyclopaedia,
Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
5. ^ New York Times, "FLUOROSCOPE A
SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S INVENTION SHOWN
AT THE ELECTRICAL EXPOSITION. Visitors
Ushered into a Darkened Room, Where
They Placed Their Hands Behind the
Screen and Saw Their Bones -- One Woman
Touched the Wires and Received a Slight
Shock -- A Talk with the Inventor --
Other Attractions of the Show.", May
12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF {E
dison_Fluoroscope_1896.pdf}
6. ^ New York Times, "FLUOROSCOPE A
SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S INVENTION SHOWN
AT THE ELECTRICAL EXPOSITION. Visitors
Ushered into a Darkened Room, Where
They Placed Their Hands Behind the
Screen and Saw Their Bones -- One Woman
Touched the Wires and Received a Slight
Shock -- A Talk with the Inventor --
Other Attractions of the Show.", May
12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF {E
dison_Fluoroscope_1896.pdf}
7. ^ New York Times, "FLUOROSCOPE A
SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S INVENTION SHOWN
AT THE ELECTRICAL EXPOSITION. Visitors
Ushered into a Darkened Room, Where
They Placed Their Hands Behind the
Screen and Saw Their Bones -- One Woman
Touched the Wires and Received a Slight
Shock -- A Talk with the Inventor --
Other Attractions of the Show.", May
12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF {E
dison_Fluoroscope_1896.pdf}
{05/12/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Cros." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
[2] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
[3] "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>
[4] "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>
[5] Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
[6] "The Telegraph and Its Future",
Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[9] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
[11] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph
[12] Video of constructing an Edison
Battery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
K84PywMwjZg
[13] "Nickel-iron battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-iron
_battery
[14] "nickel-iron accumulator." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nickel-iron
-accumulator-1
[15]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
[16] "Storage Battery, Edison",
"Compendium of the world's progress
during the ...", 1902,
p736. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k1MAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA736&dq=thomas+edis
on+nickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20ba
ttery&f=false
[17]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmrr
g.html
[18]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Edison_Motion_Pictures.htm
[19]
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
New York City, NY, USA6
(presumably) 
[1] Frames from early experimental
attempt to create sound motion pictures
by the Edison Manufacturing Company.
W.K.L. Dickson plays the violin in
front of a horn connected to a cylinder
recording machine. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/dancemp.jpg

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
104 YBN
[05/19/1896 AD] 9 		4715)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
3. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
4. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
5. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Edison US patent
#865,367, "Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
9. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false {05/19/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Cros." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
[2] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
[3] "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>
[4] "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>
[5] Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
[6] "The Telegraph and Its Future",
Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[9] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
[11] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph
[12] Video of constructing an Edison
Battery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
K84PywMwjZg
[13] "Nickel-iron battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-iron
_battery
[14] "nickel-iron accumulator." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nickel-iron
-accumulator-1
[15]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
[16] "Storage Battery, Edison",
"Compendium of the world's progress
during the ...", 1902,
p736. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k1MAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA736&dq=thomas+edis
on+nickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20ba
ttery&f=false
[17]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmrr
g.html
[18]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Edison_Motion_Pictures.htm
[19]
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
[20] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
[21] New York Times,
"FLUOROSCOPE A SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S
INVENTION SHOWN AT THE ELECTRICAL
EXPOSITION. Visitors Ushered into a
Darkened Room, Where They Placed Their
Hands Behind the Screen and Saw Their
Bones -- One Woman Touched the Wires
and Received a Slight Shock -- A Talk
with the Inventor -- Other Attractions
of the Show.", May 12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF
Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, USA8
 
[1] Figure from US patent #865,367,
''Fluorescent Electric Lamp''. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
104 YBN
[06/02/1896 AD] 6 		4337) In 1917 Bose founds and becomes
director of the Bose Research
Institute, Calcutta.3
Bose is the first
Indian to be elected a fellow of the
Royal Society.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577.
2. ^ Jagadis Chunder
Bose, "On the Determination of the
Wave-Length of Electric Radiation by
Diffraction Grating", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. January 1, 1896 60:167-178;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1896.0031. http://rspl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/3
59-367/167.full.pdf+html {Bose_Jagadis_
18960602.pdf}
3. ^ "Jagadish Chandra Bose." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
4. ^ "Jagadish Chandra Bose." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
5. ^ Jagadis Chunder Bose, "On the
Determination of the Wave-Length of
Electric Radiation by Diffraction
Grating", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January
1, 1896 60:167-178;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1896.0031. http://rspl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/3
59-367/167.full.pdf+html {Bose_Jagadis_
18960602.pdf}
6. ^ Jagadis Chunder Bose, "On the
Determination of the Wave-Length of
Electric Radiation by Diffraction
Grating", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January
1, 1896 60:167-178;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1896.0031. http://rspl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/3
59-367/167.full.pdf+html {Bose_Jagadis_
18960602.pdf} {06/02/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jagadish Chandra Bose."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 18 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
[2] "Jagadish Chandra Bose." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 18 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
[3] "Jagdish Chandra Bose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagdish_Cha
ndra_Bose
[4]
http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientist
s/JCBOSE.htm
[5] Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose, "Response
in the living and non-living", 1902,
1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[6] Bose
Institute http://global.bose.com/
[7] Danrrel Emerson, "Jagadis Chandra
Bose: Millimetre Wave Resaerch In The
Nineteenth Century",
1998. http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson
/bose/emerson_delhi.pdf and
http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson/bose
/bose.html
(Presidency College) Calcutta, India5
 
[1] fig 1 from Bose book: Sir Jagadis
Chandra Bose, ''Response in the living
and non-living'', 1902, 1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wp0-AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse

[2] source :
http://www.setileague.org/photos/wghorn.
htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/J.C.Bose.JPG
104 YBN
[06/02/1896 AD] 19 		4827)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
2. ^ British patent
No. 12,039, Date of Application 2 June
1896; Complete Specification Left, 2
March 1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897
(later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
3. ^ U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Guglielmo Marconi." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
7. ^ British patent No. 12,039, Date of
Application 2 June 1896; Complete
Specification Left, 2 March 1897;
Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later claimed by
Oliver Lodge to contain his own ideas
which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
8. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ British patent No. 12,039, Date
of Application 2 June 1896; Complete
Specification Left, 2 March 1897;
Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later claimed by
Oliver Lodge to contain his own ideas
which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
19. ^ British patent No. 12,039, Date
of Application 2 June 1896; Complete
Specification Left, 2 March 1897;
Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later claimed by
Oliver Lodge to contain his own ideas
which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm {06/02/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[3] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[5] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[6] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[7] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The
Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly,
"Marconi", 1972
(father’s estate) Bologna, Italy18
 
[1] From British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm In this diagram A is
the transmitting instrument and B is
the receiving instrument, placed at say
¼ mile apart. In the transmitting
instrument R is an ordinary induction
coil (a Ruhmkorff coil or
transformer). Its primary circuit
C is connected through a key D to a
battery E, and the extremities of its
secondary circuit F are connected to
two insulated spheres or conductors G H
fixed at a small distance apart.
When the current from the battery E is
allowed to pass through the primary of
the induction coil, sparks will take
place between the spheres G H, and the
space all around the spheres suffers a
perturbation in consequence of these
electrical rays or surgings. The
arrangement A is commonly called a
Hertz radiator, and the effects which
propagate through space Hertzian
rays. The receiving instrument B
consists of a battery circuit J, which
includes a battery or cell K, a
receiving instrument L, and a tube T
containing metallic powder or filings,
each end of the column of filings being
also connected to plates or conductors
M N of suitable size, so as to be
preferably tuned with the length of
wave of the radiation emitted from the
transmitting instruments. The tube
containing the filings may be replaced
by an imperfect electrical contact,
such as two unpolished pieces of metal
in light contact, or coherer, &c.
The powder in the tube T is, under
ordinary conditions, a non-conductor of
electricity, and the current of the
cell K cannot pass through the
instrument; but when the receiver is
influenced by suitable electrical waves
or radiation the powder in the tube T
becomes a conductor (and remains so
until the tube is shaken or tapped),
and the current passes through the
instrument. By these means
electrical waves which are set up in
the transmitting apparatus affect the
receiving instrument in such a manner
that currents are caused to circulate
in the circuit J, and may be utilised
for deflecting a needle, which thus
responds to the impulse coming from the
transmitter. PD
source: http://www.earlyradiohistory.us/
1901fe1.gif

[2] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg
104 YBN
[06/11/1896 AD] 25 		4728) Rutherford was one of a dozen
children as the son of a wheelwright
(builds and repairs wheels) and
small-scale farmer.7

Rutherford has a scholarship to New
Zealand University.8
Rutherford gets a
scholarship to Cambridge University.
The first place winner refuses the
scholarship in order to stay in New
Zealand and get married.9 In addition,
the University of Cambridge had
recently changed its rules to allow
graduates of other institutions to earn
a Cambridge degree after two years of
study and completion of an acceptable
research project.10 The news reaches
Rutherford on his father's farm and he
throws down his spade and says
“That's the last potato I'll dig.”,
postpones his marriage and leaves for
England.11
In 1908 Rutherford win the
Nobel Prize in chemistry for the theory
of radioactive disintegration of
elements, for determining the nature of
alpha particles, for the theory of the
nuclear atom.12

Zinc sulfide containing a trace of
radium is used on watch faces to create
luminous figures that can be seen at
night, but the women painting the
figures absorb traces of radium and get
serious, slowly fatal cases of
radiation sickness. This is stopped
once the dangers of radioactivity are
made clear. (I guess a radioactive atom
may stay in the body continuously
emitting photons that cause mutation.
There still needs to be some way of
flushing them out of the system. Maybe
if they stay together they could be
traced and surgically removed, but
possibly if charged they could be
removed with a strong magnetic field.
If uncharged, maybe they could be
charged somehow and then pulled out
with a strong magnetic field. Maybe
some could be flushed out with a large
blood draining and
transfusion/filtering based on
radioactivity.13 )
Rutherford is the
President of the Royal Society from
1925-1930.14
In 1933 Rutherford is
strongly anti-Nazi and helps to arrange
help for Jewish scientists forced out
of Germany, but does not help Haber
because Rutherford feels Haber's
development of gas warfare was too
terrible.15
In 1933 Rutherford wrongly
calls doubts that the vast energy of
the atomic nucleus as revealed in
radioactivity can someday be
controlled, calling the idea
“moonshine”. Rutherford dies 2
years before the find of uranium
fission by Hahn.16
Rutherford doubts
Einstein's theory of relativity.17
(State Rutherfords quotes if any.18 )
At
McGill University Rutherford welcomes
increasing numbers of research students
to his laboratory, including women at a
time when few females study science.19
For example, Rutherford's first
graduate student is a woman, Harriet
Brooks, and Rutherford publishes a
paper with Brooks.20 Rutherford and
William Pope write in "The Times" of
London, in December 1920:
"For our part, we
welcome the presence of women in our
laboratories on the ground that
residence in this University is
intended to fit the rising generation
to take its proper place in the outside
world, where, to an ever increasing
extent, men and women are being called
upon to work harmoniously side by side
in every department of human
affairs.".21

Rutherford also actively contributes to
using radioactivity to show that the
rocks of earth are far older than
Kelvin's estimate of millions of
years.22 (cite papers23 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
{Rutherford_Ernest_Magnetic_Electrical_W
ave_Detector_18960611.pdf}
3. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest, Baron
Rutherford of Nelson, of Cambridge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>.
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest, Baron
Rutherford of Nelson, of Cambridge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
10. ^
"Rutherford, Ernest, Baron Rutherford
of Nelson, of Cambridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 10 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest, Baron
Rutherford of Nelson, of Cambridge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>.
20. ^ Rutherford, Brooks, "The New Gas
from Radium", Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada, sect3, s2, v7, 1901,
pp21-25. http://books.google.com/books?
id=sJlPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA21&lpg=RA2-PA21
&dq=%22The+New+Gas+from+Radium%22&source
=bl&ots=MLFu2p-3Qx&sig=vzJ7x1TJx6sXm-mNR
eIO-q5-Eh4&hl=en&ei=E-duTLjkLIWisQOQoPG1
Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22The%20N
ew%20Gas%20from%20Radium%22&f=false
21. ^ M. F. Rayner-Canham and G. W.
Rayner-Canham, "Women's Fields of
Chemistry: 1900-1920", J. Chem. Educ.,
1996, 73 (2), p
136. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.102
1/ed073p136
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
{Rutherford_Ernest_Magnetic_Electrical_W
ave_Detector_18960611.pdf}
25. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic
Detector of Electrical Waves, and Some
of its applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
{Rutherford_Ernest_Magnetic_Electrical_W
ave_Detector_18960611.pdf} {06/11/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England24  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
104 YBN
[06/11/1896 AD] 5 		4737)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^
http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Brook
s,_Harriet@842580299.html
3. ^ Rutherford, Brooks, "The New Gas
from Radium", Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada, sect3, s2, v7, 1901,
pp21-25. http://books.google.com/books?
id=sJlPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA21&lpg=RA2-PA21
&dq=%22The+New+Gas+from+Radium%22&source
=bl&ots=MLFu2p-3Qx&sig=vzJ7x1TJx6sXm-mNR
eIO-q5-Eh4&hl=en&ei=E-duTLjkLIWisQOQoPG1
Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22The%20N
ew%20Gas%20from%20Radium%22&f=false
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic
Detector of Electrical Waves, and Some
of its applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
{Rutherford_Ernest_Magnetic_Electrical_W
ave_Detector_18960611.pdf}
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic
Detector of Electrical Waves, and Some
of its applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
{Rutherford_Ernest_Magnetic_Electrical_W
ave_Detector_18960611.pdf} {06/11/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] M. F.
Rayner-Canham and G. W. Rayner-Canham,
"Women's Fields of Chemistry:
1900-1920", J. Chem. Educ., 1996, 73
(2), p
136. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.102
1/ed073p136
[6] "Harriet Brooks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harriet_Bro
oks
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford. Library of
Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no.
36570u) Rutherford, Ernest,
Baron Rutherford of Nelson, of
Cambridge. Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Web. 11 Aug. 2010 .
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3d/Harriet_brooks.gif
104 YBN
[07/25/1896 AD] 5 		3278)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
2. ^ G. G. Stokes,
"On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays"
(The Wilde Lecture),
07/25/1897. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=ZPMZPOcjo8QC&pg=PA41&dq=%22On+the+
Nature+of+the+Rontgen+Rays%22&hl=en&ei=i
6C7S8rNB47OsgOojKn3BA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=%22On%20the%20Nature%20of%20the
%20Rontgen%20Rays%22&f=false http://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=ZPMZPOcjo8QC&pg=P
A41&dq=%22On+the+Nature+of+the+Rontgen+R
ays%22&hl=en&ei=i6C7S8rNB47OsgOojKn3BA&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CD4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20
Nature%20of%20the%20Rontgen%20Rays%22&f=
false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403.
4. ^ "George Gabriel
Stokes." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
5. ^ G. G. Stokes, "On the Nature of
the Rontgen Rays" (The Wilde Lecture),
07/25/1897. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=ZPMZPOcjo8QC&pg=PA41&dq=%22On+the+
Nature+of+the+Rontgen+Rays%22&hl=en&ei=i
6C7S8rNB47OsgOojKn3BA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=%22On%20the%20Nature%20of%20the
%20Rontgen%20Rays%22&f=false http://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=ZPMZPOcjo8QC&pg=P
A41&dq=%22On+the+Nature+of+the+Rontgen+R
ays%22&hl=en&ei=i6C7S8rNB47OsgOojKn3BA&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CD4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20
Nature%20of%20the%20Rontgen%20Rays%22&f=
false {07/25/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Stokes, Sir George Gabriel,
1st Baronet." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069777>

[2] "George Gabriel Stokes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gabr
iel-stokes
[3] "George Gabriel Stokes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gabr
iel_Stokes
[4] "Sir George Gabriel, Bart Stokes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Geor
ge_Gabriel,_Bart_Stokes
[5] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] "Stokes, George Gabriel", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), pp658-659
[7] "Stokes's law."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9069781>

[8] Victor J. Katz, "The History of
Stokes' Theorem", Mathematics Magazine,
Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp.
146-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26
90275?seq=4 {Stokes_George_Stokes_Theor
em_1979_2690275.pdf}
[9]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp402-403. (1896)
[11] G. G.
Stokes, "On the Nature of the Rontgen
Rays", Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society,
11/09/1896. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=fPIKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA215&dq=%22On+the
+Nature+of+the+Rontgen+Rays%22&hl=en&ei=
i6C7S8rNB47OsgOojKn3BA&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Nature%20of%20th
e%20Rontgen%20Rays%22&f=false
Cambridge, England4  
[1] [t Stokes' test
question.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2690
275?seq=4

[2] Picture of George G.
Stokes Source Memoir and Scientific
Correspondence of the Late Sir George
Gabriel Stokes, Bart Date
1857 Author George G. Stokes PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg
104 YBN
[09/02/1896 AD] 4 		4828)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
2. ^ W. P. Jolly,
"Marconi", 1972.
3. ^ W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972.
4. ^ W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972.
{09/02/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[3] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[6] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[7] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256.
[8] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505.
[9] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[10] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi:
The Man and His Wireless" (1937).
[11] British
patent No. 12,039, Date of Application
2 June 1896; Complete Specification
Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July
1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[12] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
Slisbury Plain, England3  
[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

104 YBN
[11/25/1896 AD] 6 		4153)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ "Sur diverses
propriété des rayons uraniques", 123
(1896), 855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
3. ^ "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false {11/25/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
[2] "Henri Becquerel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[4] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[6] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
[8] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France5
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
104 YBN
[11/??/1896 AD] 13 14 15 		4165)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p542.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p542.
3. ^ "Schaeberle,
John Martin." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 139.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 23
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Nature, 06/09/1898,
p134. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HV8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=Schaeberle+proc
yon#v=onepage&q=Schaeberle%20procyon&f=f
alse
5. ^ J. M. Schaeberle, "Observations of
the Companion to Procyon, and of the
Companion to Sirius", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacicif, Volume 9,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=0
7gOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=Schaeberle+procyo
n#v=onepage&q=Schaeberle%20procyon&f=fal
se
6. ^ Auwers A. Inaugural-Dissertation.
Universität Königsberg, 1862
7. ^
"Procyon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procyon
8. ^ Robert Burnham Jr., Burnham's
Celestial Handbook (New York: Dover
Publications Inc., 1978), p. 450.
9. ^
"Procyon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procyon
10. ^ SolStation.com, "Procyon 2".
http://www.solstation.com/stars/procyon2
.htm Accessed 2/3/07.
11. ^ "Procyon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procyon
12. ^ "Schaeberle, John Martin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 139. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 23
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
13. ^ Nature, 06/09/1898,
p134. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HV8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=Schaeberle+proc
yon#v=onepage&q=Schaeberle%20procyon&f=f
alse {11/1896}
14. ^ "Schaeberle, John Martin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 139. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 23
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1896}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p542. {1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Martin Schaeberle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Martin
_Schaeberle
(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton,
California, USA12  
[1] The position of Alpha Canis Minoris
(Procyon; Elgomaisa; Algomeysa;
Antecanis) By Zwergelstern Thanks
for the help of Patrick Chevalley PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/Position_Alpha_Cmi.pn
g

[2] John Martin Schaeberle
(1853–1924), German-American
astronomer. Date Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/S
IL14-S002-02a.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/John_Martin_Schaeberl
e.jpg
104 YBN
[11/??/1896 AD] 14 		4259)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
3. ^ "Thomson,
Joseph John." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3
Mar. 2010.
4. ^ J. J. Thomson and E.
Rutherford, "On the passage of
electricity gases exposed to
Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag., S.5, V. 42,
N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J. J. Thomson and E.
Rutherford, "On the passage of
electricity gases exposed to
Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag., S.5, V. 42,
N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
7. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ J.J. Thomson,
"Experiments to show that negative
electricity is given off by a metal
exposed to Rontgen-rays." Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312.
11. ^ "Joseph John
Thomson. 1856-1940", Rayleigh G.
Strutt, Obituary Notices of Fellows of
the Royal Society, Vol. 3, No. 10
(Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ J. J. Thomson and E.
Rutherford, "On the passage of
electricity gases exposed to
Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag., S.5, V. 42,
N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
14. ^ J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false {11/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[6]
J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[8] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[9] J.J. Thomson, (With J. A.
MCCLELLAND.) On the leakage of
electricity through dielectrics
traversed by Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J.
Thomson, "On the discharge of
electricity produced by the
Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc. 59,
1896, 274
[11] J. J. Thomson, "On the
velocity of the cathode-rays".
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V38, N233,
Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
[12] "Rutherford, Ernest, Baron
Rutherford of Nelson, of Cambridge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>.
[13] "Ernest Rutherford." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[14] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England13  
[1] Figure From On the Passage of
Electricity through Gases exposed to
Rontgen Rays. By J. J. THOMSON, M.A.,
F.R.S., Cavendish Professor of
Experimental Physics, Cambridge. with
Ernest Rutherford 11/1896 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=
thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
104 YBN
[12/10/1896 AD] 9 10 		3698) From his explosives and from oil
fields in Russia that he owns, Nobel
amassed a vast fortune. Nobel traveled
widely and was a committed pacifist.3

Although Nobel is unpopular, and viewed
as the inventor of horrible tools of
war, Nobel actually thinks that his
explosives would outlaw war by making
it too horrible.4

The Encyclopedia Britannica explains
that in 1888 Alfred's brother Ludvig
had died while staying in Cannes,
France. The French newspapers reported
Ludvig's death but confused him with
Alfred, and one paper has the headline
"Le marchand de la mort est mort" ("The
merchant of death is dead."), and
perhaps from this Alfred Nobel
established the prizes in his will to
avoid this kind of posthumous
reputation suggested by this premature
obituary. The awards Nobel creates
reflect his lifelong interest in the
fields of physics, chemistry,
physiology, and literature. There is
evidence that his friendship with the
prominent Austrian pacifist Bertha von
Suttner inspires him to establish the
prize for peace.5

The Nobel Institute in Sweden is named
for Alfred Nobel.6

Element 102 is first isolated at the
Nobel Institute in Sweden in 1958 and
is named nobelium.7

(I think a good idea for an award is
one which awards those who popularize
science, full and constant democracy,
stopping violence and torture, freeing
the unjustly imprisoned in hospitals
and prisons, promoting tolerance of
consensual sexuality and nudity,
promoting history of science, complete
free information, for invention in
mechanics, electronics, robotics,
transportation, basically all those
topics I have explained and desire for
the Photon award.

I wonder how the secret camera-thought
network affects the award decision. The
Nobel prize is not democratically
decided as I would like the Photon
award to be. But I wouldn't doubt that
many awards reflect a popular opinion.
Some winners, I think have not made
serious contributions to science. Any
awards for theories or procedures of
psychology, like Moniz and the
lobotomy, will be viewed as perhaps not
the best choice. In particular in
physics, since the rise of
non-Euclidean theory, almost all
physics theories awarded will probably
be thought clearly to have no
scientific value 500 years from now. In
particular theories about a big bang,
expanding universe, background
radiation, time dilation, black holes
in space-time, nuclear forces, quarks,
light as an electromagnetic wave, and
similar theories, I think are doubtful
or highly speculative. Many of these
awards appear to go to wealthy,
mainstream people in science,
supporting mainstream theories. It is
true that many new advances in science
probably require expensive technology.
Clearly those developing secret
technology are not being recognized.
Whoever first saw images from eyes has
never been recognized with a prize, so
far as I know. The seeing and sending
of brain images has gone unrecognized,
and may now contribute to secret behind
the thought curtain arrangements, but
we excluded can only guess. On a
positive note, there have been many
people who have won Nobel awards who
probably did deserve them and generally
these and many other awards greatly
advance science on earth.8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
2. ^ "Alfred Nobel."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
3. ^ "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
5. ^ "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>. {12/10/1896}
10. ^
http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/indus
trial/articles/lundstrom/index.html
{12/10/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[2] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bern
hard_Nobel
[3] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel
[4] "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650
[5] Nobel's US patent with
description of dynamite, US#78,317
(1868-05-26) Alfred Nobel, Improved
explosive
compound. http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pd
f/foo.pl?number=78317
[6] Henry De Mosenthal, "The Life-Work
of Alfred Nobel", Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry, v. 18
(Jan.-June 1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
(dies at) San Remo, Italy|(will, and
awards are in)Stockholm, Sweden 
[1] Description: Front side (obverse)
of one of the Nobel Prize medals in
Physiology or Medicine awarded in 1950
to researchers at the Mayo Clinic in
Rochester, Minnesota. [edit] Source
of this work Photographer:
Jonathunder (2008-11-01) Design of
the medal: Nobel Foundation Sculptor
and engraver: Erik Lindberg
(1902) English: Alfred Nobels last
will dated November 27th, 1895 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c2/NobelPrize.JPG

[2] The medal design itself is in the
public domain in the United States,
because it was published before 1923.
It may not be public domain in some
other nations. The design may be
subject to Nobel Foundation
trademarks. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Alfred_Nobels_will-No
vember_25th%2C_1895.jpg
104 YBN
[12/12/1896 AD] 9 		3444)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.aas.org/had/aashistory/2name.
html
2. ^ "William Jackson Humphreys".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jac
kson_Humphreys
3. ^
http://chronicles.dickinson.edu/encyclo/
m/ed_mohlerJF.htm
4. ^ W. J. Humphreys, J. F. Mohler,
"Effect of Pressure on the Wave-Lengths
of Lines in the Arc-Spectra of Certain
Elements", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
3, 1896,
p.114. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=3&pl
ate_select=NO&page=114&plate=&cover=&jou
rnal=ApJ.. {Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf}
5. ^ W. J. Humphreys, J. F. Mohler,
"Effect of Pressure on the Wave-Lengths
of Lines in the Arc-Spectra of Certain
Elements", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
3, 1896,
p.114. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=3&pl
ate_select=NO&page=114&plate=&cover=&jou
rnal=ApJ.. {Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf}
6. ^ W. J. Humphreys, J. F. Mohler,
"Effect of Pressure on the Wave-Lengths
of Lines in the Arc-Spectra of Certain
Elements", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
3, 1896,
p.114. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=3&pl
ate_select=NO&page=114&plate=&cover=&jou
rnal=ApJ.. {Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf}
7. ^ W. J. Humphreys, J. F. Mohler,
"Effect of Pressure on the Wave-Lengths
of Lines in the Arc-Spectra of Certain
Elements", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
3, 1896,
p.114. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=3&pl
ate_select=NO&page=114&plate=&cover=&jou
rnal=ApJ.. {Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf}
8. ^ "Johns Hopkins University."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006.
Answers.com 19 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johns-hopki
ns-university
9. ^ W. J. Humphreys, J. F. Mohler,
"Effect of Pressure on the Wave-Lengths
of Lines in the Arc-Spectra of Certain
Elements", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
3, 1896,
p.114. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=3&pl
ate_select=NO&page=114&plate=&cover=&jou
rnal=ApJ.. {Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf}
{12/12/1896}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.history.noaa.gov/nwsbios/nwsb
ios_page36.html
(Johns Hopkins University7 ) Baltimore,
Maryland, U.S.A.8  
[1] [t Spectroscope pressure chamber
device used to measure change in
spectral lines because of
pressure] PD/Corel
source: Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf

[2] [t The shift of spectral lines
from various elements Y axis is
pressure in atmospheres X axis is
shift in thousandths of an Angstrom
unit (.1nm)] PD/Corel
source: Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf
104 YBN
[12/29/1896 AD] 16 		4759) Around 1932 Cannon will elaborate
on an elaboration of Claude Bernard’s
concept of the constancy of the milieu
intérieur by developing the concept of
“homeostatis” (as a result of his
work studying hemorrhagic and traumatic
shock among wounded people in World War
I). Homeostatis is the effort by the
body to maintain a stable internal
environment despite fluctuations of the
outside environment. Hormones are
primarily responsible for this effect,
in particular adrenalin.10 11
(this
needs specific examples, otherwise it
is too general.12 )

Cannon identifies the compound secreted
from nerve endings (particularly
influenced by adrenalin) which he names
“sympathin” (because the nerve
endings belong to what is called in
this time the sympathetic nervous
system).13 (chronology14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
2. ^ "bismuth." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bismuth
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p638.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
(Thomas)
8. ^ "Cannon, Walter Bradford."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 71-77. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904846&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Letter from Walter B. Cannon to
John F. Fulton, 16 Apr. 1942.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
11. ^ "Cannon, Walter
Bradford." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 71-77.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904846&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
"Cannon, Walter Bradford." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 71-77. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904846&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Cannon, Walter Bradford."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 71-77. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904846&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/29/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cannon, Walter Bradford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
018>.
[2] "Walter Bradford Cannon." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-cann
on
[3] "Walter Bradford Cannon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Brad
ford_Cannon
(Harvard Medical School) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA15  
[1] Walter Bradford Cannon, MA, MD
(1871– 1945), circa 1908. Photo by J.
E. Purdue & Co, Boston, Mass. Source.
Prints and Photographs Collection,
History of Medicine Division, National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://ajph.aphapublications.org
/content/vol92/issue10/images/large/B418
3-02-0580-joe.jpeg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 8 9 		4052)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
2. ^ "Vries, Hugo
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p914-915.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
4. ^ "Correns, Carl
Franz Joseph Erich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 421-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900994&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
7. ^ "Vries, Hugo
de." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
778>.
8. ^ "Vries, Hugo De", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p914-915. {1896}
9. ^ Hugo de Vries,
"Die mutationstheorie: Versuche und
beobachtungen über die ..., Volume 2",
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEUZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA168&dq=papaver+somnife
rum+mephisto+de+vries&as_brr=1#v=snippet
&q=papaver%20somniferum%20mephisto&f=fal
se {1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hugo de Vries." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[2] "Hugo de Vries." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[3] "Hugo de Vries." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[4] "Hugo Marie De Vries". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Marie_
De_Vries
[5] The Midland naturalist: journal of
the Midland Union of Natural ...,
Volume 7, 1884,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
gAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA65&dq=Vries+plasmol
ysis+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Vries%20plasmolysis%20date%3A1884-1884&
f=false
[6] Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] Albert Philson Brubaker, Augustus
Adolph Eshner, "Text-book of human
physiology", 1905,
p37. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
iKto86vysIC&pg=PA37&dq=Vries+plasmolysis
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Vries%20plasmolysi
s&f=false
[8] "isotonic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
23 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i
sotonic>
[9] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p602.
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands7  
[1] Hugo de Vries in the
1890s Description Hugo de Vries
2.jpg Hugo_de_Vries Date
1925(1925) Source Copy from:
Atlas van de geschiedenis der
geneeskunde, Amsterdam:Van Looy,
1925. Author J.G de Lint
(1867-1936), (illustrator is not
mentioned) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Hugo_de_Vries_2.jpg

[2] Hugo de Vries, ca. 1907 Hugo de
Vries, 1848-1935. aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Dahlgren: Botanische Genetik PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Hugo_de_Vries.jpg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 7 		4170)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
2. ^ "Petrie, Sir
Flinders." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
3. ^ "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
4. ^ "Petrie, Sir Flinders."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
496>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543.
6. ^ "Sir (William
Matthew) Flinders Petrie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
7. ^ "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie {1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir (William Matthew)
Flinders Petrie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[2] "Sir (William Matthew) Flinders
Petrie." The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 25 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fli
nders-petrie
[3] "Petrie, (William Matthew)
Flinders." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 549-550.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[4] Sir William Matthew Flinders,
"Inductive metrology: or, the recovery
of ancient measures from the
monuments",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PzgGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Indu
ctive+Metrology,+or+the+Recovery+of+Anci
ent+Measures+from+the+Monuments#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
Thebes, Egypt6  
[1] Earliest known inscription of
Israel COPYRIGHTED
source: Flinders Petrie, Seventy Years
in Archaeology, 1931.

[2] Sir William Matthew Flinders
Petrie, in Jerusalem (ca. late
1930's) * Adapted from
http://www.egyptorigins.org/petriepics.h
tml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/5d/WMFPetrie.jpg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 10 11 		4240)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
3. ^ "Acheson,
Edward Goodrich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
529>.
4. ^ "graphite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/graphite
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Acheson, G. (1893) U.S.
Patent 492,767 "Production of
artificial crystalline carbonaceous
material" http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=U152AAAAEBAJ&dq=492767
10. ^ "Acheson, Edward Goodrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
529>. {1896}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557-558. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Goodrich Acheson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Good
rich_Acheson
[2] Edward Goodrich Acheson, "A
pathfinder: discovery, invention and
industry: how the world came to have
...",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Le9IAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Edwa
rd+Goodrich+Acheson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[3] George Iles, "Autobiography: Men of
science",
1909. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tGUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=Edward+Goodrich
+Acheson&as_brr=1&cd=4#v=onepage&q=Edwar
d%20Goodrich%20Acheson&f=false
[4] "silicon carbide." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silicon-car
bide
[5] "silicon carbide." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silicon-car
bide
(Carborundum Company) Monongahedla
City, Pennsylvania, USA9  
[1]
Graphite http://resourcescommittee.hous
e.gov/subcommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogal
lery/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/GraphiteUSGOV.jpg

[2] Edward Acheson in his lab PD
presumably
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev4/ach_soubory/acheson_l
ab.jpg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 13 14 		4328) In 1929 Eijkman with Fred
Hopkins, wins the Nobel prize in
physiology and medicine.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574.
2. ^ "Eijkman,
Christiaan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p573-574.
5. ^ "Eijkman,
Christiaan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>.
6. ^ "Eijkman, Christiaan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574.
8. ^ "Eijkman,
Christiaan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574.
12. ^ "Eijkman,
Christiaan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574. {1896}
14. ^
"Eijkman, Christiaan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Eijkman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/christiaan-
eijkman
[2] "Eijkman, Christiaan." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 310-312. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 14 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901294&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Christiaan Eijkman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Eijkman
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1929/eijkman-bio.html
Javanese Medical School in Batavia (now
Jakarta)12 (presumably) 
[1] English: Christiaan Eijkman
(1858-1930) Date Unknown Source
http://www.kb.nl/hkc/nobel/eijkman/
eijkman.html Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Copyright is by Museum
Boerhaave,
http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/contact/pe
rs2a.html, their website states '(vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie)' ='(freely
available for publication)' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Christiaan_Eijkman.jp
g
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 9 		4343)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
2. ^ "Arrhenius,
Svante August." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
3. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
8. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
9. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>. {1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Svante Arrhenius." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[2] "Svante Arrhenius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[3] "Svante Arrhenius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[4] "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 296-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900169&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Svante August Arrhenius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_Augu
st_Arrhenius
[6] Svante Arrhenius, "Recherches sur
la conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes",
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rech
erches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galvan
ique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_DiL
MK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
(Stockholms Högskola {now the
University of Stockholm}) Stockholm,
Sweden8  
[1] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg

[2] Svante Arrhenius from German
Wikipedia: 19:30, 11. Sep 2004 . .
de:User:Matthias Bock (7044 Byte)
(Svante Arrhenius) Public Domain da
vor dem 1. Jan. 1923
veröffentlicht PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Arrhenius2.jpg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 8 		4381) In 1920 Guillaume is awarded the
Nobel prize for "invar".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586-587.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p856.
3. ^ Guillaume,
“Sur la dilatation des aciers au
nickel,” in Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances, de
l’Académie des sciences, 124 (1897),
176;
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p586-587.
7. ^ "Guillaume,
Charles Édouard." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 5.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
582-583. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 1 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901770&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586-587. {1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guillaume, Charles
Édouard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
417>.
[2] "Charles Édouard Guillaume." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-edo
uard-guillaume
[3] "Charles Édouard Guillaume."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-edo
uard-guillaume
[4] "Charles Édouard Guillaume".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_%C3
%89douard_Guillaume
(International Bureau of Weights and
Measures) Sèvres, France7  
[1] Description Guillaume
1920.jpg English: Charles-Édouard
Guillaume Date 1920(1920) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1920/guillaume-bio.htm
l Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Guillaume_1920.jpg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 9 		4422)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
2. ^ "Ford, Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
3. ^ "Ford, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
6. ^ Record
ID3375. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Ford,
Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 8
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
9. ^ "Ford, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>. {1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Ford." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 08 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-ford
[2] "Henry Ford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford
(Detroit Edison Company) Detroit,
Michigan, USA8  
[1] Versión recortada de una
fotografía del siglo XIX. De:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ford_
quadricycle_crop.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Ford_quadricycle_crop
.jpg

[2] Henry Ford 1888 source:
http://www.gpschools.org/ci/depts/eng/k5
/third/fordpic.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Henry_Ford_1888.jpg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 5 		4494)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614.
2. ^ "Pérot,
Jean-Baptiste Gaspard Gustav Alfred."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 518-519. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903353&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Fabry, Charles." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 513-514. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901371&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Fabry, Charles." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
534>.
5. ^ "Charles Fabry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry {1896}
(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France4  
[1] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg

[2] Česky
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Alfred_Perot.jpg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 9 		5499)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fr. N. Schulz, "Wilhelm
Biedermann", Monatsschrift
Kinderheilkunde, Volume 30, Number 1,
XI-XXVIII, DOI:
10.1007/BF01924081 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/l5947427100w7722/
2. ^
http://www.archive.org/details/elektroph
ysiolog00bied
3. ^ Wilhelm Biedermann, tr: Frances
Welby, "Electro-physiology, Volume 1",
Macmillan,
1896 http://books.google.com/books?hl=e
n&lr=&id=okKYdASyhlUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=b
iedermann&ots=RFAXl93wGG&sig=_b8JGDzTFHf
1sBgcTtNMFOCPhjQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ BERNHARD KATZ, "NEURO-MUSCULAR
TRANSMISSION IN CRABS", The Journal of
Physiology, 1936,
p199. http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3
/199.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19360311.p
df}
5. ^ Wilhelm Biedermann, tr: Frances
Welby, "Electro-physiology, Volume 1",
Macmillan,
1896 http://books.google.com/books?hl=e
n&lr=&id=okKYdASyhlUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=b
iedermann&ots=RFAXl93wGG&sig=_b8JGDzTFHf
1sBgcTtNMFOCPhjQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Wilhelm
Biedermann, tr: Frances Welby,
"Electro-physiology, Volume 1",
Macmillan,
1896 http://books.google.com/books?hl=e
n&lr=&id=okKYdASyhlUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=b
iedermann&ots=RFAXl93wGG&sig=_b8JGDzTFHf
1sBgcTtNMFOCPhjQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ Wilhelm Biedermann, tr: Frances
Welby, "Electro-physiology, Volume 1",
Macmillan,
1896 http://books.google.com/books?hl=e
n&lr=&id=okKYdASyhlUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=b
iedermann&ots=RFAXl93wGG&sig=_b8JGDzTFHf
1sBgcTtNMFOCPhjQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany8
 		 
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 6 		6019)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Strauss." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 22 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-str
auss
2. ^
http://www.oldandsold.com/articles06/sy4
9.shtml
3. ^ "Also sprach Zarathustra (Richard
Strauss)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Also_sprach
_Zarathustra_(Richard_Strauss)
4. ^ "Friedrich Nietzsche."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-n
ietzsche
5. ^ "Richard Strauss." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 22 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-str
auss
6. ^ "Richard Strauss." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 22 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-str
auss {1896}
Munich, Germany5  
[1] Description English: Photo of
Richard Strauss, published in Modern
Music and Musicians, University
Society, New York, 1918 Date 16
July 2006 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Oxyman using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Sba2 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Richard_Strauss_%28b%
29.jpg
103 YBN
[01/07/1897 AD] 6 		4262)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred Romer, "The Experimental
History of Atomic Charges, 1895-1903",
Isis, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Autumn, 1942),
pp.
150-161. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
6218?seq=7&Search=yes&term=Wiechert&term
=Emil&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2Fdo
BasicSearch%3FQuery%3DEmil%2BWiechert%26
jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D16%2
6Search.y%3D3%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&t
tl=19&returnArticleService=showArticle&r
esultsServiceName=doBasicResultsFromArti
cle {Thomson_Joseph_John_ISIS_1942_cr.p
df}
2. ^ E. Wiechert, Schrift. phys.-okon.
Ges. Konigsberg, 38, Ber. p3-12,p12-16,
1897.
3. ^ Record ID4260. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Alfred Romer, "The Experimental
History of Atomic Charges, 1895-1903",
Isis, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Autumn, 1942),
pp.
150-161. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
6218?seq=7&Search=yes&term=Wiechert&term
=Emil&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2Fdo
BasicSearch%3FQuery%3DEmil%2BWiechert%26
jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D16%2
6Search.y%3D3%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&t
tl=19&returnArticleService=showArticle&r
esultsServiceName=doBasicResultsFromArti
cle {Thomson_Joseph_John_ISIS_1942_cr.p
df}
6. ^ Alfred Romer, "The Experimental
History of Atomic Charges, 1895-1903",
Isis, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Autumn, 1942),
pp.
150-161. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
6218?seq=7&Search=yes&term=Wiechert&term
=Emil&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2Fdo
BasicSearch%3FQuery%3DEmil%2BWiechert%26
jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D16%2
6Search.y%3D3%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&t
tl=19&returnArticleService=showArticle&r
esultsServiceName=doBasicResultsFromArti
cle {Thomson_Joseph_John_ISIS_1942_cr.p
df} {01/07/1897}
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany5  
[1] Emil Wiechert (1861-1928), German
electrofysicist, astronomer and
seismologist Date Source
Picture from the website of the
Instituto Física of the Universidade
Federal do Rio de Janeiro
(original) http://www.if.ufrj.br/famous
/wiechert.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Emil_Wiechert.jpg
103 YBN
[01/??/1897 AD] 28 		4460) In 1902 Zeeman and Lorentz are
awarded the Nobel prize in physics.25
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ P.
Zeeman, "Doublets and triplets in the
spectrum produced by external magnetic
forces", Philosophical Magazine Series
5, 1941-5990, Volume 44, Issue 266,
Pages 55 –
60 http://books.google.com/books?id=Zl0
wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=Doublets+a
nd+triplets+in+the+spectrum+produced+by+
external+magnetic+forces&source=bl&ots=o
cDvlvPdXq&sig=5F_PIBM3LhRyVDJ4nihqdNy90b
o&hl=en&ei=QAMpTLnRJ8PknAebxoipAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB
wQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Doublets%20and%20tr
iplets%20in%20the%20spectrum%20produced%
20by%20external%20magnetic%20forces&f=fa
lse
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605.
5. ^ Zeeman, P., "On
the Influence of Magnetism on the
Nature of the Light Emitted by a
Substance.", Philosophical Magazine,
S5, V43, N262, March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the
Influence of Magnetism on the Nature of
the Light Emitted by a Substance.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V43, N262,
March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
8. ^ Thomas Preston, "The Zeeman Effect
Photographed", Nature, Volume 57 Number
1469, Dec 23, 1897,
p173 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v57/n1469/pdf/057173b0.pdf {Preston_
Thomas_zeeman_1897.pdf}
9. ^ Thomas Preston, "Radiation
Phenomena in the Magnetic Field.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V45, N275,
April 1898,
p325. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thoma
s+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113u
y&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en&
ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#v
=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=f
alse
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p605.
13. ^ "Pieter
Zeeman." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pieter-zeem
an
14. ^ Albert Michelson, "Light Waves
and their uses", 1902, p
107. http://books.google.com/books?id=p
rTvAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=light
+waves+and+their+uses&hl=en&ei=8DIlTOHxL
MGB8gbousS2Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
15. ^ Thomas Preston, "Radiation
Phenomena in the Magnetic Field.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V45, N275,
April 1898,
p325. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thoma
s+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113u
y&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en&
ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#v
=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=f
alse
16. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the Influence of
Magnetism on the Nature of the Light
Emitted by a Substance.", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V43, N262, March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the
Influence of Magnetism on the Nature of
the Light Emitted by a Substance.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V43, N262,
March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605.
26. ^
"Zeeman,Pieter." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 597-599.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904772&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
27. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the Influence of
Magnetism on the Nature of the Light
Emitted by a Substance.", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V43, N262, March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
28. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the Influence of
Magnetism on the Nature of the Light
Emitted by a Substance.", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V43, N262, March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false {01/1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Zeeman, Pieter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
299>
[2] "Pieter Zeeman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Zeem
an
[3] M. Fievez, "De l'Influence du
Magnétisme sur les Caractères des
Raies spectrales", Bulletin de l'
Academie des Sciences de Belgique, S3,
Tome 9, 381, 1885
[4] M. Fievez, "Essai sur
l'Origine des Raies de Fraunhofer, en
rapport avec la Constitution du
Soleil", Bulletin de l' Academie des
Sciences de Belgique, S3, Tome 12, 30,
1886
[5] Lodge and Davies, Nature, V56,
1897,
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v56/n1445/pdf/056237c0.pdf
[6] P. Zeeman, "Measurements Concerning
Radiation-Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field", Philosophical Magazine Series
5, 1941-5990, Volume 45,
197. http://books.google.com/books?id=8
G624y6VnU8C&pg=PA197&dq=zeeman+intitle:p
hilosophical&hl=en&ei=U_MoTMyLH5OBnQetrs
GoAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=zeeman%2
0intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
(University of Leiden26 ) Amsterdam,
Netherlands27  
[1] Image from: Thomas Preston,
''Radiation Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field.'', Philosophical Magazine, S5,
V45, N275, April 1898, p325. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thom
as+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113
uy&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en
&ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=
false

[2] Description Pieter
Zeeman.jpg Pieter Zeeman Date
ca. 1920(1920) Source
http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Zeeman.jpg Author This file is
lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD by age Other versions
Digital Library, Proceedings of the
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (KNAW) Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives http://www.knaw.nl/cfdata/digi
tal_library/output/proceedings/biography
.cfm?RecordId=39 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Pieter_Zeeman.jpg
103 YBN
[03/10/1897 AD] 11 		3942)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Weitere Beobachtungen über
die Eigenschaften der X-Strahlen.",
Math. und Naturwiss. Mitteilungen aus
den Sitzungsberichten der Preußischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin,
Physik.-Math. K1., 392-406 (1898);
Annalen der Physik, 64, (Volume 300)
Issue 1, 1898, p18-38 (1898).
translated into English: (title?),
Archives of the Roentgen Ray, Feb.
1899. and "Further observations on
the properties of the X-rays",
in: George Frederick Barker, Wilhelm
Conrad Röntgen, George Gabriel Stokes,
Joseph John Thomson, "Röntgen Rays:
Memoirs by Röntgen, Stokes, and J. J.
Thomson", Harper & brothers,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
m0hWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22Further+obser
vations+about+the+properties+of+X-rays%2
2&lr=&ei=YQbFSbXvAY-ikASS6-CADg
3. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Weitere
Beobachtungen über die Eigenschaften
der X-Strahlen.", Math. und Naturwiss.
Mitteilungen aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Preußischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Berlin, Physik.-Math.
K1., 392-406 (1898); Annalen der
Physik, 64, (Volume 300) Issue 1, 1898,
p18-38 (1898). translated into
English: (title?), Archives of the
Roentgen Ray, Feb. 1899. and "Further
observations on the properties of the
X-rays", in: George Frederick Barker,
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, George Gabriel
Stokes, Joseph John Thomson, "Röntgen
Rays: Memoirs by Röntgen, Stokes, and
J. J. Thomson", Harper & brothers,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
m0hWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22Further+obser
vations+about+the+properties+of+X-rays%2
2&lr=&ei=YQbFSbXvAY-ikASS6-CADg
4. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Weitere
Beobachtungen über die Eigenschaften
der X-Strahlen.", Math. und Naturwiss.
Mitteilungen aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Preußischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Berlin, Physik.-Math.
K1., 392-406 (1898); Annalen der
Physik, 64, (Volume 300) Issue 1, 1898,
p18-38 (1898). translated into
English: (title?), Archives of the
Roentgen Ray, Feb. 1899. and "Further
observations on the properties of the
X-rays", in: George Frederick Barker,
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, George Gabriel
Stokes, Joseph John Thomson, "Röntgen
Rays: Memoirs by Röntgen, Stokes, and
J. J. Thomson", Harper & brothers,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
m0hWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22Further+obser
vations+about+the+properties+of+X-rays%2
2&lr=&ei=YQbFSbXvAY-ikASS6-CADg
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen,
"Weitere Beobachtungen über die
Eigenschaften der X-Strahlen.", Math.
und Naturwiss. Mitteilungen aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Preußischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin,
Physik.-Math. K1., 392-406 (1898);
Annalen der Physik, 64, (Volume 300)
Issue 1, 1898, p18-38 (1898).
translated into English: (title?),
Archives of the Roentgen Ray, Feb.
1899. and "Further observations on
the properties of the X-rays",
in: George Frederick Barker, Wilhelm
Conrad Röntgen, George Gabriel Stokes,
Joseph John Thomson, "Röntgen Rays:
Memoirs by Röntgen, Stokes, and J. J.
Thomson", Harper & brothers,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
m0hWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22Further+obser
vations+about+the+properties+of+X-rays%2
2&lr=&ei=YQbFSbXvAY-ikASS6-CADg
11. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Weitere
Beobachtungen über die Eigenschaften
der X-Strahlen.", Math. und Naturwiss.
Mitteilungen aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Preußischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Berlin, Physik.-Math.
K1., 392-406 (1898); Annalen der
Physik, 64, (Volume 300) Issue 1, 1898,
p18-38 (1898). translated into
English: (title?), Archives of the
Roentgen Ray, Feb. 1899. and "Further
observations on the properties of the
X-rays", in: George Frederick Barker,
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, George Gabriel
Stokes, Joseph John Thomson, "Röntgen
Rays: Memoirs by Röntgen, Stokes, and
J. J. Thomson", Harper & brothers,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
m0hWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22Further+obser
vations+about+the+properties+of+X-rays%2
2&lr=&ei=YQbFSbXvAY-ikASS6-CADg
{03/10/1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[5] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[6] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[7] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752.
[8] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[9] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[10] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History
of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
[11] Richard Francis Mould, "A century
of x-rays and radioactivity in
medicine: with emphasis on photographic
records of the early years", ed2, CRC
Press,
1993. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IXPz7bVR7g0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=a+ce
ntury+of+x-rays&ei=eebDSZquLYzckQSC0-n-D
Q#PPT24,M1
[12] Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan. 23, 1896,
p274. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf http://w
eb.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roentgen.html
[13]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
[14] Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1896. also
in; Annalen der Physik, Volume 300
Issue 1, 1898, p12-18.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112506661/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: "A New Form of
Radiation", Science, v3, n72,
05/15/1896,
p726. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+OF
+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#
PPA726,M1
[15] "accumulator." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/accumulator

[16] H. H. Rossi and A. M. Kellerer,
"Roentgen", Radiation Research, Vol.
144, No. 2 (Nov., 1995), pp.
124-128. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888
/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=HH&aulast=R
ossi&atitle=Roentgen&id=doi:10.2307/3579
251
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany10  
[1] xray photo of frog by E. Waymouth
Reid and J. P. Kuenen in Nature 1375
vol 53 1896 Notice collapsed lung -
confirmed on dissection. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZ
G4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1

[2] Leather case containing
eye-glasses. made by M. I. Pupin, in
Science, vol3 n59, 1896, p235. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+O
F+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg
#PPA234-IA2,M1
103 YBN
[03/15/1897 AD] 5 		4536)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
2. ^ C. T. R.
Wilson, "Condensation of Water Vapour
in the Presence of Dust-free Air and
other Gases", Philosophical
transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Volume 189, March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ C. T. R. Wilson,
"Condensation of Water Vapour in the
Presence of Dust-free Air and other
Gases", Philosophical transactions of
the Royal Society of London, Volume
189, March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
5. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "Condensation of
Water Vapour in the Presence of
Dust-free Air and other Gases",
Philosophical transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Volume 189,
March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
{03/15/1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
[7] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8, 1895,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[8] C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England4  
[1] from:
http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFGAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=en&ei=Eu
9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAw#v=on
epage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false FIGURE
1. Wilson’s 1895 apparatus. The gas
to be expanded is in the glass vessel
A, which itself is placed inside a
glass bottle B, which is partially
filled with water so as to trap the gas
in the inner vessel. The air above the
water in the bottle is connected with
an evacuated vessel F by tubes D and G,
to which are fitted valves E and K, the
latter of which is normally closed When
this valve is quickly opened, the air
at the top of the bottle B rushes into
the evacuated vessel F and the water in
B rises until it fills the top of the
bottle, and by doing so, closes the
valve E, so stopping further expansion
of the gas in A. By suitably adjusting
the initial volume of the gas in A and
the amount of water in B, the relative
expansion of the gasin Acan be
precisely controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg
103 YBN
[04/30/1897 AD] 63 64 		4260)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188.
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p391
3. ^ Thomson J J 1897a
'Cathode Rays' Royal Institution Friday
Evening Discourse, 30 April 1897,
published in The Electrician 21 May
1897, p104–9.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
5. ^ Thomson J J
1897a 'Cathode Rays' Royal Institution
Friday Evening Discourse, 30 April
1897, published in The Electrician 21
May 1897, p104–9.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521.pdf}
6. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
7. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
8. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
9. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isobel
Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
12. ^ "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise
of Modern Physics", Williams and
Wilkens, 1935, edition 2, p188.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521.pdf}
17. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity
of the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
18. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320.
19. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p391
20. ^ Alfred Romer,
"The Experimental History of Atomic
Charges, 1895-1903", Isis, Vol. 34, No.
2 (Autumn, 1942), pp.
150-161. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
6218?seq=7&Search=yes&term=Wiechert&term
=Emil&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2Fdo
BasicSearch%3FQuery%3DEmil%2BWiechert%26
jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D16%2
6Search.y%3D3%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&t
tl=19&returnArticleService=showArticle&r
esultsServiceName=doBasicResultsFromArti
cle {Thomson_Joseph_John_ISIS_1942_cr.p
df}
21. ^ "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
22. ^
Alfred Romer, "The Experimental History
of Atomic Charges, 1895-1903", Isis,
Vol. 34, No. 2 (Autumn, 1942), pp.
150-161. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
6218?seq=7&Search=yes&term=Wiechert&term
=Emil&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2Fdo
BasicSearch%3FQuery%3DEmil%2BWiechert%26
jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D16%2
6Search.y%3D3%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&t
tl=19&returnArticleService=showArticle&r
esultsServiceName=doBasicResultsFromArti
cle {Thomson_Joseph_John_ISIS_1942_cr.p
df}
23. ^ Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521.pdf}
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Thomson,
J.J., "Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
30. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
31. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188.
32. ^ "Thomson, Sir J.J.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
33. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509.
34. ^
Thomson, J. J., Phil Mag, S5, V48,
N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
35. ^ Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Ted
Huntington.
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ Ted
Huntington.
45. ^ Ted Huntington.
46. ^ Ted Huntington.
47. ^ Ted
Huntington.
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Ted Huntington.
50. ^ Ted
Huntington.
51. ^ Ted Huntington.
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ "Hertz,
Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
54. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
55. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
56. ^ Ted
Huntington.
57. ^ George William Clarkson Kaye, "X
rays", 1918,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=U
FhDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=lenard+showed+tha
t+for+fast-moving+1895&hl=en&ei=uzi2S_fj
BYOyswPx7MSBAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=lenard%20showed%20that%20for%20fast-mo
ving%201895&f=false
58. ^ Ted Huntington.
59. ^ Ted Huntington.
60. ^ Ted
Huntington.
61. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
62. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
63. ^ Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521.pdf} {0
4/30/1897}
64. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015) {04/30/1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England61 62  
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false

[2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
103 YBN
[05/27/1897 AD] 8 		3437)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
3. ^ William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Relative Behaviour of the H and
K Lines of the Spectrum of Calcium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 61, 1897,
p433-441. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w33711h437mkx432/?p=5225e8f0
1e454234a32634606346d6b6π=34 {Huggins_
Calcium_1897.pdf}
4. ^ "Sir William Huggins".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
5. ^ William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Relative Behaviour of the H and
K Lines of the Spectrum of Calcium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 61, 1897,
p433-441. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w33711h437mkx432/?p=5225e8f0
1e454234a32634606346d6b6π=34 {Huggins_
Calcium_1897.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
8. ^ William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Relative Behaviour of the H and
K Lines of the Spectrum of Calcium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 61, 1897,
p433-441. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w33711h437mkx432/?p=5225e8f0
1e454234a32634606346d6b6π=34 {Huggins_
Calcium_1897.pdf} {05/27/1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[7]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[8] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[9]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[10] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[11] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[12] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[14] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[15] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[16] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[17] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England7  
[1] Spark Spectra Shewing effect of
density on the relative intensities of
the lines of calcium PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Calcium_1897.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
103 YBN
[07/19/1897 AD] 4 		4730)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford, "The
Velocity and rate of Recombination of
the Ions of Gases exposed to Rontgen
Radiation.", Philosophical Magazine,
S5, V44, N270, Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false {07/19/1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022.
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
103 YBN
[08/20/1897 AD] 9 10 		4296) Ross wins the 1902 Nobel prize in
physiology and medicine.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p565-566.
2. ^ "Ross, Sir
Ronald." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 23
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
138>.
3. ^ On some Peculiar Pigmented Cells
Found in Two Mosquitos Fed on Malarial
Blood Ronald Ross Br Med J. 1897
December 18; 2(1929): 1786–1788.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2408186/pdf/brmedj08748-0014.pdf
4. ^ On some Peculiar Pigmented Cells
Found in Two Mosquitos Fed on Malarial
Blood Ronald Ross Br Med J. 1897
December 18; 2(1929): 1786–1788.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2408186/pdf/brmedj08748-0014.pdf
5. ^ "Ronald Ross." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ronald-ross

6. ^ "Plasmodium." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plasmodium-
2
7. ^ "Ross, Sir Ronald." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
138>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p565-566.
9. ^ "Ross, Ronald."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 555-557. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830903741&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {08/20/1897}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p565-566. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ronald Ross." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ronald-ross

[2] "Ronald Ross". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Ross

[3] Ronald Ross, Memoirs With a Full
Account of the Great Malaria Problem
and Its Solution,
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=K
39TAAAAQAAJ&q=Memoirs+With+a+Full+Accoun
t+of+the+Great+Malaria+Problem+and+Its+S
olution&dq=Memoirs+With+a+Full+Account+o
f+the+Great+Malaria+Problem+and+Its+Solu
tion&hl=en&ei=Qw3SS6-mL4WCsgP_suT3CQ&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CAcQ6AEwAA
 
[1] Images from 1897 British medical
Journal report PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2408186/pdf/brmedj08748-0014
.pdf

[2] English: Ronald Ross, winner of
Nobel Prize in Medicine Deutsch: Der
Medizin-Nobelpreisträger Ronald
Ross Date Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B2280
3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Ronald_Ross.jpg
103 YBN
[09/02/1897 AD] 11 		4250)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_whoradio.
html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_whoradio.
html
5. ^ Tesla patent
#645576 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
6. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
7. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
8. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Tesla patent
#645576 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
11. ^ Tesla patent
#645576 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false {09/02/1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[5] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[6] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[9] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[11] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[12] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[13] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[14] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[15] Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[16] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[17] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[18] "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm
[19] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23,
c.8 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/A
rticles/jul_11_1935b.htm
[20]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Private Lab) New York City, NY, USA10
 
[1] Image from Tesla's 1897 patent
#65576 System of Transmission of
Electric Energy PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 5 		3802)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490.
2. ^ Emile H Amagat,
"Verification of the van der Waals Law
of Corresponding Conditions", Compt
rend, 1896, 123, p30-35. Journal of
the Chemical Society, Chemical Society
(Great Britain), Royal Society of
Chemistry (Great Britain), v.72 pt.2
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tOY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA363&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPA363,M1
3. ^ Emile H Amagat, "Verification of
the van der Waals Law of Corresponding
Conditions", Compt rend, 1896, 123,
p30-35. Journal of the Chemical
Society, Chemical Society (Great
Britain), Royal Society of Chemistry
(Great Britain), v.72 pt.2
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tOY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA363&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPA363,M1
4. ^ Carl Barus, Robert Boyle, Émile
Hilaire Amagat, "The Laws of Gases",
Harper,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPP11,M1
5. ^ Emile H Amagat, "Verification of
the van der Waals Law of Corresponding
Conditions", Compt rend, 1896, 123,
p30-35. Journal of the Chemical
Society, Chemical Society (Great
Britain), Royal Society of Chemistry
(Great Britain), v.72 pt.2
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tOY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA363&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPA363,M1

MORE INFO
[1] "Emile Amagat." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-amaga
t
[2] "Emile Hilaire Amagat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Hilai
re_Amagat
[3] "Amagat, Émile", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p18.
[4] Emile Amagat,
"Compressibilite des gaz: oxygene,
hydrogene, azote et air jusqu'a 3000
atm", Comptes Rendus, cvii, 1888, p522.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f522.langFR
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France4
 
[1] Disposition for apparatus for very
high pressure PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA68,M1

[2] [t Tables from 1888 text showing
coefficients of gases under various
pressures up to 3000atm] PD
source: http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f523.la
ngFR
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 8 		3912)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
2. ^
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/245
4.html
3. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=17297
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498-500.
7. ^
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/b.gardner/Koch
.htm
8. ^
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/b.gardner/Koch
.htm {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Koch, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>.
[2] "Robert Koch." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[3] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[4] "Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_He
rmann_Robert_Koch
[5] "Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p493-495.
[6] J
Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2): 155–165.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pager
ender.fcgi?artid=1033586&pageindex=1#pag
e
[7] R. Koch , "Die Aetiologie der
Milzbrand-Krankheit, begrijndet auf die
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus
Anthracis." (tr: "The etiology of
anthrax, based on the life history of
Bacillus anthracis."), Beinige zur
Biobgie der Pflanz v2 n2 (1876), pp.
277–310. http://www.asm.org/ASM/files
/CCLIBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876
p89.pdf
[8] Andrew Hunt Gordon, Calvin W.
Schwabe, "The quick and the dead:
biomedical theory in ancient Egypt",
BRILL, 2004 ISBN 9004123911,
9789004123915. http://books.google.com/
books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&d
q=anthrax+Delafond+vitro&source=web&ots=
XlvW4Tlen3&sig=NkU623rPtQUq7OVZlQJVXy-ID
1Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct
=result
[9] "Wrocław". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82a
w
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=1DUAAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPP9,M1
[11] "Robert Koch." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-koch

[12] "conjunctivitis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conjunctivi
tis
[13]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
[14]
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pageren
der.fcgi?artid=2595276&pageindex=1
[15]
http://www.labnews.co.uk/feature_archive
.php/808/5/history-of-the-agar-plate/
[16]
http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.ph
p?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id
=26
[17] Koch, R. (1881) Zur Untersuchung
von pathogenen Organismen. Mitth. a. d.
Kaiserl. Gesundheitsampte 1: 1-48.
Cited in Milestones in Microbiology:
1556 to 1940, translated and edited by
Thomas D. Brock, ASM Press. 1998, p101
[18]
Bizo, B. (1832) Biblioteca Ital. di.
Lett. Sci ed. Arti. 30. 275.
[19]
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
[20] Schroeter, J. "Ueber einige durch
Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."Beitr. Z.
Biol. D. Pflanzen1:2, 1870, 109-126.
[21]
"Joseph Schröter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr
%C3%B6ter
Calcutta, India7  
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 15 16 17 		4088) Electric display (Oscilloscope).7
8

Oscilloscope demonstrated publicly.9
This leads to the first television, and
in some sense is the first
television.10

(Electronic images-images stored in
electronic format as changes in
electric current can now be publicly
displayed.11 ) The first image to be
displayed on an oscilloscope (also
called "Braun", or "Cathode Ray" Tube)
is by Boris Rosing of Russia.12

(Is this the first use of an
electromagnet to move an electron beam
in a vacuum tube? Did Plucker use
electromagnets?13 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
2. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
4. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
6. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
8. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
9. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "television."
How Products are Made. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2002. Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/television
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber
ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false

15. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false

16. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>. {1897}
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdin
and_Braun
[3] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), pp135
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
[5] catalog of
papers http://books.google.com/books?id
=E-ItAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334&dq=Karl+Ferdinand
+Braun+1874&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[6]
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
83126/braun_karl_ferdinand.html
[7] "Karl Ferdinand Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
(Physikal Institute) Strassburg,
France14  
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD

[2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 24 		4093) According to the Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Righi discovered
and described magnetic hysteresis in
1880, a few months before Warburg, who
is credited with the discovery, and
Righi also patented a microphone using
conductive powder and a loudspeaker.20
Magnetic hysterisis is the lagging of
the magnetization of ferromagnetic
material, such as iron, behind
variations of the magnetizing field.21


Righi is a prolific writer, writing
more than 130 papers before 1900.22
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
2. ^ "Righi,
Augusto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 460-461.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
5. ^ Augusto Righi,
"L'ottica delle oscillazioni
elettriche", Bologna,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QRU6AQAAIAAJ trans. into German by B.
Dessau as "Die Optik der elektrischen
Schwingungen" (Leipzig,
1898) http://books.google.com/books?id=
H5cIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Augu
sto+Righi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ "Augusto Righi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augusto_
Righi
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Righi, Augusto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
21. ^ "hysteresis." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hysteresis
22. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
23. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
24. ^ "Righi, Augusto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 460-461. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Augusto Righi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Rig
hi
[2]
http://www.lsrighi.com/chieravamo/vita_r
ighi_english.htm
[3] "L’ottica delle oscillazioni
elettriche" (review), Nature, vol 56,
num 1441, 06/10/1897,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eKRFAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0l2xhI49PXHQp6vG8F&lr=#v=onepage&q=
&f=false http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v56/n1441/pdf/056125a0.pdf
[4] Augusto Righi (obituary), Science,
New Series, Vol 52, Num. 1336,
p122. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tc8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA122&dq=Augusto+Righi&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Augusto%20Righi&f=fa
lse
(Institute of Physics, University of
Bologna) Bologna, Italy23  
[1] Figure from German translation of
Righi's 1897 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=H5cIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aug
usto+Righi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false


[2] [t what is the black rectangle for
or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di
Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni
fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte:
Sito del Museo di Fisica di
Bologna) Date 2007-11-30
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 7 		4105)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
4. ^ "proper motion."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 12
Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proper-moti
on
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus
Cornelius." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Kotoneva, "A study of Kapteyn's
star", Astronomy and astrophysics,
volume: 438, issue: 3, 2005, page:
957. http://www.aanda.org/index.php?opt
ion=article&access=standard&Itemid=129&u
rl=/articles/aa/full/2005/30/aa2287-04/a
a2287-04.right.html {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacobus Kapteyn." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[2] "Jacobus Kapteyn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Kap
teyn
[3] "Jacobus Kapteyn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[4] "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
659>
[5] Kapteyn, J. C. & Desetter, W., "The
Proper Motions of the Hyades, derived
from Plates prepared by Prof. Anders
Donna", Publications of the Kapteyn
Astronomical Laboratory Groningen, vol.
14, 1904,
pp.1-87. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1904PGro...14D...1K/0000003.0
00.html
[6] Kapteyn, "Remarks on the
determination of the number and mean
parallax of stars of different
magnitude and the absorption of light
in space", The Astronomical journal,
volume: 24, 1904, page:
115. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx
_local?sid=google&auinit=JC&aulast=Kapte
yn&atitle=Remarks+on+the+determination+o
f+the+number+and+mean+parallax+of+stars+
of+different+magnitude+and+the+absorptio
n+of+light+in+space&id=doi:10.1086/10359
0&title=The+Astronomical+journal&volume=
24&date=1904&spage=115&issn=0004-6256
[7] "Jacobus Kapteyn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[8] Kapteyn, J. C., "First Attempt at a
Theory of the Arrangement and Motion of
the Sidereal System", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 55, 1922,
p.302. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922ApJ....55..302K
(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands6  
[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 9 		4207) Charles Parsons is the youngest
son of the famous astronomer William
Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse.6
In
retirement Parsons tries unsuccessfully
to make diamonds.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
2. ^
http://www.houseofdavid.ca/parsons.htm
3. ^ "Parsons, Sir Charles Algernon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
570>.
4. ^ "Parsons, Sir Charles Algernon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
570>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
6. ^
http://www.birrcastle.com/inventionsAndE
xperiments.asp
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
8. ^
http://www.houseofdavid.ca/parsons.htm
9. ^ "Parsons, Sir Charles Algernon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
570>. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Algernon Parsons."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-alg
ernon-parsons
[2] "Charles Algernon Parsons." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-alg
ernon-parsons
[3] "Charles Algernon Parsons".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alg
ernon_Parsons
[4] US Patent
#328710 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
(The Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Co.,
Ltd., ) Wallsend on Tyne, England8
 
[1] Description Turbinia At
Speed.jpg Turbinia photographed on the
River Tyne in 1897/1898 Date
1897(1897) Source 'Our
Navy' Author Alfred John West
(1857-1937) Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Summary English: Charles
Parsons' steam turbine-powered Turbinia
at speed, 1897. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Turbinia_At_Speed.jpg


[2] Charles Algernon Parsons
(1854–1931), British engineer,
inventor of the steam turbine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Charles_Algernon_Pars
ons.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 20 21 		4222) In 1912 Sabatier shares the Nobel
prize for chemistry with Victor
Grignard.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p554.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p554.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p554.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p554.
5. ^ "Paul
Sabatier." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-sabati
er-chemist
6. ^ "Sabatier, Paul." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
607>.
7. ^ "Paul Sabatier." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-sabati
er-chemist
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p554.
9. ^ "Sabatier,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 46-47.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 2
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p554.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p554.
13. ^ "Sabatier,
Paul." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 2
Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
607>.
14. ^ "Sabatier, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 46-47. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 2 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
15. ^ Paul Sabatier, Ebenezer Emmet
Reid, "Catalysis in organic chemistry",
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9g9DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cata
lysis+in+Organic+Chemistry&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
16. ^ "Paul Sabatier." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-sabati
er-chemist
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p554.
19. ^ "Sabatier,
Paul." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 2
Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
607>.
20. ^ "Paul Sabatier." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-sabati
er-chemist {1897}
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p554. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Sabatier." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-sabati
er-chemist
[2] "Paul Sabatier." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-sabati
er-chemist
[3] "Paul Sabatier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Sabati
er
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1912/sabatier-bio.html
(University of Toulouse) Toulouse,
France19  
[1] Ethylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylene

[2] Ethane PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ane
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 7 		4297)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p566.
2. ^ "John Jacob
Abel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
3. ^ "Abel, John Jacob." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-12. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830900017&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Abel, John Jacob." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-12. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830900017&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "John Jacob Abel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
7. ^ "John Jacob Abel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abel, John Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
310>
[2] "John Jacob Abel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
[3] "John Jacob Abel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_
Abel
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA6  
[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 5 		4307)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
2. ^ "Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky
3. ^ "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky
4. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>.
Kaluga, Russia4  
[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 7 		4313)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
2. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906}
3. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906}
4. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906}
5. ^ Corsi, The
Enchanted Loom, 1991, p242.
6. ^
"Sherrington, Charles Scott." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906}
7. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906} {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sherrington, Sir Charles
Scott." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
325>
[2] "Charles Scott Sherrington." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[3] "Charles Scott Sherrington."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=gbxLAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA417&dq=decerebrate+rigidity&h
l=en&ei=wlDbS-lygdayA6KUnLAB&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AE
wAQ#v=onepage&q=decerebrate%20rigidity&f
=false
[5] "nociceptor." Mosby's Dental
Dictionary. Elsevier, Inc., 2004.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nociceptor
[6] "Sensory receptor." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sensory-rec
eptor-1
[7] "Sensory receptor." Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2009. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sensory-rec
eptor-1
[8]
http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v3/n
4/fig_tab/embor178_f2.html
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England6  
[1] From Sherrington's 1906 work, fig.
349. the receptive neurone fig. 39 B,
L, noci-ceptrive, frmo the foot to the
spinal segment, (ii) the motor neurone
fig 39 B, FC to the flexor muscle, e.g.
of hip - a short intraspinal
neuirone. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MioSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Sherrington+no
ciceptor+1906&hl=en&ei=vFPbS4-gJYrOsgOL3
dRP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=5&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=nocicepti
ve&f=false

[2] Charles Scott Sherrington Source
: http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy
of the National Library of
Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 7 8 		4346)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p579-580.
2. ^ "Alexander
Stepanovich Popov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-s
tepanovich-popov
3. ^ "Alexander Stepanovich Popov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-s
tepanovich-popov
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p579-580.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Popov,
Aleksandr." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 20
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
849>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p579-580. {1897}
8. ^
"Alexander Stepanovich Popov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-s
tepanovich-popov {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Stepanovich
Popov." Encyclopedia of Russian
History. The Gale Group, Inc, 2004.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-s
tepanovich-popov
[2] "Popov, Aleksandr Stepanovich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 93-94. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903477&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Alexander Stepanovich Popov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_S
tepanovich_Popov
[4] Popov, “Ob otnoshenii
metallicheskikh poroshkov k
elektricheskim kolebaniam” (“On the
Relation of Metallic Powders to
Electrical Oscillations”), Zhurnal
Russkago fiziko-khimicheskago
obshchestva . . . 27 (1895), 7 May
1895, 259–260
[5] Popov, “Pribor dlya
obnaruzhenia i registratssi
elektricheskikh kolebany” (“An
Apparatus for Detecting and Recording
Electrical Oscillations”), Zhurnal
Russkago fiziko-khimicheskago
obshchestva, 28 (Jan 1896), 1–4,
English trans.: Electrical Review
(London), 47 (1900), 845–846, and
882–883
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia6 (presumably) 
[1] Description Popov.jpg English:
Alexander Stepanovich
Popov Русский: Попов,
Александр
Степанович Date This
photoimage was taken before 1906,
because Popov died in January
13/December 31 1905/6 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9a/Popov.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 6 		4433)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Wien."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
3. ^ "Wilhelm Wien." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Wien, Wilhelm Carl
Werner Otto Fritz Franz." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 337-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904646&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Wilhelm Wien." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
(technical college in Aachen) Aachen,
Germany5  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 5 		4441)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
2. ^ "Nernst, Walther
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
4. ^ "Nernst, Walther
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
5. ^ "Nernst, Walther Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Nernst." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[2] "Walther Nernst." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[3] "Nernst, Hermann Walther." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 24. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 11 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903139&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Walther Nernst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Ner
nst
( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany4  
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 9 		4469) Gomberg's family flees Russia
when Moses' father is accused of
anti-Tsarist activity, and settle in
Chicago.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p608.
3. ^ Gomberg,
Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen
Gesellschaft (1897) 30 2043
4. ^ Gomberg,
Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 1898, 20 pg 773 DOI
0.1021/ja02072a009
5. ^ "Gomberg, Moses." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 464-466. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901684&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p608.
8. ^ "Gomberg,
Moses." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 464-466.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901684&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Gomberg, Berichte der Deutschen
Chemischen Gesellschaft (1897) 30 2043

MORE INFO
[1] "Gomberg, Moses."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
314>
[2] "Moses Gomberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_Gombe
rg
[3] "Gomberg, Moses." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 464-466. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901684&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany8  
[1] Description Tetraphenylmethane
synthesis.jpg English:
Tetraphenylmethane synthesis Date
Source Own work Author
Mynameisjonas7 Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
es_Gomberg#cite_ref-3

[2] Description Picture of Moses
Gomberg Source Bentley Historical
Library GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a5/MGyoung.JPG
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 19 		4503)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p617-618.
2. ^ "Vladimir
Nikolayevich Ipatieff." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-ni
kolayevich-ipatieff
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p617-618.
4. ^ Aristid V.
Grosse, "Vladimir Ipatieff", J. Chem.
Educ., 1937, 14 (12), p
553 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021
/ed014p553
5. ^ V. Ipatiew and N. Wittorf, "Zur
Constitution von Isopren", Journal
für Praktische Chemie, 27, 55, 1,
1897. and V. Ipatiew, "Ueber die
Constitution und Synthese von Isopren "
Journal für Praktische Chemie, 27, 55,
4,
1897. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/109799093/issue
6. ^ "isoprene." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isoprene
7. ^ "isoprene." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isoprene
8. ^ C. G. Williams, Proceedings of the
Royal Society 1860 10.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"isoprene." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 8
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9042
963>.
11. ^ "isoprene." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9042
963>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Aristid V. Grosse,
"Vladimir Ipatieff", J. Chem. Educ.,
1937, 14 (12), p
553 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021
/ed014p553
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Vladimir Nikolayevich
Ipatieff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-ni
kolayevich-ipatieff
19. ^ "Vladimir Nikolayevich Ipatieff."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-ni
kolayevich-ipatieff {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ipatieff, Vladimir
Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9042
717>
[2] Moskowitz, Sanford L. "Ipatieff,
Vladimir Nikolaevitch (1967–1952)."
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. Ed.
John Zumerchik. Vol. 2. New York:
Macmillan Reference USA, 2001. 678-681.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3407300151&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vladimir Ipatieff". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Ip
atieff
(University of Munich?) Munich,
Germany18  
[1] Isoprene molecule GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iso
prene

[2] Химик Владимир
Ипатьев Photograph from Guver
archives
http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/hila/rusc
ollection/ipat_br.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/ru/b/bc/Ipatieff1.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 3 		4522) The Yerkes telescope is completed
which is supervised by George Ellery
Hale (CE 1868-1938) and funded by
Charley Yerkes a wealthy US street-car
company owner. This is the largest
refracting telescope, 40 inches, yet
built. Hale convinced Yerkes to fund
this telescope.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
2. ^ "Hale, George
Ellery." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 26-34.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hale, George Ellery."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
862>.
[2] "George Ellery Hale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[3] "George Ellery Hale." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[4] "George Ellery Hale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elle
ry_Hale
[5] George E. Hale, "Photography of the
Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H
[6] George Ellery Hale, "The new
heavens", 1922
http://books.google.com/books?id=bx0SA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22The+Ne
w+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrCsAP1xL
jaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19395/19
395-h/19395-h.htm
Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA2  
[1] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 9 10 		4712) Claude produces liquid chlorine
for use in poison gas attacks during
World War I.3
Claude produces inert
gases in quantity.4
Claude supplies
Ramsey with liquid air in Ramsay's
search for inert gases.5
In 1945 Claude
spends 5 years in prison for supporting
the Vichy government in France6 , which
was considered a tool of the Nazis7 .
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p631.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p631.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p631.
7. ^ "Vichy."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vichy
8. ^
http://www.thalesgroup.com/Countries/Uni
ted_States/About_us/History/
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631. {1897}
10. ^ "Claude,
Georges." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
242>. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude, Georges." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 299. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900918&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Georges Claude". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cla
ude
(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson)
Paris, France8  
[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 9 		4793)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ William Crookes,
"Address by the President", Proceedings
of the Society for Psychical Research,
V12, 1897,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hBErAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:oe0pHgGQavIC&hl=en&ei=102RTLyFL4u8s
QOQnP39Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=6&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Crookes, William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p215-217.
9. ^ William
Crookes, "Address by the President",
Proceedings of the Society for
Psychical Research, V12, 1897,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hBErAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:oe0pHgGQavIC&hl=en&ei=102RTLyFL4u8s
QOQnP39Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=6&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
[8] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
and the Electron Theory", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68
[9] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity of
Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
(private lab) London, England8
(presumably) 
[1] Description: Scan of a picture of
William Crookes Source: A History of
Science (vol. 5, facing page
106) Date: 1904 Author: Henry Smith
Williams PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Crookes_William.jpg

[2] Sir William Crookes Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSsirwil.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 4 		6032)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Philip Sousa."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/555511/John-Philip-Sousa>.
2. ^ "John Philip Sousa." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-philip
-sousa
3. ^ Paul E. Bierley, "John Philip
Sousa: American Phenomenon", Alfred
Music Publishing, 2001, p62.
4. ^ "John
Philip Sousa." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 24 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-philip
-sousa {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Philip Sousa."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-philip
-sousa
(Europe and ship crossing) Atlantic
ocean3  
[1] From
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/235_pos
.html, the Library of Congress Prints
and Photographs collection (reference
number LC-USZ62-110617), John Philip
Sousa by E. Chickering, 1900.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/JohnPhilipSousa-Chick
ering.LOC.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 5 		6033)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Julius Fu?ík." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-fu-k

2. ^ "Julius Fučík (composer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Fu%C
4%8D%C3%ADk_%28composer%29
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Julius Fučík
(composer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Fu%C
4%8D%C3%ADk_%28composer%29
5. ^ "Julius Fučík (composer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Fu%C
4%8D%C3%ADk_%28composer%29 {1897
(verify}
(49th Austro-Hungarian Regiment)
Sarajevo, (Austria-Hungary now)Bosnia4
(verify) 
[1] Julius Ernst Wilhelm Fučík (18
July 1872 – 15 September 1916) was a
Czech composer and conductor of
military bands. PD
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/252/47512981.jpg
102 YBN
[04/12/1898 AD] 33 		4352) Curie's mother is the principle
of a girl's school and her father is a
physics teacher, but her mother dies of
tuberculosis and her father loses his
job.13
In 1891 Curie leaves Poland
after saving enough money and enters
the Sorbonne in Paris.14 (How does
Curie learn French?15 )
Curie lives a
frugal life, fainting in class from
hunger at one point.16
Marie had placed
first on the women’s agrégation in
physics (15 August 1896).17
In
07/25/1895 Marie Sklodowska and Pierre
Curie (after his piezoelectricity find)
married in a civil ceremony both being
anti-clerical, with no wedding dress or
rings, but instead buy two bicycles for
transportation on their honeymoon
trip.18
Pierre abandons his own
research and joins Marie as a willing
and admiring assistant for the last 7
years of his life.19
In 1903 the Curies
and Henri Becquerel share the Nobel
prize in physics for their work in
radioactive radiations. The Curies are
too ill to make the trip to
Stockholm.20

In 1906 Pierre is killed in a traffic
accident with a horse-drawn vehicle.
Marie takes over Pierre's position at
the Sorbonne and is the first woman to
ever teach there. (Asimov comments that
this is remarkable in the notoriously
conservative world of French
science.)21

Marie is not elected into the august
French Academy, losing by one vote
because she is a woman.22

In 1911 Marie wins the Nobel prize in
chemistry for identifying two unknown
elements.23

During WWI Marie drives an ambulance.24

The Curie's daughter Iréne
Joliot-Curie, son-in-law Frédéric
Joilot-Curie, and neighbor Perrin all
will win Nobel prizes.25

In 1934 Marie Curie dies of leukemia (a
form of cancer in the leukocyte-forming
cells of the body) from overexposure to
radioactive radiation.26 (This makes
clear how radiation (mainly photons in
gamma and X ray wavelengths can be used
as a terrible weapon to kill living
objects.27 )

Asimov describes Marie Curie as the
greatest woman scientist that ever
lived.28

(Asimov typed that Marie Curie comments
on the vast energies poured out
continuously from a material such as
radium, but the source of this energy
will remain a mystery until Einstein in
1905 shows how mass can be converted
into energy. t: To me this is not
correct, because this is an example of
photons, electrons and possibly helium
nuclei emitting from atoms due to a
natural process that probably results
from gravity. I reject the idea of
photons as energy, and here clearly the
word "energy" was applied to matter
(photons). I don't see how e=mc^2 which
I view as meaningless, because energy
does not relate to anything real, is
needed to explain why photons emit
constantly from radioactive atoms.
Updating this with my current view - I
would say that the concept of energy is
simply a combination - the product of
mass and motion - and I still reject
the idea that matter and motion are
interchangable.29 )

The story of Marie Curie is, like that
of George Carver, very inspirational
and interesting. It shows that females
can succeed in science. But as of yet,
this amazing story has never been made
for the large screen or even television
which is truly stupid.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p391.
3. ^ Marie Curie,
"Rayons émis par les composés de
l'uranium et du thorium" ("Rays emitted
by compounds of uranium and thorium").
Comptes Rendus 126: 1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
4. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
17. ^ "Curie,
Pierre." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 503-508.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
24. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
26. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria
Sklodowska)." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
32. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par
les composés de l'uranium et du
thorium" ("Rays emitted by compounds of
uranium and thorium"). Comptes Rendus
126: 1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
33. ^
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
{04/12/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[4] "Curie, Marie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 21 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] "Marie Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[8] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[9] "Paul Villard and his Discovery of
Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France31 32  
[1] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg

[2] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg
102 YBN
[04/12/1898 AD] 11 		4693)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.aip.org/history/acap/biograph
ies/bio.jsp?zelenyj
2. ^ John Zeleny, "On the Ratio of the
Velocities of the Two Ions produced in
gases by Rontgen Radiation; and on some
Related Phenomena.", Philosophical
Magazine, June
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-ksEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA120#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
3. ^ Arthur Schuster, "The Discharge of
Electricity through Gases", March
20,1890, Proceedings of the Royal
Society of london, Vol. 47,
p526. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DQUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA127&dq=intitle:proceed
ings+intitle:royal+intitle:london&hl=en&
ei=76pQTNvSHIqksQO5uby8Bw&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA
#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ J. J. Thomson, Phil. Magazine,
Dec. 1895
5. ^ E. Rutherford, Phil. mag.
Nov. 1897, p 436.
6. ^ John Zeleny, "On the
Ratio of the Velocities of the Two Ions
produced in gases by Rontgen Radiation;
and on some Related Phenomena.",
Philosophical Magazine, June
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-ksEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA120#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
7. ^ John Zeleny, "On the Ratio of the
Velocities of the Two Ions produced in
gases by Rontgen Radiation; and on some
Related Phenomena.", Philosophical
Magazine, June
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-ksEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA120#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
8. ^ Record ID4272. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ John Zeleny, "On the Ratio of the
Velocities of the Two Ions produced in
gases by Rontgen Radiation; and on some
Related Phenomena.", Philosophical
Magazine, June
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-ksEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA120#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
11. ^ John Zeleny, "On the Ratio of the
Velocities of the Two Ions produced in
gases by Rontgen Radiation; and on some
Related Phenomena.", Philosophical
Magazine, June
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-ksEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA120#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e {04/12/1898}
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England10  
[1] Image of table from Zeleny's 1898
work: John Zeleny, ''On the Ratio of
the Velocities of the Two Ions produced
in gases by Rontgen Radiation; and on
some Related Phenomena.'',
Philosophical Magazine, June 1898. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ksEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA156&dq=intitle:philos
ophical+intitle:magazine&hl=en&ei=AGJPTJ
ORO4KB8gbngr2gAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q&f=false

[2] Photo Credit: AIP Emilio Segrè
Visual Archives UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/zelenyj.jpg
102 YBN
[04/??/1898 AD] 25 26 27 28 		3868)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
2. ^ Camillo Golgi, "Intorno alla
struttura delle cellule nervosa", Boll.
Soc. Med-Chir. Pavia 13 (1898), pp.
3–16.
3. ^ Camillo Golgi, "Intorno alla
struttura delle cellule nervosa",
Rend.-R. Ist. Lomb. Sci. Lett. 31
(1898), pp. 930–941.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p497.
5. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
6. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
7. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
8. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p497.
10. ^ "Golgi,
Camillo." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
13. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html
14. ^ "cell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-3739
5>.
15. ^ "Golgi apparatus." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/golgi-appar
atus-1
16. ^ "cell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-3739
5>.
17. ^ "Golgi complex (apparatus)."
Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary
Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C. Blood,
V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay, Elsevier,
2007. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/golgi-compl
ex-apparatus
18. ^ "Golgi apparatus." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/golgi-appar
atus-1
19. ^ "Golgi complex (apparatus)."
Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary
Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C. Blood,
V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay, Elsevier,
2007. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/golgi-compl
ex-apparatus
20. ^ "cell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-3739
5>.
21. ^ "Golgi apparatus." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/golgi-appar
atus-1
22. ^ "cell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-3739
5>.
23. ^ "Camillo Golgi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi
24. ^ "Golgi, Camillo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
291>.
25. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1906/index.html {04/1898}
26. ^
"Golgi, Camillo", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p364.
{1898}
27. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p392. {1898}
28. ^ "Camillo Golgi." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 04 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/camillo-gol
gi {1909}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/articles/golgi/index.html
[2] "Camillo Golgi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Gol
gi
[3] "Muscle And Nerve". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Muscle_A
nd_Nerve
[4] Camillo Golgi, "Opera omnia" "Vol.
I. Istologia normale, (1870-83), Vol.
II. Istologia normale, (1883-1902),
Vol. III. Patologia generale e
Isto-patologia, (1868-94)", Ulrico
Hoepli, 1903.
[5] Umberto Muscatello,
"Golgi's Contribution To Medicine",
Brain Research Reviews, Volume 55,
Issue 1, August 2007, Pages 3-7.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6SYS-4NCR90H-1&_user
=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d
&view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_url
Version=0&_userid=4422&md5=e97a25995f5e2
9bde47e6e6cba96d50b
(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy23 24
 
[1] Golgi's drawings of the ''internal
reticular apparatus'' that he observed
in spinal ganglia (the different
drawings illustrate the variety of
features Golgi observed with his metal
impregnation, from Opera Omnia). This
intracellular structure is universally
known nowadays as ''Golgi
apparatus''. PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/12.jpg


[2] Secretory pathway diagram,
including nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. 1.
Nuclear membrane 2. Nuclear pore
3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
4. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(sER) 5. Ribosome attached to rER
6. Macromolecules 7. Transport
vesicles 8. Golgi apparatus 9.
Cis face of Golgi apparatus 10.
Trans face of Golgi apparatus 11.
Cisternae of Golgi apparatus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg
102 YBN
[05/02/1898 AD] 21 22 23 		4380)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p586.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p586.
7. ^
"Goldschmidt, Hans." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
274>.
8. ^ Goldschmidt, Hans; Ruhr, Essen a.
d. (1898). "Über ein neues Verfahren
zur Darstellung von Metallen und
Legirungen mittelst Aluminiums ("On a
new method for the preparation of
metals and alloys by means of
aluminum"). Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Df0tA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:a
nnalen+intitle:chemie+date:1898-1898&cd=
3#v=onepage&q&f=false http://www3.inter
science.wiley.com/journal/112324980/abst
ract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
9. ^ Dr. Hans Goldschmidt and Claude
Vautin, "Aluminium as a heating and
reducing agent," The Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry, vol.6,
no. 17, pages 543-545 (30 June 1898)
Available on-line at:
http://www.pyrobin.com/files/thermit(e)%
20journal.pdf . ^;
10. ^ Goldschmidt, H.,
"Über ein neues Verfahren zur
Erzeugung von hohen Temperaturen und
zur Darstellung von schwer schmelzbaren
kohlefreien Metallen" (On a new method
for the production of high temperatures
and for the preparation of refractory
carbon-free metals), Zeitschrift für
Elektrochemie, vol. 4, pages 494-499
(1898) ;
11. ^ Goldschmidt, H.,
"Verfahren zur Erzeugung hoher
Temperaturen" (Method for the
production of high temperatures),
Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie, vol. 6,
pages 53-57 (1899).
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Goldschmidt,
Hans." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 28
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
274>.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Goldschmidt,
Hans; Ruhr, Essen a. d. (1898). "Über
ein neues Verfahren zur Darstellung von
Metallen und Legirungen mittelst
Aluminiums ("On a new method for the
preparation of metals and alloys by
means of aluminum"). Justus Liebigs
Annalen der Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Df0tA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:a
nnalen+intitle:chemie+date:1898-1898&cd=
3#v=onepage&q&f=false http://www3.inter
science.wiley.com/journal/112324980/abst
ract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
20. ^ Patent number:
875345 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=nw1lAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
21. ^ Goldschmidt, Hans; Ruhr, Essen a.
d. (1898). "Über ein neues Verfahren
zur Darstellung von Metallen und
Legirungen mittelst Aluminiums ("On a
new method for the preparation of
metals and alloys by means of
aluminum"). Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Df0tA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:a
nnalen+intitle:chemie+date:1898-1898&cd=
3#v=onepage&q&f=false http://www3.inter
science.wiley.com/journal/112324980/abst
ract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 {05/02/1898}
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586. {1898}
23. ^ "Hans
Goldschmidt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Goldsc
hmidt {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thermite". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermite
[2] Patent number:
733957 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=JP5rAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
(Business: TH. Goldschmidt)
Essen-on-the-Ruhr, Germany19 20  
[1] A thermite reaction using iron(III)
oxide English: A thermite reaction
using Ferric Oxide. Date
2007-05-12 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Choij using CommonsHelper. Author
Original uploader was
CaesiumFluoride at en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/ThermiteFe2O3.JPG

[2] Hans Goldschmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Thermite_mix.jpg
102 YBN
[05/10/1898 AD] 18 19 20 21 		3824)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
3. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

4. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note on
the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and
Helium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
6. ^ (original
footnote:) See 'Scientific Papers.'
vol. 2, p. 412.
7. ^ James Dewar,
"Preliminary Note on the Liquefaction
of Hydrogen and Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Record ID3688.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ James Dewar, "The Boiling Point
of Liquid Hydrogen, Determined by
Hydrogen and Helium Gas Thermometers",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 68, 1901,
p.44-54. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/340096125j7x2310/?p=781b93c28
d204254b15249d65270245bπ=16 {Dewar_Jam
es_bp_H_1901.pdf}
12. ^ "hydrogen." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogen
13. ^ "hydrogen." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogen
14. ^ James Dewar, "Note on the
Liquefaction of Hydrogen and Helium",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
London, Num. 427, June 1898, from Vol.
73 and 74, p528-535. from the Annual
Report of the Board of Reagents of the
Smithsonian
Institution http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=0cLlatJ2WTUC&pg=PA259&dq=dewar+sol
idification+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZ
rvFozSlQS2pvXrCA#PPA259,M1
15. ^ James Dewar, "Application of
Liquid Hydrogen to the Production of
High Vacua, together with their
Spectroscopic Examination", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 64,
1898/1899,p.231-238. http://journals.ro
yalsociety.org/content/h7541w6255mw7553/
?p=9f278d787fa6441081a7afe9102a52f8π=1
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Dewar, Sir James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
18. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note
on the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and
Helium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
{05/10/1898}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1898}
20. ^
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>. {1898}
21. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
 {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[6]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[7]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[8] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[9] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[10]
James Dewar, Helen Rose Banks Dewar,
James Douglas Hamilton Dickson, Hugh
Munro Ross, Ernest Charles Scott
Dickson, "Collected Papers of Sir James
Dewar...", The University Press,
1927. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pR9WAAAAMAAJ&q=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+J
ames+Dewar&dq=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+Ja
mes+Dewar&lr=&ei=8r5nSZWNFoGklQSW5s3yCw&
pgis=1
[11] Willett Lepley Hardin, "The Rise
and Development of the Liquefaction of
Gases", The Macmillan company,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s5cAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR8&dq=dewar+solidificat
ion+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZrvFozSlQ
S2pvXrCA
(Royal Institution) London, England17
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

102 YBN
[06/03/1898 AD] 11 		4142)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
2. ^ Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p639.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
8. ^ Ramsay, "On a
new constituent of atmospheric air",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, volume: 63, 1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
9. ^ William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
10. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
11. ^ Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false {06/03/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[7] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[8] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[9] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[10] Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
(University College) London, England10
 
[1] Krypton element 36 from Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kry
pton

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
102 YBN
[06/13/1898 AD] 7 		4143)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
2. ^ Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538
4. ^ "Ramsay,
William." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-284.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
6. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
7. ^ Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false {06/13/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[6] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[7] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[9] Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[10]
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
[11] William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
(University College) London, England6
 
[1] Neon, element 10 on the Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo
n

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
102 YBN
[07/01/1898 AD] 6 		4255)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_robots.ht
ml
3. ^ Tesla Patent 613809 Method of and
apparatus for controlling mechanism of
moving vessels or
vehicles. http://www.google.com/patents
?id=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=
4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
4. ^ Tesla Patent 613809 Method of and
apparatus for controlling mechanism of
moving vessels or
vehicles. http://www.google.com/patents
?id=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=
4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
5. ^ Tesla Patent 613809 Method of and
apparatus for controlling mechanism of
moving vessels or
vehicles. http://www.google.com/patents
?id=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=
4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
6. ^ Tesla Patent 613809 Method of and
apparatus for controlling mechanism of
moving vessels or
vehicles. http://www.google.com/patents
?id=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=
4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&
q=&f=false {07/01/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[6] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[7] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[9] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[11]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[12] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[13] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[14] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[15] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23, c.8
[16] New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
[17] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[18] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[19] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[20]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA5  
[1] Interior of Tesla's
remote-controlled boat. PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ins/ima
ges/rcimg02.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla's 07/01/1898
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
102 YBN
[07/18/1898 AD] 23 		4353)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. et M. Curie., "Sur une
substance nouvelle radioactive,
contenue dans la pechblende." Comptes
Rendus, T.127 (1898)
175-178. {Curie_Pierre_Marie_N0030837_P
DF_177_186_18980718.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
5. ^ "Curie, Marie."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 21 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>.
6. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
8. ^ P. et M. Curie., "Sur une
substance nouvelle radioactive,
contenue dans la pechblende." Comptes
Rendus, T.127 (1898)
175-178. {Curie_Pierre_Marie_N0030837_P
DF_177_186_18980718.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Curie,
Marie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 21
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
13. ^ P. et M.
Curie., "Sur une substance nouvelle
radioactive, contenue dans la
pechblende." Comptes Rendus, T.127
(1898)
175-178. {Curie_Pierre_Marie_N0030837_P
DF_177_186_18980718.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"pitchblende." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pitchblende

17. ^ "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria
Sklodowska)." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par
les composés de l'uranium et du
thorium" ("Rays emitted by compounds of
uranium and thorium"). Comptes Rendus
126: 1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
23. ^
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
{07/18/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France21 22  
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
102 YBN
[07/18/1898 AD] 23 		4354)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Curie, Marie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 21 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>.
2. ^ P. Curie, Mme. M. Curie, G Bemont,
"Sur une nouvelle substance fortement
radio-active, contenue dans la
pechblende", Comptes rendus de
l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, 1898
(26 December), vol. 127, pp.
1215-1217. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Ca
dresFenetre?O=30000000030837&I=1298&M=ch
emindefer English
translation: http://www.aip.org/history
/curie/discover.htm {Curie_Marie_Pierre
_polonium_N0030837_PDF_1217_1219_1898122
6.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
(a
characteristics)
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
(a for them)
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
15. ^ P. Curie,
Mme. M. Curie, G Bemont, "Sur une
nouvelle substance fortement
radio-active, contenue dans la
pechblende", Comptes rendus de
l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, 1898
(26 December), vol. 127, pp.
1215-1217. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Ca
dresFenetre?O=30000000030837&I=1298&M=ch
emindefer English
translation: http://www.aip.org/history
/curie/discover.htm {Curie_Marie_Pierre
_polonium_N0030837_PDF_1217_1219_1898122
6.pdf}
16. ^ Marie Curie and André Debierne
(1910). "Sur le radium métallique" (On
metallic radium)" (in French). Comptes
Rendus 151: 523–525.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?
O=NUMM-3104&I=523&M=tdm. http://visuali
seur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104&I=
523&M=tdm
17. ^ "radium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
18. ^ "radium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Curie, Marie
(Maria Sklodowska)." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par
les composés de l'uranium et du
thorium" ("Rays emitted by compounds of
uranium and thorium"). Comptes Rendus
126: 1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
23. ^
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
{07/18/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[11] ([a more and more)
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France21 22  
[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
102 YBN
[09/01/1898 AD] 16 		4731)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford,
"Uranium Radiation and the Electrical
Conduction Produced by It", Phil Mag
ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
4. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
5. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
6. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
7. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
8. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
9. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Rutherford,
"Uranium Radiation and the Electrical
Conduction Produced by It", Phil Mag
ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
16. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation
and the Electrical Conduction Produced
by It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
{09/01/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England15  
[1] Fig 1 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false

[2] Fig 2 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false
102 YBN
[09/08/1898 AD] 7 		4144)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
2. ^ William Ramsay, Morris W. Travers,
"On the Extraction from Air of the
Companions of Argon and on Neon",
Report of the 68th Meeting of the
British Association,
p828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_es4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:01os3IjvDjZbiTyuxyZKf7&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538
4. ^ William Ramsay,
Morris W. Travers, "On the Extraction
from Air of the Companions of Argon and
on Neon", Report of the 68th Meeting of
the British Association,
p828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_es4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:01os3IjvDjZbiTyuxyZKf7&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
5. ^ "xenon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/xenon
6. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
7. ^ "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {09/08/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[6] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[7] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[9] Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[10]
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
[11] William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[12] Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
(University College) London, England6
 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
102 YBN
[10/29/1898 AD] 5 		4689)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
2. ^ C. T. R. Wilson,
"On the Condensation Nuclei Produced in
Gases by the Action of Rontgen Rays,
Uranium Rays, Ultra-Violet Light, and
Other Agents", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1899 192:403-453;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1899.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/192/4
03.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Condensation Nuclei Produced in Gases
by the Action of Rontgen Rays, Uranium
Rays, Ultra-Violet Light, and Other
Agents", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A
January 1, 1899 192:403-453;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1899.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/192/4
03.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
5. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Condensation Nuclei Produced in Gases
by the Action of Rontgen Rays, Uranium
Rays, Ultra-Violet Light, and Other
Agents", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A
January 1, 1899 192:403-453;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1899.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/192/4
03.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b {10/29/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
[7] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8, 1895,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[8] C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[9] C. T. R. Wilson, "Condensation of
Water Vapour in the Presence of
Dust-free Air and other Gases",
Philosophical transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Volume 189,
March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England4  
[1] from:
http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFGAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=en&ei=Eu
9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAw#v=on
epage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false FIGURE
1. Wilson’s 1895 apparatus. The gas
to be expanded is in the glass vessel
A, which itself is placed inside a
glass bottle B, which is partially
filled with water so as to trap the gas
in the inner vessel. The air above the
water in the bottle is connected with
an evacuated vessel F by tubes D and G,
to which are fitted valves E and K, the
latter of which is normally closed When
this valve is quickly opened, the air
at the top of the bottle B rushes into
the evacuated vessel F and the water in
B rises until it fills the top of the
bottle, and by doing so, closes the
valve E, so stopping further expansion
of the gas in A. By suitably adjusting
the initial volume of the gas in A and
the amount of water in B, the relative
expansion of the gasin Acan be
precisely controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg
102 YBN
[12/??/1898 AD] 8 		4261)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"On the Charge of Electricity carried
by the Ions produced by Rontgen Rays",
Phil. Mag, S 5, V 46, N 283, Dec 1898,
p528. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=thomson+date:18
98-1898+intitle:philosophical&as_brr=1&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On the
Charge of Electricity carried by the
Ions produced by Rontgen Rays", Phil.
Mag, S 5, V 46, N 283, Dec 1898,
p528. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=thomson+date:18
98-1898+intitle:philosophical&as_brr=1&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"On the Charge of Electricity carried
by the Ions produced by Rontgen Rays",
Phil. Mag, S 5, V 46, N 283, Dec 1898,
p528.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wFUwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=thomson+date:1898-18
98+intitle:philosophical&as_brr=1&cd=1#v
=onepage&q=thomson&f=false
8. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On the Charge of
Electricity carried by the Ions
produced by Rontgen Rays", Phil. Mag, S
5, V 46, N 283, Dec 1898, p528.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wFUwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=thomson+date:1898-18
98+intitle:philosophical&as_brr=1&cd=1#v
=onepage&q=thomson&f=false {12/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[6]
J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[7] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
[8] J.
J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation
of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[9] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[11] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[12] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[13]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[14] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[15] Henry Crew, "The Rise of
Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens,
1935, edition 2, p319-320
[16] Sir Joseph John
Thomson, Applications of dynamics to
physics and chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[17] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188
[18] Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
[19] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[20]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[21] Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures",
Phil Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England7  
[1] Figure from Thomson's 12/1898
paper Thomson, J. J., ''On the Charge
of Electricity carried by the Ions
produced by Rontgen Rays'', Phil. Mag,
S 5, V 46, N 283, Dec 1898, p528. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=thomson+date:1
898-1898+intitle:philosophical&as_brr=1&
cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 7 		3524) After graduation from Trinity
College, Dublin, in 1848 Stoney works
as an assistant to the astronomer, Lord
Rosse, at his observatory at
Parsonstown until 1853 when Stony is
appointed professor of natural
philosophy at Queen's College, Galway.3

In 1857-1893 Stoney becomes secretary
of the Queen’s University in Dublin4
5 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
3. ^ "George Johnstone Stoney." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-john
stone-stoney
4. ^ "George Johnstone Stoney."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/567387/George-Johnstone-Stoney>.
5. ^ "Stoney, George Johnstone",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
6. ^ "Stoney,
George Johnstone", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
{1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Johnstone Stoney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_John
stone_Stoney
[2] "Electron". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electron

[3] Proc. Brit. Ass. (Belfast, August
1874), "On the Physical Units of
Nature,"
[4] George Johnstone Stoney, "On the
Cause of Double Lines and of
Equidistant Satellites in the Spectra
of Gases", Trans. Royal Dublin Society
(1891), series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df}
[5] G. Johnstone Stoney, "Of the
'Electron', or Atom of Electricity",
PT, v38, 1894,
p418-420. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0GyjU2FgHeVMhRr9iumi5pf&lr=&as_
brr=1#PPA418,M1 and
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Stoney-1894.html
Dublin, Ireland6 (presumably) 
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 6 		3723)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p390.
3. ^ "precession." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/precession
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Simon Newcomb".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Simon_Ne
wcomb
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p390. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Newcomb, Simon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
577>
[2] "Simon Newcomb." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[3] "Simon Newcomb." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[4] "Simon Newcomb." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[5] "Simon Newcomb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Newco
mb
[6] "Newcomb, Simon", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p641-642
[7] R. C. Archibald,
Bibliography of the Life and Works of
Simon Newcomb, Transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
(John's Hopkins University ?)
Washington, DC, USA5  
[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 11 12 		4109) Martinus Willem Beijerinck
(BIRiNK) (CE 1851-1931), Dutch botanist
4 theorizes that the infectious agent
from the tobacco mosaic disease
identified by Dmitry I. Ivanovsky in
1892, is a new kind of infectious
agent, which he named "contagium vivum
fluidum", meaning that it is a live,
reproducing organism that differs from
other organisms.5 6

Beijerinck is led by several
observations to conclude that the
tobacco mosiac agent is a unique type
of pathogen. First, he finds that sap
from plants infected with tobacco
mosaic disease does not lose
infectivity after passage through a
filter impervious to microorganisms. In
addition the agent can be precipitated
by alcohol, a property not normally
associated with living organisms.
Second, Beijerinck observes that a
filtered extract from infected plants
can diffuse in a solid agar medium. To
Beijerinck this means that the agent
had to be "fluid" or non-particulate,
since the capacity to diffuse is then
believed to be a means of
distinguishing molecular substances
from larger, supposedly nondiffusing
particles and cells. Third, he notes
that the pathogen is unable to
reproduce outside the host and seems to
multiply only in parts of the plant
undergoing rapid cell division.
Reluctant to accept the idea of an
actively self-reproducing molecule, he
suggests that replication might occur
passively by incorporation of the
pathogen into the reproductive
machinery of the host cell. On the
basis of these observations, Beijerinck
concludes that tobacco mosaic disease
is caused by a contagium vivum fluidum.
a term coined to convey his concept of
a living infectious agent in fluid
(noncellular) form.7

Beijerinck publishes his conclusion
that tobacco mosaic disease is caused
by an infective agent that is not
bacterial calling the disease agent a
"filterable virus" (virus is Latin for
"poison"). Beijerinck presses out the
juice of diseased tobacco leaves, and
passes it through a porcelain filter
that can remove any known bacterium,
and finds that the resulting liquid can
still infect a healthy plant, and that
this infected plant can then be used to
infect other plants. Beijerinck
concludes that whatever the infecting
germ is, that it grows and multiplies.
Earlier, Pasteur, finding no causative
agent for rabies, speculated that there
are germs too small to see with a
microscope. Ivanovsky had observed that
the tobacco mosaic disease can be
transmitted by a filtered liquid, but
thought the disease is bacterial.
Beijerinck is the first to name this
new class of disease agent, but the
work of Stanley will show that viruses
are not liquid but are individual units
(particles).8

Beijerinck believes that the liquid is
alive, and there is a debate whether a
virus is living. In my view, anything
connected to DNA and/or RNA I would
describe as a form of life - even if
not apparently alive.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528-529.
2. ^ "Beijerinck,
Martinus Willem." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 15.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
13-15. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Gale. University of California -
Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ M W Beijerinck, "Ueber ein
Contagium vivum fluidum als Ursache der
Fleckenkrankheit der Tabaksblätter",
Amsterdam : J. Müller, 1898, 21
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ly5XQAAACAAJ&dq=Ueber+ein+Contagium+viv
um+fluidum+als+Ursache+der+Fleckenkrankh
eit+der+Tabaksbla%CC%88tter English
translation: M. W. Beijerinck,
"Concerning a contagium vivum fluidum
as the cause of the spot disease of
tobacco leaves", Phytopathological
Classics, No. 7., American
Phytopathological Society, St. Paul,
MN. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sour
ce=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ffeat
ure%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei=pb
PTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerinck+
1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVsYxI
E8Q {Beijerinck_Martinus_1898.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528-529.
5. ^ "virus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
000>.
6. ^ M W Beijerinck, "Ueber ein
Contagium vivum fluidum als Ursache der
Fleckenkrankheit der Tabaksblätter",
Amsterdam : J. Müller, 1898, 21
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ly5XQAAACAAJ&dq=Ueber+ein+Contagium+viv
um+fluidum+als+Ursache+der+Fleckenkrankh
eit+der+Tabaksbla%CC%88tter English
translation: M. W. Beijerinck,
"Concerning a contagium vivum fluidum
as the cause of the spot disease of
tobacco leaves", Phytopathological
Classics, No. 7., American
Phytopathological Society, St. Paul,
MN. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sour
ce=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ffeat
ure%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei=pb
PTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerinck+
1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVsYxI
E8Q {Beijerinck_Martinus_1898.pdf}
7. ^ "Beijerinck, Martinus Willem."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528-529.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Beijerinck, Martinus Willem." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528-529. {1898}
12. ^
"virus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
12 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
000>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Martinus Willem Beijerinck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinus_Wi
llem_Beijerinck
(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft,
Netherlands10  
[1] Table 2 from Beijerinck's 1898
paper PD
source: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&s
ource=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ff
eature%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei
=pbPTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerin
ck+1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVs
YxIE8Q

[2] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 5 		4125) An explosion while working with
nitrogen and sulfur destroys sight in
one of Demarçay's eyes.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p532-533.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p532-533.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p532-533.
4. ^
http://www.chem.unt.edu/Rediscovery/Dema
rcay.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p532-533. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eugène-Anatole Demarçay".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne
-Anatole_Demar%C3%A7ay
[2] E.A. Demarçay, "Sur un nouvel
élément: l'europium". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 132 (1901), p.
1484-1486
[3] Lecoq de Boisbaudran, "Recherches
sur le samarium". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 114 (1892), p.
575-577
[4] Eug. Demarçay, "Sur un nouvel
élément contenu dans les terres rares
voisines du samarium". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 122 (1896),
pp. 728-730
[5] "europium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/europium
[6] "europium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
275>
[7] Bünzli, Jean-Claude. "Europium."
Chemistry: Foundations and
Applications. Ed. J. J. Lagowski. Vol.
2. New York: Macmillan Reference USA,
2004. 73-74. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 21 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[8] John Emsley, "Nature's building
blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements",
2003,
p139-140. http://books.google.com/books
?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA372&dq=Eug%C3%A8ne
+Anatole+Demar%C3%A7ay+samarium#v=onepag
e&q=europium&f=false
[9] "europium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 21
Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/europium
(personal lab4 ) Paris, France 
[1] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 -
1904) PD
source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li
en/Demarcay.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 4 		4133)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534.
2. ^ "Löffler,
Friedrich August Johannes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
742>.
3. ^ "Loeffler (Löffler), Friedrich
August Johannes." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 8.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
448-451. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p534. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Löffler." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-johannes-loffler
[2] "glanders." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
972>.
(University of Greifswald) Greifswald,
Germany3  
[1] Friedrich Loeffler Date
created 22. Jan. 2006 Source
http://www.fli.bund.de/fileadmin/us
er_upload/Abbildungen/Historie/Prof._Fri
edrich_Loeffler_1852-1915_.jpg Author
Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut,
uploaded by Michael Ottenbruch PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Friedrich_Loeffler.jp
g
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 7 8 		4228)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
4. ^ Elster and
Geital, Jahresberichte des Vereins für
Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig,
10/12 (1902), 39; Annalen der Physik,
69 (1899), 83.
5. ^ "Elster, Johann
Philipp Ludwig Julius." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 354-357. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555. {1896}
8. ^ "Elster,
Johann Philipp Ludwig Julius." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 354-357. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.elster-geitel.de/
[2] "photoelectric effect."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2009. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/photoelectr
ic-effect
[3] Elster and Geital, "Entladung
negativ elektrisierter Körper durch
Sonnen-und Tageslicht", Annalen der
Physik, 38, (1889), 497.
[4] Elster and
Geital, "Abhängigkeit der Intensität
des photoelektrischen Stromes von der
Lage der Polarisationsebene des
erregenden Lichtes zu der Oberfläche
der Kathode", in Sitzungsberichte der
Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften
(1894); Annalen der Physik, 55 (1895),
684, and 61 (1897), 445; Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 10 (1909), 457.
[5] Elster and
Geital, "Analogie im elektrischen
Verhalten der natürlichen Luft und der
durch Becquerel-Strahlen leitend
gemachten", Physikalische Zeitschrift 2
(1901), 590; "Radioaktivität der im
Erdboden enthaltenen Luft",
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 3 (1902),
574.
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany6  
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 8 		4280)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Shibasaburo Kitasato".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibasaburo
_Kitasato
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p563.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p563.
4. ^ Andrew F.
Trofa, Hannah Ueno-Olsen, Ruiko Oiwa
and Masanosuke Yoshikawa, "Dr. Kiyoshi
Shiga: Discoverer of the Dysentery
Bacillus", Clinical Infectious
Diseases, Vol. 29, No. 5 (Nov., 1999),
pp. 1303-1306,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4481998
5. ^
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-encyc
lopedia/kitasato-shibasaburo
6. ^ "dysentery." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dysentery-1

7. ^ "Kitasato Shibasaburo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
677>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p563. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Shibasaburo Kitasato."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[2] "Shibasaburo Kitasato." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shibasaburo
-kitasato
[3] "Kitasato, Shibasaburo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 391-393. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902322&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] Shibasaburo Kitasato, “Über den
Rauschbrandnadbacillus und sein
Culturfahren,” Zeitschrift für
Hygience und Infektionskrankheiten, 6
(1889), 105-116;
[5] Shibasaburo Kitasato,
“Über dem Tetanusbacillus”,
Zeitschrift für Hygience und
Infektionskrankheiten, 7 (1889),
225-234;
[6] Shibasaburo Kitasato, Email von
Behring; “The Plague at Hong Kong,”
Lancet (11 August 1894), p. 325;
[7]
Shibasaburo Kitasato, “The Bacillus
of Bubonic Plague,” Lancet (25
August 1894), p. 428-430
(Institute for Infectious Diseases)
near Tokyo, Japan7 (presumably) 
[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 10 11 		4312)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
2. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=gbxLAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA417&dq=decerebrate+rigidity&h
l=en&ei=wlDbS-lygdayA6KUnLAB&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AE
wAQ#v=onepage&q=decerebrate%20rigidity&f
=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
5. ^ "Sherrington,
Charles Scott." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Sherrington, Charles Scott."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Sherrington, Charles Scott." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ "Sherrington, Charles Scott."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1898}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p568. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sherrington, Sir Charles
Scott." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
325>
[2] "Charles Scott Sherrington." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[3] "Charles Scott Sherrington."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England9  
[1] Charles Scott Sherrington Source :
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy of
the National Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 7 		4331)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ "Welsbach, Carl
Auer, Freiherr von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Welsbach, Carl Auer,
Freiherr von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
6. ^
http://www.althofen.at/AvW-Museum/Englis
ch/biographie_e.htm
7. ^ "Welsbach, Carl Auer, Freiherr
von." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 17
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Carl Auer von
Welsbach." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 5:
1800 to 1899. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 492.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408502839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Carl Auer von Welsbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Auer_v
on_Welsbach
[3] "Praseodymium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praseodymiu
m
[4] "praseodymium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/praseodymiu
m
[5] "Neodymium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium
[6] "neodymium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neodymium
[7] "Welsbach mantle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsbach_ma
ntle
(University of Vienna) Vienna6
(presumably) 
[1] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD] 5 		4434)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Wien."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Wien, Wilhelm Carl
Werner Otto Fritz Franz." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 337-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904646&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Wilhelm Wien." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
[4] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
(technical college in Aachen) Aachen,
Germany4  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 7 		4514)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p620-621.
2. ^ "Sabine, Wallace
Clement Ware." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p620-621.
4. ^ "Sabine, Wallace
Clement Ware." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p620-621.
6. ^ "Sabine, Wallace
Clement Ware." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Sabine, Wallace Clement Ware."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903808&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sabine, Wallace Clement."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
626>.
[2] "Wallace Clement Sabine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Cle
ment_Sabine
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA6  
[1] Description Sabine.png English:
Photograph of Wallace Clement Sabine -
Harvard University Date
1922(1922) Source Collected
Papers on Acoustics Author
Wallace Clement Sabine PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Sabine.png
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 25 		4698) Electromagnetic writing and
reading of data. Sound recorded and
played back magnetically.22 23
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
2. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
3. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
4. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
5. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
6. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
7. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
8. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
9. ^ Oberlin Smith, "Some Possible
Forms of Phonograph", The Electrical
World, September 8, 1888, pp.
116 http://books.google.com/books?id=Vl
VEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith article are missing.}
AND http://www.richardhess.com/tape/his
tory/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf
10. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Ob
erlin_Smith
11. ^ Oberlin Smith, "Some Possible
Forms of Phonograph", The Electrical
World, September 22, 1888, pp.
157 http://books.google.com/books?id=Vl
VEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith and this article are
missing.}
{Hunter_Impossible_Forms_of_Phonograph
_18880922.pdf}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p628.
13. ^ Poulsen patent
661,619 Method of Recording and
Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
14. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
17. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Poulsen
patent 661,619 Method of Recording and
Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
23. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
24. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
25. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Valdemar Poulsen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/valdemar-po
ulsen-danish-engineer
[2] "Valdemar Poulsen." Science and Its
Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 612. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503938&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Valdemar Poulsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Po
ulsen
[4] Compilation of Oberlin Smith
biographical and technical information
of his inventions
(Copenhagen Telephone Company)
Copenhagen, Denmark24  
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg

[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 5 		4704)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
2. ^ "Bordet, Jules."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
3. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
4. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
5. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jules Bordet." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jules-borde
t
[2] "Bordet, Jules." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 300-301. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Jean_
Baptiste_Vincent_Bordet
[4] "peritoneum." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 02 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peritoneum
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France4
 
[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg
101 YBN
[03/03/1899 AD] 7 		4900)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Space", 1935, p51.
2. ^ B. Jacot,
"Marconi-Master of Space", 1935, p51.
3. ^
B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of Space",
1935, p132.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ B. Jacot,
"Marconi-Master of Space", 1935, p51.
6. ^
Ted Huntington.
7. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Space", 1935, p51. {03/03/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[12] B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B.
Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[13]
http://www.answers.com/cellular%20phone
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
[15] "Marconi,
Guglielmo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 98-99.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Marconi Company) London, England5
(verify6 ) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
101 YBN
[03/17/1899 AD] 17 18 19 20 		4319) Like Lowell, Pickering says that
he saw signs of life on the planet by
observing what he supposes are oases in
1892. Pickering also claims to observe
signs of life on the Moon. By comparing
descriptions of the Moon from Giovanni
Riccioli's 1651 chart onward, Pickering
thinks that he has detected changes
that could be due to the growth and
decay of vegetation.12

There may be anaerobic bacteria, I
would not be surprised, and how
interesting if there is not one cell of
life of any kind on the moon of earth.
If not now, there certainly would be
anaerobic bacteria living there very
soon after humans live there.13


William Pickering also calculates the
orbit of a possible trans-Neptunian
planet with results close to
Lowell's.14

Both William and Edward Pickering, I
think, are examples of decent
scientists who spoke more truth, but
generally lost to bad people who have
more money and power - mostly the
controllers of the neuron reading and
writing networks - and whoever tries to
sell relativity and any fraudulent or
less accurate theories in order to
purposely mislead the public, to stop
women's legal equality, and supports
other bad similar views.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>.
2. ^ "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
3. ^ Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
5. ^ "retrograde."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/retrogradat
ion
6. ^ "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Pickering, William
Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>.
9. ^ Pickering EC (1899-04-10). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". Astrophysical
Journal 9 (4): 274–276.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/ApJ
../0009//0000274.000.html.
10. ^ Pickering, William H.,
"Aberration and Relativity", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "William Henry
Pickering." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
Pickering, William H., "Aberration and
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
17. ^ Pickering, William H.,
"Aberration and Relativity", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P {03/17/1899}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p570-571. {1899}
19. ^
"Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>. {1899}
20. ^ "William Henry Pickering."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Pickering."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[2] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[4] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[6] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[7] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[8] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA16  
[1] English: Phoebe, as imaged by the
Cassini probe. Français : Mosaïque
de deux images de Phoebé prises par la
sonde Cassini. Date 11 June
2004(2004-06-11) Source
jpl.nasa.gov, image reference:
PIA06064.jpg Author Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Phoebe_cassini.jpg

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
101 YBN
[03/27/1899 AD] 7 		4829)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972,
p59.
2. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
4. ^ "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
7. ^ W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p59.
{03/27/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[8] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The
Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[9] British
patent No. 12,039, Date of Application
2 June 1896; Complete Specification
Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July
1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
South Foreland, England and Wimereux,
France6  
[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

101 YBN
[04/18/1899 AD] 13 14 		4089)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Karl Ferdinand Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
2. ^ Patent 743056 (verify this is the
correct
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=yiRLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
4. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
5. ^ "Karl Ferdinand Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
6. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 427-428. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 8 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Patent 743056 (verify this is the
correct
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=yiRLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Patent 743056 (verify
this is the correct
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=yiRLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Karl Ferdinand Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
12. ^ "Karl Ferdinand Braun." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
13. ^ Patent 743056 (verify this is the
correct
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=yiRLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#
v=onepage&q=&f=false {04/18/1899}
14. ^ "Karl
Ferdinand Braun." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 02 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdin
and_Braun
[3] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), pp135
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
[5] catalog of
papers http://books.google.com/books?id
=E-ItAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334&dq=Karl+Ferdinand
+Braun+1874&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[6]
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
83126/braun_karl_ferdinand.html
[7] Alfred Thomas Story, "The story of
wireless telegraphy", 1904,
p180. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qFMbsXGH8pYC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=braun
&f=false
(Physics institute at Strasbourg)
Strasbourg, France11 12  
[1] Image from Braun's 1899 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=yiRLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg
101 YBN
[05/01/1899 AD] 7 		4455)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Preston (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Pres
ton_(scientist)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Runge, Carl David
Tolmé." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 610-615.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903781&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^
http://www.ucd.ie/physics/preston/resear
ch_spec_history.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.ucd.ie/physics/preston/resear
ch_spec_history.html
7. ^
http://www.ucd.ie/physics/preston/resear
ch_spec_history.html {05/01/1899}
(University College Dublin) Dublin,
Ireland6  		 
101 YBN
[05/11/1899 AD] 7 		4690)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
2. ^ C. T. R. Wilson,
"On the Comparative Efficiency as
Condensation Nuclei of Positively and
Negatively Charged Ions", Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. Lond. A January 1, 1900
193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
3. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Comparative Efficiency as Condensation
Nuclei of Positively and Negatively
Charged Ions", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1900 193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Comparative Efficiency as Condensation
Nuclei of Positively and Negatively
Charged Ions", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1900 193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
6. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Comparative Efficiency as Condensation
Nuclei of Positively and Negatively
Charged Ions", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1900 193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
7. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Comparative Efficiency as Condensation
Nuclei of Positively and Negatively
Charged Ions", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1900 193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b {05/11/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
[7] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8, 1895,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[8] C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[9] C. T. R. Wilson, "Condensation of
Water Vapour in the Presence of
Dust-free Air and other Gases",
Philosophical transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Volume 189,
March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England6  
[1] from:
http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFGAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=en&ei=Eu
9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAw#v=on
epage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false FIGURE
1. Wilson’s 1895 apparatus. The gas
to be expanded is in the glass vessel
A, which itself is placed inside a
glass bottle B, which is partially
filled with water so as to trap the gas
in the inner vessel. The air above the
water in the bottle is connected with
an evacuated vessel F by tubes D and G,
to which are fitted valves E and K, the
latter of which is normally closed When
this valve is quickly opened, the air
at the top of the bottle B rushes into
the evacuated vessel F and the water in
B rises until it fills the top of the
bottle, and by doing so, closes the
valve E, so stopping further expansion
of the gas in A. By suitably adjusting
the initial volume of the gas in A and
the amount of water in B, the relative
expansion of the gasin Acan be
precisely controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg
101 YBN
[05/??/1899 AD] 9 		4885)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Marylyn Parins, "Sir Thomas
Malory: the critical heritage",
1995. http://books.google.com/books?id=
l2TuDbN4q9oC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=james
+t+knowles&source=bl&ots=zLdwZ20YN0&sig=
l7WX6xIuntU4hxGA0NSijKfGKuo&hl=en&ei=E07
kTPWuBo7CsAOkz6lm&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAQ#v
=onepage&q=james%20t%20knowles&f=false
2. ^ James Knowles, "Wireless
Telegraphy and Brain-Waves", in "The
Nineteenth Century", 1899,
p857. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nIMPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA857
3. ^ James Thomas Knowles, "WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY AND 'BRAIN-WAVES"' in
Eliakim Littell, Robert S. Littell,
Making of America Project, "The living
age", Volume 222, 1899,
p100. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lnJyembwQxsC&pg=100
4. ^ "Brain Waves: A theory", The
Spectator, 01/30/1869,
p135. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135 {Brain-Waves_The_Sp
ectator_18690130.pdf}
5. ^ Eliakim Littell, Robert S.
Littell, Making of America Project,
"The living age", Volume 222, 1899,
p100. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lnJyembwQxsC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
6. ^ Eliakim Littell, Robert S.
Littell, Making of America Project,
"The living age", Volume 222, 1899,
p100. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lnJyembwQxsC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "The Twentieth century",
Volume 11, p900,
06/1832. http://books.google.com/books?
id=noQPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA900&dq=brain+waves&
hl=en&ei=hNvDTMfEDoygsQPa88CPDA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEwQ
6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=brain%20waves&f=false

9. ^ James Knowles, "Wireless
Telegraphy and Brain-Waves", in "The
Nineteenth Century", 1899,
p857. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nIMPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA857

MORE INFO
[1] "James Knowles (architect)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Knowl
es_(architect)
[2] James Knowles, "The Twentieth
Century", Volume 45, 1899,
p858. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VAADAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA858&lpg=PA858&dq=%22A+
collection+of+authenticated+ghost+storie
s+relating%22&source=bl&ots=vckDukC9Jc&s
ig=utc3VF95O58EuOt0gOa7rm7ItUU&hl=en&ei=
Lk3kTKXYGpLUtQPT7-xm&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&sqi=2&ved=0CCMQ6AEwA
w#v=onepage&q=%22A%20collection%20of%20a
uthenticated%20ghost%20stories%20relatin
g%22&f=false
[3] "Sir James Knowles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Knowles
[4] "Brain Waves: A theory", The
Spectator, 01/30/1869. and
[5] "The
Hypothesis of Brain Waves", The
Spectator, 01/30/1869, p133.
London, England8 (presumably)  
101 YBN
[08/??/1899 AD] 18 		4491) Wilbur and his brother Orville
bicycle, glide, and build an airplane
together.7
Several years after the
first flight the US government is not
interested in the airplane.8 (Unlike
neuron reading and writing, the
motorized airplane happily becomes
public knowledge and on the open market
- although, like helicopters, the sale
of and usage are highly restricted.9 )
In
1908 Wilbur Wright takes the plane to
France.10
In 1912 Wilbur Wright dies of
typhoid fever.11

Both brothers are sons of a minister,
do not use tobacco, alcohol, don't
marry and always wear business suits
even in the machine shop.12

Orville in later life explains that in
their home "there was always much
encouragement to children to pursue
intellectual interests; to investigate
whatever aroused curiosity.", and in a
less-nourishing environment, Orville
believed, "our curiosity might have
been nipped long before it could have
borne fruit.".13

Both brothers only
have high school educations.14

(Some time in the future flying cars
will probably outnumber land only
vehicle. But the design will probably
be an adapted helicopter for earth, and
probably hydrogen thrust vehicles for
the moon.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
2. ^ "Wright,
Wilbur." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 520-521.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
4. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
13. ^ "Wright, Wilbur
and Orville." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"Wright, Wilbur." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 14.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
520-521. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 6 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
18. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>. {summer 1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Wright Brothers."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/
[2] "Wright brothers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brot
hers
08/189916 |Dayton, Ohio17  
[1] Description Park Ranger giving
talk at Wright Brothers
Memorial Source I (RadioFan
(talk)) created this work entirely by
myself. Date 18:05, 29 November
2009 (UTC) Author RadioFan
(talk) Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e8/Park_Ranker_Wright_Brother
s_Memorial.JPG

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
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Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
101 YBN
[09/13/1899 AD] 13 		4732)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395.
3. ^ Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395.
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906,
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=R
b0KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruthe
rford&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0
CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
6. ^ Marjorie Malley, "The Discovery of
Atomic Transmutation: Scientific Styles
and Philosophies in France and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No. 2 (Jun.,
1979), pp. 213-223. Published by: The
University of Chicago Press on behalf
of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/230
788
7. ^ M. and Mme. Curie, "Sur la
radioactivite provoquee par les rayons
de Becquerel", Comptes Rendus, 129,
1899,
p714-716. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3085b.image.f714.langEN
8. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
10. ^ Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Rutherford, "A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
13. ^ Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html {09/13/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[4] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[5] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[6] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[7] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[9] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada12
 
[1] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.

[2] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
101 YBN
[09/??/1899 AD] 7 		4739)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
3. ^ M. and Mme.
Curie, "Sur la radioactivite provoquee
par les rayons de Becquerel", Comptes
Rendus, 129, 1899,
p714-716. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3085b.image.f714.langEN
4. ^ Marjorie Malley, "The Discovery of
Atomic Transmutation: Scientific Styles
and Philosophies in France and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No. 2 (Jun.,
1979), pp. 213-223. Published by: The
University of Chicago Press on behalf
of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/230
788
5. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
7. ^ Marjorie Malley, "The Discovery of
Atomic Transmutation: Scientific Styles
and Philosophies in France and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No. 2 (Jun.,
1979), pp. 213-223. Published by: The
University of Chicago Press on behalf
of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/230
788 {shortly before 9/13/1899 according
to}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "pitchblende." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pitchblende

[11] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[12]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
[13] "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France5 6  
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
101 YBN
[10/03/1899 AD] 4 		4830)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
2. ^ "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
3. ^ W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78.
4. ^
W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78.
{10/03/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[6] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256.
[7] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505.
[8] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[9] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The
Man and His Wireless" (1937).
[10] British
patent No. 12,039, Date of Application
2 June 1896; Complete Specification
Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July
1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[11] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
New York City, NY, USA3  
[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

101 YBN
[10/03/1899 AD] 6 		4831)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
2. ^ "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
3. ^ U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
4. ^ U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
5. ^ W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78.
6. ^
W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78.
{10/03/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[6] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[7] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[8] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[9] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The
Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[10] British
patent No. 12,039, Date of Application
2 June 1896; Complete Specification
Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July
1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[11] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
New York City, NY, USA5  
[1] Figure from Marconi's 1900
patent: U.S. Patent 0,763,772
''Apparatus for wireless telegraphy''
(Four tuned system; this innovation
was predated by N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and
J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg
101 YBN
[11/20/1899 AD] 6 		4376)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
3. ^ "Paul
Villard and his Discovery of Gamma
Rays", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
4. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
6. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {11/20/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "pitchblende." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pitchblende

[11] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[12]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France4 5  
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
101 YBN
[11/22/1899 AD] 5 		4733)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford,
"Radioactivity Produced in Substances
by the Action of Thorium Compounds",
Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Rutherford,
"Radioactivity Produced in Substances
by the Action of Thorium Compounds",
Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
5. ^ Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false {11/22/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada4
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
101 YBN
[12/11/1899 AD] 5 6 		4374)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ "Paul Villard
and his Discovery of Gamma Rays",
Physics in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1,
Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
3. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magne´tique sur le rayonnement
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
rendus 129 (1899), 996–1001.
4. ^ "Becoquerel,
Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
558-561. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {12/11/1899}
6. ^ Henri
Becquerel, "Influence d’un champ
magne´tique sur le rayonnement des
corps radio-actifs", Comptes rendus
129 (1899), 996–1001. {12/11/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] [5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur
les radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] ([SO4(UO)K+H2O)
[7] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
[8] "Becoquerel, [Antoine-] Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France4
 
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
101 YBN
[12/??/1899 AD] 10 		4265)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, J.J.,
"On the Masses of the Ions in Gases at
Low Pressures.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, V.
48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
3. ^ Thomson, J.J., "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures.",
Phil. Mag, S. 5, V. 48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
4. ^ Thomson, J.J., "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures.",
Phil. Mag, S. 5, V. 48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Thomson, J.J., "On the
Masses of the Ions in Gases at Low
Pressures.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, V. 48, N.
295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Thomson, J.J.,
"On the Masses of the Ions in Gases at
Low Pressures.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, V.
48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
10. ^ Thomson, J.J., "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures.",
Phil. Mag, S. 5, V. 48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
{12/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[5]
J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
[7] J.
J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation
of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[8] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[9] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[10] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[11] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[12]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[13] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[14] Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[18] Sir Joseph John
Thomson, Applications of dynamics to
physics and chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[19] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188
[20] Russell McCormmach, "J.
J. Thomson and the Structure of Light",
The British Journal for the History of
Science, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Dec., 1967),
pp. 362-387.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4024961
[21] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[22] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
"Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[23]
http://books.google.com/books?id=AFIEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA615&lpg=PA615&dq=silliman+tho
mson+The+%22Present+Development%22+of+%2
2our+ideas+of+electricity%22&source=bl&o
ts=MplL4FZwlB&sig=syqjUWBgONoPdTsWsjAKp0
v4aVM&hl=en&ei=KLyeS-qmHIHkswPOjMiNCw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved
=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=silliman%20thom
son%20The%20%22Present%20Development%22%
20of%20%22our%20ideas%20of%20electricity
%22&f=false
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Experiments to
show that negative electricity is given
off by a metal exposed to
Rontgen-rays.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.
12, 312,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yZ81AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA312&dq=Experiments+to+
show+that+negative+electricity+is+given+
off+by+a+metal+exposed+to+Rontgen-rays&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=Experiments%20to%20show%
20that%20negative%20electricity%20is%20g
iven%20off%20by%20a%20metal%20exposed%20
to%20Rontgen-rays&f=false
(British Association Meeting) Dover,
England9  
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 8 9 		3724)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
2. ^ "Simon Newcomb."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
4. ^ "Newcomb,
Simon", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p641-642.
5. ^ "Simon Newcomb." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Simon Newcomb".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Simon_Ne
wcomb
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470. {1899}
9. ^ "Simon
Newcomb." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Newcomb, Simon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
577>
[2] "Simon Newcomb." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[3] "Simon Newcomb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Newco
mb
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p390
[5]
"precession." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/precession
[6] R. C. Archibald, Bibliography of
the Life and Works of Simon Newcomb,
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
[7] R. C. Archibald, Bibliography of
the Life and Works of Simon Newcomb,
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
[8]
http://books.google.com/books?id=m329-lP
Kd8AC&pg=PA183&dq=astronomical+journal+n
ewcomb+mercury+venus+transit&lr=&as_brr=
1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=kwNWSdqwNI_AlQTnp_zc
Dw
(John's Hopkins University ?)
Washington, DC, USA7  
[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 8 9 		3727)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470.
2. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=m329-lP
Kd8AC&pg=PA183&dq=astronomical+journal+n
ewcomb+mercury+venus+transit&lr=&as_brr=
1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=kwNWSdqwNI_AlQTnp_zc
Dw
and http://books.google.com/books?id=m3
29-lPKd8AC&pg=PA183&dq=astronomical+jour
nal+newcomb+mercury+venus+transit&lr=&as
_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=kwNWSdqwNI_AlQT
np_zcDw#PPA114,M1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Newcomb, Simon", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p641-642.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Simon
Newcomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Simon_Ne
wcomb
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p469-470. {1899}
9. ^ "Simon
Newcomb." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Newcomb, Simon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
577>
[2] "Simon Newcomb." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[3] "Simon Newcomb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Newco
mb
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p390
[5]
"precession." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/precession
[6] R. C. Archibald, Bibliography of
the Life and Works of Simon Newcomb,
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
[7] "Simon Newcomb." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/simon-newco
mb
[8] R. C. Archibald, Bibliography of
the Life and Works of Simon Newcomb,
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, ser. 2 v. 11,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
XKJPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA105&dq=Simon+Newco
mb+1899&as_brr=1&ei=PfhVSa69G4_AlQTnp_zc
Dw#PRA4-PA79,M1
(John's Hopkins University ?)
Washington, DC, USA7  
[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 13 14 15 		3825)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
3. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

4. ^ James Dewar, "Solid Hydrogen",
Chemical News and Journal of Industrial
Science, Chemical news office., 1899,
v.80 (1900),
p132-133. http://books.google.com/books
?id=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical
+news+dewar+solidification+date:1899-189
9&ei=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT128,M1
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
8. ^ James Dewar,
"Solid Hydrogen", Chemical News and
Journal of Industrial Science, Chemical
news office., 1899, v.80 (1900),
p132-133. http://books.google.com/books
?id=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical
+news+dewar+solidification+date:1899-189
9&ei=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT128,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1899}
14. ^
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>. {1899}
15. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
 {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056.
[6]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[7]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[8] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[9] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248.
[10]
James Dewar, Helen Rose Banks Dewar,
James Douglas Hamilton Dickson, Hugh
Munro Ross, Ernest Charles Scott
Dickson, "Collected Papers of Sir James
Dewar...", The University Press,
1927. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pR9WAAAAMAAJ&q=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+J
ames+Dewar&dq=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+Ja
mes+Dewar&lr=&ei=8r5nSZWNFoGklQSW5s3yCw&
pgis=1
[11] Willett Lepley Hardin, "The Rise
and Development of the Liquefaction of
Gases", The Macmillan company,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s5cAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR8&dq=dewar+solidificat
ion+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZrvFozSlQ
S2pvXrCA
(Royal Institution) London, England12
(presumably) 
[1] Figures from Chemical News article
by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne
ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e
i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1

[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 3 		3891) Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (CE
1843-1928), US geologist,1 argues
against William Thomson's theory that
the Earth is only 100 million years
old, arguing that there were several
ice ages which goes against Thomson's
argument that a single ice age is
evidence of uniform cooling.

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498.
2. ^ "Chamberlin,
Thomas Chrowder", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p181.
3. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p395. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
[2] "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
[3] "Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Chro
wder_Chamberlin
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498.
[5] Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p344.7]
[6] "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p181.
[7]
"Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
(University of Chicago), Chicago,
Illinois, USA2  
[1] Description Photo of Thomas
Chrowder Chamberlin in the
1870s Source University of
Wisconsin–Madison archive; obtained
from
http://www.gsajournals.org/perlserv/?req
uest=display-figures&name=i1052-5173-16-
10-30-f01 Date 1870s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/T.C.Chamberlin.gif
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 5 		4154)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ Henri Becquerel,
"Influence d’un champ magnétique sur
le rayonnemen; des corps radio-actifs",
Comptes Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
3. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen;
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
4. ^ "Becquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen;
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
[8] "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
[9] Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
[10] ON THE RADIO ACTIVITY OF
MATTER." By HENRI BECQUEREL, ,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TinLdn_MceIC&pg=PA197&dq=%22the+radio-ac
tivity+of+matter%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%2
0radio-activity%20of%20matter%22&f=false

[11] "abcoulomb." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/abcoulomb
[12] "Becquerel, Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France4
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 16 		4177)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
2. ^ H. A. Lorentz,
"Electromagnetic Phenomena in a System
Moving with any Velocity Less than that
of Light", Proceedings of the Academy
of Sciences of Amsterdam, 1904,
p6. http://www.historyofscience.nl/sear
ch/detail.cfm?pubid=615&view=image&start
row=1 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ele
ctromagnetic_phenomena
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Théorie
simplified des phénomenes électriques
et optiques dans des corps en
mouvement.", Traduit de Versl. K. Akad.
Wetensch. Amsterdam 7, 507,
1899. "Simplified Theory of Electrical
and Optical Phenomena in Moving
Systems", Proceedings of the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences, 1899 1:
427–442. http://www.historyofscience.
nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=209&view=imag
e&startrow=1 http://en.wikisource.org/w
iki/Simplified_Theory_of_Electrical_and_
Optical_Phenomena_in_Moving_Systems {Lo
rentz_1899_1904_Einstein.pdf}
7. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Théorie
simplified des phénomenes électriques
et optiques dans des corps en
mouvement.", Traduit de Versl. K. Akad.
Wetensch. Amsterdam 7, 507,
1899. "Simplified Theory of Electrical
and Optical Phenomena in Moving
Systems", Proceedings of the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences, 1899 1:
427–442. http://www.historyofscience.
nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=209&view=imag
e&startrow=1 http://en.wikisource.org/w
iki/Simplified_Theory_of_Electrical_and_
Optical_Phenomena_in_Moving_Systems {Lo
rentz_1899_1904_Einstein.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ H. A. Lorentz,
"Théorie simplified des phénomenes
électriques et optiques dans des corps
en mouvement.", Traduit de Versl. K.
Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam 7, 507,
1899. "Simplified Theory of Electrical
and Optical Phenomena in Moving
Systems", Proceedings of the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences, 1899 1:
427–442. http://www.historyofscience.
nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=209&view=imag
e&startrow=1 http://en.wikisource.org/w
iki/Simplified_Theory_of_Electrical_and_
Optical_Phenomena_in_Moving_Systems {Lo
rentz_1899_1904_Einstein.pdf}
12. ^ Swenson, Loyd S, "The ethereal
aether; a history of the
Michelson-Morley-Miller aether-drift
experiments, 1880-1930", Austin,
University of Texas Press, 1972, p235.
{ULSF: see table comparing emission,
wave, and relativity theories.}
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik
Antoon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
16. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[5] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923
[6] Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf
[7] H. A. Lorentz, "Michelson's
Interference Experiment", translated
from: "Versuch einer Theorie der
elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at:
http://www.lawebdefisica.com/arts/lorent
z/
[8] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[9] "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>
[10] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[11] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[12] Frederick Seitz, "James
Clerk maxwell (1831-1879)",
Proceedings, American Philosophical
Society, vol 145, num 1, 2001,
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
kQJFNlSbzAC&pg=PA34&dq=lorentz+transform
ations+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[13] Florian Cajori, "A history of
mathematics", Edition: 2, 919.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bBoPA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&dq=lorentz+transformati
ons+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands15  
[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg


source:
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 16 		4347)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Loeb, Jacques."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
731>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580.
7. ^ "Loeb, Jacques."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
731>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Jacques Loeb." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-loe
b
12. ^ "Loeb, Jacques." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 445-447. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902652&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ "Loeb, Jacques." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 445-447. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902652&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Loeb, Jacques."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
731>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Loeb." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-loe
b
[2] "Jacques Loeb". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Loe
b
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA15  
[1] Description Jacques
Loeb.jpg English: Jacques
Loeb Polski: Jacques Loeb Date
circa 1915 Source Images
from the History of Medicine (NLM)
[1] Author
unknown/pseudonymous Permission (
Reusing this file) The National
Library of Medicine believes this item
to be in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Jacques_Loeb.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 8 		4364)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582-583,609-610.
2. ^ "Starling,
Ernest Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
3. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
4. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
7. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
8. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Starling." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-star
ling
[2] "Starling, Ernest Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 617-619. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904123&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Ernest Henry Starling". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Henr
y_Starling
[4] "William Bayliss." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bayliss-sir
-william-maddock
[5] "Bayliss, William Maddock."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 535-538. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900317&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "William Maddock Bayliss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mad
dock_Bayliss
(University College) London, England6 7
 
[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

[2] Source: Physiology Society [1]
(pdf) Description: Professor William
Bayliss of University College, London
(died 1924) In the event that the
image was taken after 1923, fair use is
claimed, because there is no
free-licence equivalent, and its use by
Wikipedia will not affect its monetary
value, assuming it has any. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/WilliamBayliss1.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 4 		4391)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p589.
3. ^ "Innes,
Robert Thorburn Ayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 17-18. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902132&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Innes, Robert Thorburn Ayton."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-18. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902132&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1899 (presumably}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thor
burn_Ayton_Innes
(Cape Observatory) South Africa3  
[1] Description Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes00.jpg Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes (1861-1933, Scottish-South
African astronomer Date
unknown Source
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/
ngcic/persons/innes.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Robert_Thorburn_Ayton
_Innes00.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 5 		4423) Henry Ford (CE 1863-1947) US
industrialist1 founds a company (the
Detroit Automobile Company) to
manufacture cars he designs.2

Eli Whitney had introduced the
manufacture of standardized parts a
century earlier.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
4. ^ "Ford, Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Ford." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 08 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-ford
[2] "Henry Ford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford
(Detroit Automobile Company) Detroit,
Michigan, USA4  
[1] Henry Ford's first car -
verify UNKNOWN
source: http://listsoplenty.com/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2010/03/Ford-first-car1.
jpg

[2] Henry Ford 1888 source:
http://www.gpschools.org/ci/depts/eng/k5
/third/fordpic.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Henry_Ford_1888.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 7 		4425) English chemists William Henry
Perkin, Jr. (1860-1929)1 and Frederic
Stanley Kipping (CE 1863-1949)2
publish one of he first textbooks
dedicated strictly to organic
chemistry.3
This book remains the
standard organic textbook for 50
years.4

(Find image of Kipping5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Magner, Lois N. "Frederic Stanley
Kipping." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 6:
1900 to 1949. Detroit: Gale, 2000.
484-485. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p596.
4. ^ Magner, Lois
N. "Frederic Stanley Kipping." Science
and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and
Josh Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949.
Detroit: Gale, 2000. 484-485. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Magner, Lois N. "Frederic
Stanley Kipping." Science and Its
Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 484-485. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Magner, Lois N. "Frederic Stanley
Kipping." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 6:
1900 to 1949. Detroit: Gale, 2000.
484-485. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kipping, Frederic Stanley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
590>.
[2] "Frederic Stanley Kipping".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_St
anley_Kipping
(Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh)
Edinburgh, Scotland6  		 
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 15 16 		4472)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609.
2. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr
Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
3. ^ P. Lebedev, “Opytnoe
issledovanie svetovogo davlenia" ("An
Experimental Investigation of the
Pressure of Light"), Zhurnal Russkago
fiziko-khimicheskago obshchestva, 1901,
t33 vyp 7 otf and Annalen der Physik,
1901 bd 6 s 433-458
4. ^ "Lebedev, Petr
Nikolaevich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 106-108.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902516&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609.
7. ^ "Pyotr
Nikolaevich Lebedev." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-nikol
aevich-lebedev
8. ^ "Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 30 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-nikol
aevich-lebedev
9. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
10. ^ "Lebedev, Petr Nikolaevich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 106-108. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902516&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The
History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours", 1772, kraus reprint
1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr
Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
15. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>. {1899}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pyotr Lebedev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Lebed
ev
(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia14  
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 6 7 		4473)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609.
2. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr
Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr
Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
5. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
6. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>. {1899}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2010. Answers.com 30 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-nikol
aevich-lebedev
[2] "Lebedev, Petr Nikolaevich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 106-108. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902516&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Pyotr Lebedev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Lebed
ev
[4] P. Lebedev, “Opytnoe issledovanie
svetovogo davlenia" ("An Experimental
Investigation of the Pressure of
Light"), Zhurnal Russkago
fiziko-khimicheskago obshchestva, 1901,
t33 vyp 7 otf and Annalen der Physik,
1901 bd 6 s 433-458
(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia5  
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 8 9 		4533)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625.
2. ^ "Richard Abegg."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-abe
gg
3. ^ R. Abegg, G. Bodländer , "Die
Elektronaffinität" ("Electron
Affinity"),1899.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Richard Abegg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-abe
gg
8. ^ "Richard Abegg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-abe
gg {1899 (verify}
9. ^ Ted Huntington. {1899
(verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abegg, Richard Wilhelm
Heinrich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 15
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
306>.
[2] "Richard Abegg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Abe
gg
( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany7  
[1] Description Richard
Abegg.jpg Česky: Richard Wilhelm
Heinrich Abegg English: Richard
Abegg Date 2007-03-09 (original
upload date) Source *
Original source:
http://www.nernst.de/abegg/abegg.jpg PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Richard_Abegg.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 10 		4720) Pope leave school at 15, is an
assistant to Kipping, and becomes a
professor at the University of
Manchester at 1901.7
During WWI Pope
develops methods for producing large
quantities of mustard gas.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p632.
9. ^ "Pope,
William Jackson." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
84-92. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 9 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903475&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Jackson Pope".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jac
kson_Pope
[2] Gibson, Charles S (January 1941).
"Sir William Jackson Pope. 1870-1939".
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society 3 (9): 291–324.
http://www.jstor.org/pss/768891.
(Institute of the Goldsmiths’
Company) New Cross, England9  
[1] Sir William Jackson Pope
(1870-1939) President of the Chemical
Society 1917 to 1919 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Willia
mPope_tcm18-75113.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 19 		4836) Debierne is friends of the Curies
and is associated with their work.17
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p651.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651.
5. ^ A Debierne, "Sur
une nouvelle matière radioactive",
Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des
Seances de l' ...,
1899 http://books.google.com/books?id=a
FgDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Sur+une+nouvelle
+mati%C3%A8re+radioactive&hl=en&ei=ZxjCT
LzPPIa2sAO75pijDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFAQ6AEwCA#v=onepa
ge&q&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "André Louis Debierne."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andr-louis-
debierne
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "actinium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 22
Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/actinium
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "actinium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/actinium
12. ^ "actinium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/actinium
13. ^ Giesel, Friedrich Oskar (1902).
"Ueber Radium und radioactive Stoffe"
(in German). Berichte der Deutschen
Chemische Geselschaft 35 (3):
3608–3611.
doi:10.1002/cber.190203503187.
14. ^ Giesel, Friedrich Oskar (1904).
"Ueber den Emanationskörper (Emanium)"
(in German). Berichte der Deutschen
Chemische Geselschaft 37 (2):
1696–1699.
doi:10.1002/cber.19040370280.
15. ^ Debierne, André-Louis (1904).
"Sur l'actinium" (in French). Comptes
rendus 139: 538–540.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651.
18. ^ A Debierne,
"Sur une nouvelle matière
radioactive", Comptes Rendus
Hebdomadaires des Seances de l' ...,
1899 http://books.google.com/books?id=a
FgDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Sur+une+nouvelle
+mati%C3%A8re+radioactive&hl=en&ei=ZxjCT
LzPPIa2sAO75pijDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFAQ6AEwCA#v=onepa
ge&q&f=false
19. ^ "actinium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/4367/actinium>. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] Choppin, Gregory R.
"Actinium." Chemistry: Foundations and
Applications. Ed. J. J. Lagowski. Vol.
1. New York: Macmillan Reference USA,
2004. 15-16. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 22 Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3400900018&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "André-Louis Debierne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-
Louis_Debierne
[3] H. W. Kirby (1971). "The Discovery
of Actinium". Isis 62 (3): 290–308.
doi:10.1086/350760.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/view/22994
3?seq=1
[4] A Debierne, "Sur un nouvel
élément radioactif: l'acti-nium",
Comptes Rendus, 1900
[5] "Actinium".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium
(Sorbonne) Paris, France18  
[1] Presumably actinium, a soft,
silvery-white metal which glows in the
dark. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visua
lelements/pages/data/graphic/ac_data.jpg


[2] Actinium on periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act
inium
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 3 		6046)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Scott Joplin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/306114/Scott-Joplin>.
2. ^ "Scott Joplin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/306114/Scott-Joplin>.
3. ^ "Scott Joplin." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scott-jopli
n {1899}
(George R. Smith College for Negroes)
Sedalia, Missouri, USA2
(presumably) 
[1] Description portrait of Scott
Joplin Date 17 June 1907 Source
Library of Congress[1] Author
unknown
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Restored version of Image:Scott Joplin
1907.jpg with artifacts and text bleed
through removed. .jpg artifacting
reduced from original file. Histogram
and color balance adjusted. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Scott_Joplin_19072.jp
g
100 YBN
[01/18/1900 AD] 9 		4372)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
2. ^ Pierre Curie,
‘‘Action du champ magne´tique sur
les rayons de Becquerel. Rayons
de´vie´s et rayons non
de´vie´s,’’ Comptes rendus 130
(1900), 73–76.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
4. ^ Marie
Sklodowska-Curie, ‘‘Sur la
pe´ne´tration des rayons de Becquerel
non de´viables par le
champ magne´tique,’’ Comptes
rendus 130 (1900), 76–79.
5. ^ "Paul Villard
and his Discovery of Gamma Rays",
Physics in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1,
Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria
Sklodowska)." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
9. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {01/18/1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[11] ([a more and more)
[12] "Curie, Marie."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 21 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>
[13] ([a characteristics)
[14] ([a for them)
[15] Marie Curie
and André Debierne (1910). "Sur le
radium métallique" (On metallic
radium)" (in French). Comptes Rendus
151: 523–525.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?
O=NUMM-3104&I=523&M=tdm. http://visuali
seur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104&I=
523&M=tdm
[16] "radium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
[17] "radium." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
[18]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France7 8  
[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
100 YBN
[03/05/1900 AD] 9 		4373)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
3. ^ "Paul
Villard and his Discovery of Gamma
Rays", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
4. ^ Pierre Curie and Marie Curie, "Sur
la charge e´lectrique des rayons
de´viables du radium", Comptes rendus
130 (1900), 647–650
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Paul
Villard and his Discovery of Gamma
Rays", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
7. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
9. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {03/05/1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[11] ([a more and more)
[12] "Curie, Marie."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 21 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>.
[13] ([a characteristics)
[14] ([a for them)
[15] Marie Curie
and André Debierne (1910). "Sur le
radium métallique" (On metallic
radium)" (in French). Comptes Rendus
151: 523–525.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?
O=NUMM-3104&I=523&M=tdm. http://visuali
seur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104&I=
523&M=tdm
[16] "radium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
[17] "radium." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
[18]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France7 8  
[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
100 YBN
[03/26/1900 AD] 18 19 20 		4155) A Google translation of
Becquerel's work is all I can find:
"The part
of radiation from radium déviable by a
magnetic field
is open to different
experiences, from which I quote the
followin
g on rays that pass through the black
paper
"I ° deviation in the magnetic gap. In
order to investigate whether
air exerted a
significant influence on the
propagation speed
radiation in question, I
prepared the experience of my deviation
-
ence in a vacuum. I did not observe any
noticeable difference with this
that
obtained in air.

The experiment was conducted in the
following way a glass tube,
closed at one end
and connected by another, through a
tube
lead, with a trunk to mercury, was
placed horizontally between
poles of an
electromagnet and normally in a field.
In this tube,
side of a little phosphoric
acid to dry air, was placed a
small
photographic plate, horizontal, wrapped
in black paper;
on the plate was placed in a
small bowl lead omm, 94 thick -
sor,
containing the active ingredient
collected in a hole about imm
diameter hole
in a card kept below by paper
black and above
by a very thin foil. In these con -
dition
s, the material can remain for several
hours on the plate without
veil, and only
gives. impression directly beneath the
sourc
e, through the lead.

"It is now more or less completely in a
vacuum tube, then
is passed through the
electromagnet currents that also
maintains
constant as possible. Rays back on the
photographic plate
by the magnetic field
impressed it on one side of the
source.
After ten minutes of installation, it
interrupts the current;
Leaving the return air
is then passed to the electromagnet a
neck -
rant equal to the first, during
the same time, but in the opposite
direction of
to reject the impression the
other side of the source and can thus
compare
d to the same test the effects obtained
in vacuum and in air
atmospheric pressure.

"We operated with pressures'] mm, 2mm,
of omm i mercury
and the almost absolute
vacuum. In all cases, the two
impressions,


all the board below the source of an
impression due to rays which
are reduced. If
it has, in space, on the path of rays,
various
screens, their shadow is reproduced in
the plate, showing that the rays
normal
field is reduced below the source
itself, and that
oblique rays are back on
the field axis through the source.
Finally, if,
next to the horizontal plate, there is
a plaque ver -
tical plan which extends
above and below the first,
obtains a section
of the trajectories of all rays which
meet and
we recognize that they are back on
the axis that passes through the
source.
"It reflects all the appearance
assimilating the radiation
ing into question the
cathode rays, and considering the
radiation
tion as subject to forces that seek the
negative electrical masses
tions across the
magnetic field with great speed. In
these
conditions, the trajectories of rays
normal to a uniform field is
circles
passing through the source, tangential
to the original direction of
radiation and
these circles have equal radius R,
whose value is
inversely proportional to
the intensity of the field. The rays
emitted nor -
mally to a photographic
plate parallel to the magnetic field
return
cut it normally, and produce an
impression
maximum intensity. The rays emitted
tangentially to the plate re -
come on
themselves tangentially to it and
produce no
printing.

For an oblique direction of
propagation, making with the axis of
field
angle x, the trajectory is a helix
which winds on a cy -
Lindre sinx radius
R, having an axis parallel to the axis
of the field, and
tangential component of
the trajectory at the start. The helix
is wound in the
sense of movement clockwise
if the propagation takes place
in the
direction of the field, and in reverse
if the propagation takes place in a
direction
otherwise.

i> These results, known for cathode
rays, apply to
déviables rays of radium.
The location of maximum impressions on
the plate
Photography is horizontal instead
of intersections with this
Plan rays whose
directions are original in a vertical
plane
parallel to the field. This place is an
arc of an ellipse whose semi-axes
2R is the
direction perpendicular to the field,
and the other would
Shooting for the
direction of the axis, but the rays do
not reach this point.
All trajectories of
these rays have the same length TCR.
"The
place of intersection with a plane
normal to the axis of the scope,
trajectories
of oblique rays whose original elements
are in
plane through the axis is a curve
whose starting point is on the axis
through
the source, and whose tangent at the
origin is the intersection
two planes at an angle
equal to "> d is the distance from the
plane to the source,
and R is the radius of the
circular path described above.
Experience
verify this theoretical value.

In a magnetic field equal to 4OO ° CGS
units were obtained
for R values close to 3mm,
7.

"40 dispersion in the magnetic field.
It follows from the form of
trajectories
that, in the experiment described
earlier this Note, if the
radiation was
homogeneous, the impressions should be
arcs
Ellipse intense toward the outer edge
and diffuse toward the inner edge.
Even with
a radiant source of very small diameter
arcs of el -
Lipsius are very diffuse
outward, and the diffusion increases
when,
decreasing the magnetic field increases
the value of 2R. This dif -
merger
appears to be attributable to a
dispersion of the magnetic field
tion, the
beam of radiation which my previous
experiences ( ')
had already reported
heterogeneity.

"If we have the photographic plate
wrapped in paper
black, and placed parallel
to the field, displays of various
kinds, such
a strip of aluminum omm, i
thick, a strip of copper
omm, O85, output in
these screens consists of elliptical
arcs shifted
against each other. In a field of
approximately 2400 units, and
another
screen without the black paper, the
elliptical arc is in the minor axis
region
of maximum intensity about 2R = 12 ™
2. Under the aluminum
2R = i6mm 5. Under the
copper, the value of R 2 is
approximately twice that
obtained without
the screen and these numbers are given
here only as an indi -
tion.

The impressions are the kinds of
absorption spectra showing
that most rays
deflected by the magnetic field are the
most
easily arrested under these conditions.
But if, instead of placing the screen
aluminum
on the photographic plate is placed
near the
source, although the rays pass
through successively aluminum and
black
paper, the elliptical arc obtained on
the plate has the same position
if there was no
aluminum. It seems that aluminum, a
very small
(2IO)

distance from the source is transparent
to certain rays, and that the
stops when
they traveled in the air a distance of
2cm. I return -
drai shortly on these
phenomena.

"5 Considerations electrostatic
deflection. - The facts
newly exposed part of
the show that radiation
Radium is quite similar
to cathode rays, or
masses of negative
electricity carried with great speed.
We
has been able to recognize the
existence of these electrical charges.
He
But could we find himself in the
presence of masses of material
excessively low,
carrying loads also very low,
too small to
be easily identified, but such that
report -
the mass of the load was a significant
order of magnitude
in a magnetic field. We know
that if v is the speed, intensity H
field
and p the radius of curvature of the
trajectory, we must have
- V = H p. However,
we found for H = 4000, p = o0, we have
e

therefore approximately - v = i5oo. It
should be noted that this number
is the same
order of magnitude as those found for
cathod
e rays by J.-J. Thomson ((), by W. Wien
(*) and
Mr. Lenard (3) which gave values of
- v varying from io3o to 1273,
with values of
v between o, 67.10 'and 0.81. io10.
These
masses must undergo movement in an
electric field
intensity F, a deviation 9 =
F1 = F? is the length of
iooo y ° m

- V *

e

path in the field. We know we could not
get far
no electrostatic deflection for
rays of radium. Maybe
Therefore it is that
field employees were not sufficiently
intense.
It is reduced to this point
assumptions, if we accept as
likely that
the speed v is, as the cathode rays of
the
magnitude of the speed of light, such
as in
the experiments of Lenard, a quarter
of that speed, we see that for
out on a
journey of icm deviation 0 of a few
degrees or

6 to 0.20 io = i, 4> should make at
least one electric field
2.iot2 units or a
potential difference of 20,000 volts
between two pla -
Castles remote icm;
should therefore, for a deflection
electromagnet
significant static, employing different
potentials equal to or greater
nal to those
that cause explosive discharge between
conductors
in the air, which can be achieved in a
vacuum, and does not appear
have been done so
far. We can not say anything until we
have completed
experience in electric fields of
the order of magnitude of those
which were
used for the study of cathode rays. "16

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ "Becquerel,
Henri." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
3. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
4. ^ "abcoulomb." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/abcoulomb
5. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
6. ^ "Becquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Kaufmann, W. (1902),
"Über die elektromagnetische Masse des
Elektrons", Göttinger Nachrichten (5):
291–296
9. ^ Bucherer, Ann. d. Physik 30, 974
(1909).
10. ^ G. E. M. Jauncey, "Heavy
Beta-Rays—More Theory and
Experimental Evidence", Phys. Rev. 53,
265–265 (1938).
http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRe
v.53.265
11. ^ C. T. Zahn and A. H. Spees, "An
Improved Method for the Determination
of the Specific Charge of
Beta-Particles", Phys. Rev. 53,
357–365
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i5/p357_1
12. ^ M. Goldhaber and Gertrude
Scharff-Goldhaber, "Identification of
Beta-Rays with Atomic Electrons", Phys.
Rev. 73, 1472–1473
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i12/p1472_1
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#

17. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
18. ^ "Becquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {03/26/1900}
19. ^ Henri Becquerel,
"Contribution à l’étude du
rayonnement du radium", Comptes Rendus,
130 (1900),
206–211. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
20. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1899-1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
[8] "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
[9] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen;
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
[10] ON THE RADIO ACTIVITY OF MATTER."
By HENRI BECQUEREL, ,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TinLdn_MceIC&pg=PA197&dq=%22the+radio-ac
tivity+of+matter%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%2
0radio-activity%20of%20matter%22&f=false

(École Polytechnique) Paris, France17
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
100 YBN
[03/26/1900 AD] 7 8 		4375)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ "Paul Villard
and his Discovery of Gamma Rays",
Physics in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1,
Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
3. ^ Henri Becquerel, "De´viation du
rayonnement du radium dans un champ
e´lectrique", Comptes rendus 130
(1900),
809–815. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Vi
sualiseur?O=30000000030860
4. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {03/26/1900}
8. ^ Henri
Becquerel, "De´viation du rayonnement
du radium dans un champ e´lectrique",
Comptes rendus 130 (1900),
809–815. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Vi
sualiseur?O=30000000030860 {03/26/1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] [5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur
les radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] ([SO4(UO)K+H2O)
[7] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
[8] "Becoquerel, [Antoine-] Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[9] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magne´tique sur le rayonnement
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
rendus 129 (1899), 996–1001.
[10] Henri
Becquerel, "Sur la dispersion du
rayonnement du radium dans un champ
magne´tique", Comptes rendus 130
(1900), 372–376; "Note sur la
transmission du rayonnement du radium
au travers des corps", ibid.,
979–984; and "Contribution a`
l’e´tude du rayonnement du
radium", Se´ances de la Socie´te´
franc¸aise de physique, (1900), p.
16–17.
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France6
 
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
100 YBN
[04/09/1900 AD] 38 39 		4371)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585.
2. ^ Paul Villard,
"Sur la réflexion et la réfraction
des rayons cathodiques et des rayons
déviables du radium", Comptes rendus
130 (1900),
1010–1012. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
Visualiseur?O=30000000030860
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Paul
Villard, "Sur la réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons cathodiques et
des rayons déviables du radium",
Comptes rendus 130 (1900),
1010–1012. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
Visualiseur?O=30000000030860
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Paul Villard, "Sur le
rayonnement du radium", Comptes rendus
130 (1900), 1178–1179.
12. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Sur
la transparence de l’aluminium pour
le rayonnement du radium",
Comptes rendus 130 (1900),
1154–1157.
13. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Note sur le
rayonnement du l’uranium", Comptes
rendus 130 (1900), 1583–1585.
14. ^ Henri
Becquerel, "The Radio-activity of
Matter", Nature 63 (1901), 396–398.
15. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Excited Radioactivity and
the Method of its Transmission", Phil.
Mag. 5 (1903), 95–117.
16. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "The Magnetic and Electric
Deviation of the easily absorbed Rays
from Radium", Phil. Mag. 5 (1903),
177–187.
17. ^ Marie Curie, Recherches sur les
substances radioactives (Paris:
Gauthier-Villars, 1904).
German transl.: Untersuchungen u¨ber
die radioaktiven Substanzen
(Braunschweig: Vieweg & Sohn, 1904),
p. 41.
18. ^ E. Rutherford, "Penetrating Rays
from Radio-active Substances", Nature
66 (1902), 318–319.
19. ^ Roger H. Stuewer,
"William H. Bragg’s Corpuscular
Theory of X-Rays and g-Rays", Br. J.
Hist. of Sci. 5 (1971), 258–281.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ E. Rutherford, "Nature of the g
Rays from Radium", Nature 69 (1904),
436–437.
22. ^ Leif Gerward, "Paul Villard and
his Discovery of Gamma Rays", Physics
in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1, Number
4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ E. Rutherford and E. N.
da C. Andrade, "The Wave-Length of the
Soft g Rays from Radium B", Phil. Mag.
27 (1914), 854–868.
25. ^ E. Rutherford and E.
N. da C. Andrade, "The Spectrum of the
Penetrating g Rays from Radium B and
Radium C", Phil. Mag. 28 (1914),
263–273.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Leif Gerward, "Paul
Villard and his Discovery of Gamma
Rays", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Leif Gerward, "Paul
Villard and his Discovery of Gamma
Rays", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
30. ^ Arthur Holly Compton, "The
Scattering of X Rays as Particles", Am.
J. Phys. 29 (1961), 817–820.
31. ^ Leif
Gerward, "Paul Villard and his
Discovery of Gamma Rays", Physics in
Perspective (PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 /
December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ "Villard,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 31-32.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904493&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
38. ^ Leif Gerward, "Paul Villard and
his Discovery of Gamma Rays", Physics
in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1, Number
4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {04/09/1900}
39. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "atom." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-4835
6>
[2] "Paul Villard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Villar
d
[3] Paul Villard, "Rayonnement du
radium", Se´ances de la Socie´te´
franc¸aise de physique, (1900),
p. 45–46.
(chemistry laboratory of the École
Normale) Paris, France37  
[1] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hilliontchernobyl.com
/Images/Villard1.jpg

[2] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/fulltext.pdf
100 YBN
[04/12/1900 AD] 19 20 		4429) Cannon is the oldest daughter of
Wilson Cannon, a Delaware state
senator, and Mary Jump.14

In 1896 Cannon joins the staff at
Harvard University15 , during a time
before even having the right to vote,
as a women, in the United States before
192016 .

Jump is the first women to be awarded
an honorary doctorate from the
University of Oxford (1925), is awarded
the Henry Draper Medal of the National
Academy of Sciences (1931) and is also
the first woman to become an officer in
the American Astronomical Society.17
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597.
2. ^ "Annie Jump
Cannon." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon
3. ^ Cannon, A. J. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Spectra of bright southern stars
photographed with the 13-inch Boyden
telescope as part of the Henry Draper
Memorial", Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, vol. 28,
pp.129-P.6. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1901AnHar..28..129C
4. ^
http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pog
ge/Ast162/Unit1/sptypes.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Cannon, Annie Jump."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 49-50. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900776&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Cannon, A. J. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Spectra of bright southern stars
photographed with the 13-inch Boyden
telescope as part of the Henry Draper
Memorial", Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, vol. 28,
pp.129-P.6. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1901AnHar..28..129C
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
Record ID3210. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Annie Jump Cannon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon
13. ^ "Annie Jump Cannon." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p597.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ "Cannon, Annie Jump."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
015>.
18. ^ "Annie Jump Cannon." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon
19. ^ Cannon, A. J. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Spectra of bright southern stars
photographed with the 13-inch Boyden
telescope as part of the Henry Draper
Memorial", Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, vol. 28,
pp.129-P.6. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1901AnHar..28..129C {04/12/1900}
20. ^ "Annie
Jump Cannon." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Annie Jump Cannon." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon
[2] "Annie Jump Cannon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_
Cannon
[3] Annie Jump Cannon, Edward Charles
Pickering, "The Henry Draper catalog",
Volume 94,
1919 http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
44RAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Henry+Draper+Catalogu
e&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[4] Margaret W. Rossiter, "Women's
Work" in Science, 1880-1910, Isis, Vol.
71, No. 3 (Sep., 1980), pp.
381-398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0118
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA18  
[1] Description Annie Jump Cannon 1922
Portrait.jpg English: Mrs. Annie Jump
Cannon, head-and-shoulders portrait,
left profile. Library of Congress
permalink. Date
1922(1922) Source
http://lccn.loc.gov/96502154 http://
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/92776
/Annie-Jump-Cannon Author New
York World-Telegram and the Sun
Newspaper PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Annie_Jump_Cannon_192
2_Portrait.jpg

[2] Annie Jump Cannon PD
source: http://scriptamus.files.wordpres
s.com/2009/12/annie-jump-cannon.jpg
100 YBN
[05/03/1900 AD] 7 8 		3675)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ "Crookes,
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
4. ^ William Crookes,
"Radio-Activity and the Electron
Theory", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68 {Crookes
_William_Radio-Activity_1901.pdf}
5. ^ William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
of Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79 {Crookes
_William_Radio-Activity_Uranium_1900.pdf
}
6. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
7. ^ William Crookes,
"Radio-Activity of Uranium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79 {Crookes
_William_Radio-Activity_Uranium_1900.pdf
} {05/03/1900}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>.
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
(private lab) London, England6
(presumably) 
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from 1900
paper PD/Corel
source: William Crookes,
"Radio-Activity of Uranium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79 {Crookes
_William_Radio-Activity_Uranium_1900.pdf
}

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
100 YBN
[06/??/1900 AD] 15 16 		3843)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
2. ^ Lord Rayleigh,
"Remarks upon the Law of Complete
Radiation.", Philosophical Magazine,
v.49,
p539,540,1900. http://books.google.com/
books?id=S-sPAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=strutt++scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa
_lIYrUkwSUjJDKBg#PPA483,M1 http://books
.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5
39&dq=%22remarks+upon+the+law+of+compelt
e+radiation%22&as_brr=1&ei=jS5-Sf30M4qak
wTtlPXKBg
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p494-495.
8. ^ (original
footnote:) Stewart's work appears to be
insufficiently recognized upon the
Continent. (See Phil. Mag. I. p. 98,
1901; p. 494 below.)
9. ^ Lord Rayleigh, "On
Balfour Stewart's Theory of the
Connexion Between Radiation and
Absorption", Philosophical Magazine,
1901,
p98-100. http://books.google.com/books?
id=S-sPAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=s
trutt++scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrU
kwSUjJDKBg#PPA494,M1
10. ^ Lord Rayleigh, "Remarks upon the
Law of Complete Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, v.49,
p539,540,1900. http://books.google.com/
books?id=S-sPAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=strutt++scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa
_lIYrUkwSUjJDKBg#PPA483,M1 http://books
.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5
39&dq=%22remarks+upon+the+law+of+compelt
e+radiation%22&as_brr=1&ei=jS5-Sf30M4qak
wTtlPXKBg
11. ^ "Strutt, John William, Third
Baron Rayleigh", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p844.
12. ^
Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Strutt, John
William, Third Baron Rayleigh", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p844.
15. ^ Lord Rayleigh, "Remarks
upon the Law of Complete Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, v.49,
p539,540,1900. http://books.google.com/
books?id=S-sPAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=strutt++scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa
_lIYrUkwSUjJDKBg#PPA483,M1 http://books
.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5
39&dq=%22remarks+upon+the+law+of+compelt
e+radiation%22&as_brr=1&ei=jS5-Sf30M4qak
wTtlPXKBg {06/1900}
16. ^ "Strutt, John William,
Third Baron Rayleigh", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p844. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Raylei
gh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>.
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron
Rayleigh". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871,
p.81-97.
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279.
[9] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sc
attering
[10] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p404-405.
[11] By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
[12] R. J. Strutt, "On the Tendency of
the Atomic Weights to approximate to
Whole Numbers.", Philosophical
Magazine, S. 6, V. 1, March 1901,
p311-314. http://books.google.com/books
?id=CJAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&dq=strutt+atom
ic+weight&ei=Wl53ScT8JIGklQS0xMHmBA#PPA3
11,M1
[13] "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[14] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Relative
Densities of Hydrogen and Oxygen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
[15] (original footnote:) "The Relative
Values of the Atomic Weights of
Hydrogen and Oxygen," by J. P. Cooke
and T. W. Richards, 'Amer. Acad.
Proc.,' vol 23, 1887.
[16] (original
footnote:) Address to Section A,
British Association 'Report,' 1882.
[17]
(original footnote:) "On the
Composition of Water by Volume," by A.
Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887
(vol. 42, p. 396).
[18] Lord Rayleigh,
William Ramsay, "Argon, a New
Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1
[19] Lord Rayleigh, "On an Anomaly
encountered in Determination of the
Density of Nitrogen Gas.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1894,
p340-344. http://books.google.com/books
?id=t6gOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+date:1894-1894&as_br
r=1&ei=n4B3SYiGFonikATOldjRBg#PPA340,M1
[20] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Densities
of the Principle Gases.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1893,
p134-151. http://books.google.com/books
?id=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:
1893-1893&as_brr=1&ei=KYN3Se-sN5bskgTq7b
XHBg#PPA134,M1
[21] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
[22] William Crookes,
"On the Spectra of Argon.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1895,
p287-289.
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1
[23] K. Olszewski, "The Liquefaction
and Solidification of Argon.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895, p290-292.
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA290,M1
[24] W. N. Hartley, "On the Spark
Spectrum of Argon as it appears in the
Spark Spectrum of Air.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, 1895,
p293-296.
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA293,M1
[25] (original footnote:) Rayleigh, "On
an Anomaly encountered in
Determinations of the Density of
Nitrogen Gas." 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' vol.
55, p. 340, 1894.
[26] (original footnote:)
'Chemical News,' vol. 65, p. 301, 1802.
[27]
(original footnote:) 'Proc. Phys.
Soc.,' 1893, p. 147.
[28] (original
footnote:) The arrangements for the
experiments upon this branch of the
subject were left entirely in Professor
Ramsay's hands.
[29] (original footnote:)
Kundt and Warburg, 'Pogg. Ann.,' vol.
157, p. 353 (1876).
[30]
http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/rese
arch_people.nsf/pages/olshef.karol.html
[31]
http://www.poland.gov.pl/Karol,Olszewski
,and,Zygmunt,Wroblewski:,condensation,of
,oxygen,and,nitrogen,1987.html
[32] "Karol Olszewski". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karol_Olsze
wski
[33]
http://www.open.ac.uk/ou5/Arts/chemists/
person.cfm?SearchID=3728
(Own Laboratory) Terling, England14
 
[1] Description: young; three-quarter
view; suit; sitting Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, Baron PD/Corel
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rayleigh_john_william_strutt_a3
.jpg

[2] The Third Baron Rayleigh, John
William Strutt 12 November 1842 - 30
June 1919 PD/Corel
source: http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history
/historypictures/LordRayleigh.jpg
100 YBN
[07/02/1900 AD] 18 19 		3784) In 1906 Zeppelin builds an
airship that has a speed of 30 mi (48
km) per hr.12
In 1928 is the first
flight of the most successful
dirigible, the Graf Zeppelin, (Graf is
German for count). This ship will go
around the earth in 1929.13
In 1937,
the Hindenburg (a large Hydrogen filled
directable balloon14 ), bearing a
swastika, goes down in flames over New
Jersey (which greatly lowers the
popularity of these vehicles15 ).16
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
2. ^ "Ferdinand von
Zeppelin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-v
on-zeppelin
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
6. ^ "Zeppelin,
Ferdinand, Graf (count) von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
333>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Ferdinand von
Zeppelin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ferdinand-v
on-zeppelin
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
17. ^ "Zeppelin,
Ferdinand, Graf (count) von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
333>.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
{07/02/1900}
19. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p397. {07/02/1900}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://aboutfacts.net/History13.htm
Lake Constance, Germany17  
[1] Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin begins
the construction of his 1st airship. He
flies for the 1st time during the
summer, above the lake Constance in
Friedrichshafen, in 1900. He was
getting ready to enter the contest for
the Deutsch Prize Picture Source:
U.S. Centennial of Flight
Commission PD
source: http://aboutfacts.net/History/Hi
story13/Zeppelin1900.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Adolf August Heinrich
Graf von Zeppelin
(1838-1917). PD/Corel
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Zeppelin/DI48G1_hi.jp
g
100 YBN
[07/17/1900 AD] 6 		4833)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Marconi, U.S. Patent 0,668,315
"Receiver for electrical
oscillations". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?vid=668315
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
Marconi, U.S. Patent 0,668,315
"Receiver for electrical
oscillations". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?vid=668315
6. ^ Marconi, U.S. Patent 0,668,315
"Receiver for electrical
oscillations". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?vid=668315 {07/17/1900}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651
[2] "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>
[3] "Guglielmo Marconi." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[4] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[7] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[8] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[9] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[10] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[11] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi:
The Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[12] W. P.
Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78
[13] British
patent No. 12,039, Date of Application
2 June 1896; Complete Specification
Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July
1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[14] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[15] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
London, England5  
[1] Figure from Marconi patent of first
(to my knowledge) inductively coupled
antenna PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Bz1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
100 YBN
[08/27/1900 AD] 7 		4205) James Carroll (CE 1854-1907),
English-US physician1 on this day
Carroll, working in Cuba, as second in
command to Reed in the now-famous
commission sent to Cuba to study yellow
fever, doubting the theory of Carlos
Finlay that a mosquito acts as the
vector in yellow fever, allows an
infected mosquito to bite his arm. Four
days later Carroll has the first
experimental case of yellow fever.
Carroll nearly dies, and acquirs a
heart disease from which he will die a
few years later.2

Lazear a fellow investigator will die
from the disease.3

A year before in 1899 Reed and Carroll
had disproved Sanarelli’s theory that
Bacillus icteroides is the specific
agent in yellow fever.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551.
2. ^ "Carroll,
James." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 94-95.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551.
4. ^ "Carroll,
James." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 94-95.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
5. ^
"Carroll, James." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 3.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
94-95. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Gale.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p551.
{08/27/1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Carroll (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Carro
ll_(scientist)
Cuba5 6   
100 YBN
[10/19/1900 AD] 63 		4327) Planck has considerable ability
in music, and is an excellent performer
on the piano and organ. For example,
Planck commissions the construction of
a harmonium with 104 tones in each
octave.51

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Planck is the first
prominent physicist to champion
Einstein's special theory of relativity
(1905). Planck states that "The
velocity of light is to the Theory of
Relativity as the elementary quantum of
action is to the Quantum Theory; it is
its absolute core.". In 1914 Planck and
the physical chemist Walther Hermann
Nernst succeed in bringing Einstein to
Berlin.52 (It is interesting that
Planck may be largely responsible for
the rise of the theory of relativity -
perhaps larger neuron forces and wealth
were influential - only the phone
comapny and government eye and thought
videos will show some century. Perhaps
Planck and Einstein were
corpuscularists, non-believers in
aether theory- but had to compromise -
but it seems unlikely given the
unwavering support for the space and
time-dilation of Fitzgerald and
Lorentz. in addition both apparently
viewed light as non-material - at least
publicly.53 )

According to Asimov, Planck accepts
Einstein's theory of relativity, but
rejects the quantum theory as applied
to the photoelectric effect.54
In 1918
Planck receives the Nobel prize in
physics for the quantum theory.
Einstein and Bohr will receive the
Nobel a few years later.55
In 1930
Planck becomes president of the Kaiser
Wilhelm Society of Berlin and it is
renamed the Max Planck Society.56
Planc
k never lends his voice to the Hitler
regime.57
In 1937 Planck intercedes
personally with Hitler on behalf of
Jewish colleagues, unsuccessfully, and
is forced to resign his presidency of
the Max Planck Society as a result, but
will be restored after WW II.58
Planck
's house is destroyed by allied bombing
in WW II.59
Planck is rescued by allies
while in flight during the last days of
confusion before the Nazi's final
defeat.60
Planck loses a son in WW I,
2 daughters in childbirth, and his son
Erwin, executed in 1944, accused of
taking part in a plot against Hitler's
life.61
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Max Planck." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
2. ^ "Planck, Max Karl Ernst Ludwig."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 7-17. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903438&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Max Planck." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
7. ^ M. Planck,
"Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der
Energieverteilung in Normalspektrum,"
Verhandlungen der Deutsches
Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2 (1900),
pp. 237-245. and "Uber das Gasetz der
Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum",
Annalen Der Physik, 1900,
p553. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: "On the Law of
Distribution of Energy in the Normal
Spectrum" http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-
u.ac.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf
8. ^ "Planck, Max Karl Ernst Ludwig."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 7-17. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903438&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Max Planck." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Max Planck." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p397.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
21. ^ "Max Planck." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
23. ^ "Planck, Max."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108
525>.
24. ^ "Planck, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 13 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108
525>.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
27. ^ "Planck, Max."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108
525>.
28. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1928,
edition 1, p372-373.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted
Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ M. Planck,
"Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der
Energieverteilung in Normalspektrum,"
Verhandlungen der Deutsches
Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2 (1900),
pp. 237-245. and "Uber das Gasetz der
Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum",
Annalen Der Physik, 1900,
p553. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: "On the Law of
Distribution of Energy in the Normal
Spectrum" http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-
u.ac.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ Ted
Huntington.
43. ^ M. Planck, "Zur Theorie des
Gesetzes der Energieverteilung in
Normalspektrum," Verhandlungen der
Deutsches Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2
(1900), pp. 237-245. and "Uber das
Gasetz der Energieverteilung im
Normalspectrum", Annalen Der Physik,
1900,
p553. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: "On the Law of
Distribution of Energy in the Normal
Spectrum" http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-
u.ac.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf
44. ^ Ted Huntington.
45. ^ Ted Huntington.
46. ^ Ted
Huntington.
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Ted
Huntington.
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ "Planck, Max Karl Ernst
Ludwig." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 7-17.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903438&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
52. ^ "Planck, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 13 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108
525>.
53. ^ Ted Huntington.
54. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
55. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
56. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
57. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
58. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
59. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
60. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
61. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p571-573.
62. ^ "Planck,
Max." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 13
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108
525>.
63. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Planck." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
[2] "Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Karl_Er
nst_Ludwig_Planck
[3] "quantum mechanics." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-7750
2>.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany62  
[1] Max Planck PD (presumably
source: From Henry Crew, "The Rise of
Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens,
1928, edition 1, p372.

[2] Max Planck from wp-de and
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/: It is
not necessary to request permission to
use any of the images as available on
the web site. However, we do request
that you include the following credit
line: Courtesy of the Clendening
History of Medicine Library, University
of Kansas Medical Center. File history
in de wikipedia: * 20:17, 15. Apr 2005
by Stern 236 x 351 (15.836 Byte) (aus
der ursprünglichen Bildversion
extrahierter Teilbereich.
Nachbearbeitet. Lizenz unverändert.) *
15:00, 14. Jul 2004 by Necrophorus 302
x 574 (20.286 Byte) Date
2009-12-17 21:00 (UTC) Source
* Max_planck.jpg Author
Courtesy of the Clendening History
of Medicine Library, University of
Kansas Medical
Center. Permission (Reusing this
file) see below PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Max_Planck.png
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 14 15 		3858)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
2. ^ "Address of the
Retiring President of the Society, in
awarding the Bruce Medal to H. M.
Astronomer, Dr. David Gill",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oJMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA387&dq=gill+date:1901-
1901+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=meKISfiPCoS6
kQTOpJnGBw
3. ^ David Gill, "Heliometrical
Observations for Determination of
Stellar Parallax, Made at the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope", Eyre
and Spottiswoode,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aUVAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+date:1893-1893+parallax&lr=&ei=0NqISZTq
NZTckwT_wIjvBQ#PPT4,M1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
6. ^ "Gill, Sir
David." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 Feb.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
832>.
7. ^ George Forbes, "David Gill, man
and astronomer ; memoirs of Sir David
Gill, K.C.B., H.M. astronomer
(1879-1907) at the Cape of Good Hope",
J. Murray,
1915. http://www.archive.org/details/da
vidgillmanastr00forbrich
8. ^ "Address of the Retiring President
of the Society, in awarding the Bruce
Medal to H. M. Astronomer, Dr. David
Gill",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oJMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA387&dq=gill+date:1901-
1901+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=meKISfiPCoS6
kQTOpJnGBw
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Address of the Retiring
President of the Society, in awarding
the Bruce Medal to H. M. Astronomer,
Dr. David Gill",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oJMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA387&dq=gill+date:1901-
1901+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=meKISfiPCoS6
kQTOpJnGBw
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
13. ^ "Address of the
Retiring President of the Society, in
awarding the Bruce Medal to H. M.
Astronomer, Dr. David Gill",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oJMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA387&dq=gill+date:1901-
1901+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=meKISfiPCoS6
kQTOpJnGBw
14. ^ David Gill, "Researches on
stellar parallax made with the Cape
heliometer.", Annals of the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, Vol. 8
(Pt. 2),
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4amrHAAACAAJ&dq=Researches+on+stellar+pa
rallax+made+with+the+Cape+heliometer&ei=
iumJSfWOGJiMkATGwfXECA
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "David Gill (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gill_
(astronomer)
[2] "Sir David Gill". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Gill
[3] "Gill, David", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p358.
[4]
"Obituary: Sir David Gill", The
Observatory, Vol. 37, p. 115-117
(1914). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I00
1.html
[5]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/Gill/index.html
[6] "The Transit of Venus", Nature,
01/14/1875,
p214. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7C2XEHZsKCoC&pg=PA214&dq=gill+mauritius+
date:1870-1880&ei=tLWISaXDK5HGlQTsvcmYDQ
#PPA214,M1
[7] George Forbes, "The Transit of
Venus",
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SlZLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=gill+venus+date:
1874-1874&lr=&ei=IrqISaX8C4rIlQTewriXBg
[8] "heliometer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heliometer
[9] "Preparations for the Observation
of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December
8-9", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1
[10] Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 1877,
p308-339. http://books.google.com/books
?id=f5AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+as
cension+date:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5
vgkASMktnwBg#PRA1-PA308,M1
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=f5AOAAA
AIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5vgkASMktnwB
g#PRA1-PA310,M1
[12] Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
[13] Spencer Fullerton Baird, Annual
Record of Science and Industry for ...,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
6MXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXB
g#PPA15,M1
[14] "opposition." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/opposition
[15] Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London,
1881. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TERJsJ0-VAwC&pg=PA62&dq=gill+ascension+d
ate:1882-1882+intitle:royal&lr=&ei=NdOIS
evkFYPIlQSj0rSfAw
[16] David Gill, "On the Photographs of
the Great Comet", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, 1883,
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=G
3MEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53&dq=gill+comet+photog
raph+date:1883-1883&lr=&ei=KtWISfXuNpPOk
ASyq9DJBg#PPA53,M1
[17]
http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/his-astr
-gill_d-gallery.html
[18] "The development of astrophysics
in South Africa", Astrophysics and
Space Science, Springer Netherlands,
Volume 230, Numbers 1-2 / August, 1995,
Pages 1-7. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/nx5516q376r82746/fulltext.pdf
[19]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Vq0RAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=annals+roya
l+observatory+cape+inauthor:good&ei=W9KJ
SaWEAZiMkATGwfXECA#PPT12,M1
[20] "Obituary Notices : Fellows :-
Gill, David", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 75,
p.236. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1915MNRAS..75R.236./0000236.000
.html
Cape of Good Hope, Africa13  
[1] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

[2] David Gill PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I001
.html
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 5 6 		3860) (Sir) David Gill (CE 1843-1914),
Scottish astronomer1 proposes that the
nations of the world join together and
create an atlas of all the stars. The
Director of the Paris Observatory,
Admiral Ernest Mouchez, suggestes that
a meeting should be held in Paris and
this initiates the "Carte du Ciel"
project.2

The Carte du Ciel project requires that
all of the sky be photographed down to
the 14th magnitude on standard sized
photographic plates.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497.
2. ^
http://www.aanc-astronomy.org/articles/d
orothea.html
3. ^
http://www.aanc-astronomy.org/articles/d
orothea.html
4. ^ "Address of the Retiring President
of the Society, in awarding the Bruce
Medal to H. M. Astronomer, Dr. David
Gill",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oJMZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA387&dq=gill+date:1901-
1901+sappho+victoria&lr=&ei=meKISfiPCoS6
kQTOpJnGBw
5. ^ David Gill, "Researches on stellar
parallax made with the Cape
heliometer.", Annals of the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, Vol. 8
(Pt. 2),
1900. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4amrHAAACAAJ&dq=Researches+on+stellar+pa
rallax+made+with+the+Cape+heliometer&ei=
iumJSfWOGJiMkATGwfXECA
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p496-497. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "David Gill (astronomer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gill_
(astronomer)
[2] "Sir David Gill". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Davi
d_Gill
[3] "Gill, David", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p358
[4]
"Obituary: Sir David Gill", The
Observatory, Vol. 37, p. 115-117
(1914). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I00
1.html
[5]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/Gill/index.html
[6] "The Transit of Venus", Nature,
01/14/1875,
p214. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7C2XEHZsKCoC&pg=PA214&dq=gill+mauritius+
date:1870-1880&ei=tLWISaXDK5HGlQTsvcmYDQ
#PPA214,M1
[7] George Forbes, "The Transit of
Venus",
1874. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SlZLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35&dq=gill+venus+date:
1874-1874&lr=&ei=IrqISaX8C4rIlQTewriXBg
[8] "heliometer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heliometer
[9] "Preparations for the Observation
of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December
8-9", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=vd
s3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+mauritius+date
:1874-1875&ei=7LaISbDEN4L8lQTL5qi9Bg#PPA
1,M1
[10] Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 1877,
p308-339. http://books.google.com/books
?id=f5AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+as
cension+date:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5
vgkASMktnwBg#PRA1-PA308,M1
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=f5AOAAA
AIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA243&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1877-1877&lr=&ei=IL6ISZH-G5vgkASMktnwB
g#PRA1-PA310,M1
[12] Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
[13] Spencer Fullerton Baird, Annual
Record of Science and Industry for ...,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
6MXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=gill+ascension+dat
e:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXB
g#PPA15,M1
[14] "opposition." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/opposition
[15] Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London,
1881. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TERJsJ0-VAwC&pg=PA62&dq=gill+ascension+d
ate:1882-1882+intitle:royal&lr=&ei=NdOIS
evkFYPIlQSj0rSfAw
[16] David Gill, "On the Photographs of
the Great Comet", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, 1883,
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=G
3MEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53&dq=gill+comet+photog
raph+date:1883-1883&lr=&ei=KtWISfXuNpPOk
ASyq9DJBg#PPA53,M1
[17]
http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/his-astr
-gill_d-gallery.html
[18] "The development of astrophysics
in South Africa", Astrophysics and
Space Science, Springer Netherlands,
Volume 230, Numbers 1-2 / August, 1995,
Pages 1-7. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/nx5516q376r82746/fulltext.pdf
[19]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Vq0RAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=annals+roya
l+observatory+cape+inauthor:good&ei=W9KJ
SaWEAZiMkATGwfXECA#PPT12,M1
[20] "Obituary Notices : Fellows :-
Gill, David", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 75,
p.236. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1915MNRAS..75R.236./0000236.000
.html
[21] David Gill, "Heliometrical
Observations for Determination of
Stellar Parallax, Made at the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope", Eyre
and Spottiswoode,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aUVAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+date:1893-1893+parallax&lr=&ei=0NqISZTq
NZTckwT_wIjvBQ#PPT4,M1
[22] "Gill, Sir David." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 3 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9036
832>.
[23] George Forbes, "David Gill, man
and astronomer ; memoirs of Sir David
Gill, K.C.B., H.M. astronomer
(1879-1907) at the Cape of Good Hope",
J. Murray,
1915. http://www.archive.org/details/da
vidgillmanastr00forbrich
Cape of Good Hope, Africa4  
[1] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

[2] David Gill PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I001
.html
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 12 13 14 15 		3890) Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (CE
1843-1928), US geologist,1 together
with Moulon raise the theory Buffon had
advanced 150 years before, that a star
once passed close to our star and that
matter from both stars cooled into
small fragments, which then condensed
into planets2 (as opposed to Laplace's
theory3 that planets formed simply
from gravitational collapse4 ). This is
the "planetesimal hypothesis".5

Chamberlin and Moulin publish their
work in "The Two Solar Families"
(1928), independently of a similar work
by British astronomer Sir James Jeans.6


According to the Oxford Dictionary of
Scientists, the planetesimal hypothesis
has little support today as cannot
account for the distribution of angular
momentum in the solar system.7

(Does this presume that no objects form
from gravitational collapse? Does this
view presume that gas does not
accumulate and contract into stars and
planets as is thought for endo-nebuli?
As it stands I doubt this theory
exclusively, but I can accept that
stars collide. I think that planets
probably can form as a result of
gravitation and collision of matter
around a star.8 )

The current view is that planets and
other orbiting objects formed from a
cloud of matter that condensed under
gravity. in my view, these kinds of
collisions must happen, and how often
could be calculated. Initially I am
guessing that collisions between stars
are far more rare than time moving
without any star-star collision.9

(This is an interesting theory and
there need to be more simulations of
the accumulation of matter in star
systems. These are massive and time
consuming simulations, star systems
take billions of years to evolve,
perhaps there is no faster way to model
this process. In addition, since
modeling photons, atoms or smaller
objects would take too long, people
generally model millions of collective
pieces of matter.10 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p498.
3. ^ "Chamberlin,
Thomas Chrowder." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9022
316>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
17 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9022
316>.
6. ^ "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9022
316>.
7. ^ "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p181.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p498. {1900}
13. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p344.7. ^ {1872}
14. ^
"Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p181. {1900}
15. ^ "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chamberlin, Thomas
Chrowder." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 17 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
[2] "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-cham
berlin
[3] "Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Chro
wder_Chamberlin
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA11  
[1] Description Photo of Thomas
Chrowder Chamberlin in the
1870s Source University of
Wisconsin–Madison archive; obtained
from
http://www.gsajournals.org/perlserv/?req
uest=display-figures&name=i1052-5173-16-
10-30-f01 Date 1870s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/T.C.Chamberlin.gif
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 13 14 		4053)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hugo de Vries." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
3. ^ "Vries, Hugo
de." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
778>.
4. ^ English translation from Report of
the Deutsche Botanische Gesellschaft.
1900. Vol XVIII. Hugo De Vries, "On
Crosses with Dissimilar
Heredity" http://books.google.com/books
?id=uVwCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA249&dq=Vries+date:
1901-1901&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Vries%20d
ate%3A1901-1901&f=false
5. ^ "Carl Correns." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-corren
s
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
9. ^ "Hugo de Vries."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Vries, Hugo de." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
778>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516. {1900}
14. ^ "Hugo
de Vries." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hugo de Vries." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[2] "Hugo de Vries." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[3] "Hugo Marie De Vries". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Marie_
De_Vries
[4] "Vries, Hugo De", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p914-915
[5] The Midland naturalist:
journal of the Midland Union of Natural
..., Volume 7, 1884,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
gAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA65&dq=Vries+plasmol
ysis+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Vries%20plasmolysis%20date%3A1884-1884&
f=false
[6] Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] Albert Philson Brubaker, Augustus
Adolph Eshner, "Text-book of human
physiology", 1905,
p37. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
iKto86vysIC&pg=PA37&dq=Vries+plasmolysis
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Vries%20plasmolysi
s&f=false
[8] "isotonic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
23 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i
sotonic>
[9] Hugo de Vries, "Die
mutationstheorie: Versuche und
beobachtungen über die ..., Volume 2",
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEUZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA168&dq=papaver+somnife
rum+mephisto+de+vries&as_brr=1#v=snippet
&q=papaver%20somniferum%20mephisto&f=fal
se
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands12  
[1] Hugo de Vries in the
1890s Description Hugo de Vries
2.jpg Hugo_de_Vries Date
1925(1925) Source Copy from:
Atlas van de geschiedenis der
geneeskunde, Amsterdam:Van Looy,
1925. Author J.G de Lint
(1867-1936), (illustrator is not
mentioned) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Hugo_de_Vries_2.jpg

[2] Carl Correns, 1864-1933. aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965 Quelle dort:
Photo Verlag Scherl, Berlin, Datum der
Erstveröffentlichung ist
unbekannt. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Carl_Correns.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 9 10 		4058)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
2. ^ Marjorie Malley,
"The Discovery of Atomic Transmutation:
Scientific Styles and Philosophies in
France and Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No.
2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
213-223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0788?&Search=yes&term=Substanzen&term=au
sgesandte&term=von&term=Emanation&term=r
adioaktiven&term=Die&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DDie
%2Bvon%2Bradioaktiven%2BSubstanzen%2Baus
gesandte%2BEmanation%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc
%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Se
arch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=2&returnArticle
Service=showArticle {ISIS_atomic_transm
utation_230788_1979.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
4. ^ E. Dorn, "Die
von radioaktiven Substanzen ausgesandte
Emanation", Abhandlungen der
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft (Halle),
1900, 23, 3-15. summary:
http://books.google.com/books?id=D5IEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PR72&dq=Die+von+radioaktiven+Su
bstanzen+ausgesandte+Emanation+date:1900
-1900&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Die%20von%20r
adioaktiven%20Substanzen%20ausgesandte%2
0Emanation%20date%3A1900-1900&f=false
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
6. ^ Marshall, James
L.; Virginia R. Marshall (2003).
"Ernest Rutherford, The "True
Discoverer" of Radon". Bulletin for the
History of Chemistry 28 (2): 76 – 83.
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/a
wards/OPA%20Papers/2003-Marshall.pdf.
7. ^ "radon." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
436>.
8. ^ Marjorie Malley, "The Discovery of
Atomic Transmutation: Scientific Styles
and Philosophies in France and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No. 2 (Jun.,
1979), pp.
213-223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0788?&Search=yes&term=Substanzen&term=au
sgesandte&term=von&term=Emanation&term=r
adioaktiven&term=Die&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DDie
%2Bvon%2Bradioaktiven%2BSubstanzen%2Baus
gesandte%2BEmanation%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc
%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Se
arch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=2&returnArticle
Service=showArticle {ISIS_atomic_transm
utation_230788_1979.pdf}
9. ^ E. Dorn, "Die von radioaktiven
Substanzen ausgesandte Emanation",
Abhandlungen der
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft (Halle),
1900, 23, 3-15. summary:
http://books.google.com/books?id=D5IEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PR72&dq=Die+von+radioaktiven+Su
bstanzen+ausgesandte+Emanation+date:1900
-1900&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Die%20von%20r
adioaktiven%20Substanzen%20ausgesandte%2
0Emanation%20date%3A1900-1900&f=false
10. ^ Marjorie Malley, "The Discovery
of Atomic Transmutation: Scientific
Styles and Philosophies in France and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No. 2 (Jun.,
1979), pp.
213-223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0788?&Search=yes&term=Substanzen&term=au
sgesandte&term=von&term=Emanation&term=r
adioaktiven&term=Die&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DDie
%2Bvon%2Bradioaktiven%2BSubstanzen%2Baus
gesandte%2BEmanation%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc
%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Se
arch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=2&returnArticle
Service=showArticle {ISIS_atomic_transm
utation_230788_1979.pdf} {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Ernst Dorn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_E
rnst_Dorn
(University of Halle) Halle, Germany8
 
[1] Friedrich Ernst Dorn PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog
rafias/cientificos/d/img/dorn.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 4 		4189)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
2. ^ Mary Ellen
Jones, "Albrecht Kossel, A Biographical
Sketch", Yale J Biol Med. 1953
September; 26(1): 80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
3. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed
4. ^ Mary Ellen Jones, "Albrecht
Kossel, A Biographical Sketch", Yale J
Biol Med. 1953 September; 26(1):
80–97.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2599350/?tool=pubmed {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ko
ssel
[4] "Kossel, Karl Martin Leonhard
Albrecht." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 466-468.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 2
Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
[6] "Albrecht Kossel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany3  
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 5 		4215)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
5. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699 {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[10] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[11] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[12] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[13]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
(Eastman Kodak Company) New York City,
NY, USA4  
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 11 		4303)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567.
2. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=B4UqAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA177&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&
lr=&as_brr=0&cd=5#v=onepage&q=keeler%20s
piral%20nebulae&f=false
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=5yEDAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA85&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&l
r=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=
1898&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1900&as_brr
=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q=keeler%20spiral%20ne
bulae&f=false
4. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Nn8CAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA208&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&
lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is
=1898&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1900&as_br
r=0&cd=5#v=onepage&q=keeler%20spiral%20n
ebulae&f=false
5. ^ "Keeler, James Edward." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 270-271. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Keeler, James Edward."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 270-271. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Nn8CAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA208&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&
lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is
=1898&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1900&as_br
r=0&cd=5#v=onepage&q=keeler%20spiral%20n
ebulae&f=false {c1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Keeler, James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
967>.
[2] "James Edward Keeler." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-edwar
d-keeler-american-astronomer
[3] "James Edward Keeler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edwar
d_Keeler
[4] James Keeler, “A Spectroscopic
Proof of the Meteoritic Constitution of
Saturn’s Rings,” in Astrophysical
Journal, 1 (1895),
416–427 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1895ApJ.....1..416K and
http://books.google.com/books?id=ExzOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Proo
f+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+Saturn
%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0
&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is
=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Spec
troscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Meteoric%
20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%20Rings
&f=false
[5] J. E. Keeler, "On the Motions of
the Planetary Nebulæ in the line of
Sight.", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V2, N2,
11/29/1890. http://articles.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_ke
y=AST&bibcode=1890PASP....2..265K&letter
=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_pa
per=YES&page=265&epage=265&send=Send+PDF
&filetype=.pdf
[6] James Edward Keeler , "Photographs
of nebulae and clusters made with the
Crossley reflector",
1908. http://openlibrary.org/b/OL724344
3M/Photographs_of_nebulae_and_clusters_m
ade_with_the_Crossley_reflector and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gD3yQ
AAACAAJ&dq=photographs+of+Nebulae+and+Cl
usters,+Made+with+the+Crossley+Reflector
&source=gbs_book_other_versions
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA10  
[1] Image of photograph of galaxy from
James Edward Keeler , ''Photographs
of nebulae and clusters made with the
Crossley reflector'',
1908. http://openlibrary.org/b/OL724344
3M/Photographs_of_nebulae_and_clusters_m
ade_with_the_Crossley_reflector PD
source: http://www.archive.org/stream/ph
otographsofneb00keelrich#page/n53/mode/2
up

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 8 		4384) In 1925 Hopkins wins the Nobel
prize in medicine and physiology with
Eijkman for enunciating what will ater
be known as the "vitamin concept".5
From
1930-1935 Hopkins is president of the
Royal Society.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p587.
3. ^ "Frederick
Gowland Hopkins." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p587.
7. ^ "Frederick
Gowland Hopkins." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hopkins, Sir Frederick
Gowland." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9041
024>
[2] "Frederick Gowland Hopkins."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
[3] "Hopkins, Frederick Gowland."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 498-502. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902048&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Frederick Gowland Hopkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_G
owland_Hopkins
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1929/hopkins-bio.html
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England7  
[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 5 		4395)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589-590.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589-590. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wiechert, Emil." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 327-328. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904638&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Emil Wiechert". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Wieche
rt
 
[1] Emil Wiechert.jpg Emil Wiechert
(1861-1928), German electrofysicist,
astronomer and seismologist Date
Source Picture from the website
of the Instituto Física of the
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
(original) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Emil_Wiechert.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 17 		4426)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Magner,
Lois N. "Frederic Stanley Kipping."
Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil
Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900
to 1949. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 484-485.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596.
5. ^ Magner, Lois N.
"Frederic Stanley Kipping." Science and
Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 484-485. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p596.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p633.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596.
13. ^ "stereoisomer."
The American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stereoisome
r
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
Magner, Lois N. "Frederic Stanley
Kipping." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 6:
1900 to 1949. Detroit: Gale, 2000.
484-485. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ Magner, Lois N. "Frederic Stanley
Kipping." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 6:
1900 to 1949. Detroit: Gale, 2000.
484-485. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w

MORE INFO
[1] "Kipping, Frederic Stanley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
590>.
[2] "Frederic Stanley Kipping".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_St
anley_Kipping
(University College, Nottingham, now
Nottingham University) Nottingham,
England16  		 
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 10 11 		4465)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607.
2. ^ "William Boog
Leishman." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman
3. ^ "William Boog Leishman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607.
5. ^ "William Boog
Leishman." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman
6. ^ "William Boog Leishman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"William Boog Leishman." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607. {1900}
11. ^ "William
Boog Leishman." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "leishmania." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9101
560>
[2] "William Boog Leishman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Boo
g_Leishman
(Army Medical School) Netley, England9
 
[1] Description Leishmania tropica
7.jpg Under the acellular culture
condition, the protozoa transforms into
the form of promastigote, a flagellated
and elongated morphology seen in the
mid-gut of the vector. Cutaneous
leishmaniasis is a benign,
self-limiting infection caused by
leishmanian parasites. Regarding the
visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar),
refer to case 50. Date Source
http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/~tsutsu
mi/photo/photo176-7.htm Author
Pathology of infectious
diseases http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/
~tsutsumi/index.html# PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Leishmania_tropica_7.
jpg

[2] Description
Leishman1.jpg Italiano: courtesy of
london school of higiene and tropical
medicine Date 2007-06-09
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Leishman1.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 16 17 		4470)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608.
2. ^ "Gomberg,
Moses." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
314>.
3. ^ Gomberg, Berichte der Deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft, 33 (1900)
3150–3163; and Gomberg, ""An
instance of trivalent carbon:
triphenylmethyl". Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 22 (11):
1900, 757–771.
http://books.google.com/books?id=u9oBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA757&lpg=PA757&dq=%22An+inst
ance+of+trivalent+carbon%22&source=bl&ot
s=9gPqXMbBmP&sig=wxGwn6UQz_ip0JCVRs0Gf2G
icRs&hl=en&ei=mbYrTL3IHoi0nAfVo-HtCQ&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=
0CB4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22An%20instance
%20of%20trivalent%20carbon%22&f=false
4. ^ "radical." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
404>.
5. ^ "free radical." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/free-radica
l
(C6 H5)
7. ^ "Gomberg, Moses." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 464-466. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901684&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Gomberg, Berichte der Deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft, 33 (1900)
3150–3163; and Gomberg, ""An
instance of trivalent carbon:
triphenylmethyl". Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 22 (11):
1900, 757–771.
http://books.google.com/books?id=u9oBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA757&lpg=PA757&dq=%22An+inst
ance+of+trivalent+carbon%22&source=bl&ot
s=9gPqXMbBmP&sig=wxGwn6UQz_ip0JCVRs0Gf2G
icRs&hl=en&ei=mbYrTL3IHoi0nAfVo-HtCQ&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=
0CB4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22An%20instance
%20of%20trivalent%20carbon%22&f=false
9. ^ "Gomberg, Moses." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 464-466. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901684&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p608.
13. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=vqTNfnK
JVPAC&pg=PA301&lpg=PA301&dq=Moses+Gomber
g+antifreeze&source=bl&ots=f4Fx1AjHk8&si
g=g2vVADSNPoFYOtTCIb0_d_yv9ws&hl=en&ei=9
rMrTNbGH4LinAew7snUCQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CC4Q6AEwBw#v=o
nepage&q=Moses%20Gomberg%20antifreeze&f=
false
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Gomberg, Moses."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
314>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608. {1900}
17. ^ "Gomberg,
Moses." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
314>. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Moses Gomberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_Gombe
rg
[2] Biography and list of
publications: http://www.google.com/url
?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CBsQFjAD&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.nap.edu%2Fhtml%2Fbiom
ems%2Fmgomberg.pdf&rct=j&q=gomberg+1919&
ei=krcrTMr7FsLYnAejqIDGCQ&usg=AFQjCNHIuF
k8SSSuxQcdvRzAvQblhBsXVw
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan15  
[1] Discovery of Persistent
Radicals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
es_Gomberg#cite_ref-3

[2] Description Picture of Moses
Gomberg Source Bentley Historical
Library GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a5/MGyoung.JPG
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 11 		4478) Fessenden holds 500 patents at
the time of his death, second only to
Edison.4
Fessenden works for Edison in
the 1880s and Edison's greatest rival
Westinghouse from 1890-1892.5
(AM works
by having a regular periodic sine wave,
for example one at 10 million cycles
per second, and adding in a source
signal. At the receiving station the 10
million cycles per second sine wave is
subtracted leaving the source signal.6
)

(Clearly amplitude modulation must have
been recognized much earlier - for
people to have started neuron reading
and writing in at least 1810. Perhaps
Feesenden was a person excluded from
the technology who reinvented it, or
was included and purposely allowed to
release the truth about amplitude
modulation to the public.7 )

(Amplitude modulation is so simple an
idea, that it occurs naturally in any
object that emits a periodic frequency
of particles, which is pretty much all
matter. For example, sounds reaching
the ear may impart an amplitude
modulation - which is a strength
modulation - a quantity of particle
modulation to any regular interval
signal emitted from the nerves of the
ear portion of the brain.8 )

(Probably amplitude modulation of wired
recording of sound was the first
instance of listening to hidden
microphones.9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
2. ^ "Fessenden,
Reginald Aubrey." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 4.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
601. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 1 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901414&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p612.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 601. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 1 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901414&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901414&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Reginald Aubrey Fessenden".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Au
brey_Fessenden
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
(Western University of Pennsylvania,
now the University of Pittsburgh)
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, USA10  
[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 4 		4504)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p617-618.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p617-618.
3. ^ "Ipatieff,
Vladimir Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9042
717>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p617-618. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vladimir Nikolayevich
Ipatieff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-ni
kolayevich-ipatieff
[2] Moskowitz, Sanford L. "Ipatieff,
Vladimir Nikolaevitch (1967–1952)."
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. Ed.
John Zumerchik. Vol. 2. New York:
Macmillan Reference USA, 2001. 678-681.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3407300151&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vladimir Ipatieff". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Ip
atieff
[4] "isoprene." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isoprene
[5] "isoprene." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 08
Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isoprene
[6] C. G. Williams, Proceedings of the
Royal Society 1860 10.
[7] "isoprene."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9042
963>.
(Mikhail Artillery Academy ) St.
Petersburg, Russia3  
[1] Химик Владимир
Ипатьев Photograph from Guver
archives
http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/hila/rusc
ollection/ipat_br.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/ru/b/bc/Ipatieff1.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 14 		4725) During World War I, Grignard
creates methods for producing phosgene,
a poisonous gas, and for detecting the
first traces of mustard gas.11
In 1912
Grignard wins the Nobel Prize in
chemistry with Paul Sabatier.12
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p633.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p633.
3. ^ Grignard,
"Sur quelques nouvelles combinaions
organométatliques du magnésium et
leur application è des synthéses
d’alcools et d’hydrocarbures",
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
sciences, 130 (1900),
1322. {Grignard_Victor_1900.pdf}
4. ^ Grignard, (doctoral thesis) “Sur
les combinaisons organomagnésiennes
mixtes et leur application à des
synthèses d’acides, d’alcools et
d’hydrocarbures”, Annales de
l’Université de Lyon, 6 (1901),
1–116. http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=6As_AAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA8&
dq=grignard&ots=lwZX8Xc_Db&sig=6SbncamIW
4AvXXWUGcLVTrhEojk#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p633.
8. ^ "Grignard,
François Auguste Victor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 540-541. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901740&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Grignard, Victor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
116>.
10. ^ "Grignard, Victor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
116>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p633.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p633.
13. ^ "Grignard,
François Auguste Victor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 540-541. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901740&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p633. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Victor Grignard." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/victor-grig
nard
[2] "François Auguste Victor
Grignard". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7o
is_Auguste_Victor_Grignard
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1912/grignard-bio.html
(University of Lyons) Lyons, France13
 
[1] From; Grignard, ''Sur quelques
nouvelles combinaions
organométatliques du magnésium et
leur application è des synthéses
d’alcools et d’hydrocarbures'',
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
sciences, 130 (1900),
1322. {Grignard_Victor_1900.pdf} PD
source: Grignard, "Sur quelques
nouvelles combinaions
organométatliques du magnésium et
leur application è des synthéses
d’alcools et d’hydrocarbures",
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
sciences, 130 (1900),
1322. {Grignard_Victor_1900.pdf}

[2] Description
Viktor-grignard.jpg English: Victor
Grignard Date 1912(1912) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1912/grignard-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Viktor-grignard.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 11 		4806) Schwarzschild attended a Jewish
primary school in Frankfurt, Germany.6
(At the time were schools separated by
race? Were Jewish children prevented
from attending non-all Jewish schools?7
)
Schwarzschild volunteers for military
service in 1914 at the beginning of
World War I and is sent home in 1916
with a rare skin disease from which he
dies.8 (Possibly murdered?9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648.
2. ^ "Schwarzschild,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 247-253.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Schwarzschild,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 247-253.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Karl Schwarzschild." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Schwarzschild."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528632/Karl-Schwarzschild>
[2] "Karl Schwarzschild". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Schwar
zschild
[3] Schwarzschild, Br. Meyermann, A.
Kohlschütter, and O. Birck,
"Aktinometrie der Sterne der BD bis zur
Grösse 7,5 in der Zone 0° bis +20°
Deklination" Teil A, Abhandlungen der
K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen, Math.-Phys. Kl., n.s. 6,
no. 6 (1910)
[4] Schwarzschild, "Beiträge zur
photographischen Photometrie der
Gestirne", Publikationen der von
Kuffnerschen Sternwarte, 5 (1900)
(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany10 (presented, but photos
captured in Vienna, Austria) 
[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 3 		6018)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503882/Nikolay-Rimsky-Korsakov>.
2. ^ "Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503882/Nikolay-Rimsky-Korsakov>.
3. ^ "Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/503882/Nikolay-Rimsky-Korsakov>.
{1900}
Saint Petersberg, (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia2 (presumably) 
[1] Artist [show]Valentin Serov
(1865-1911) (1865–1911) Link back to
Creator infobox template English:
Valentin Alexandrovich Serov Title
Deutsch: Porträt des Komponisten
Nikolaj Andrejewitsch
Rimskij-Korsakow English: Portrait of
the composer Nikolai Andreyevich
Rimsky-Korsakov Date 1898 Medium
Deutsch: Öl auf Leinwand English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions Deutsch:
94 × 111 cm English: 94 by 111 cm, 37
by 43.7 inches Current location
Deutsch: Tretjakow-Galerie English:
Tretyakov Gallery Deutsch:
Moskau English: Moscow Notes
Deutsch: Auftraggeber: P. M.
Tretjakow, Gemälde für dessen
Porträtgalerie English: Painting
commissioned by Pavel Tretyakov for his
portrairt gallery Source/Photographer
The Yorck Project: 10.000
Meisterwerke der Malerei. (10,000
Masterworks of Painting) DVD-ROM, 2002.
ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Walentin_Alexandrowit
sch_Serow_004.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 3 		6024) Jean Sibelius (original name
Johan Julius Christian Sibelius) (CE
1865-1957), Finnish composer, the most
noted symphonic composer of
Scandinavia, composes around this
time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Sibelius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/542563/Jean-Sibelius>.
2. ^ "Jean Sibelius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/542563/Jean-Sibelius>.
3. ^ "Jean Sibelius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/542563/Jean-Sibelius>. {written in
1899 revised in)1900}
Helsinki, Finland2  
[1] Description Composer Jean
Sibelius Date 1913 Source
What We Hear in Music, Anne S.
Faulkner, Victor Talking Machine Co.,
1913. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Jean_sibelius.jpg
99 YBN
[01/01/1901 AD] 8 9 		4252)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Clarence Erwin McClung:
1870-1946", D. H. Wenrich, Science, New
Series, Vol. 103, No. 2679 (May 3,
1946), pp.
551-552. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
72760?&Search=yes&term=Clarence&term=McC
lung&term=Erwin&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fa
ction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DClarence
%2BErwin%2BMcClung%26jc%3Dj100000%26wc%3
Don%26Search.x%3D11%26Search.y%3D6%26Sea
rch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=27&returnArticle
Service=showArticle
2. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ N. M. Stevens, “Studies in
Spermatogenesis With Especial Reference
to the ‘Accessory Chromosome’”
Publications. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/holdings/s/nms-05-spe
rmatogenesis-1.pdf
4. ^ "McClung, Clarence Erwin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 586-590. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902724&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^“Notes on the Accessory
Chromosome,” in Anatomischer
Anzeiger, 20 (1901), 220–226;
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/cem-01.pdf
6. ^ “The Accessory Chromosomes: Sex
Determinant?” in Biological Bulletin,
3 (1902),
43–84 http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/cem-02.pdf
7. ^ "McClung, Clarence Erwin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 586-590. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902724&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ “The Accessory Chromosomes: Sex
Determinant?” in Biological Bulletin,
3 (1902),
43–84 http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/cem-02.pdf
{01/01/1901}
9. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561
[2] "Wilson, Edmund
Beecher." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
122>
[3] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[4] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[5] "Edmund Beecher Wilson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Beec
her_Wilson
[6] E. B. Wilson, “The Chromosomes in
Relation to the Determination of Sex in
Insects” ; Publications. Carnegie
Institution of Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/ebw-05.pdf
[7] "Nettie Stevens." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stevens-net
tie-marie
[8] "Walter Sutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sutt
on
[9] "Walter S. Sutton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Mar. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/575830/Walter-S-Sutton>
[10] "Sutton, Walter Stanborough."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 156-158. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904215&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4 (1902).
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/wss-02.pdf
(University of Kansas) Kansas, USA7
 
[1] McClung. From Shor, p. 147. PD
source: http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy
/lefa/McClung.gif

[2] Description
Wilson1900Fig1.jpg English: Original
figure legend: ''A portion of the
epidermis of a larval salamander
(Amblystoma) as seen in slightly
oblique horizontal section, enlarged
550 diameters. Most of the cells are
polygonal in form, contain large
nuclei, and are connected by delicate
protoplasmic bridges. Above x is a
branched, dark pigment-cell that has
crept up from the deeper layers and
lies between the epidermal cells. Three
of the latter are undergoing division,
the earliest stage (spireme) at a, a
later stage (mitotic figure in the
anaphase) at b, showing the
chromosomes, and a final stage
(telophase), showing fission of the
cell-body, to the right.'' Deutsch:
Übersetzung nach der
Originalabbildungslegende: „Teil der
Epidermis eines larvalen Salamanders.
Die meisten Zellen sind polygonal,
enthalten große Kerne und sind durch
feine protoplasmatische Brücken
verbunden. Über x ist eine verzweigte,
dunkle Pigmentzelle, die aus tieferen
Schichten nach oben gekrochen ist. Drei
der Epidermiszellen befinden sich in
Teilung, das früheste Stadium (Spirem)
bei a, ein späteres Stadium
(mitotische Figur der Anaphase) bei b,
die Chromosomen sichtbar, und rechts
ein finales Stadium (Telophase, mit
Teilung des Zellkörpers.“ Date
1900(1900) Source Figure 1
of: Wilson, Edmund B. (1900). The cell
in Development and Inheritance, second
edition, New York: The Macmillan
Company. Author Edmund Beecher
Wilson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Wilson1900Fig1.jpg
99 YBN
[01/23/1901 AD] 6 		4485)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Stone Stone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stone_
Stone
2. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Jo
hn_Stone_Stone
3. ^ Patent ,716134 I - -- METHOD OF
DETERMINING THE DIRECTIOFTOF
SPACE-TEIEGRAPH SIGNALS JOHN STONE
STONE http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=wqNDAAAAEBAJ&dq=716134
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Patent ,716134 I - --
METHOD OF DETERMINING THE DIRECTIOFTOF
SPACE-TEIEGRAPH SIGNALS JOHN STONE
STONE http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=wqNDAAAAEBAJ&dq=716134
6. ^ Patent ,716134 I - -- METHOD OF
DETERMINING THE DIRECTIOFTOF
SPACE-TEIEGRAPH SIGNALS JOHN STONE
STONE http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=wqNDAAAAEBAJ&dq=716134
{01/23/1901}
Boston, Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] From 1901 Stone patent I - --
METHOD OF DETERMINING THE DIRECTIOFTOF
SPACE-TEIEGRAPH SIGNALS JOHN STONE
STONE PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wqNDAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] John Stone Stone UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/imag
es/5/5e/John_Stone_Stone.png
99 YBN
[02/07/1901 AD] 8 		4119) Many people from the United
States die in the Spanish-American War
not because of weapons but because of
disease.5
Some doctors actually allow
themselves to be bitten by mosquitoes
to see if they get yellow fever.
William Lazear does and dies.6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531.
2. ^ "Reed, Walter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
004>.
3. ^ A Compilation of Various
Publications Results of the Work of
Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps,
United States Army, and the Yellow
Fever Commission, Senate document no.
822 from the Third Session of the 61st
Congress (Washington, D. C, 1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p531.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531.
7. ^ A Compilation of
Various Publications Results of the
Work of Major Walter Reed, Medical
Corps, United States Army, and the
Yellow Fever Commission, Senate
document no. 822 from the Third Session
of the 61st Congress (Washington, D. C,
1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ A Compilation of Various
Publications Results of the Work of
Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps,
United States Army, and the Yellow
Fever Commission, Senate document no.
822 from the Third Session of the 61st
Congress (Washington, D. C, 1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{02/04/1901-02/07/1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Reed, Walter." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-347. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 19 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(Pan American Medical Congress) Habana,
Cuba7  
[1] Walter Reed (1851-1902) American
physician Source :
en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg Walter Reed
at rank of major (19th century
photograph) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg
99 YBN
[02/14/1901 AD] 2 		6342) Rollins publishes this a "X-Light
Kills" in the "Boston Medical and
Surgical Journal".
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills",
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
2. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills",
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
Boston, Massachusetts, USA1  
[1] William Herbert Rollins PD
source: http://harvardmedicine.hms.harva
rd.edu/bulletin/spring2008/images/rollin
s.2.jpg
99 YBN
[03/02/1901 AD] 10 		4435)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Wien."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
3. ^ W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 310,
Issue 6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART

4. ^ W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 310,
Issue 6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART

5. ^ W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 313,
Issue 6, Date: 1902, Pages:
244-266. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485582/PDFSTART

6. ^ W. Wien, "Ueber die Natur der
positiven Elektronen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 314, Issue 11, Date:
1902, Pages:
660-664. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485776/PDFSTART

7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Wilhelm Wien." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
9. ^ W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 310,
Issue 6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART
 {03/02/1901}
10. ^ W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über
die elektrische Entladung in
verdünnten Gasen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 310, Issue 6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART
 {03/02/1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany9  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
99 YBN
[04/19/1901 AD] 7 		4266) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson J. J.,
"The Existence of Bodies Smaller than
Atoms.", Notices of the proceedings at
the meetings of the members of the ...,
Vol 16, 04/19/1901,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+existen
ce+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+thomson&
lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existence%20o
f%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atoms%20th
omson&f=false
3. ^ Thomson J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller than Atoms.", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Vol 16, 04/19/1901,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+existen
ce+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+thomson&
lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existence%20o
f%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atoms%20th
omson&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Thomson J. J.,
"The Existence of Bodies Smaller than
Atoms.", Notices of the proceedings at
the meetings of the members of the ...,
Vol 16, 04/19/1901,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+existen
ce+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+thomson&
lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existence%20o
f%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atoms%20th
omson&f=false
7. ^ Thomson J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller than Atoms.", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Vol 16, 04/19/1901,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+existen
ce+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+thomson&
lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existence%20o
f%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atoms%20th
omson&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
(Royal Institution) London, England6
 
[1] Figure from: Thomson J. J., ''The
Existence of Bodies Smaller than
Atoms.'', Notices of the proceedings at
the meetings of the members of the ...,
Vol 16, 04/19/1901, p574. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:1
899-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#
v=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%2
0intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
99 YBN
[05/??/1901 AD] 7 		4028)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ George Milton Hopkins,
"Experimental science: elementary,
practical and experimental physics,
Volume 1",
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=y
D4AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA26&dq=thomas+edison+nic
kel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=th
omas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20battery&
f=false
3. ^ "nickel-iron accumulator." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nickel-iron
-accumulator-1
4. ^ George Milton Hopkins,
"Experimental science: elementary,
practical and experimental physics,
Volume 1",
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=y
D4AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA26&dq=thomas+edison+nic
kel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=th
omas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20battery&
f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
7. ^ "Storage Battery, Edison",
"Compendium of the world's progress
during the ...", 1902,
p736. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k1MAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA736&dq=thomas+edis
on+nickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20ba
ttery&f=false {05/1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Cros." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
[2] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
[3] "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>.
[4] "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>.
[5] Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
[6] "The Telegraph and Its Future",
Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[9] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
[11] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph
[12] Video of constructing an Edison
Battery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
K84PywMwjZg
[13] "Nickel-iron battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-iron
_battery
(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey,
USA6 (presumably) 
[1] {ULSF: Edison Storage Battery of
May 1901} From Scientific American PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=yD4AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA26&dq=thomas+edison+n
ickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20batter
y&f=false

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
99 YBN
[10/27/1901 AD] 4 		6026) Sergey (Vasilyevich) Rachmaninoff
(CE 1873-1943), composer who is the
last great figure of the tradition of
Russian Romanticism, composes his
second piano concerto.1

(Somehow I don't think the melodrama
will stop any time soon.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sergey Rachmaninoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488116/Sergey-Rachmaninoff>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Sergey Rachmaninoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488116/Sergey-Rachmaninoff>.
4. ^ "Sergey Rachmaninoff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488116/Sergey-Rachmaninoff>.
{10/27/1901 (first performed}
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia3  
[1] Sergei Rachmaninoff, date of photo
not recorded. Uncompressed TIFF
version can be found
here http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.
33968 Cropped version of File:Sergei
Rachmaninoff LOC 33968.jpg, digitaly
restored by Etincelles. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Sergei_Rachmaninoff_L
OC_33968_Cropped.jpg
99 YBN
[12/12/1901 AD] 19 20 		4832)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
3. ^ "Marconi,
Guglielmo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 98-99.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
6. ^ "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
10. ^ B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.answers.com/cellular%20phone
18. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
{12/12/1901}
20. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/12/1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
Poldhu, Cornwall, England to St.
John’s, Newfoundland18  
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
99 YBN
[12/31/1901 AD] 7 8 		4120)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531.
2. ^ A Compilation of
Various Publications Results of the
Work of Major Walter Reed, Medical
Corps, United States Army, and the
Yellow Fever Commission, Senate
document no. 822 from the Third Session
of the 61st Congress (Washington, D. C,
1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A
Compilation of Various Publications
Results of the Work of Major Walter
Reed, Medical Corps, United States
Army, and the Yellow Fever Commission,
Senate document no. 822 from the Third
Session of the 61st Congress
(Washington, D. C, 1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ A Compilation of Various
Publications Results of the Work of
Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps,
United States Army, and the Yellow
Fever Commission, Senate document no.
822 from the Third Session of the 61st
Congress (Washington, D. C, 1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
7. ^ A Compilation of Various
Publications Results of the Work of
Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps,
United States Army, and the Yellow
Fever Commission, Senate document no.
822 from the Third Session of the 61st
Congress (Washington, D. C, 1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{12/31/1901 and 01/02/1902}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p531. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Reed, Walter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
004>.
[2] "Reed, Walter." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-347. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 19 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(Society of American Bacteriologists)
Chicago, Illinois, USA6  
[1] Walter Reed (1851-1902) American
physician Source :
en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg Walter Reed
at rank of major (19th century
photograph) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 9 10 		4054)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
3. ^ Hugo de
Vries, "Die Mutationstheorie: bd. Die
Entstehung der Arten durch Mutation",
1901. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TUQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Die+intitle:Mutat
ionstheorie&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e English translation: Hugo de Vries,
John Bretland Farmer, Arthur Dukinfield
Darbishire, "The mutation theory:
experiments and observations on the
origin of species ...",
1909. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cdOhB5p3HkIC&dq=the+mutation+theory+vrie
s&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=Ou8H
P9cfmn&sig=hKxZYqTJzqPy3F5ynqX9B3zFpQM&h
l=en&ei=zbi6SpXmE5CqswPp8_WBCQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
4. ^ "Vries, Hugo de." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
778>.
5. ^ "Hugo de Vries." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516.
8. ^ "Vries, Hugo
de." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
778>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516. {1901}
10. ^
"Vries, Hugo De", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p914-915. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hugo de Vries." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[2] "Hugo de Vries." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[3] "Hugo Marie De Vries". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Marie_
De_Vries
[4] The Midland naturalist: journal of
the Midland Union of Natural ...,
Volume 7, 1884,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
gAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA65&dq=Vries+plasmol
ysis+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Vries%20plasmolysis%20date%3A1884-1884&
f=false
[5] Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Albert Philson Brubaker, Augustus
Adolph Eshner, "Text-book of human
physiology", 1905,
p37. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
iKto86vysIC&pg=PA37&dq=Vries+plasmolysis
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Vries%20plasmolysi
s&f=false
[7] "isotonic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
23 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i
sotonic>.
[8] Hugo de Vries, "Die
mutationstheorie: Versuche und
beobachtungen über die ..., Volume 2",
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEUZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA168&dq=papaver+somnife
rum+mephisto+de+vries&as_brr=1#v=snippet
&q=papaver%20somniferum%20mephisto&f=fal
se
[9] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
[10] "Carl Correns."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-corren
s
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands8  
[1] Image from English translation of
1991 work , p218 Die Mutationstheorie:
bd. Die Entstehung der Arten durch
Mutation PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=larm
arkiana&f=false

[2] Image from English translation of
1991 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 16 17 18 19 		4124)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Emsley, "Nature's building
blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements",
2003,
p139-140. http://books.google.com/books
?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA372&dq=Eug%C3%A8ne
+Anatole+Demar%C3%A7ay+samarium#v=onepag
e&q=europium&f=false
2. ^ "europium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/europium
3. ^ E.A. Demarçay, "Sur un nouvel
élément: l'europium". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 132 (1901), p.
1484-1486.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetr
e?O=30000000030886&M=chemindefer {Demar
cay_Eugene_1901.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p532-533.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p532-533.
6. ^ John Emsley,
"Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide
to the elements", 2003,
p139-140. http://books.google.com/books
?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA372&dq=Eug%C3%A8ne
+Anatole+Demar%C3%A7ay+samarium#v=onepag
e&q=europium&f=false
7. ^ "europium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
275>.
8. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/eu.
html
9. ^ Lecoq de Boisbaudran, "Recherches
sur le samarium". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 114 (1892), p.
575-577.
10. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/eu.
html
11. ^ Eug. Demarçay, "Sur un nouvel
élément contenu dans les terres rares
voisines du samarium". Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences 122 (1896),
pp. 728-730.
12. ^ Bünzli, Jean-Claude.
"Europium." Chemistry: Foundations and
Applications. Ed. J. J. Lagowski. Vol.
2. New York: Macmillan Reference USA,
2004. 73-74. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 21 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
13. ^ "europium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/europium
14. ^
http://www.chem.unt.edu/Rediscovery/Dema
rcay.pdf
15. ^ John Emsley, "Nature's building
blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements",
2003,
p139-140. http://books.google.com/books
?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA372&dq=Eug%C3%A8ne
+Anatole+Demar%C3%A7ay+samarium#v=onepag
e&q=europium&f=false
16. ^ "europium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
275>. {1896}
17. ^ Bünzli, Jean-Claude.
"Europium." Chemistry: Foundations and
Applications. Ed. J. J. Lagowski. Vol.
2. New York: Macmillan Reference USA,
2004. 73-74. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 21 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1901}
18. ^ John Emsley,
"Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide
to the elements", 2003,
p139-140. http://books.google.com/books
?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA372&dq=Eug%C3%A8ne
+Anatole+Demar%C3%A7ay+samarium#v=onepag
e&q=europium&f=false {1901}
19. ^ "europium."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/europium
{1901 (isolated fairly pure Europium}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eugène-Anatole Demarçay".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne
-Anatole_Demar%C3%A7ay
(personal lab14 ) Paris, France15
 
[1] europium CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/EU5P17G-crop.jpg

[2] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 -
1904) PD
source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li
en/Demarcay.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 9 		4148)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
2. ^ "Fischer, Emil
Hermann." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
4. ^ "Fischer, Emil
Hermann." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
6. ^ "Fischer, Emil
Hermann." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Herman
n_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren,
Polypeptide und Proteine, 1899–1906
(Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id
=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Prot
eine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Y
k&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA
8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe,
1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPy
TLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>.
[6] "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[7] "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany8
 
[1] Description Hermann Emil
Fischer.jpg Hermann Emil
Fischer Date 1902(1902) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Hermann_Emil_Fischer.
jpg

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 8 		4156)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
3. ^ Henri
Becquerel, "Sur la radioactivité de
l’uranium." 133 (1901),
977–980. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3089k.image.f977.langFR abstr
act in English at: Chemical Society,
London, Volume 82, Part 2,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
A8EwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=%22on
+the+radioactivity+of+uranium%22+1901&so
urce=bl&ots=WKmlqSWW5Y&sig=mAlddpkYQ1XWz
Kl7UPuY17J47sM&hl=en&ei=UYX0SqP8FKagM4r4
9aIB&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22on%20
the%20radioactivity%20of%20uranium%22%20
1901&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
5. ^ Henri Becquerel,
"Sur la radioactivité de l’uranium."
133 (1901),
977–980. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3089k.image.f977.langFR abstr
act in English at: Chemical Society,
London, Volume 82, Part 2,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
A8EwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=%22on
+the+radioactivity+of+uranium%22+1901&so
urce=bl&ots=WKmlqSWW5Y&sig=mAlddpkYQ1XWz
Kl7UPuY17J47sM&hl=en&ei=UYX0SqP8FKagM4r4
9aIB&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22on%20
the%20radioactivity%20of%20uranium%22%20
1901&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Sur la
radioactivité de l’uranium." 133
(1901),
977–980. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3089k.image.f977.langFR abstr
act in English at: Chemical Society,
London, Volume 82, Part 2,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
A8EwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=%22on
+the+radioactivity+of+uranium%22+1901&so
urce=bl&ots=WKmlqSWW5Y&sig=mAlddpkYQ1XWz
Kl7UPuY17J47sM&hl=en&ei=UYX0SqP8FKagM4r4
9aIB&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22on%20
the%20radioactivity%20of%20uranium%22%20
1901&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>.
[2] "Henri Becquerel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[4] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[6] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
[8] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
[9] "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
[10] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen;
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
[11] ON THE RADIO ACTIVITY OF MATTER."
By HENRI BECQUEREL, ,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TinLdn_MceIC&pg=PA197&dq=%22the+radio-ac
tivity+of+matter%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%2
0radio-activity%20of%20matter%22&f=false

[12] "abcoulomb." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/abcoulomb
[13] "Becquerel, [Antoine-] Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[14]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#

(École Polytechnique) Paris, France7
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 5 6 		4221)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553-554.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p553-554.
3. ^ "Jokichi
Takamine." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jokichi-tak
amine
4. ^ "Takamine, Jokichi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
005>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553-554. {1901}
6. ^
"Jokichi Takamine." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jokichi-tak
amine {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jokichi Takamine." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jokichi-tak
amine
[2] "Jokichi Takamine." Science and
Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 194. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 2 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(his private laboratory) Clifton, New
Jersey, USA4  
[1] Jokichi Takamine.jpg English:
Jokichi Takamine Polski: Jokichi
Takamine Date circa 1920 Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/servlet/v
iew/search?q=208204&search=Search IHM
Author
anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Jokichi_Takamine.jpg

[2] Jokichi Takamine, founder of the
Nippon Club in New York 100 years ago,
is the subject of an ongoing exhibition
depicting the life of the chemist and
industrialist. PHOTO COURTESY OF THE
GREAT PEOPLE OF KANAZAWA MEMORIAL
MUSEUM VIA THE NIPPON CLUB/KYODO PD
source: http://www.japantimes.co.jp/imag
es/photos2005/nn20050402f2a.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 7 8 		4227)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Elster, Johann Philipp Ludwig
Julius." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 354-357.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Elster and Geital, "Analogie im
elektrischen Verhalten der natürlichen
Luft und der durch Becquerel-Strahlen
leitend gemachten", Physikalische
Zeitschrift 2 (1901), 590;
"Radioaktivität der im Erdboden
enthaltenen Luft", Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 3 (1902), 574.
5. ^ "Elster,
Johann Philipp Ludwig Julius." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 354-357. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1901}
8. ^ Elster and
Geital, "Analogie im elektrischen
Verhalten der natürlichen Luft und der
durch Becquerel-Strahlen leitend
gemachten", Physikalische Zeitschrift 2
(1901), 590; "Radioaktivität der im
Erdboden enthaltenen Luft",
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 3 (1902),
574.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.elster-geitel.de/
[2] "photoelectric effect."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2009. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/photoelectr
ic-effect
[3] Elster and Geital, "Entladung
negativ elektrisierter Körper durch
Sonnen-und Tageslicht", Annalen der
Physik, 38, (1889), 497.
[4] Elster and
Geital, "Abhängigkeit der Intensität
des photoelektrischen Stromes von der
Lage der Polarisationsebene des
erregenden Lichtes zu der Oberfläche
der Kathode", in Sitzungsberichte der
Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften
(1894); Annalen der Physik, 55 (1895),
684, and 61 (1897), 445; Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 10 (1909), 457.
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany6  
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 6 		4357) Pierre Curie (CE 1859-1906),
French chemist1 confirms Becquerel's
finding that radium can induce skin
burns in a dangerous experiment whose
danger was unknown at the time.2

Curie
measures the heat given off by radium
as 140 calories per gram per hour. This
is the first indication of the huge
energy (that is large quantity of mass
and motion) available inside the atom.3


(There must be a huge number of photons
(and composite particles) inside atoms
and the number of atoms in a piece of
material that is small compared to the
size of a human. 4 ).

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Pierre
Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 20 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[3] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
[4] Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie,
"Développement, par pression, de
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/
[5] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 383
[6] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois du
dégagement de l’électricité par
pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881),
186
[7] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
les phénomènes électriques de la
tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 350
[8] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Les cristaux
héemièdres à faces inclinées, comme
sources constantes d’électricitè",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences,
93 (1881), 204
[9] Pierre Curie,Jacques
Curie, "Contractions et dilatations
produites par des tensions électriques
dan les cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137
[10] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914
[11] Pierre Curie, Propriétés
magnétiques des corps à diverses
températures Note de P. Curie. C.R.
T.115 (1892) 805-808
[12] Pierre Curie, Sur
l'emploi des condensateurs à anneau de
garde et des condensateurs
absolus Note de P. Curie. C.R. T.115
(1892) 1068-1072
[13] Pierre Curie, Sur les
propriétés magnétiques de l'oxygène
à diverses températures Note de P.
Curie. C.R. T.115 (1892) 1292-1295
[14] Pierre
Curie, Propriétés magnétiques des
corps à diverses températures Note
de P. Curie. C.R. T.116 (1893) 136-139
[15]
Pierre Curie, Propriétés magnétiques
du fer à diverses températures Note
de P. Curie. C.R. T.118 (1894) 796-800
et 859-862
[16] Pierre Curie, Propriétés des
corps magnétiques à diverses
températures Note de P. Curie. C.R.
T.118 (1894) 1134-1136
[17] "Pierre Curie."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[18] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[19] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France5  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 12 13 		4499) Despite his scientific
achievements, Perrine and his office
become a target for nationalist
politicians and Perrine is attacked
verbally by deputies in the Argentine
Congress. In 1931 Perrine is barely
missed by a sniper’s bullet and in
1933 the Argentine Congress passes
legislation removing authority from the
director of the observatory.7 (There
are clearly parallels for me in living
in Orange County.8 )

In 1936 Perrine is forced into
retirement (from the Argentine National
Observatory in Córdoba9 ) by Argentine
"rightests".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614-615.
2. ^ "Perrine,
Charles Dillon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903359&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Charles Dillon Perrine." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-dil
lon-perrine-american-astronomer
4. ^ Perrine, C. D., "Motion in the
faint nebula surrounding Nova Persei",
Bulletin / Lick Observatory, University
of California ; no. 10; Lick
Observatory bulletins ; no. 10.,
Berkeley : The University Press, 4. ^,
p. 4. ^-65 : ill. ; 30
cm. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1901
LicOB...1...64P
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Perrine,
Charles Dillon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903359&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Perrine, Charles
Dillon." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 7
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
323>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614-615.
11. ^ "Perrine,
Charles Dillon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
323>.
12. ^ "Charles Dillon Perrine." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-dil
lon-perrine-american-astronomer {1901}
13. ^
"Perrine, Charles Dillon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903359&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Dillon Perrine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dil
lon_Perrine
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA11  
[1] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 17 18 		4515) In 1930 Landsteiner wins the
Nobel prize in medicine and physiology
for identifying blood groups.15
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
3. ^
"Landsteiner, Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>.
4. ^ Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
5. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>.
6. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>.
8. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
16. ^ Karl
Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
17. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>. {1901}
18. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[3] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
(Pathological-Anatomical Institute)
Vienna16  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 5 6 		4705)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
3. ^ "Bordet,
Jules." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 300-301.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 300-301. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630. {1901}
6. ^
"Bordet, Jules." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 300-301.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bordet, Jules."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
[2] "Jules Bordet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jules-borde
t
[3] "Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Jean_
Baptiste_Vincent_Bordet
[4] "peritoneum." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 02 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peritoneum
(Institut Antirabique et
Bacteriologique, in 1903 the Institut
Pasteur du Brabant) Brussells, Belgium4
 
[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 8 9 		4711)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630-631.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630-631.
6. ^ "Ivanov, Ilya
Ivanovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 31-33.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902143&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Ivanov, Ilya Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043
069>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630-631. {1901}
9. ^
"Ivanov, Ilya Ivanovich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043
069>. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya_Ivanov
ich_Ivanov
Dolgoe Village, Orlovskaya guberniya,
Russia7  
[1] Description Ilya
ivanov.jpg en:Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov
(biologist) Date
1927(1927) Source
http://www.creationontheweb.com/con
tent/view/5198 Author Unknown
Soviet photographer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Ilya_ivanov.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 17 		4787) De Forest grows up in Alabama,
and his father, a minister, had moved
to Alabama in 1879 to serve as a
principal of a school for black people.
The family is ostracized for this and
young Lee finds his friends only amoung
black children.5

De Forest's father wants him to enter
the ministry but De Forest wants to go
into science.6
De Forest's Ph.D.
dissertation is probably the first in
the USA that relates to radio
(Hertzian) waves.7

De Forest is indicted in 1912 but later
acquitted of federal charges of using
the postal system to defraud by seeking
to promote a "worthless device"—the
Audion tube.8
During the 1930s De
Forest develops Audion-diathermy
machines.9 Diathermy is the heating of
body tissues due to their resistance to
the passage of high-frequency
electromagnetic radiation, electric
current, or ultrasonic waves.10
During
World War II De Forest works on
military research at the Bell Telephone
Laboratories.11
De Forest has more than
300 patents, the last when he is 84
years old.12

(To broadcast photons in with radio
frequencies, only a large current is
needed, and a larger transmitting
antenna. Clearly the conversion of
sound to electric current had been done
already with the invention of the
telephone. The triode can simply
amplify weak electronic current
signals, which is useful perhaps in
amplifying the weak AM signals at the
receiving end. A signal may start with
very dense photons, but as the distance
from the source transmitter increases
the quantity of photons decreases by
the square of the distance. So only far
fewer photon beams reach distant
receivers, which must take those weak
voltages and currents created by the
photon beams and amplify them to play
through a speaker. State what kinds of
speakers are in use at the time.13 )


(Was DeForest excluded from direct to
neuron reading and writing?14 )

(It is interesting that DeForest is one
of those people who actively tried to
bring radio communication to the
public. This is interesting in light or
what must have been the, already by
this time, thriving secret particle
communication (wireless) neuron reading
and writing networks.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
2. ^ "De Forest,
Lee." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
3. ^ "De Forest, Lee." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
8. ^ "De Forest,
Lee." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
9. ^ "De Forest, Lee." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
10. ^ diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's
Medical Dictionary for Health
Consumers. (2007). Retrieved September
9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
11. ^ "Lee De Forest." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "De Forest, Lee."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lee De Forest." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[2] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
(Western Electric Company) Chicago,
Illinois, USA16  
[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 17 18 		5510)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und
elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der
Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare
Masse der Elektronen" (Göttingen
Nachrichten 8, S. 143—155.
1901). (Nachrichten der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Göttingen:
Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
) English: Translated as "Magnetic
and Electric Deflectiability of the
Becquerel Rays and the Apparent Mass of
the Electron" in: Boorse and Motz,
"The World of the Atom", 1966, v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ "Kaufmann, Walter (or Walther)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 263-265. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902262&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ W. Kaufmann, "Die
elektromagnetische Masse des Elektrons
", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 1902, 4
(1b):
54-57. http://wikilivres.info/wiki/Die_
elektromagnetische_Masse_des_Elektrons
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4V
dMAAAAMAAJ&q=kaufmann#v=snippet&q=kaufma
nn&f=false
4. ^ Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und
elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der
Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare
Masse der Elektronen" (Göttingen
Nachrichten 8, S. 143—155.
1901). (Nachrichten der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Göttingen:
Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
) English: Translated as "Magnetic
and Electric Deflectiability of the
Becquerel Rays and the Apparent Mass of
the Electron" in: Boorse and Motz,
"The World of the Atom", 1966, v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
5. ^ "Kaufmann, Walter (or Walther)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 263-265. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902262&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ W. Kaufmann, "Die
elektromagnetische Masse des Elektrons
", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 1902, 4
(1b):
54-57. http://wikilivres.info/wiki/Die_
elektromagnetische_Masse_des_Elektrons
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4V
dMAAAAMAAJ&q=kaufmann#v=snippet&q=kaufma
nn&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Kaufmann,
"Die magnetische und elektrische
Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und
die scheinbare Masse der Elektronen"
(Göttingen Nachrichten 8, S.
143—155. 1901). (Nachrichten der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen: Mathematisch-Physikalische
Klasse ) English: Translated as
"Magnetic and Electric Deflectiability
of the Becquerel Rays and the Apparent
Mass of the Electron" in: Boorse and
Motz, "The World of the Atom", 1966,
v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
17. ^ Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und
elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der
Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare
Masse der Elektronen" (Göttingen
Nachrichten 8, S. 143—155.
1901). (Nachrichten der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Göttingen:
Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
) English: Translated as "Magnetic
and Electric Deflectiability of the
Becquerel Rays and the Apparent Mass of
the Electron" in: Boorse and Motz,
"The World of the Atom", 1966, v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
18. ^ W. Kaufmann, "Die
elektromagnetische Masse des Elektrons
", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 1902, 4
(1b):
54-57. http://wikilivres.info/wiki/Die_
elektromagnetische_Masse_des_Elektrons
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4V
dMAAAAMAAJ&q=kaufmann#v=snippet&q=kaufma
nn&f=false {01/04/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Kaufmann
(physicist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Kauf
mann_(physicist)
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany16  
[1] Figure 34-2 from: Kaufmann, ''Die
magnetische und elektrische
Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und
die scheinbare Masse der Elektronen''
(Göttingen Nachrichten 8, S.
143—155. 1901). (Nachrichten der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen: Mathematisch-Physikalische
Klasse ) English: Translated as
''Magnetic and Electric Deflectiability
of the Becquerel Rays and the Apparent
Mass of the Electron'' in: Boorse and
Motz, ''The World of the Atom'', 1966,
v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}

[2] Description Walter
kaufmann.png English: Walter Kaufmann
(1871-1947) Date ca.
1905(1905) Source
Niedersächsische Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek,
Göttingen Author Walter
Kaufmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Walter_kaufmann.png
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 5 		6023) From 1905 to 1908 Elgar is the
University of Birmingham’s first
professor of music.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Edward Elgar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/184539/Sir-Edward-Elgar>.
2. ^ "Sir Edward Elgar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/184539/Sir-Edward-Elgar>.
3. ^ "Sir Edward Elgar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/184539/Sir-Edward-Elgar>.
4. ^ "Sir Edward Elgar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/184539/Sir-Edward-Elgar>.
5. ^ "Sir Edward Elgar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/184539/Sir-Edward-Elgar>. {1901}
Malvern, Worcestershire, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: English
composer Edward Elgar, likely in the
early 1900s. Date Unknown
date Source
http://www.geocities.com/hansenk69/
elgar3.jpg (broken link) Author
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. A Rotary Photo
postcard with the motive was dated to
circa 1905 by the seller AllPosters.de
and 1906 by The National Archives, and
reasonable enquiry could not ascertain
the author. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
24 Britons.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Edward_Elgar.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 4 		6253)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p59.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p59.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p59.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p59. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "vacuum cleaner." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vacuum-clea
ner
 
[1] On August 30th 1901 Hubert Cecil
Booth, a British engineer, received a
British patent for a vacuum cleaner. It
took the form of a large, horse-drawn,
petrol-driven unit which was parked
outside the building to be cleaned with
long hoses being fed through the
windows. Until then vacuum cleaners
blew the dust away, but Booth came up
with the idea of sucking away dust,
instead of blowing. Furthermore Booth
equipped his cleaner with a filter,
which kept the dust in the machine. All
modern vacuum cleaners are based on
Booth's principle. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.morclean.co.uk/catego
ries/images/first-vacuum-cleaner.jpg

[2] Description Hubert Cecil
Booth Source
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/
results.asp?image=10300549 Article
Hubert Cecil Booth COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c9/Hubert_Cecil_Booth.jpg
98 YBN
[02/15/1902 AD] 13 		4091)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-524.
2. ^ "Richet, Charles
Robert." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 425-432.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 8
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Richet, Charles Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 425-432. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 8 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525-524.
5. ^ "Charles
Richet." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Charles
Richet." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Charles Richet." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
11. ^ "Richet, Charles Robert."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 425-432. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 8
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
12. ^ "Richet, Charles." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
586>.
13. ^ "Richet, Charles Robert."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 425-432. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 8
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {02/15/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Richet." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 08 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
[2] "Charles Richet." Encyclopedia of
Occultism and Parapsychology. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 08 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-rob
ert-richet
[3] "Charles Robert Richet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Richet
(Société de Biologic11 ) Paris,
France12 (presumably) 
[1] w:Charles Robert Richet, vencedor
do Prémio Nobel de Medicina de
1913. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Charles_Robert_Richet
.gif
98 YBN
[02/??/1902 AD] 6 		4835)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p185.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
2. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
5. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
6. ^ B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B.
Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p185.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA {02/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
[2] "Guglielmo
Marconi." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 19 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[3] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[6] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[7] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256.
[8] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505.
[9] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937).
[10] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78.
[11] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[12] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[13] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[14] Marconi, U.S. Patent 0,668,315
"Receiver for electrical
oscillations". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?vid=668315
[15]
http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letter
s.html
(US ship Philadelphia) Atlantic Ocean5
(presumably) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
98 YBN
[03/17/1902 AD] 18 19 		4398) The interpretation of this
relationship of light and electricity
is provided in 1905 by Albert
Einstein’s hypothesis of light quanta
in applying the quantum theory of
Planck to light.5 6

(I think a light quantum can be
interpreted as a mass multiplied by
it's velocity or perhaps its velocity
squared. There could be two quanta, one
that is mv, and another that is mv2,
and others that are mv3, m2v2, etc.7 )

This finding persuades people in
science that atoms contain electrons as
part of their structure.8

Lenard shows that only certain
wavelengths of light bring about
electron emission. Lenard shows that
for any particular wavelength,
electrons of fixed energies (that
having a fixed product of mass and
velocity9 ) are given off. Increasing
the intensity of light increases the
number of electrons but not their
individual energy. Lenard is the first
to suppose that the atom is mostly made
of empty space when he tries to explain
this phenomenon. Ernest Rutherford will
establish this a few years later.10
Lenard proposes a model of the atom in
which the atom is made from "dynamids",
units of positive and negative charge.
This will be soon replaced by the
nuclear atom of Ernest Rutherford.11


(what device does Lenard use to create
light of many different specific
frequencies? Lenard probably filters
incandescent light from carbon
electrodes. I think there is some
amount of photoelectric effect in all
photons that collide with atoms, and
that perhaps photons are, or are
closely related to electrons and only
show electric effect when in metals or
atom lattices. Show and explain exactly
how Lenard finds only certain
frequencies cause electron emission.12
)

(how was this electron energy measured,
with what devices? is this measured as
electric potential?13 )

(Show how Leonard determines the
velocity of electricity - is this
simply measured by electric potential?
This again presumes that the speed of
electricity is faster for a higher
potential and slower for a lower
potential, which I can accept - but I
don't know if that is the majority
view.14 )

(State paper, and translate15 )
(presumably16 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
2. ^ "Lenard,
Philipp." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 180-183.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ P. Lenard, "Ueber die
Elektricitätsleitung in Flammen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 314, Issue
11, Date: 1902, Pages:
642-650. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485501/PDFSTART
 Lenard_Philipp_flame_electricity_1902.
pdf
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Lenard, Philipp."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p591-592.
11. ^ "Philipp
Lenard." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ P. Lenard, "Ueber die
lichtelektrische Wirkung", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 313, Issue 5, Date:
1902, Pages:
149-198 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART
 {Lenard_Philipp_photoelectric_1902.pdf}

17. ^ "Lenard, Philipp." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ P. Lenard, "Ueber die
lichtelektrische Wirkung", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 313, Issue 5, Date:
1902, Pages:
149-198 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART
 {Lenard_Philipp_photoelectric_1902.pdf}
{03/17/1902}
19. ^ "Lenard, Philipp." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Joseph F. Mulligan, "Heinrich
Hertz and Philipp Lenard: Two
Distinguished Physicists, Two Disparate
Men", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/ey675vh58f3p0965/
[2] "Lenard, Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
736>.
[3] "Philipp Lenard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[4] "Philipp Lenard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Len
ard
(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany17
 
[1] Figure from March 1902 Lenard paper
- presumably the important paper on the
photoelectric effect PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART

[2] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
98 YBN
[03/28/1902 AD] 5 		4857)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
2. ^ GN Lewis, "THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.", Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=RgDzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA767&lp
g=PA767&dq=%22A+number+of+years+ago,+to+
account+for+the+striking+fact%22&source=
bl&ots=poniqAOQyg&sig=WFu6ffeH4l_mrhTDnV
SY3Jv0GgU&hl=en&ei=4pbQTNXlBoS4sQOal_XVC
A&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%
20number%20of%20years%20ago%2C%20to%20ac
count%20for%20the%20striking%20fact%22&f
=false {Lewis_Gilbert_19160126.pdf}
3. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=RgDzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA767&lp
g=PA767&dq=%22A+number+of+years+ago,+to+
account+for+the+striking+fact%22&source=
bl&ots=poniqAOQyg&sig=WFu6ffeH4l_mrhTDnV
SY3Jv0GgU&hl=en&ei=4pbQTNXlBoS4sQOal_XVC
A&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%
20number%20of%20years%20ago%2C%20to%20ac
count%20for%20the%20striking%20fact%22&f
=false {Lewis_Gilbert_19160126.pdf}
{03/28/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[3]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[4] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
[5] "Gilbert N. Lewis." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[6] GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002
[7] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA4  
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
98 YBN
[03/??/1902 AD] 24 		4734) Soddy is profoundly disturbed by
World War I and “enraged” by the
death of Moseley.21
In 1921 Soddy wins
the Nobel Prize in chemistry for
finding isotopes.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
4. ^ Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
5. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Rutherford and Soddy,
"The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds
II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Rutherford, Brooks,
"Comparison of the Radiations from
Radioactive Substances", Phil Mag, s6,
4, pp1-23, July 1902.
11. ^ Rutherford,
Soddy, "The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity I", Phil Mag ser 6, iv
370-396 1902.
12. ^ Rutherford, Soddy, "The
Cause and Nature of Radioactivity II",
Phil Mag ser 6, iv 569-585 1902.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Soddy,
Frederick." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 504-509.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
23. ^ Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
24. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false {c03/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] "Frederick Soddy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>.
[15] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[16] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[17] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[18]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[19] Frederick Soddy, "Science and
life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[20] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[21] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick
Soddy." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows
of the Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada23
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
98 YBN
[04/28/1902 AD] 14 15 		4235)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556-557.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p556-557.
3. ^ Variations
de la température de l’air libre,
dans la zone comprise entre 8 et 15
kilomètres d’altitude.” Comptes
rendus de l’Académie des sciences
134 (28 April 1902):
987–989. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k30902.image.r=Variations+de+la
+temp%C3%A9rature+de+l%E2%80%99air+libre
%2C+dans+la+zone+comprise+entre+8+et+15+
kilom%C3%A8tres+d%E2%80%99altitude.f987.
langFR {Bort_M_L_Teisserenc_19020428.pd
f}
4. ^ "Léon Teisserenc de Bort." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-teisse
renc-de-bort
5. ^ "Léon Teisserenc de Bort." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-teisse
renc-de-bort
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556-557.
7. ^ Rochas, Michel.
"Teisserenc De Bort, Léon Philippe."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-20. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 16 Feb.
2010.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "theodolite." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodolite
10. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=R5tIAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=%22photographi
c+theodolite%22&source=bl&ots=Zp0Q5b3Ozr
&sig=qbB_cqz4CdfmCSDaYCxmgasL9Gw&hl=en&e
i=XTZ7S9WzH5TYsQPE9JHLCA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAoQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=%22photographic%20theodolite
%22&f=false
11. ^ Rochas, Michel. "Teisserenc De
Bort, Léon Philippe." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 17-20. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 Feb. 2010.
12. ^
Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Rochas, Michel. "Teisserenc
De Bort, Léon Philippe." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 17-20. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 Feb. 2010.
14. ^
Variations de la température de
l’air libre, dans la zone comprise
entre 8 et 15 kilomètres
d’altitude.” Comptes rendus de
l’Académie des sciences 134 (28
April 1902):
987–989. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k30902.image.r=Variations+de+la
+temp%C3%A9rature+de+l%E2%80%99air+libre
%2C+dans+la+zone+comprise+entre+8+et+15+
kilom%C3%A8tres+d%E2%80%99altitude.f987.
langFR {Bort_M_L_Teisserenc_19020428.pd
f} {04/28/1902}
15. ^ Rochas, Michel. "Teisserenc De
Bort, Léon Philippe." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 17-20. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 Feb. 2010.
{1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Teisserenc de Bort, Léon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
564>.
[2] "Léon Teisserenc de Bort".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_T
eisserenc_de_Bort
(Observatoire de météorologie
dynamique {Dynamic Meteorology
Observatory})Trappes, France13  
[1] Description Léon Teisserenc de
Bort.jpg French meteorologist Léon
Teisserenc de Bort (1855-1913) Date
Before 1913 Source
[1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD because of age PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/L%C3%A9on_Teisserenc_
de_Bort.jpg
98 YBN
[05/27/1902 AD] 4 		4735)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford, "The
Existance of Bodies Smaller Than
Atoms", Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada, s2,
sect3,vol8,pp79-86.
3. ^ Rutherford, "The Existance of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms",
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, s2, sect3,vol8,pp79-86.
4. ^ Rutherford, "The
Existance of Bodies Smaller Than
Atoms", Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada, s2,
sect3,vol8,pp79-86. {05/27/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
[15] "Rutherford,
Ernest." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[16] "Rutherford, Ernest, Baron
Rutherford of Nelson, of Cambridge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>.
[17] Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902, pp837-860.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada3
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
98 YBN
[05/??/1902 AD] 12 		4338)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577.
2. ^ "Jagadish
Chandra Bose." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
3. ^ "Jagadish Chandra Bose."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 18 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
4. ^ "Jagadish Chandra Bose."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 18 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Jagadish
Chandra Bose." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose,
"Response in the living and
non-living", 1902, 1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Sir Jagadis Chandra
Bose, "Response in the living and
non-living", 1902, 1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
12. ^ Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose,
"Response in the living and
non-living", 1902, 1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {05/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jagadish Chandra Bose." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 18 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jagdish-cha
ndra-bose
[2] "Jagdish Chandra Bose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagdish_Cha
ndra_Bose
[3]
http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientist
s/JCBOSE.htm
[4] Bose
Institute http://global.bose.com/
[5] Danrrel Emerson, "Jagadis Chandra
Bose: Millimetre Wave Resaerch In The
Nineteenth Century",
1998. http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson
/bose/emerson_delhi.pdf and
http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson/bose
/bose.html
[6] Jagadis Chunder Bose, "On the
Determination of the Wave-Length of
Electric Radiation by Diffraction
Grating", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January
1, 1896 60:167-178;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1896.0031. http://rspl
.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/3
59-367/167.full.pdf+html
(Royal Institution) London, England11
 
[1] fig 1 from Bose book: Sir Jagadis
Chandra Bose, ''Response in the living
and non-living'', 1902, 1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wp0-AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse

[2] source :
http://www.setileague.org/photos/wghorn.
htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/J.C.Bose.JPG
98 YBN
[10/17/1902 AD] 7 		4253)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sutton, Walter Stanborough."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 156-158. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904215&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
3. ^ "Sutton, Walter Stanborough."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 156-158. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904215&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661.
6. ^ Sutton,
"Morphology of the Chromosome Group in
Brachystola magna", Kansas University
Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
7. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
{10/17/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561.
[2] "Wilson, Edmund
Beecher." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
122>.
[3] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[4] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[5] "Edmund Beecher Wilson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Beec
her_Wilson
[6] "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] E. B. Wilson, “The Chromosomes in
Relation to the Determination of Sex in
Insects” ; Publications. Carnegie
Institution of Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/ebw-05.pdf
[8] N. M. Stevens, “Studies in
Spermatogenesis With Especial Reference
to the ‘Accessory Chromosome’”
Publications. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/holdings/s/nms-05-spe
rmatogenesis-1.pdf
[9] "Clarence Erwin McClung:
1870-1946", D. H. Wenrich, Science, New
Series, Vol. 103, No. 2679 (May 3,
1946), pp.
551-552. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
72760?&Search=yes&term=Clarence&term=McC
lung&term=Erwin&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fa
ction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DClarence
%2BErwin%2BMcClung%26jc%3Dj100000%26wc%3
Don%26Search.x%3D11%26Search.y%3D6%26Sea
rch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=27&returnArticle
Service=showArticle
[10] "Nettie Stevens." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stevens-net
tie-marie
[11] "Walter Sutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sutt
on
[12] "Walter S. Sutton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Mar. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/575830/Walter-S-Sutton>.
[13] Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4 (1902).
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/wss-02.pdf
[14] "McClung, Clarence Erwin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 586-590. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902724&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[15]“Notes on the Accessory
Chromosome,” in Anatomischer
Anzeiger, 20 (1901), 220–226;
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/cem-01.pdf
[16] “The Accessory Chromosomes: Sex
Determinant?” in Biological Bulletin,
3 (1902),
43–84 http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/cem-02.pdf
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA6  
[1] From Sutton 1902 paper see
captions PD
source: http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/wss-02.pdf

[2] Description Walter
sutton.jpg English: A portrait of
Walter S. Sutton taken prior to
1916. Date prior to
1916 Source
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/re
sources/timeline/1902_Boveri_Sutton.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg
98 YBN
[10/17/1902 AD] 6 		4254)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661.
3. ^ Sutton, "The
Chromosomes in Heredity", Kansas
University Quarterly, 4 (1903),
231–251. repr. in J. A. Peters, ed.,
Classic Papers of Genetics (Englewood
cliffs, New Jersy,
1959). http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/holdings/s/wss-03.pdf
4. ^ "Sutton, Walter Stanborough."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 156-158. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904215&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
6. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
{10/17/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561.
[2] "Wilson, Edmund
Beecher." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
122>.
[3] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[4] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[5] "Edmund Beecher Wilson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Beec
her_Wilson
[6] "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] E. B. Wilson, “The Chromosomes in
Relation to the Determination of Sex in
Insects” ; Publications. Carnegie
Institution of Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/ebw-05.pdf
[8] N. M. Stevens, “Studies in
Spermatogenesis With Especial Reference
to the ‘Accessory Chromosome’”
Publications. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/holdings/s/nms-05-spe
rmatogenesis-1.pdf
[9] "Clarence Erwin McClung:
1870-1946", D. H. Wenrich, Science, New
Series, Vol. 103, No. 2679 (May 3,
1946), pp.
551-552. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
72760?&Search=yes&term=Clarence&term=McC
lung&term=Erwin&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fa
ction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DClarence
%2BErwin%2BMcClung%26jc%3Dj100000%26wc%3
Don%26Search.x%3D11%26Search.y%3D6%26Sea
rch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=27&returnArticle
Service=showArticle
[10] "Nettie Stevens." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stevens-net
tie-marie
[11] "Walter Sutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sutt
on
[12] "Walter S. Sutton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Mar. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/575830/Walter-S-Sutton>.
[13] Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4 (1902).
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/wss-02.pdf
[14] "McClung, Clarence Erwin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 586-590. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902724&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[15]“Notes on the Accessory
Chromosome,” in Anatomischer
Anzeiger, 20 (1901), 220–226;
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/cem-01.pdf
[16] “The Accessory Chromosomes: Sex
Determinant?” in Biological Bulletin,
3 (1902),
43–84 http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/cem-02.pdf
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA5  
[1] From Sutton 1902 paper see
captions PD
source: http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/wss-02.pdf

[2] Description Walter
sutton.jpg English: A portrait of
Walter S. Sutton taken prior to
1916. Date prior to
1916 Source
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/re
sources/timeline/1902_Boveri_Sutton.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg
98 YBN
[10/27/1902 AD] 		3983)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Blondlot, Rene-Prosper", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp106-107.
2. ^ M. R. Blondlot, "Sur la
vitesse de propagation des rayons X.",
Comptes Rendus,
p666-670. http://books.google.com/books
?id=iV0DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:COMPTES+intitle:RENDUS+date:1902
-1902#v=onepage&q=blondlot&f=false
translated from French to
English: R. Blondlot, "Velocity of
Propagation of X-Rays", The
Electrician, 11/21/1902,
p189-190. {Blondlot_Rene_velocity_of_xr
ay_19021121.pdf}
3. ^ "The Velocity of Propagation of
X-Rays", Nature, 12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
4. ^ "The Velocity of Propagation of
X-Rays", Nature, 12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
5. ^ "Blondlot, Rene-Prosper", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp106-107.
6. ^
http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/
200708/history.cfm
7. ^ R. W. Wood, "The n-Rays.", Nature,
n1822, v70, 09/29/1904,
p530-531. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Qn0CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:nature+date:1904-1904&ei=wADJSd7
UN4TIlQScj-3_DQ#PPA530,M1
8. ^ "The Velocity of Propagation of
X-Rays", Nature, 12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The Velocity of
Propagation of X-Rays", Nature,
12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Rene Blondlot,
tr:Julien Francois William Garcin, "'N'
rays", Longmans, Green, and co.,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Jpg3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=N+ra
ys+a+collection+of+papers&ei=DsTISdm3N4T
ckASbmYHLAw
13. ^
www.rexresearch.com/blondlot/nrays.htm
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ "Blondlot, Rene-Prosper", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp106-107.

MORE INFO
[1] "Prosper-René Blondlot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosper-Ren
%C3%A9_Blondlot
University of Nancy, Nancy, France20
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1, Blondlot's apparatus for
comparing the speed of x-rays to those
of visible light. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iV0DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:COMPTES+intitle:RENDUS+date:1902-19
02#v=onepage&q=blondlot&f=false

[2] René Blondlot (1849-1930)
source: http://nsa02.casimages.com/img/2
008/06/02/0806020221453517545.jpg
98 YBN
[11/10/1902 AD] 12 		4736)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "The Magnetic and Electric
Deviation of the Easily Absorbed Rays
from Radium", Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb
1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Magnetic
and Electric Deviation of the Easily
Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil. Mag.,
S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
4. ^ Record ID4372. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "The Magnetic and Electric
Deviation of the Easily Absorbed Rays
from Radium", Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb
1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
6. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Magnetic
and Electric Deviation of the Easily
Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil. Mag.,
S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
12. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Magnetic
and Electric Deviation of the Easily
Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil. Mag.,
S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false {11/10/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada11
 
[1] Figure 4 from Ernest Rutherford,
''The Magnetic and Electric Deviation
of the Easily Absorbed Rays from
Radium'', Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb
1903, pp177-187. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+
Magnetic+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+E
asily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=b
l&ots=hd6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoND
mYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnet
ic%20and%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20t
he%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20R
adium&f=false

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
98 YBN
[11/19/1902 AD] 9 		4738)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
3. ^ "emanation."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 20 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
6. ^ Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
{11/19/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[15] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[16] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[17] "Frederick Soddy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>.
[18] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[19] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[20] "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[21] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[22]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[23] Frederick Soddy, "Science and
life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[24] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[25] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick
Soddy." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows
of the Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada8
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 23 		3609) The book "Trailblazer to
Television", is a book written by
Arthur Korn's wife Elizabeth and
daughter-in-law Terry, after his
death20 , and published by Scribner's
Sons, who also publish the "Dictionary
of Scientific Biography". So like
Harper Brothers, Scribner, clearly are
informers to the public in these
secretive and terrible times. There are
some interesting hints in this book:
The second sentence of the preface uses
the word "eye". On page 6 "Arthur's
mother was only a dim image in his
mind.". On page 45: "'Yes.' She
beamed.".21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Marcus J. Martin, "The Electrical
Transmission of Photographs", Sir I.
Pitman & sons, ltd.,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Aw9IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Shelford+Bidwell
+phototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpG
gswOOuuTeDg#PPA30,M1
2. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_humme
l_korn1.html
3. ^ Marcus J. Martin, "The Electrical
Transmission of Photographs", Sir I.
Pitman & sons, ltd.,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Aw9IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Shelford+Bidwell
+phototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpG
gswOOuuTeDg#PPA30,M1
4. ^ Record ID3608. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Shelford
Bidwell, "Practical Telephotography",
Volume 76 Number 1974, Aug 29, 1907,
pp441-464. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v76/n1974/index.html {Bidwell_
Shelford_Practical_Telephotography_Natur
e_1907.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ The American Journal of
Science, J.D. & E.S. Dana, 1907, ser4:
v23-24 (1907),
p82. http://books.google.com/books?id=b
HAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA82&dq=A.+Korn.+Elek
trische+Fernphotographie+und+%C3%84hnlic
hes&ei=u8vbSK6MJ4PctAOQ4cTeDg
8. ^ Arthur Korn, trans. C. C. G.,
"Elektrische Fernphotographie und
Aehnliches." ("Electrical Transmission
of Pictures and Script"), (Verlag von
S. Hirzel, Leipzig, 1904, 66 pp., 2nd
ed., 1907, 87 pp.), Nature 70, 280 -
280 (21 Jul 1904), doi:
10.1038/070280a0. http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v70/n1812/pdf/070280a0.p
df {Korn_Arthur_Nature_1904.pdf}
9. ^ Shelford Bidwell, "Practical
Telephotography", Volume 76 Number
1974, Aug 29, 1907,
pp441-464. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v76/n1974/index.html {Bidwell_
Shelford_Practical_Telephotography_Natur
e_1907.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Terry and Elizabeth P.
Korn, :Trailbrazer to television; the
story of Arthur Korn.", Charles
Schribner's Sons, 1950.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
14. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm
15. ^ "transmission of photographs."
The Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 25 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transmissio
n-of-photographs
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Book Reviews, Science
Education,Volume 34 Issue 5, 1950, Page
340. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112769232/abstract
21. ^ Terry and Elizabeth P. Korn,
:Trailbrazer to television; the story
of Arthur Korn.", Charles Schribner's
Sons, 1950.
22. ^
http://www.nernst.de/lamp/nernstlamp.htm

23. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>. {1902}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://histv.free.fr/korn/korn2.htm
[2] http://histv.free.fr/korn/korn.htm
[3]
http://www.hffax.de/history/html/korn.ht
ml
München, Germany22  
[1] Essai d'une transmission de
téléphotographie (1904) PD/Corel [t
Korn's photocopying telegraph
transmitter and receiver] PD/Corel
source: http://histv.free.fr/images/korn
8.jpg

[2] Dr. Arthur Korn 1870 -
1945 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Korn.gif
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 20 21 		3821)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493.
3. ^ "Karl von
Linde." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-von-li
nde
4. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493.
8. ^ "Karl Paul
Von Linde", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Pergamon Press, 1914,
v.178, (1914),
p113-114. http://books.google.com/books
?id=y-QGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=Carl+Paul+G
ottfried+von+Linde&as_brr=1&ei=Du9kSfCMG
JOIkAT1v7TWDQ#PPA113,M1
9. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Carl Linde,
"Apparatus for Producing Pure Nitrogen
and Pure Oxygen", US patent #795525,
1903. http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/np
h-Parser?patentnumber=795525 {Linde_Car
l_pat795525_1903.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
19. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890
20. ^ Linde company
timeline http://www.linde.com/internati
onal/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/docbya
lias/page_ch_chronicle_18791890 {1902}
21. ^
"Linde, Carl von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Paul Gottfried von
Linde". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Paul_G
ottfried_von_Linde
[2] "Refrigerating". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Refriger
ating
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p351
[4]
"Linde, Carl Von", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p545
(Munich Thermal Testing Station)
Munich, Germany19 (presumably) 
[1] Carl Linde patent Apparatus for
producing pure nitrogen and pure
oxygen PD
source: http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/n
ph-Parser?patentnumber=795525

[2] Sketch of the first air
liquefaction plant of 1895 PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 5 		4062)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p517.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ OBITUARY., J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1897, 19 (11), pp 918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
5. ^ Journal of the American Chemical
Society, Volume 44,
p1564-1565. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vQoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1565&dq=steric+m
eyer&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=steric%20meyer
&f=false {1902 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Meyer, Viktor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>.
[2] "Viktor Meyer." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/viktor-meye
r-1
[3] "Viktor Meyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Meye
r
[4] "Victor Meyer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Victor_M
eyer
[5] "Victor Meyer", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p603.
[6]
American chemical journal, Volume 19,
p812. http://books.google.com/books?id=
caEwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=Victor+Mayer+da
te:1897-1897&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Victor
%20Mayer%20date%3A1897-1897&f=false
[7] Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, Volume 16,
p786. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pOnNAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA786&dq=Victor+Maye
r+date:1897-1897&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[8] E. Ador, Victor Meyer,
"Ueberführung der Brombenzoësäure in
Isophtalsäure", Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft, Volume 4 Issue
1,
p259-262. http://books.google.com/books
?id=rmkoAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:040OobsMY2_qGL2Ocq&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Isophtals%C3%A4ure&f=false and: ht
tp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal
/112334028/abstract
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 7 		4082)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p522-523.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Oliver Heaviside." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-heav
iside
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Heaviside, Oliver."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9039
747>.
7. ^ "Oliver Heaviside." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-heav
iside {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Heaviside." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-heav
iside
[2] Oliver Heaviside, "Electrical
papers‎", Volume 1, 1894
[3] "Heaviside,
Oliver", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p404
[4]
Oliver Heaviside, "Electromagnetic
theory, Volume 1",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_Zk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA464&dq=Oliver+Heavisid
e+volume+2#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams & Wilkens Co, 1928,
p280
[6] "Life and work of Oliver Heaviside
(May 18, 1850-February 3, 1925).",
Nature. 1950 Jun
24;165(4208):991-3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pubmed/15439051
[7] EDGAR C. SMITH, "Oliver Heaviside
(1850–1925)", Nature 165, 749-750 (13
May 1950) doi:10.1038/165749a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
165/n4208/pdf/165991a0.pdf
[8] WILLIS JACKSON,"Life and Work of
Oliver Heaviside" (May 18,
1850-February 3, 1925) Nature 165,
991-993 (24 June 1950)
doi:10.1038/165991a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
165/n4202/pdf/165749a0.pdf
London, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Description Oliver
Heaviside2.jpg English: Artist died
>70yrs ago. Source:
http://www.jstor.org.proxy.library.ade
laide.edu.au/view/00963771/ap990561/99a0
0020/3?searchUrl=http%3a//www.jstor.org/
search/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26si%3d1%2
6Query%3doliver%2bheaviside&frame=nofram
e¤tResult=00963771%2bap990561%2b99
a00020%2b0%2c7F&userID=817f4eeb@adelaide
.edu.au/01cc993313496f10fbc86dba0&dpi=3&
config=jstor PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Oliver_Heaviside2.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD] 5 		4180)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
2. ^ "Wilhelm
Ostwald." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
3. ^ "Wilhelm Ostwald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
4. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
5. ^ "Wilhelm Ostwald." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Deltete, Robert J. "Ostwald,
Friedrich Wilhelm." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 23.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
356-359. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[2] "Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Ostwald
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1909/ostwald-bio.html
[4] "physical chemistry." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/physical-ch
emistry
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p368
[6] Ostwald, W. (1894). "Definition der
Katalyse." Zeitschrift für
physikalische Chemie, 15, 705-
[7]
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Os
twald-1894.html
(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany4  
[1] original
at http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 5 		4181)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p544-545.
2. ^ "Wilhelm
Ostwald." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
3. ^ "Wilhelm Ostwald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald
4. ^ "Ostwald, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9057
626>.
5. ^ "Wilhelm Ostwald." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-ost
wald {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Deltete, Robert J. "Ostwald,
Friedrich Wilhelm." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 23.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
356-359. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 1 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[2] "Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
ilhelm_Ostwald
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1909/ostwald-bio.html
[4] "physical chemistry." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/physical-ch
emistry
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p368
[6] Ostwald, W. (1894). "Definition der
Katalyse." Zeitschrift für
physikalische Chemie, 15, 705-
[7]
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Os
twald-1894.html
(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany4  
[1] original
at http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 12 		4365)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582-583,609-610.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p582-583,609-610.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
7. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582-583,609-610.
10. ^ "Starling,
Ernest Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
11. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582-583,609-610.
{1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Starling." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-star
ling
[2] "Starling, Ernest Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 617-619. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904123&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Ernest Henry Starling". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Henr
y_Starling
[4] "William Bayliss." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bayliss-sir
-william-maddock
[5] "Bayliss, William Maddock."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 535-538. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900317&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "William Maddock Bayliss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mad
dock_Bayliss
(University College) London, England10
11  
[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

[2] Source: Physiology Society [1]
(pdf) Description: Professor William
Bayliss of University College, London
(died 1924) In the event that the
image was taken after 1923, fair use is
claimed, because there is no
free-licence equivalent, and its use by
Wikipedia will not affect its monetary
value, assuming it has any. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/WilliamBayliss1.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 8 		4394)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Kennelly, Arthur Edwin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 288-289. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902280&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Kennelly, Arthur Edwin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 288-289. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902280&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589. {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kennelly, Arthur Edwin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
091>.
[2] "Arthur E. Kennelly." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-edwi
n-kennelly
[3] "Arthur Edwin Kennelly". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Edwi
n_Kennelly
[4] A. E. Kennelly, "Impedance",
Transactions of the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers, Volume 10 By
American Institute of Electrical
Engineers,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3C0SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA226&dq=kennelly+impeda
nce&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_min
y_is=1893&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&a
s_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=kennelly%20impe
dance&f=false
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA7  
[1] Arthur E. Kennelly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wikitest/
images/c/ca/Arthur_E._Kennelly.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 13 14 		4457) In 1925, Zsigmondy wins the Nobel
prize in chemistry for work on
colloids.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603-604.
2. ^ "Zsigmondy,
Richard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 24
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
467>.
3. ^ "Richard Adolf Zsigmondy." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ado
lf-zsigmondy
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603-604.
5. ^ "Zsigmondy,
Richard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 24
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
467>.
6. ^ "Richard Adolf Zsigmondy." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-ado
lf-zsigmondy
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603-604.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603-604.
12. ^ "Zsigmondy,
Richard Adolf." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 632-634.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904793&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603-604. {1902}
14. ^
"Zsigmondy, Richard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 24 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
467>. {1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Adolf Zsigmondy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Ado
lf_Zsigmondy
[2] Richard Zsigmondy, P. Scherrer,
"Kolloidchemie: ein lehrbuch",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
dt9LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA433&dq=Kolloidchemie&h
l=en&ei=59gjTJPQG4KB8gauv62_BQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
(private research) Jena?, Germany12
(verify) 
[1] Image of Zsigmondy
ultra-mikroskop PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dt9LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA433&dq=Kolloidchemie&
hl=en&ei=59gjTJPQG4KB8gauv62_BQ&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ
6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Description Richard Adolf
Zsigmondy.jpg English: Richard Adolf
Zsigmondy 1865－1929 Date
1925(1925) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1925/zsigmondy-bio.h
tml Author Nobel Lectures,
Elsevier Publishing Company, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmon
dy.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 5 		4480)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
2. ^ "Fessenden,
Reginald Aubrey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Fessenden, Reginald
Aubrey." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
5. ^ "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>. {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901414&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Reginald Aubrey Fessenden".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Au
brey_Fessenden
(National Electric Signalling Company)
Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA4  
[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 6 7 		4713)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p631.
3. ^ "Claude,
Georges." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
242>.
4. ^ "Claude, Georges." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 299. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900918&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Claude, Georges." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 299. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900918&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631. {1902}
7. ^ "Claude,
Georges." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
242>. {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Claude". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cla
ude
[2] "Vichy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vichy
[3]
http://www.thalesgroup.com/Countries/Uni
ted_States/About_us/History/
(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson)
Paris, France5  
[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 13 14 		4714)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631.
2. ^ "Claude,
Georges." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
242>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p631.
5. ^ Record
ID4715. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Claude, Georges." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 299. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900918&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631. {1902}
14. ^ "Claude,
Georges." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
242>. {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Claude". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cla
ude
[2] "Vichy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vichy
[3]
http://www.thalesgroup.com/Countries/Uni
ted_States/About_us/History/
[4] "Fluorescent lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent
_lamp
(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson)
Paris, France12 (presumably) 
[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 8 		4721)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p632.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p632.
7. ^ "Pope,
William Jackson." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
84-92. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 9 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903475&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632. {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Jackson Pope".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jac
kson_Pope
[2] Gibson, Charles S (January 1941).
"Sir William Jackson Pope. 1870-1939".
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society 3 (9): 291–324.
http://www.jstor.org/pss/768891.
(Municipal School of Technology)
Manchester, England7  
[1] Sir William Jackson Pope
(1870-1939) President of the Chemical
Society 1917 to 1919 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Willia
mPope_tcm18-75113.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 21 22 		4766) Russell's parents died by the
time he is four, and his grandfather
John Russell raises him. This
grandfather had been prime minister of
Great Britain from 1846-1852, and
1865-1866. His grandfather dies in 1878
and his grandmother raises him.10
Russe
ll supports women's suffrage.11 (more
specific, right to vote?12 ))
Russell's
published views on sex are used by
people in the clergy and the Hearst
press to arouse a storm of disapproval
against Russell, and a state court
order withdraws his appointment (job)
on the staff of the City College of New
York.13
In 1916 Russell publishes a
leaflet protesting against the harsh
treatment of a conscientious objector
and is prosecuted on a charge of making
statements likely to prejudice
recruiting for and discipline in the
armed services, and fined £100. The
Council, the governing body of Trinity,
then dismisses Russell from his
lectureship, and Russell breaks all
connection with the college by removing
his name from the books. In 1918
another article of Russell's is judged
seditious, and Russell is sentenced to
imprisonment for six months. After the
war, however, in 1925 the college
invites Russell to give the Tarner
lectures and from 1944 until his death
Russell is again a fellow of the
college.14

In 1950 Russell is awarded the Nobel
Prize in literature.15
In 1961 Russell
is jailed again in England.16
(explain17 )
18 Russell lives until 1970
and reaches 97 years old.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
2. ^ "Bertrand
Russell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bertrand-ru
ssell
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Bertrand Russell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bertrand-ru
ssell
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "rigorous." Roget's II:
The New Thesaurus, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1995.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rigorous
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
14. ^ "Russell,
Bertrand Arthur William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-17. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903793&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
20. ^ "Russell,
Bertrand Arthur William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-17. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903793&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641. {1902}
22. ^
"Bertrand Russell." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bertrand-ru
ssell {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Russell, Bertrand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
464>.
[2] "Bertrand Russell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bertrand-ru
ssell
[3] "Bertrand Arthur William Russell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Ar
thur_William_Russell
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England20  
[1] Description: In defiance of his
Grandmother's disapproval, Russell
married the American Alys Pearsall
Smith on 13 December 1894 in the Quaker
Meeting House in St. Martin's Lane,
London. The photograph of him as a
young man is from his Aunt Agatha's
album. Russell left Alys in 1911 but
there was no divorce until
1921. Archive Box Number: RA3 Rec.
Acq. 941 Date: Dec. 13, 1894 PD
source: http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bert
rand/2_br_5.jpg

[2] Person(s) in Photograph: Bertrand
Russell Description: This is an
engraved portrait of Bertrand
Russell. Archive Box Number:
2,4 Date: 1907 PD
source: http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bert
rand/2_br_2.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 23 24 		4784) In 1912 Carrel wins the Nobel
Prize for Physiology or Medicine for
developing a method of suturing blood
vessels.10
In 1935 Carrel publishes a
book, "Man, the Unknown", with
authoritarian views about the planet
run by an intellectual elite.11 12

Carrel writes in "Man, the Unknown":
"Criminality
and insanity can be prevented only by a
better knowledge of man, by eugenics,
by changes in education and in social
conditions. Meanwhile, criminals have
to be dealt with effectively. Perhaps
prisons should be abolished. They could
be replaced by smaller and less
expensive institutions. The
conditioning of petty criminals with
the whip, or some more scientific
procedure, followed by a short stay in
hospital, would probably suffice to
insure order. Those who have murdered,
robbed while armed with automatic
pistol or machine gun, kidnapped
children, despoiled the poor of their
savings, misled the public in important
matters, should be humanely and
economically disposed of in small
euthanasic institutions supplied with
proper gases. A similar treatment could
be advantageously applied to the
insane, guilty of criminal acts.".13 14


In the 1936 preface to the German
edition of his book, Alexis Carrel
added a praise to the eugenics policies
of the Third Reich, writing that:

"(t)he German government has taken
energetic measures against the
propagation of the defective, the
mentally diseased, and the criminal.
The ideal solution would be the
suppression of each of these
individuals as soon as he has proven
himself to be dangerous."15

Also in this book, Carrel supports the
concept of telepathy writing:
"CLairvoyance and
telepathy are a primary datum of
scientific observation. Those endowed
with this power grasp the secret
thoughts of other individuals without
using their sense organs. They also
perceive events more or less remote in
space and time. This quality is
exceptional. It develops in only a
small number of human beings. but many
possess it in a rudimentary state. ...
The
reading of thoughts seems to be related
simultaneously to scientific, esthetic,
and religious inspiration, and to
telepathy. Telepathic communications
occur frequently. ".16

(notice att-and to telepathy. In
addition, this may be a cover used by
those who receive videos
direct-to-neuron - to mislead those
excluded by thinking that occurances of
people saying what they are thinking
must be this 'latent' ability.17 )

Carrel views homosexuality as a disease
in writing: "...Homosexuality
flourishes. Sexual morals have been
cast aside. ...".18
Carrel works with
the Vichy government and when France is
liberated Carrel is dismissed from his
posts19 , but but died before a trial
is arranged.20 A similar occurance may
happen for accessories who helped
cover-up the truth about how Frank
Fiorini killed JFK, Thane Cesar killed
RFK, 9/11 and all other murders.21
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
2. ^ "Carrel,
Alexis." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 8
Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
489>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
4. ^ "Alexis Carrel."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
6. ^ "Alexis Carrel."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Carrel, Alexis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
489>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
12. ^ "Alexis
Carrel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
13. ^ Alexis Carrel, "Man, The
Unknown", 1935.
14. ^ Quoted in Szasz,
Thomas. The Theology of Medicine New
York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.
15. ^
Quoted in Andrés Horacio Reggiani.
Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics
and Population Research under Vichy
(French historical studies, 25:2 Spring
2002), p. 339. Also quoted in French by
Didier Daeninckx in Quand le
négationnisme s’invite à
l’université., on Amnistia.net
website
16. ^ Alexis Carrel, "Man, The
Unknown", 1935, p124-125.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Alexis
Carrel, "Man, The Unknown", 1935, p153.
19. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
20. ^ "Alexis
Carrel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Alexis Carrel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646. {1902}
24. ^
"Alexis Carrel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
[2] "Carrel, Alexis." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900797&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Alexis Carrel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carr
el
(University of Lyons) Lyons, France22
 
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 3 		6047)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Scott Joplin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/306114/Scott-Joplin>.
2. ^ "Scott Joplin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/306114/Scott-Joplin>.
3. ^ "Scott Joplin." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scott-jopli
n {1902}
Saint Louis, Missouri, USA2
(presumably) 
[1] Description portrait of Scott
Joplin Date 17 June 1907 Source
Library of Congress[1] Author
unknown
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Restored version of Image:Scott Joplin
1907.jpg with artifacts and text bleed
through removed. .jpg artifacting
reduced from original file. Histogram
and color balance adjusted. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Scott_Joplin_19072.jp
g
97 YBN
[03/17/1903 AD] 29 30 31 		3676)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
3. ^ William
Crookes, "Certain Properties of the
Emanations of Radium.", Chemical News;
Vol. 87:241; 1903. {note: this is
dated later than
{Crookes_William_1903_Spinthariscope.p
df}
4. ^ "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9110
444>.
5. ^ Raymond Kane, Heinz Sell,
"Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50
Years of Progress", Fairmont Press,
2001, p96.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "phosphor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
779>.
8. ^ Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, Contributor Ethel Mary Terry,
"Introduction to General Chemistry",
McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1920,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA574,M
1
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
13. ^ "Crookes,
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ William Crookes, "The
Emanations of Radium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 71,
1902/1903. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p5726123522547p2/?p=5f8b4c2
c717e4aa79e1608ab6d0ecf81π=5 {Crookes_
William_Emanations_of_Radium_1903.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ (Original footnote:) I have been
quite unable to detect any lines but
those of bismuth (and of known
impurities) in the spectrum of the
strongest and most active "polonium"
salt I have been able to procure.
20. ^
(Original footnote:) Radiant matter,
satellites, corpuscles, nuclei;
whatever they are, they act like
material masses.
21. ^ William Crookes, "The
Emanations of Radium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 71,
1902/1903. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p5726123522547p2/?p=5f8b4c2
c717e4aa79e1608ab6d0ecf81π=5 {Crookes_
William_Emanations_of_Radium_1903.pdf}
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ (Original footnote:)
Eνθ ... (greek writing) (Here from
the ship leaped the far-darting Lord
Apollo, like a star at midday, while
from him flitted scintillations of
fire, and the brilliancy reached to
heaven). - HOMER's Hymn to Apollo,
lines 440-442.
24. ^ William Crookes, "Certain
Properties of the Emanations of
Radium.", Chemical News; Vol. 87:241;
1903. {note: this is dated later than
{Crookes_William_1903_Spinthariscope.p
df}
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459. {1903}
30. ^
"Crookes, William", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p215-217. {1903}
31. ^ William Crookes, "The
Emanations of Radium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 71,
1902/1903. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p5726123522547p2/?p=5f8b4c2
c717e4aa79e1608ab6d0ecf81π=5 {Crookes_
William_Emanations_of_Radium_1903.pdf}
{03/17/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
[8] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity of
Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79
[9] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
and the Electron Theory", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68
[10] "Spinthariscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spintharisc
ope
[11]
http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/
spinstory.htm
[12] Crookes, W., "Certain Properties
of the Emanations of Radium.".
Chemical News; Vol. 87:241; 1903
[13] "Zinc
sulfide". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_sulfid
e
[14] "zinc sulfide." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/657360/zinc-sulfide>
(private lab) London, England28
(presumably) 
[1] Un spinthariscope bon marché
contenu dans un jeu éducatif de chimie
des années 50 ''Atomic energy'' de
Chemcraft Source
http://www.theodoregray.com/Periodi
cTable Date 5 Mars 2007 Author
Theodore
Gray Permission (Reusing this image)
Creative Commons license Creative
Commons Attribution This file is
licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution 1.0 license Deutsch
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Spinthariscope.jpg

[2] English
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD] 6 		4492)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
2. ^ "Wright,
Wilbur." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 520-521.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "airfoil." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/airfoil
5. ^ Patent 821393 FLYING-MACHINE
ORVILLE
WRIGHT http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
6. ^ Patent 821393 FLYING-MACHINE
ORVILLE
WRIGHT http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false {03/23/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Wright Brothers."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/
[2] "Wright brothers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brot
hers
[3] "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
Dayton, Ohio5  
[1] Image frmo Wright Brothers patent
821393 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
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Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD] 27 28 		4493)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
2. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
3. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
5. ^ "Wright, Wilbur
and Orville." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
7. ^ "Wright, Wilbur
and Orville." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
8. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
9. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
11. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
13. ^ "Wright,
Wilbur." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 520-521.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
15. ^ "Wright,
Wilbur." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 520-521.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
17. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Wright,
Wilbur." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 520-521.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
27. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/17/1903}
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
{12/17/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Wright Brothers."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/
[2] "Wright brothers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brot
hers
[3] Patent 821393 FLYING-MACHINE
ORVILLE
WRIGHT http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[4] "airfoil." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/airfoil
[5] Wright, Wilbur and Orville. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-127561>
[6] aviation: flight of the first
military airplane, 1909. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-15290>
Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, USA26
 
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が
類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
97 YBN
[05/14/1903 AD] 17 		4263)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Sir Joseph John
Thomson, "Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Russell McCormmach, "J. J. Thomson
and the Structure of Light", The
British Journal for the History of
Science, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Dec., 1967),
pp. 362-387.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4024961 {
Thomson_Joseph_John_BJHS_1967_cr.pdf}
4. ^ "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
5. ^ Sir Joseph John Thomson,
"Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ Sir Joseph John Thomson,
"Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
8. ^ Sir Joseph John
Thomson, "Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
9. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On the structure
of the atom: an investigation of the
stability and periods of oscillations
of a number of corpuscles arranged
at equal intervals around the
circumference of a circle;
with application of the results to the
theory of atomic structure.", Phil.
Mag. 7, March 1904, p237.
10. ^ "Thomson, Sir
J.J.." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 3
Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
11. ^ Sir Joseph John Thomson,
"Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=AFIEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA615&lpg=PA615&dq=silliman+tho
mson+The+%22Present+Development%22+of+%2
2our+ideas+of+electricity%22&source=bl&o
ts=MplL4FZwlB&sig=syqjUWBgONoPdTsWsjAKp0
v4aVM&hl=en&ei=KLyeS-qmHIHkswPOjMiNCw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved
=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=silliman%20thom
son%20The%20%22Present%20Development%22%
20of%20%22our%20ideas%20of%20electricity
%22&f=false
17. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=AFIEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA615&lpg=PA615&dq=silliman+tho
mson+The+%22Present+Development%22+of+%2
2our+ideas+of+electricity%22&source=bl&o
ts=MplL4FZwlB&sig=syqjUWBgONoPdTsWsjAKp0
v4aVM&hl=en&ei=KLyeS-qmHIHkswPOjMiNCw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved
=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=silliman%20thom
son%20The%20%22Present%20Development%22%
20of%20%22our%20ideas%20of%20electricity
%22&f=false {starting 05/14/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[5]
J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
[7] J.
J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation
of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[8] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[9] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[10] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[11] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[12]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[13] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[14] Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[18] Sir Joseph John
Thomson, Applications of dynamics to
physics and chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[19] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188
[20] Thomson J. J., "The
Existence of Bodies Smaller than
Atoms.", Notices of the proceedings at
the meetings of the members of the ...,
Vol 16, 04/19/1901,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+existen
ce+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+thomson&
lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existence%20o
f%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atoms%20th
omson&f=false
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA16  
[1] Figures 15 and 16 from Thomson's
Yale lecture paper of 1903 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qtoEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ele
ctricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Figure 17 from Thomson's Yale
lecture paper of 1903 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qtoEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ele
ctricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
97 YBN
[05/19/1903 AD] 5 6 		3970)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509.
2. ^
http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Pickering
,+Edward+Charles
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Pickering, Edward
Charles", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p704.
5. ^
Pickering, E. C., "A Photographic Map
of the Entire Sky", Harvard College
Observatory Circular, vol. 71,
pp.1-4 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/HarCi/0071/0000001.000.html
 {05/19/1903}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508-509. {1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, Edward Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>.
[2] "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[6] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[8] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[9] Edward Charles Pickering,
"Compilation of the papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10] E.C. Pickering, "Statement of work
done at the Harvard observatory during
the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11] "meridian>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meridian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>.
[12] "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>.
[13] Pickering, Edward C.,
"Standard photographic magnitudes of
bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. : The
Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
[14] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/
article-9066512>.
[15] Robert Grant Aitken, "The Binary
Stars", D.C. McMurtrie, 1918, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0wZDA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA27&dq=pickering+1889+ ursa
e+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQ
SAyenyCw
[16] "A New Spectroscopic
Binary",Nature, 10/01/1896, p527.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AWgAB3t
JTyIC&pg=PA527&dq=pickering+1889+ursae+m
ajoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQSAy
enyCw
[17] E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
[18] "Mizar." A Dictionary of
Astronomy. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 25
Aug. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
[19] "mizar>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "mizar." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 25 Aug.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
izar>.
[20] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p370.
[21] "A photographic map of the entire
sky", Harvard College Observatory,
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=k
7cKHQAACAAJ&dq=A+Photographic+Map+of+the
+Entire+Sky+date:1913-1914
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA4  
[1] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg

[2] image of Pickering and the women
on staff was taken on May 13, 1913 in
front of the newest and largest
building where most of the women
worked. PD
source: http://www.wellesley.edu/Astrono
my/Annie/Images/pickering.gif
97 YBN
[05/28/1903 AD] 		3677)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
2. ^ William Crookes,
James Dewar, "Note on the Effect of
Extreme Cold on the Emanations of
Radium.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
72,
1903/1904. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=6170db3
0116342c2baad5cb1d8856256π=42 {Crookes
_William_Cold_on_Radium_1903.pdf}
3. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>.
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
[8] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity of
Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79
[9] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
and the Electron Theory", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68
[10] William Crookes, "The Emanations
of Radium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
71,
1902/1903. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p5726123522547p2/?p=5f8b4c2
c717e4aa79e1608ab6d0ecf81π=5
[11] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, Contributor Ethel Mary Terry,
"Introduction to General Chemistry",
McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1920,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA574,M
1
[12] "Spinthariscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spintharisc
ope
[13]
http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/
spinstory.htm
[14] Crookes, W., "Certain Properties
of the Emanations of Radium.".
Chemical News; Vol. 87:241; 1903.
(private lab) London, England3
(presumably) 
[1]
source:

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
97 YBN
[05/28/1903 AD] 6 		3830)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ William Crookes,
James Dewar, "Note on the Effect of
Extreme Cold on the Emanations of
Radium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
72, 1903/1904,
p69-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=1ddcc31e84
454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=30 {Dewar_radi
um_in_cold_1903.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ William Crookes, James
Dewar, "Note on the Effect of Extreme
Cold on the Emanations of Radium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 72,
1903/1904,
p69-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=1ddcc31e84
454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=30 {Dewar_radi
um_in_cold_1903.pdf}
5. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
6. ^ William Crookes, James Dewar,
"Note on the Effect of Extreme Cold on
the Emanations of Radium", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 72, 1903/1904,
p69-71. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=1ddcc31e84
454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=30 {Dewar_radi
um_in_cold_1903.pdf} {05/28/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[3] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[4] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[5] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[6] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056.
[7]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[8]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[9] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[10] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248.
[11]
James Dewar, Helen Rose Banks Dewar,
James Douglas Hamilton Dickson, Hugh
Munro Ross, Ernest Charles Scott
Dickson, "Collected Papers of Sir James
Dewar...", The University Press,
1927. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pR9WAAAAMAAJ&q=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+J
ames+Dewar&dq=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+Ja
mes+Dewar&lr=&ei=8r5nSZWNFoGklQSW5s3yCw&
pgis=1
[12] Willett Lepley Hardin, "The Rise
and Development of the Liquefaction of
Gases", The Macmillan company,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s5cAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR8&dq=dewar+solidificat
ion+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZrvFozSlQ
S2pvXrCA
[13] James Dewar, "Solid Hydrogen",
Chemical News and Journal of Industrial
Science, Chemical news office., 1899,
v.80 (1900),
p132-133. http://books.google.com/books
?id=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical
+news+dewar+solidification+date:1899-189
9&ei=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT128,M1
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p457-459.
(Royal Institution) London, England5
(presumably) 
[1] Figures from Crookes and Dewar 1903
emanations of radium paper PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=1ddcc31e844
54208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=30 Dewar_radium
_in_cold_1903.pdf

[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
97 YBN
[06/??/1903 AD] 16 		4893) In 1917 Barkla wins a Nobel Prize
in physics for work on X rays.14
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
2. ^ "Charles Glover
Barkla." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
3. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

4. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

5. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Polarisation
in Röntgen Rays.", Nature, 03/17/1904,
p463.
http://books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:nat
ure&hl=en&ei=S9L-TICRDoi6sAOlg-2vCw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=barkla&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Charles
G. Barkla, "Secondary radiation from
gases subject to X-rays", Phil.
Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June 1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

10. ^ 10. ^ "Barkla, Charles Glover."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 456-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900268&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
15. ^ Charles G.
Barkla, "Secondary radiation from gases
subject to X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5,
N30, June 1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

16. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false
 {06/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[4] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
(University College) Liverpool,
England15  
[1] Figure 3 from Charles G. Barkla,
''Secondary radiation from gases
subject to X-rays'', Phil. Mag.,S6, V5,
N30, June 1903, p685 – 698. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=otXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radi
ation+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en
&ei=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20fr
om%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=fal
se

[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
97 YBN
[07/17/1903 AD] 7 8 		3438) Huggins may be hinting about
secret sending of images to brains with
this sentence:
"...has already thrown many beams
of suggestive light into the very
obscure regions of the constitution of
matter." in 1903. It could be knowledge
of the secret research that has not yet
produced anything. Working with
spectra, and wealthy, Huggins was
certainly in a position to know and
understand. By this time the CRT is
public, and so probably the electric
camera has already been invented. The
electric camera must be quickly
integrated into the microphone networks
of the phone and telegraph companies.
This implies already by 1903 that
people were either sending images, or
actively trying to, and Huggins had
access to see or hear about this secret
research. All this is before even World
War I or II, to think of how many lives
would have been saved had they shared
with the public these science and
technology advances instead of hording
them for many decades still to come
even now.4

In fact, much of Huggins and other
scientists writing can be used as a
measurement device to determine when
people first saw eyes. For example, in
1897 Huggins writes that Airy said "It
seems to me a case of 'Eyes and No
Eyes'.". The use of the word "eyes",
"suggest", "beam", "ears", "thought",
and many others, all can be weighted to
find a curve from historical documents.
In particular from honest and wise
sources. Simply examining the papers of
major indicators such as Huggins, Henry
Crew, and others. First a good hinter
must be determined, before their
writings are evaluated for clear secret
technology hinting. Even then, it is
very difficult to solidly conclude
anything other than...it is very likely
that by this time people were seeing
eyes. Seeing eyes from behind the head
in infrared is one of those science
breakthroughs that you either know
about because somebody told you or you
have no idea. It is generally an all or
none type of knowledge. There might be
a small period of time before the
actual technology where people are
actively experimenting trying to see
eyes, etc. I have to think that period
must be brief, but some science
breakthroughs do take decades until
possible.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
2. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
3. ^ William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Spectrum of the Spontaneous
Luminous Radiation of Radium at
Ordinary Temperatures",
Journal Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
72, 1903/1904,
p196-199. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w10432v5l31n1433/?p=892ba1bc
6f234e11b35a7cb1e3c129a5π=15 {Huggins_
Radium_1903.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
7. ^ William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Spectrum of the Spontaneous
Luminous Radiation of Radium at
Ordinary Temperatures",
Journal Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
72, 1903/1904,
p196-199. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w10432v5l31n1433/?p=892ba1bc
6f234e11b35a7cb1e3c129a5π=15 {Huggins_
Radium_1903.pdf} {07/17/1903}
8. ^ "Sir William
Huggins". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins {1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[7]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[8] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[9]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[10] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[11] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[12] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[14] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[15] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[16] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[17] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. {Huggins_Doppler_18
68.pdf}
[19] William Huggins and Mrs. Huggins,
"On the Relative Behaviour of the H and
K Lines of the Spectrum of Calcium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 61, 1897,
p433-441. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/w33711h437mkx432/?p=5225e8f0
1e454234a32634606346d6b6π=34 {Huggins_
Calcium_1897.pdf}
(Tulse Hill)London, England6  
[1] At the top, is placed a scale of
approximate wave-lengths. Immediately
below is a reproduction, enlarged two
and a half times, of the spectrum
obtained from the radium bromide with
an exposure of 72 hours. As has been
already explained this has been shifted
to bring the lines into position with
those of nitrogen photographed from a
vacuum tube. The identity of the two
spectra seems complete. The third band
is faint in the nitrogen spectrum on
account of the absorption of the glass
of the tube. below, is a spark
spectrum of radium bromide from the
Societe Centrale de Produits Chimiques.
The H and K lines of calcium are
present, as well as faintly some of the
stronger lines of barium. ... PD/Corel

source: Huggins_Radium_1903.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
97 YBN
[07/28/1903 AD] 13 		4145) Soddy is profoundly disturbed by
World War I and “enraged” by the
death of Moseley.10
In 1921 Soddy wins
the Nobel Prize in chemistry for
finding isotopes.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
3. ^ William
Ramsay and Frederick Soddy,
"Experiments in Radioactivity, and the
Production of Helium from Radium,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, (1903) volume: 72 page:
204 http://books.google.com/books?id=0a
JU57E6ioEC&pg=PA204&dq=%22experiments+in
+radioactivity%22#v=onepage&q=%22experim
ents%20in%20radioactivity%22&f=false
4. ^ William Ramsay and Frederick
Soddy, "Experiments in Radioactivity,
and the Production of Helium from
Radium, Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, (1903) volume: 72
page:
204 http://books.google.com/books?id=0a
JU57E6ioEC&pg=PA204&dq=%22experiments+in
+radioactivity%22#v=onepage&q=%22experim
ents%20in%20radioactivity%22&f=false
5. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
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Doubleday, 1982), p537-538
12. ^ "Ramsay, Sir
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
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13. ^ William Ramsay and Frederick
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+radioactivity%22#v=onepage&q=%22experim
ents%20in%20radioactivity%22&f=false
{07/28/1903}

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[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
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Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
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[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
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http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
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[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
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[21] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
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1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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stor.org/stable/769361
(University College) London, England12
 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
97 YBN
[11/23/1903 AD] 6 		4264)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Experiments to show that negative
electricity is given off by a metal
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 12, 312,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yZ81AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA312&dq=Experiments+to+
show+that+negative+electricity+is+given+
off+by+a+metal+exposed+to+Rontgen-rays&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=Experiments%20to%20show%
20that%20negative%20electricity%20is%20g
iven%20off%20by%20a%20metal%20exposed%20
to%20Rontgen-rays&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Experiments to show that negative
electricity is given off by a metal
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 12, 312,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yZ81AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA312&dq=Experiments+to+
show+that+negative+electricity+is+given+
off+by+a+metal+exposed+to+Rontgen-rays&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=Experiments%20to%20show%
20that%20negative%20electricity%20is%20g
iven%20off%20by%20a%20metal%20exposed%20
to%20Rontgen-rays&f=false
6. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Experiments to
show that negative electricity is given
off by a metal exposed to
Rontgen-rays.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.
12, 312,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yZ81AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA312&dq=Experiments+to+
show+that+negative+electricity+is+given+
off+by+a+metal+exposed+to+Rontgen-rays&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=Experiments%20to%20show%
20that%20negative%20electricity%20is%20g
iven%20off%20by%20a%20metal%20exposed%20
to%20Rontgen-rays&f=false {11/23/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
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cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
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Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[5]
J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
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4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
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on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
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[6] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
[7] J.
J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation
of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
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4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
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[8] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
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Royal
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169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[9] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
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cathode-rays&f=false
[10] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
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[11] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[12]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[13] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[14] Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
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[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
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[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
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[17] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
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[18] Sir Joseph John
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1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
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%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
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+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
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[19] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
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[20] Russell McCormmach, "J.
J. Thomson and the Structure of Light",
The British Journal for the History of
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http://www.jstor.org/stable/4024961
[21] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
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<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[22] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
"Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[23]
http://books.google.com/books?id=AFIEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA615&lpg=PA615&dq=silliman+tho
mson+The+%22Present+Development%22+of+%2
2our+ideas+of+electricity%22&source=bl&o
ts=MplL4FZwlB&sig=syqjUWBgONoPdTsWsjAKp0
v4aVM&hl=en&ei=KLyeS-qmHIHkswPOjMiNCw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved
=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=silliman%20thom
son%20The%20%22Present%20Development%22%
20of%20%22our%20ideas%20of%20electricity
%22&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5  
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
97 YBN
[11/??/1903 AD] 4 5 		4026)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
2. ^ "The Great Train
Robbery" http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=Bc7wWOmEGGY
3. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
4. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html {11/1903}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513. {1903}

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http://www.coned.com/history/electricity
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[33] "mains." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
ains>
[34] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359
[35] Edison 1882 patent - I'm not sure
if this is first three-wire electrical
distribution
system http://www.google.com/patents?id
=9T1tAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=ininventor:edis
on&as_drrb_ap=b&as_minm_ap=0&as_miny_ap=
1881&as_maxm_ap=0&as_maxy_ap=1883&source
=gbs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[36] J. A. Fleming, "A Further
Examination of the Edison Effect in
Glow Lamps.", Phil. Mag, S. 5, Vol 42,
Num 254, July 1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[37] William Henry Preece, "On a
Peculiar Behaviour of Glow-Lamps when
raised to High Incandescence",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol 38, 1885,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nwMXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22on+a+peculia
r+behaviour+of+glow%22+date:1885-1885&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22on%20a%20peculiar%
20behaviour%20of%20glow%22%20date%3A1885
-1885&f=false
[38] Edison Patent
307031 http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&dq=307031
[39] Sir John Ambrose Fleming, "The
thermionic valve and its developments
in radio-telegraphy and telephony",
1919,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
BtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
[40] J. A. Fleming, "Problems in the
Physics of an Electric Lamp", Nature,
vol 42, Num 1078, 1890,
p198. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JDEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=edison+effect&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fa
lse
[41] John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902, p.110.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wireless+T
elegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web
&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhsRE55c
YSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=
result#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false
[42] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[43] Edison patent 465,971, "Means for
transmitting signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[44] 1891 Dickson Greeting
movie http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV
intjK5lKU
[45] Edison Kinetoscope movie of "Fred
Ott's Sneeze" copyrighted
01/09/1894 http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=2wnOpDWSbyw
[46] "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

[47] Edison's Patent, "Kinetographic
Camera", filed
08/24/1891. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=A6RoAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[48] Edison's patent, "Apparatus
for-exhibiting Photographs of Moving
Objects.", filed
08/24/1891. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=rmF2AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[49]
http://www.nationalmediamuseum.org.uk/pd
fs/Pioneers%20of%20Early%20Cinema_1_LOUI
S%20AIM%C3%89%20AUGUSTIN%20LE%20PRINCE.p
df
[50]
http://books.google.com/books?id=vEAEAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=Friese-Greene&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
[51]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvh
ist.html
[52] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p510-513.
(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey,
USA3 (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from Edison's 08/24/1891
patent
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=A6RoAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Figure 2 from Edison's 08/24/1891
patent
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rmF2AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
97 YBN
[12/??/1903 AD] 12 13 14 15 16 		4462)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605-606.
2. ^ "Nagaoka,
Hantaro." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 606-607.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Record ID4746. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Nagaoka,
Hantaro." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 606-607.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605-606.
7. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A
Dynamical System illustrating the
Spectrum Lines and the Phenomena of
Radio-activity", Nature, V69, N1793,
March 10, 1904, p43.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
12. ^ H.
Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
{12/1903}
13. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455. {12/1903}
14. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A
Dynamical System illustrating the
Spectrum Lines and the Phenomena of
Radio-activity", Nature, V69, N1793,
March 10, 1904, p43. {later nature
article:) 01/18/1904}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605-606. {1904}
16. ^
"atom." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 28
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-4835
7>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hantaro Nagaoka." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hantaro-nag
aoka
[2] "Hantaro Nagaoka". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantaro_Nag
aoka
[3] G. A. Schott, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904,
p43. http://books.google.com/books?id=3
3YCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA437&dq=Nagaoka&hl=en&ei
=OxEpTL-bFIHanAfIz_R1&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q=Nagaoka&f=false
(Tokyo University) Tokyo, Japan10 11
 
[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 11 12 13 		4075)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p520-521.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Pavlov, Ivan
Petrovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
811>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Ivan Pavlov."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

10. ^ "Ivan Pavlov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

11. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1904/pavlov-bio.html
{1903}
12. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bhpavl.html {1903}
13. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p400. {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ivan Pavlov." Encyclopedia
of Russian History. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[2] "Ivan Pavlov." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ivan-pavlov

[3] "Ivan Petrovich Pavlov". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Petrov
ich_Pavlov
[4] "Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p686-687
[5] "gastric gland>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "gastric gland."
Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary.
Merriam-Webster, Inc. 28 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
astric gland>
[6] Todes, D. P. (1997).
"Pavlov's Physiological Factory," Isis.
Vol. 88. The History of Science
Society, p.
205-246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
6572?&Search=yes&term=Physiological&term
=Pavlov%27s&term=Factory&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
DPavlov%2527s%2BPhysiological%2BFactory%
26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D14
%26Search.y%3D6%26Search%3DSearch&item=1
&ttl=15&returnArticleService=showArticle

[7] "fistula." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
28 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
istula>
[8] "gullet." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 28 Sep.
2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
ullet>
[9] Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, Gleb
Vasīlʹevīch, "Conditioned reflexes:
an investigation of the physiological
activity of the ...", 1927. By
(Military Medical Academy)9 , St.
Petersburg, Russia10  
[1] circa 1900: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936) the Russian physiologist,
awarded the Nobel prize for Medicine in
1904. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/getty/8/5/3274685.jpg

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 5 6 7 		4127)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p533-534.
2. ^ "Ramón y Cajal,
Santiago." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
608>.
3. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal, Santiago."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal, Santiago."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Ramón y Cajal, Santiago."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
608>. {1903}
6. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal, Santiago."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1903}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p533-534. {1880s}

MORE INFO
[1] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/santiago-ra
m-n-y-cajal
[2] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/santiago-ra
m-n-y-cajal
[3] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ra
m%C3%B3n_y_Cajal
(University of Madrid) Madrid, Spain4
 
[1] Self-portrait looking through a
microscope * Author: Santiago
Ramón y Cajal (Foto virada) *
From Instituto de Neurobiología ''S.
Ramón y Cajal'' (CSIC)
http://www.csic.es/hispano/patrimo/src
ajal.htm
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Cajal-mi.jpg
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 4 		4308) Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky (TSYULKuVSKE) (CE
1857-1935), Russian physicist1 starts
a series of articles which thoroughly
describe the theory of rocketry for an
aviation magazine.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
3. ^
"Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568. {1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>.
[2] "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky
Kaluga, Russia3 (presumably) 
[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 33 34 35 		4368) In 1924 Einthoven wins the Nobel
prize in medicine and physiology.31
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p584.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584.
4. ^ "Willem
Einthoven." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-eint
hoven
5. ^ "Willem Einthoven obituary",
Nature,
10/22/1927. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v120/n3025/pdf/120591a0.pdf {
Einthoven_Willem_obituary_19271022.pdf}
6. ^ Willem Einthoven, “Die
Konstruktion des
Saitengalvanometers”, Pflugers Archiv
für die gesamte Physiologie des
Menschen und der Tierre, 130 (1909),
287–321;
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Willem Einthoven." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-eint
hoven
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
"Einthoven, Willem." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
154>.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584.
16. ^ "Einthoven,
Willem." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 25
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
154>.
17. ^ "Einthoven, Willem."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
154>.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Willem Einthoven." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-eint
hoven
20. ^ "Einthoven, Willem." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-335. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901297&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
21. ^ "Einthoven, Willem." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-335. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901297&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ "Willem Einthoven." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-eint
hoven
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Einthoven, Willem."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 333-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901297&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Willem
Einthoven, “Die galvanometrische
Registrierung des menschlichen
Elektrokardiogramms, zugleich eine
Beurteilung der Anwendung des
Capillarelektrometers in der
Physiologie”, in Pflügers Archiv
für die gesamte physiologie des
Menschen und der Tiere, 99 (1903),
472–480.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584.
32. ^ "Einthoven,
Willem." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 25
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
154>.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584. {1903}
34. ^
"Einthoven, Willem." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
154>. {1903}
35. ^ "Willem Einthoven." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-eint
hoven {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willem Einthoven".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Eint
hoven
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands32  
[1] Description Willem
Einthoven.jpg Willem Einthoven when
he was Rector of the Senate of the
University of Leiden Date
1906(1906) Source
http://www.einthoven.nl/Einthoven-a
lgemeen/historical_pictures.htm Author
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Willem_Einthoven.jpg
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 6 		4756) Schaudinn dies at age 34.3
(state how if known4 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p637-638.
2. ^ "Schaudinn,
Fritz Richard." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 141-143.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p637-638.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Schaudinn, Fritz Richard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 141-143. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Schaudinn, Fritz Richard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 141-143. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {c1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Schaudinn, Fritz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
090>
[2] "Fritz Richard Schaudinn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Richa
rd_Schaudinn
(German-Austrian zoological station)
Rovigno (now Rovinj, Yugoslavia)5
 
[1] Description Fritz Richard
Schaudinn.png English: German
zoologist Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
co-discoverer of Spirochaeta pallida,
the causative agent of
syphilis Deutsch: Der deutsche Zoologe
Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
Mitentdecker des Syphilis-Erregers
Spirochaeta pallida Date vor
1907 Source Fritz Schaudinns,
Verlag Leopold Voss, Hamburg und
Leipzig 1911 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Fritz_Richard_Schaudi
nn.png
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 13 		4768) Tsvet died when only 47.10
(Probably neuron'd11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p641.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641.
4. ^ "Tsvet, Mikhail
Semyonovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 27
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
644>.
5. ^ "Tsvet, Mikhail Semyonovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
644>.
6. ^ "Mikhail Tsvet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-tsv
et
7. ^ "Tsvet, Mikhail Semyonovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
644>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "electrophoresis."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electrophor
esis
10. ^ "Mikhail Tsvet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-tsv
et
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Tsvet, Mikhail
Semyonovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 27
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
644>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641. {1903}

MORE INFO
[1] Swackhammer, Deborah L.
"Chromatography." Environmental
Encyclopedia. Ed. Marci Bortman, Peter
Brimblecombe, and Mary Ann Cunningham.
3rd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2003.
248. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 27 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404800298&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Mikhail Semenovich Tsvett".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Sem
enovich_Tsvett
(University of Warsaw) Warsaw, Poland12
 
[1] Description Tswett
01.jpg English: Mikhail Semyonovich
Tsvet in 1901 Deutsch: Michail
Semjonowitsch Tswett,
1901 Русский: Михаил
Семенович Цвет Date
1901(1901) Source ISBN
3-9801965-0-X PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Tswett_01.jpg
96 YBN
[02/14/1904 AD] 6 7 		4837)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651.
2. ^ "André Louis
Debierne." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andr-louis-
debierne
3. ^ Debierne, "Sur l'emanation de
l'actinium", 138, 411-4 (Feb. 15,
1904) http://books.google.com/books?id=
6V4DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:PSKMcj3w4dkC&hl=en&ei=wx_CTOWPD4n6s
AOP_dzkCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "André Louis Debierne."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andr-louis-
debierne
6. ^ Debierne, "Sur l'emanation de
l'actinium", 138, 411-4 (Feb. 15,
1904) http://books.google.com/books?id=
6V4DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:PSKMcj3w4dkC&hl=en&ei=wx_CTOWPD4n6s
AOP_dzkCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {02/14/1904}
7. ^ "André Louis Debierne." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andr-louis-
debierne {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "actinium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 22 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/4367/actinium>.
[2] Choppin, Gregory R. "Actinium."
Chemistry: Foundations and
Applications. Ed. J. J. Lagowski. Vol.
1. New York: Macmillan Reference USA,
2004. 15-16. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 22 Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3400900018&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "André-Louis Debierne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-
Louis_Debierne
[4] H. W. Kirby (1971). "The Discovery
of Actinium". Isis 62 (3): 290–308.
doi:10.1086/350760.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/view/22994
3?seq=1.
[5] A Debierne, "Sur une nouvelle
matière radioactive", Comptes Rendus
Hebdomadaires des Seances de l' ...,
1899 http://books.google.com/books?id=a
FgDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Sur+une+nouvelle
+mati%C3%A8re+radioactive&hl=en&ei=ZxjCT
LzPPIa2sAO75pijDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFAQ6AEwCA#v=onepa
ge&q&f=false
[6] A Debierne, "Sur un nouvel
élément radioactif: l'acti-nium",
Comptes Rendus, 1900
[7] "actinium." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/actinium
[8] "actinium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 22 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/actinium
[9] "Actinium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium
(Sorbonne) Paris, France5
(presumably) 
[1] André Louis Debierne: French
chemist. 1874 - August 1949. Debierne
discovered actinium in a precipitate of
rare earths caused by adding ammonia to
dissolved pitchblende. Debierne was a
good friend of the Curies. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.chemeddl.org/collecti
ons/ptl/ptl/chemists/debierne.jpeg
96 YBN
[03/17/1904 AD] 28 		4894)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
2. ^ Charles G.
Barkla, "Polarisation in Röntgen
Rays.", Nature, 03/17/1904, p463.
http://books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:nat
ure&hl=en&ei=S9L-TICRDoi6sAOlg-2vCw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=barkla&f=false
{03/10/1904}
3. ^ Polarized Röntgen radiation.
Proc. Roy. Soc. 74, 1905,
p474-475. http://books.google.com/books
?id=E41_hSvBIcEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN93660113&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ Polarized Röntgen radiation.
Proc. Roy. Soc. 74, 1905,
p474-475. http://books.google.com/books
?id=E41_hSvBIcEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN93660113&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^ "Barkla, Charles Glover." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 456-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900268&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ W.H. Bragg, “On the Properties
and Natures of Various Electric
Radiations,” in Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 14 (Sept. 1907),
429–449.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ William Henry Bragg,
"Universe of Light", Dover edition,
1933, 1959, p233.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p662.
10. ^ Record
ID4157. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Polarized Röntgen
radiation. Phil. Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse
12. ^ "Charles Glover Barkla." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
15. ^ Charles G.
Barkla, "Polarisation in Röntgen
Rays.", Nature, 03/17/1904, p463.
http://books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:nat
ure&hl=en&ei=S9L-TICRDoi6sAOlg-2vCw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=barkla&f=false
{03/10/1904}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Charles G.
Barkla, "Polarisation in Röntgen
Rays.", Nature, 03/17/1904, p463.
http://books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:nat
ure&hl=en&ei=S9L-TICRDoi6sAOlg-2vCw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=barkla&f=false
{03/10/1904}
28. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Polarisation
in Röntgen Rays.", Nature, 03/17/1904,
p463.
http://books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:nat
ure&hl=en&ei=S9L-TICRDoi6sAOlg-2vCw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=barkla&f=false
{03/10/1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[4] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
[5] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England27  
[1] Figure 1 from 01/21/1905
paper: Polarized Röntgen radiation.
Phil. Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Philos
ophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&hl=e
n&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophical%2
0intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=false


[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
96 YBN
[06/18/1904 AD] 7 8 9 		4500)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614-615.
2. ^ "Perrine,
Charles Dillon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
323>.
3. ^ Perrine, "Experimental
Determination of the Solar Parallax
From Negatives of Eros Made With the
Crossley Reflector", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 16 (1904), 267;
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1904Lic
OB...3...51P
4. ^ Perrine, "Experimental
Determination of the Solar Parallax
From Negatives of Eros Made With the
Crossley Reflector", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 16 (1904), 267;
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1904Lic
OB...3...51P
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Perrine, Charles
Dillon." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 7
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
323>.
7. ^ Perrine, "Experimental
Determination of the Solar Parallax
From Negatives of Eros Made With the
Crossley Reflector", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 16 (1904), 267;
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1904Lic
OB...3...51P {06/18/1904}
8. ^ Perrine,
"Experimental Determination of the
Solar Parallax From Negatives of Eros
Made With the Crossley Reflector",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, 16 (1904), 267;
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1904Lic
OB...3...51P
9. ^ "Perrine, Charles Dillon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
323>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Dillon Perrine." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-dil
lon-perrine-american-astronomer
[2] "Perrine, Charles Dillon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903359&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Charles Dillon Perrine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dil
lon_Perrine
[4] Perrine, C. D., "Motion in the
faint nebula surrounding Nova Persei",
Bulletin / Lick Observatory, University
of California ; no. 10; Lick
Observatory bulletins ; no. 10.,
Berkeley : The University Press, , p.
-65 : ill. ; 30
cm. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1901
LicOB...1...64P
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA6  
[1] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG
96 YBN
[06/29/1904 AD] 5 6 7 		4707)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
2. ^ "Bertram Borden
Boltwood." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
4. ^ "Bertram Borden
Boltwood." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
5. ^ Boltwood, "On the Ratio of Radium
to uranium in some Minerals", American
Journal of Science, S4, V18, N104,
August
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lUQPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=Boltwood&hl=en&e
i=spxYTMG3J4K-sQOx-KyrCA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#
v=onepage&q=Boltwood&f=false
{06/29/1904}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630. {1904}
7. ^ "Bertram
Borden Boltwood." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltwood, Bertram Borden."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
518>
[2] "Boltwood, Bertram Borden."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 257-260. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900510&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Bertram Borden Boltwood".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Bor
den_Boltwood
(Mining Engineering and Chemistry
company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA4
 
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
96 YBN
[09/08/1904 AD] 14 15 		4401) In 1915 Bragg wins the Nobel
prize in physics with his son (Laue won
in 1914).8
In 1925 Bragg writes about
science for the public in "Concerning
the Nature of Things"9 , and "The
universe of light"10 , helping to
popularize science.11
In 1935 Bragg is
elected president of the Royal
Society.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
4. ^ Bragg, “On
the Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
5. ^ Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
7. ^ "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
9. ^ William Henry
Bragg, Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
10. ^ William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
13. ^ Bragg,
“On the Absorption of X-rays, and on
the Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
14. ^ Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false {09/08/1904}
15. ^ Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg, Old
Trades and New Knowledge (1926)
[6] William
Henry Bragg, An Introduction to Crystal
Analysis (1928)
(University of Adelaide) Adelaide,
Australia13  
[1] Figure from: Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904), 719–725; PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Absorpt
ion+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classification
+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VOQGTL
L9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=onepag
e&q&f=false

[2] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 8 9 		3448)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
2. ^ "Pierre Jules
César Janssen." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p427-428.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Pierre Jules César
Janssen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 29
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p427-428. {1904}
9. ^
"Pierre Jules César Janssen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Janssen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar
[2] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[3] "Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_J
ules_Cesar_Janssen
[4] "Janssen, Pierre Jules César",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459.
[5] "Pierre
Janssen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jans
sen
(observatory of Meudon) Paris, France7
 
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 5 6 		3615)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Édouard Belin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/59465/Edouard-Belin>.
2. ^ Thomas Thorne Baker, "The
Telegraphic Transmission of
Photographs", D. Van Nostrand, 1910,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=7b
1LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+ph
ototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=wF_dSOfFOqWKtA
PMt_ndDg#PPA9,M1
3. ^ Thomas Thorne Baker, "The
Telegraphic Transmission of
Photographs", D. Van Nostrand, 1910,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=7b
1LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+ph
ototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=wF_dSOfFOqWKtA
PMt_ndDg#PPA9,M1
4. ^ Thomas Thorne Baker, "The
Telegraphic Transmission of
Photographs", D. Van Nostrand, 1910,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=7b
1LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+ph
ototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=wF_dSOfFOqWKtA
PMt_ndDg#PPA9,M1
5. ^
http://www.hffax.de/history/html/belin.h
tml {1908}
6. ^
http://www.fazano.pro.br/ing/indi133.htm
l {1904}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm
[2] "Édouard Belin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d_Belin
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Photograph transmitted by M.
Belin's Telestereograph, over an
artificial line PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7b1LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=0_1#PPA124,M1

[2] Édouard Belin (1876 - 1963),
French inventor Source This image
is available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs Division under the digital
ID ggbain.00106 This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 30 July
1920 Author Bain News Service,
publisher PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/%C3%89douard_Belin.jp
g
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 8 9 		3647)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Photography#Reproduction of
Coloured Objects by means of Three
Photographic Positives". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy#Reproduction_of_Coloured_Objects_by_
means_of_Three_Photographic_Positives
2. ^ Record ID3645. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Louis Ducos
du Hauron." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
10 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
4. ^ "Photography#Reproduction of
Coloured Objects by means of Three
Photographic Positives". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy#Reproduction_of_Coloured_Objects_by_
means_of_Three_Photographic_Positives
5. ^ "Lumière, Auguste Marie Louis
Nicolas." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-lumi-
re
6. ^ "Photography#Reproduction of
Coloured Objects by means of Three
Photographic Positives". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy#Reproduction_of_Coloured_Objects_by_
means_of_Three_Photographic_Positives
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "autochrome." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 10
Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autochrome
{announced:)1904}
9. ^ French patent 339,223, Dec. 17,
1903. Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, 1905. {source is
wikipedia, so verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lumière brothers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1403398/Lumiere-brothers>.
[2]
http://www.worldisround.com/articles/237
8/photo1.html
France 
[1] This Color Photograph was made in
1907 in France. Today some of the most
beautiful color photographs are the
oldest: produced by the the Autochrome
Process. The emulsion was made with
dried potato dust. PD/Corel
source: http://www.worldisround.com/phot
os/0/11/18_o.jpg

[2] Auguste and Louis Lumière,
inventors of the movie camera,
three-color screen photography, and
first movie producers. Photo Blanc &
Demilly PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn08.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		3708)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467.
2. ^ "Ernst Haeckel."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-haeck
el
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Haeckel, Ernst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
750>.
5. ^ "Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp
August", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p385.
6. ^
"Ernst Haeckel." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-haeck
el {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Haeckel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-haeck
el
[2] "Haeckel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haeckel
[3] "Ernst Heinrich Haeckel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ernst_He
inrich_Haeckel
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p338.
(Zoological Institute) Jena, Germany4 5
 
[1] The 49th plate from Ernst Haeckel's
Kunstformen der Natur of 1904, showing
various sea anemones classified as
Actiniae. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg

[2] The 72nd plate from Ernst
Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur (1904),
depicting organisms classified as
Muscinae. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Haeckel_Muscinae.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		3975)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lehmann, Otto", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p530.
2. ^ O. Lehmann, Flüssige
Kristalle (Liquid Crystals), Wilhelm
Engelmann,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OfZaAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT12&dq=inauthor:lehmann
+date:1904-1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
3. ^ David J.R. Cristaldi, Salvatore
Pennisi and Francesco Pulvirenti,
"Liquid Crystal Display Drivers,
1 Techniques and Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/ {Liquid_Crystal_Display_Histo
ry_2009.pdf}
4. ^ O. Lehmann, Flüssige Kristalle
(Liquid Crystals), Wilhelm Engelmann,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OfZaAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT12&dq=inauthor:lehmann
+date:1904-1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
5. ^ "Karlsruhe." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
740>.
6. ^ O. Lehmann, Flüssige Kristalle
(Liquid Crystals), Wilhelm Engelmann,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OfZaAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT12&dq=inauthor:lehmann
+date:1904-1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=
false

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
physics/liquid_crystals/history/index.ht
ml
[2]
http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerp
ieces/quartz/inventors/liquid.html
[3] "Friedrich Reinitzer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_R
einitzer
[4]
http://www.physics.upenn.edu/~kamien/chi
ralweb/timeline/index.html
[5] Friedrich Reinitzer, "Beiträge zur
Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
Wiener Monatschr, Monatshefte für
Chemie / Chemical Monthly, vol 9,
p421-441, 05/03/1888.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g7
g4323870t73170/ http://books.google.com
/books?id=hoQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA421&dq=Fried
rich+Reinitzer+kenntniss++date:1887-1890
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friedrich%20Re
initzer%20kenntniss%20%20date%3A1887-189
0&f=false English
translation: "Contributions to the
knowledge of cholesterol", Liquid
Crystals, Volume 5, Issue 1 1989 ,
pages 7-18.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/conte
nt~db=all~content=a757135313
[6]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t?
prev=hp&hl=en&js=y&text=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zu
r+Kenntniss+des+Cholesterins+&file=&sl=d
e&tl=en&history_state0=#
[7] "Liquid crystal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crys
tal
[8] "liquid crystal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-5185
5>
[9] O. Lehmann, "Ueber physikalische
Isomerie", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p97-131,p120. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehma
nn+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=O
.%20lehmann&f=false
[10] O. Lehmann, "Ueber das Wachsthum
der Krystalle.", Zeitschrift für
Krystallographie und Mineralogie,
Volume 20, 1877,
p453-496,p492. http://books.google.com/
books?id=IaMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=O.+lehm
ann+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
O.%20lehmann&f=false
[11] "Otto Lehmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Lehman
n
[12] William Bragg, "Liquid Crystals",
nature, num 3360, March 24, 1934.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
133/n3360/pdf/133445a0.pdf
[13] J. D. Bernal and D. Crowfoot,
"Crystalline phases of some substances
studied as liquid crystals", Trans.
Faraday Soc. , 1933, 29, 1032 - 1049,
DOI:
10.1039/TF9332901032 http://www.rsc.org
/publishing/journals/TF/article.asp?doi=
tf9332901032
[14]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#

[15] H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE [0018-9219] Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page: 460
[16]
Timothy J. Sluckin, David A. Dunmur,
Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals that flow:
classic papers from the history of
liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
 Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
Technische Hochschule, Karlsruhe4 ,
Germany5  
[1] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium Olcate,
and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

[2] Photo of Otto Lehmann (1855 -
1922), a German physicist. Picture
taken from publication [1] (an overview
of discovery of liquid crystals). PNG
format used not to reduce image quality
further. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2f/Otto_Lehmann.PNG
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 16 17 18 		4077)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
5. ^ "John Ambrose
Fleming." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
8. ^ J. A. Fleming,
"A Further Examination of the Edison
Effect in Glow Lamps", Phil
Mag,03/27/1896,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
10wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=edison+effect&as_
brr=1#v=onepage&q=edison%20effect&f=fals
e
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Fleming, Sir John Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
540>.
12. ^ "Fleming, Sir John Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
540>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "John Ambrose
Fleming." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522. {1904 (US
Patent has 04/19/1905 filing date}
17. ^
"Fleming, Sir John Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
540>. {1904 (US Patent has 04/19/1905
filing date}
18. ^ Fleming Valve patent U.S.
Patent
803,684 http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=803684 {1904 (US Patent has
04/19/1905 filing date}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ambrose Fleming."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[2] "John Ambrose Fleming." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
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e-fleming
[3] "John Ambrose Fleming". Wikipedia.
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[4] "Fleming, John Ambrose", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
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(2000), p319.
[5] J. A. Fleming, "On a
Phenomenon of Molecular Radiation in
Incandescence Lamps.",
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+m
olecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phen
omenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false
(University College) London, England15
 
[1] Fleming's US Patent filed
04/19/1905 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=WRFjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 7 		4084)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523.
2. ^
"Sharpey-Schafer, Sir Edward Albert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
167>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523.
4. ^ Schäfer EA.
Description of a simple and efficient
method of performing artificial
respiration in the human subject, to
which is appended instructions for the
treatment of the apparently drowned.
Med Chir Trans 1904;87:609–614
(discussion pp. 615–623).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Schäfer
EA. Description of a simple and
efficient method of performing
artificial respiration in the human
subject, to which is appended
instructions for the treatment of the
apparently drowned. Med Chir Trans
1904;87:609–614 (discussion pp.
615–623).
7. ^ Schäfer EA. Description of a
simple and efficient method of
performing artificial respiration in
the human subject, to which is appended
instructions for the treatment of the
apparently drowned. Med Chir Trans
1904;87:609–614 (discussion pp.
615–623).

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Albert
Sharpey-Schafer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2009.
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rt-sharpey-schafer
[2] "Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Albe
rt_Sharpey-Schafer
[3] Sparrow EP, Finger S., "Edward
Albert Schäfer (Sharpey-Schafer) and
his contributions to neuroscience:
commemorating of the 150th anniversary
of his birth.", J Hist Neurosci. 2001
Mar;10(1):41-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/sites/entrez
[4] "Sharpey-Schäfer, Edward Albert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp802-803
[5] Writer,
Desmond (2004), "Resuscitation Great.
Sir Edward Sharpey-Schafer and his
simple and efficient method of
performing artificial respiration.",
Resuscitation Volume 61, Issue 2, May
2004, Pages
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cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T19-4C9X19V
-2&_user=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search
&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00005
9600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=44
22&md5=64f4e665ec2aa9c778258a5425b8e5b9
(Edinburgh University) Edinburgh,
Scotland6  
[1] Edward Albert Schafer
(Sharpey-Schafer) CE
1850-1935 COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE
source: http://melvyl.worldcat.org/oclc/
28180217?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww
.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontent%2Ftandf%2F
jhin%26checksum%3D0b0576b46d5e880b4ab721
e77fe56939&title=&linktype=opacFtLink
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 8 		4101)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
2. ^ "Kapteyn,
Jacobus Cornelius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
659>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
4. ^ "Kapteyn,
Jacobus Cornelius." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 7.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
235-240. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Jacobus Kapteyn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
7. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ "Jacobus Kapteyn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacobus Kapteyn." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[2] "Jacobus Kapteyn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Kap
teyn
[3] Kapteyn, J. C. & Desetter, W., "The
Proper Motions of the Hyades, derived
from Plates prepared by Prof. Anders
Donna", Publications of the Kapteyn
Astronomical Laboratory Groningen, vol.
14, 1904,
pp.1-87. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1904PGro...14D...1K/0000003.0
00.html
[4] Kapteyn, "Remarks on the
determination of the number and mean
parallax of stars of different
magnitude and the absorption of light
in space", The Astronomical journal,
volume: 24, 1904, page:
115. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx
_local?sid=google&auinit=JC&aulast=Kapte
yn&atitle=Remarks+on+the+determination+o
f+the+number+and+mean+parallax+of+stars+
of+different+magnitude+and+the+absorptio
n+of+light+in+space&id=doi:10.1086/10359
0&title=The+Astronomical+journal&volume=
24&date=1904&spage=115&issn=0004-6256
(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands7  
[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 12 		4102)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
2. ^ "Kapteyn,
Jacobus Cornelius." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 7.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
235-240. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 12 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
659>.
4. ^ Kapteyn, "Remarks on the
determination of the number and mean
parallax of stars of different
magnitude and the absorption of light
in space", The Astronomical journal,
volume: 24, 1904, page:
115. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx
_local?sid=google&auinit=JC&aulast=Kapte
yn&atitle=Remarks+on+the+determination+o
f+the+number+and+mean+parallax+of+stars+
of+different+magnitude+and+the+absorptio
n+of+light+in+space&id=doi:10.1086/10359
0&title=The+Astronomical+journal&volume=
24&date=1904&spage=115&issn=0004-6256
5. ^ Kapteyn, "Remarks on the
determination of the number and mean
parallax of stars of different
magnitude and the absorption of light
in space", The Astronomical journal,
volume: 24, 1904, page:
115. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx
_local?sid=google&auinit=JC&aulast=Kapte
yn&atitle=Remarks+on+the+determination+o
f+the+number+and+mean+parallax+of+stars+
of+different+magnitude+and+the+absorptio
n+of+light+in+space&id=doi:10.1086/10359
0&title=The+Astronomical+journal&volume=
24&date=1904&spage=115&issn=0004-6256
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Jacobus Kapteyn." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus
Cornelius." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
659>.
11. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
12. ^ Kapteyn, "Remarks on the
determination of the number and mean
parallax of stars of different
magnitude and the absorption of light
in space", The Astronomical journal,
volume: 24, 1904, page:
115. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx
_local?sid=google&auinit=JC&aulast=Kapte
yn&atitle=Remarks+on+the+determination+o
f+the+number+and+mean+parallax+of+stars+
of+different+magnitude+and+the+absorptio
n+of+light+in+space&id=doi:10.1086/10359
0&title=The+Astronomical+journal&volume=
24&date=1904&spage=115&issn=0004-6256

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacobus Kapteyn." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[2] "Jacobus Kapteyn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Kap
teyn
[3] "Jacobus Kapteyn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[4] Kapteyn, J. C. & Desetter, W., "The
Proper Motions of the Hyades, derived
from Plates prepared by Prof. Anders
Donna", Publications of the Kapteyn
Astronomical Laboratory Groningen, vol.
14, 1904,
pp.1-87. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1904PGro...14D...1K/0000003.0
00.html
(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands11  
[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 10 		4178)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
2. ^ H. A. Lorentz,
"Electromagnetic Phenomena in a System
Moving with any Velocity Less than that
of Light", Proceedings of the Academy
of Sciences of Amsterdam, 1904, p6.
and in "Theory of Electrons", p197.
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Electrom
agnetic_phenomena http://www.historyofs
cience.nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=615&vi
ew=image&startrow=1 http://books.google
.com/books?id=ymBDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=fron
tcover&dq=inauthor:lorentz+theory+of+ele
ctrons&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Frederick Seitz, "James Clerk
maxwell (1831-1879)", Proceedings,
American Philosophical Society, vol
145, num 1, 2001,
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
kQJFNlSbzAC&pg=PA34&dq=lorentz+transform
ations+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
4. ^ Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic
Phenomena in a System Moving with any
Velocity Less than that of Light",
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences
of Amsterdam, 1904, p6. and in
"Theory of Electrons", p197.
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Electrom
agnetic_phenomena http://www.historyofs
cience.nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=615&vi
ew=image&startrow=1 http://books.google
.com/books?id=ymBDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=fron
tcover&dq=inauthor:lorentz+theory+of+ele
ctrons&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Lorentz,
Hendrik Antoon." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic
Phenomena in a System Moving with any
Velocity Less than that of Light",
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences
of Amsterdam, 1904, p6.
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Electrom
agnetic_phenomena http://www.historyofs
cience.nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=615&vi
ew=image&startrow=1 {Lorentz_1899_1904_
Einstein.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[5] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923
[6] Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf
[7] H. A. Lorentz, "Michelson's
Interference Experiment", translated
from: "Versuch einer Theorie der
elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at:
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z/
[8] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
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http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
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[9] "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
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963>
[10] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[11] Florian Cajori, "A history
of mathematics", Edition: 2, 919.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bBoPA
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ons+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[12] H. A. Lorentz, collected papers (9
vol., 1934-39); study ed. by G. L. de
Haas-Lorentz (tr. 1957).
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands9  
[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg


source:
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		4198)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
2. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
103>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
5. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1904}

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[1] "Paul Ehrlich." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Jan.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[2] "Paul Ehrlich." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[3] "Paul Ehrlich." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[4] "Paul Ehrlich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlic
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[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
[6] Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.;
Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N.
(2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th
ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 516–522.
ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
(Serum Institute) Frankfurt, Germany5
 
[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
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[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 7 		4202)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p550.
2. ^ H. Poincar´e,
“Cinqui`eme compl´ement `a
l’analysis situs,” Rend. Circ. Mat.
Palermo 18 (1904), 45-110. (See
Oeuvres, Tome VI, Paris, 1953, p. 498.)
MR1401792 (98m:01041)
3. ^ J. Morgan, “Recent
Progress on the Poincar´e Conjecture
and the Classification of
3-Manifolds”, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.
42, p. 57-78
(2005) http://www1.ams.org/bull/2005-42
-01/S0273-0979-04-01045-6/S0273-0979-04-
01045-6.pdf
4. ^ "Poincaré, Henri." Encyclopædia
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534>.
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6. ^ H. Poincar´e, “Cinqui`eme
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Rend. Circ. Mat. Palermo 18 (1904),
45-110. (See Oeuvres, Tome VI, Paris,
1953, p. 498.) MR1401792 (98m:01041)
7. ^ J.
Morgan, “Recent Progress on the
Poincar´e Conjecture and the
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(2005) http://www1.ams.org/bull/2005-42
-01/S0273-0979-04-01045-6/S0273-0979-04-
01045-6.pdf {1904}

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ar
[2] "Jules Henri Poincaré." The
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[3] "Jules Henri Poincaré". Wikipedia.
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[4] "Jules Henri Poincaré."
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365-366. Gale Virtual Reference
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(University of Paris) Paris, France5
 
[1] Henri Poincaré, photograph from
the frontispiece of the 1913 edition of
''Last Thoughts'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/JH_Poincare.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 3 		4218) William Crawford Gorgas (GoURGuS)
(CE 1854-1920), US army surgeon, helps
to completely end both malaria and
yellow fever in Panama by destroying
the mosquito populations. This will
make the building of the Panama Canal
(completed in 1914) possible.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p553.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p553. {1904}
Panama2  
[1] William C. Gorgas Digital
collection: Freshwater and Marine Image
Bank Repository: Most materials are
located in the University of Washington
Libraries. Images were scanned by staff
of the UW Fisheries-Oceanography
Library. Copyright: Materials in the
Freshwater and Marine Image Bank are in
the public domain. No copyright
permissions are needed. Acknowledgement
of the Freshwater and Marine Image Bank
as a source for borrowed images is
requested. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/df/Gorgas2.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 7 		4229)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
4. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p405.
5. ^ "Elster, Johann
Philipp Ludwig Julius." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 354-357. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p405. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.elster-geitel.de/
[2] "photoelectric effect."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
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http://www.answers.com/topic/photoelectr
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[3] Elster and Geital, "Entladung
negativ elektrisierter Körper durch
Sonnen-und Tageslicht", Annalen der
Physik, 38, (1889), 497.
[4] Elster and
Geital, "Abhängigkeit der Intensität
des photoelektrischen Stromes von der
Lage der Polarisationsebene des
erregenden Lichtes zu der Oberfläche
der Kathode", in Sitzungsberichte der
Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften
(1894); Annalen der Physik, 55 (1895),
684, and 61 (1897), 445; Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 10 (1909), 457.
[5] Elster and
Geital, "Analogie im elektrischen
Verhalten der natürlichen Luft und der
durch Becquerel-Strahlen leitend
gemachten", Physikalische Zeitschrift 2
(1901), 590; "Radioaktivität der im
Erdboden enthaltenen Luft",
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574.
[6] Elster and Geital, Jahresberichte
des Vereins für Naturwissenschaft zu
Braunschweig, 10/12 (1902), 39; Annalen
der Physik, 69 (1899), 83.
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany6  
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		4366)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582-583,609-610.
2. ^ "Starling,
Ernest Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
3. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
4. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
5. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
6. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>. {1904}

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[1] "Ernest Starling." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
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Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-star
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[2] "Starling, Ernest Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 617-619. Gale Virtual
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2010. Document
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[3] "Ernest Henry Starling". Wikipedia.
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[4] "William Bayliss." A Dictionary of
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2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bayliss-sir
-william-maddock
[5] "Bayliss, William Maddock."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 535-538. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
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[6] "William Maddock Bayliss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582-583,609-610.
(University College) London, England4 5
 
[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

[2] Source: Physiology Society [1]
(pdf) Description: Professor William
Bayliss of University College, London
(died 1924) In the event that the
image was taken after 1923, fair use is
claimed, because there is no
free-licence equivalent, and its use by
Wikipedia will not affect its monetary
value, assuming it has any. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/WilliamBayliss1.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		4377)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
2. ^ Leif Gerward,
"Paul Villard and his Discovery of
Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {03/05/1900}
3. ^ Marie
Curie, Recherches sur les substances
radioactives (Paris: Gauthier-Villars,
1904). German transl.: Untersuchungen
u¨ber die radioaktiven Substanzen
(Braunschweig: Vieweg & Sohn, 1904),
p. 41.
4. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
6. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
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2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
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[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
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[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
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2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[11] ([a more and more)
[12] "Curie, Marie."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
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<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>
[13] ([a characteristics)
[14] ([a for them)
[15] Marie Curie
and André Debierne (1910). "Sur le
radium métallique" (On metallic
radium)" (in French). Comptes Rendus
151: 523–525.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?
O=NUMM-3104&I=523&M=tdm. http://visuali
seur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104&I=
523&M=tdm
[16] "radium." The American Heritage®
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[17] "radium." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
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[18]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
[19] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
[20] Pierre Curie and
Marie Curie, "Sur la charge
e´lectrique des rayons de´viables du
radium", Comptes rendus 130 (1900),
647–650
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France4 5  
[1] Gamma radiograph included in Marie
Curie's doctoral thesis PD
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/fulltext.pdf

[2] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		4382)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586-587.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p586-587.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Guillaume, Charles
Édouard." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 582-583.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901770&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586-587. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p856.
[2] "Guillaume,
Charles Édouard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
417>.
[3] "Charles Édouard Guillaume." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-edo
uard-guillaume
[4] "Charles Édouard Guillaume."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-edo
uard-guillaume
[5] "Charles Édouard Guillaume".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_%C3
%89douard_Guillaume
[6] Guillaume, “Sur la dilatation des
aciers au nickel,” in Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances, de
l’Académie des sciences, 124 (1897),
176;
(International Bureau of Weights and
Measures) Sèvres, France5  
[1] Description Guillaume
1920.jpg English: Charles-Édouard
Guillaume Date 1920(1920) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1920/guillaume-bio.htm
l Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Guillaume_1920.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 9 10 		4400)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p592.
3. ^ J. U. Nef,
1. Am. Chem. Soc., 26:154g-77 (1904).
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Nef, John Ulric." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
178>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Nef, John
Ulric." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 14-15.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903131&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Wolfrom, Melville L. (1960). "John
Ulric Nef 1862-1915" (PDF).
Biographical Memoirs of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press. pp. 203.
http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/jnef.p
df. {Nef_John_Ulric.pdf} {1904}
10. ^ J. U.
Nef, 1. Am. Chem. Soc., 26:154g-77
(1904).

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ulric Nef (chemist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ulric_
Nef_(chemist)
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA8  
[1] John Ulric Nef 1862-1915
UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/nefc.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 8 9 		4402)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity.
4. ^ "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Bragg, "On the
Properties and Natures of Various
Electric Radiations", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907),
429–449. Read before the Royal
Society of South Australia, 7 May and 4
June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
8. ^ "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
9. ^ Bragg, "On the
Properties and Natures of Various
Electric Radiations", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907),
429–449. Read before the Royal
Society of South Australia, 7 May and 4
June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false {second
paper x and gamma of a material nature:
05/07/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>.
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
(University of Adelaide) Adelaide,
Australia7  
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		4413)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p593.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p593.
3. ^ "Boveri,
Theodor." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 361-365.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900578&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Boveri, Theodor."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 361-365. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900578&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Boveri, Theodor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 361-365. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900578&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boveri, Theodor Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
998>.
[2] "Theodor Boveri." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-bov
eri
[3] "Theodor Boveri." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodor-bov
eri
[4] "Theodor Boveri". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Bov
eri
(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany5  
[1] Theodor Boveri 1862-1915 aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Forscher und Wissenschaftler im
heutigen Europa Bd. 2: Erforscher des
Lebens.
Oldenburg/Hamburg:Stalling [edit]
Summary Description Theodor
Boveri.jpg English: A portrait of
Theodor Boveri taken prior to
1915. Date prior to 1915 Source
Theodor Boveri 1862-1915 aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Forscher und Wissenschaftler im
heutigen Europa Bd. 2: Erforscher des
Lebens.
Oldenburg/Hamburg:Stalling Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Theodor_Boveri.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 15 16 		4447)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p602.
2. ^ "Hartmann,
Johannes Franz." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 146-147.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901881&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H {Hartmann_Johannes_
19040310.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p602.
6. ^ Record ID4863.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H {Hartmann_Johannes_
19040310.pdf}
8. ^ "Hartmann, Johannes Franz."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 146-147. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901881&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Hartmann, Johannes,
"Untersuchungen uber das 80 cm-Objektiv
des Potsdamer Refraktors",
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Vesto Slipher." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
13. ^ "Otto Struve." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/569744/Otto-Struve>.
14. ^ Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H {Hartmann_Johannes_
19040310.pdf}
15. ^ Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H {Hartmann_Johannes_
19040310.pdf} {03/10/1904}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p602. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Franz Hartmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-fr
anz-hartmann
[2] "Johannes Franz Hartmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Fr
anz_Hartmann
(Potsdam Observatory) Potsdam,
Getmany14  
[1] [t Note I don't see the calcium
lines for the star that are
shifted] Photo from: Hartmann,
Johannes, ''Untersuchungen uber das 80
cm-Objektiv des Potsdamer Refraktors'',
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm. PD
source: Hartmann, Johannes,
"Untersuchungen uber das 80 cm-Objektiv
des Potsdamer Refraktors",
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm.

[2] Description
Hartmann.jpg English: Johannes Franz
Hartmann (1865 – 1936) Date ca
1915 Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/Insti
tute.Portraits.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Hartmann.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 7 8 		4463) In 1929 Harden wins the Nobel
prize in chemistry with Euler-Chelpin
for work in fermentation.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p606-607.
2. ^ "Harden,
Arthur." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 110-112.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901855&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p606-607.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p606-607.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p606-607. {1904}
8. ^
"Sir Arthur Harden." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/harden-sir-
arthur {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Harden, Sir Arthur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9039
224>.
[2] "Arthur Harden". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Hard
en
(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England  
[1] ArthurHarden.jpg English: Arthur
Harden, recipent of the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1929 Date
1929(1929) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1929/harden-bio.html
Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/ArthurHarden.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 4 5 		4757)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p637-638.
2. ^ "Schaudinn,
Fritz Richard." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 141-143.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Schaudinn, Fritz Richard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 141-143. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Schaudinn, Fritz Richard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 141-143. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
5. ^ "Schaudinn, Fritz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
090>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fritz Richard Schaudinn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Richa
rd_Schaudinn
(Institute for Protozoology at the
Imperial Ministry of Health) Berlin,
Germany3  
[1] Description Fritz Richard
Schaudinn.png English: German
zoologist Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
co-discoverer of Spirochaeta pallida,
the causative agent of
syphilis Deutsch: Der deutsche Zoologe
Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
Mitentdecker des Syphilis-Erregers
Spirochaeta pallida Date vor
1907 Source Fritz Schaudinns,
Verlag Leopold Voss, Hamburg und
Leipzig 1911 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Fritz_Richard_Schaudi
nn.png
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 8 		4873) Kettering is the son of a
farmer.4
In 1909 Kettering founds the
Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company
(Delco), which eventually merges with
other companies to form General
Motors.5
In 1919 Kettering becomes the
head of the General Motors Research
Corporation.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
2. ^ "Charles F.
Kettering." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/315736/Charles-F-Kettering>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
7. ^ "Charles F.
Kettering." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/315736/Charles-F-Kettering>.
8. ^ "Charles F. Kettering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/315736/Charles-F-Kettering>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Kettering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ket
tering-inventor
[2] "Kettering, Charles Franklin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 316. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902286&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Charles Franklin Kettering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fra
nklin_Kettering
(National Cash Register Company)
Dayton, Ohio, USA7  
[1] Charles Franklin Kettering UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

[2] Works copyrighted before 1964 had
to have the copyright renewed sometime
in the 28th year. If the copyright was
not renewed the work is in the public
domain. It is best to search 6 months
before and after the required year.
Some magazines are published the month
before the cover date and some
registrations may be delayed for a few
months. This January 9, 1933 issue
of Time would have to be renewed in
1960. Online page scans of the Catalog
of Copyright Entries, published by the
US Copyright Office can be found here.
http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/cce
/ The search of the Renewals for
Periodicals for 1959, 1960 and 1961
show no renewal entries for Time. The
publishers, Time Inc., started renewing
the copyrights of Time magazine in 1964
with the July 6, 1936 issue. Most (if
not all) issues that were published
before July 1936 are in the public
domain. The copyright on this
magazine was not renewed and it is in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/87/Time-magazine-cover-charle
s-kettering.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 9 		4920) In 1903 Nieuwland is ordained a
priest.5
In 1904 Nieuwland receives his
Doctor's degree from a Catholic
University.6

(It is rare after the 1700s to see
religious people ordained as priests
make contributions in science, so
Nieuwland is truly an exception.
Nieuwland is evidence that even those
(under the influence and burden of
religions) who believe the lies of
religions can make contributions in
science.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p668-669.
2. ^ "Julius Arthur
Nieuwland." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/414713/Julius-Arthur-Nieuwland>.
3. ^ "Nieuwland, Julius Arthur."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 121-122. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903175&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p668-669.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p668-669.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Julius Arthur Nieuwland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/414713/Julius-Arthur-Nieuwland>.
9. ^ "Julius Arthur Nieuwland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/414713/Julius-Arthur-Nieuwland>.
{1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Arthur Nieuwland".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Arth
ur_Nieuwland
(Catholic University of America),
Washington, D.C, USA8  
[1] Julius Arthur Nieuwland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/n/fotos/nieuwland_julius.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 9 		5099)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
2. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
3. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
4. ^
http://www.q-track.com/Files/files/Schan
tz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf
5. ^ Christian Hülsmeyer, Verfaren, um
entfernte metallische Gegenstande
mittels elektrischer Wellen einem
Beobachter zu melden, German Patent
165,546, April 30, 1904.
6. ^ "radar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ US patent 810,150 dated
Jan. 16,
1906. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
2Ao_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
9. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732-733
[2] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735
[3] "Watson-Watt,
Robert Alexander." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 18.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
977-978. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 3 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905388&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Robert Watson-Watt." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wats
on-watt
[5] Frank Adcock, Improvement in Means
for Determining the Direction of a
Distant Source of Electro-magnetic
Radiation, UK Patent 130490, August 7,
1919
[6] Robert A. Watson-Watt and J.F.
Herd: “An Instantaneous Direct
Reading Goniometer,” J. IEE (London),
vol. 64, p. 11, 1926, also Wireless
World vol. 18 p. 366, 1926
[7]
http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
[8] "Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637658/Sir-Robert-Alexander-Watson-Wat
t>
Düsselsorf, Germany8
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf

[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 16 		5779)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Arthur Schuster, "An
Introduction To The Theory Of Optics",
E. Arnold, 1904,
p107-111. http://books.google.com/books
?id=w2BDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=s
chuster+grating&source=bl&ots=JZ55Jg6_55
&sig=YtLZqqykTkA_HucQPmg8AbVU38U&hl=en&e
i=AfjOTY3UNJC8sQO80f3ACw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBkQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=schuster%20grating&f=f
alse
2. ^ Kurzer Bericht von den Resultaten
neurer Versuche über die Gesetze des
Lichtes, und die Theorie derselben,
"Annalen der Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp.
337-378. Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828.
3. ^ Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, "Annalen der Physik", LXXIV,
1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts in
English translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF
THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE
LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J.
S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828.
4. ^ Record ID3297.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Sir Arthur Schuster, "An
Introduction To The Theory Of Optics",
E. Arnold, 1904,
p107-111. http://books.google.com/books
?id=w2BDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=s
chuster+grating&source=bl&ots=JZ55Jg6_55
&sig=YtLZqqykTkA_HucQPmg8AbVU38U&hl=en&e
i=AfjOTY3UNJC8sQO80f3ACw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBkQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=schuster%20grating&f=f
alse
6. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
7. ^ Record ID4404. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Bragg, W.L.
The Diffraction of Short
Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Obituary: Sir Arthur
Schuster, FRS", The Observatory, Vol.
58, p. 18-22
(1935) http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1935Obs....58...18.
11. ^ "Arthur Schuster." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/schuster-si
r-arthur
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Sir Arthur Schuster, "An
Introduction To The Theory Of Optics",
E. Arnold, 1904,
p107-111. http://books.google.com/books
?id=w2BDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=s
chuster+grating&source=bl&ots=JZ55Jg6_55
&sig=YtLZqqykTkA_HucQPmg8AbVU38U&hl=en&e
i=AfjOTY3UNJC8sQO80f3ACw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBkQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=schuster%20grating&f=f
alse
16. ^ Sir Arthur Schuster, "An
Introduction To The Theory Of Optics",
E. Arnold, 1904,
p107-111. http://books.google.com/books
?id=w2BDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=s
chuster+grating&source=bl&ots=JZ55Jg6_55
&sig=YtLZqqykTkA_HucQPmg8AbVU38U&hl=en&e
i=AfjOTY3UNJC8sQO80f3ACw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBkQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=schuster%20grating&f=f
alse
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England15  
[1] Description Schuster Arthur
signature.jpg English: Picture of Sir
Arthur Schuster, the British
physicist. Date
1906(1906) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Laboratories of the University of
Manchester Author None given PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Schuster_Arthur_signa
ture.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 3 		6100) "Give my regards to Broadway" is
released (written by George M. Cohan).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Give My Regards To Broadway".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Give_My_Reg
ards_To_Broadway
2. ^ "Give My Regards To Broadway".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Give_My_Reg
ards_To_Broadway
3. ^ "Give My Regards To Broadway".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Give_My_Reg
ards_To_Broadway {1904}
New York City, New York, USA2
(presumably) 		 
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		6343)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?index=tit
&term=&operator=and&index=num&term=11910
637X&operator=and&index=num&term=&operat
or=and&index=sw&term=&operator=and&index
=jhr&term=&index=wvn&reihe=none&jahrgang
=08&heft=*&method=enhancedSearch

MORE INFO
[1] "Sascha Schneider".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sascha_Schn
eider
 
[1] ''Hypnosis'' by Sascha (Alexander)
Schneider (1870-1927) 1904;
Photogravure L. Schmidt, Bamberg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Hypnose_%28Schn
eider%29.jpg/758px-Hypnose_%28Schneider%
29.jpg

[2] Unknown painting by Sascha
Schneider UNKNOWN
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_lavq7fJhms1qc8yyuo1_500.jpg
95 YBN
[01/05/1905 AD] 8 		4501)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614-615.
2. ^ Charles Perrine,
"Discovery of a Sixth Satellite to
Jupiter", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 17
(1905), 22–23; and Astronomical
Journal, vol. 24, p. 154
(1905) http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/
seri/AJ.../0024//0000154I002.html
3. ^
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Himalia_(moon)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Himalia_(moon)
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Perrine, Charles
Dillon." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 7
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
323>.
8. ^ Charles Perrine, "Discovery of a
Sixth Satellite to Jupiter",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, 17 (1905),
22–23; and Astronomical Journal,
vol. 24, p. 154
(1905) http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/
seri/AJ.../0024//0000154I002.html
{01/05/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Dillon Perrine." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-dil
lon-perrine-american-astronomer
[2] "Perrine, Charles Dillon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903359&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Charles Dillon Perrine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dil
lon_Perrine
[4] Perrine, C. D., "Motion in the
faint nebula surrounding Nova Persei",
Bulletin / Lick Observatory, University
of California ; no. 10; Lick
Observatory bulletins ; no. 10.,
Berkeley : The University Press, , p.
-65 : ill. ; 30
cm. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1901
LicOB...1...64P
[5] Perrine, "Experimental
Determination of the Solar Parallax
From Negatives of Eros Made With the
Crossley Reflector", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 16 (1904), 267;
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA7  
[1] Description
Himalia.png Nederlands: Afbeelding
van de maan Himalia genomen door de
Cassini ruimtesonde op 19 december
2000. Meer informatie:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02881 Date 31 March
2004(2004-03-31) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
nl.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Koektrommel using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Danielm at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Himalia.png

[2] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG
95 YBN
[01/30/1905 AD] 4 		4267)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Do the
gamma-rays carry a charge of negative
electricity? Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.
13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
3. ^ Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
4. ^ Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
{01/30/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false

[2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
95 YBN
[03/17/1905 AD] 62 		4928) Einstein drops out of high school
following the invitation of the teacher
who said “You will never amount to
anything, Einstein.”.30

Einstein goes to Italy for a vacation
to avoid qualifying for military
service.31

Einstein graduates from college in
Switzerland.32

In 1901 Einstein gets a job as a junior
official in the patent office in Berne,
Switzerland.33

In 1905 Einstein earns a Ph.D.34

In 1909 Einstein gets a low paying job
as professor at the University of
Zürich.35

In 1913 Einstein gets a high paying job
as professor at the Kaiser Wilhelm
Physical Institute in Berlin, thanks to
Planck, who is greatly impressed with
Einstein's work. 36 (Probably Planck
in particular supported Einstein's use
of Planck's theory to explain the
photoelectric effect. This also shows
Planck to honorably be not
anti-Jewish.37 )

After World War I starts, Einstein as a
Swiss citizen does not have to serve.
When many German scientists sign a
nationalistic pro-war proclamation,
Einstein is one of the few to sign a
counterproclamation calling for
peace.38

In 1930 Einstein visits California to
lecture at the California Institute of
Technology and is still there when
Hitler comes to power.39

Einstein accepts a job as professor in
Princeton, New Jersey at the Institute
for Advanced Studies,40 a private,
academic, non-degree granting
institution founded in 1930 in
Princeton, New Jersey. Students are
postdoctorate or senior scholars who
conduct independent, intensive research
through any of the institute's four
schools. It is not affiliated with any
other academic institution but has an
informal relationship with Princeton
University.41

(Einstein does believe in a god42 ),
and states in objecting to Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle that “God may
be subtle, but He is not
malicious.”.43

In 1930 Bohr proves Einstein's argument
against Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle that time and energy can be
simultaneously determined with complete
accuracy wrong.44 (I think exact
positions and times may always be
impossible, although I can see an all
integer universe perhaps, at least in
terms of space, the smallest space
being the size of a photon. But I
reject the idea of probability being
anything other than a useful tool, and
I reject the idea of particles being
created or destroyed. My view is that
particles have a real location and
velocity even if a completely accurate
description of what that location or
velocity is impossible. In other words,
particles occupy space and move through
space, they do not appear simply
because particles in an observer
interact with them. 45 )

Einstein is persuaded by Szilard to
write a letter to US President Franklin
D. Roosevelt, urging him to put into
effect a gigantic research program
designed to develop a nuclear bomb.46
(Clearly FDR and others routinely
watched people in their houses, saw and
heard thoughts, and probably routinely
got updated motion pictures from
Einstein's thoughts beamed onto their
brain through neuron reading and
writing.47 ) The result of this is the
Manhattan Project (named for the
location of its origin at Columbia
University, although it would later
move to the University of Chicago48 )
which in six years develops the first
atomic bomb.49

Einstein rejects
Heisenberg's principle of uncertainty
because he cannot accept that the
universe could be run by chance.50 (I
reject the idea of chance too, but I
also reject the idea of any kinds of
gods.51 )

Einstein opposes McCarthyism (which is
the persecution of those suspected of
supporting Communism52 ) in the early
1950s.53

Einstein spends the last decades of his
life unsuccessfully searching for a
theory that will explain both
gravitation and electromagnetic
phoenomena (the unified field
theory).54

Element 99 is named Einsteinium in
Einstein's honor.55

Asimov states that no scientist was as
revered in his own time since Newton.56


(To credit Einstein, I think his
efforts in the interest of peace are
good, his intermediate interpretation
of the photo electric effect is a
contribution to science. For
criticisms: I wish Einstein had used
his popularity and wealth to make a
movie about the history of science (to
bring science to the public), exposed
the seeing and hearing of thought -as a
note Einstein wrote a preface to
Sinclair Lewis' German edition of the
book "Mind Radio" about telepathy. I
wish Einstein had fully explained the
situation of science more, sponsored a
history of science movie for the
public, had expressed doubts and flaws
in his theory, had entertained the idea
of a photon as matter, had explain the
GToR with simple examples many times
over for all to see and make it simple
and clear to understand what his theory
is. He could have rejected religion and
the theory of the existence of gods,
promoted free info, questioned
copyright, secrecy, spoken out against
violence, for full democracy, not the
representative democracy, against
prohibition or drugs, alcohol and
prostition, etc.57 )

(I can only really credit Einstein with
an intermediate explanation of the
photoelectric effect, the Borwnian
motion equation, and for a creative but
untrue interpretation and equations
describing the universe. The combining
of space and time into space-time,
which Minkowski is credit with, is
creative, but clearly time is the same
throughout all of space. E=mc2 is
meaningless as far as I can see since,
or at best a useful combination of mass
and motion - however, the implication
that mass and motion can be
interchanged is an error in my view. I
credit Einstein with rejecting the
light as a wave theory and heading back
towards Newton's corpuscular
interpretation. My view of the theories
of relativity, both special and
general, are that they are completely
wrong, inaccurate, unsalvageable, but a
creative math and geometry that does
not apply to the universe, mainly
because time-dilation and
space-dilation are wrong, non-Euclidean
geometry does not apply to the universe
in the view I support, a photon is a
piece of matter and the basis of all
matter (both of which Einstein never
stated publicly).58 )

(Clearly something must explain
Einstein's extreme popularity, in my
view, the scientific achievements do
not justify the popularity Einstein
received and still receives. The two
achievements I think are moving a step
closer to viewing light as a particle,
and an equation to estimate the size
and number of molecules. In my view the
theories of relativity are completely
inaccurate and of no value, if only
because time and space dilation is
false. In my view Einstein is one of
the most over-valued scientists of
history. Perhaps his appearance, or
wit, or being Jewish which served as an
iconic opposition hero to the rising
anti-Jewish views popular in Nazi
Germany explain his popularity. Perhaps
wealthy people embraced his views.
Perhaps the neuron reading and writing
owners supported his abstract theories
as being useful in removing the
public's interest in science or feeling
of being able to make contributions to
science and therefore keeping them away
from realizing the truth about neuron
reading and writing, or trying to
accomplish neuron reading and writing
technology by themselves. Perhaps many
people who would be critics of
Einstein's theory of relativity in
favor of a more accurate truth felt
overwhelmed and unqualified to debate
or criticize with such complex math
involved. Another reason may be that so
few people, at this time, know enough
about the history of science, or
science itself to care. There were
critics, in particular William
Pickering, Herbert Dingle, and Charles
Lane Poor, however, the critics clearly
have not won yet.59 )

(Over the course of Einstein's life, he
publishes many papers. todo: determine
how many papers Einstein published.60 )
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0318.pdf} "On a Heuristic Point of
View Concerning the Production and
Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf {Einstein_
Albert_english_19050318.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
3. ^ Record ID1829.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "photon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/458038/photon>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
7. ^ Record ID3336.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Record ID4286. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ A.
Einstein, "Über einen die Erzeugung
und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0318.pdf} "On a Heuristic Point of
View Concerning the Production and
Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf {Einstein_
Albert_english_19050318.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
32. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
33. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
34. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
35. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
36. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
39. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
40. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
41. ^ "Institute
for Advanced Study." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/institute-f
or-advanced-study
42. ^ Ted Huntington.
43. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
44. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
45. ^ Ted
Huntington.
46. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Ted
Huntington.
49. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
50. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
51. ^ Ted
Huntington.
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
54. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
55. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
56. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
57. ^ Ted
Huntington.
58. ^ Ted Huntington.
59. ^ Ted Huntington.
60. ^ Ted
Huntington.
61. ^ A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0318.pdf} "On a Heuristic Point of
View Concerning the Production and
Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf {Einstein_
Albert_english_19050318.pdf}
62. ^ A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0318.pdf} "On a Heuristic Point of
View Concerning the Production and
Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf {Einstein_
Albert_english_19050318.pdf}
{03/17/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p407
Bern, Switzerland61  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[03/30/1905 AD] 10 		4502)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614-615.
2. ^ Perrine, C. D.
(1905). "The Seventh Satellite of
Jupiter". Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific 17
(101): 62–63.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/P
ASP./0017//0000062.000.html.
3. ^
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Elara_(moon)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614-615.
6. ^
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Elara_(moon)
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Perrine,
Charles Dillon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
323>.
10. ^ Perrine, C. D. (1905). "The
Seventh Satellite of Jupiter".
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific 17 (101):
62–63.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/P
ASP./0017//0000062.000.html.
{03/30/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Dillon Perrine." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-dil
lon-perrine-american-astronomer
[2] "Perrine, Charles Dillon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903359&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Charles Dillon Perrine".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dil
lon_Perrine
[4] Perrine, C. D., "Motion in the
faint nebula surrounding Nova Persei",
Bulletin / Lick Observatory, University
of California ; no. 10; Lick
Observatory bulletins ; no. 10.,
Berkeley : The University Press, [4],
p. [4]-65 : ill. ; 30
cm. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1901
LicOB...1...64P
[5] Perrine, "Experimental
Determination of the Solar Parallax
From Negatives of Eros Made With the
Crossley Reflector", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 16 (1904), 267;
[6] Charles
Perrine, "Discovery of a Sixth
Satellite to Jupiter", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 17 (1905), 22–23; and
Astronomical Journal, vol. 24, p. 154
(1905) http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/
seri/AJ.../0024//0000154I002.html
[7]
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Himalia_(moon)
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA9  
[1] Description
Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg English: 2
minute exposure of Jupiter's moon Elara
with a 24'' telescope. Elara is
apparent magnitude 16.8 in this image
taken at 2009-10-21 03:00 UT. The glow
at the bottom of the image is from
Jupiter (which is not in the
photo). Date 21 October
2009(2009-10-21) Source This
image was taken by Kevin Heider using
LB-001 at LightBuckets in Rodeo,
NM Raw image from telescope (aimed at
21 19 26.65 -16 20 00.0 to prevent
Jupiter from blowing out the
photo) Use Wikisky and enter
coordinates 21 19 26.65 -16 24 09.1 to
locate this region of the sky. Skyview
(NASA Virtual Telescope) website /
Skyview image (centered on where the
moon Elara is) Click here to see
Elara's location on 2009-10-22. Author
Kevin Heider @ LightBuckets CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg

[2] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG
95 YBN
[05/01/1905 AD] 4 		4740)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208.
3. ^ Rutherford, "Charge Carried
by the α and β Rays of Radium", Phil
Mag, August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208.
4. ^
Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the α
and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208.
{05/01/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada3
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
95 YBN
[05/01/1905 AD] 7 		4741)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford,
"Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208.
7. ^ Rutherford, "Charge Carried
by the α and β Rays of Radium", Phil
Mag, August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208.
{05/01/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada6
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
95 YBN
[06/30/1905 AD] 44 		4929)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
2. ^ A. Einstein,
"Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ A.
Einstein, "Elektrodynamik bewegter
Körper", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4),
17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Pickering, W. H.,
"Shall we Accept Relativity?", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
38. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
Versus Relativity", 1922.
39. ^ Herbert
Dingle, "Science at a Crossroads",
1972.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Ted Huntington.
42. ^ Ted
Huntington.
43. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
44. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
{06/30/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von
der molekularkinetischen Theorie der
Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in
ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten
Teilchen", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4),
17, 549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[12] Panovsky, "Classical Electricity
and Magnetism", 1953, p266
[13]
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p407
Bern, Switzerland43  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[09/27/1905 AD] 20 		4930)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
2. ^ A. Einstein,
"Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von
seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0927.pdf} "Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf {Einstein
_Albert_English_19050927.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A.
Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit eines
Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0927.pdf} "Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf {Einstein
_Albert_English_19050927.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0927.pdf} "Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf {Einstein
_Albert_English_19050927.pdf}
20. ^ A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0927.pdf} "Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf {Einstein
_Albert_English_19050927.pdf}
{09/27/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von
der molekularkinetischen Theorie der
Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in
ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten
Teilchen", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4),
17, 549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[12] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[13] Charles Lane Poor,
Bern, Switzerland19  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[09/??/1905 AD] 16 17 		4251)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561.
2. ^ E. B. Wilson,
“The Chromosomes in Relation to the
Determination of Sex in Insects” ;
Publications. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/ebw-05.pdf
3. ^ N. M. Stevens, “Studies in
Spermatogenesis With Especial Reference
to the ‘Accessory Chromosome’”
Publications. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/holdings/s/nms-05-spe
rmatogenesis-1.pdf
4. ^ "Stevens, Nettie Maria." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 867-869. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830905346&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Clarence Erwin McClung:
1870-1946", D. H. Wenrich, Science, New
Series, Vol. 103, No. 2679 (May 3,
1946), pp.
551-552. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
72760?&Search=yes&term=Clarence&term=McC
lung&term=Erwin&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fa
ction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DClarence
%2BErwin%2BMcClung%26jc%3Dj100000%26wc%3
Don%26Search.x%3D11%26Search.y%3D6%26Sea
rch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=27&returnArticle
Service=showArticle
6. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561.
10. ^ Sutton,
"Morphology of the Chromosome Group in
Brachystola magna", Kansas University
Quarterly, 4 (1902).
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/wss-02.pdf
11. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Edmund Beecher Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
13. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ "Nettie Stevens." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stevens-net
tie-marie
15. ^ "Wilson, Edmund Beecher."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ N. M. Stevens, “Studies in
Spermatogenesis With Especial Reference
to the ‘Accessory Chromosome’”
Publications. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/holdings/s/nms-05-spe
rmatogenesis-1.pdf {09/1905}
17. ^ "Wilson,
Edmund Beecher." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 423-436.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, Edmund Beecher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
122>
[2] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[3] "Edmund Beecher Wilson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Beec
her_Wilson
[4] "Walter Sutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sutt
on
[5] "Walter S. Sutton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Mar. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/575830/Walter-S-Sutton>
[6] "Sutton, Walter Stanborough."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 156-158. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904215&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Nettie Stevens) Bryn Mawr University,
Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, PA, USA14 (E.
B. Wilson) Columbia University, NY
City, NY, USA15  
[1] Description
Wilson1900Fig1.jpg English: Original
figure legend: ''A portion of the
epidermis of a larval salamander
(Amblystoma) as seen in slightly
oblique horizontal section, enlarged
550 diameters. Most of the cells are
polygonal in form, contain large
nuclei, and are connected by delicate
protoplasmic bridges. Above x is a
branched, dark pigment-cell that has
crept up from the deeper layers and
lies between the epidermal cells. Three
of the latter are undergoing division,
the earliest stage (spireme) at a, a
later stage (mitotic figure in the
anaphase) at b, showing the
chromosomes, and a final stage
(telophase), showing fission of the
cell-body, to the right.'' Deutsch:
Übersetzung nach der
Originalabbildungslegende: „Teil der
Epidermis eines larvalen Salamanders.
Die meisten Zellen sind polygonal,
enthalten große Kerne und sind durch
feine protoplasmatische Brücken
verbunden. Über x ist eine verzweigte,
dunkle Pigmentzelle, die aus tieferen
Schichten nach oben gekrochen ist. Drei
der Epidermiszellen befinden sich in
Teilung, das früheste Stadium (Spirem)
bei a, ein späteres Stadium
(mitotische Figur der Anaphase) bei b,
die Chromosomen sichtbar, und rechts
ein finales Stadium (Telophase, mit
Teilung des Zellkörpers.“ Date
1900(1900) Source Figure 1
of: Wilson, Edmund B. (1900). The cell
in Development and Inheritance, second
edition, New York: The Macmillan
Company. Author Edmund Beecher
Wilson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Wilson1900Fig1.jpg

[2] Nettie Stevens PD (presumably)
source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumn
i/Magazine/images/Fall2002/NettieStevens
.jpg
95 YBN
[11/05/1905 AD] 18 19 		4823) In 1919 Stark wins the Nobel
prize in physics.11
Stark fully
supports Hitler and his racial
theories. Asimov states that Stark is
one of few scientists of note who
supports Hitler. Stark terms Sommerfeld
and Heisenberg “white Jews”.12

Stark eventually rejects both quantum
and relativity theories.13 14

In 1947
Stark is sentenced to 4 years in prison
by a denazification court. Asimov
comments this is a far milder
punishment than if Stark was the
judge.15 I wonder what crimes Stark is
charged with. This raises the issue of
who can be imprisoned for violent
crimes, and can a person be imprisoned
for unknowlingly or even knowlingly
voting for a murderer? The debate of
jailing people who plan, pay for, or
actively coverup violence is a battle
of free speech and trade versus how
much responsibility a person has for
some violence. 9/11 is a perfect
example of how this principle applies.
In the USA, most people view accessory
to murder before the fact as requireing
the same punishment as a first degree
murder, and being an accessory to
murder after the fact as deserving a
few years in jail, so most people in
the USA currently take the view against
the idea that non-violent involvement
with a murder is protected by free
speech and support the idea of
punishment for all those people
involved in violence and in particular
for all those people involved with
premeditated murder of nonviolent
people, even those who simply fund,
order or somehow knowingly participate
before, during or after the actual
murder or murders. For example, I doubt
seriously that those who voted for
President George Bush, who presided
over the 9/11 mass murders, should be
imprisoned for any length of time -
even those who knew of his plans to
murder, but I think certainly this
point is open to debate. For myself, I
tend to support the side of free
thought and speech, but I can see given
the extreme and widespread violence
voting to imprison any and all people
directly involved in violence against
nonviolent innocent people - certainly
at the level of conpiracy to commit
murder, accessory to murder before
and/or after the fact- although some
might view those as protected under a
strict interpretation of freedom of
speech.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stark, "Der DopplerEffekt bei den
kanalstrahlen Und die Spektra der
positiven Atomionen", Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 6 (1905), 892–897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=k1xMA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKosQPF0d
WbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Stark, "Der DopplerEffekt bei den
kanalstrahlen Und die Spektra der
positiven Atomionen", Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 6 (1905), 892–897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=k1xMA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKosQPF0d
WbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Stark, Johannes." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 613-616. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 14 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904121&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington. {1905}
19. ^ Stark, "Der
DopplerEffekt bei den kanalstrahlen Und
die Spektra der positiven Atomionen",
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 6 (1905),
892–897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=k1xMA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKosQPF0d
WbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Stark."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/563639/Johannes-Stark>
[2] "Johannes Stark." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-st
ark
[3] "Johannes Stark". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_St
ark
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1919/
[5] Stark, "über die Lichtemission der
Kanalstrahlen in Wasserstoff", Annalen
der Physik, 4th ser., 21 (1906),
401–456. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19063261302/pdf
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649-650
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany17  
[1] translated from German: above: the
spectrum normal to the channel
rays. below: the spectrum parallel to
the channel rays. Figure from: Stark,
''Der DopplerEffekt bei den
kanalstrahlen Und die Spektra der
positiven Atomionen'', Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 6 (1905), 892–897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=k1xMA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKosQPF0d
WbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=k1xMAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKo
sQPF0dWbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=
false

[2] Portrait of Johannes Stark, Nobel
Prize in Physics winner from
1919. [edit] Licensing Original
source:
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-14
492/Johannes-Stark Because of age
(published in 1919), should be PD in at
least the United States, and likely
elsewhere. Slightly edited. Public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Johannes_Stark.jpg
95 YBN
[11/21/1905 AD] 5 		6103) (Possibly) earliest recording of
popular Scottish song "Auld Lang
Syne".1 2 "Auld Lang Syne" is a Scots
poem written by Robert Burns in 1788
and set to the tune of a traditional
folk song (Roud # 6294). It is well
known in many countries, especially in
English-speaking nations. "Auld Lang
Syne" is traditionally used to
celebrate the start of the New Year at
the stroke of midnight. By extension,
it is also sung at funerals,
graduations, and as a farewell or
ending to other occasions.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Auld Lang Syne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Lang_S
yne
2. ^
http://victor.library.ucsb.edu/index.php
/matrix/detail/200004381/C-2897-Melodies
_of_Robert_Burns
3. ^ "Auld Lang Syne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Lang_S
yne
4. ^
http://victor.library.ucsb.edu/index.php
/matrix/detail/200004381/C-2897-Melodies
_of_Robert_Burns
5. ^
http://victor.library.ucsb.edu/index.php
/matrix/detail/200004381/C-2897-Melodies
_of_Robert_Burns {11/21/1905}
New York City, New York, USA4   
95 YBN
[11/27/1905 AD] 7 		4436)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Wien."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
3. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ W. Wien, "Über
die Berechnung der Impulsbreite der
Röntgenstrahlen aus ihrer Energie",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 327, Issue
4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART

7. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART
 {11/27/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
[4] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
[5] W. Wien,
"Untersuchungen über die elektrische
Entladung in verdünnten Gasen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 310, Issue
6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART

[6] W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 313,
Issue 6, Date: 1902, Pages:
244-266. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485582/PDFSTART

[7] W. Wien, "Ueber die Natur der
positiven Elektronen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 314, Issue 11, Date:
1902, Pages:
660-664. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485776/PDFSTART

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany6  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 11 		4034)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on
work was now renewed and so the book is
now in the public domain in the USA.
Notice the pseudonym - perhaps there
was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
2. ^ Ray
Allister, pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
3. ^ Hugh Chisholm,
"Cinematograph", "The Encyclopædia
britannica: the new volumes,
constituting, in combination ...",
1922,
p695-696. http://books.google.com/books
?id=bAooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA695&dq=%22colour+f
ilm%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22colour%20
film%22&f=false
4. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
5. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
6. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
7. ^ "history of
the motion picture." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

8. ^ Frederick A Talbot, "Moving
Pictures", 1912,
p295. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NzW1zWsl-2cC&pg=RA1-PA295&dq=Kinemacolor
+patent&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym
for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene:
Close-up of an Inventor", Marsland
Publications, 1948, p111-112. {ULSF:
copyright on work was now renewed and
so the book is now in the public domain
in the USA. Notice the pseudonym -
perhaps there was fear of being labeled
a "rat"?}
11. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on
work was now renewed and so the book is
now in the public domain in the USA.
Notice the pseudonym - perhaps there
was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
{1905}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

[4] "The Optical magic lantern journal
and photographic enlarger",
1889. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sHIzQAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:Optical+intitle:
magic
[5] Edgar Sanderson, John Porter
Lamberton, Charles Morris, "Six
thousand years of history, Part 20,
Volume 10 ",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b6nWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
[6] Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA469&dq=Friese-Gree
ne+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=F
riese-Greene&f=false
[7] "William Friese-Greene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene
[8] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
[9] Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
[10] "Color film (motion picture)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_film_
(motion_picture)
(private studio) Brighton, England10
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken on a single film.
Each half og which was taken through a
separate color filter. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false

[2] Diagram showing how the color
scheme of Friese-Greene's color camera
works. {ULSF: There are two images
side by side on the film, each
capturing light of a different
color} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 6 		4234) Percival Lowell (CE 1855-1916),
US astronomer 1 theorizes that a
planet beyond Neptune is responsible
for discrepancies in the motion of
Uranus that are not resolved by the
finding of Neptune, calling this planet
"Planet X". 15 years after Lowell's
death Tombaugh will identify the planet
which will be named Pluto, although now
Pluto is not considered a planet by the
majority of astronomers2 Does Pluto
have enough mass to explain the
discrepancy Lowell found in Uranus'
orbit?3

In 1894 Lowell establishes an
observatory in Arizona.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556.
5. ^ "Percival
Lowell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 11 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percival-lo
well
6. ^ "Percival Lowell." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 11 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percival-lo
well {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lowell, Percival."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
156>
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Boston, Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Percival Lowell.jpg American
astronomer Percival Lowell. Date
c. 1904 Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID cph.3c28068 J.E. Purdy,
Boston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3e/Percival_Lowell.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 4 		4282)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 563-564.
2. ^ "Wilhelm
Johannsen." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-joh
annsen
3. ^ "Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 113-115. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902195&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Wilhelm Johannsen." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-joh
annsen {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043
721>.
[2] "Wilhelm Johannsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Joh
annsen
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark3 (presumably) 
[1] WWilhelm Johannsen
(1857-1927) Danish
biologist Sujet : Portrait de
Johannsen Source : The History of
Biology de Erik Nordenskiöld, Ed.
Knopf, 1928 (domaine
public) COPYRIGHTED FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Wilhelm_Johannsen_185
7-1927.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 5 		4283)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 563-564.
2. ^ "Wilhelm
Johannsen." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-joh
annsen
3. ^ W. Johannsen, "Arvelighedslaerens
elementer" ( “The Elements of
Heredity”),
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
O1FkOgAACAAJ&dq=Arvelighedslaerens+eleme
nter&hl=en&ei=F9W8S-vCMIjysQOOwq1-&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0C
DoQ6AEwAA
4. ^ "Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 113-115. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902195&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Wilhelm Johannsen." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-joh
annsen {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043
721>.
[2] "Wilhelm Johannsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Joh
annsen
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark4 (presumably) 
[1] WWilhelm Johannsen
(1857-1927) Danish
biologist Sujet : Portrait de
Johannsen Source : The History of
Biology de Erik Nordenskiöld, Ed.
Knopf, 1928 (domaine
public) COPYRIGHTED FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Wilhelm_Johannsen_185
7-1927.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 4 		4300)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p566-567.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p407.
3. ^ "Binet, Alfred."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 131-132. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830900451&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p407. {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Binet, Alfred."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9079
226>.
[2] "Alfred Binet." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-bine
t
(Sorbonne) Paris, France3   
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 5 		4370)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p584-585.
3. ^ Barringer,
B., "Daniel Moreau Barringer
(1860-1929) and His Crater (the
beginning of the Crater Branch of
Meteoritics)", Meteoritics, vol. 2,
pages 183-200
4. ^ "Meteor Crater."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
May. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/378126/Meteor-Crater>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585. {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daniel Barringer
(geologist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Barr
inger_(geologist)
Meteor Crater, Arizona3 4  
[1] Meteor Crator Arizona PD
source: http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/
kiefer/Education/SSRG2-Craters/meteor_cr
ater.gif

[2] Daniel Barringer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Barringer_Daniel.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 8 		4389)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p588.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "William Bateson." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-bat
eson
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p588.
7. ^ "Bateson,
William." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 505-506.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900298&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p588. {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bateson, William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
731>.
[2] "William Bateson." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-bat
eson
[3] "William Bateson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bat
eson
(St. John’s College) Cambridge,
England7  
[1]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/images/
genetics/bateson2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Bateson2.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 3 		4464)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p606-607.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p606-607.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p606-607. {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Harden, Sir Arthur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9039
224>.
[2] "Sir Arthur Harden." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/harden-sir-
arthur
[3] "Harden, Arthur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 110-112. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901855&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Arthur Harden". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Hard
en
(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England  
[1] ArthurHarden.jpg English: Arthur
Harden, recipent of the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1929 Date
1929(1929) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1929/harden-bio.html
Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/ArthurHarden.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 6 		4708)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p630.
3. ^ "Boltwood,
Bertram Borden." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 257-260.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900510&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Bertram Borden
Boltwood." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630. {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltwood, Bertram Borden."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
518>
[2] "Bertram Borden Boltwood."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
[3] "Bertram Borden Boltwood".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Bor
den_Boltwood
[4] Boltwood, "On the Ratio of Radium
to uranium in some Minerals", American
Journal of Science, S4, V18, N104,
August
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lUQPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=Boltwood&hl=en&e
i=spxYTMG3J4K-sQOx-KyrCA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#
v=onepage&q=Boltwood&f=false
(Mining Engineering and Chemistry
company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA5
 
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 8 		4758)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p637-638.
2. ^ "Schaudinn,
Fritz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
090>.
3. ^ "Schaudinn, Fritz Richard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 141-143. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p637-638.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p637-638.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Schaudinn, Fritz Richard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 141-143. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Schaudinn, Fritz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9066
090>. {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fritz Richard Schaudinn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Richa
rd_Schaudinn
(Institute for Protozoology at the
Imperial Ministry of Health) Berlin,
Germany7  
[1] Description Fritz Richard
Schaudinn.png English: German
zoologist Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
co-discoverer of Spirochaeta pallida,
the causative agent of
syphilis Deutsch: Der deutsche Zoologe
Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
Mitentdecker des Syphilis-Erregers
Spirochaeta pallida Date vor
1907 Source Fritz Schaudinns,
Verlag Leopold Voss, Hamburg und
Leipzig 1911 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Fritz_Richard_Schaudi
nn.png
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 20 		4760) Langevin popularizes Einstein's
theories for the French public as
Eddington does for the English and US
public.13 (To me this implies that
Langevin, like Einstein, was more in
the Lorentz camp than in the Michelson
corpuscular camp. The Lorentz camp, in
my view, is possibly some kind of
light-as-a-wave-in-an-aether,
keep-neuron-reading-and-writing-and
other-science-findings-secret-from-the-p
ublic half of scientists. Many viewed
Einstein's theory of relativity as
being an advance because of the
supposed view of light as being
particulate that Einstein had at least
first supported, however the adoption
of Fitzgerald and Lorentz's unlikely
space and time contraction and dilation
theory puts most if not all of
relativity in the
light-as-a-wave-in-aether view - that
light is massless and not material.14 )

Langevin is the great-great-grandnephew
of Pinel on his mother's side.15
Langevi
n is an outspoken anti-Nazi and is
imprisoned (under the puppet Vichy
regime16 ), but escapes to Switzerland,
is restored to his post in 1944, and
lives to see France free again.17

Langevin's daughter Hélène, is
imprisoned in Auschwitz and on her
return, both have seats in the
Assemblée Consultative as members of
the Communist Party.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
3. ^ "Langevin,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 9-14.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ P. Langevin, “Magnétisme et
théeorie des électrons” in Annales
de chimie et de physique, 5 (1905),
70-127; {Langevin_Paul_1905.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
8. ^ P. Langevin,
“Magnétisme et théeorie des
électrons” in Annales de chimie et
de physique, 5 (1905), 70-127;
{Langevin_Paul_1905.pdf}
9. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>.
10. ^ "Paul Langevin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-langev
in
11. ^ Theories of magnetism: Report of
the Committee on theories of ..., Issue
114 By National Research Council
(U.S.). Committee on theories of
magnetism, Albert Potter Wills, Samuel
Jackson Barnett, Leonard Rose
Ingersoll, 1922,
p55. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
0DPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=magnetis
m+and+the+theory+of+electrons+langevin&s
ource=bl&ots=zHPBsC71-8&sig=f7ki6HajkU_j
HzTBczYpXwx2Ffc&hl=en&ei=jOl3TJmLBonUtQP
evLCtBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=4&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=magne
tism%20and%20the%20theory%20of%20electro
ns%20langevin&f=false
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
18. ^ "Langevin,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 9-14.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
19. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-14. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
20. ^ P. Langevin, “Magnétisme et
théeorie des électrons” in Annales
de chimie et de physique, 5 (1905),
70-127; {Langevin_Paul_1905.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Langevin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langev
in
(École Municipale de Physique et
Chimie) Paris, France19  
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 13 14 		4771) in 1926 Amundsen flies a
dirigible from Spitsbergen to Alaska
passing over the North Pole. Amundsen
had failed on 3 previous attempts.9

In June 1928 Amundsen dies in a flight
(in an air plane?10 ) over the Arctic
in a search for survivors of a
shipwreck.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
2. ^ "Roald
Amundsen." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 206-207. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404700187&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
4. ^ "Amundsen,
Roald." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9007
288>. ?
5. ^ "Roald Amundsen."
Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2nd
ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2004.
206-207. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404700187&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
12. ^ "Amundsen,
Roald." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9007
288>. ?
13. ^ "Amundsen, Roald."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9007
288>. ? {1905}
14. ^ "Roald Amundsen."
Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2nd
ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2004.
206-207. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404700187&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roald Amundsen."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/roald-amund
sen
[2] "Roald Engelbregt Gravning
Amundsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roald_Engel
bregt_Gravning_Amundsen
Herschel Island, Yukon12  
[1] Description Nlc
amundsen.jpg English: Roald
Amundsen Date Source Roald
Amundsen's The North West Passage:
Being a Record of a Voyage of
Exploration of the ship Gjøa,
1903-1907; Roald Amundsen. New York:
Dutton, 1908. National Library of
Canada Author [show]Ludwik
Szacinski (1844–1894) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Nlc_amundsen.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 11 12 		4815)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648-649.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p648-649.
3. ^ "William W.
Coblentz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/123368/William-W-Coblentz>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648-649.
5. ^ Coblentz,
"Investigations of infra-red spectra",
1905.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4LnvAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=William+W.+Coblentz&
hl=en&ei=UUSmTLjeFYeonQfG8vSPAQ&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ
6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=William%20W.%20Coblen
tz&f=false
6. ^ "William W. Coblentz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/123368/William-W-Coblentz>.
7. ^ Coblentz, "Investigations of
infra-red spectra", 1905.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4LnvAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=William+W.+Coblentz&
hl=en&ei=UUSmTLjeFYeonQfG8vSPAQ&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ
6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=William%20W.%20Coblen
tz&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Coblentz,
William Weber." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 327-328.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900937&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1905}
11. ^ "William W.
Coblentz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/123368/William-W-Coblentz>. {1905}
12. ^
"Coblentz, William Weber." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 327-328. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900937&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Weber Coblentz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 01 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-web
er-coblentz
[2] "William W. Coblentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_W._
Coblentz
[3] William Coblentz and E.L. Nichols
“Methods of Measuring Radiant
Efficiency”, Physical Review, 17
(1903),
267–276 http://books.google.com/books
?id=9akOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:w-MXi8iYso4C&hl=en&ei=2U6mTLzGL
t_mnQf3qriRAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=5&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
(National Bureau of Standards)
Washington D.C., USA10  
[1] From Coblentz, ''Investigations of
infra-red spectra'', 1905, p136. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4LnvAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=William+W.+C
oblentz&hl=en&ei=UUSmTLjeFYeonQfG8vSPAQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=William W.
Coblentz&f=false

[2] ''Large spectrometer with Nernst
heater, h, to the right, and
radiometer, r, to the left. The
gas-cell holder and glass cells are
shown at g; Geissler pump in the rear.
Photograph taken through doorway of
inner room.'' Photograph scanned from
Fig. 1A of William W. Coblentz's 1905
publication, Investigations of
Infra-Red Spectra, facing page 16. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/fd/Coblentz-IR.jpg
94 YBN
[01/13/1906 AD] 7 8 		5502)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648.
2. ^ Schwarzschild,
"Über das Gleichgewicht der
Sonnenatmosphäre", 1906, Nachrichten
von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
zu Göttingen, S.
41-53 http://www.digizeitschriften.de/d
ms/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663
and http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dm
s/load/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663 {Schwar
zschild_Karl_19060113.pdf} English: "O
n the equilibrium of the sun's
atmosphere" Translation in Selected
Papers on the Transfer of Radiation,
ed. D.H. Menzel, Dover, New York, 1966.
{Schwarzchild_Karl_English_19060113.pd
f}
3. ^ Eddington, A.S., "On the Radiative
Equilibrium of the Stars", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 77, 16-35 (1916) and 77,
596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf}
4. ^ Eddington, A.S., "On the Radiative
Equilibrium of the Stars", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 77, 16-35 (1916) and 77,
596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf}
5. ^ Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gleichgewicht der Sonnenatmosphäre",
1906, Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, S.
41-53 http://www.digizeitschriften.de/d
ms/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663
and http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dm
s/load/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663 {Schwar
zschild_Karl_19060113.pdf} English: "O
n the equilibrium of the sun's
atmosphere" Translation in Selected
Papers on the Transfer of Radiation,
ed. D.H. Menzel, Dover, New York, 1966.
{Schwarzchild_Karl_English_19060113.pd
f}
6. ^ Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gleichgewicht der Sonnenatmosphäre",
1906, Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, S.
41-53 http://www.digizeitschriften.de/d
ms/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663
and http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dm
s/load/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663 {Schwar
zschild_Karl_19060113.pdf} English: "O
n the equilibrium of the sun's
atmosphere" Translation in Selected
Papers on the Transfer of Radiation,
ed. D.H. Menzel, Dover, New York, 1966.
{Schwarzchild_Karl_English_19060113.pd
f}
7. ^ Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gleichgewicht der Sonnenatmosphäre",
1906, Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, S.
41-53 http://www.digizeitschriften.de/d
ms/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663
and http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dm
s/load/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002500663 {Schwar
zschild_Karl_19060113.pdf} English: "O
n the equilibrium of the sun's
atmosphere" Translation in Selected
Papers on the Transfer of Radiation,
ed. D.H. Menzel, Dover, New York, 1966.
{Schwarzchild_Karl_English_19060113.pd
f} {01/13/1906}
8. ^ Eddington, A.S., "On the
Radiative Equilibrium of the Stars",
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 77, 16-35 (1916)
and 77, 596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf} {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Schwarzschild."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528632/Karl-Schwarzschild>
[2] "Karl Schwarzschild". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Schwar
zschild
[3] Schwarzchild, Br. Meyermann, A.
Kohlschütter, and O. Birck,
"Aktinometrie der Sterne der BD bis zur
Grösse 7,5 in der Zone 0° bis +20°
Deklination" Teil A, Abhandlungen der
K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen, Math.-Phys. Kl., n.s. 6,
no. 6 (1910)
[4] Schwarzchild, "Beiträge zur
photographischen Photometrie der
Gestirne", Publikationen der von
Kuffnerschen Sternwarte, 5 (1900)
[5] "Karl
Schwarzschild." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild
[6] "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany6 (presumably) 
[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g
94 YBN
[01/17/1906 AD] 7 		4898)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Charles
G. Barkla, "Polarisation in Secondary
Rontgen Radiation", Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
A March 6, 1906 77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html {Barkla_Charles_190
60117.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Charles G.
Barkla, "Polarisation in Secondary
Rontgen Radiation", Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
A March 6, 1906 77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html {Barkla_Charles_190
60117.pdf}
7. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Polarisation
in Secondary Rontgen Radiation", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 6, 1906
77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html {Barkla_Charles_190
60117.pdf} {01/17/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
[3] "Barkla, Charles Glover." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 456-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900268&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[6] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
[7] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

[8] Barkla and Sadler, “secondary
X-Rays and the Atomic weight of
Nickel.”, Philosophical Magazine, 6th
ser., 14 (Sept, 1907),
408–422. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=EhQXBZ1r44AC&pg=PA408&dq=%22seconda
ry+X-Rays+and+the+Atomic+weight+of+Nicke
l%22&hl=en&ei=l2MJTdDmJ4XEsAOe8ujiDg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22secondary%20X
-Rays%20and%20the%20Atomic%20weight%20of
%20Nickel%22&f=false
[9] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Proc.
Roy. Soc. 74, 1905,
p474-475. http://books.google.com/books
?id=E41_hSvBIcEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN93660113&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[10] Polarized Röntgen radiation.
Phil. Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse
[11] William Henry Bragg, "Universe of
Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959, p233
[12]
Barkla and Sadler, "The Absorption of
Röntgen Rays", Phil. Mag., 17 (May
1909), 739–760;
[13] Sadler, “Transformations
of Röntgen Rays,” Phil. Mag., 18
(July 1909), 107–132;
[14] Barkla, “The
Spectra of the Fluorescent Röntgen
Radiations", Phil. Mag., 22
(Sept.1911), 396–412
[15] J. L. Heilbron, "H.
G. J. Moseley: the life and letters of
an English physicist, 1887-1915",
1974.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vO0d-SB
w6DEC&pg=PA62&dq=barkla+bragg&hl=en&ei=g
rQKTZ-2I4_CsAOGyPDACg&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=barkla%20bragg&f=false
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England6  
[1] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
94 YBN
[02/09/1906 AD] 12 		4901)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
2. ^ CHARLES G.
BARKLA, "Secondary Rontgen Rays and
Atomic Weight", nature 73, 365-365 (15
February
1906) http://books.google.com/books?id=
zim4QGZtzrgC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%22I+
have+shown+that+all+the+phenomena+of+sec
ondary+radiation%22&source=bl&ots=jolG27
0T2e&sig=tafArmh0ggQUxaIqvvYRt7Nf_LU&hl=
en&ei=jvoLTcffOZC6sQPc4oiJCw&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AE
wAA#v=onepage&q=%22I%20have%20shown%20th
at%20all%20the%20phenomena%20of%20second
ary%20radiation%22&f=false and http://
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v73/n1894/
pdf/073365c0.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ CHARLES G. BARKLA,
"Secondary Rontgen Rays and Atomic
Weight", nature 73, 365-365 (15
February
1906) http://books.google.com/books?id=
zim4QGZtzrgC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%22I+
have+shown+that+all+the+phenomena+of+sec
ondary+radiation%22&source=bl&ots=jolG27
0T2e&sig=tafArmh0ggQUxaIqvvYRt7Nf_LU&hl=
en&ei=jvoLTcffOZC6sQPc4oiJCw&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AE
wAA#v=onepage&q=%22I%20have%20shown%20th
at%20all%20the%20phenomena%20of%20second
ary%20radiation%22&f=false and http://
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v73/n1894/
pdf/073365c0.pdf
5. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
Röntgen radiation", Proceedings of the
Physical Society of London, 20, 200,
February 1906, also Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
11, Issue 66, 1906, Pages 812 –
828. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=%22Secondary+R%C
3%B6ntgen+radiation%22+intitle:philosoph
ical&hl=en&ei=y0wRTbaFLY64sAP-4JWnDw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false http://
www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~db
=all~content=a910485134~fulltext=7132409
30
6. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
Röntgen radiation", Proceedings of the
Physical Society of London, 20, 200,
February 1906, also Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
11, Issue 66, 1906, Pages 812 –
828. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=%22Secondary+R%C
3%B6ntgen+radiation%22+intitle:philosoph
ical&hl=en&ei=y0wRTbaFLY64sAP-4JWnDw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false http://
www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~db
=all~content=a910485134~fulltext=7132409
30
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Charles G. Barkla,
"Polarisation in Secondary Rontgen
Radiation", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A March
6, 1906 77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html {Barkla_Charles_190
60117.pdf}
12. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Polarisation
in Secondary Rontgen Radiation", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 6, 1906
77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html {Barkla_Charles_190
60117.pdf} {01/17/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
[3] "Barkla, Charles Glover." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 456-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900268&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[6] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
[7] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

[8] Barkla and Sadler, “secondary
X-Rays and the Atomic weight of
Nickel.”, Philosophical Magazine, 6th
ser., 14 (Sept, 1907),
408–422. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=EhQXBZ1r44AC&pg=PA408&dq=%22seconda
ry+X-Rays+and+the+Atomic+weight+of+Nicke
l%22&hl=en&ei=l2MJTdDmJ4XEsAOe8ujiDg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22secondary%20X
-Rays%20and%20the%20Atomic%20weight%20of
%20Nickel%22&f=false
[9] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Proc.
Roy. Soc. 74, 1905,
p474-475. http://books.google.com/books
?id=E41_hSvBIcEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN93660113&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[10] Polarized Röntgen radiation.
Phil. Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse
[11] William Henry Bragg, "Universe of
Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959, p233
[12]
Barkla and Sadler, "The Absorption of
Röntgen Rays", Phil. Mag., 17 (May
1909), 739–760;
[13] Sadler, “Transformations
of Röntgen Rays,” Phil. Mag., 18
(July 1909), 107–132;
[14] Barkla, “The
Spectra of the Fluorescent Röntgen
Radiations", Phil. Mag., 22
(Sept.1911), 396–412
[15] C. G. BARKLA & C. A.
SADLER , "Absorption of X-Rays", nature
78, 245-245 (16 July
1908) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2020/pdf/078245c0.pdf
[16] J. L. Heilbron, "H. G. J. Moseley:
the life and letters of an English
physicist, 1887-1915", 1974.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vO0d-SB
w6DEC&pg=PA62&dq=barkla+bragg&hl=en&ei=g
rQKTZ-2I4_CsAOGyPDACg&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=barkla%20bragg&f=false
[17] CHARLES G. BARKLA, "The Nature of
X-Rays", Nature, Volume 78 Number 2010
pp7 doi:10.1038/078007b0 http://www.na
ture.com/nature/journal/v78/n2010/pdf/07
8007b0.pdf
[18] Barkla, “Notes on X-Rays and
Scattered Rays", Phil. Mag., S 6, Vol
15, N86, Feb 1908,
p.288. http://books.google.com/books?id
=DZMOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:hr4qP1z5lYIC&hl=en&ei=350STeHQHZSs
sAOFq4W7Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ba
rkla&f=false
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England11  
[1] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
94 YBN
[04/17/1906 AD] 6 7 		3806)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490-491.
2. ^ "Dutton,
Clarence Edward." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
624>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p409.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ C. E. Dutton, "Volcanoes
and Radioactivity", Journal of Geology,
vol. 14, 1906,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_LobAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA259&dq=Dutton+radioact
ivity&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=iGhiSYPSB4zaMZqGqa
AD
6. ^ C. E. Dutton, "Volcanoes and
Radioactivity", Journal of Geology,
vol. 14, 1906,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_LobAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA259&dq=Dutton+radioact
ivity&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=iGhiSYPSB4zaMZqGqa
AD {04/17/1906}
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p409. {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clarence Edward Dutton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dutton-clar
ence-edward
[2] "Clarence Edward Dutton." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dutton-clar
ence-edward
[3] "Clarence Edward Dutton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Ed
ward_Dutton
[4] "Dutton, Clarence Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p270.
[5] Clarence Edward Dutton, "On
Some of the Greater Problems of
Physical Geology", Bulletin of the
Philosophical Society of Washington,
Philosophical Society of Washington
(Washington,
D.C.) http://books.google.com/books?id=
nNcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Dutton+1889+On+S
ome+of+the+Greater+Problems+of+Physical+
Geology&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=X15iSfSNOKTGMr7w
kZUD#PPA51,M1
Washington, D.C., USA.5  
[1] English: NOAA caption: Clarence
Edward Dutton, famous geologist of the
late Nineteenth Century. An originator
of the ''Theory of Isostasy,'' an early
seismologist, and the first to head the
USGS division of volcanic geology.
(1841-1912.) Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/pe
rs0069.htm -- NOAA's People Collection,
Image ID pers0069 Date
unknown Author photographer
unknown -- property of US National
Oceanic & Atmospheric
Administration PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Clarence_Dutton_NOAA.
jpg
94 YBN
[06/??/1906 AD] 9 		4268)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, Joseph
John, "On the number of corpuscles in
an atom.", Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
3. ^ Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Do the
gamma-rays carry a charge of negative
electricity? Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.
13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
9. ^ Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false {06/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England8  
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false

[2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
94 YBN
[07/20/1906 AD] 7 		4743)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford, "The
Mass and Velocity of the α Particles
Expelled from Radium and Actinium",
Phil Mag, October 1906, Elizabeth
Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science,
(2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity
of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October
1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Rutherford, "The
Mass and Velocity of the α Particles
Expelled from Radium and Actinium",
Phil Mag, October 1906, Elizabeth
Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science,
(2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
7. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity
of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October
1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
{07/20/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the
α and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada6
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
94 YBN
[12/21/1906 AD] 40 41 42 		4788)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
2. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
4. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
6. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
8. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
12. ^ "Lee De
Forest." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
23. ^ "De Forest,
Lee." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
29. ^ "De Forest,
Lee." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
30. ^ "Lee De Forest." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
31. ^ "De Forest, Lee." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
32. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space
Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532,
Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date:
Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ William Henry
Eccles and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
"Improvements in ionic relays" British
patent number: GB 148582 (filed: 21
June 1918; published: 5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
36. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes," The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298. Reprinted in: Radio
Review, vol. 1, no. 3, pages 143–146
(December 1919).
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space
Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532,
Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date:
Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
40. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space
Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532,
Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date:
Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {12/21/1906}
41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647. {1906}
42. ^ "Lee
De Forest." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st {1907 (patented}

MORE INFO
[1] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[3] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA39  
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD] 22 		4479) Fessenden holds 500 patents at
the time of his death, second only to
Edison.15
Fessenden works for Edison in
the 1880s and Edison's greatest rival
Westinghouse from 1890-1892.16
(AM
works by having a regular periodic sine
wave, for example one at 10 million
cycles per second, and adding in a
source signal. At the receiving station
the 10 million cycles per second sine
wave is subtracted leaving the source
signal.17 )

(Clearly amplitude modulation must have
been recognized much earlier - for
people to have started neuron reading
and writing in at least 1810. Perhaps
Feesenden was a person excluded from
the technology who reinvented it, or
was included and purposely allowed to
release the truth about amplitude
modulation to the public.18 )

(Amplitude modulation is so simple an
idea, that it occurs naturally in any
object that emits a periodic frequency
of particles, which is pretty much all
matter. For example, sounds reaching
the ear may impart an amplitude
modulation - which is a strength
modulation - a quantity of particle
modulation to any regular interval
signal emitted from the nerves of the
ear portion of the brain.19 )

(Probably amplitude modulation of wired
recording of sound was the first
instance of listening to hidden
microphones.20 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
5. ^ "Fessenden,
Reginald Aubrey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
6. ^ "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
7. ^ "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
10. ^ "Fessenden,
Reginald Aubrey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p612.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612. {12/24/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901414&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Reginald Aubrey Fessenden".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Au
brey_Fessenden
(National Electric Signaling Company
and General Electric?) Brant Rock,
Massachusetts, USA21  
[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg
94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD] 19 		4796)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p647.
3. ^ Hertzsprung,
"Zur Strahlung der Sterne", Zeitschrift
für wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA468#v=onepage&q&
f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Henry Norris Russell,
"Relations Between the Spectra and
Other Characteristics of the Stars",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 22, 01/1914,
p.275. http://books.google.com/books?id
=MUYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA275&lpg=PA275&dq=%22i
nvestigations+into+the+nature+of+the+sta
rs+must+necessarily%22&source=bl&ots=yKM
IApR0KO&sig=LiC4Om2uH2e_n6A4h2wcXYzVtXg&
hl=en&ei=Y-ObTIXhPImisQP5j_DdCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved
=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22investigatio
ns%20into%20the%20nature%20of%20the%20st
ars%20must%20necessarily%22&f=false
6. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ NIELSEN, A. V. (1964),
Contributions to the History of the
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. Centaurus,
9: 219–253. doi:
10.1111/j.1600-0498.1964.tb00285.x http
://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j
.1600-0498.1964.tb00285.x/abstract {Nie
lson_Axel_HR_diagram_1964.pdf}
10. ^ NIELSEN, A. V. (1964),
Contributions to the History of the
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. Centaurus,
9: 219–253. doi:
10.1111/j.1600-0498.1964.tb00285.x http
://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j
.1600-0498.1964.tb00285.x/abstract {Nie
lson_Axel_HR_diagram_1964.pdf}
11. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
19. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Ejnar Hertzsprung."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263944/Ejnar-Hertzsprung>
[2] "Ejnar Hertzsprung." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ejnar-hertz
sprung
[3] "Ejnar Hertzsprung". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertz
sprung
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p406
[5]
Gilbert Lewis, "The Chemistry of the
Stars and the Evolution of Radioactive
Substances", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
V34, N202, 1911,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PBILAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA314&dq=on+the+radiatio
n+of+the+stars+hertzsprung&hl=en&ei=lfSc
TPWIPI2qsAP_6dzVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onep
age&q=on%20the%20radiation%20of%20the%20
stars%20hertzsprung&f=false
[6] Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy", 1900-1950, p.262
(University of Copenhagen, and at the
Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg)
Copenhagen, Denmark18 (verify) 
[1] Table 1 from: Hertzsprung, ''Zur
Strahlung der Sterne'', Zeitschrift
für wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, ''Source book in
astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false COPYRIGHTED
source: Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false

[2] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg
94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD] 9 		4797)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647.
2. ^ "Hertzsprung,
Ejnar." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 350-353.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur
Strahlung der Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
6. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Ejnar Hertzsprung."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263944/Ejnar-Hertzsprung>
[2] "Ejnar Hertzsprung." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ejnar-hertz
sprung
[3] "Ejnar Hertzsprung". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertz
sprung
[4] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 22, 01/1914,
p.275. http://books.google.com/books?id
=MUYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA275&lpg=PA275&dq=%22i
nvestigations+into+the+nature+of+the+sta
rs+must+necessarily%22&source=bl&ots=yKM
IApR0KO&sig=LiC4Om2uH2e_n6A4h2wcXYzVtXg&
hl=en&ei=Y-ObTIXhPImisQP5j_DdCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved
=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22investigatio
ns%20into%20the%20nature%20of%20the%20st
ars%20must%20necessarily%22&f=false
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p406
[6]
Gilbert Lewis, "The Chemistry of the
Stars and the Evolution of Radioactive
Substances", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
V34, N202, 1911,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PBILAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA314&dq=on+the+radiatio
n+of+the+stars+hertzsprung&hl=en&ei=lfSc
TPWIPI2qsAP_6dzVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onep
age&q=on%20the%20radiation%20of%20the%20
stars%20hertzsprung&f=false
(University of Copenhagen, and at the
Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg)
Copenhagen, Denmark8 (verify) 
[1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

[2] Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. A
plot of luminosity (absolute magnitude)
against the colour of the stars ranging
from the high-temperature blue-white
stars on the left side of the diagram
to the low temperature red stars on the
right side. ''This diagram below is a
plot of 22000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard PowellHertzsprung-Russell
diagram. A plot of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) against the colour of the
stars ranging from the high-temperature
blue-white stars on the left side of
the diagram to the low temperature red
stars on the right side. ''This diagram
below is a plot of 22000 stars from the
Hipparcos Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard Powell CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/HRDiagram.png
94 YBN
[12/27/1906 AD] 12 13 14 		4710)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p630.
3. ^ "Bertram
Borden Boltwood." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Boltwood, Bertram
Borden." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 257-260.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900510&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
9. ^ Bertram B.
Boltwood, "On the Ultimate
Disintigration products of the
Radio-active Elements. Part II The
Disintegration Products of Uranium",
The American Journal of Science, S4,
V23, N134, N134, Feb 1907,
p77. http://books.google.com/books?id=b
HAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Boltwood+age+lead
&hl=en&ei=qaJYTKLBJo32tgPJpZHECw&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEM
Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Boltwood%20age%20lea
d&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Bertram Borden
Boltwood." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
12. ^ Bertram B. Boltwood, "On the
Ultimate Disintigration products of the
Radio-active Elements. Part II The
Disintegration Products of Uranium",
The American Journal of Science, S4,
V23, N134, N134, Feb 1907,
p77. http://books.google.com/books?id=b
HAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Boltwood+age+lead
&hl=en&ei=qaJYTKLBJo32tgPJpZHECw&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEM
Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Boltwood%20age%20lea
d&f=false {12/27/1906}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630. {1907}
14. ^
"Boltwood, Bertram Borden."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
518>. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bertram Borden Boltwood."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
[2] "Bertram Borden Boltwood".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Bor
den_Boltwood
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA11  
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 5 		3920)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p500.
2. ^ David Haig,
"Homologous Versus Antithetic
Alternation of Generations and the
Origin of Sporophytes", The Botanical
Review, The New York Botanical Garden,
2008. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/36728q5283m05524/fulltext.html
3. ^ Strasburger, E. 1906. Typische und
allotypische Kernteilung. Ergebnisse
und Erörterungen. Jahrbücher für
wissentschaftliche Botanik 42: 1–71.
4. ^
"Strasburger, Eduard Adolf."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
896>.
5. ^ David Haig, "Homologous Versus
Antithetic Alternation of Generations
and the Origin of Sporophytes", The
Botanical Review, The New York
Botanical Garden,
2008. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/36728q5283m05524/fulltext.html
{1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Strasburger, Eduard Adolf",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841-842.
[2] Arnost
Kleinzeller, "Ernest Overton’s
Contribution to the Cell Membrane
Concept: A Centennial
Appreciation" http://physiologyonline.p
hysiology.org/cgi/reprint/12/1/49.pdf
[3] James R. Troyer, "John Henry
Schaffner (1866-1939) and Reduction
Division in Plants: Legend and Fact",
American Journal of Botany, Vol. 76,
No. 8 (Aug., 1989), pp.
1229-1246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2444831?seq=2
[4] Strasburger, E. 1894. The periodic
reduction of the number of the
chromosomes in the life-history of
living organisms. Annals of Botany 8:
281–316.
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany4
 
[1] Description EStrasburger.jpg E
Strasburger Source The
Darwin-Wallace celebration held on
THURSDAY, IST JULY, 1908, BY THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON. �� Date
1908 (1908) Auteur Linnean
Society PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/EStrasburger.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 9 		4035)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2009
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

2. ^ Frederick A Talbot, "Moving
Pictures", 1912,
p295. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NzW1zWsl-2cC&pg=RA1-PA295&dq=Kinemacolor
+patent&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Frederick A Talbot, "Moving
Pictures", 1912,
p295. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NzW1zWsl-2cC&pg=RA1-PA295&dq=Kinemacolor
+patent&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
4. ^
http://www.victorian-cinema.net/gasmith.
htm
5. ^ Record ID4034. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.victorian-cinema.net/gasmith.
htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.victorian-cinema.net/gasmith.
htm
9. ^ Frederick A Talbot, "Moving
Pictures", 1912,
p295. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NzW1zWsl-2cC&pg=RA1-PA295&dq=Kinemacolor
+patent&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{1906}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

[4] Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112.
[5] "The Optical magic lantern journal
and photographic enlarger",
1889. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sHIzQAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:Optical+intitle:
magic
[6] Edgar Sanderson, John Porter
Lamberton, Charles Morris, "Six
thousand years of history, Part 20,
Volume 10 ",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b6nWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
[7] Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA469&dq=Friese-Gree
ne+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=F
riese-Greene&f=false
[8] "William Friese-Greene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene
[9] Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948.
[10]
Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
[11] Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
[12] Hugh Chisholm, "Cinematograph",
"The Encyclopædia britannica: the new
volumes, constituting, in combination
...", 1922,
p695-696. http://books.google.com/books
?id=bAooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA695&dq=%22colour+f
ilm%22&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=%22colour%20
film%22&f=false
[13] "Color film (motion picture)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_film_
(motion_picture)
[14] "Kinemacolor". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinemacolor

[15] "Three-Colour Kinematography",
Nature, Vol 87, Num 2191, 10/26/1911,
p556. http://books.google.com/books?id=
19YRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA556&dq=Kinemacolor+pat
ent&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Kinemacolor%20p
atent&f=false
[16]
http://books.google.com/books?id=9d0DAAA
AMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Kinemacolor
+patent&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Kinemac
olor&f=false
(private lab) Southwick, Sussex,
England8  
[1] Description
Kinemacolor1.jpg Frame using
Kinemacolor (un rêve en couleur) Date
1911 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Kinemacolor1.jpg

[2] George Albert Smith (CE
1864-1959) PD
source: http://www.victorian-cinema.net/
gasmith.htm
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 4 		4103)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
2. ^ "Jacobus
Kapteyn." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 12 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
3. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Kapteyn, "Remarks on the
determination of the number and mean
parallax of stars of different
magnitude and the absorption of light
in space", The Astronomical journal,
volume: 24, 1904, page:
115. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx
_local?sid=google&auinit=JC&aulast=Kapte
yn&atitle=Remarks+on+the+determination+o
f+the+number+and+mean+parallax+of+stars+
of+different+magnitude+and+the+absorptio
n+of+light+in+space&id=doi:10.1086/10359
0&title=The+Astronomical+journal&volume=
24&date=1904&spage=115&issn=0004-6256
{1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacobus Kapteyn." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[2] "Jacobus Kapteyn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Kap
teyn
[3] "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
659>.
[4] Kapteyn, J. C. & Desetter, W., "The
Proper Motions of the Hyades, derived
from Plates prepared by Prof. Anders
Donna", Publications of the Kapteyn
Astronomical Laboratory Groningen, vol.
14, 1904,
pp.1-87. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1904PGro...14D...1K/0000003.0
00.html
[5] "Jacobus Kapteyn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[6] Kapteyn, J. C., "First Attempt at a
Theory of the Arrangement and Motion of
the Sidereal System", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 55, 1922,
p.302. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922ApJ....55..302K
(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands3  
[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 15 16 		4314)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
2. ^ Committee on
Recognition and Alleviation of Pain in
Laboratory Animals, Recognition and
Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory
Animals, 2009,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
nMc3ZPYix8C&pg=PA13&dq=Sherrington+nocic
eptor+1906+pain&hl=en&ei=ulXbS5vvK4e2swP
awpSvBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=3&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Sherr
ington%20nociceptor%201906%20pain&f=fals
e
3. ^ "nociceptor." Mosby's Dental
Dictionary. Elsevier, Inc., 2004.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nociceptor
4. ^ "Sensory receptor." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sensory-rec
eptor-1
5. ^ "Sensory receptor." Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2009. Answers.com 30 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sensory-rec
eptor-1
6. ^
http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v3/n
4/fig_tab/embor178_f2.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Sherrington, "The
integration action of the nervous
system",
1906 http://books.google.com/books?id=M
ioSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Sherrington+noci
ceptor+1906&hl=en&ei=vFPbS4-gJYrOsgOL3dR
P&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5
&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ Committee on Recognition and
Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory
Animals, Recognition and Alleviation of
Pain in Laboratory Animals, 2009,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
nMc3ZPYix8C&pg=PA13&dq=Sherrington+nocic
eptor+1906+pain&hl=en&ei=ulXbS5vvK4e2swP
awpSvBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=3&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Sherr
ington%20nociceptor%201906%20pain&f=fals
e
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p568.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Sherrington, "The
integration action of the nervous
system",
1906 http://books.google.com/books?id=M
ioSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Sherrington+noci
ceptor+1906&hl=en&ei=vFPbS4-gJYrOsgOL3dR
P&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5
&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
15. ^ "Sherrington, Charles Scott."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-403. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904004&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906}
16. ^ Sherrington, "The
integration action of the nervous
system",
1906 http://books.google.com/books?id=M
ioSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Sherrington+noci
ceptor+1906&hl=en&ei=vFPbS4-gJYrOsgOL3dR
P&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5
&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Sherrington, Sir Charles
Scott." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
325>
[2] "Charles Scott Sherrington." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[3] "Charles Scott Sherrington."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-sco
tt-sherrington
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=gbxLAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA417&dq=decerebrate+rigidity&h
l=en&ei=wlDbS-lygdayA6KUnLAB&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AE
wAQ#v=onepage&q=decerebrate%20rigidity&f
=false
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA14  
[1] From Sherrington's 1906 work, fig.
349. the receptive neurone fig. 39 B,
L, noci-ceptrive, frmo the foot to the
spinal segment, (ii) the motor neurone
fig 39 B, FC to the flexor muscle, e.g.
of hip - a short intraspinal
neuirone. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MioSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Sherrington+no
ciceptor+1906&hl=en&ei=vFPbS4-gJYrOsgOL3
dRP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=5&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=nocicepti
ve&f=false

[2] Charles Scott Sherrington Source
: http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy
of the National Library of
Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 3 		4355) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934)1 is the first women to
teach at the Sorbonne.

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
2. ^
3. ^ {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "pitchblende." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pitchblende

[11] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[12] Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm
[13]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France2  
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 2 3 		4385)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
2. ^ "Frederick
Gowland Hopkins." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins {1906-1907}
3. ^ "Frederick Gowland
Hopkins." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hopkins, Sir Frederick
Gowland." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9041
024>.
[2] "Hopkins, Frederick Gowland."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 498-502. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902048&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Frederick Gowland Hopkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_G
owland_Hopkins
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1929/hopkins-bio.html
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England1  
[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 7 		4419)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
2. ^ "Wolf, Max."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Wolf, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595. {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolf, Maximilian Franz
Joseph Cornelius." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 14.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
481-482. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Max Wolf". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Wolf
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany6  
[1] Description Max
Wolf.jpg Maximilian Franz Joseph
Cornelius Wolf (June 21, 1863–October
3, 1932), German astronomer Date
Source Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte,
Berlin http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9077333/Max-Wolf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Max_Wolf.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 13 14 		4442)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Nernst, Walther
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Nernst, Walther
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601. {1906}
14. ^
"Nernst, Walther Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>. {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Nernst." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[2] "Walther Nernst." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[3] "Nernst, Hermann Walther." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 24. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 11 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903139&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Walther Nernst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Ner
nst
( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany12  
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 10 		4471)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608-609.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p608-609.
3. ^ A.
Wassermann, A. Neisser and C. Bruck,
"Eine serodiagnostische Reaktion bei
Syphilis", Deutsche medizinische
Wochenschrift. 32 (1906), 745–746.
4. ^ "August
von Wassermann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-von-
wassermann
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Wassermann, August von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
201>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608-609.
8. ^ "Wassermann,
August Paul Von." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 15.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
521-524. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904943&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Wassermann, August von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
201>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608-609. {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "August von Wassermann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_von_
Wassermann
(Robert Koch Institute for Infectious
Diseases) Berlin, Germany9  
[1] Treponema pallidum.jpg English:
Electron micrograph of Treponema
pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail
rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Treponema pallidum is the causative
agent of syphilis. In the United
States, over 35,600 cases of syphilis
were reported by health officials in
1999. Français : Le tréponème
pâle, agent de la syphilis. Polski:
Krętki blade. Magyar: A
kórokozó. עברית: חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. Hrvatski:
Spiroheta Treponema pallidum koja
izaziva sifilis. Bosanski: Treponema
pallidum, uzročnik sifilisa. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Treponema_pallidum.jp
g

[2] Description August
Wassermann.jpg English: August
Wassermann Polski: August
Wassermann Date before
1925 Source IHM Author
anonymous/unknown Permission (Reu
sing this file) The National
Library of Medicine believes this item
to be in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/August_Wassermann.jpg

94 YBN
[1906 AD] 5 6 		4706)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630.
2. ^ "Bordet, Jules."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 300-301. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Bordet, Jules." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 300-301. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629-630. {1906}
6. ^
"Bordet, Jules." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 300-301.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900532&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bordet, Jules."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
718>.
[2] "Jules Bordet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jules-borde
t
[3] "Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Jean_
Baptiste_Vincent_Bordet
[4] "peritoneum." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 02 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peritoneum
(Institut Pasteur du Brabant)
Brussells, Belgium4  
[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 10 		4722) In 1911 Ricketts gets typhus
while working with it and dies.7

(Asimov uses “contracts typhus”,
maybe murdered by muscle contraction?
Even so, there are dangers with working
closely with infrectious bacteria,
viruses, and protists.8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632-633.
2. ^ "Ricketts,
Howard T." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632-633.
4. ^ "Ricketts,
Howard T." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632-633.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632-633.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Ricketts, Howard T." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>.
10. ^ "Ricketts, Howard T."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>. {Spring) 1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ricketts, Howard Taylor."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 442-443. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903670&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Howard Taylor Ricketts".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Tayl
or_Ricketts
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA9  
[1] Howard Taylor Ricketts
(1871-1910) American physician PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ricketts_Howard_Taylo
r_1871-1910.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 9 		4868) Diels' two sons are killed on the
eastern front in World War II. (what
were' Diels' opinions of Nazism?6 )
Diels' home and laboratory are
destroyed in bombing raids.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657-658.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p657-658.
3. ^ "Otto Paul
Hermann Diels." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 04 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/162657/Otto-Paul-Hermann-Diels>.
4. ^ O. Diels, B. Wolf, "Über das
Kohlensuboxyd I", Berichte der
Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft
(Chemische Berichte), 39 (1906), 689.
5. ^
Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p657-658.
8. ^ "Otto Paul
Hermann Diels." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 04 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/162657/Otto-Paul-Hermann-Diels>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657-658. {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Paul Hermann Diels." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 04
Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-paul-h
ermann-diels
[2] "Diels, Otto Paul Hermann."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901168&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Otto Paul Hermann Diels".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Paul_H
ermann_Diels
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1950/diels-bio.html
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany8
 
[1] Carbon Suboxide GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
bon_suboxide

[2] Otto Paul Hermann Diels UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/dielsc.jpg
93 YBN
[04/03/1907 AD] 4 		4763)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Some Cosmical Aspects of
Radioactivity", The Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
May-June 1907.
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Some
Cosmical Aspects of Radioactivity", The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, May-June 1907.
4. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Some Cosmical Aspects of
Radioactivity", The Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
May-June 1907. {04/03/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] Ernest Rutherford, E. N. Da C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft γ
Rays from Radium B", Phil Mag, May
1914, s6, 27, pp854-68
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada3
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
93 YBN
[05/??/1907 AD] 28 		4269)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francis William Aston." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
3. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical reactions.",Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 16, 1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "A new method of
chemical analysis (Royal Institution
lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy. Instn. 20,
1911,
p140. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
5. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. s6, v21,
n122, Feb 1911,
p225. {Thomson_Joseph_John_191102xx.pdf
}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
7. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"On Rays of Positive Electricity",
Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
8. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
9. ^ Record ID4273. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Thomson, J.
J., "Rays of positive electricity
(Bakerian lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc.
A. 89, 1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf {Thomson_Joseph_John_1913
0604.pdf}
11. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
13. ^ "Francis
William Aston." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
14. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Rays
of positive electricity (Bakerian
lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89,
1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf {Thomson_Joseph_John_1913
0604.pdf}
17. ^ "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
28. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse {05/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[13] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[14] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[18] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[19]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[20] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[21] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[22] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[23] Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory
of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England27  
[1] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

[2] figs 10-12 from: Thomson, J. J.,
''On Rays of Positive Electricity'',
Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
93 YBN
[06/13/1907 AD] 11 		4897)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. D. Innes, "On the Velocity of
the Cathode Particles emitted by
Various Metals under the Influence of
Röntgen Rays, and its Bearing on the
Theory of Atomic Disintegration.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 79, No. 532 (Aug. 2, 1907), recd
06/13/1907, pp.
442-462. http://books.google.com/books?
id=fYwCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%22on+the+ve
locity+of+the+cathode+particles%22&hl=en
&ei=GmgBTe_gL8OKnAfwlLzlDQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=%22on%20the%20velocity%20o
f%20the%20cathode%20particles%22&f=false
 http://www.jstor.org/stable/92660 {In
nes_Peter_D_19070613.pdf}
2. ^ William Henry Bragg, "Universe of
Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959,
p262.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ William Henry Bragg,
"Universe of Light", Dover edition,
1933, 1959, p262.
5. ^ P. D. Innes, "On the
Velocity of the Cathode Particles
emitted by Various Metals under the
Influence of Röntgen Rays, and its
Bearing on the Theory of Atomic
Disintegration.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 79, No. 532
(Aug. 2, 1907), recd 06/13/1907, pp.
442-462. http://books.google.com/books?
id=fYwCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%22on+the+ve
locity+of+the+cathode+particles%22&hl=en
&ei=GmgBTe_gL8OKnAfwlLzlDQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=%22on%20the%20velocity%20o
f%20the%20cathode%20particles%22&f=false
 http://www.jstor.org/stable/92660 {In
nes_Peter_D_19070613.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ P. D. Innes, "On the Velocity of
the Cathode Particles emitted by
Various Metals under the Influence of
Röntgen Rays, and its Bearing on the
Theory of Atomic Disintegration.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 79, No. 532 (Aug. 2, 1907), recd
06/13/1907, pp.
442-462. http://books.google.com/books?
id=fYwCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%22on+the+ve
locity+of+the+cathode+particles%22&hl=en
&ei=GmgBTe_gL8OKnAfwlLzlDQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=%22on%20the%20velocity%20o
f%20the%20cathode%20particles%22&f=false
 http://www.jstor.org/stable/92660 {In
nes_Peter_D_19070613.pdf}
11. ^ P. D. Innes, "On the Velocity of
the Cathode Particles emitted by
Various Metals under the Influence of
Röntgen Rays, and its Bearing on the
Theory of Atomic Disintegration.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 79, No. 532 (Aug. 2, 1907), recd
06/13/1907, pp.
442-462. http://books.google.com/books?
id=fYwCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%22on+the+ve
locity+of+the+cathode+particles%22&hl=en
&ei=GmgBTe_gL8OKnAfwlLzlDQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=%22on%20the%20velocity%20o
f%20the%20cathode%20particles%22&f=false
 http://www.jstor.org/stable/92660 {In
nes_Peter_D_19070613.pdf}
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England10
 
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: P. D.
Innes, ''On the Velocity of the Cathode
Particles emitted by Various Metals
under the Influence of Röntgen Rays,
and its Bearing on the Theory of Atomic
Disintegration.'', Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 79, No. 532
(Aug. 2, 1907), recd 06/13/1907, pp.
442-462. PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9266
0

[2] Figure 109 from: William Henry
Bragg, ''Universe of Light'', Dover
edition, 1933, 1959,
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Henry Bragg, "Universe
of Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959,
p262.
93 YBN
[07/09/1907 AD] 5 		4950) In 1953 Staudinger wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682-683.
2. ^ "Hermann
Staudinger." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564304/Hermann-Staudinger>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682-683.
4. ^ Hermann
Staudinger, "Zur Kenntniss der Ketene.
Diphenylketen", Justus Liebigs Annalen
der Chemie, Volume 356, Issue 1-2,
pages 51–123,
1907 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jlac.19073560106/abstract
5. ^ Hermann Staudinger, "Zur Kenntniss
der Ketene. Diphenylketen", Justus
Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, Volume 356,
Issue 1-2, pages 51–123,
1907 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jlac.19073560106/abstract
{07/09/1907}
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
Germany4  
[1] Hermann Staudinger 1917 in
Zürich PD
source: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/bil
der/Portr_14413016AL_Staudinger.jpg/imag
e
93 YBN
[07/30/1907 AD] 13 		4938) In 1914 Laue wins the Nobel Prize
in physics "for his discovery of the
diffraction of X-rays by crystals".5
Lau
e champions Albert Einstein’s theory
of relativity, does research on the
quantum theory, the Compton effect
(change of wavelength in light under
certain conditions), and the
disintegration of atoms.6
In 1939 in
Switzerland Laue denounces Hitler's
policy of refusing to allow Germans to
accept Nobel Prizes.7
In 1943 Laue
resigns from the University of Berlin
in protest against the Nazis.8
In 1960
Laue dies in an automobile accident at
age 81.9 (with seatbelt? because of
age?10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
2. ^ "Laue, Max von."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ M. Laue, "Die Mitführung des
Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem
Relativitätsprinzip", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 328, Issue 10, pages
989–990,
1907. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19073281015/abstract "Th
e carrying of light through moving
bodies according to the principle of
relativity" {Laue_Max_19070730.pdf}
4. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1914/
6. ^ "Max von Laue." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332240/Max-von-Laue>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Laue, Max von." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 50-53.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ M. Laue, "Die Mitführung des
Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem
Relativitätsprinzip", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 328, Issue 10, pages
989–990,
1907. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19073281015/abstract "Th
e carrying of light through moving
bodies according to the principle of
relativity" {Laue_Max_19070730.pdf}
13. ^ M. Laue, "Die Mitführung des
Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem
Relativitätsprinzip", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 328, Issue 10, pages
989–990,
1907. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19073281015/abstract "Th
e carrying of light through moving
bodies according to the principle of
relativity" {Laue_Max_19070730.pdf}
{07/30/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max von Laue." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-von-lau
e
[2] "Max von Laue". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Lau
e
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1914/laue-bio.html
[4] W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, M. Laue,
"Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract Lau
e_Max_19120504.pdf "Interference
effects in X-rays"
( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany11 12  
[1] Max von Laue, Nobel de Física em
1914. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
93 YBN
[09/14/1907 AD] 6 		6254)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p59.
2. ^ "vacuum cleaner." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vacuum-clea
ner
3. ^ "vacuum cleaner." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vacuum-clea
ner
4. ^ Spangler, U.S. Patent 889,823,
"Carpet Sweeper and
Cleaner" http://www.google.com/patents?
id=GD9OAAAAEBAJ
5. ^ "vacuum cleaner." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vacuum-clea
ner
6. ^ Spangler, U.S. Patent 889,823,
"Carpet Sweeper and
Cleaner" http://www.google.com/patents?
id=GD9OAAAAEBAJ {09/14/1907}
Canton, Ohio, USA4 5  
[1] Figure from: Spangler, U.S. Patent
889,823, ''Carpet Sweeper and
Cleaner'' http://www.google.com/patents
?id=GD9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GD9OAAAAEBAJ

[2] James Murray Spangler (verify) PD

source: http://www.ereplacementparts.com
/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/JMS.jpg

93 YBN
[09/21/1907 AD] 7 8 		4709)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
2. ^ "Boltwood,
Bertram Borden." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
518>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
4. ^ Boltwood, "Note
on a New Radio-Active Element", The
American journal of science,
p370. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Q7kEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA93&dq=Boltwood&hl=en&e
i=jJtYTPf7HYrUtQPUyYClCg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Boltwood&f=false
5. ^ Boltwood, "On Ionium, a New
Radio-active Element", American Journal
of Science, S4, V25, N149, May
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-3AWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA365&dq=Boltwood&hl=en&
ei=FZpYTO_sFZH2tgP_iY3CCg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFYQ6AEwC
Q#v=onepage&q=Boltwood&f=false
6. ^ "Bertram Borden Boltwood." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
7. ^ Boltwood, "Note on a New
Radio-Active Element", The American
journal of science,
p370. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Q7kEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA93&dq=Boltwood&hl=en&e
i=jJtYTPf7HYrUtQPUyYClCg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Boltwood&f=false
{09/21/1907}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bertram Borden Boltwood."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
[2] "Boltwood, Bertram Borden."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 257-260. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900510&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Bertram Borden Boltwood".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Bor
den_Boltwood
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA6  
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
93 YBN
[11/13/1907 AD] 13 		354)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
2. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
3. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
4. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
5. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
6. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
7. ^ "Paul Cornu." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/138077/Paul-Cornu>.
8. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
9. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
10. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
11. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p84.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/
Dictionary/Cornu/DI18.htm {11/13/1907}
 
[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg

[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg
93 YBN
[11/26/1907 AD] 5 6 		6263)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "television." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/television
2. ^ Stephen Herbert, "A history of
early television, Volume 1", 2004,
p4. books.google.com/books?id=89jS4JNWu
ZwC
3. ^ Boris Rosing, "Art of Electric
Telescopy", Patent number: 1161734,
Filing date: Apr 5, 1911, Issue date:
Nov 23,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=I
KRQAAAAEBAJ
4. ^ "television." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/television
5. ^ "television." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/television
{1907}
6. ^ "Boris Rosing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Rosin
g {11/26/1907 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] Hallwachs, Wilhelm. “Ueber
die Electrisirung von Metallplatten
durch Bestrahlung mit electrischem
Licht.” Annalen der Physik 270.8A
(1888):
731-734. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/andp.18882700809/abstract
[2] William Hallwachs, "On the
electrification of metal plates by
irradiation with electrical light",
Philosophical Magazine Series 5, Volume
26, Issue 158,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nZIOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA78
[3]
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/index.shtml
Petrograd3 , Russia4  
[1] Figure from: Boris Rosing, ''Art
of Electric Telescopy'', Patent number:
1161734, Filing date: Apr 5, 1911,
Issue date: Nov 23,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=I
KRQAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=IKRQAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA12

[2] Description Boris
Rozing Date 2010-07-03
10:15:57(UTC) (Original uploaded at
2008-07-28 23:55:26) Source
Original uploaded on
ru.wikipedia Author Original
uploaded by Vlas (Transfered by
Ravit) Description Русский:
Борис Розинг (,
советский физик Date
до 1920-х Source
http://www.tvcom.kherson.ua/cikavo.
files/istoriya_tv/istoriya_tv.files/rozi
ng.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Boris_Rozing.jpg
93 YBN
[12/04/1907 AD] 15 		4931)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
2. ^ A. Einstein,
"Relativitätsprinzip und die aus
demselben gezogenen Folgerungen",
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität, (1907) 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1908
0209.pdf} "On the Relativity Principle
and the Conclusions Drawn from It" in:
Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
v2, The Swiss years, writings,
1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) {Einstein_Albert_English_i
ncomplete_19080209.pdf} http://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&
lpg=PA252&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+
motion+retain+their+form%22&source=bl&ot
s=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjl
S9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20
equations%20of%20motion%20retain%20their
%20form%22&f=false
3. ^ On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
4. ^ Record ID2706. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A. Einstein,
"Relativitätsprinzip und die aus
demselben gezogenen Folgerungen",
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität, (1907) 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1908
0209.pdf} "On the Relativity Principle
and the Conclusions Drawn from It" in:
Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
v2, The Swiss years, writings,
1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) {Einstein_Albert_English_i
ncomplete_19080209.pdf} http://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&
lpg=PA252&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+
motion+retain+their+form%22&source=bl&ot
s=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjl
S9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20
equations%20of%20motion%20retain%20their
%20form%22&f=false
6. ^ Albert Einstein, Ann. Physik, 35,
898 (1911)
7. ^ Albert Einstein, Ann. Physik,
35, 898 (1911)
8. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P.
Schiffer, and A. B. Whitehead,
"Measurement of the Gravitational Red
Shift Using the Mössbauer Effect in
Fe57", Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 163–164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
9. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
10. ^ A. Einstein,
"Relativitätsprinzip und die aus
demselben gezogenen Folgerungen",
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1908
0209.pdf} "On the Relativity Principle
and the Conclusions Drawn from It" in:
Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
v2, The Swiss years, writings,
1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) {Einstein_Albert_English_i
ncomplete_19080209.pdf} http://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&
lpg=PA252&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+
motion+retain+their+form%22&source=bl&ot
s=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjl
S9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20
equations%20of%20motion%20retain%20their
%20form%22&f=false
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ A. Einstein,
"Relativitätsprinzip und die aus
demselben gezogenen Folgerungen",
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität, (1907),
4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1908
0209.pdf} "On the Relativity Principle
and the Conclusions Drawn from It" in:
Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
v2, The Swiss years, writings,
1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) {Einstein_Albert_English_i
ncomplete_19080209.pdf} http://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&
lpg=PA252&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+
motion+retain+their+form%22&source=bl&ot
s=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjl
S9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20
equations%20of%20motion%20retain%20their
%20form%22&f=false
15. ^ A. Einstein,
"Relativitätsprinzip und die aus
demselben gezogenen Folgerungen",
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität, (1907),
4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1908
0209.pdf} "On the Relativity Principle
and the Conclusions Drawn from It" in:
Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
v2, The Swiss years, writings,
1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) {Einstein_Albert_English_i
ncomplete_19080209.pdf} http://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&
lpg=PA252&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+
motion+retain+their+form%22&source=bl&ot
s=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjl
S9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20
equations%20of%20motion%20retain%20their
%20form%22&f=false {02/09/1908}
{12/04/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10]
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleine
rt/files/
[11] A. Einstein, "Über die von der
molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[12] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[13] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[14] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[15] Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation Versus Relativity", 1922,
[16]
Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
1987
(Moskau Ingenieure-Hochschule {Moscow
Engineering School}) Moscow, Russia?
(verify)14  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 5 6 		4149)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
2. ^ "Fischer, Emil
Hermann." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p538-539
4. ^ "Fischer, Emil
Hermann." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1907}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p538-539 {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Herman
n_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren,
Polypeptide und Proteine, 1899–1906
(Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id
=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Prot
eine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Y
k&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA
8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe,
1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPy
TLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>.
[6] "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[7] "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] Description Hermann Emil
Fischer.jpg Hermann Emil
Fischer Date 1902(1902) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Hermann_Emil_Fischer.
jpg

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 4 		4386)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
2. ^ "Frederick
Gowland Hopkins." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
3. ^ "Frederick Gowland Hopkins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
4. ^ "Frederick Gowland Hopkins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hopkins, Sir Frederick
Gowland." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9041
024>.
[2] "Frederick Gowland Hopkins."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
[3] "Hopkins, Frederick Gowland."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 498-502. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902048&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Frederick Gowland Hopkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_G
owland_Hopkins
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1929/hopkins-bio.html
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 11 		4416)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594.
2. ^ "Héroult, Paul
Louis Toussaint." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
319. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 4 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Héroult, Paul-Louis-Toussaint."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
210>.
4. ^ "Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 319. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Héroult, Paul-Louis-Toussaint."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
210>.
6. ^ "electric furnace." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
279>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Patent
815,016 June 14,
1905 http://www.google.com/patents?id=o
TlHAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
11. ^ "Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 319. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901969&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Louis Toussaint
Héroult". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Louis_
Toussaint_H%C3%A9roult
[2] "cryolite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cryolite
[3] "cryolite." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 04 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cryolite
[4] "Arc furnace". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_furnace

(Societe Electro Metallurgique
Francaise) Froges, Isere, France10
(presumably) 
[1] Note that this is an earlier
electric-arc furnace - perhaps change
date of this record.[t] PAUL LOUIS
TOUSSAINT HEROULT Patent number:
815016 Filing date: Jun 14,
1905 Issue date: Mar 1906 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=oTlHAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] French physicist and inventor Paul
Héroult (1863-1914) From
en.wikipedia :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PaulH
eroult.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/PaulHeroult.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 15 16 		4438) Einstein was a pupil of
Minkowski.11
Minkowski dies at age
44.12 (Neuron/particle beam murder?13
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599.
2. ^ "Minkowski,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
3. ^ Herman Minkowski (1908) "Raum und
Zeit", (Wikisource
Germany). http://de.wikisource.org/wiki
/Raum_und_Zeit_(Minkowski)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599.
5. ^ "Minkowski,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
6. ^ "Minkowski, Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 411-414. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 11 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902980&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Minkowski, Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599. {1907}
16. ^
"Minkowski, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Minkowski." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-min
kowski
[2] "Hermann Minkowski." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-min
kowski
[3] "Hermann Minkowski". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Min
kowski
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany14  
[1] Description De Raum Zeit Minkowski
012.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist ein Scan des
historischen Buches: English: This is
a scan of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski Permission (Reusing this
file) Out of copyright as author
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/De_Raum_Zeit_Minkowsk
i_012.jpg

[2] Description De Raum zeit
Minkowski Bild.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist
ein Auszug der Seite 5 des
Buches: English: This is a detail of
page 5 of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/De_Raum_zeit_Minkowsk
i_Bild.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 9 		4456)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p603.
3. ^ Pierre
Weiss, "L'hypothèse du champ
moléculaire et la propriété
ferromagnétique", Journal de physique,
4th ser., 6 (1907), 661–690;
http://jphystap.journaldephysique.org/
index.php?option=com_toc&url=/articles/j
phystap/abs/1907/01/contents/contents.ht
ml {Weiss_Pierre_1907.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Weiss, Pierre."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 243-247. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Weiss, Pierre."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 243-247. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Weiss, Pierre-Ernest."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 24 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
466>
[2] "Pierre Weiss". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Weis
s
[3]
http://theor.jinr.ru/~kuzemsky/pwbio.htm
l
(Zurich Polytechnikum) Zurich,
Switzerland8  
[1] Pierre-Ernest Weiss (1865–1940),
the french physicist, one of the
founders of the physics of
magnetism. UNKNOWN
source: http://theor.jinr.ru/~kuzemsky/w
eiss.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Paul Ehrenfest,
Paul Langevin, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes,
and Pierre Weiss at Onnes's home in
Leiden, the Netherlands (1920).
http://www-phase.c-strasbourg.fr/~morel/
hpa/weiss.htm Photo by Paul Ehrenfest's
(1880-1933) designee. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/EinsteinEhrenfestKame
rlingh-OnnesWeiss.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 5 		4516)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
2. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
3. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
4. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
5. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901} {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[3] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
[4] Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
[5] "Landsteiner, Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>.
(Pathological-Anatomical Institute)
Vienna4  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 11 12 		4764)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p639.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p639.
3. ^ "Urbain,
Georges." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 546-547.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904420&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p639.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p639.
6. ^ "lutetium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9049
429>.
7. ^ "lutetium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lutetium
8. ^ "lutetium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lutetium
9. ^ "lutetium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lutetium
10. ^ "Urbain, Georges." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 546-547. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904420&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p639. {1907}
12. ^
"lutetium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 27
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lutetium
{1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Urbain". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Urb
ain
[2] "Lutetium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutetium
(Sorbonne) Paris, France10  
[1] Lutetium Metal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.americanelements.com/
ingot.jpg

[2] Georges Urbain UNKNOWN
source: http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/im
age041.png
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 9 		4884) In 1928 Windaus wins the Nobel
prize in chemistry for studies on
cholesterol (steroid) structure,4 and
showing the connection between steroids
and vitamins.5 The sterols are complex
alcohols.6
Although Windaus is not a
supporter of the Hitler regime, Windaus
is allowed to continue his work because
of the reputation he had established.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p660-661.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661.
5. ^ "Adolf Otto
Reinhold Windaus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-otto-
reinhold-windaus
6. ^ "Adolf Windaus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/645115/Adolf-Windaus>.
7. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolf Windaus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Winda
us
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1928/windaus-bio.html
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany8  
[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg
92 YBN
[03/26/1908 AD] 7 		5881)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538
2. ^ Ramsay, William,
"Presidential address. Elements and
electrons", Journal of the Chemical
Society, Transactions, 1909, V95,
624-637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/CT909
9500624 and
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
landing/1909/ct/ct9099500624 {Ramsay_Wi
lliam_19080326.pdf}
3. ^ Ramsay, William, 1852-1916. "The
electron as an element ; Compounds of
electrons ; The disruption of the
so-called elements." 1915.
http://hdl.handle.net/1911/8591.
and http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed030p2.2
{Ramsay_William_1915xxxx.pdf}
4. ^ Ramsay, William, "Presidential
address. Elements and electrons",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
Transactions, 1909, V95,
624-637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/CT909
9500624 and
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
landing/1909/ct/ct9099500624 {Ramsay_Wi
lliam_19080326.pdf}
5. ^ Alfred Walter Stewart, "Recent
advances in physical and inorganic
chemistry", Longmans, Green and co.,
1920
http://books.google.com/books?id=8CBDA
AAAIAAJ
6. ^ Ramsay, William, "Presidential
address. Elements and electrons",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
Transactions, 1909, V95,
624-637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/CT909
9500624 and
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
landing/1909/ct/ct9099500624 {Ramsay_Wi
lliam_19080326.pdf}
7. ^ Ramsay, William, "Presidential
address. Elements and electrons",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
Transactions, 1909, V95,
624-637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/CT909
9500624 and
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
landing/1909/ct/ct9099500624 {Ramsay_Wi
lliam_19080326.pdf} {03/26/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[6] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[7] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[9] Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[10]
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
[11] William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[12] Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[13] "xenon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/xenon
[14] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[15] WILLIAM RAMSAY, "Experiments with
Kathode Rays", Nature 89, 502-502 (18
July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html
[16] W. Ramsay, "The electron as an
element", Journal of Chemical Education
1953 30 (1),
2 http://pubs.acs.org/action/showCitFor
mats?doi=10.1021%2Fed030p2.2
(University College) London, England6
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
92 YBN
[05/30/1908 AD] 5 		4902)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ C. G.
Barkla and C. A. Sadler, "Homogeneous
secondary Röntgen radiation",
http://books.google.com/books?id=hYTyA
7h4FAsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
hr4qP1z5lYIC&hl=en&ei=I5wSTfCkK5DAsAPl-L
zfCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=10&ved=0CEcQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=barkla&
f=false
4. ^ C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
"Homogeneous secondary Röntgen
radiation",
http://books.google.com/books?id=hYTyA
7h4FAsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
hr4qP1z5lYIC&hl=en&ei=I5wSTfCkK5DAsAPl-L
zfCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=10&ved=0CEcQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=barkla&
f=false
5. ^ C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
"Homogeneous secondary Röntgen
radiation",
http://books.google.com/books?id=hYTyA
7h4FAsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
hr4qP1z5lYIC&hl=en&ei=I5wSTfCkK5DAsAPl-L
zfCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=10&ved=0CEcQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=barkla&
f=false {05/30/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
[3] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[5] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
[6] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

[7] Barkla and Sadler, “secondary
X-Rays and the Atomic weight of
Nickel.”, Philosophical Magazine, 6th
ser., 14 (Sept, 1907),
408–422. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=EhQXBZ1r44AC&pg=PA408&dq=%22seconda
ry+X-Rays+and+the+Atomic+weight+of+Nicke
l%22&hl=en&ei=l2MJTdDmJ4XEsAOe8ujiDg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22secondary%20X
-Rays%20and%20the%20Atomic%20weight%20of
%20Nickel%22&f=false
[8] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Proc.
Roy. Soc. 74, 1905,
p474-475. http://books.google.com/books
?id=E41_hSvBIcEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN93660113&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[9] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Phil.
Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse
[10] William Henry Bragg, "Universe of
Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959, p233
[11]
J. L. Heilbron, "H. G. J. Moseley: the
life and letters of an English
physicist, 1887-1915", 1974.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vO0d-SB
w6DEC&pg=PA62&dq=barkla+bragg&hl=en&ei=g
rQKTZ-2I4_CsAOGyPDACg&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=barkla%20bragg&f=false
[12] Charles G. Barkla, "Polarisation
in Secondary Rontgen Radiation", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 6, 1906
77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html
[13] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
Röntgen radiation", Proceedings of the
Physical Society of London, 20, 200,
February 1906, also Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
11, Issue 66, 1906, Pages 812 –
828. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=%22Secondary+R%C
3%B6ntgen+radiation%22+intitle:philosoph
ical&hl=en&ei=y0wRTbaFLY64sAP-4JWnDw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false http://
www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~db
=all~content=a910485134~fulltext=7132409
30
[14] CHARLES G. BARKLA, "Secondary
Rontgen Rays and Atomic Weight", nature
73, 365-365 (15 February
1906) http://books.google.com/books?id=
zim4QGZtzrgC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%22I+
have+shown+that+all+the+phenomena+of+sec
ondary+radiation%22&source=bl&ots=jolG27
0T2e&sig=tafArmh0ggQUxaIqvvYRt7Nf_LU&hl=
en&ei=jvoLTcffOZC6sQPc4oiJCw&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AE
wAA#v=onepage&q=%22I%20have%20shown%20th
at%20all%20the%20phenomena%20of%20second
ary%20radiation%22&f=false and http://
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v73/n1894/
pdf/073365c0.pdf
[15] CHARLES G. BARKLA, "The Nature of
X-Rays", Nature, Volume 78 Number 2010
pp7, May 7,
1908. doi:10.1038/078007b0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v78/n2010/pdf/
078007b0.pdf
[16] Barkla and Sadler, "The Absorption
of Röntgen Rays", Phil. Mag., 17 (May
1909), 739–760;
[17] Sadler, “Transformations
of Röntgen Rays,” Phil. Mag., 18
(July 1909), 107–132;
[18] Barkla, “The
Spectra of the Fluorescent Röntgen
Radiations", Phil. Mag., 22
(Sept.1911), 396–412.
[19] C. G. BARKLA & C. A.
SADLER , "Absorption of X-Rays", nature
78, 245-245 (16 July
1908) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2020/pdf/078245c0.pdf
[20] "Barkla, Charles Glover." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 456-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900268&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[21] Barkla, “Notes on X-Rays and
Scattered Rays", Phil. Mag., S 6, Vol
15, N86, Feb 1908,
p.288. http://books.google.com/books?id
=DZMOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:hr4qP1z5lYIC&hl=en&ei=350STeHQHZSs
sAOFq4W7Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ba
rkla&f=false
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England4  
[1] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
92 YBN
[06/06/1908 AD] 9 		3616)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
2. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
3. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
4. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
5. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
6. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
9. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf} {06/06/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead &
Co.,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result
London, England8  
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
92 YBN
[06/18/1908 AD] 12 		4742)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
3. ^ "Rutherford,
Ernest." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the
α and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208.
5. ^ E.
Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A Method of
Counting the Number of α Particles
from Radio-active Matter", Memoirs of
the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3.
6. ^ E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of
α-Particles from Radio-active
Substances", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, Vol 81, 1908, pp141-61.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jaezA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22The+need+of+a+met
hod+of+counting%22&hl=en&ei=VQJzTLKrB4f6
swO78LXKDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20need%20of%20a%20method%20of%20cou
nting%22&f=false
7. ^ "Geiger, Hans (Johannes) Wilhelm."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ E.
Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A Method of
Counting the Number of α-Particles
from Radio-active Substances",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
Vol 81, 1908, pp141-61.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jaezA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22The+need+of+a+met
hod+of+counting%22&hl=en&ei=VQJzTLKrB4f6
swO78LXKDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20need%20of%20a%20method%20of%20cou
nting%22&f=false
12. ^ E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of
α-Particles from Radio-active
Substances", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, Vol 81, 1908, pp141-61.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jaezA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22The+need+of+a+met
hod+of+counting%22&hl=en&ei=VQJzTLKrB4f6
swO78LXKDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20need%20of%20a%20method%20of%20cou
nting%22&f=false {06/18/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England11  
[1] Figure 1 from E. Rutherford, H.
Geiger, ''A Method of Counting the
Number of α-Particles from
Radio-active Substances'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society, A, Vol 81, 1908,
pp141-61. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jaezAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22The+need+of
+a+method+of+counting%22&hl=en&ei=VQJzTL
KrB4f6swO78LXKDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=%22The%20need%20of%20a%20method%20of
%20counting%22&f=false

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
92 YBN
[06/18/1908 AD] 7 		4744)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
3. ^ E.
Rutherford, H. Geiger, "The Charge and
Nature of the α-Particle", Proceedings
of the Royal Society, A, Vol 81, 1908,
pp162-73.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ E. Rutherford,
H. Geiger, "The Charge and Nature of
the α-Particle", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, Vol 81, 1908,
pp162-73.
7. ^ E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "The
Charge and Nature of the α-Particle",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
Vol 81, 1908, pp162-73. {06/18/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3.
[25] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the
α and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208.
[26] E.
Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A Method of
Counting the Number of α-Particles
from Radio-active Substances",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
Vol 81, 1908, pp141-61.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jaezA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22The+need+of+a+met
hod+of+counting%22&hl=en&ei=VQJzTLKrB4f6
swO78LXKDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20need%20of%20a%20method%20of%20cou
nting%22&f=false
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England6  
[1] Figure 1 from E. Rutherford, H.
Geiger, ''A Method of Counting the
Number of α-Particles from
Radio-active Substances'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society, A, Vol 81, 1908,
pp141-61. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jaezAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22The+need+of
+a+method+of+counting%22&hl=en&ei=VQJzTL
KrB4f6swO78LXKDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=%22The%20need%20of%20a%20method%20of
%20counting%22&f=false

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
92 YBN
[06/20/1908 AD] 14 15 16 		4523)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
3. ^ "Hale,
George Ellery." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 26-34.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
5. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
7. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ George E. Hale, "A Test
of the Electromagnetic Theory of the
Hydrogen Vortices Surrounding
Sun-Spots", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 11, No. 11.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/84605?seq=5
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
13. ^ "Hale, George
Ellery." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 26-34.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
{06/20/1908}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623. {1908}
16. ^
"Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hale, George Ellery."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
862>
[2] "George Ellery Hale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[3] "George Ellery Hale." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[4] "George Ellery Hale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elle
ry_Hale
[5] George E. Hale, "Photography of the
Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H
[6] George Ellery Hale, "The new
heavens", 1922
http://books.google.com/books?id=bx0SA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22The+Ne
w+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrCsAP1xL
jaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19395/19
395-h/19395-h.htm
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA13  
[1] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg
92 YBN
[06/27/1908 AD] 17 18 19 		4190) In 1894 Kamerlingh Onnes
establishes the Cryogenic Laboratory at
Leiden University.12 13
In 1912
Kamerlingh Onnes is awarded the Rumford
medal.14
In 1913 Kamerlingh Onnes wins
the Nobel prize in physics for
liquefying helium.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
2. ^ Kamerlingh
Onnes, H., "The liquefaction of
helium.", Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Proceedings,
vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
4. ^ Kamerlingh
Onnes, H., "The liquefaction of
helium.", Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Proceedings,
vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
10. ^ Kamerlingh
Onnes, H., "The liquefaction of
helium.", Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Proceedings,
vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
13. ^ "Kamerlingh
Onnes, Heike." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
478>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
16. ^ "Heike
Kamerlingh Onnes." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 05 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
17. ^ Kamerlingh Onnes, H., "The
liquefaction of helium.", Koninklijke
Nederlandsche Akademie van
Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
{06/27/1908}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547. {1908}
19. ^
"Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
478>. {1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[2] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[3] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heike_Kamer
lingh_Onnes
[4] "Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 220-222. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html
[6] "Liquid Gases". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Liquid_G
ases
(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands16  
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
92 YBN
[08/12/1908 AD] 8 		4451)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Paschen, “Zur Kenntnis
ultraroter Linienspektra. I.
(Normalwellenlängen bis 27000
Å.-E),” in Annalen der Physik, 27
(1908), 537–570, received 12 Aug.
1908; W. Ritz, Gesammelte Werke, Pierre
Weiss, ed. (Paris, 1911), 521–525.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl
Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Paschen, “Zur Kenntnis
ultraroter Linienspektra. I.
(Normalwellenlängen bis 27000
Å.-E),” in Annalen der Physik, 27
(1908), 537–570, received 12 Aug.
1908; W. Ritz, Gesammelte Werke, Pierre
Weiss, ed. (Paris, 1911), 521–525.
{08/12/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "spectral line series."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
036>.
[2] "Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Carl_
Heinrich_Friedrich_Paschen
[3] Paschen, “Vita,” Dissertation
(1888); “Antrittsrede,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1925),
cii.
[4] Runge and Paschen. “Über das
Spectrum des Heliums,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1895), 593, 639–643, presented 20
June 1895: “Über die Bestandtheile
des Cleveit-Gases,” ibid., 749,
759–763. presented 11 July 1895;
Runge to Kayser, 15 May 1895 and 13
July 1895.
[5] Nature, V52, N1344, August 1,
1895,
p327. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZkYCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA484&dq=intitle:nature+
LII&hl=en&ei=U5wjTODOIp_hnQeqyO0m&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CD
AQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=runge&f=false
[6] "Runge, Carl David Tolmé."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 610-615. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903781&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] Runge and Paschen, “Über die
Serienspectra der Elemente. Saue toff.
Schwefel und Selen.” in Annalen der
Physik, 61 (1697), 641–686.
[8] "Solar and
terrestrial Helium", The Chemical News,
V71, N1855, June 14, 1895,
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YCLOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&v
ed=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
[9] "Carl David Tolmé Runge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_David_
Tolm%C3%A9_Runge
[10] henry Wilde, "On Helium and its
place in the Natural Classification of
Elementary Substances", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V400, N246, November
1895,
p466. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DlYwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&v
ed=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany7  
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg

[2] Description
CarleRunge.jpg Français : Portrait
de Carl David Tolmé Runge English:
Picture of en:Carl David Tolmé
Runge. Photographer and subject are
dead for >70years and therefore in the
public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ Date
2006-11-18 (first version);
2007-06-24 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was SuperGirl at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Kushboy at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/CarleRunge.jpg
92 YBN
[09/24/1908 AD] 4 		3617)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Notes", Nature 78, 513 - 517
(24 Sep 1908), doi: 10.1038/078513a0,
p514. {Knudsen_Hans_1908_typewriter.pdf
}
2. ^ "Notes", Nature 78, 513 - 517 (24
Sep 1908), doi: 10.1038/078513a0,
p514. {Knudsen_Hans_1908_typewriter.pdf
}
3. ^ "Notes", Nature 78, 513 - 517 (24
Sep 1908), doi: 10.1038/078513a0,
p514. {Knudsen_Hans_1908_typewriter.pdf
}
4. ^ "Notes", Nature 78, 513 - 517 (24
Sep 1908), doi: 10.1038/078513a0,
p514. {Knudsen_Hans_1908_typewriter.pdf
} {09/24/1908}
(Hotel Cecil) London, England3
(presumably) 		 
92 YBN
[12/09/1908 AD] 23 24 25 		4960) In 1946 Bridgman wis the Nobel
prize in physics.17
Bridgman writes
thoughtful books on the nature of
physics.18 (hints about thoughts?19 )
In
1961 Bridgman is incurably and
painfully ill, Bridgman shoots himself
to death, writing a note stating that
it was indecent of society to turn its
back and force him to end his life
without help or sympathy.20 (Neuron
writing could have ended the pain.
Stopping pain should be the focus of
research. Maybe some way of disabling
the pain nerve cells in the nerves or
brain. In addition, probably a legal
and consentual lethal injection would
be much less painful.21 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686.
2. ^ "Percy Williams
Bridgman." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percy-willi
ams-bridgman
3. ^ P. W. Bridgman, "The Measurement
of High Hydrostatic Pressure. I. A
Simple Primary Gauge", Proceedings of
the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8 (Feb., 1909),
pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
4. ^ "Percy Williams Bridgman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79392/Percy-Williams-Bridgman>.
5. ^ "Bridgman, Percy Williams."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 457-461. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900627&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Percy Williams Bridgman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percy-willi
ams-bridgman
7. ^ "Percy Williams Bridgman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79392/Percy-Williams-Bridgman>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686.
9. ^ "Percy Williams
Bridgman." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percy-willi
ams-bridgman
10. ^ "Percy Williams Bridgman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79392/Percy-Williams-Bridgman>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686.
13. ^ Bridgman, "The
Physics of High Pressure" (1931)
14. ^
American Scientist, Vol. 31, 1943
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p686.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
"Percy Williams Bridgman." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percy-willi
ams-bridgman
23. ^ Bridgman, "The Physics of High
Pressure" (1931) {12/08/1908}
24. ^ P. W. Bridgman,
"The Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
{12/08/1908}
25. ^ "Percy Williams Bridgman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percy-willi
ams-bridgman {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] P. W. Bridgman, "The
Technique of High Pressure
Experimenting", Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
Vol. 49, No. 11 (Feb., 1914), pp.
627-643. Published by: American
Academy of Arts & Sciences Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20025490
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA22  
[1] Figure 1 from: P. W. Bridgman,
''The Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge'',
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2002
2420?&Search=yes&searchText=j50000063&se
archText=j50000062&searchText=bridgman&l
ist=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicRe
sults%3Fhp%3D25%26la%3D%26so%3Dold%26wc%
3Don%26acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26jcpsi%3D1%2
6artsi%3D1%26Query%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26sbq%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26prq%3D%2528p.w.%2Bbridgma
n%2529%2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2B
OR%2Bj50000062%2529%26si%3D26%26jtxsi%3D
26&prevSearch=&item=43&ttl=927&returnArt
icleService=showFullText

[2] Description The image of
American physicist and Nobel laureate
Percy Williams Bridgman
(1882–1961) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 03:02, 26
December 2008 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Percy_Williams_Bridgman.jp
g
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 5 		3836)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dewar, James", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p248.
2. ^ "Dewar, James", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p248.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
5. ^ "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248.
{1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[3] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[6]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[7] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[8] J. Norman Lockyer, "Note on a
Recent Communication by Messrs. Liveing
and Dewar", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 29, (1879), pp.
45-47.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113733?seq=1

[9] G. D. Liveing, J. Dewar,
"Investigations on the Spectrum of
Magnesium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 44, 1888,
p.241-252. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
pdfplus/114722.pdf
[10] J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches on
the Spectra of Meteorites. A Report to
the Solar Physics Committee",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 43, 1887,
p.117. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/0h52655555557735/
[11]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=James+Dewar&sortorder=a
sc&o=1
[12]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=J.+Dewar&sortorder=asc&
o=1
[13] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[14] James Dewar, Humphrey Owen Jones,
"On the Magnetic Permeability of Liquid
Oxygen and Liquid Air",Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 60, 1896/1897,
p283-296. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0l13v534qj1xlh23/?p=ba531079
cd7b47cb8cfa0c3795e1302aπ=4
[15] J. A. Fleming, James Dewar, "On
the Magnetic Susceptibility of Liquid
Oxygen", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63,
1898,p311-329. http://journals.royalsoc
iety.org/content/tj78766853212804/?p=1dd
cc31e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=38
[16] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[17] James Dewar, Letter to President,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 50, 1892,
p247,261. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P6gOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247
[18] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
(Royal Institution) London, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD] 6 7 		4212)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
3. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
6. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699 {1908}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>.
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[10] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[11] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[12] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Eastman Kodak Company) New Jersey,
USA5 (presumably) 
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 5 6 		4214)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
5. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699 {1908}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[10] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[11] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[12] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(The Eastman Company) Rochester, NY,
USA4  
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 10 11 		4238)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cellophane." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557.
3. ^ "cellophane." A
Dictionary of Food and Nutrition.
Oxford University Press, 1995, 2003,
2005. Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
4. ^ "cellophane." A Dictionary of Food
and Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
5. ^ "cellophane." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
6. ^ "cellophane." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
7. ^ "cellophane." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
8. ^ "cellophane." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
9. ^
http://www.stiftungbrandenberger.ch/drbr
d_e.htm
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557. {1908}
11. ^
"cellophane." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
{1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Frederick Cross".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fre
derick_Cross
[2] E. F. Armstrong, "Charles Frederick
Cross. 1855-1935", Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 1,
No. 4 (Dec., 1935), pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
[3] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan, J. F. Briggs, "A text-book
of paper-making", Edition: 4 - 1916 -
507
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=mqRAAAAAIAAJ&dq=Charles+Frederick+Cross
&as_brr=1&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[4] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan , "Researches on
cellulose" Volume I
(1895-1900) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=jYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e Volume II
(1900-1905) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=zYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=7#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume III
(1905-1910) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=MZ49AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=8#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume IV
(1910-1921) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_J09AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=6#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5]
http://www.plastiquarian.com/crossbevan.
htm
[6] http://www.plastiquarian.com/ca.htm
Paris, France9 (presumably) 
[1] Dr. J. E. Brandenberger PD
source: http://www.stiftungbrandenberger
.ch/images/drbrand.JPG
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 8 		4344)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>.
7. ^ "Svante Arrhenius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579. {1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Svante Arrhenius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[2] "Svante Arrhenius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[3] "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 296-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900169&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Svante August Arrhenius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_Augu
st_Arrhenius
[5] Svante Arrhenius, "Recherches sur
la conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes",
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rech
erches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galvan
ique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_DiL
MK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
(Nobel Institute for Physical
Chemistry) Stockholm, Sweden6 7  
[1] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg

[2] Svante Arrhenius from German
Wikipedia: 19:30, 11. Sep 2004 . .
de:User:Matthias Bock (7044 Byte)
(Svante Arrhenius) Public Domain da
vor dem 1. Jan. 1923
veröffentlicht PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Arrhenius2.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 13 14 		4378) German inventor Hermann
Anschütz-Kaempfe (CE 1872-19312 )
develops the first workable
gyrocompass. A device which, once
properly aligned, always points to true
north.3

US inventor, Elmer Ambrose Sperry (CE
1860-1930), also invents a gyroscopic
compass.4 A gyroscopic compass uses
the fact that a turning gyroscope
maintains it plane of rotation and
resists being turned out of that plane.
A gyroscope is mounted on gimbals on a
ship so that the ship's movements can
not move the gyroscope out of it's
plane, and so the compass can identify
north and south correctly. This is the
first improvement to the compass (or
new compass design5 ) in 1000 years.
This compass is first used on board the
battleship "Delaware" in 1911 and is
adopted immediately by the US navy.6

If you try to tip a spinning gyroscope,
it will turn to one side in a
predictable way - called "precession."
In the same way, the force of a
spinning gyrostabilizer pushes a
rolling ship in the opposite direction
from the push of the waves. Sperry
invents a motion sensor, a motor to
amplify the effect of the sensor on the
gyroscope, and an automatic feedback
and control system. All work together
to make a much more effective
gyrostabilizer.7

Perry extends the gyro principle to
guidance of torpedoes, to gyropilots
for the steering of ships and for
stabilizing airplanes, and finally to a
ship stabilizer.8
(needs visual. How is
the gyroscope spun? How does the
gyroscope stay spinning? does it have
to or can people routinely give it a
spin to find north?9 )
(GPS, particle
communication with satellites probably
has replaced most location determining
equipment on more vehicles on and
around earth.10 )

Starting in 1894 Sperry makes electric
automobiles powered by his patented
storage battery.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Elmer Ambrose Sperry."
Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 16 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/559463/Elmer-Ambrose-Sperry>.
2. ^
http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n200
8053720.html
3. ^ "Elmer Ambrose Sperry."
Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 16 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/559463/Elmer-Ambrose-Sperry>.
4. ^ "Elmer Ambrose Sperry."
Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 16 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/559463/Elmer-Ambrose-Sperry>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p585.
7. ^ "Elmer Ambrose
Sperry." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elmer-ambro
se-sperry
8. ^ "Sperry, Elmer Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
088>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Sperry, Elmer
Ambrose." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 28
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
088>.
12. ^
http://www.raytheon-anschuetz.com/compan
y/about-us/history/
13. ^ "Elmer Ambrose Sperry."
Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 16 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/559463/Elmer-Ambrose-Sperry>.
14. ^
http://www.raytheon-anschuetz.com/compan
y/about-us/history/

MORE INFO
[1] "Sperry, Elmer Ambrose."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 574-575. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904099&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Elmer Ambrose Sperry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer_Ambro
se_Sperry
Kiel, Germany (presumably)12  
[1] [t presumably the Gyrocompass of
Anschütz-Kaempfe] In 1908, an
American inventor, Elmer Ambrosed
Sperry, obtained a patent in the United
States for his gyrocompass. When Sperry
tried to sell his gyrocompass to the
German marine force in 1914, Herman
Anschütz-Kaempfe sued Sperry for using
his patent. Ansch¸utz-Kaempfe won his
case in 1915. UNKNOWN
source: http://en.scantech-inc.com/img/h
_gyroh2.jpg

[2] Herman Anschütz-Kaempfe UNKNOWN

source: http://en.scantech-inc.com/img/h
_gyroh1.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 10 		4424)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
3. ^ "Ford,
Henry." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 8
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
4. ^ "Ford, Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596.
6. ^ "Ford, Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Ford, Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
415>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p595-596. {1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Ford." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 08 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-ford
[2] "Henry Ford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford
(Detroit Automobile Company) Detroit,
Michigan, USA9  
[1] 1910Ford-T.jpg English: 1910 Model
T Ford, SLC, UT Date
1910(1910) Source Commercial
photo for advertisement, published
1910. PhotographerShipler Commercial
Photographers; Shipler, Harry URL:
http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/item_vi
ewer.php?CISOROOT=/USHS_Shipler&CISOPTR=
2629&CISOBOX=1&REC=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/74/1910Ford-T.jpg

[2] Henry Ford 1888 source:
http://www.gpschools.org/ci/depts/eng/k5
/third/fordpic.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Henry_Ford_1888.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 12 13 		4474) During 1902-1904 Miller works
with Morley to confirm the
Michelson-Morley results.5
Repeating
the measurement by himself on Mt.
Wilson, California, between 1921 and
1926, Miller finds a positive effect
corresponding to an apparent relative
motion of the earth and the ether of
some ten kilometers per second in the
plane of the interferometer. Though
this velocity is about 70 percent less
than expected, Miller puts forward this
result as a evidence against
Einstein’s theory of relativity,
which Miller rejects to the end of his
life.6

Miller rejects Einstein's theories that
arise out of the Michelson-Morley
experiment and continues to search for
evidence of an "ether-drift", which
would disprove relativity.7 (Note that
I don't think that evidence for ether
would disprove relativity, which grew
from the Fitzgerald-Lorentz attempt to
save the ether theory. So evidence
against an aether, in addition to
evidence against the supposed space
contraction/dilation claimed by George
FitzGerald, and applied to time by
Hendrik Lorentz, would probably do more
to disprove the claims of the theory of
relativity. Beyond that, evidence
disputing the claim of light having a
constant velocity, like the Pound-Rebka
experiment would perhaps do more to
directly dismantle the theories of
relativity or at least the light as a
constant velocity massless particle
theory.8 )

See also 9 for descriptions of
Miller's efforts.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p609.
3. ^ "Miller,
Dayton Clarence." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
386-387. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902964&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609.
6. ^ "Miller, Dayton
Clarence." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 386-387.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902964&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
Swenson, Loyd S, "The ethereal aether;
a history of
the Michelson-Morley-Miller
aether-drift experiments, 1880-1930",
Austin, University of Texas Press,
1972, p235. {ULSF: see table comparing
emission, wave, and relativity
theories.}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Miller, Dayton
Clarence." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 386-387.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902964&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Miller, Dayton Clarence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 386-387. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902964&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1908}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p609. {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dayton Clarence Miller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton_Clar
ence_Miller
(Case School of Applied Science)
Cleveland, Ohio, USA11  
[1] Description Dayton Miller
1921.jpg English: Dayton Miller in
1921. Head and shoulders portrait of
Dayton C. Miller. He was was an
American physicist, astronomer,
acoustician, and accomplished amateur
flautist. In the picture he is turned
slightly left, but faces viewer. He
wears a suit, white shirt with high
collar, and a tie. Date
1921(1921) Source LOC
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.music/dcmphot.m00
48 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Dayton_Miller_1921.jp
g
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 7 8 		4517)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
2. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 12
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>. {1901}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p621-622. {1908
(verify}
8. ^ Ted Huntington. {1908 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[3] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
[4] Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
(Royal-Imperial Wilhelminen Hospital)
Vienna6  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 26 		4527) One result of Leavitt's work on
stellar magnitudes is her discovery of
some 2,400 variable stars, more than
half of all variable stars known even
by 1930.19 Variable stars need to have
their intensities compared over time.20
 In addition Leavitt discovers 4
novas.21 (nova as in exonebula?22 )
Like
her colleague Annie Cannon, Leavitt is
extremely deaf.23 (Neuron writing may
cure deafness for some people, but is
being withheld and selfishly horded by
terrible people.24 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p623.
2. ^ "Leavitt,
Henrietta Swan." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 105-106.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902515&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Henrietta Leavitt, "1777 Variables
in the Magellanic Clouds",Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 60, no. 4,
Annals of Harvard College Observatory,
vol. 60, pp.87-108,
300,1908. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1908AnHar..60...87L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zZ
sRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+the
+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&source=
bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8r8b
oi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q3CA
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20the
%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compariso
n%22&f=false {Leavitt_Henrietta_1908.pd
f}
4. ^ Henrietta Leavitt, "1777 Variables
in the Magellanic Clouds",Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 60, no. 4,
Annals of Harvard College Observatory,
vol. 60, pp.87-108,
300,1908. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1908AnHar..60...87L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zZ
sRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+the
+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&source=
bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8r8b
oi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q3CA
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20the
%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compariso
n%22&f=false {Leavitt_Henrietta_1908.pd
f}
5. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 105-106. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902515&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Henrietta Swan Leavitt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
7. ^ "Henrietta Swan Leavitt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p623.
9. ^ "Leavitt,
Henrietta Swan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 14 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society, V92,
N4, 10/1948,
p311. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SFTefBMfs9wC&pg=PA311&dq=periods+of+25+v
ariable+stars+small+magellanic+cloud&hl=
en&ei=HFI_TOjXNY-esQOH3aj2CA&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDMQ6AE
wAA#v=onepage&q=periods%20of%2025%20vari
able%20stars%20small%20magellanic%20clou
d&f=false
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta
Swan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta
Swan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Henrietta Swan
Leavitt." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta
Swan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
26. ^ Henrietta Leavitt, "1777
Variables in the Magellanic
Clouds",Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, 60, no. 4, Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, vol. 60,
pp.87-108,
300,1908. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1908AnHar..60...87L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zZ
sRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+the
+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&source=
bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8r8b
oi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q3CA
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20the
%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compariso
n%22&f=false {Leavitt_Henrietta_1908.pd
f}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
[2] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_S
wan_Leavitt
[3] Solon I. Bailey, "Henrietta Swan
Leavitt" (obituary), Popular Astronomy,
V30, N4, April
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rzYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA197&lpg=PA197&dq=Solon
+I.+Bailey+in+Popular+Astronomy++leavitt
&source=bl&ots=VNqmN_m2oF&sig=xP3jSu5j8h
h_vECKwmtWn_aMaCg&hl=en&ei=7k8_TKiMHY3Ss
AOc0N32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA25  
[1] Table of variable star periods from
Henrietta Leavitt, ''1777 Variables
in the Magellanic Clouds'',Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 60, no. 4,
Annals of Harvard College Observatory,
vol. 60, pp.87-108, 300,1908. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zZsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+
the+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&sour
ce=bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8
r8boi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q
3CAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20
the%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compar
ison%22&f=false

[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 16 		4531)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
4. ^ "Haber, Fritz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>.
5. ^ Vaclav Smil, Enriching the Earth:
Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the
Transformation of
... http://books.google.com/books?hl=en
&lr=&id=G9FljcEASycC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=h
aber+1908&ots=qMZ_PGXSSJ&sig=9NbLXBWWgbS
xyzUoNwpJXj5370U#v=onepage&q=haber%20190
8&f=false
6. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1918/haber-bio.html
7. ^ "Haber, Fritz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
11. ^ "ammonia."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ammonia
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ "Haber, Fritz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>.
16. ^ "Haber, Fritz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>. {1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fritz Haber." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-haber

[2] "Fritz Haber." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-haber

[3] Johnson, Jeffrey Allan. "Haber,
Fritz." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 203-206.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 15
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905716&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Fridericiana Technische Hochschule)
Karlsruhe, Germany15  
[1] Haber's experimental converter for
ammonia synthesis 1909. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=G9FljcEASycC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&d
q=haber+1908&ots=qMZ_PGXSSJ&sig=9NbLXBWW
gbSxyzUoNwpJXj5370U#v=onepage&q=haber%20
1908&f=false

[2] Fritz Haber. Fritz Haber, November
26, 1919. HULTON ARCHIVE/GETTY
IMAGES. PD
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0021_0_img4740&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c3f8e43&digest=9
de3dd036d11af1ee6fa07424825d7d0
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 11 		4718)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
2. ^ "gamboge." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gamboge
3. ^ Perrin, "Grandeur des molecules et
charge de l'electron.", Comptes Rendus,
V147, 1908,
p594-596. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k31014.image.f594.langEN {Perri
n_Jean_1908.pdf}
4. ^ American Chemical Society.
Chemical Abstracts Service, Chemical
abstracts, Volume 3, Part 1, 1908,
p862.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VopMA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chemical+
abstracts&hl=en&ei=2BNbTIyKEIy8sQOs7eEG&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=perrin&f=fals
e
5. ^ "The Brownian Movement and
Molecular Constants.", American
Chemical Society. Chemical Abstracts
Service, Chemical abstracts, Volume 4,
Part 1, 1910, p269.
6. ^ American Chemical
Society. Chemical Abstracts Service,
Chemical abstracts, Volume 3, Part 1,
1908, p862.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VopMA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chemical+
abstracts&hl=en&ei=2BNbTIyKEIy8sQOs7eEG&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=perrin&f=fals
e
7. ^ "mole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Aug.
2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/mole
8. ^ Perrin, Mouvement brownien
et constantes moleculaires", Comptes
Rendus, V149, 1909,
p477-479. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3103r.image.f477.langEN
9. ^ Perrin, Mouvement brownien et
constantes moleculaires", Comptes
Rendus, V149, 1909,
p477-479. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3103r.image.f477.langEN
10. ^ "Perrin, Jean Baptiste." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 524-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903358&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Perrin, "Grandeur des molecules
et charge de l'electron.", Comptes
Rendus, V147, 1908,
p594-596. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k31014.image.f594.langEN {Perri
n_Jean_1908.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Perrin
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[4] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, "Introduction to general
chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
[5] J. Perrin, "Nouvelles proprietes
des rayons cathodiques.",Comptes
Rendus, V121, 1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN Englis
h translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
[6] Report of the annual meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Issue 66, 1896,
p702. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lOs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA701&dq=cathode+rays+Pe
rrin&hl=en&ei=Ku1ZTLbSAYK-sQOt-KyrCA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cathode%20rays%2
0Perrin&f=false
[7] Jean Perrin, translated by
Frederick Soddy, "Brownian movement and
molecular reality",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eARJAAAAIAAJ&q=perrin+einstein&dq=perrin
+einstein&hl=en&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcD
Q&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA
[8] "Perrin, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
322>
(École Normale) Paris, France10  
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 5 		4723)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632-633.
2. ^ "Ricketts,
Howard T." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>.
3. ^ "Ricketts, Howard Taylor."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 09 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ricketts-ho
ward-taylor
4. ^ "Ricketts, Howard T."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>.
5. ^ "Ricketts, Howard T."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>. {1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ricketts, Howard Taylor."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 442-443. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903670&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Howard Taylor Ricketts".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Tayl
or_Ricketts
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA4  
[1] Howard Taylor Ricketts
(1871-1910) American physician PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ricketts_Howard_Taylo
r_1871-1910.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 11 12 		4773) Early in his career, Willstätter
works on the structure of alkaloids and
throws light on such important
compounds as cocaine, which he
synthesizes in 1923, and atropine.5
In
1915 Willstätter wins the Nobel Prize
in chemistry for work on plant
pigments.6
In the 1920s Willstätter
claims to have isolated active enzymes
with no trace of protein, and this view
is widely accepted until Sumner and
Northrop demonstrate that enzymes are
proteins in 1930.7 8
In 1924, being a
Jewish person Willstätter resigns his
post at Munich in protest against
anti-Semitic pressures. Willstätter
continues his work privately, first in
Munich and, from 1939, in Switzerland.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642-643.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p642-643.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642-643.
4. ^ "Richard
Willstätter." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-wil
lst-tter
5. ^ "Richard Willstätter." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-wil
lst-tter
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642-643.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p642-643.
8. ^ "Richard
Willstätter." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-wil
lst-tter
9. ^ "Willstätter, Richard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
108>.
10. ^ "Willstätter, Richard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 411-412. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904674&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Alfred Walter Stewart, Recent
advances in organic chemistry, 1920,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mRpDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA210&dq=Willst%C3%A4tte
r+magnesium&hl=en&ei=8Bd8TJSyEYeasAO5oty
CBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
{1908}
12. ^ Willstätter and Pfannenstiel,
Annalen, 1908, 358, 215

MORE INFO
[1] "Richard Willstätter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wil
lst%C3%A4tter
[2] Willstätter, Stoll,
"Untersuchungen über Chlorophyll"
(Berlin, 1913), translation by F. M.
Schertz and A. R. Merz, as
"Investigations on Chlorophyll"
(Lancaster, Pa., 1928).
http://books.google.com/books?id=VmLXA
AAAMAAJ&q=Investigations+on+Chlorophyll&
dq=Investigations+on+Chlorophyll&hl=en&e
i=aBZ8TL0OhPa2A7-unYUH&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA h
ttp://openlibrary.org/books/OL6712811M/I
nvestigations_on_chlorophyll
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1915/willstatter-bio.html

(Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule)
Zurich, Switzerland10  
[1] * Title: Richard Willstätter
* Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Richard_Willst%C3%A4t
ter.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 14 15 16 		4813) Coolidge with Langmuir develops
the first successful
submarine-detection system during World
War I.9
During World War II, Coolidge
is involved in atomic bomb research in
Hanford, Washington.10
Coolidge is a
distant cousin of US President Calvin
Coolidge.11
Coolidge lives to 101.12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p648.
3. ^ W. Coolidge,
"Ductile Tungsten", Transactions of the
American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, 29, pt. 2 (1910),
961–965 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Ni8SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA961&dq=Ductile+Tun
gsten&hl=en&ei=TiemTL_bL4yasAPZ2_GOBA&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved
=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Ductile%20Tungs
ten&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648.
5. ^ "sintering."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 01
Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sintering
6. ^
http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_pr
ocessing/swaging.cfm
7. ^ "Coolidge, William David."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 178-179. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905062&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p648.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p648.
13. ^ "Coolidge,
William David." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 178-179.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905062&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ "William D. Coolidge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/136190/William-D-Coolidge>. {1908}
15. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648. {1909}
16. ^ Patent
963,872 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=M4RgAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&
f=false {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "William David Coolidge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dav
id_Coolidge
[2]
http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unit
arians/coolidge.html
[3] W. Coolidge, “A Powerful Röntgen
Ray Tube with a Pure Electron
Discharge", Physical Review. 2nd ser. 2
(1913), 409–430
(Research Laboratory of the General
Electric Company) Schenectady, New
York, in 1900.13  
[1] William David Coolidge UNKNOWN
source: http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.
org/unitarians/images/coolidge6.jpg

[2] William David Coolidge in the GE
research lab with his 2 million volt
x-ray tube UNKNOWN
source: http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.
org/unitarians/images/coolidge3.jpg
91 YBN
[02/08/1909 AD] 17 18 		4428)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596-597.
2. ^ "Baekeland, Leo
Hendrik." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
719>.
3. ^ L. H. Baekeland, "The Synthesis,
Constitution, and Uses of Bakelite."
Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1 (3), DOI:
10.1021/ie50003a004, March 1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004
4. ^ "Leo Hendrik Baekeland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leo-baekela
nd
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p596-597.
7. ^ "Baekeland Leo
Hendrik." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 385.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900218&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Baekeland Leo Hendrik." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 385. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900218&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ L. H. Baekeland, "The
Synthesis, Constitution, and Uses of
Bakelite." Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1
(3), DOI: 10.1021/ie50003a004, March
1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ L. H.
Baekeland, "The Synthesis,
Constitution, and Uses of Bakelite."
Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1 (3), DOI:
10.1021/ie50003a004, March 1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ L. H.
Baekeland, "The Synthesis,
Constitution, and Uses of Bakelite."
Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1 (3), DOI:
10.1021/ie50003a004, March 1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004
17. ^ "Baekeland Leo Hendrik." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 385. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900218&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {02/08/1909}
18. ^ L. H. Baekeland,
"The Synthesis, Constitution, and Uses
of Bakelite." Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1
(3), DOI: 10.1021/ie50003a004, March
1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004 {02/08/1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leo Hendrik Baekeland."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 09 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leo-baekela
nd
[2] "Leo Hendrik Baekeland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Hendrik
_Baekeland
[3]
http://www.google.com/patents?id=hLVBAAA
AEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&source=gb
s_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
(announced at: American Chemical
Society lecture) New York City, NY,
USA16 (presumably) 
[1] Leo Baekeland UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/Le
o%20Hendrik%20Baekeland.jpg

[2] Leo Baekeland in lab UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/ba
ekeland.jpg
91 YBN
[04/06/1909 AD] 8 9 		4244)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p560.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560.
4. ^ "Robert E.
Peary." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560.
6. ^ "Peary, Robert
Edwin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 18
Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
888>.
7. ^ "Robert E. Peary." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560. {04/06/1909}
9. ^ "Robert E.
Peary." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary {04/06/1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert E. Peary." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
[2] "Robert Edwin Peary". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Edwi
n_Peary
[3] "Robert Edwin Peary." Science and
Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 5: 1800 to 1899. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 97. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 18 Feb. 2010.
Greenland7  
[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
. 04/1909 PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg

[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g
91 YBN
[05/??/1909 AD] 11 		4903)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Barkla
and Sadler, "The Absorption of Röntgen
Rays", Phil. Mag., 17 (May 1909),
739–760;
{Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Barkla, Charles Glover." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 456-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900268&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Barkla and
Sadler, "The Absorption of Röntgen
Rays", Phil. Mag., 17 (May 1909),
739–760;
{Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf} {05/190
9}
11. ^ Barkla and Sadler, "The
Absorption of Röntgen Rays", Phil.
Mag., 17 (May 1909), 739–760;
{Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf} {05/190
9}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
[3] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[5] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
[6] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

[7] Barkla and Sadler, “secondary
X-Rays and the Atomic weight of
Nickel.”, Philosophical Magazine, 6th
ser., 14 (Sept, 1907),
408–422. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=EhQXBZ1r44AC&pg=PA408&dq=%22seconda
ry+X-Rays+and+the+Atomic+weight+of+Nicke
l%22&hl=en&ei=l2MJTdDmJ4XEsAOe8ujiDg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22secondary%20X
-Rays%20and%20the%20Atomic%20weight%20of
%20Nickel%22&f=false
[8] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Proc.
Roy. Soc. 74, 1905,
p474-475. http://books.google.com/books
?id=E41_hSvBIcEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN93660113&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[9] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Phil.
Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse
[10] William Henry Bragg, "Universe of
Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959, p233
[11]
J. L. Heilbron, "H. G. J. Moseley: the
life and letters of an English
physicist, 1887-1915", 1974.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vO0d-SB
w6DEC&pg=PA62&dq=barkla+bragg&hl=en&ei=g
rQKTZ-2I4_CsAOGyPDACg&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=barkla%20bragg&f=false
[12] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
Röntgen radiation", Proceedings of the
Physical Society of London, 20, 200,
February 1906, also Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
11, Issue 66, 1906, Pages 812 –
828. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=%22Secondary+R%C
3%B6ntgen+radiation%22+intitle:philosoph
ical&hl=en&ei=y0wRTbaFLY64sAP-4JWnDw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false http://
www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~db
=all~content=a910485134~fulltext=7132409
30
[13] CHARLES G. BARKLA, "Secondary
Rontgen Rays and Atomic Weight", nature
73, 365-365 (15 February
1906) http://books.google.com/books?id=
zim4QGZtzrgC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%22I+
have+shown+that+all+the+phenomena+of+sec
ondary+radiation%22&source=bl&ots=jolG27
0T2e&sig=tafArmh0ggQUxaIqvvYRt7Nf_LU&hl=
en&ei=jvoLTcffOZC6sQPc4oiJCw&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AE
wAA#v=onepage&q=%22I%20have%20shown%20th
at%20all%20the%20phenomena%20of%20second
ary%20radiation%22&f=false and http://
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v73/n1894/
pdf/073365c0.pdf
[14] CHARLES G. BARKLA, "The Nature of
X-Rays", Nature, Volume 78 Number 2010
pp7, May 7,
1908. doi:10.1038/078007b0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v78/n2010/pdf/
078007b0.pdf
[15] Sadler, “Transformations of
Röntgen Rays,” Phil. Mag., 18 (July
1909), 107–132;
[16] Barkla, “The Spectra of
the Fluorescent Röntgen Radiations",
Phil. Mag., 22 (Sept.1911), 396–412
[17] C. G.
BARKLA & C. A. SADLER , "Absorption of
X-Rays", nature 78, 245-245 (16 July
1908) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2020/pdf/078245c0.pdf
[18] Barkla, “Notes on X-Rays and
Scattered Rays", Phil. Mag., S 6, Vol
15, N86, Feb 1908,
p.288. http://books.google.com/books?id
=DZMOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:hr4qP1z5lYIC&hl=en&ei=350STeHQHZSs
sAOFq4W7Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ba
rkla&f=false
[19] Charles G. Barkla, "Polarisation
in Secondary Rontgen Radiation", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 6, 1906
77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England10  
[1] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf

[2] Figures from: Barkla and Sadler,
''The Absorption of Röntgen Rays'',
Phil. Mag., 17 (May 1909), 739–760;
{Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf} PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
91 YBN
[07/12/1909 AD] 13 14 		4475)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p610-611.
2. ^ "Nicolle,
Charles-Jules-Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
757>.
3. ^ NICOLLE, CH. Reproduction
experimentale du typhus exanthematique
chez le singe. Comptes-Rendus de
t'Acadenie des Sciences, seance du 12
juillet 1909,
p157-160. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3103r.image.f157.langEN NICOLL
E, CH., COMTE, CH. et CONSEIL, E.
Transmission experimentale du
typhus exanthematique par le pou du
corps. Comptes-Rendus de l'Academie
des Sciences, seance du 6 septembre
1909. Charles Nicolle, "Recherches
expérimentales sur le typhus
exanthématique,” in Annales de
l’lnstitut Pasteur. 24 (1910),
243-275 : 25 (1911), 97- 144; and 26
(1912), 250-280, 332-335.
4. ^ "typhus."
Encyclopedia of Medicine. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/typhus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p610-611.
6. ^ "Charles
Nicolle." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-nic
olle
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Charles
Nicolle." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-nic
olle
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p610-611.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"Nicolle, Charles-Jules-Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
757>.
13. ^ NICOLLE, CH. Reproduction
experimentale du typhus exanthematique
chez le singe. Comptes-Rendus de
t'Acadenie des Sciences, seance du 12
juillet 1909,
p157-160. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3103r.image.f157.langEN NICOLL
E, CH., COMTE, CH. et CONSEIL, E.
Transmission experimentale du
typhus exanthematique par le pou du
corps. Comptes-Rendus de l'Academie
des Sciences, seance du 6 septembre
1909. Charles Nicolle, "Recherches
expérimentales sur le typhus
exanthématique,” in Annales de
l’lnstitut Pasteur. 24 (1910),
243-275 : 25 (1911), 97- 144; and 26
(1912), 250-280, 332-335. {07/12/1909}
14. ^
"Nicolle, Charles-Jules-Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
757>. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolle,Charles Jules
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 453-455.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904923&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Charles Jules Henri Nicolle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Jul
es_Henri_Nicolle
(Pasteur Institute in Tunis) Tunis,
Tunisia12  
[1] Description Body
lice.jpg English: This 2006 photograph
depicted a dorsal view of a male body
louse, Pediculus humanus var. corporis.
Some of the external morphologic
features displayed by members of the
genus Pediculus include an elongated
abdominal region without any processes,
and three pairs of legs, all equal in
length and width. The distal tip of the
male’s abdomen is rounded, whereas,
the female’s (PHIL# 9202) is concave.
Body lice are parasitic insects that
live on the body, and in the clothing
or bedding of infested humans.
Infestation is common, found worldwide,
and affects people of all races. Body
lice infestations spread rapidly under
crowded conditions where hygiene is
poor, and there is frequent contact
among people. Note the sensorial setae,
or hairs that cover the louse’s body,
which pick up, and transmit information
to the insect about changes in its
environment such as temperature, and
chemical queues. The dark mass inside
the abdomen is a previously ingested
blood meal. Janice Harney Carr Date
2006(2006) Source US CDC
logo.svg This media comes from the
Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention's Public Health Image
Library (PHIL), with identification
number #9217. Note: PHIL pages
cannot be bookmarked; instead enter
9217 into the ID search page. Not all
PHIL images are public domain; be sure
to check copyright status and credit
authors and content providers. Author
Janice Harney Carr, Center for
Disease Control PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Body_lice.jpg

[2] Description Charles Nicolle at
microscope.jpg Français : La photo la
plus connue de Charles Nicolle. Cet
exemplaire est dédicacé à Henri
Roussel. English: The most famous
photo of Charles Nicolle. This copy is
inscribed to Henri Roussel. Date
27 January
2008(2008-01-27) Source Personal
collection Author Roland
Huet PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Charles_Nicolle_at_mi
croscope.jpg
91 YBN
[09/??/1909 AD] 12 		4729) Jean Baptiste Perrin (PeraN,
PeriN or PeroN) (CE 1870-1942), French
physicist4 , determines the
"corpuscular mass" of an atom of
hydrogen writing (translated from
French):
"...Lastly, the mass of one of the
identical corpuscles which carry the
negative electricity of the
cathode-rays or of the B-rays is itself
obtained accurately, since it is known
that it is 1775 times smaller than that
of the atom of hydrogen (Classen). This
corpuscular mass, the latest element of
matter revealed to man, is thus
c=0.805 x
10-27.
...
Lastly, even the diameter of the
corpuscle can be arrived at, if it is
supposed, with Sir J. J. Thomson, that
all its inertia is of electromagnetic
origin, in which case its diameter is
given by the equation

D=4/3 e2/mV2 ,

where V signifies the velocity of
light, m the mass of the corpuscle and
e its charge, that is to say 4.1 x
10-10. From this there results for D
the value 0.33 x 10-12, a value
enormously smaller than the diameter of
the smallest atoms. ...".5

(This is perhaps as close as any person
has publicly tried to determine the
mass of a particle of light, or some
basic particle that is thought to be
the basis of all matter, that is, to
express matter in terms of number of
light particles, or smallest known
particles.6 )

Perrin gives early evidence of
microscopic neuron reader and writer
devices writing (translated to
English):
"..The singular phenomenon discovered
by Brown {ULSF: Brownian motion} did
not attract much attention. It
remained, moreover, for a long time
ignored by the majority of physicists,
and it may be supposed that those who
had heard of it thought it analogous to
the movement of the dust particles,
which can be seen dancing in a ray of
sunlight, under the influence of feeble
currents of air which set up small
difference of pressure or temperature.
When we reflect that this apparent
explanation was able to satisfy even
thoughtful minds, we ought the more to
admire the acuteness of those
physicists, who have recognised in
this, supposed insignificant,
phenomenon a fundamental property of
matter. ...".7 The statistical
probability of finding the word
"thought" three times in the same
paragraph and "dust particles" implies
that this is a historical reference
indicating that microscopic secret
camera, and neuron reading and writing
devices have already been created by
1909. Looking through the rest of the
work, there is very little use of the
word "thought" in any other part.8 The
French part in question reads:
"... Le
phénomène singulier découvert par
Brown n'attira pas beaucoup
l'attention.
Il resta d'ailleurs longtemps ignoré
de la plupart des physiciens, et l'on
peut supposer que ceux qui en avaient
entendu parler le croyaient analogue au
mouvement des poussières qu'on voit
danser dans un rayon de Soleil sous
l'action des faibles courants d'air que
provoquent de petites différences de
pression ou de température. Si l'on
comprend que cette apparente
explication aitpu satisfaire même des
esprits réfléchis, on doit admirer
d'autant plus la pénétration des
physiciens qui ont su distinguer une
propriété fondamentale de la matière
dans le phénomène qu'on pensait
insignifiant. ...".9 Note that
"croyaient" is "thought", "réfléchis"
is "thoughtful" ("esprits réfléchis"
is "thoughtful minds") and third
"pensait" is "thought".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
3. ^ Perrin,
Mouvement Brownien et Realite
Moleculaire", Annales de chimie et de
physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
5. ^ Perrin,
Mouvement Brownien et Realite
Moleculaire", Annales de chimie et de
physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Perrin, Mouvement
Brownien et Realite Moleculaire",
Annales de chimie et de physique, S8,
09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Perrin, Mouvement
Brownien et Realite Moleculaire",
Annales de chimie et de physique, S8,
09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Perrin, Mouvement
Brownien et Realite Moleculaire",
Annales de chimie et de physique, S8,
09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
12. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Perrin
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[4] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, "Introduction to general
chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
[5] J. Perrin, "Nouvelles proprietes
des rayons cathodiques.",Comptes
Rendus, V121, 1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN Englis
h translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
[6] Report of the annual meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Issue 66, 1896,
p702. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lOs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA701&dq=cathode+rays+Pe
rrin&hl=en&ei=Ku1ZTLbSAYK-sQOt-KyrCA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cathode%20rays%2
0Perrin&f=false
[7] "Perrin, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
322>
[8] Jean Perrin, translated by
Frederick Soddy, "Brownian movement and
molecular reality",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eARJAAAAIAAJ&q=perrin+einstein&dq=perrin
+einstein&hl=en&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcD
Q&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA
[9] Perrin, "Grandeur des molecules et
charge de l'electron.", Comptes Rendus,
V147, 1908,
p594-596. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k31014.image.f594.langEN
[10] American Chemical Society.
Chemical Abstracts Service, Chemical
abstracts, Volume 3, Part 1, 1908,
p862.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VopMA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chemical+
abstracts&hl=en&ei=2BNbTIyKEIy8sQOs7eEG&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=perrin&f=fals
e
[11] "mastic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mastic
[12] M. Chaudesaigues , "Le mouvement
brownien et la formule d'Einstein",
Comptes Rendus, V147,
1908. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31014.image.f1044.langEN
[13] "Jean Baptiste Perrin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[14] Perrin, "Le Atoms",
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
p206AAAAMAAJ&dq=le%20atoms%20perrin&sour
ce=gbs_slider_thumb translated to
English: "Atoms",
1916 http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
_kJAAAAIAAJ&dq=le+atoms+perrin&source=gb
s_navlinks_s
(École Normale, University of Paris)
Paris, France11  
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
91 YBN
[10/23/1909 AD] 5 6 		4508) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
2. ^ "Millikan,
Robert Andrews." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
732>.
3. ^ R. A. Millikan, "A new
modification of the cloud method of
determining the elementary electrical
charge and the most probable value of
that charge", The American Physical
Society, Vol 29,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iL4WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=A+new+modificat
ion+of+the+cloud+method+of+determining+t
he+elementary+electrical+charge+and+the+
most+probable+value+of+that+charge&hl=en
&ei=Dl02TNLmMc-nnQeG_9jxCg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A%20new%20modification%20o
f%20the%20cloud%20method%20of%20determin
ing%20the%20elementary%20electrical%20ch
arge%20and%20the%20most%20probable%20val
ue%20of%20that%20charge&f=false {Millik
an_Robert_1909.pdf}
4. ^ "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
732>.
5. ^ R. A. Millikan, "A new
modification of the cloud method of
determining the elementary electrical
charge and the most probable value of
that charge", The American Physical
Society, Vol 29,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iL4WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=A+new+modificat
ion+of+the+cloud+method+of+determining+t
he+elementary+electrical+charge+and+the+
most+probable+value+of+that+charge&hl=en
&ei=Dl02TNLmMc-nnQeG_9jxCg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A%20new%20modification%20o
f%20the%20cloud%20method%20of%20determin
ing%20the%20elementary%20electrical%20ch
arge%20and%20the%20most%20probable%20val
ue%20of%20that%20charge&f=false {Millik
an_Robert_1909.pdf} {10/23/1909}
6. ^ "Millikan,
Robert Andrews." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
732>. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Andrews Millikan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[2] "Robert Andrews Millikan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[3] "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-400. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902971&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
 
[1] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg

[2] Description Robert Andrews
Millikan.jpg English: A picture on the
inside cover of the book listed
below. Date 2008-09-13 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Odie5533 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : The
Electron: Its Isolation and
Measurements and the Determination of
Some of its Properties, Robert Andrews
Millikan, 1917) Author Robert
Andrews Millikan Original uploader was
Chhe at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Robert_Andrews_Millik
an.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 7 		4113)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p529.
2. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html
3. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/
Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Berliner's patent
03/12/1909 for propeller for
flying-machines http://www.google.com/p
atents?id=ngw_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract
&zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
7. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Berliner, Emil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
812>
[2] "Emile Berliner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-berli
ner
[3] "Emile Berliner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berli
ner
[4] Berliner's Patent "Combined
Telegraph and Telephone" of
06/04/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=YxBhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berliner.html
Washington, DC, USA6  
[1] Mr. Emile Berliner began
experimenting with vertical flight
aircraft in the early 1900's, with a
successful recorded tethered flight
around 1909. PD
source: http://www.helis.com/h/berliner.
jpg

[2] The photograph illustrates
Berliner Helicopter. PD
source: http://www.old-picture.com/ameri
can-history-1900-1930s/pictures/Helicopt
er-Berliner.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 9 10 11 		4284)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 563-564.
2. ^ "Johannsen,
Wilhelm Ludvig." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 113-115.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902195&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "gene." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gene
4. ^ "gene." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 07 Apr.
2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/gene
5. ^ "gene." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gene
6. ^ "gene." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gene
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Johannsen, Wilhelm
Ludvig." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 113-115.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902195&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 563-564. {1909}
10. ^
"Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 113-115. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902195&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1909}
11. ^ "Wilhelm
Johannsen." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-joh
annsen {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043
721>.
[2] "Wilhelm Johannsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Joh
annsen
[3] W. Johannsen, "Arvelighedslaerens
elementer" ( “The Elements of
Heredity”),
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
O1FkOgAACAAJ&dq=Arvelighedslaerens+eleme
nter&hl=en&ei=F9W8S-vCMIjysQOOwq1-&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0C
DoQ6AEwAA
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark8 (presumably) 
[1] WWilhelm Johannsen
(1857-1927) Danish
biologist Sujet : Portrait de
Johannsen Source : The History of
Biology de Erik Nordenskiöld, Ed.
Knopf, 1928 (domaine
public) COPYRIGHTED FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Wilhelm_Johannsen_185
7-1927.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 7 		4332)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
2. ^ "Welsbach, Carl
Auer, Freiherr von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576.
4. ^ "Welsbach, Carl
Auer, Freiherr von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
517>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.althofen.at/AvW-Museum/Englis
ch/biographie_e.htm
7. ^
http://www.althofen.at/AvW-Museum/Englis
ch/biographie_e.htm {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Carl Auer von
Welsbach." Science and Its Times. Ed.
Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 5:
1800 to 1899. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 492.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408502839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Carl Auer von Welsbach".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Auer_v
on_Welsbach
[3] "Praseodymium". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praseodymiu
m
[4] "praseodymium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/praseodymiu
m
[5] "Neodymium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium
[6] "neodymium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neodymium
[7] "Welsbach mantle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsbach_ma
ntle
(University of Vienna) Vienna6
(presumably) 
[1] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD] 5 		4466)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607.
2. ^ "enteric." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/enteric
3. ^ "William Boog Leishman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman
4. ^ "William Boog Leishman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman
5. ^ "William Boog Leishman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boo
g-leishman {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "leishmania." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9101
560>.
[2] "William Boog Leishman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Boo
g_Leishman
(Army Medical School) Netley, England4
 
[1] Description Leishmania tropica
7.jpg Under the acellular culture
condition, the protozoa transforms into
the form of promastigote, a flagellated
and elongated morphology seen in the
mid-gut of the vector. Cutaneous
leishmaniasis is a benign,
self-limiting infection caused by
leishmanian parasites. Regarding the
visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar),
refer to case 50. Date Source
http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/~tsutsu
mi/photo/photo176-7.htm Author
Pathology of infectious
diseases http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/
~tsutsumi/index.html# PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Leishmania_tropica_7.
jpg

[2] Description
Leishman1.jpg Italiano: courtesy of
london school of higiene and tropical
medicine Date 2007-06-09
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Leishman1.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 8 		4506)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p618.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p618.
(A hydrogen ion is
simply a freely moving proton.)
6. ^ "Sørensen,
Søren Peter Lauritz." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 546-547. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 8 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904087&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Sørensen, Søren Peter Lauritz."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 546-547. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904087&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1909}
8. ^ "Sørensen, Søren
Peter Lauritz." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 546-547.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904087&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Soren Peter Lauritz
Sorensen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 08
Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sorensen-so
ren-peter-lauritz
[2] "S. P. L. Sørensen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._P._L._S%
C3%B8rensen
(Carlsberg Laboratory, University of
Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark7  
[1] Description SPL
Sorensen.jpg English: Søren Peter
Lauritz Sørensen (1868-1939). Chemist
from Denmark. Català: Søren Peter
Lauritz Sørensen (1868-1939). Químic
danès. Date Source Polytech
Photos. Scientific photodatabase PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fb/SPL_Sorensen.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 10 11 		4532) In 1915 Haber directs the use of
the poison gas chlorine and the far
worse Mustard gas in 1917.4
In 1919
Haber wins the Nobel prize in chemistry
for haber process of converting
Nitrogen from the air into the more
usable ammonia (ammonia synthesis5 ).6

Haber tries to isolate gold from
seawater but fails.7
Haber is Jewish
and is forced to leave his post even
after helping in WW I.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
3. ^ "Haber,
Fritz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 15
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
5. ^ "Haber, Fritz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625.
9. ^ "Haber, Fritz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624-625. {1909}
11. ^
"Haber, Fritz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
696>. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fritz Haber." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-haber

[2] "Fritz Haber." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-haber

[3] Johnson, Jeffrey Allan. "Haber,
Fritz." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 203-206.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 15
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905716&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Fridericiana Technische Hochschule)
Karlsruhe, Germany9  
[1] Fritz Haber. Fritz Haber, November
26, 1919. HULTON ARCHIVE/GETTY
IMAGES. PD
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0021_0_img4740&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c3f8e43&digest=9
de3dd036d11af1ee6fa07424825d7d0
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 9 10 		4694)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p626-627.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p626-627.
3. ^ "Phoebus
Levene." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phoebus-lev
ene
4. ^ "Phoebus Levene." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phoebus-lev
ene
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p626-627.
6. ^ "nucleoside."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleoside
7. ^ "Levene, Phoebus Aaron Theodor."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-276. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902590&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Levene, Phoebus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
964>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p626-627. {1909}
10. ^
"Levene, Phoebus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
964>. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Phoebus Levene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoebus_Lev
ene
(Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA8
 
[1] Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene,
1915. CC
source: http://www.dnalc.org/content/c16
/16345/16345_18.jpg

[2] n Levene.jpg English: en:Phoebus
Levene Polski: pl:Phoebus Levene Date
Unknown Source [1] Author
author of photograph
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public
domain'' http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/se
rvlet/detail/NLMNLM~1~1~101421672~177086
:-Dr--Phoebus-A--Levene-?qvq=q:Phoebus+L
evene;lc:NLMNLM~1~1&mi=0&trs=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Levene.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 22 		4719)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
2. ^ "mastic." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mastic
3. ^ "The Brownian Movement and
Molecular Constants.", American
Chemical Society. Chemical Abstracts
Service, Chemical abstracts, Volume 4,
Part 1, 1910, p269.
http://books.google.com/books?id=yoVMA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA270&dq=perrin+einstein&hl=e
n&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=perrin%20einstein&f=false

4. ^ Perrin, "Mouvement brownien et
constantes moleculaires", Comptes
Rendus, V149, 1909,
p477-479. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3103r.image.f477.langEN {Perri
n_Jean_19090906.pdf}
5. ^ Perrin, "Mouvement brownien et
constantes moleculaires", Comptes
Rendus, V149, 1909,
p477-479. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3103r.image.f477.langEN {Perri
n_Jean_19090906.pdf}
6. ^ "The Brownian Movement and
Molecular Constants.", American
Chemical Society. Chemical Abstracts
Service, Chemical abstracts, Volume 4,
Part 1, 1910, p269.
http://books.google.com/books?id=yoVMA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA270&dq=perrin+einstein&hl=e
n&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=perrin%20einstein&f=false

7. ^ "Perrin, Jean Baptiste." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 524-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903358&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ M. Chaudesaigues , "Le mouvement
brownien et la formule d'Einstein",
Comptes Rendus, V147,
1908. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31014.image.f1044.langEN {Chaudesa
igues_1908.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Jean
Baptiste Perrin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
15. ^ Perrin, "Le Atoms",
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
p206AAAAMAAJ&dq=le%20atoms%20perrin&sour
ce=gbs_slider_thumb translated to
English: "Atoms",
1916 http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
_kJAAAAIAAJ&dq=le+atoms+perrin&source=gb
s_navlinks_s
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Perrin, Jean
Baptiste." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 524-526.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903358&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ Perrin, "Mouvement brownien et
constantes moleculaires", Comptes
Rendus, V149, 1909,
p477-479. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3103r.image.f477.langEN {Perri
n_Jean_19090906.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Perrin
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[4] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, "Introduction to general
chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
[5] J. Perrin, "Nouvelles proprietes
des rayons cathodiques.",Comptes
Rendus, V121, 1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN Englis
h translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
[6] Report of the annual meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Issue 66, 1896,
p702. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lOs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA701&dq=cathode+rays+Pe
rrin&hl=en&ei=Ku1ZTLbSAYK-sQOt-KyrCA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cathode%20rays%2
0Perrin&f=false
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
[8] "Perrin, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
322>.
[9] Jean Perrin, translated by
Frederick Soddy, "Brownian movement and
molecular reality",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eARJAAAAIAAJ&q=perrin+einstein&dq=perrin
+einstein&hl=en&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcD
Q&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA
[10] Perrin, "Grandeur des molecules et
charge de l'electron.", Comptes Rendus,
V147, 1908,
p594-596. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k31014.image.f594.langEN
[11] American Chemical Society.
Chemical Abstracts Service, Chemical
abstracts, Volume 3, Part 1, 1908,
p862.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VopMA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chemical+
abstracts&hl=en&ei=2BNbTIyKEIy8sQOs7eEG&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=perrin&f=fals
e
(École Normale) Paris, France21  
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 4 		4724)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p632-633.
2. ^ "Ricketts,
Howard T." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>.
3. ^ "Ricketts, Howard T."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>.
4. ^ "Ricketts, Howard T."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
617>. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ricketts, Howard Taylor."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 442-443. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903670&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Howard Taylor Ricketts".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Tayl
or_Ricketts
Mexico City, Mexico3  
[1] Howard Taylor Ricketts
(1871-1910) American physician PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ricketts_Howard_Taylo
r_1871-1910.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 15 		4841) Bosch directs a huge ammonia
plant at Oppau that is still under
construction when World War I starts.10

In 1931 Bosch wins the Nobel prize in
chemistry for his investigations of the
type of high-pressure reactions that
make it possible to produce ammonia
from nitrogen (gas11 ).12
Bosch lives
under the Nazis but does not bow to
Nazi principles, for example openly
honoring Haber, after Haber's exile.13

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p652.
3. ^ "Bosch,
Carl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 323-324.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900546&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "ammonia synthesis."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 25
Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ammonia-syn
thesis
6. ^ Record ID4531. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Bosch,
Carl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 323-324.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900546&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Carl Bosch." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-bosch
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p652.
14. ^ "Bosch,
Carl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 323-324.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900546&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Bosch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Bosch
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1931/bosch-bio.html
(BASF) Oppau, Germany14  
[1] Description The image of
German chemist and Nobel laureate Carl
Bosch (1882–1961) Source This
image was downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/405/000100105
/ Date uploaded: 18:12, 5 January
2009 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/da/Carl_Bosch.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 12 13 		4872) Stock dies after fleeing from the
advancing Russian army to a small town
on the Elbe River.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p416.
3. ^ "Alfred Stock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/566693/Alfred-Stock>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p659.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659.
12. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p416. {1909}
13. ^ "Alfred
Stock." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/566693/Alfred-Stock>. {1912-1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Stock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Stoc
k
[2] Stock, Alfred (1933). The Hydrides
of Boron and Silicon. New York: Cornell
University Press.
[3] "Diborane". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diborane
 
[1] Diborane is the chemical compound
consisting of boron and hydrogen with
the formula B2H6. It is a colorless gas
at room temperature with a repulsively
sweet odor. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dib
orane

[2] Alfred Stock UNKNOWN
source: http://intranet.bpc.ac.uk/course
s/download/GCESFCP/Chem/dbhs/Stock.GIF
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 8 		4889) In 1927 Wieland wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry for describing the
structure of steroids.3
Wieland is
openly anti-Nazi during World War II,
and some of his student are involved in
the 1944 treason trials.4 Wieland
protects Jewish humans in his
laboratory and in 1944 testifies on
behalf of students who are accused of
treason.5 (verify6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
2. ^ "Wieland,
Heinrich Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
5. ^
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/heinri
ch-wieland-wob/
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich
Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Otto Wieland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643268/Heinrich-Otto-Wieland>
[2] "Heinrich Otto Wieland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ot
to-wieland
[3] "Heinrich Otto Wieland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Ot
to_Wieland
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1927/wieland.html
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany7
 
[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 9 		4899)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
2. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master
of Spacep119.
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/cellular%20phone
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master
of Spacep119.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ B. Jacot,
"Marconi-Master of Spacep119. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[12] B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B.
Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651
[14] "Marconi,
Guglielmo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 98-99.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Marconi Company) London, England7
(verify8 ) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
90 YBN
[04/??/1910 AD] 12 13 		4199)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
2. ^ "Die
experimentelle Chemotherapie der
Spirillosen" (Berlin, 1910), written
with S. Hata;
http://books.google.com/books?id=akYaA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=%22Die+experimentelle+
Chemotherapie+der+Spirillosen%22&as_brr=
1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
5. ^ "Ehrlich,
Paul." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
103>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
8. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
103>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p547-549.
11. ^ "Ehrlich,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 295-305.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 20
Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
12. ^ "Ehrlich, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 295-305. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 20 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {04/1910}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p547-549. {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Ehrlich." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Jan.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[2] "Paul Ehrlich." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[3] "Paul Ehrlich." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ehrlic
h
[4] "Paul Ehrlich". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlic
h
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
[6] Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.;
Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N.
(2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th
ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 516–522.
ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
(announced at the Congress for
International Medicine, Wiesbaden,
Germany, but work performed at Serum
Institute) Frankfurt, Germany11  
[1] Description: German Dr Paul Ehrlich
and Japanese Dr Hata Sahachiro Source:
Hata Memorial Museum, Shimane This
photographic image was published before
December 31st 1956, or photographed
before 1946 and not published for 10
years thereafter, under jurisdiction of
the Government of Japan. Thus this
photographic image is considered to be
public domain according to article 23
of old copyright law of Japan and
article 2 of supplemental provision of
copyright law of Japan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Elrich_and_Hata.jpg

[2]
Dihydroxydiamino-arsenobenzene-dihydroch
loride (Salvarsan,
Arsphenamine) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0004_0_img0600&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4b579b89&digest=4
b973311866acd4f0fce46003d66a7d3
90 YBN
[08/??/1910 AD] 8 		4320)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
2. ^ "Pickering,
William Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
Pickering, William H., "Aberration and
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
8. ^ "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {08/1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>
[2] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[3] "William Henry Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[4] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[5] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[6] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[7] Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
[8] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[9] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[10] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
[11] Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA7
(presumably) 
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
90 YBN
[09/??/1910 AD] 		4403)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
3. ^ Bragg, “The
Consequences of the Corpuscular
Hypothesis of γ and X-rays, and the
Range of β Rays,” in Philosophical
Magazine, 6th Ser., 20 (Sept. 1910),
385–416;
4. ^ Bragg, Philosophical Magazine, 22
(July 1911), 222–223; and 23 (Apr.
1912), 647–650.
5. ^ "Bragg, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
6. ^ "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
7. ^ Bragg, "On the
Properties and Natures of Various
Electric Radiations", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907),
429–449. Read before the Royal
Society of South Australia, 7 May and 4
June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity.
[12] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
(University of Adelaide) Adelaide,
Australia7 (presumably) 
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg
90 YBN
[09/??/1910 AD] 5 		4418)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ Bragg, William
H., "The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of the γ and X
Rays, and the Rays of β Rays.",
Philosophical Magazine, S6, V20, N117,
Sept 1910,
p385-416. {Bragg_William_H_Corpuscular_
191009xx.pdf}
3. ^ Bragg, William H., "The
Consequences of the Corpuscular
Hypothesis of the γ and X Rays, and
the Rays of β Rays.", Philosophical
Magazine, S6, V20, N117, Sept 1910,
p385-416. {Bragg_William_H_Corpuscular_
191009xx.pdf}
4. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
5. ^ Bragg, William H., "The
Consequences of the Corpuscular
Hypothesis of the γ and X Rays, and
the Rays of β Rays.", Philosophical
Magazine, S6, V20, N117, Sept 1910,
p385-416. {Bragg_William_H_Corpuscular_
191009xx.pdf} {09/1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[13] William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[14] W. H. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals (II),” Nature.,
89A (22 Sept. 1913), 246–248,
received 21 June 1913
[15] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
[16] W. H. Bragg
and W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Diamond,” Nature (22 Sept. 1913),
277–291, received 30 July.
[17] ([i.e.,
X-ray spectrometer)
[18] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428
[19] "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England4
 
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg
90 YBN
[10/31/1910 AD] 4 		4273)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical reactions.",Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 16, 1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} {10/31/1910}
3. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications
of positive rays to the study of
chemical reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 16, 1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} {10/31/1910}
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications
of positive rays to the study of
chemical reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 16, 1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} {10/31/1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[21] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[22] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[23] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225
[25] Thomson, J. J., "A new method of
chemical analysis (Royal Institution
lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy. Instn. 20,
1911, p140
[26] Thomson, J. J., "The unit
theory of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 16, 1912, 643
[27] Thomson, J. J.,
"Rays of positive electricity (Bakerian
lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89,
1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
[28] Thomson, J. J., "Further
applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical problems.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 17, 01/27/1913, p201
[29]
Thomson, J. J., "On rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 13, May 1907,
561. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
VjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561&dq=%22positive+elec
tricity%22+thomson+intitle:philosophical
&hl=en&ei=QvunS8rYCYywsgOqy4SpDQ&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDk
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22positive%20electr
icity%22%20thomson%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
90 YBN
[11/28/1910 AD] 12 		4509)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
2. ^ R. A. Millikan,
"The isolation of an ion, a precision
measurement of its charge, and the
correction of Stoke's law", Physical
Review (Series I), 32 (4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/ {Millikan_Robert_19101128.pd
f}
3. ^ "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
732>.
4. ^ "Robert Andrews Millikan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
6. ^ "Robert Andrews
Millikan." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
7. ^ R. A. Millikan, "The isolation of
an ion, a precision measurement of its
charge, and the correction of Stoke's
law", Physical Review (Series I), 32
(4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/ {Millikan_Robert_19101128.pd
f}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
(exact details:
planck's constant is the ratio of
wavelength of light to quanta of energy
(temperature)?)
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ R. A. Millikan, "The
isolation of an ion, a precision
measurement of its charge, and the
correction of Stoke's law", Physical
Review (Series I), 32 (4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/ {Millikan_Robert_19101128.pd
f}
12. ^ R. A. Millikan, "The isolation of
an ion, a precision measurement of its
charge, and the correction of Stoke's
law", Physical Review (Series I), 32
(4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/ {Millikan_Robert_19101128.pd
f} {11/28/1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Andrews Millikan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[2] "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-400. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902971&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] R. A. Millikan, "A new modification
of the cloud method of determining the
elementary electrical charge and the
most probable value of that charge",
The American Physical Society, Vol 29,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iL4WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=A+new+modificat
ion+of+the+cloud+method+of+determining+t
he+elementary+electrical+charge+and+the+
most+probable+value+of+that+charge&hl=en
&ei=Dl02TNLmMc-nnQeG_9jxCg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A%20new%20modification%20o
f%20the%20cloud%20method%20of%20determin
ing%20the%20elementary%20electrical%20ch
arge%20and%20the%20most%20probable%20val
ue%20of%20that%20charge&f=false
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA11  
[1] From R. A. Millikan, ''The
isolation of an ion, a precision
measurement of its charge, and the
correction of Stoke's law'', Physical
Review (Series I), 32 (4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/ {Millikan_Robert_19101128.pd
f} PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
I/v32/i4/p349_1

[2] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 8 9 		4230)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p555.
2. ^ "Geitel, F. K.
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Elster and Geital, "Über gefarbte
Hydride der Alkalimetalle und ihre
photoelektrische Empfindlichkeit", in
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 11 (1910),
257;
http://books.google.com/books?id=8bfOP
gAACAAJ&dq=%22%C3%9Cber+gefarbte+Hydride
+der+Alkalimetalle+und+ihre+photoelektri
sche+Empfindlichkeit%22&lr=&cd=5 "Über
den lichempfindlichen Effekt im
Infrarot und einige Anwendungen
hochempfindlicher Kaliumzellen", in
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 12 (1911),
758.
{Elster_and_Geitel_Effekt_im_Ultrarot_
1911.pdf}
5. ^ Elster and Geital, "Über gefarbte
Hydride der Alkalimetalle und ihre
photoelektrische Empfindlichkeit", in
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 11 (1910),
257;
http://books.google.com/books?id=8bfOP
gAACAAJ&dq=%22%C3%9Cber+gefarbte+Hydride
+der+Alkalimetalle+und+ihre+photoelektri
sche+Empfindlichkeit%22&lr=&cd=5 "Über
den lichempfindlichen Effekt im
Infrarot und einige Anwendungen
hochempfindlicher Kaliumzellen", in
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 12 (1911),
758.
{Elster_and_Geitel_Effekt_im_Ultrarot_
1911.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ "Geitel, F. K. Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 341-342. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 5 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1910}
9. ^ Elster and Geital,
"Über gefarbte Hydride der
Alkalimetalle und ihre photoelektrische
Empfindlichkeit", in Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 11 (1910), 257;
http://books.google.com/books?id=8bfOP
gAACAAJ&dq=%22%C3%9Cber+gefarbte+Hydride
+der+Alkalimetalle+und+ihre+photoelektri
sche+Empfindlichkeit%22&lr=&cd=5 "Über
den lichempfindlichen Effekt im
Infrarot und einige Anwendungen
hochempfindlicher Kaliumzellen", in
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 12 (1911),
758. {Elster_and_Geitel_Effekt_im_Ultra
rot_1911.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.elster-geitel.de/
[2] "photoelectric effect."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2009. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/photoelectr
ic-effect
[3] Elster and Geital, "Entladung
negativ elektrisierter Körper durch
Sonnen-und Tageslicht", Annalen der
Physik, 38, (1889), 497
[4] Elster and
Geital, "Abhängigkeit der Intensität
des photoelektrischen Stromes von der
Lage der Polarisationsebene des
erregenden Lichtes zu der Oberfläche
der Kathode", in Sitzungsberichte der
Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften
(1894); Annalen der Physik, 55 (1895),
684, and 61 (1897), 445; Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 10 (1909), 457
[5] Elster and
Geital, "Analogie im elektrischen
Verhalten der natürlichen Luft und der
durch Becquerel-Strahlen leitend
gemachten", Physikalische Zeitschrift 2
(1901), 590; "Radioaktivität der im
Erdboden enthaltenen Luft",
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 3 (1902),
574
[6] Elster and Geital, Jahresberichte
des Vereins für Naturwissenschaft zu
Braunschweig, 10/12 (1902), 39; Annalen
der Physik, 69 (1899), 83
[7] "Elster,
Johann Philipp Ludwig Julius." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 354-357. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Feb. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[8] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p405
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany7  
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 8 9 		4281)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 563.
2. ^ "Mohorovicic,
Andrija." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
204>.
3. ^ “Das Beben vom 8.X.1909,” in
Jahrbuch des meteorologischen
Observatoriums in Zagreb for 1909, pt.
4, par. 1 (1910), 1–67.
4. ^ "Mohorovicic,
Andrija." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
204>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 563.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Mohorovicic, Andrija."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
204>.
8. ^ "Mohorovičić, Andrija." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 443-445. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830903002&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1910}
9. ^ “Das Beben vom
8.X.1909,” in Jahrbuch des
meteorologischen Observatoriums in
Zagreb for 1909, pt. 4, par. 1 (1910),
1–67.

MORE INFO
[1] "Andrija Mohorovicic." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andrija-moh
orovi-i
[2] "Andrija Mohorovičić". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrija_Moh
orovi%C4%8Di%C4%87
(University of Zagreb) Zagreb, Croatia7
 
[1] Picture of Andrija Mohorovičić, a
Croatian geophysicist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Andrija_Mohorovicic.g
if
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 8 		4356)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p615-617.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p651.
3. ^ Marie Curie
and André Debierne (1910). "Sur le
radium métallique" (On metallic
radium)" (in French). Comptes Rendus
151: 523–525.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?
O=NUMM-3104&I=523&M=tdm. http://visuali
seur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104&I=
523&M=tdm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Curie,
Marie (Maria Sklodowska)." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
8. ^ Marie Curie and André Debierne
(1910). "Sur le radium métallique" (On
metallic radium)" (in French). Comptes
Rendus 151: 523–525.
http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?
O=NUMM-3104&I=523&M=tdm. http://visuali
seur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104&I=
523&M=tdm

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[11] "Curie, Marie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 21 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
252>
[12] ([a characteristics)
[13] ([a for them)
[14] ([a more and
more)
[15] "radium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
[16] "radium." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radium
[17]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France6 7  
[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 9 		4409)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Schuster, Arthur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 237-239. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903927&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Author Schuster, Arthur, Sir,
1851-1934., "An introduction to the
theory of optics," Edition 2d ed.
Published London,E. Arnold,1909,
p117-118. http://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=uc1.b24479;page=root;view=image
;size=100;seq=141;num=117#
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
4. ^ Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
5. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
6. ^ Author Schuster, Arthur, Sir,
1851-1934., "An introduction to the
theory of optics," Edition 2d ed.
Published London,E. Arnold,1909,
p117-118. http://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=uc1.b24479;page=root;view=image
;size=100;seq=141;num=117#
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Author Schuster,
Arthur, Sir, 1851-1934., "An
introduction to the theory of
optics," Edition 2d ed. Published
London,E. Arnold,1909,
p117-118. http://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=uc1.b24479;page=root;view=image
;size=100;seq=141;num=117#
9. ^ Author Schuster, Arthur, Sir,
1851-1934., "An introduction to the
theory of optics," Edition 2d ed.
Published London,E. Arnold,1909,
p117-118. http://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=uc1.b24479;page=root;view=image
;size=100;seq=141;num=117# {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
[13] "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[15] "Bragg, Sir William Lawrence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 61-64. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[16] Review of "An introduction to the
theory of
optics": http://books.google.com/books?
id=GpICAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA920&lpg=PA920&dq=ar
thur+schuster+grating+pulses&source=bl&o
ts=iQR9NIrgfc&sig=3nwc53WvhEWK_1bg_2naqR
XEt1E&hl=en&ei=DkIJTLeKNJ2-Mp7QnLYE&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0
CCAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=arthur%20schuster
%20grating%20pulses&f=false
[17] Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57.
[18] William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England8  
[1] Description Schuster Arthur
signature.jpg English: Picture of Sir
Arthur Schuster, the British
physicist. Date
1906(1906) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Laboratories of the University of
Manchester PD
source: http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/
pt?seq=136&view=image&size=200&id=uc1.b2
4479&u=1&num=112

[2] Figure 76 from Author Schuster,
Arthur, Sir, 1851-1934., ''An
introduction to the theory of
optics,'' Edition 2d ed. Published
London,E. Arnold,1909,
p117-118. http://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=uc1.b24479;page=root;view=image
;size=100;seq=141;num=117# PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Schuster_Arthur_signa
ture.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 18 		4476) In 1926 Morgan publishes "The
Theory of the Gene" which establishes
and extends the Mendelian scheme.13
In
1933 Morgan wins the Nobel prize in
medicine and physiology.14
In the
Soviet Union, under the influence of
Lysenko a believer in the acquired
characteristics theory, Morganism is
virtually a dirty word.15
From
1927-1931 Morgan is president of the
National Academy of Sciences.16
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
2. ^ "Morgan, Thomas
Hunt." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 515-526.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ T. H. Morgan, "Sex-Limited
Inheritance in Drosophila", in Science,
32 (1910),
120–122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1635471 {Morgan_Thomas_Hunt_1910.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
728>.
8. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 515-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
728>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
17. ^ "Morgan,
Thomas Hunt." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
728>.
18. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 515-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Hunt Morgan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-hunt
-morgan
[2] "Thomas Hunt Morgan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt
_Morgan
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA17  
[1] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g

[2] Thomas Hunt Morgan Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSthomah.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 5 		4779) Nevil Vincent Sidgwick (CE
1873-1952), English chemist1 publishes
a book specializing in the organic
chemistry of nitrogen (perhaps
"chemistry of carbon and nitrogen
compounds" might be more simplified2 )
and will expand it into a two-volume
work in 1947.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
4. ^ "Nevil
Sidgwick." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nevil-sidgw
ick
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644. {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sidgwick, Nevil Vincent."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
643>.
[2] "Sidgwick, Nevil Vincent." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 418-420. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904015&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Nevil Sidgwick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevil_Sidgw
ick
(Oxford University) Oxford, England4
 
[1] Nevil Sidgwick UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lincoln.ox.ac.uk/uplo
ads/media/history%20-%20famous%20alumni/
.thumbnails/alumni%20-%20sidgwick_150x40
0.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 7 		4807)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648.
2. ^ "Schwarzschild,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 247-253.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Schwarzschild, Br. Meyermann, A.
Kohlschütter, and O. Birck,
"Aktinometrie der Sterne der BD bis zur
Grösse 7,5 in der Zone 0° bis +20°
Deklination" Teil A, Abhandlungen der
K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen, Math.-Phys. Kl., n.s. 6,
no. 6 (1910).
5. ^ "Karl Schwarzschild." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild
6. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Schwarzschild."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528632/Karl-Schwarzschild>
[2] "Karl Schwarzschild". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Schwar
zschild
(Astrophysical Observatory) Potsdam,
Germany6  
[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 11 		4844) In 1920 Krogh wins the Nobel
prize in physiology and medicine.7
In
1940 when Denmark is occupied by the
Nazis, Krogh is forced to go
underground and then to escape to
Sweden. Krogh returns to Denmark after
the war.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652-653.
2. ^ A Krogh, "On the
mechanism of the gas-exchange in the
lungs", Skand Arch Physiol, 1910.
3. ^
"Krogh, Schack August Steenberg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 501-504. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902390&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "August Krogh." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-krog
h
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Krogh, Schack August
Steenberg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 501-504.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902390&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652-653.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p652-653.
9. ^ "Krogh,
Schack August Steenberg." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 501-504. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902390&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ A Krogh, "On the mechanism of the
gas-exchange in the lungs", Skand Arch
Physiol, 1910.
11. ^ "Krogh, Schack August
Steenberg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 501-504.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902390&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "August Krogh." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/323727/August-Krogh>.
[2] "August Krogh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-krog
h
[3] "Schack August Steenberg Krogh".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schack_Augu
st_Steenberg_Krogh
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1920/krogh-bio.html
[5] A Krogh, "A comparison between
voluntary and electrically induced
muscular work in man Source", The
Journal of physiology Krogh (1917)
volume: 51 issue: 3 page:
182 http://jp.physoc.org/content/51/3/1
82.full.pdf
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark9 10 (presumably) 
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description August Krogh Bain
32006.jpg English: The Danish
scientist August Krogh. This image is
available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs division under the digital
ID ggbain.32006. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Author Bain News
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/August_Krogh_Bain_320
06.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 4 		4952)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682-683.
2. ^ "Staudinger,
Hermann." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-4.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904134&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Staudinger, Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-4. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 28 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904134&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Hermann Staudinger."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564304/Hermann-Staudinger>. {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] Hermann Staudinger, "Zur
Kenntniss der Ketene. Diphenylketen",
Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie,
Volume 356, Issue 1-2, pages 51–123,
1907 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jlac.19073560106/abstract
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany3  
[1] Hermann Staudinger 1917 in
Zürich PD
source: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/bil
der/Portr_14413016AL_Staudinger.jpg/imag
e
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 5 		4961)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686.
2. ^ "Bridgman, Percy
Williams." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 457-461.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900627&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Bridgman, Percy Williams."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 457-461. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900627&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Percy Williams Bridgman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percy-willi
ams-bridgman {1909}
5. ^ "Bridgman, Percy
Williams." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 457-461.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900627&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Percy Williams Bridgman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79392/Percy-Williams-Bridgman>
[2] American Scientist, Vol. 31, 1943
[3] P.
W. Bridgman, "The Technique of High
Pressure Experimenting", Proceedings of
the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Vol. 49, No. 11 (Feb., 1914),
pp. 627-643. Published by: American
Academy of Arts & Sciences Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20025490
[4] Bridgman, "The Physics of High
Pressure" (1931)
[5] P. W. Bridgman, "The
Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA4  
[1] Figure 1 from: P. W. Bridgman,
''The Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge'',
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2002
2420?&Search=yes&searchText=j50000063&se
archText=j50000062&searchText=bridgman&l
ist=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicRe
sults%3Fhp%3D25%26la%3D%26so%3Dold%26wc%
3Don%26acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26jcpsi%3D1%2
6artsi%3D1%26Query%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26sbq%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26prq%3D%2528p.w.%2Bbridgma
n%2529%2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2B
OR%2Bj50000062%2529%26si%3D26%26jtxsi%3D
26&prevSearch=&item=43&ttl=927&returnArt
icleService=showFullText

[2] Description The image of
American physicist and Nobel laureate
Percy Williams Bridgman
(1882–1961) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 03:02, 26
December 2008 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Percy_Williams_Bridgman.jp
g
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 7 		5021) In 1973 Frisch shares the Nobel
Prize for medicine and physiology.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Karl von Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220441/Karl-von-Frisch>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707.
3. ^ K. Frisch,
"Beziehun gen der Pigmentzellen in der
Fisch-haut zum sympathischen
Nervensystem.",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=sZlOAAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=RA1-PA5
-IA4&dq=K+Frisch&ots=K38bJ0Holr&sig=8XwN
eMgNghhKM1Rk21zapw6eU1o
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707.
6. ^ "Karl von
Frisch." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-von-fr
isch
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707. {1910}
(Munich Zoological Institute) Munich,
Germany6  
[1] Karl von Frisch UNKNOWN
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29730.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 2 		6098) "Let Me Call You Sweetheart" is
written (music by Leo Friedman and
lyrics by Beth Slater Whitson).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Let Me Call You Sweetheart".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let_Me_Call
_You_Sweetheart
2. ^ "Let Me Call You Sweetheart".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let_Me_Call
_You_Sweetheart {1910}
 
[1] ''Let Me Call You Sweetheart''
sheet music cover Words By: Beth
Slater Whitson Music By: Leo
Friedman Cover Art By: Brotts-Crews
Studios Published: April 8,
1910 Published By: Harold Rossiter
Music Company - Chicago Via
http://www.bethslaterwhitson.com/bswmusi
c.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/LetMeCallYouSweethart
WF.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 3 		6099) "America The Beautiful" is
published (music by: Samuel A. Ward,
words by: Katharine Lee Bates).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "America the beautiful".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America_the
_beautiful
2. ^ "Katharine Lee Bates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine_L
ee_Bates
3. ^ "America the beautiful".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America_the
_beautiful {1910}
(Colorado College) Colorado Springs,
Colorado, USA2  
[1] Description Photographic
portrait of Katherine Lee Bates, author
of ''American the Beautiful''. Image
believed to be in Public Domain. Date
01 09 Source Find a Grave
http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.c
gi?page=pis&GRid=1579&PIgrid=1579&PIcrid
=644001&PIpi=11658031& Author
RL Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Katherine_Lee_Bates.j
pg
89 YBN
[01/??/1911 AD] 5 		4321)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Pickering, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {08/1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>
[2] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[3] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[4] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[6] Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
[7] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[8] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[9] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
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[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
[11] "William Henry
Pickering." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 11
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[12] Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
? 
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
89 YBN
[03/07/1911 AD] 5 		4745)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ "Rutherford,
Ernest, Baron Rutherford of Nelson, of
Cambridge." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 10
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20.
5. ^ Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
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[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
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[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
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&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England4  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
89 YBN
[03/20/1911 AD] 8 		5064)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722.
2. ^ A Holmes, "The
association of lead with uranium in
rock-minerals, and its application to
the measurement of geological time",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Vol. 85, No. 578
(Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
248-256. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
200 {Holmes_Arthur_19110320.pdf}
3. ^ Arthur Holmes, "The age of the
earth" http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=_8QnAAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq
=A+Holmes&ots=XtsKYRmuI6&sig=7GTenFNGm3L
8Gr9dbm-8kFhNR9M#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722.
5. ^ A Holmes, "The
association of lead with uranium in
rock-minerals, and its application to
the measurement of geological time",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Vol. 85, No. 578
(Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
248-256. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
200 {Holmes_Arthur_19110320.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A Holmes, "The
association of lead with uranium in
rock-minerals, and its application to
the measurement of geological time",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Vol. 85, No. 578
(Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
248-256. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
200 {Holmes_Arthur_19110320.pdf}
8. ^ A Holmes, "The association of lead
with uranium in rock-minerals, and its
application to the measurement of
geological time", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Vol.
85, No. 578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
248-256. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
200 {Holmes_Arthur_19110320.pdf}
{03/20/1911}
(Imperial College of Science and
Technology) London, England7  
[1] Table from: A Holmes, ''The
association of lead with uranium in
rock-minerals, and its application to
the measurement of geological time'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Vol. 85, No. 578
(Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
248-256. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
200 {Holmes_Arthur_19110320.pdf} PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93200.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Arthur HolmesPhoto of Arthur
Holmes (1890-1965) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/vet
lesen/images/recipients/holmes_bio.gif
89 YBN
[03/??/1911 AD] 3 		3945)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
3, No. 12, March 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p712.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
2. ^ "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
3, No. 12, March 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p712.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
3. ^ "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
3, No. 12, March 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p712.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
{03/1911}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[2] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[3] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[4] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[5] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[6] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
3. Merging science fiction into science
fact.". Society for Amateur Scientists
(Society for Amateur Scientists),
October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html
[7]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[8]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
[9]
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
[10] Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41 +",
"Modern Electrics", Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p165-168
New York City, NY2  
[1] Cartoon from March 1911 ''Modern
Electrics'' PD
source: "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, March 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p712.

[2] Gernsback in or before 1918; PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/publi
shers/images/H-Gernsback-EICO%20Book%201
918.jpg
89 YBN
[04/19/1911 AD] 11 		4691)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
2. ^ C. T. R. Wilson,
"On a Method of Making Visible the
Paths of Ionising Particles through a
Gas', Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Series A, Containing Papers
of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 85, No. 578 (Jun. 9,
1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
{Wilson_Charles_1911.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On a
Method of Making Visible the Paths of
Ionising Particles through a Gas',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 85, No. 578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
{Wilson_Charles_1911.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On a
Method of Making Visible the Paths of
Ionising Particles through a Gas',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 85, No. 578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
{Wilson_Charles_1911.pdf}
11. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On a Method of
Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
{Wilson_Charles_1911.pdf}
{04/19/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
[7] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8, 1895,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[8] C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[9] C. T. R. Wilson, "Condensation of
Water Vapour in the Presence of
Dust-free Air and other Gases",
Philosophical transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Volume 189,
March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[10] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Comparative Efficiency as Condensation
Nuclei of Positively and Negatively
Charged Ions", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1900 193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England10  
[1] Figure 1 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285

[2] Figure 2 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285
89 YBN
[04/28/1911 AD] 8 		4192)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Onnes, H. K., Verslagen van de
Afdeeling Natuurkunde der Kon. Akad.
van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, 28
April 1911, p1479-1481. and:
Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie
van Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 13,
May 26, 1911, p.1274-1276. English
translation: The resistance of pure
mercury at helium temperatures.
Communications from the Kamerlingh
Onnes Laboratory of the University of
Leiden No. B 120, 3
(1911) {Kamerlingh_Onnes_19110428.pdf}
2. ^ H. A. Radovan, N. A. Fortune, T.
P. Murphy, S. T. Hannahs, E. C. Palm,
S. W. Tozer & D. Hall, Magnetic
enhancement of superconductivity from
electron spin domains, Nature 425,
51-55 (4 September
2003). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6953/full/nature01842.html#B1

3. ^ Science abstracts: Physics, Volume
14 By Physical Society of London,
Physical Society (Great Britain),
American Physical Society, Institution
of Electrical
Engineers http://books.google.com/books
?id=bu0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&dq=The+resista
nce+of+pure+mercury+at+helium+temperatur
es&lr=&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=The%20r
esistance%20of%20pure%20mercury%20at%20h
elium%20temperatures&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
5. ^ Onnes, H. K.,
Verslagen van de Afdeeling Natuurkunde
der Kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam, 28 April 1911,
p1479-1481. and: Koninklijke
Nederlandsche Akademie van
Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 13, May
26, 1911, p.1274-1276. English
translation: The resistance of pure
mercury at helium temperatures.
Communications from the Kamerlingh
Onnes Laboratory of the University of
Leiden No. B 120, 3
(1911) {Kamerlingh_Onnes_19110428.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
8. ^ Onnes, H. K., Verslagen van de
Afdeeling Natuurkunde der Kon. Akad.
van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, 28
April 1911, p1479-1481. and:
Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie
van Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 13,
May 26, 1911, p.1274-1276. English
translation: The resistance of pure
mercury at helium temperatures.
Communications from the Kamerlingh
Onnes Laboratory of the University of
Leiden No. B 120, 3
(1911) {Kamerlingh_Onnes_19110428.pdf}
{04/28/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[2] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[3] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heike_Kamer
lingh_Onnes
[4] "Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 220-222. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html
[6] "Liquid Gases". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Liquid_G
ases
[7] Kamerlingh Onnes, H., "The
liquefaction of helium.", Koninklijke
Nederlandsche Akademie van
Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
[9] "Kamerlingh
Onnes, Heike." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.
Web. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
478>.
(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands7  
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
89 YBN
[04/??/1911 AD] 16 		4746) On learning that Ernest Marsden
found that alpha particles are
reflected by more than 90 degrees by
atoms in gold foil, Rutherford’s is
often quoted as having said: “It was
almost as incredible as if you fired a
fifteen-inch shell at a piece of tissue
paper and it came back and hit
you.”.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford,
""The Scattering of the α and β Rays
and the Structure of the Atom",
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911,
pp669-88. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem
-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911
.html
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure
of the Atom", Phil Mag, March 1914, S6,
27, pp488-98.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Rutherford,
""The Scattering of the α and β Rays
and the Structure of the Atom",
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911,
pp669-88. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem
-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911
.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Rutherford, ""The Scattering of
the α and β Rays and the Structure of
the Atom", Proceedings of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 4, 55, May 1911,
pp669-88. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem
-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911
.html
16. ^ Rutherford, ""The Scattering of
the α and β Rays and the Structure of
the Atom", Proceedings of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 4, 55, May 1911,
pp669-88. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem
-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911
.html {04/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
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l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] "Rutherford,
Ernest, Baron Rutherford of Nelson, of
Cambridge." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 10
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England15  
[1] Figure 1 from Rutherford, ''''The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom'',
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911, pp669-88. PD
source: http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911-fi
g1.GIF

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
89 YBN
[06/12/1911 AD] 5 6 		3977)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mauguin, Charles Victor",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p585.
2. ^ Timothy
J. Sluckin, David A. Dunmur, Horst
Stegemeyer, "Crystals that flow:
classic papers from the history of
liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
 Azoxyphenol
Ethers"&f=false {Crystals_That_Flow_200
4.pdf}
3. ^ C. Mauguin, “Orientation des
Cristaux Liquides par le Champ
Magnétique (Orientation of Liquid
Crystals by a Magnetic Field),”
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
Sciences, Vol. 152, pp. 1680–1684,
1911. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresF
enetre?O=NUMM-3105&M=tdm {Mauguin_Charl
es_1911.pdf} English
translation: Timothy J. Sluckin, David
A. Dunmur, Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals
that flow: classic papers from the
history of liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
Azoxyphenol
Ethers"&f=false {Crystals_That_Flow_200
4.pdf}
4. ^ "Mauguin, Charles Victor", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p585.
5. ^ C. Mauguin, "Sur Les
Cristaux Liquides de Lehmann (On the
Liquid Crystals of Lehmann)", Bulletin
de la Société Française de
Minéralogie, Vol. 34, pp. 71–117,
1911. {06/12/1911}
6. ^ C. Mauguin, “Orientation
des Cristaux Liquides par le Champ
Magnétique (Orientation of Liquid
Crystals by a Magnetic Field),”
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
Sciences, Vol. 152, pp. 1680–1684,
1911. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresF
enetre?O=NUMM-3105&M=tdm {Mauguin_Charl
es_1911.pdf} English
translation: Timothy J. Sluckin, David
A. Dunmur, Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals
that flow: classic papers from the
history of liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
Azoxyphenol
Ethers"&f=false {Crystals_That_Flow_200
4.pdf} {06/12/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Mauguin, "Orientation des
Cristaux Liquides par le Champ
Magnétique (Orientation of Liquid
Crystals by a Magnetic Field)", Comptes
rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,
Vol. 152, pp. 1680–1683, 1911
[2] David
J.R. Cristaldi, Salvatore Pennisi and
Francesco Pulvirenti, "Liquid Crystal
Display Drivers, 1 Techniques and
Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/
Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France4  
[1] Charles-Victor
Mauguin COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Az
oxyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX
0W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en
&ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="O
n Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
89 YBN
[06/15/1911 AD] 9 		4874)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
2. ^ "Charles F.
Kettering." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/315736/Charles-F-Kettering>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
5. ^ "Kettering,
Charles Franklin." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 7.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
316. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 5 Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902286&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Google Patents
US Patent #1150523, filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1
9. ^ Google Patents US Patent #1150523,
filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1 {06/15/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Kettering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ket
tering-inventor
[2] "Charles Franklin Kettering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fra
nklin_Kettering
(Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co)
Dayton, Ohio, USA8  
[1] Image from Google Patents US Patent
#1150523, filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=7TllAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Charles Franklin
Kettering UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg
89 YBN
[06/21/1911 AD] 12 		5778)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
2. ^ Albert Einstein,
"Über den Einfluß der Schwerkraft auf
die Ausbreitung des Lichtes", Ann.
Physik, 35, 898
(1911) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19113401005/abstract {E
instein_Albert_19110621.pdf} English:
A. Einstein, "On the Influence of
Gravitation on the Propagation of
Light": Lorentz, "Principle of
Relativity", 1923, p99.
http://www.relativitybook.com/resource
s/Einstein_gravity.html AND A.
Einstein, Anna Beck, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Volume 3,
The Swiss Years: Writings, 1909-1911,
Princeton University Press, 1993, p379.
3. ^
On the Means of Discovering the
Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed
Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution
of the Velocity of Their Light, in Case
Such a Diminution Should be Found to
Take Place in any of Them, and Such
Other Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 74 -
1784 Pages 35-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1784
.0008 michell_1783.pdf
4. ^ Record ID2706. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Albert
Einstein, "Über den Einfluß der
Schwerkraft auf die Ausbreitung des
Lichtes", Ann. Physik, 35, 898
(1911) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19113401005/abstract {E
instein_Albert_19110621.pdf} English:
A. Einstein, "On the Influence of
Gravitation on the Propagation of
Light": Lorentz, "Principle of
Relativity", 1923, p99.
http://www.relativitybook.com/resource
s/Einstein_gravity.html AND A.
Einstein, Anna Beck, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Volume 3,
The Swiss Years: Writings, 1909-1911,
Princeton University Press, 1993, p379.
6. ^
T. E. Cranshaw, J. P. Schiffer, and A.
B. Whitehead, "Measurement of the
Gravitational Red Shift Using the
Mössbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 4, 163–164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
7. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
8. ^ Albert Einstein, "Über den
Einfluß der Schwerkraft auf die
Ausbreitung des Lichtes", Ann. Physik,
35, 898
(1911) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19113401005/abstract {E
instein_Albert_19110621.pdf} English:
A. Einstein, "On the Influence of
Gravitation on the Propagation of
Light": Lorentz, "Principle of
Relativity", 1923, p99.
http://www.relativitybook.com/resource
s/Einstein_gravity.html AND A.
Einstein, Anna Beck, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Volume 3,
The Swiss Years: Writings, 1909-1911,
Princeton University Press, 1993, p379.
9. ^
Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Albert Einstein,
"Über den Einfluß der Schwerkraft auf
die Ausbreitung des Lichtes", Ann.
Physik, 35, 898
(1911) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19113401005/abstract {E
instein_Albert_19110621.pdf} English:
A. Einstein, "On the Influence of
Gravitation on the Propagation of
Light": Lorentz, "Principle of
Relativity", 1923, p99.
http://www.relativitybook.com/resource
s/Einstein_gravity.html AND A.
Einstein, Anna Beck, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Volume 3,
The Swiss Years: Writings, 1909-1911,
Princeton University Press, 1993, p379.
12. ^
Albert Einstein, "Über den Einfluß
der Schwerkraft auf die Ausbreitung des
Lichtes", Ann. Physik, 35, 898
(1911) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19113401005/abstract {E
instein_Albert_19110621.pdf} English:
A. Einstein, "On the Influence of
Gravitation on the Propagation of
Light": Lorentz, "Principle of
Relativity", 1923, p99.
http://www.relativitybook.com/resource
s/Einstein_gravity.html AND A.
Einstein, Anna Beck, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Volume 3,
The Swiss Years: Writings, 1909-1911,
Princeton University Press, 1993, p379.
{06/21/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10]
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleine
rt/files/
[11] A. Einstein, "Über die von der
molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[12] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[13] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[14] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[15] Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation Versus Relativity", 1922,
[16]
Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
1987
[17] A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip
und die aus demselben gezogenen
Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna
Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton
University Press, v2, The Swiss years,
writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
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t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
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books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+re
tain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=e
n&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
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AA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
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[18] A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip
und die aus demselben gezogenen
Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivität, (1907), 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna
Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton
University Press, v2, The Swiss years,
writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) http://books.google.com/
books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+re
tain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=e
n&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
%20of%20motion%20retain%20their%20form%2
2&f=false
Prague, Czechlslovakia11  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
89 YBN
[06/??/1911 AD] 7 		3944) Perhaps it is no coincidence that
this may be just over 100 years from
the first seeing of eyes and internal
images produced by the brain,
presumably by William Wollaston in
October 24, 1810.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington, "Earliest known
explicit description of a machine that
can record the sounds a brain makes, or
of a machine that can write sounds
directly to a brain, to my knowledge
and finding so far."
2. ^ Hugo Gernsback,
"Ralph 124C 41 +", "Modern Electrics",
Modern Electrics Publication, New York,
Vol. 4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p165-168.
3. ^ Ted Huntington, "Earliest
known explicit description of a machine
that can record the sounds a brain
makes, or of a machine that can write
sounds directly to a brain, to my
knowledge and finding so far."
4. ^ Hugo
Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41 +", "Modern
Electrics", Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p165-168.
5. ^ Ted Huntington, "Earliest known
explicit description of a machine that
can record the sounds a brain makes, or
of a machine that can write sounds
directly to a brain, to my knowledge
and finding so far."
6. ^ Hugo Gernsback,
"Ralph 124C 41 +", "Modern Electrics",
Modern Electrics Publication, New York,
Vol. 4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p165-168.
7. ^ Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C
41 +", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p165-168. {06/1911}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[2] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[3] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[4] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[5] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[6] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
3. Merging science fiction into science
fact.". Society for Amateur Scientists
(Society for Amateur Scientists),
October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html
[7]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[8]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
[9]
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
New York City, NY6  
[1] image of ''Menograph'' tape of
thought audio from Hugo Gernsback June
1911 story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback June 1911
story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p167.
89 YBN
[07/07/1911 AD] 4 5 		4799)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p418.
3. ^ Ejnar Hertzsprung,
“Nachweis der Veränderlichkeit von
α Ursae minoris", Astronomische
Nachrichten 189 (1911),
89–104. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1911AN....189...89H
4. ^ Ejnar Hertzsprung, “Nachweis der
Veränderlichkeit von α Ursae
minoris", Astronomische Nachrichten 189
(1911),
89–104. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1911AN....189...89H {07/07/1911}
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647. {1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ejnar Hertzsprung."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263944/Ejnar-Hertzsprung>
[2] "Ejnar Hertzsprung." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ejnar-hertz
sprung
[3] "Ejnar Hertzsprung". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertz
sprung
[4] "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 22, 01/1914,
p.275. http://books.google.com/books?id
=MUYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA275&lpg=PA275&dq=%22i
nvestigations+into+the+nature+of+the+sta
rs+must+necessarily%22&source=bl&ots=yKM
IApR0KO&sig=LiC4Om2uH2e_n6A4h2wcXYzVtXg&
hl=en&ei=Y-ObTIXhPImisQP5j_DdCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved
=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22investigatio
ns%20into%20the%20nature%20of%20the%20st
ars%20must%20necessarily%22&f=false
[6] Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
[7] Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false
[8] Gilbert Lewis, "The Chemistry of
the Stars and the Evolution of
Radioactive Substances", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V34, N202, 1911,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PBILAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA314&dq=on+the+radiatio
n+of+the+stars+hertzsprung&hl=en&ei=lfSc
TPWIPI2qsAP_6dzVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onep
age&q=on%20the%20radiation%20of%20the%20
stars%20hertzsprung&f=false
[9] Ejnar Hertzsprung, “Über die
Vervendung photographischer effektiver
Wellenlängen zur Bestimmung von
Farbenäquivalenten”, Publikationen
des Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums
zu Potsdam, 22 (1911), 1–40.
Potsdam, Germany3  
[1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

[2] Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. A
plot of luminosity (absolute magnitude)
against the colour of the stars ranging
from the high-temperature blue-white
stars on the left side of the diagram
to the low temperature red stars on the
right side. ''This diagram below is a
plot of 22000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard PowellHertzsprung-Russell
diagram. A plot of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) against the colour of the
stars ranging from the high-temperature
blue-white stars on the left side of
the diagram to the low temperature red
stars on the right side. ''This diagram
below is a plot of 22000 stars from the
Hipparcos Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard Powell CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/HRDiagram.png
89 YBN
[07/??/1911 AD] 4 		3946)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 4, July 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p249.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Modern Electrics",
Modern Electrics Publication, New York,
Vol. 4, No. 4, July 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p249.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
4. ^ "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 4, July 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p249.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
{07/1911}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[2] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[3] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[4] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[5] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[6] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
3. Merging science fiction into science
fact.". Society for Amateur Scientists
(Society for Amateur Scientists),
October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html
[7]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[8]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
[9]
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
[10] Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41 +",
"Modern Electrics", Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p165-168
[11] "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 4, July 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p249.
New York City, NY3  
[1] Cartoon from July 1911 ''Modern
Electrics'' PD
source: "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, March 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p249.

[2] Gernsback in or before 1918; PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/publi
shers/images/H-Gernsback-EICO%20Book%201
918.jpg
89 YBN
[11/13/1911 AD] 4 		4270)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical reactions.",Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 16, 1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
3. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} {11/13/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[21] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[22] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[23] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225
[25] Thomson, J. J., "A new method of
chemical analysis (Royal Institution
lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy. Instn. 20,
1911, p140
[26] Thomson, J. J., "The unit
theory of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 16, 1912, 643
[27] Thomson, J. J.,
"Rays of positive electricity (Bakerian
lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89,
1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 4 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
89 YBN
[12/14/1911 AD] 12 		4772)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
2. ^ "Amundsen,
Roald." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9007
288>. ?
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p642.
5. ^ "Roald
Amundsen." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 206-207. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404700187&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
8. ^ "Roald
Amundsen." Encyclopedia of World
Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Gale, 2004. 206-207. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404700187&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p642.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642. {12/14/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roald Amundsen."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/roald-amund
sen
[2] "Roald Engelbregt Gravning
Amundsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roald_Engel
bregt_Gravning_Amundsen
South Pole11  
[1] Description Nlc
amundsen.jpg English: Roald
Amundsen Date Source Roald
Amundsen's The North West Passage:
Being a Record of a Voyage of
Exploration of the ship Gjøa,
1903-1907; Roald Amundsen. New York:
Dutton, 1908. National Library of
Canada Author [show]Ludwik
Szacinski (1844–1894) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Nlc_amundsen.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 8 		3976)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mauguin, Charles Victor",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p585.
2. ^ Timothy
J. Sluckin, David A. Dunmur, Horst
Stegemeyer, "Crystals that flow:
classic papers from the history of
liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
 Azoxyphenol
Ethers"&f=false {Crystals_That_Flow_200
4.pdf}
3. ^ C. Mauguin, "Sur Les Cristaux
Liquides de Lehmann (On the Liquid
Crystals of Lehmann)", Bulletin de la
Société Française de Minéralogie,
Vol. 34, pp. 71–117, 1911.
4. ^ David J.R.
Cristaldi, Salvatore Pennisi and
Francesco Pulvirenti, "Liquid Crystal
Display Drivers, 1 Techniques and
Circuits",
2009. 10.1007/978-90-481-2255-4_1 http
://www.springerlink.com/content/n723gn42
27346862/ {Liquid_Crystal_Display_Histo
ry_2009.pdf}
5. ^ Timothy J. Sluckin, David A.
Dunmur, Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals
that flow: classic papers from the
history of liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
 Azoxyphenol
Ethers"&f=false {Crystals_That_Flow_200
4.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Mauguin, Charles
Victor", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p585.
8. ^
C. Mauguin, "Sur Les Cristaux Liquides
de Lehmann (On the Liquid Crystals of
Lehmann)", Bulletin de la Société
Française de Minéralogie, Vol. 34,
pp. 71–117, 1911.

MORE INFO
[1] C. Mauguin, "Orientation des
Cristaux Liquides par le Champ
Magnétique (Orientation of Liquid
Crystals by a Magnetic Field)", Comptes
rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,
Vol. 152, pp. 1680–1683, 1911
Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France7  
[1] Charles-Victor
Mauguin COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Az
oxyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX
0W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en
&ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="O
n Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 5 		4358) Reid is the great-grandnephew of
George Washington on his mother's
side.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p581.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581.
4. ^ "Reid, Harry
Fielding." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 24
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
089>.
5. ^ "Reid, Harry Fielding."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 24 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
089>. {1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Reid, Harry Fielding."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 361-362. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903618&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Harry Fielding Reid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Field
ing_Reid
( Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA4  
[1] Description HarryFieldingReid
1933.jpg English: Dr. Harry Fielding
Reid in Southeastern Alaska. Date
1933(1933) Source USGS Photo
Library,
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/ Author
Charles Will Wright PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/HarryFieldingReid_193
3.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 11 		4477)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
2. ^ T. H. Morgan,
"An attempt to analyze the constitution
of the chromosomes on the basis of
sex-limited inheritance in Drosophila",
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Volume
11 Issue 4, 1911, Pages 365 -
413. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/110480881/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRE
TRY=0 {Morgan_Thomas_Hunt_1911.pdf}
3. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 515-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ F. A. Janssens, "La théorie de la
chiasmatypie", in La Cellule, 25
(1909), 389–411.
5. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 515-526. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
7. ^ "Morgan, Thomas
Hunt." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 515-526.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Thomas Hunt Morgan, "The Mechanism
of Mendelian heredity", H. Holt and
company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GZEEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Mechanism+of+Mendeli
an+Heredity&printsec=frontcover&source=b
n&hl=en&ei=5xstTOLZG9_nnQe4h6T0Ag&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CB
0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p611-612.
10. ^ T. H. Morgan,
"An attempt to analyze the constitution
of the chromosomes on the basis of
sex-limited inheritance in Drosophila",
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Volume
11 Issue 4, 1911, Pages 365 -
413. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/110480881/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRE
TRY=0 {Morgan_Thomas_Hunt_1911.pdf}
11. ^ T. H. Morgan, "An attempt to
analyze the constitution of the
chromosomes on the basis of sex-limited
inheritance in Drosophila", Journal of
Experimental Zoology, Volume 11 Issue
4, 1911, Pages 365 -
413. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/110480881/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRE
TRY=0 {Morgan_Thomas_Hunt_1911.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Morgan, Thomas Hunt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
728>.
[2] "Thomas Hunt Morgan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-hunt
-morgan
[3] "Thomas Hunt Morgan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt
_Morgan
[4] T. H. Morgan, "Sex-Limited
Inheritance in Drosophila", in Science,
32 (1910),
120–122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1635471
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA10  
[1] Figures from Morgan's 1911
paper PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/110480881/PDFSTART

[2] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 7 		4498) Andrew Ellicott Douglass (CE
1867-1962), US astronomer1 develops a
system of dendrochronology (chronology
based on tree ring patterns), by
noticing that the tree ring patterns
have similar patterns, the width of the
rings relating to the pattern of growth
of a tree during wetter and drier
seasons.2 When viewing a cross section
of a tree, for certain species of
trees, wide rings are produced during
wet years, and narrow rings are
produced during dry years.3 In this
way Douglass works out a pattern
covering many centuries. In Arizona
many dead trees are well preserved
because of the dry air. The patterns
are different based on the region, and
Douglass makes maps of different
regions, finding that each tree fits
into a certain chronological period of
a regional map. This is the first of
the sensitive dating methods which will
produce Libby's carbon-14 method.4

By the late 1920s Douglass will have
sequenced of over a thousand tree rings
with six thin rings, presumably records
of a severe drought, correlated with
the end of the 1200s. In 1929 Douglass
finds some trees that contain the six
thin rings and a further 500 in
addition. This takes him to the 700s
and over the years Douglass manages to
get as far as the first century. Modern
scholars have taken tihs timeline going
back almost to 5000 BCE.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p614.
3. ^
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/
biography/abcde/douglass_andrew.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614.
5. ^ "A. E.
Douglass." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andrew-elli
cott-douglass
6. ^ "Douglass, Andrew Ellicott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
055>.
7. ^
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/
biography/abcde/douglass_andrew.html
{1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Andrew Ellicott Douglass".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Elli
cott_Douglass
(Lowell Observatory) Flagstaff,
Arizona, USA6  
[1] A.E. Douglass PD
source: http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/inyo/rec
reation/bristlecone/images/dr-douglass.j
pg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 6 		4798)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647.
2. ^ "Hertzsprung,
Ejnar." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 350-353.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ejnar Hertzsprung, “Über die
Vervendung photographischer effektiver
Wellenlängen zur Bestimmung von
Farbenäquivalenten”, Publikationen
des Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums
zu Potsdam, 22 (1911), 1–40.
4. ^
"Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ejnar Hertzsprung."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263944/Ejnar-Hertzsprung>
[2] "Ejnar Hertzsprung." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ejnar-hertz
sprung
[3] "Ejnar Hertzsprung". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertz
sprung
[4] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 22, 01/1914,
p.275. http://books.google.com/books?id
=MUYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA275&lpg=PA275&dq=%22i
nvestigations+into+the+nature+of+the+sta
rs+must+necessarily%22&source=bl&ots=yKM
IApR0KO&sig=LiC4Om2uH2e_n6A4h2wcXYzVtXg&
hl=en&ei=Y-ObTIXhPImisQP5j_DdCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved
=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22investigatio
ns%20into%20the%20nature%20of%20the%20st
ars%20must%20necessarily%22&f=false
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p406
[6]
Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
[7] Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false
[8] Gilbert Lewis, "The Chemistry of
the Stars and the Evolution of
Radioactive Substances", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V34, N202, 1911,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PBILAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA314&dq=on+the+radiatio
n+of+the+stars+hertzsprung&hl=en&ei=lfSc
TPWIPI2qsAP_6dzVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onep
age&q=on%20the%20radiation%20of%20the%20
stars%20hertzsprung&f=false
Potsdam, Germany5  
[1] First chart of star color versus
magnitude Table from Ejnar
Hertzsprung, “Über die Vervendung
photographischer effektiver
Wellenlängen zur Bestimmung von
Farbenäquivalenten”, Publikationen
des Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums
zu Potsdam, 22 (1911), 1–40. Side
20 fra Hertzsprung artikel ''Über die
Vervendung Photographischer effektiver
Wellenlängen zur Bestimmung von
Farbenäquivalenten'' offentliggjort i
1911 i ''Publikationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam''. Figuren viser et
farve-lysstyrke-diagram for stjerner i
den åbne hob Pleiaderne. På
abscisseaksen er afsat stjernens
tilsyneladende fotografiske
størrelsesklasse, på ordinataksen
dens effektive bølgelængde i
ångström (i nanometer: fra 410 til
450). For at svare til et moderne
HR-diagram, skal figuren drejes 90° i
urets retning. Vi kan nu ane
udskillelsen af ''kæmpestjerner'' fra
''hovedserien'' (vore dages
navne). [1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873
- 1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20side%2020.jpg

[2] Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. A
plot of luminosity (absolute magnitude)
against the colour of the stars ranging
from the high-temperature blue-white
stars on the left side of the diagram
to the low temperature red stars on the
right side. ''This diagram below is a
plot of 22000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard PowellHertzsprung-Russell
diagram. A plot of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) against the colour of the
stars ranging from the high-temperature
blue-white stars on the left side of
the diagram to the low temperature red
stars on the right side. ''This diagram
below is a plot of 22000 stars from the
Hipparcos Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard Powell CC
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 19 20 		4846) In 1917 Weismann helps to get the
Balfour Declaration put forth, which
agrees to the reestablishment of a
Jewish national state in Palestine. But
the Balfour Declaration will not
implemented until 1948 after the
barbarity of Hitler and his
followers.16
In 1948 Weismann is the
first president of Israel, and is one
of the very few research scientists to
serve as head of a state.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p653-654.
2. ^ "Chaim
Weizmann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizm
ann
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p653-654.
4. ^ "Chaim
Weizmann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizm
ann
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ DAVID T. JONES AND DAVID
R. WOODS, "Acetone-Butanol Fermentation
Revisited", MICROBIOLOGICAL REVIEWS,
Dec. 1986, p. 484-524 Vol. 50, No.
4. http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/reprint/50/4
/484.pdf {Weizmann_Chaim_Acetone_Butano
l_198612xx.pdf}
7. ^ DAVID T. JONES AND DAVID R. WOODS,
"Acetone-Butanol Fermentation
Revisited", MICROBIOLOGICAL REVIEWS,
Dec. 1986, p. 484-524 Vol. 50, No.
4. http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/reprint/50/4
/484.pdf {Weizmann_Chaim_Acetone_Butano
l_198612xx.pdf}
8. ^ DAVID T. JONES AND DAVID R. WOODS,
"Acetone-Butanol Fermentation
Revisited", MICROBIOLOGICAL REVIEWS,
Dec. 1986, p. 484-524 Vol. 50, No.
4. http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/reprint/50/4
/484.pdf {Weizmann_Chaim_Acetone_Butano
l_198612xx.pdf}
9. ^ DAVID T. JONES AND DAVID R. WOODS,
"Acetone-Butanol Fermentation
Revisited", MICROBIOLOGICAL REVIEWS,
Dec. 1986, p. 484-524 Vol. 50, No.
4. http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/reprint/50/4
/484.pdf {Weizmann_Chaim_Acetone_Butano
l_198612xx.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Chaim Weizmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizm
ann
12. ^ "Chaim Weizmann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizm
ann
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p653-654.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p653-654.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p653-654.
18. ^ "Chaim
Weizmann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizm
ann
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p653-654. {1911}
20. ^
"Chaim Weizmann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizm
ann {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chaim Weizmann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639181/Chaim-Weizmann>.
[2] "Chaim Weizmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaim-weizm
ann
[3] "Weizmann, Chaim." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-248. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904599&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England18  
[1] Chaim Weizmann UNKNOWN
source: http://cojs.org/cojswiki/images/
2/2f/Chaim_Weizmann.jpg

[2] Description
ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg English: Chaim
Weizmann. Date 2006-09-24
(original upload date) Source
Crop of Image:Weizmann Truman
1948.jpg Author Original uploader
was SlimVirgin at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/91/ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD] 9 		4851) In 1936 Dale and Loewi share
Nobel prize in medicine and
physiology.5
In 1940-1945 Dale is
president of the Royal Society.6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655.
2. ^ "Sir Henry
Dale." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/150109/Sir-Henry-Dale>.
3. ^ HH Dale, PP Laidlaw, "The
physiological action of
β-iminazolylethylamine", The Journal
of Physiology,
1910. http://jp.physoc.org/content/41/5
/318.full.pdf {Dale_Henry_1910.pdf}
4. ^ HH Dale, PP Laidlaw, "Further
observations on the action of
β-iminazolylethylamine", The Journal
of Physiology,
1911. http://jp.physoc.org/content/43/2
/182.full.pdf {Henry_Dale_1911.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p655.
7. ^ HH Dale, PP
Laidlaw, "The physiological action of
β-iminazolylethylamine", The Journal
of Physiology,
1910. http://jp.physoc.org/content/41/5
/318.full.pdf {Dale_Henry_1910.pdf}
8. ^
http://archives.wellcome.ac.uk/DServe/ds
erve.exe?&dsqIni=wf.ini&dsqApp=Archive&d
sqDb=Catalog&dsqCmd=Overview1.tcl&dsqSea
rch=(Hazard=%27physiology%20labs%27)
9. ^ "Sir Henry Dale." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/150109/Sir-Henry-Dale>. {1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Hallett Dale."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-halle
tt-dale
[2] "Dale, Henry Hallett." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 104-107. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Henry Hallett Dale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Halle
tt_Dale
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1936/dale-bio.html
[5] "Henry Hallett Dale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-halle
tt-dale
(Wellcome Physiological Research
Laboratories) London, England7 8  
[1] Henry Hallett Dale UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/dale.jpg

[2] Sir Henry Hallett Dale (1875 -
1968) and Otto Loewi (1873 - 1961)
UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/SW5ML7DC4mI/AAAAAAAAIqw/ys3TSoyw94
w/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1936_Dale_and_Loe
wi.bmp
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 6 		4890)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
2. ^ "Wieland,
Heinrich Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "radical." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radical-che
mistry
4. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Otto Wieland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643268/Heinrich-Otto-Wieland>.
[2] "Heinrich Otto Wieland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ot
to-wieland
[3] "Heinrich Otto Wieland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Ot
to_Wieland
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1927/wieland.html
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany5
 
[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 28 		4908)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The chemistry of mesothorium", J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
4. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The chemistry of mesothorium", J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
6. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The Radio-elements and the Periodic
Law", Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}
7. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
8. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}
9. ^ Alexander Smith Russell, Chemical
News, 1913, 107, p49.
10. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The chemistry of mesothorium", J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
11. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
12. ^ "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Soddy, “Radioactivity,”
Annual Report, 7 (1910), 286.
15. ^
Frederick Soddy, "The Radio-elements
and the Periodic Law", Chemical News
107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
Rutherford and Andrade, Phil Mag, 27,
854, 1914.
19. ^ Stewart, Phil Mag, 36, 326,
1918
20. ^ Aston, "Isotopes", 1922, p12.
21. ^
Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Frederick
Soddy, "The chemistry of mesothorium",
J. Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
28. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry
of mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[2] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[4] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[6] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life:
Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[7] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[9] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[10] Frederick Soddy, “Contribution
to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99
(1921), 98
[11] D. Strömholm and T.
Svedberg, Zeitschrift für Anorganische
chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[12] Frederick
Soddy, The chemistry of the
radio-elements, Part 1,
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ho86AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland27  
[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
.pdf

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 6 		4936) In 1928 Richardson wins the Nobel
Prize in physics.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678.
2. ^ "Sir Owen
Willans Richardson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/502661/Sir-Owen-Willans-Richardson>.
3. ^ "Sir Owen Willans Richardson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/502661/Sir-Owen-Willans-Richardson>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678.
5. ^ "Sir Owen
Willans Richardson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/502661/Sir-Owen-Willans-Richardson>.
6. ^ "Sir Owen Willans Richardson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/502661/Sir-Owen-Willans-Richardson>.
{1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Owen Willans
Richardson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-owen-wi
llans-richardson
[2] "Richardson, Owen Willans."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 419-423. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903663&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Owen Willans Richardson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Willan
s_Richardson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1928/richardson-bio.html
[5] Owen Willans Richardson, "The
emission of electricity from hot
bodies", (London, 1916; 2nd ed.,
1921). http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=WHVCAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq
=Owen+Willans+Richardson&ots=WUB-IX3aPg&
sig=qeHIlXxqqgjycLajvU8afZ5Y1kk#v=onepag
e&q&f=false
[6] Owen Richardson, "The Electron
Theory of Matter" (Cambridge, 1914; 2nd
ed., 1916).
http://books.google.com/books?id=RpdDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Elect
ron+Theory+of+Matter&hl=en&ei=P3IYTenmN4
v2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resu
lt&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&
f=false
[7] Owen Richardson, "The Emission of
Electricity From Hot Bodies and
Molecular Hydrogen and Its Spectrum"
(New Haven, 1934).
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA5  
[1] Niels Bohr (up), Owen Willans
Richardson (down) Solvay Conference
1927 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3e/Niels_BohrUpOwenWilla
nsRichardsonDownSolvay1927.JPG
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 7 		4937) In 1966 Rous shares the Nobel
Prize for medicine and physiology.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679. {1911}
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA6  
[1] Francis Peyton Rous
(1879-1970) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/imagenes/ro.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 6 		4986) Hess has a Jewish wife and leaves
Austria shortly before Hitler's
invasion of Austria.4
After WW II, Hess
measures radioactive fallout from
nuclear bombs, and strongly opposes
nuclear tests.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691-692.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p691-692.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691-692.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p691-692.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691-692.
6. ^ "Victor
Francis Hess." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/victor-fran
cis-hess {1911}
Victor Franz Hess|(CE 1883-1964) 
[1] Victor Hess Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/hess-bio.html COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Hess.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 10 11 		5093)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine
thermique", Comptes Rendus,
1911. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3105c/f592.image {Dunoyer_Louis_19
11xxxx.pdf} "On the kinetic theory of
gases and the production of a radiation
source material of thermal origin"
2. ^ L.
Dunoyer, "Sur la réalisation d’un
rayonnement matériel d’origine
purement thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale" "On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics", Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf
3. ^ "Dunoyer De Segonzac, Louis
Dominique Joseph Armand." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 253-254. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901261&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Dunoyer De Segonzac,
Louis Dominique Joseph Armand."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 253-254. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901261&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine
thermique", Comptes Rendus,
1911. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3105c/f592.image {Dunoyer_Louis_19
11xxxx.pdf} "On the kinetic theory of
gases and the production of a radiation
source material of thermal origin"
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine",
Comptes Rendus, 1911. "On the kinetic
theory of gases and the production of a
radiation source material"
9. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale" "On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics", Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf
10. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine",
Comptes Rendus, 1911. "On the kinetic
theory of gases and the production of a
radiation source material"
11. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale" "On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics", Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] L. Dunoyer, Comptes Rendus,
152 (1911), 592–595; 153 (1911).
333–336; 154 (1912), 815–818,
1344–1346; 155 (1912), 144–147,
270–273; 157 (1913), 1068–1070; 158
(1914), 1068–1071, 1265–1267,
written with R. W. Wood; Bulletin de la
Société française de physique, four
memoirs between 1912 and 1914; Journal
de physique et radium, 185 (1913);
Collection de mémoirs relatifs à la
physique (1912); Radium, seven memoirs
between 1910 and 1914
(Faculté des Sciences de Paris -
University of Paris) Paris, France8 9
 
[1] Figure 1 from: L. Dunoyer, ''Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale'' ''On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics'', Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf PD
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4
_142_1.pdf
88 YBN
[01/05/1912 AD] 9 		5301)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Botho Schwerin, "Patent number:
1229203, Filing date: Jan 5, 1912,
Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
2. ^ Arne Tiselius, "A new apparatus
for electrophoretic analysis of
colloidal mixtures", Trans. Faraday
Soc., 1937, 33,
524-531. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524
3. ^ Botho Schwerin, "Patent number:
1229203, Filing date: Jan 5, 1912,
Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
4. ^ Arne Tiselius, "A new apparatus
for electrophoretic analysis of
colloidal mixtures", Trans. Faraday
Soc., 1937, 33,
524-531. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p789.
6. ^ Arne Tiselius,
"A new apparatus for electrophoretic
analysis of colloidal mixtures", Trans.
Faraday Soc., 1937, 33,
524-531. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Botho Schwerin, "Patent
number: 1229203, Filing date: Jan 5,
1912, Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
9. ^ Botho Schwerin, "Patent number:
1229203, Filing date: Jan 5, 1912,
Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {01/05/1912}
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany8  
[1] Figure 1 from; Botho Schwerin,
''Patent number: 1229203, Filing date:
Jan 5, 1912, Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CpBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
88 YBN
[03/03/1912 AD] 12 		4528)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p623.
2. ^ "Leavitt,
Henrietta Swan." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 105-106.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902515&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Leavitt, H. S. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the
Small Magellanic Cloud.", Harvard
College Observatory Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false
4. ^ Leavitt, H. S. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the
Small Magellanic Cloud.", Harvard
College Observatory Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p623.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 14 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p623. {03/03/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
[2] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
[3] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_S
wan_Leavitt
[4] Henrietta Leavitt, "1777 Variables
in the Magellanic Clouds",Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 60, no. 4,
Annals of Harvard College Observatory,
vol. 60, pp.87-108,
300,1908. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1908AnHar..60...87L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zZ
sRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+the
+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&source=
bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8r8b
oi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q3CA
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20the
%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compariso
n%22&f=false
[5] Solon I. Bailey, "Henrietta Swan
Leavitt" (obituary), Popular Astronomy,
V30, N4, April
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rzYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA197&lpg=PA197&dq=Solon
+I.+Bailey+in+Popular+Astronomy++leavitt
&source=bl&ots=VNqmN_m2oF&sig=xP3jSu5j8h
h_vECKwmtWn_aMaCg&hl=en&ei=7k8_TKiMHY3Ss
AOc0N32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA11  
[1] Table 1 from: Leavitt, H. S. &
Pickering, E. C., ''Periods of 25
Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic
Cloud.'', Harvard College Observatory
Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=z74RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+followi
ng+statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25
+variable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXG
sAOCzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20following%20statement%20regarding
%20the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20
stars%22&f=false

[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg
88 YBN
[04/20/1912 AD] 41 		4918) (1927 Russell publishes an
astronomy text (book39 ) that is the
first to shift the main emphasis from
the solar system and celestial
mechanics to the stars and
astrophysics.)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667-668.
2. ^ Henry Norris
Russell, "Relations Between the Spectra
and Other Characteristics of the
Stars.", Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name.
3. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.", Popular
Astronomy, V22, May 1914, V22, N5,
WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R
4. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.", Popular
Astronomy, V22, May 1914, V22, N5,
WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667-668.
11. ^ "Russell, Henry
Norris." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-24.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903796&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Russell, Henry Norris." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 17-24. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903796&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.", Popular
Astronomy, V22, May 1914, V22, N5,
WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R
14. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false
15. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name.
16. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
17. ^ Record ID4797. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Record
ID4796. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Henry Norris Russell,
"Relations Between the Spectra and
Other Characteristics of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name.
20. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.", Popular
Astronomy, V22, May 1914, V22, N5,
WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Henry Norris
Russell, "Relations Between the Spectra
and Other Characteristics of the
Stars.", Popular Astronomy, V22, May
1914, V22, N5, WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Henry Norris Russell,
"Relations Between the Spectra and
Other Characteristics of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name.
41. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name. {04/20/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Norris Russell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513190/Henry-Norris-Russell>
[2] "Henry Norris Russell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-norri
s-russell
[3] "Henry Norris Russell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Norri
s_Russell
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA.40  
[1] Figure 1 from Henry Norris
Russell, ''Relations Between the
Spectra and Other Characteristics of
the Stars.'', Popular Astronomy, V22,
May 1914, V22, N5, WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+
apparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en
&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4
Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20ap
parent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22
&f=false

[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg
88 YBN
[05/04/1912 AD] 23 		4939) In 1914 Laue wins the Nobel Prize
in physics.16
Laue champions Albert
Einstein’s theory of relativity, does
research on the quantum theory, the
Compton effect (change of wavelength in
light under certain conditions), and
the disintegration of atoms.17
In 1939
in Switzerland Laue denounces Hitler's
policy of refusing to allow Germans to
accept Nobel Prizes.18
In 1943 Laue
resigns from the University of Berlin
in protest against the Nazis.19
In
1960 Laue dies in an automobile
accident at age 81.20 (with seatbelt?
because of age?21 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, M.
Laue, "Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} "Interference
effects in Röntgen rays"
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
3. ^ W.
Friedrich, P. Knipping, M. Laue,
"Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} "Interference
effects in Röntgen rays"
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
8. ^ "Max von Laue."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332240/Max-von-Laue>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ William L. Bragg, "The History of
X-Ray Analysis", 1943
13. ^ William H.
Bragg, "The Universe of Light",
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
17. ^ "Max von
Laue." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332240/Max-von-Laue>.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^
"Laue, Max von." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 50-53.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
23. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {05/04/1912} {announced)
05/04/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max von Laue." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-von-lau
e
[2] "Max von Laue". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Lau
e
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1914/laue-bio.html
[4] M. Laue, "Die Mitführung des
Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem
Relativitätsprinzip", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 328, Issue 10, pages
989–990,
1907. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19073281015/abstract {La
ue_Max_19070730.pdf}
(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany22  
[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf

[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
88 YBN
[05/06/1912 AD] 6 		4271) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist,1
publishes a paper "The Unit Theory of
Light" in which he rejects the idea
that light is made of constant and
invariable units.2

(Possibly Thomson rejects the theory
publicly in word, in order to offset
the publication of an article
discussing a particle theory for
light.3 )

(EX: I think a major experiment, is
trying to detect even a tiny portion of
light particles reflecting off each
other - it seems like an obvious
experiment. It is mysterious why I have
never heard of this kind of experiment
being done - focused lasers aimed at
each other with detectors on the sides
trying to pick up photons that may have
reflected off other photons. This could
also be done in a vacuum container.4 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"The unit theory of light.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 16, 1912, 643.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"The unit theory of light.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 16, 1912, 643.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf}
6. ^ Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory
of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf}
{05/06/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[21] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[22] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[23] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225
[25] Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911, p455
[26] Thomson, J. J., "A new
method of chemical analysis (Royal
Institution lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy.
Instn. 20, 1911, p140
[27] Thomson, J. J.,
"Rays of positive electricity (Bakerian
lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89,
1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5  
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
88 YBN
[06/07/1912 AD] 4 		4692)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p625-626.
2. ^ C. T. R. Wilson,
"On an Expansion Apparatus for Making
Visible the Tracks of Ionising
Particles in Gases and Some Results
Obtained by Its Use", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 87, No. 595
(Sep. 19, 1912), pp.
277-292. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
225 {Wilson_Charles_1912.pdf}
3. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On an Expansion
Apparatus for Making Visible the Tracks
of Ionising Particles in Gases and Some
Results Obtained by Its Use",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 87, No. 595 (Sep. 19, 1912), pp.
277-292. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
225 {Wilson_Charles_1912.pdf}
4. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On an Expansion
Apparatus for Making Visible the Tracks
of Ionising Particles in Gases and Some
Results Obtained by Its Use",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 87, No. 595 (Sep. 19, 1912), pp.
277-292. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
225 {Wilson_Charles_1912.pdf}
{06/07/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
[7] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8, 1895,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[8] C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[9] C. T. R. Wilson, "Condensation of
Water Vapour in the Presence of
Dust-free Air and other Gases",
Philosophical transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Volume 189,
March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[10] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Comparative Efficiency as Condensation
Nuclei of Positively and Negatively
Charged Ions", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1900 193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
[11] C. T. R. Wilson, "On a Method of
Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England3  
[1] Figures from Wilson's 1912
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On an
Expansion Apparatus for Making Visible
the Tracks of Ionising Particles in
Gases and Some Results Obtained by Its
Use'', Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Series A, Containing Papers
of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 87, No. 595 (Sep. 19,
1912), pp. 277-292. PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9322
5

[2] Figures from Wilson's 1912
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On an
Expansion Apparatus for Making Visible
the Tracks of Ionising Particles in
Gases and Some Results Obtained by Its
Use'', Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Series A, Containing Papers
of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 87, No. 595 (Sep. 19,
1912), pp. 277-292. PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9322
5
88 YBN
[07/01/1912 AD] 12 13 		4861)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p556.
3. ^ "Vesto
Melvin Slipher." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.
4. ^ Lowell, P., "Spectroscopic
discovery of the rotation period of
Uranus", Lowell Observatory Bulletin,
vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
5. ^ Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
6. ^ "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Slipher, E. C., "Recent
photographic observations of Mars,
Venus, Mercury, Jupiter and Saturn",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 37, p.326,
1929. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29PA.....37..326S
9. ^ Slipher, V. M., Spectrograms of
Jupiter, , Popular Astronomy, vol. 11,
pp.1-4,
01/1903 http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/1903PA.....11....1S
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.
12. ^ Lowell, P., "Spectroscopic
discovery of the rotation period of
Uranus", Lowell Observatory Bulletin,
vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html {07/01/1912}
13. ^ "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>. {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[3] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA11  
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
88 YBN
[07/16/1912 AD] 7 		5203)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538
2. ^ WILLIAM RAMSAY,
"Experiments with Kathode Rays", Nature
89, 502-502 (18 July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html {Ramsay_Will
iam_19120716.pdf}
3. ^ M. W. Garrett, "Experiments upon
the Reported Transmutation of Mercury
into Gold", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
September 1, 1926
112:391-406. http://rspa.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/112/761/391.full.pd
f+html {Garrett_M_W_19260714.pdf}
4. ^ M. W. Garrett, "Experiments upon
the Reported Transmutation of Mercury
into Gold", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
September 1, 1926
112:391-406. http://rspa.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/112/761/391.full.pd
f+html {Garrett_M_W_19260714.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ WILLIAM RAMSAY,
"Experiments with Kathode Rays", Nature
89, 502-502 (18 July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html {Ramsay_Will
iam_19120716.pdf}
7. ^ WILLIAM RAMSAY, "Experiments with
Kathode Rays", Nature 89, 502-502 (18
July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html {Ramsay_Will
iam_19120716.pdf} {07/16/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[6] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[7] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[9] Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[10]
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
[11] William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[12] Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[13] "xenon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/xenon
[14] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
(University College) London, England6
 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
88 YBN
[08/??/1912 AD] 7 		4274)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
2. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
Multiply-charged atoms (International
Congress of Mathematicians, Cambridge,
August 1912).
3. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Multiply-charged atoms.", Phil. Mag.
24, 1912, 668.
4. ^ 4. ^ "Joseph John
Thomson. 1856-1940", Rayleigh G.
Strutt, Obituary Notices of Fellows of
the Royal Society, Vol. 3, No. 10
(Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
Multiply-charged atoms (International
Congress of Mathematicians, Cambridge,
August 1912).
7. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
Multiply-charged atoms (International
Congress of Mathematicians, Cambridge,
August 1912). {08/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[13] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[14] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[18] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[19]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[20] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[21] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[22] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[23] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225.
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911, p455.
[25] Thomson, J. J., "A new
method of chemical analysis (Royal
Institution lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy.
Instn. 20, 1911, p140.
[26] Thomson, J. J.,
"The unit theory of light.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 16, 1912, 643.
[27]
Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity (Bakerian lecture).", Proc.
Roy. Soc. A. 89, 1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
[28] Thomson, J. J., "Further
applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical problems.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 17, 01/27/1913, p201.
[29]
Thomson, J. J., "On rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 13, May 1907,
561. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
VjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561&dq=%22positive+elec
tricity%22+thomson+intitle:philosophical
&hl=en&ei=QvunS8rYCYywsgOqy4SpDQ&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDk
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22positive%20electr
icity%22%20thomson%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England6  
[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
88 YBN
[10/??/1912 AD] 8 		4912)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Russell, "The Periodic
System and the Radio-Elements.", The
Chemical News, V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
}
2. ^ Alexander Smith Russell, Chemical
News, 1913, 107, p49.
3. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The Radio-elements and the Periodic
Law", Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Alexander Russell, "The
Periodic System and the
Radio-Elements.", The Chemical News,
V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Alexander S. Russell,
"The Penetrating Power of the γ -Rays
from Radium C", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character Vol. 88, No. 600
(Jan. 29, 1913), pp. 75-82
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93161
8. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html {10/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick and A. S.
Russell, "The Excitation of γ -Rays by
the α -Rays of Ionium and
Radiothorium", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character Vol. 88, No. 602
(Mar. 31, 1913), pp. 217-229
[2] J. Chadwick,
A. S. Russell, "Excitation of γ rays
by α rays", Nature, v90, n2252,
p463. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v90/n2252/pdf/090463a0.pdf
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland7 (verify) 
[1] Table from: Alexander Russell,
''The Periodic System and the
Radio-Elements.'', The Chemical News,
V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
} PD
source: Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
88 YBN
[11/11/1912 AD] 34 35 		4404) William Lawrence Bragg enters the
University of Adelaide at age 15, and
graduates age 18.30
In 1915 both Bragg
father and son share the Nobel prize
for physics.31
Bragg is interested in
lecturing on science to young people.32

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
2. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
4. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
7. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, "Annalen der Physik", LXXIV,
1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts in
English translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF
THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE
LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J.
S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828.
10. ^ Record ID3297.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Sir Arthur Schuster, "An
Introduction To The Theory Of Optics",
E. Arnold, 1904,
p107-111. http://books.google.com/books
?id=w2BDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=s
chuster+grating&source=bl&ots=JZ55Jg6_55
&sig=YtLZqqykTkA_HucQPmg8AbVU38U&hl=en&e
i=AfjOTY3UNJC8sQO80f3ACw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBkQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=schuster%20grating&f=f
alse
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
13. ^ Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
14. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
15. ^ "Bragg, Sir William Lawrence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 61-64. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Bragg, Sir William Lawrence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 61-64. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ "Bragg, Sir William Lawrence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 61-64. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
20. ^ Author Schuster, Arthur, Sir,
1851-1934., "An introduction to the
theory of optics," Edition 2d ed.
Published London,E. Arnold,1909,
p117-118. http://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=uc1.b24479;page=root;view=image
;size=100;seq=141;num=117#
21. ^ Review of "An introduction to the
theory of
optics": http://books.google.com/books?
id=GpICAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA920&lpg=PA920&dq=ar
thur+schuster+grating+pulses&source=bl&o
ts=iQR9NIrgfc&sig=3nwc53WvhEWK_1bg_2naqR
XEt1E&hl=en&ei=DkIJTLeKNJ2-Mp7QnLYE&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0
CCAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=arthur%20schuster
%20grating%20pulses&f=false
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ William Lawrence Bragg,
"The Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
31. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
32. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
33. ^ William
Lawrence Bragg, "The Specular
Reflection of X-rays.", Nature, vol 90,
num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
34. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} {11/11/1912}
35. ^ William Lawrence Bragg,
"The Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false {12/08/1904}
{12/08/1912} {and Nature article:
12/08/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
[13] "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England33  
[1] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
pdf

[2] Figures 3 and 4 from: Bragg, W.L.
The Diffraction of Short
Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
pdf
88 YBN
[11/??/1912 AD] 8 		5096)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p732.
3. ^ A. H.
Sturtevant, "The linear arrangement of
six sex‐linked factors in Drosophila,
as shown by their mode of association",
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Volume
14, Issue 1, pages 43–59, 20 January
1913 {Sturtevant_Alfred_191211xx.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732.
5. ^ A. H.
Sturtevant, "The linear arrangement of
six sex‐linked factors in Drosophila,
as shown by their mode of association",
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Volume
14, Issue 1, pages 43–59, 20 January
1913 {Sturtevant_Alfred_191211xx.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A. H. Sturtevant, "The
linear arrangement of six sex‐linked
factors in Drosophila, as shown by
their mode of association", Journal of
Experimental Zoology, Volume 14, Issue
1, pages 43–59, 20 January
1913 {Sturtevant_Alfred_191211xx.pdf}
8. ^ A. H. Sturtevant, "The linear
arrangement of six sex‐linked factors
in Drosophila, as shown by their mode
of association", Journal of
Experimental Zoology, Volume 14, Issue
1, pages 43–59, 20 January
1913 {Sturtevant_Alfred_191211xx.pdf}
{11/1912}
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA7  
[1] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/ima
ges/11abio.gif
88 YBN
[12/12/1912 AD] 6 7 		4816)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648-649.
2. ^ "William Weber
Coblentz." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 01
Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-web
er-coblentz
3. ^ Coblentz, “The Constants of
Spectral Radiation of a Uniformly
Heated Enclosure or So-called Black
Body. I,” in Bulletin of the Bureau
of standards, 10 (1913), 1–77; Also
in: Physical review, V1, N3, 1913,
p249. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Qe4KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR4&dq=The+Constants+of+
Spectral+Radiation+of+a+Uniformly+Heated
+Enclosure+or+So-called+Black+Body&hl=en
&ei=xUmmTOXMBoyinQf13MGPAQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=coblentz&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Coblentz, William
Weber." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 327-328.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900937&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Coblentz, “The Constants of
Spectral Radiation of a Uniformly
Heated Enclosure or So-called Black
Body. I,” in Bulletin of the Bureau
of standards, 10 (1913), 1–77; Also
in: Physical review, V1, N3, 1913,
p249. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Qe4KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR4&dq=The+Constants+of+
Spectral+Radiation+of+a+Uniformly+Heated
+Enclosure+or+So-called+Black+Body&hl=en
&ei=xUmmTOXMBoyinQf13MGPAQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=coblentz&f=false
{12/12/1912}
7. ^ Coblentz, “The Constants of
Spectral Radiation of a Uniformly
Heated Enclosure or So-called Black
Body. I,” in Bulletin of the Bureau
of standards, 10 (1913), 1–77; Also
in: Physical review, V1, N3, 1913,
p249. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Qe4KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR4&dq=The+Constants+of+
Spectral+Radiation+of+a+Uniformly+Heated
+Enclosure+or+So-called+Black+Body&hl=en
&ei=xUmmTOXMBoyinQf13MGPAQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=coblentz&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "William W. Coblentz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/123368/William-W-Coblentz>.
[2] "William W. Coblentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_W._
Coblentz
[3] Coblentz, "Investigations of
infra-red spectra", 1905.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4LnvAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=William+W.+Coblentz&
hl=en&ei=UUSmTLjeFYeonQfG8vSPAQ&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ
6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=William%20W.%20Coblen
tz&f=false
(National Bureau of Standards)
Washington D.C., USA5  
[1] ''Large spectrometer with Nernst
heater, h, to the right, and
radiometer, r, to the left. The
gas-cell holder and glass cells are
shown at g; Geissler pump in the rear.
Photograph taken through doorway of
inner room.'' Photograph scanned from
Fig. 1A of William W. Coblentz's 1905
publication, Investigations of
Infra-Red Spectra, facing page 16. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/fd/Coblentz-IR.jpg

[2] English: The image is a scan of a
photograph of a US government employee,
William Weber Coblentz, who died in
1962. According to the US Library of
Congress there ''are no known
restrictions on photographs by Harris &
Ewing'', the latter being the
photographic name on the print. This
photograph appears in W. W. Coblentz's
1951 memoir and other pre-1950 works.
Astrochemist 00:58, 27 August 2006
(UTC) Date 2006-08-27 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated
to be made by User:Sozi. Author
Original uploader was Astrochemist
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Coblentz-WW.jpg
88 YBN
[12/20/1912 AD] 6 		4862)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657.
2. ^ Slipher, V. M.,
"On the Spectrum of the Nebula in the
Pleiades", Popular Astronomy, Vol. 21,
1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
3. ^ "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
4. ^ Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum
of the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
5. ^ "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.
6. ^ Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum
of the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S {12/20/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[4] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556.
[6] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA5  
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 6 		4298)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p566.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p566.
3. ^ "John Jacob
Abel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
4. ^ "Abel, John Jacob." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-12. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830900017&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "John Jacob Abel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
6. ^ "Abel, John Jacob." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-12. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830900017&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abel, John Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
310>.
[2] "John Jacob Abel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
[3] "John Jacob Abel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_
Abel
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA5  
[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 7 		4383) Alfred North Whitehead (CE
1861-1947), English mathematician and
philosopher 1 , in collaboration with
Bertrand Russell (CE 1872-19702 ),
publishes “Principia Mathematica", in
which he tries to build up mathematics
from symbolic logic. Gödel will show
that there are unresolvable paradoxes
in any system of logic, such as the
statement Russell creates about a set
containing all sets of which it is not
a member being a member of itself.3

(in my view there is no need for a
logical basis to math, math simply is,
and needs no explanation or logical
foundation. In someway, math can be
applied to the universe, but also to
imaginary phenomena.4 )

(There are many logical apparent errors
- for example the statement "can we be
certain that there is no certainty" - a
statement which cannot be either true
or false, because if true it would be
proven false, if false, then proven
true.5 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Alfred North Whitehead, Bertrand
Russell, "Principia mathematica",
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sbTVAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Prin
cipia+Mathematica&hl=en&ei=9oQFTNmqD8G78
gafwPjADQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
7. ^ Alfred North Whitehead, Bertrand
Russell, "Principia mathematica",
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sbTVAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Prin
cipia+Mathematica&hl=en&ei=9oQFTNmqD8G78
gafwPjADQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England6
 
[1] Description
ANWhitehead.jpg Harvard University
image of Whitehead, circa 1924 Date
2007-05-10 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Nagelfar at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/ANWhitehead.jpg

[2] Description Bertrand Russell
1950.jpg English: Bertrand Russell,
Nobel laureate in Literature
1950 Deutsch: Bertrand Russell,
Nobelpreisträger für Literatur
1950 Date 1950(1950) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
literature/laureates/1950/russell-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Bertrand_Russell_1950
.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 7 		4454)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Paschen and E. Back, "Normale und
anomale Zeemaneffekte", in Annalen der
Physik, 39 (1912), 897–932; Paul
Forman, “Back,” in DSB, I,
370–371; J. B. Spencer, Zeeman
Effect, 1896–1913.
6. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl
Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Paschen and E. Back, "Normale und
anomale Zeemaneffekte", in Annalen der
Physik, 39 (1912), 897–932; Paul
Forman, “Back,” in DSB, I,
370–371; J. B. Spencer, Zeeman
Effect, 1896–1913.

MORE INFO
[1] "spectral line series."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
036>.
[2] "Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Carl_
Heinrich_Friedrich_Paschen
[3] Paschen, “Vita,” Dissertation
(1888); “Antrittsrede,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1925),
cii.
[4] Runge and Paschen. “Über das
Spectrum des Heliums,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1895), 593, 639–643, presented 20
June 1895: “Über die Bestandtheile
des Cleveit-Gases,” ibid., 749,
759–763. presented 11 July 1895;
Runge to Kayser, 15 May 1895 and 13
July 1895.
[5] Nature, V52, N1344, August 1,
1895,
p327. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZkYCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA484&dq=intitle:nature+
LII&hl=en&ei=U5wjTODOIp_hnQeqyO0m&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CD
AQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=runge&f=false
[6] "Runge, Carl David Tolmé."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 610-615. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903781&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] Runge and Paschen, “Über die
Serienspectra der Elemente. Saue toff.
Schwefel und Selen.” in Annalen der
Physik, 61 (1697), 641–686.
[8] "Solar and
terrestrial Helium", The Chemical News,
V71, N1855, June 14, 1895,
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YCLOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&v
ed=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
[9] "Carl David Tolmé Runge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_David_
Tolm%C3%A9_Runge
[10] henry Wilde, "On Helium and its
place in the Natural Classification of
Elementary Substances", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V400, N246, November
1895,
p466. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DlYwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&v
ed=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
[11] Paschen, “Zur Kenntnis
ultraroter Linienspektra. I.
(Normalwellenlängen bis 27000
Å.-E),” in Annalen der Physik, 27
(1908), 537–570, received 12 Aug.
1908; W. Ritz, Gesammelte Werke, Pierre
Weiss, ed. (Paris, 1911), 521–525.
[12] Paschen,
“Das Spektrum des Neon,” Annalen
der Physik, 60 (1919), 405–453.
[13]
“Nachtrag,” Annalen der Physik, 63
(1920), 201–220; Paschen and E. Back,
“Liniengruppen magnetisch
vervollständigt,” in Physica
(Eindhoven), 1 (1921), 261–273; and
Paschen, “Die Funkenspektren des
Aluminiums,” in Annalen der Physik,
4th ser., 71 (1923), 142–161,
537–571.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany6  
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg

[2] Description
CarleRunge.jpg Français : Portrait
de Carl David Tolmé Runge English:
Picture of en:Carl David Tolmé
Runge. Photographer and subject are
dead for >70years and therefore in the
public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ Date
2006-11-18 (first version);
2007-06-24 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was SuperGirl at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Kushboy at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/CarleRunge.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 5 		4495)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614.
2. ^ "Charles Fabry".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Charles Fabry".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry
5. ^ "Charles Fabry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fabry, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
534>.
[2] "Fabry, Charles." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 513-514. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901371&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Pérot, Jean-Baptiste Gaspard
Gustav Alfred." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 518-519.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903353&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France4  
[1] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 7 		4697) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p628.
2. ^ "Pregl, Fritz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
253>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p628.
4. ^ "Fritz Pregl."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-pregl

5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p628.
6. ^ "Fritz Pregl." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-pregl

7. ^ "Pregl, Fritz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
253>. {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pregl, Fritz." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 128-129. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903505&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Fritz Pregl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Pregl

[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1923/pregl-bio.html
(University of Innsbruck) Innsbruck,
Austria6  
[1] Fritz Pregl, Austrian-Slovenian
physicist and chemist (1869 -
1930) Source:
http://www.nobelpreis.org/turkish/chemie
/images/pregl.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Fritz_Pregl.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 6 		4789)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
2. ^ "De Forest,
Lee." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
3. ^ Record ID4788. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "De Forest,
Lee." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 9
Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
5. ^ "Lee De Forest." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
6. ^ "De Forest, Lee." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>. {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lee De Forest." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[2] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[4] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p411
[6]
Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA5
(presumably) 
[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 8 		4791)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
2. ^ William Henry
Bragg, Studies in Radioactivity, 1912,
p.
vi. http://books.google.com/books?id=E2
JDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=studie
s+in+radioactivity&source=bl&ots=kdKgues
Af4&sig=R9jC64EPaJGOgOzC_fahiho1P-I&hl=e
n&ei=ktGcTIqxKYz2tgPoxuXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB
4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ William Henry Bragg, Studies in
Radioactivity, 1912, p. vi.
http://books.google.com/books?id=E2JDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=studies+i
n+radioactivity&source=bl&ots=kdKguesAf4
&sig=R9jC64EPaJGOgOzC_fahiho1P-I&hl=en&e
i=ktGcTIqxKYz2tgPoxuXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB4Q6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ William Henry Bragg, Studies in
Radioactivity, 1912, p. 118.
http://books.google.com/books?id=E2JDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=studies+i
n+radioactivity&source=bl&ots=kdKguesAf4
&sig=R9jC64EPaJGOgOzC_fahiho1P-I&hl=en&e
i=ktGcTIqxKYz2tgPoxuXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB4Q6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ William Henry
Bragg, Studies in Radioactivity, 1912,
p. vi.
http://books.google.com/books?id=E2JDA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=studies+i
n+radioactivity&source=bl&ots=kdKguesAf4
&sig=R9jC64EPaJGOgOzC_fahiho1P-I&hl=en&e
i=ktGcTIqxKYz2tgPoxuXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB4Q6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
8. ^ William Henry Bragg, Studies in
Radioactivity, 1912, p.
vi. http://books.google.com/books?id=E2
JDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=studie
s+in+radioactivity&source=bl&ots=kdKgues
Af4&sig=R9jC64EPaJGOgOzC_fahiho1P-I&hl=e
n&ei=ktGcTIqxKYz2tgPoxuXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB
4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725
[14] "Bragg, Sir
Lawrence." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
144>
[15] "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[16] William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[17] W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Some Crystals as Indicated by Their
Diffraction of X-rays” Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 89A (1913),
248–277; this calculation is also
used in a paper submitted at the same
time by W. HL Bragg; “The Reflection
of X-rays by Crystals (II).”
Proceedings of the Royal Society
246–248. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913RSPSA..89..248B
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England7
 
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 9 		4845)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652-653.
2. ^ "August Krogh."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/323727/August-Krogh>.
3. ^ August Krogh, "The Anatomy and
Physiology of Capillaries",
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wCgSAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
Anatomy+and+Physiology+of+Capillaries&so
urce=bl&ots=6kjNaOb07k&sig=fy_jeH0mUUgaS
DI6zwHaC776x74&hl=en&ei=kbPITP7FNoL2swOt
guGJCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&res
num=2&sqi=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&
f=false
4. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1920/krogh-bio.html
5. ^ "August Krogh." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-krog
h
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1920/krogh-bio.html
9. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1920/krogh-bio.html {1912
(verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "August Krogh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-krog
h
[2] "Krogh, Schack August Steenberg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 501-504. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902390&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Schack August Steenberg Krogh".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schack_Augu
st_Steenberg_Krogh
[4] A Krogh, "A comparison between
voluntary and electrically induced
muscular work in man Source", The
Journal of physiology Krogh (1917)
volume: 51 issue: 3 page:
182 http://jp.physoc.org/content/51/3/1
82.full.pdf
[5] A Krogh, "On the mechanism of the
gas-exchange in the lungs", Skand Arch
Physiol, 1910.
[6] August Krogh, "The
Respiratory Exchange of Animals and
Man", 1916.
http://books.google.com/books?id=veTQAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Respira
tory+Exchange+of+Animals+and+Man&source=
bl&ots=RW_7aKMp-g&sig=1GB2x-XKMD0u6_yKvr
FdIXlcDR0&hl=en&ei=2a_ITLfwM5P4swPl2a3jC
g&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark8  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description August Krogh Bain
32006.jpg English: The Danish
scientist August Krogh. This image is
available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs division under the digital
ID ggbain.32006. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Author Bain News
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/August_Krogh_Bain_320
06.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 7 		4891)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1927/wieland.html
6. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Otto Wieland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643268/Heinrich-Otto-Wieland>
[2] "Heinrich Otto Wieland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ot
to-wieland
[3] "Heinrich Otto Wieland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Ot
to_Wieland
[4] "radical." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 01
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radical-che
mistry
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany6
 
[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 8 		4892)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
3. ^ "Wieland,
Heinrich Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p661-662.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"Wieland, Heinrich Otto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Wieland, Heinrich Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 334-335. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904643&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Otto Wieland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643268/Heinrich-Otto-Wieland>.
[2] "Heinrich Otto Wieland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ot
to-wieland
[3] "Heinrich Otto Wieland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Ot
to_Wieland
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1927/wieland.html
[5] "radical." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 01 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radical-che
mistry
[6] H. Wieland, “Recent Researches on
Biological Oxidation,” Journal of the
Chemical Socity (1931), 1055–1064.
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Article
PDF/1931/JR/JR9310001055/1931-01-01
[7] H. Wieland, "On the Merchanism of
Oxidation" (New Haven, Conn., 1932)
[8] H.
Wieland, “Die konstitution der
Gallensauren,” Berichte der Deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 67(1934),
27–39.
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany7
 
[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 4 		4913)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"Matter and Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
{1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[2] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[5] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life:
Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[6] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[7] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[8] Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
[9] Soddy, “Radioactivity,” Annual
Report, 7 (1910), 286
[10] D. Strömholm
and T. Svedberg, Zeitschrift für
Anorganische chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[11]
Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
[12] Frederick Soddy, “Contribution
to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99
(1921), 98.
[13] "Frederick Soddy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>.
[14] Soddy, Frustration in Science,
Foreword.
[15] Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland3  
[1] Soddy's view of the contemporary
periodic table from ''Matter and
Energy'', 1912. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onep
age&q&f=false

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 8 		4941)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p680-681.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p680-681.
"Alfred Lothar
Wegener." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/638843/Alfred-Lothar-Wegener>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p680-681.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p680-681.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
"Alfred Lothar Wegener." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/638843/Alfred-Lothar-Wegener>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p680-681. {1912}
Greenland7  
[1] Photograph of Alfred Wegener, the
scientist Date 1915, 1920, 1922,
1929 Source Frontispiece of The
Origin of Continents and Oceans Author
Alfred Wegener Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Wegener_Alfred_signat
ure.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 8 		4993)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p695-696.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p695-696.
3. ^ "Casimir
Funk." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/casimir-fun
k
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p695-696.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p780.
6. ^ "Casimir
Funk." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/casimir-fun
k
7. ^ "Casimir Funk." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/casimir-fun
k
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p695-696. {1912}
(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England7  
[1] Image of Casimir Funk to illustrate
the article on his life , Uploaded from
http://www.homepages.hetnet.nl/~b1beukem
a/vitaminen.html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6e/Casimir_Funk.gif
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 16 17 		4994) In 1936 Debye wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry for dipolar moments
in particular.10
In 1935 as director of
the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for
Physics in Berlin, Debye renames it the
Max Planck Institute.11
In 1939 The
Nazi government orders Debye to become
a citizen, he refuses and moves to the
Netherlands.12
In 1940 two months
before the Netherlands is invaded by
Hitler, Debye leaves for the United
States and stays there.13 (Perhaps he
knew from the cam-thought net?14 )
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p696.
3. ^ "Debye,
Peter Joseph William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Debye, Peter Joseph William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Debye, “Einige Resultate einer
kinetischen Theorie der Isolatoren,”,
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 13 (1912),
97–100.
6. ^ Debye, “Zur Theorie der anomalen
Dispersion im Gebiete der langwelligen
elektrischen Strahlung,” in Berichte
der Deutschen physikalischen
Gesellschaft, 15 (1913), 777–793.
7. ^ Debye,
Polar Molecules (New York, 1929).
8. ^ "Peter
Debye." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-debye

9. ^ "Debye, Peter Joseph William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p696.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p696.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ "Debye, Peter Joseph William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Debye, Peter Joseph William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1912}
17. ^ Debye, “Einige
Resultate einer kinetischen Theorie der
Isolatoren,”, Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 13 (1912), 97–100.

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Debye." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154823/Peter-Debye>
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany15  
[1] Description Debye100.jpg Petrus
Josephus Wilhelmus Debije
(1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 12 		5001) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p698.
2. ^ "Die Anwendung
hoher Drucke bei chemischen Vorgängen
und eine Nachbildung des
Entstehungsprozesses der Steinkohle"
(Halle, 1913); The application of
high pressures on chemical processes
and a replica of the production process
of coal
3. ^ "Friedrich Bergius." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-b
ergius
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p698.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p698.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p698.
9. ^ F. Bergius,
"The utilization of wood for the
production of foodstuffs, alcohol, and
glucose", Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, Volume 52, Issue 52,
pages 1045–1052, 29 December
1933. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/114254945/abstract
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Friedrich Bergius." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-b
ergius
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p698. {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] F. Bergius, "Production of
hydrogen from water and coal from
cellulose at high temperatures and
pressures", Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, Volume 32, Issue 9,
pages 462–467, 15 May
1913 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jctb.5000320904/pdf
(Technical University at Hannover)
Hannover, Germany11  
[1] Commons is a freely licensed media
file repository. You can help. This is
a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description
Bergius.jpg Friedrich Bergius Date
1931(1931) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1931/bergius-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Bergius.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 3 		6104) "When Irish Eyes Are Smiling" is
published. "When Irish Eyes Are
Smiling" is written by Chauncey Olcott
and George Graff, Jr., set to music
composed by Ernest Ball, for Olcott's
production of "The Isle O' Dreams", and
Olcott sings the song in the show.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "When Irish Eyes Are Smiling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Irish_
Eyes_Are_Smiling
2. ^ "When Irish Eyes Are Smiling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Irish_
Eyes_Are_Smiling
3. ^ "When Irish Eyes Are Smiling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Irish_
Eyes_Are_Smiling {1912}
New York City, New York, USA2
(guess) 
[1] Source:
http://www.iobabooks.com/details.php?dcx
=3953929&aid=frg 1912 sheet music
for When Irish Eyes Are Smiling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/29/Irisheyes.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 7 		6262)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612,646-647.
2. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p74.
3. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p74.
4. ^ Edison
patent 465,971, "Means for transmitting
signals
electrically". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?id=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&
zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ Joseph Henry, "On Induction from
Ordinary Electricity; and on the
Oscillatory Discharge.", Proceedings of
the American Philosophical Society,
vol. II, 1842,
p193-196. http://www.jstor.org/stable/p
dfplus/3143547.pdf
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p74.
7. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p74.
{01/13/1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lee De Forest." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[2] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[4] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p411
[6]
Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[7] "Lee De Forest." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[8] "De Forest, Lee." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
(Metropolitan Opera House) New York
City, New York, USA6  
[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G
87 YBN
[01/17/1913 AD] 5 		4405)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ William Lawrence
Bragg, "X-rays and Crystals.", Nature,
vol 90, num 2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
4. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
5. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false {01/17/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[13] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England3 4
 
[1] Description Wl-bragg.jpg English:
Lawrence Bragg Date
1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg

[2] Photograph by Lotte Meitner-Graf.
Extracted from Biographical Memoirs of
Fellows of The Royal Society, (25):
75. Photographer: Lotte
Meitner-Graf Associated: W.L.
Bragg Date: approx. 1960 Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-bragg UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-bragg-900w.jpg
87 YBN
[01/27/1913 AD] 13 14 		4272)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francis William Aston."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
3. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Further applications of positive rays
to the study of chemical problems.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 17, 01/27/1913,
p201. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
7. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"Further applications of positive rays
to the study of chemical problems.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 17, 01/27/1913,
p201. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory
of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563. {1912}
14. ^
Thomson, J. J., "Further applications
of positive rays to the study of
chemical problems.", Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 17, 01/27/1913,
p201. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[21] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[22] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[23] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225
[25] Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911, p455
[26] Thomson, J. J., "A new
method of chemical analysis (Royal
Institution lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy.
Instn. 20, 1911, p140
[27] Thomson, J. J.,
"Rays of positive electricity (Bakerian
lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89,
1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England12  
[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
87 YBN
[02/18/1913 AD] 8 		4909)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The Radio-elements and the Periodic
Law", Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
7. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The Radio-elements and the Periodic
Law", Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}
8. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf} {02/18
/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[2] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[4] "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[7] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life:
Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[8] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[10] Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
[11] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[12] Frederick Soddy, “Contribution
to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99
(1921), 98
[13] Soddy,
“Radioactivity,” Annual Report, 7
(1910), 286
[14] D. Strömholm and T.
Svedberg, Zeitschrift für Anorganische
chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[15] Frederick
Soddy, "The chemistry of mesothorium",
J. Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland7  
[1] Figure from Frederick Soddy, ''The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law'',
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf} PD
source: Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
87 YBN
[04/05/1913 AD] 34 35 		5005) In 1920 in Copenhagen, Bohr heads
an institute for atomic studies that is
funded by the Carlsberg brewery. And
this institute is a magnet for
theoretical physicists, Asimov
describing it as almost a new
Alexandria.23 24
In 1922 Bohr wins the
Nobel Prize in physics for his
“electron shell” theory. Bohr will
donate his Nobel Prize to Finnish war
relief.25
In 1933 when Hitler comes to
power in Germany, Bohr helps to get
many Jewish physicists to safety.26
In
1943 Bohr escapes from Denmark to
Sweden, Hitler had invaded Denmark in
1940. Before leaving Denmark Bohr
dissolves the gold Nobel medals of
Franck and Laue in a bottle of acid to
keep them safe (after the war the gold
will be precipitated and the medals
recast]. From Sweden Bohr will help to
arrange the escape of nearly every
Danish Jewish person from death in
Hitler's poison gas chambers.27
On
10/06/1943 Bohr is flown from Denmark
in a tiny plane to England and nearly
dies from lack of oxygen.28
Bohr will
work on the atomic bomb project at Los
Alamos until 1945.29
Bohr's desire to
share the secret of the atomic bomb
with other allies in order to secure
international control causes Winston
Churchill to nearly order Bohr to be
arrested.30 (It seems likely that Bohr
wanted to go public with neuron reading
and writing.31 )
In 1957 Bohr wins the
Atoms for Peace award.32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
2. ^ N. Bohr, "On the
constitution of atoms and molecules",
(Parts 1, 2 and 3), Phil. Mag., Series
6, Volume 26 July 1913, p.
1-25. http://www.fizika.unios.hr/~iluka
cevic/dokumenti/materijali_za_studente/q
m1/Bohr_1913.pdf {Bohr_Niels_191307xx.p
df}
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p423.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
5. ^ "Niels Bohr." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niels-bohr
(greater than or equal to)
7. ^ N. Bohr,
"On the constitution of atoms and
molecules", (Parts 1, 2 and 3), Phil.
Mag., Series 6, Volume 26 July 1913,
p.
1-25. http://www.fizika.unios.hr/~iluka
cevic/dokumenti/materijali_za_studente/q
m1/Bohr_1913.pdf {Bohr_Niels_191307xx.p
df}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
24. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p437.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
27. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
29. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
30. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
33. ^ "Niels Bohr."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/71670/Niels-Bohr>.
34. ^ N. Bohr, "On the constitution of
atoms and molecules", (Parts 1, 2 and
3), Phil. Mag., Series 6, Volume
26 July 1913, p.
1-25. http://www.fizika.unios.hr/~iluka
cevic/dokumenti/materijali_za_studente/q
m1/Bohr_1913.pdf {Bohr_Niels_191307xx.p
df} {04/05/1913}
35. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bohr, Niels Henrik David."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 239-254. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900505&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Niels Bohr". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England33  
[1] Immediate source:
http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billede:Nie
ls_Bohr.jpg Ultimate source: Niels
Bohr's Nobel Prize biography, from
1922. Status: Public domain in US at
least because of age, probably
elsewhere. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg
87 YBN
[04/07/1913 AD] 28 29 		4406) William Henry Bragg will state in
1920 that “The outbreak of war,
practically put a stop to the work with
the spectroscope 25 , ...", and this
may reflect the general development of
science, in particular, how much is
allowed to reach the public. it may
very well be that the two world wars
greatly reduced the progress of
science, from the perspective of public
knowledge.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
3. ^ W. H. Bragg
and W. L. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals,” in Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 88A (1
July 1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 {Braggs_19130407.pd
f}
4. ^ "Bragg, Sir William Lawrence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 61-64. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Some Crystals as Indicated by Their
Diffraction of X-rays” Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 89A (1913),
248–277; this calculation is also
used in a paper submitted at the same
time by W. HL Bragg; “The Reflection
of X-rays by Crystals (II).”
Proceedings of the Royal Society
246–248. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913RSPSA..89..248B {Bragg_William_La
wrence_19130621.pdf}
6. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 {Braggs_19130407.pd
f}
7. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 {Braggs_19130407.pd
f}
8. ^ W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Some Crystals as Indicated by Their
Diffraction of X-rays” Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 89A (1913),
248–277; this calculation is also
used in a paper submitted at the same
time by W. HL Bragg; “The Reflection
of X-rays by Crystals (II).”
Proceedings of the Royal Society
246–248. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913RSPSA..89..248B {Bragg_William_La
wrence_19130621.pdf}
9. ^ "Bragg, Sir William Lawrence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 61-64. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ W. L. Bragg, “The
Structure of Some Crystals as Indicated
by Their Diffraction of X-rays”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 89A
(1913), 248–277; this calculation is
also used in a paper submitted at the
same time by W. HL Bragg; “The
Reflection of X-rays by Crystals
(II).” Proceedings of the Royal
Society
246–248. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913RSPSA..89..248B {Bragg_William_La
wrence_19130621.pdf}
12. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 {Braggs_19130407.pd
f}
13. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Structure of Diamond,” Nature
(22 Sept. 1913), 277–291, received 30
July.
14. ^ "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
15. ^ W. H. Bragg and W.
L. Bragg, “The Reflection of X-rays
by Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 {Braggs_19130407.pd
f}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Record
ID4404. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
(i.e., X-ray spectrometer)
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
28. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 {Braggs_19130407.pd
f} {04/07/1913}
29. ^ "Bragg, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904} {03/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[13] William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[14] W. H. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals (II),” Nature.,
89A (22 Sept. 1913), 246–248,
received 21 June 1913
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England27
 
[1] Figure 1 from: W. H. Bragg and W.
L. Bragg, “The Reflection of X-rays
by Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9350
1

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: W. H. Bragg
and W. L. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals,” in Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 88A (1
July 1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9350
1
87 YBN
[04/07/1913 AD] 3 4 		6245)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p54.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p54.
3. ^ Fred Wolf, Patent number:
1126605, Filing date: Apr 7, 1913,
Issue date: Jan 26,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=4
f9TAAAAEBAJ {04/07/1913}
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p54. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] Fred Wolf Patent number:
1337175, Filing date: Dec 23, 1913,
Issue date: Apr 13,
1920 http://www.google.com/patents?id=h
jQTAAAAEBAJ
Chicago, Illinois, USA2  
[1] Fred Wolf, Patent number: 1126605,
Filing date: Apr 7, 1913, Issue date:
Jan 26,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=4
f9TAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=4f9TAAAAEBAJ

[2] Fred Wolf Patent number: 1337175,
Filing date: Dec 23, 1913, Issue date:
Apr 13,
1920 http://www.google.com/patents?id=h
jQTAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hjQTAAAAEBAJ
87 YBN
[05/09/1913 AD] 9 10 		4814)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p648.
4. ^ W. Coolidge,
“A Powerful Röntgen Ray Tube with a
Pure Electron Discharge", Physical
Review. 2nd ser. 2 (1913), 409–430.
http://books.google.com/books?id=e6cTA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=A+Powerful+R%C3%B6ntg
en+Ray+Tube+with+a+Pure+Electron+Dischar
ge&hl=en&ei=4jmmTLuPIIOvngeg0qmRAQ&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0C
CgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false and
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v2/i6
/p409_1
5. ^ "Coolidge, William David."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 178-179. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905062&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Coolidge,
William David." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 178-179.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905062&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Patent 1,203,495
"Vacuum-Tube" http://www.google.com/pat
ents?id=39VfAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&z
oom=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onep
age&q&f=false {05/09/1913}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p648. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "William D. Coolidge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/136190/William-D-Coolidge>
[2] "William David Coolidge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dav
id_Coolidge
[3]
http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unit
arians/coolidge.html
[4] "sintering." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sintering
[5]
http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_pr
ocessing/swaging.cfm
[6] W. Coolidge, "Ductile Tungsten",
Transactions of the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers, 29, pt. 2
(1910),
961–965 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Ni8SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA961&dq=Ductile+Tun
gsten&hl=en&ei=TiemTL_bL4yasAPZ2_GOBA&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved
=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Ductile%20Tungs
ten&f=false
[7] Patent
963,872 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=M4RgAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&
f=false
[8] Patent 1,211,091 "Cathode-Ray
Device" http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=wAFCAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&
f=false
(Research Laboratory of the General
Electric Company) Schenectady, New
York, in 1900.8  
[1] Patent 1,203,495
''Vacuum-Tube'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=39VfAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] William David Coolidge UNKNOWN
source: http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.
org/unitarians/images/coolidge6.jpg
87 YBN
[05/28/1913 AD] 6 7 		4932)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
2. ^ "List of
scientific publications by Albert
Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
3. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
4. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
5. ^ "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
6. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
{before 05/28/1913}
7. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf} {1913}


MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[8] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[9]
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleine
rt/files/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von der
molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[12] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[13] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[14] Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation Versus Relativity", 1922,
[15]
A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip und
die aus demselben gezogenen
Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna
Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton
University Press, v2, The Swiss years,
writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
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http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) http://books.google.com/
books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+re
tain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=e
n&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
%20of%20motion%20retain%20their%20form%2
2&f=false
[16] Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
1987
[17] "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen
Relativitaetstheorie" http://users.phys
ik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/1916_49_
769-822.pdf
[18] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland5  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
87 YBN
[05/29/1913 AD] 5 6 		6035)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Igor Stravinsky." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/igor-stravi
nsky
2. ^ "Igor Stravinsky." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/568550/Igor-Stravinsky>.
3. ^ "Igor Stravinsky." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/568550/Igor-Stravinsky>.
4. ^ "Igor Stravinsky." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/568550/Igor-Stravinsky>.
5. ^ "Igor Stravinsky." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/568550/Igor-Stravinsky>. {05/29/1913
(first performed}
6. ^ "Igor Stravinsky." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/igor-stravi
nsky {1913}
(Théâtre des Champs Élysées) Paris,
France4  
[1] Description Igor Stravinsky,
Russian composer. Date Not dated.
From age and fashion, c. 1920s -
1930s Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.32392. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Igor_Stravinsky_LOC_3
2392u.jpg
87 YBN
[06/21/1913 AD] 5 		4408)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
2. ^ "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ William Lawrence Bragg,
"The Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
5. ^ W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Some Crystals as Indicated by Their
Diffraction of X-rays” Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 89A (1913),
248–277; this calculation is also
used in a paper submitted at the same
time by W. HL Bragg; “The Reflection
of X-rays by Crystals (II).”
Proceedings of the Royal Society
246–248. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913RSPSA..89..248B {Bragg_William_La
wrence_19130621.pdf} {06/21/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725
[14] "Bragg, Sir
Lawrence." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
144>
(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England4  
[1] Figure 3 from: W. L. Bragg, “The
Structure of Some Crystals as Indicated
by Their Diffraction of X-rays”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 89A
(1913), 248–277; this calculation is
also used in a paper submitted at the
same time by W. HL Bragg; “The
Reflection of X-rays by Crystals
(II).” Proceedings of the Royal
Society
246–248. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913RSPSA..89..248B UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9348
8?seq=8

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg
87 YBN
[07/18/1913 AD] 10 11 		4800)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p422.
3. ^ Hertzsprung, E.,
"Über die räumliche Verteilung der
Veränderlichen vom δ Cephei-Typus",
Astronomische Nachrichten, volume 196,
p.201, Bibliographic Code:
1913AN....196..201H http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1913AN....196..201H
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Hertzsprung, E., "Über
die räumliche Verteilung der
Veränderlichen vom δ Cephei-Typus",
Astronomische Nachrichten, volume 196,
p.201, Bibliographic Code:
1913AN....196..201H http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1913AN....196..201H
10. ^ Hertzsprung, E., "Über die
räumliche Verteilung der
Veränderlichen vom δ Cephei-Typus",
Astronomische Nachrichten, volume 196,
p.201, Bibliographic Code:
1913AN....196..201H http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1913AN....196..201H
{07/18/1913}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ejnar Hertzsprung."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263944/Ejnar-Hertzsprung>
[2] "Ejnar Hertzsprung." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ejnar-hertz
sprung
[3] "Ejnar Hertzsprung". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertz
sprung
[4] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 22, 01/1914,
p.275. http://books.google.com/books?id
=MUYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA275&lpg=PA275&dq=%22i
nvestigations+into+the+nature+of+the+sta
rs+must+necessarily%22&source=bl&ots=yKM
IApR0KO&sig=LiC4Om2uH2e_n6A4h2wcXYzVtXg&
hl=en&ei=Y-ObTIXhPImisQP5j_DdCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved
=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22investigatio
ns%20into%20the%20nature%20of%20the%20st
ars%20must%20necessarily%22&f=false
[5] Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
[6] Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false
[7] Gilbert Lewis, "The Chemistry of
the Stars and the Evolution of
Radioactive Substances", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V34, N202, 1911,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PBILAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA314&dq=on+the+radiatio
n+of+the+stars+hertzsprung&hl=en&ei=lfSc
TPWIPI2qsAP_6dzVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onep
age&q=on%20the%20radiation%20of%20the%20
stars%20hertzsprung&f=false
[8] Ejnar Hertzsprung, “Über die
Vervendung photographischer effektiver
Wellenlängen zur Bestimmung von
Farbenäquivalenten”, Publikationen
des Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums
zu Potsdam, 22 (1911), 1–40
[9] Ejnar
Hertzsprung, “Nachweis der
Veränderlichkeit von α Ursae
minoris", Astronomische Nachrichten 189
(1911),
89–104. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1911AN....189...89H
Potsdam, Germany9  
[1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

[2] Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. A
plot of luminosity (absolute magnitude)
against the colour of the stars ranging
from the high-temperature blue-white
stars on the left side of the diagram
to the low temperature red stars on the
right side. ''This diagram below is a
plot of 22000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard PowellHertzsprung-Russell
diagram. A plot of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) against the colour of the
stars ranging from the high-temperature
blue-white stars on the left side of
the diagram to the low temperature red
stars on the right side. ''This diagram
below is a plot of 22000 stars from the
Hipparcos Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard Powell CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/HRDiagram.png
87 YBN
[07/30/1913 AD] 15 		4407)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ William Lawrence
Bragg, "X-rays and Crystals.", Nature,
vol 90, num 2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913; W. H. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals (II),” Nature.,
89A (22 Sept. 1913), 246–248,
received 21 June 1913.
4. ^ W. H. Bragg and
W. L. Bragg, "The Structure of the
Diamond.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 610 (Sep. 22,
1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle {Bragg
s_19130730.pdf}
5. ^ "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
6. ^ "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1904}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ W. H.
Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The Structure
of the Diamond.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 89, No. 610
(Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle {Bragg
s_19130730.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ W. H. Bragg
and W. L. Bragg, "The Structure of the
Diamond.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 610 (Sep. 22,
1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle {Bragg
s_19130730.pdf}
15. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The
Structure of the Diamond.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 89, No.
610 (Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle {Bragg
s_19130730.pdf} {07/30/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[13] William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725
[15] W. H. Bragg and
W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Diamond,” Nature (22 Sept. 1913),
277–291, received 30 July
[16] W. L.
Bragg, "The diffraction of short
electromagnetic waves by a crystal",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 17 (1913),
43–57
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England14
 
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg
87 YBN
[10/20/1913 AD] 23 		4863)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
2. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
3. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
4. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657.
6. ^ Slipher, V. M.,
"The radial velocity of the Andromeda
Nebula", Lowell Observatory Bulletin,
vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
7. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
8. ^ Lick Observatory, Heber Doust
Curtis, William Wallace Campbell,
Joseph Haines Moore, Ralph , Elmer
Wilson, William Hammond Wright, Studies
of the nebulae: made at the Lick
Observatory, University of ...", 1918
http://books.google.com/books?id=HYnnAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=calcium+shift+nebulae&h
l=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20nebu
lae&f=false
9. ^ Heber D. Curtis, "Absorption
Effects in the Spiral Nebulae", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1917 December;
3(12): 678–682.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ce4SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA681&dq=calcium+shift+nebula
e&hl=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20n
ebulae&f=false AND
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1091356/ {Curtis_Heber_19171018.p
df}
10. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
11. ^ "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p657.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
17. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The
radial velocity of the Andromeda
Nebula", Lowell Observatory Bulletin,
vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
23. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[4] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[6] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[7] Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H
[8] "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.
[9] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA22  
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
87 YBN
[10/29/1913 AD] 20 21 		5067) Armstrong studies electrical
engineering under Pupin at Columbia.14

Lee De Forest, the inventor of the
triode, the first electric switch and
vacuum tube amplifier, 15 sues
Armstrong over who owns the rights for
the regenerative circuit. Armstrong
will lose this case after 14 years and
two appeals to the Supreme Court, but
Asimov says that the scientific
community felt that Armstrong should
have won.16
In 1954 Armstrong
apparently jumped to his death from his
apartment window. According to Asimov
Armstrong thought there was a
conspiracy against him.17 (This could
be a murder, the nanocameras probably
show the truth.18 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
2. ^ Armstrong, E.
H., U.S. Patent 1,113,149, Wireless
receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149
3. ^ "Regenerative circuit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerativ
e_circuit
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Regenerative circuit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerativ
e_circuit
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Regenerative circuit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerativ
e_circuit
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S.
Patent 1,113,149, Wireless receiving
system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
15. ^ Record ID4788.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,113,149, Wireless receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149
20. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,113,149, Wireless receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149 {10/29/1913}
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726. {1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edwin H. Armstrong."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/35567/Edwin-H-Armstrong>
Yonkers, New York City, New York, USA19
 
[1] Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,113,149, Wireless receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=-RhkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg
87 YBN
[11/05/1913 AD] 22 23 		4824)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649-650.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ J.
Stark, "Beobachtungen über den Effekt
des elektrischen Feldes auf
Spektrallinien. I-VI", Annalen der
Physik, 4th ser., 43 (1914), 965-1047,
and 48 (1915),
193–235. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/abstract
 {Stark_Johannes_19131105.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649-650.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Johannes Stark." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-st
ark
7. ^ "Stark, Johannes." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 613-616. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 14 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904121&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Stark, Johannes."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 613-616. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904121&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Record ID4460.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ J. Stark,
"Beobachtungen über den Effekt des
elektrischen Feldes auf Spektrallinien.
I-VI", Annalen der Physik, 4th ser., 43
(1914), 965-1047, and 48 (1915),
193–235. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/abstract
 {Stark_Johannes_19131105.pdf}
21. ^ "Stark, Johannes." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 613-616. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 14 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904121&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ J. Stark, "Beobachtungen über
den Effekt des elektrischen Feldes auf
Spektrallinien. I-VI", Annalen der
Physik, 4th ser., 43 (1914), 965-1047,
and 48 (1915),
193–235. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/abstract
 {Stark_Johannes_19131105.pdf}
{11/05/1913}
23. ^ Ted Huntington. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Stark."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/563639/Johannes-Stark>
[2] "Johannes Stark". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_St
ark
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1919/
[4] Stark, "Der DopplerEffekt bei den
kanalstrahlen Und die Spektra der
positiven Atomionen", Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 6 (1905), 892–897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=k1xMA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKosQPF0d
WbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[5] Stark, "über die Lichtemission der
Kanalstrahlen in Wasserstoff", Annalen
der Physik, 4th ser., 21 (1906),
401–456. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19063261302/pdf
(Physical Institute of Technology)
Aachen, Germany20 21  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Stark,
''Beobachtungen über den Effekt des
elektrischen Feldes auf Spektrallinien.
I-VI'', Annalen der Physik, 4th ser.,
43 (1914), 965-1047, and 48 (1915),
193–235. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/abstract
{Stark_Johannes_19131105.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/pdf

[2] Portrait of Johannes Stark, Nobel
Prize in Physics winner from
1919. [edit] Licensing Original
source:
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-14
492/Johannes-Stark Because of age
(published in 1919), should be PD in at
least the United States, and likely
elsewhere. Slightly edited. Public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Johannes_Stark.jpg
87 YBN
[11/27/1913 AD] 7 		4911)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. van der Broek, "Intra-atomic
Charge", Nature, November 27, p.
372. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hist
ory/van-den-Broek-2.html
2. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
3. ^ "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ A. van der Broek, "Intra-atomic
Charge", Nature, November 27, p.
372. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hist
ory/van-den-Broek-2.html
(sic)
6. ^ A. van der Broek, "Intra-atomic
Charge", Nature, November 27, p.
372. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hist
ory/van-den-Broek-2.html
7. ^ A. van der Broek, "Intra-atomic
Charge", Nature, November 27, p.
372. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hist
ory/van-den-Broek-2.html {11/27/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Antonius van den Broek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonius_va
n_den_Broek
[2] H.A.M. Snelders BROEK, Antonius
Johannes van den (1870-1926),
Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland
1, The Hague 1979. (in Dutch)
 
[1] Antonius Van Der Broek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn1/images/BROEKA
J.jpg
87 YBN
[12/04/1913 AD] 13 		4910)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ "Soddy,
Frederick." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 504-509.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
4. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
5. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
6. ^ "Soddy, Frederick." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Contribution
to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99
(1921), 98.
8. ^ "Frederick Soddy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Soddy, Frustration in
Science, Foreword.
11. ^ "Soddy, Frederick."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 504-509. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904068&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
13. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html {12/04/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[2] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[5] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life:
Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[6] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[7] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[8] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[9] Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}
[10] Soddy, “Radioactivity,” Annual
Report, 7 (1910), 286
[11] D. Strömholm
and T. Svedberg, Zeitschrift für
Anorganische chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[12]
Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland12  
[1] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

[2] Frederick Soddy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Soddy%
20HiRes_180h_tcm18-136506.jpg
87 YBN
[12/??/1913 AD] 17 		5039) World War I starts and Moseley
enlists as a lieutenant of the Royal
Engineers. Rutherford tries to get
Moseley reassigned to scientific labors
but fails. On 06/13/1915 Moseley ships
out to Turkey and two months later is
killed at Gallipoli. Asimov states that
Moseley definitely would have won a
Nobel prize as Siegbahn did who carried
on Moseley's work.14 (Possibly
murdered for being a corpuscularist or
just random, perhaps his eye image and
thought-sound recordings may show?
Being a corpuscularist, Moseley could
have potentially been a powerful force
as he aged had he not been murdered.
Moseley unquestionably would have won a
Nobel prize.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
2. ^ H Moseley, "The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements", Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 542-545. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903063&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
7. ^ "Henry Gwyn
Jeffreys Moseley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393528/Henry-Gwyn-Jeffreys-Moseley>.
8. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag,
V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf}
9. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements part 2",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
27, Issue 160 April 1914 , pages 703 -
713. {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 542-545. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903063&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag,
V26, p1024-1034, 1913
http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_mosel
ey_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_191312xx.
pdf} {12/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C. G.,
"The Reflection of the X-Rays.",Nature,
Volume 90, Issue 2257, pp. 594
(1913). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
913Natur..90Q.594M
[2] H Moseley, "Atomic models and X-ray
spectra", Nature, Volume 92, Issue
2307, pp. 554
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914Natur..92..554M
[3] H Moseley, "The number of ions
produced by the β and γ radiations
from radium", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1914
[4] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C.
G., "The Reflexion of X Rays",
Philosophical Magazine, 26 (1913),
p210–232
[5] Moseley, H., "The Number of β
Particles Emitted in the
Transformations of Radium", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 87A
(1912), 230–255;
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England16  
[1] Plate from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements'', Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf} PD
source: Moseley_Henry_191312xx.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 4 		4030) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931)1 introduces to the public a
kinetophone different from the earlier
version of 1895. This time, the sound
is made to synchronize with a motion
picture projected onto a screen instead
of in the kinetophone box. A celluloid
cylinder record measuring 5 1/2" in
diameter is used for the phonograph.
Synchronization is achieved by
connecting the projector at one end of
the theater and the phonograph at the
other end with a long pulley. Nineteen
talking pictures are produced in 1913
by Edison, but by 1915 Edison abandons
sound motion pictures. Breaks in the
film cause the motion picture to get
out of step with the phonograph
record.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmrr
g.html
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Edison_Motion_Pictures.htm
4. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
{1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Cros." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
[2] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
[3] "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>
[4] "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>
[5] Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
[6] "The Telegraph and Its Future",
Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[9] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
[11] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph
[12] Video of constructing an Edison
Battery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
K84PywMwjZg
[13] "Nickel-iron battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-iron
_battery
[14] "nickel-iron accumulator." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nickel-iron
-accumulator-1
[15]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
[16] "Storage Battery, Edison",
"Compendium of the world's progress
during the ...", 1902,
p736. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k1MAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA736&dq=thomas+edis
on+nickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20ba
ttery&f=false
New York City, NY, USA3
(presumably) 
[1] Frames from early experimental
attempt to create sound motion pictures
by the Edison Manufacturing Company.
W.K.L. Dickson plays the violin in
front of a horn connected to a cylinder
recording machine. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/dancemp.jpg

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 5 		4129)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p533-534.
2. ^ "Ramón y Cajal,
Santiago." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
608>.
3. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal, Santiago."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Ramón Y Cajal, Santiago."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 273-276. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Ramón y Cajal, Santiago."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
608>. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/santiago-ra
m-n-y-cajal
[2] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 21 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/santiago-ra
m-n-y-cajal
[3] "Santiago Ramón y Cajal".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ra
m%C3%B3n_y_Cajal
(University of Madrid) Madrid, Spain4
 
[1] Visual cortex from 1899 Ramon y
Cajal work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Ramon y Cajal PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 12 13 		4361)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p671-672.
2. ^ "Elmer Verner
McCollum." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elmer-verne
r-mccollum
3. ^ "McCollum, Elmer Verner." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 590-591. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902726&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Elmer Verner McCollum." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elmer-verne
r-mccollum
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581-582.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p581-582.
7. ^ "Osborne,
Thomas Burr." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 241-244.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903245&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581-582.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"McCollum, Elmer Verner." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 590-591. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902726&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Osborne, Thomas Burr." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 241-244. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903245&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Osborne, Thomas Burr." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 241-244. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903245&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1913}
13. ^ "McCollum, Elmer
Verner." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 590-591.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902726&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Elmer Verner McCollum".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer_Verne
r_McCollum
(University of Wisconsin) Wisconsin,
USA10 11  
[1] Description Elmer
McCollum.jpg English: Elmer
McCollum Date 2008-03-03
(original upload date) (Original text
: 1896) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : Elmer
McCollum.com) Author Journal of
Nutrition Original uploader was
Sparrowman980 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Elmer_McCollum.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 9 		4496)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614.
2. ^ "Fabry,
Charles." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 7
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
534>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Charles Fabry". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fabry, Charles." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 513-514. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901371&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Pérot, Jean-Baptiste Gaspard
Gustav Alfred." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 518-519.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903353&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France8  
[1] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 13 		4507) In 1914 Richards receives the
Nobel prize in chemistry for his atomic
weight determinations10 the first
chemist in the United States to be so
honored.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p618-619.
2. ^ "Theodore
William Richards." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodore-wi
lliam-richards
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p618-619.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p618-619.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Richards, Theodore William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
561>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p618-619.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p618-619.
11. ^ "Richards,
Theodore William." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
416-418. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 8 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903661&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Theodore William Richards." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodore-wi
lliam-richards
13. ^ "Theodore William Richards." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodore-wi
lliam-richards {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Theodore William Richards".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Wi
lliam_Richards
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA12  
[1] Description Richards Theodore
William lab.jpg Photograph of
Harvard scientist Theodore Richards
from about 1905, Harold Hartley,
Theodore William Richards Memorial
Lecture Date about 1905 Source
Journal of the Chemical Society,
1930, opposite page 1939 Author
Harold Hartley PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Richards_Theodore_Wil
liam_lab.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 16 		4727)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p634.
2. ^ "Max Ernst
August Bodenstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-ernst-a
ugust-bodenstein
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ M. Bodenstein and W. Dux,
Zeit phys Chem, 85, 1913, 207-218.
5. ^ Samuel
Colville Lind, The chemical effects of
alpha particles and electrons, 1921,
p138.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZrnQAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA140&dq=Bodenstein+einstein&hl
=en&ei=Gt5hTICZFo_CsAPfkv23DA&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6A
EwAA#v=onepage&q=Bodenstein%20einstein&f
=false
6. ^ William Cudmore McCullagh Lewis,
James Rice, A system of physical
chemistry, Volume 3, 1921,
p134. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=h88qAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=Bodenstein+ei
nstein&hl=en&ei=Gt5hTICZFo_CsAPfkv23DA&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Bodenstein%20e
instein&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p634.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Einstein photochemical equivalence
law." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/einstein-ph
otochemical-equivalence-law
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Bodenstein, Max."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 36-38. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904830&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Max Bodenstein, "Chain
Reactions",
1930 http://books.google.com/books?id=w
T7APgAACAAJ&dq=Bodenstein+chain&hl=en&ei
=A-BhTKrmNofGsAPDrd2uCA&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Bodenstein, Max."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 36-38. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904830&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p634. {1920 (for
chain reaction apparently}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Bodenstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Bodenst
ein
(Technische Hochschule) Hannover,
Germany15  
[1] Description Max
Bodenstein.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
Original älter als 70
Jahre Source Scan eines eigenen
Familienfotos aus dem genealogischen
Archiv Hans-Thorald Michaelis sowie im
Archiv PCI Hannover Author des
Fotos unbekannt Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Max_Bodenstein.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 5 		4811)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Annie Wood Besant, Charles
Webster Leadbeater, Thought-forms,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5Rc81HHJz2gC&dq=thought+forms+annie+besa
nt&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&e
i=ow-lTL-dDIjCsAP1zIj-Dg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAw#
v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Tells New
Marvels of Thought Photos", NY Times,
02/02/1913 {Darget_Louis_19130202.pdf}
5. ^ "Tells New Marvels of Thought
Photos", NY Times,
02/02/1913 {Darget_Louis_19130202.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hyppolite Baraduc."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 30 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyppolite-b
araduc
[2] Schenkel, Elmar and Welz, Stefan,
"Magical objects: things and
beyond" http://books.google.com/books?h
l=en&lr=&id=P_wcLQ-hKOYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA127
&dq=Hyppolite+Baraduc+1895&ots=Fcz8v2iQC
u&sig=-5TmWiRIDr0KUxibg99lXZLt8Tw#v=onep
age&q=Hyppolite%20Baraduc%201895&f=false

[3]
http://www.wgsebald.de/LEXIKON_D.html
Paris, France4  
[1] Quote: The idea is a brilliant and
creative, almost material force, the
Fiat lux of the Bible .... During the
process of thinking, the soul the brain
atoms vibrate, and gives the phosphorus
in the brain to light up. The luminous
rays are cast outside. If you
concentrate his mind on any object with
simple outlines, such as a bottle, it
enters the fluid that picture out
through the eyes and impressed by his
rays, the photographic plate, so that a
recording thereof. (1911) PD
source: http://www.wgsebald.de/lex/darge
t2.jpg

[2] Portrait of Louis Darget in
1899 PD
source: http://www.evp-experiments.nl/im
ages/darget.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 9 		4849) Michaelis, being of Jewish
ancestry, is denied the opportunity to
participate fully in the education of
future German scientists and
physicians.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655?.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p655?.
3. ^ "Michaelis,
Leonor." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 620-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905250&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Michaelis, Leonor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 620-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905250&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ L. Michaelis, M. L. Menten, “Die
Kinetik der Invertinwirkung”
(Kinetics of the action of inverting),
Biochemische Zeitschrift, 49 (1913),
333-369.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Michaelis, Leonor."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 620-625. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905250&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655?.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p655?. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonor Michaelis." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonor-mich
aelis
[2] "Leonor Michaelis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonor_Mich
aelis
(Berlin Municipal Hospital) Berlin,
Germany8  
[1] Leonor Michaelis UNKNOWN
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/Site
/Discover/Chemistry-in-History/Themes/Bi
omolecules/Proteins-and-Sugars/asset_upl
oad_file390_61288_thumbnail.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 11 		4942) Schaefer and Vonnegut will
develop methods to create rain working
in Langmuir's lab at General Electric.5


Langmuir develops high vacuum tubes
which are needed for radio
broadcasting.6

Langmuir creates a theory of catalysis
based on the formation of gas films on
platinum wires.7

Langmuir receives 63 patents and
publishes over 200 papers and reports
between 1906 and 1956.8

In 1932 languir wins the Nobel prize
chemistry for his work on surface
chemistry.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
3. ^ "Irving
Langmuir." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irving-lang
muir
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
8. ^ "Langmuir,
Irving." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 22-25.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902472&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
10. ^ "Langmuir,
Irving." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 22-25.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902472&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Irving Langmuir." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irving-lang
muir {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Irving Langmuir."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329738/Irving-Langmuir>
[2] "Irving Langmuir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Lang
muir
(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA10  
[1] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 15 		4963) Geiger participates briefly in
Germany's abortive attempt to develop
an atomic bomb during World War II.12

In 06/1945 Geiger flees the Russian
occupation to Potsdam and dies there
two months after the atomic bomb
explodes over Hiroshima.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
3. ^ H Geiger, "A
method of counting alpha and beta
rays", Deutsch Phys Ges, 1913
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
5. ^ "Geiger, Hans
(Johannes) Wilhelm." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Record ID4742. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Geiger, Hans (Johannes) Wilhelm."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
14. ^ "Geiger,
Hans (Johannes) Wilhelm." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Geiger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227810/Hans-Geiger>.
[2] "Hans Geiger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/geiger-joha
nnes-wilhelm
[3] Walter Makower, Hans Geiger,
"Practical measurements in
radio-activity",
1912 http://books.google.com/books?hl=e
n&lr=&id=el9DAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=H
.+Geiger&ots=k5qZOjwAMG&sig=2SVeUiGDuE5G
vCdJsV_nxbxUmR4#v=onepage&q=H.%20Geiger&
f=false
[4] H. Geiger; J. M. Nuttall, "The
ranges of the α particles from
uranium", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 23, Issue 135,
1912, Pages 439 – 445.
(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Berlin, Germany14  
[1] Figure 1: Rutherford-Geiger alpha
particle counter design Figure 2:
Geiger 1912 design UNKNOWN
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1
&contentSet=GALE

[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 5 		5019) In 1922 Hill wins the Nobel Prize
in medicine and physiology shared with
Meyerhof.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p706.
3. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1922/hill.html
4. ^ "A.V. Hill." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265773/A-V-Hill>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p706. {1913}
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] English: Photograph of Archibald V.
Hill (1886-1977) Date Unknown, but
prior to 1923 (associated with Nobel
Prize granted in 1922) (28 May
2008(2008-05-28) (first version); 31
July 2006(2006-07-31) (last
version)) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Archibald_Vivian_Hill
.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 8 		5057)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p719.
2. ^ "Beno
Gutenberg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/beno-gutenb
erg
3. ^ "Beno Gutenberg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/beno-gutenb
erg
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ B Gutenberg, "Uber die
Konstitution des Erdinnern, erschlossen
aus Erdbebenbeobachtungen", Z. Geophys,
1913 "About the constitution of the
Earth's interior, derived from seismic
observations"
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Beno Gutenberg." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/beno-gutenb
erg
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p719. {1913}
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany7  
[1] Beno Gutenberg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.earlham.edu/~phendan/
Graphics/bgutenberg.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 9 		5083)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
2. ^ Chadwick, J.,
Russell, A. S., "The Excitation of γ
-Rays by the α -Rays of Ionium and
Radiothorium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322 {Chadwick_James_19130125.pdf}
3. ^ J Chadwick, "The excitation of γ
rays by α rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, V25 (1913), 193.
4. ^
Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record ID5085.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322 {Chadwick_James_19130125.pdf}
9. ^ Chadwick, J., Russell, A. S., "The
Excitation of γ -Rays by the α -Rays
of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322 {Chadwick_James_19130125.pdf}
{01/25/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[3] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[4] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[5] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[6] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[7] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[8] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England8  
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
86 YBN
[02/??/1914 AD] 5 		4747)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "The Structure of the
Atom", Phil Mag, March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure
of the Atom", Phil Mag, March 1914, s6,
v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure
of the Atom", Phil Mag, March 1914, s6,
v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure
of the Atom", Phil Mag, March 1914, s6,
v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
{02/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England4  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
86 YBN
[04/02/1914 AD] 11 		5235) Chadwick will spend the years of
World War I in a civilian internment
camp in Ruhleben.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
2. ^ J Chadwick,
"Intensitätsverteilung im magnetischen
Spektrum der ß-Strahlen von Radium B+
C", "Distribution in intensity in the
magnetic spectrum of the β-rays of
Radium B + C", Druck von Friedr.
Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
3. ^ "The Reines-Cowan Experiments:
Detecting the Poltergeist". Los Alamos
Science 25: 3. 1997.
http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?
25-02.pdf.
4. ^ J Chadwick,
"Intensitätsverteilung im magnetischen
Spektrum der ß-Strahlen von Radium B+
C", "Distribution in intensity in the
magnetic spectrum of the β-rays of
Radium B and C", Druck von Friedr.
Vieweg und Sohn, 1914
{Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
5. ^ "James Chadwick." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-chadw
ick
6. ^ J Chadwick,
"Intensitätsverteilung im magnetischen
Spektrum der ß-Strahlen von Radium B+
C", "Distribution in intensity in the
magnetic spectrum of the β-rays of
Radium B + C", Druck von Friedr.
Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "James
Chadwick." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-chadw
ick
10. ^ J Chadwick,
"Intensitätsverteilung im magnetischen
Spektrum der ß-Strahlen von Radium B+
C", "Distribution in intensity in the
magnetic spectrum of the β-rays of
Radium B and C", Druck von Friedr.
Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
11. ^ J Chadwick,
"Intensitätsverteilung im magnetischen
Spektrum der ß-Strahlen von Radium B+
C", "Distribution in intensity in the
magnetic spectrum of the β-rays of
Radium B and C", Druck von Friedr.
Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
{04/02/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[3] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[4] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[5] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[6] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[7] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[8] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[9] Chadwick, J., Russell, A. S., "The
Excitation of γ -Rays by the α -Rays
of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[10] Chadwick, J., Russell, A. S., "The
Excitation of γ -Rays by the α -Rays
of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Charlottenburg, Germany10  
[1] Figure 1 from: J Chadwick,
''Intensitätsverteilung im
magnetischen Spektrum der ß-Strahlen
von Radium B+ C'', ''Distribution in
intensity in the magnetic spectrum of
the β-rays of Radium B + C'', Druck
von Friedr. Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
source: {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: J Chadwick,
''Intensitätsverteilung im
magnetischen Spektrum der ß-Strahlen
von Radium B+ C'', ''Distribution in
intensity in the magnetic spectrum of
the β-rays of Radium B + C'', Druck
von Friedr. Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
source: {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
86 YBN
[04/20/1914 AD] 8 		5676)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jan Bielecki, Victor Henri,
"Quantitative Untersuchungen über die
gegenseitige Beeinflussung zweier
Chromophore bei der Absorption
ultravioletter Strahlen.
Vorausberechnung der Absorptionskurve.
V", Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft, Volume 47, Issue 2,
pages 1690–1718, Mai–Juni
1914. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19140470258/abstract {He
nri_Victor_19140420.pdf}
2. ^ R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066 {Woodward_Robert_
Burns_19410115.pdf}
3. ^ G. Scheibe, 'Über die
Veränderlichkeit der
Absorptionsspektren unpolarer
Verbindungen und die Halochromie
ungesättigter Ketone (II.).
(Experimentell mitbearbeitet von G.
Rößler und F. Backenköhler)",
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
58, Issue 3, pages 586–601, 11.
März
1925. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19250580331/abstract
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Jan
Bielecki, Victor Henri, "Quantitative
Untersuchungen über die gegenseitige
Beeinflussung zweier Chromophore bei
der Absorption ultravioletter Strahlen.
Vorausberechnung der Absorptionskurve.
V", Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft, Volume 47, Issue 2,
pages 1690–1718, Mai–Juni
1914. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19140470258/abstract {He
nri_Victor_19140420.pdf}
8. ^ Jan Bielecki, Victor Henri,
"Quantitative Untersuchungen über die
gegenseitige Beeinflussung zweier
Chromophore bei der Absorption
ultravioletter Strahlen.
Vorausberechnung der Absorptionskurve.
V", Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft, Volume 47, Issue 2,
pages 1690–1718, Mai–Juni
1914. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19140470258/abstract {He
nri_Victor_19140420.pdf} {04/20/1914}
(Sorbonne, University of Paris) Paris,
France7  		 
86 YBN
[04/??/1914 AD] 5 		5107)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
2. ^ H Moseley, "The
high-frequency spectra of the elements
part II", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, Volume 27, Issue 160 April 1914 ,
pages 703 - 713.
http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_files/
moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-elements-
part2.pdf {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
3. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements part II",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
27, Issue 160 April 1914 , pages 703 -
713.
http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_files/
moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-elements-
part2.pdf {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
4. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements part II",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
27, Issue 160 April 1914 , pages 703 -
713.
http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_files/
moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-elements-
part2.pdf {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
5. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements part II",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
27, Issue 160 April 1914 , pages 703 -
713.
http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_files/
moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-elements-
part2.pdf {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
{04/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C. G.,
"The Reflection of the X-Rays.",Nature,
Volume 90, Issue 2257, pp. 594
(1913). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
913Natur..90Q.594M
[2] H Moseley, "Atomic models and X-ray
spectra", Nature, Volume 92, Issue
2307, pp. 554
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914Natur..92..554M
[3] H Moseley, "The number of ions
produced by the β and γ radiations
from radium", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1914
[4] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C.
G., "The Reflexion of X Rays",
Philosophical Magazine, 26 (1913),
p210–232
[5] Moseley, H., "The Number of β
Particles Emitted in the
Transformations of Radium", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 87A
(1912), 230–255;
[6] H Moseley, "The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements", Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm
[7] "Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393528/Henry-Gwyn-Jeffreys-Moseley>.
[8] H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag,
V26, p1024-1034, 1913
http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_mosel
ey_article.htm
(University of Oxford) Oxford, England4
 
[1] Figure 3 from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the elements
part II'', Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, Volume 27, Issue 160 April
1914 , pages 703 - 713.
http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_files/
moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-elements-
part2.pdf {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
PD
source: http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_
files/moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-ele
ments-part2.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 4 		4762)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, E. N. Da C. Andrade, "The
Wavelength of the Soft γ Rays from
Radium B", Phil Mag, May 1914, s6, 27,
pp854-68.
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, E. N. Da C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft γ
Rays from Radium B", Phil Mag, May
1914, s6, 27, pp854-68.
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford,
E. N. Da C. Andrade, "The Wavelength of
the Soft γ Rays from Radium B", Phil
Mag, May 1914, s6, 27, pp854-68.
{06/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
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[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England3  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 9 10 		5085)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
3. ^ E. Rutherford,
E. N. DA C. Andrade, "The Wavelength of
the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
4. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
5. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
{05/1914}
10. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England8  
[1] Figures from: [1] E. Rutherford,
''The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays
from Radium B.'', Philosophical
Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 7 		5879)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford and
Andrade, "The Wave-Length of the Soft
γ Rays from Radium B", Phil Mag, 27,
854, 1914.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
3. ^ Aston, "Isotopes", 1922, p11.
4. ^
Rutherford and Andrade, "The
Wave-Length of the Soft γ Rays from
Radium B", Phil Mag, 27, 854, 1914.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Rutherford and Andrade,
"The Wave-Length of the Soft γ Rays
from Radium B", Phil Mag, 27, 854,
1914.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
7. ^ Rutherford and Andrade, "The
Wave-Length of the Soft γ Rays from
Radium B", Phil Mag, 27, 854, 1914.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
{05/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] E. Rutherford,
E. N. DA C. Andrade, "The Wavelength of
the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
[32] E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868
[33] E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273
[34] E. Rutherford, E. N. DA
C. Andrade, "The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England6  
[1] Figures from: E. Rutherford, E. N.
DA C. Andrade, ''The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.'', Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
86 YBN
[07/28/1914 AD] 16 17 		4792)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt
2. ^ Eric Tigerstedt German Patent
#309535, 1914
3. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt
4. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt
5. ^
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspegel
/tigerstedt.html
6. ^
http://personal.inet.fi/koti/antero.tann
inen/tiger.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Record ID4790. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Eric
Tigerstedt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt {07/28/1914}
17. ^
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspegel
/tigerstedt.html {1914}
Berlin, Germany14 (verify15 ) 
[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg

[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg
86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD] 23 		4879)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
2. ^ Adams, W. S. and
Kohlschutter, A., "Some spectral
criteria for the determination of
absolute stellar magnitudes.", Contrib.
Mt. Wilson Solar Obs., No. 89;
Astrophys. J., 40, 385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
3. ^ Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
4. ^ "Arnold Kohlschütter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321123/Arnold-Kohlschutter>.
5. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
6. ^ Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
7. ^ Walter S. Adams, "Investigations
in Stellar Spectroscopy."
02/08/1916. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectro
scopic+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&
hl=en&ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20M
ethod%20of%20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=
false
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
9. ^ "Adams, Walter
Sydney." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54-58.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9
Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Fifty Years of Progress in
Astronomy, p6, Popular Astronomy, v51,
1943. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
43PA.....51..469S
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Walter
Sydney Adams." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
23. ^ Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter,
A., "Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A {07/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Adams." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5195/Walter-Sydney-Adams>
[2] "Walter Sydney Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sydn
ey_Adams
[3] W. Adams, “The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius.”, Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 27 (1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se
[4] Walter Adams, "A Spectroscopic
Method of Determining Parallaxes",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 2 (1916), 147–152;
http://books.google.com/books?id=eu8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Meth
od+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&ei=Je
jZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=on
epage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%20of%
20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA22  
[1] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf
86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD] 6 		4973)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
2. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
3. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
4. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html {07/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689
[2] "Robert Hutchings
Goddard." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[3] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[5] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[6] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
[7] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[8] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[9] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[10] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
[11]
"Speed of sound." McGraw-Hill's
Essential American Slang Dictionary.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/speed-of-so
und
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA4 (verify5 ) 
[1] Fig. 8 from: Goddard, “A Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”,
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
71, no. 2 (1919). Reprinted
in: Goddard, ''Rockets'' (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
86 YBN
[08/13/1914 AD] 16 		5007) After World War II, Shapley is
active in the cause of civil liberties
and peace.13
Shapley clashes
frequently with people such as Senator
Joseph McCarthy.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
2. ^ Shapley, H., "On
the Nature and Cause of Cepheid
Variation", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
Shapley, H., "On the Nature and Cause
of Cepheid Variation", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
6. ^ Shapley, H., "On the Nature and
Cause of Cepheid Variation",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
7. ^ Record ID4527. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
15. ^ Shapley,
H., "On the Nature and Cause of Cepheid
Variation", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
16. ^ Shapley, H., "On the Nature and
Cause of Cepheid Variation",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf} {08/13/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p426.
(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA15  
[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
86 YBN
[08/??/1914 AD] 9 		5109)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ E. Rutherford,
E. N. DA C. Andrade, "The Spectrum of
the Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B
and Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine
S6, V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA
C. Andrade, "The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf}
5. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ E. Rutherford,
E. N. DA C. Andrade, "The Spectrum of
the Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B
and Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine
S6, V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf}
9. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.", Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf}
{08/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] E. Rutherford,
E. N. DA C. Andrade, "The Wavelength of
the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
[32] E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England8  
[1] Figures from: E. Rutherford, E. N.
DA C. Andrade, ''The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.'', Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 4 		4497)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p614.
2. ^ "Charles Fabry".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry
3. ^ "Charles Fabry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry
4. ^ "Charles Fabry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fabry, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
534>.
[2] "Fabry, Charles." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 513-514. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901371&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Pérot, Jean-Baptiste Gaspard
Gustav Alfred." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 518-519.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903353&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France3  
[1] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 7 		4785)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p427.
3. ^ Theodore Tuffier
and Alexis Carrel, "PATCHING AND
SECTION OF THE PULMONARY ORIFICE OF THE
HEART", J Exp Med 1914 20:3-8.
Published July 1, 1914,
doi:10.1084/jem.20.1.3
http://jem.rupress.org/content/20/1/3.
full.pdf+html {Carrel_Alexis_1914.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
5. ^ "Alexis Carrel."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
6. ^ Theodore Tuffier and Alexis
Carrel, "PATCHING AND SECTION OF THE
PULMONARY ORIFICE OF THE HEART", J Exp
Med 1914 20:3-8. Published July 1,
1914, doi:10.1084/jem.20.1.3
http://jem.rupress.org/content/20/1/3.
full.pdf+html {Carrel_Alexis_1914.pdf}
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427. {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carrel, Alexis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
489>
[2] "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
[3] "Carrel, Alexis." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900797&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Alexis Carrel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carr
el
[5] Quoted in Andrés Horacio Reggiani.
Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics
and Population Research under Vichy
(French historical studies, 25:2 Spring
2002), p. 339. Also quoted in French by
Didier Daeninckx in Quand le
négationnisme s’invite à
l’université., on Amnistia.net
website
[6] Quoted in Szasz, Thomas. The
Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse
University Press, 1977
[7] Carrel A, Guthrie
CC., "Functions of a transplanted
kidney, Science
1905;22:473 http://www.sciencemag.org/c
gi/reprint/22/563/473.pdf?ijkey=3fd812ba
500b7242d35bdbf85fd806af00b43325
[8] Carrel, The Surgery of Blood
Vessels, Bull., Johns Hopkins Hosp,
1907, v18, p18
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA6
 
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 13 		4852)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p655.
3. ^ HH Dale,
"The occurrence in ergot and action of
acetyl-choline", J Physiol Journal of
Physiology 48 (1914), pp. iii–iv.
4. ^ "Sir
Henry Dale." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/150109/Sir-Henry-Dale>.
5. ^ HH Dale, W Feldberg, "The chemical
transmission of secretory impulses to
the sweat glands of the cat", The
Journal of Physiology,
1934. http://jp.physoc.org/content/82/1
/121.full.pdf
6. ^ HH Dale, W Feldberg, M Vogt,
"Release of acetylcholine at voluntary
motor nerve endings", The Journal of
Physiology,
1936. http://jp.physoc.org/content/86/4
/353.full.pdf
7. ^ "Sir Henry Dale." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/150109/Sir-Henry-Dale>.
8. ^ Ewins, "ACETYLCHOLINE, A NEW
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE OF ERGOT.", The
Biochemical journal, Volume 8,
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8SoBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=The+occ
urrence+in+ergot+and+action+of+acetylcho
line&source=bl&ots=rL--irlehW&sig=MGRwQQ
A4Hg84gDmpfnVC0vFBSuc&hl=en&ei=nzzLTJ3IJ
o7EsAOYiOHZDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=7&ved=0CDgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q
=The%20occurrence%20in%20ergot%20and%20a
ction%20of%20acetylcholine&f=false
9. ^ "Henry Hallett Dale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-halle
tt-dale
10. ^ Record ID4783. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Record
ID4853. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ewins,
"ACETYLCHOLINE, A NEW ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
OF ERGOT.", The Biochemical journal,
Volume 8,
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8SoBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=The+occ
urrence+in+ergot+and+action+of+acetylcho
line&source=bl&ots=rL--irlehW&sig=MGRwQQ
A4Hg84gDmpfnVC0vFBSuc&hl=en&ei=nzzLTJ3IJ
o7EsAOYiOHZDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=7&ved=0CDgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q
=The%20occurrence%20in%20ergot%20and%20a
ction%20of%20acetylcholine&f=false
13. ^ "Sir Henry Dale." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/150109/Sir-Henry-Dale>. {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Hallett Dale."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-halle
tt-dale
[2] "Dale, Henry Hallett." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 104-107. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Henry Hallett Dale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Halle
tt_Dale
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1936/dale-bio.html
[5] HH Dale, PP Laidlaw, "The
physiological action of
β-iminazolylethylamine", The Journal
of Physiology,
1910. http://jp.physoc.org/content/41/5
/318.full.pdf
[6] HH Dale, PP Laidlaw, "Further
observations on the action of
β-iminazolylethylamine", The Journal
of Physiology,
1911. http://jp.physoc.org/content/43/2
/182.full.pdf
(Wellcome Physiological Research
Laboratories) Herne Hill, England12
 
[1] Henry Hallett Dale UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/dale.jpg

[2] Sir Henry Hallett Dale (1875 -
1968) and Otto Loewi (1873 - 1961)
UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/SW5ML7DC4mI/AAAAAAAAIqw/ys3TSoyw94
w/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1936_Dale_and_Loe
wi.bmp
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		4962) In 1925 Franck wins the Nobel
Prize in physics shared with Gustav
Hertz.13
In 1933 Franck resigns his
university position in protest against
the policies of the new Nazi
government.14
In 1934 Franck is forced
to flee Hitler's anti-Jewish Nazi
Germany. Franck first joins Bohr in
Copenhagen, then goes to the USA.15
Fra
nck works on the atomic bomb project in
the USA, and strenuously opposes
dropping the atomic bomb on Japan
favoring a demonstration before
representatives of the United Nations
instead, in the hope this would
encourage a ban of the bomb instead of
its use.16




(Hertz works with Franck to establish
the quantized nature of the atom's
internal structure.) (needs specifics
and I think there are some.17 )
-Hertz is
severely wounded in World War I
fighting on the German side.
-1925
Nobel prize in physics shared with
Franck.
-1934 Hertz is forced to resign
his job because he is of Jewish
descent, but remains in Germany through
World War II and survives.
-n
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686-687.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p710.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686-687.
4. ^ "James Franck."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/216901/James-Franck>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Chemical abstracts,
Volume 8, American Chemical Society.
Chemical Abstracts Service,
p3526. http://books.google.com/books?id
=DMi2AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3526&dq=About+The+col
lisions+between+electrons+and+the+molecu
les+of+mercury+vapor+and+the+ionization+
of+the+same&hl=en&ei=wOoZTZKDMZS4sQPwoLC
NCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=About%20T
he%20collisions%20between%20electrons%20
and%20the%20molecules%20of%20mercury%20v
apor%20and%20the%20ionization%20of%20the
%20same&f=false
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/vapor#ixzz1
9Pc24jWE
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686-687.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p686-687.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p686-687.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p686-687.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "James Franck." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/216901/James-Franck>.

MORE INFO
[1] "James Franck." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-franc
k
[2] "Franck, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 117-118. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901502&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] J. Franck and G. Hertz, "Ueber
Zusammenstoesse zwischen Elektronen und
den Molekuelen des Quecksilberdampfes
und die Ionisierungsspannung
desselben", Verhandlungen der
Physiologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin,
16 (1914), 512. "On the collisions
between electrons and the molecules of
mercury vapor and the ionizing voltage
for the same"
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany18  
[1] Photograph of the physicist James
Franck. Source: National Archives and
Records Administration of the United
States PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/James_Franck.jpg

[2] Gustav Ludwig Hertz Nobel
photo UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1925/hertz.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 15 		4965) Goddard is the only child of a
bookkeeper, salesman, and machine-shop
owner .6
In 1898 young Goddard’s
imagination was fired by the H.G. Wells
space-fiction novel War of the Worlds,
then serialized in the Boston Post.7

Over the course of his life, Goddard
accumulates 214 patents.8
Only during
World War II does the US government
finance Goddard and then to design
small rockets to help navy planes take
off from carriers.9
Nazi Germany will
develop rockets, and the captured
German rocket experts explain with
surprise that they had learned almost
everything they know about rockets from
Goddard.10
In 1960 the US Government
issues a grant of one million dollars
for the use of Goddard's patents, half
to the Goddard's estate and half to the
Guggenheim Foundation.11

(It seems possible that much of
Goddard's work may still be secret. Was
Goddard actually secretly funded by the
US Government? Perhaps no since the 1
million dollar settlement for patent
use in 1960.12 )

(Did Goddard receive neuron written
windows?13 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p427.
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings
Goddard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Robert Hutchings
Goddard." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
6. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
7. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
9. ^ "Robert
Hutchings Goddard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Robert Hutchings
Goddard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
15. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427. {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[3] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[4] Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s
Rockets" (New York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent
1,102,653 - Rocket apparatus - R. H.
Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA14  
[1] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg

[2] English: Dr. Robert H. Goddard and
a liquid oxygen-gasoline rocket in the
frame from which it was fired on March
16, 1926, at Auburn, Massachusetts.
From 1930 to 1941, Dr. Goddard made
substantial progress in the development
of progressively larger rockets, which
attained altitudes of 2400 meters, and
refined his equipment for guidance and
control, his techniques of welding, and
his insulation, pumps and other
associated equipment. In many respects,
Dr. Goddard laid the essential
foundations of practical rocket
technology. He is considered one of the
fathers of rocketry along with
Konstantin Tsiolovsky (1857-1935) and
Hermann Oberth (1894-1989). Date
16 March 1926(1926-03-16) Source
http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/G
PN-2002-000132.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Goddard_and_Rocket.jp
g
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 14 15 		4977) Spiral "nebulae" recognized to be
other galaxies.7 8

(Sir) Arthur Stanley Eddington (CE
1882-1944), English astronomer and
physicist9 suggests that spiral
nebulas are galaxies in "Stellar
movements and the structure of the
universe".10 11

Eddington writes:
"If the spiral nebulae are
within the stellar system, we have no
notion what their nature may be. That
hypothesis leads to a full stop. It is
true that according to one theory the
solar system was evolved from a spiral
nebula, but the term is here used only
by a remote analogy with such objects
as those depicted in the Plate. The
spirals to which we are referring are,
at any rate, too vast to give birth to
a solar system, nor could they arise
from the disruptive approach of two
stars; we must at least credit them as
capable of generating a star cluster.

If, however, it is assumed that these
nebulae are external to the stellar
system, that they are in fact systems
coequal with our own, we have at least
an hypothesis which can be followed up,
and may throw some light on the
problems that have been before us. For
this reason the "island universe"
theory is much to be preferred as a
working hypothesis; and its
consequences are so helpful as to
suggest a distinct probability of its
truth. ——

If each spiral nebula is a stellar
system, it follows that our own system
is a spiral nebula. The oblate inner
system of stars may be identified with
the nucleus of the nebula, and the star
clouds of the Milky Way form its spiral
arms. There is one nebula seen edgewise
(Plate IV) which makes an excellent
model of our system, for the oblate
shape of the central portion is
well-shown. From the distribution of
the Wolf-Rayet stars and Cepheid
Variables, believed to belong to the
more distant parts of the system, we
infer that the outer whorls of our
system lie closely confined to the
galactic plane; in the nebula these
outer parts are seen in section as a
narrow rectilinear streak. The
photograph also shows a remarkable
absorption of the light of the oblate
nucleus, where it is crossed by the
spiral arms. We have seen that the
Milky Way contains dark patches of
absorbing matter, which would give
exactly this effect. Moreover, quite
apart from the present theory, a spiral
form of the Milky Way has been
advocated. Probably there is more than
one way of representing its structure
by means of a double-armed spiral; but
as an example the discussion of C.
Easton11 may be taken, which renders a
very detailed explanation of the
appearance. His scheme disagrees with
our hypothesis in one respect, for he
has placed the Sun well outside the
central nucleus, which is situated
according to his view in the rich
galactic region of Cygnus.

The two arms of the spiral have an
interesting meaning for us in
connection with stellar movements. The
form of the arms—a logarithmic
spiral—has not as yet given any clue
to the dynamics of spiral nebulae. But
though we do not understand the cause,
we see that there'is a widespread law
compelling matter to flow in these
forms.

It is clear too that either matter is
flowing into the nucleus from the
spiral branches or it is flowing out
from the nucleus into the branches. It
does not at present concern us in which
direction the evolution is proceeding.
In either case we have currents of
matter in opposite directions at the
points where the arms merge in the
central aggregation. These currents
must continue through the centre, for,
as will be shown in the next chapter,
the stars do not interfere with one
another's paths. Here then we have an
explanation of the prevalence of
motions

to and fro in a particular straight
line; it is the line from • which the
spiral branches start out. The two
starstreams and the double-branched
spirals arise from the same cause.".12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
2. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
4. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
6. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
8. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
10. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p427.
11. ^ Sir Arthur
Stanley Eddington, "Stellar movements
and the structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
12. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
13. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
14. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427. {1914}
15. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington, "Stellar movements and the
structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England13  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 5 		5040) Joseph Stalin will support
Lysenko's rejection of Mendelism and
Vavilov will be arrested on 08/06/1940
and sentenced to death, although this
will be reduced to 10 years.2
During
World War II Vavilov will be evacuated
to Saratov where he will die from
maltreatment in 1943.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p714.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p714.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p714.
4. ^ "Immunity to
fungous diseases as a physiological
test in genetics and systematics,
exemplified in cereals", Journal of
Genetics, Volume 4, Number 1,
49-65. http://www.springerlink.com/inde
x/QX638755220M12XK.pdf
5. ^ "Immunity to fungous diseases as a
physiological test in genetics and
systematics, exemplified in cereals",
Journal of Genetics, Volume 4, Number
1,
49-65. http://www.springerlink.com/inde
x/QX638755220M12XK.pdf {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikolay Ivanovich Vavilov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/624223/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Vavilov>.
(Agricultural Higher School) Moscow,
Russia4  
[1] Nikolai Vavilov
NYWTS.jpg Nikolai Vavilov, Russian
botanist and geneticist Date
1933(1933) Source Library of
Congress. New York World-Telegram & Sun
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c18109
Author World Telegram staff
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) ''No copyright restriction
known. Staff photographer reproduction
rights transferred to Library of
Congress through Instrument of Gift.''
See also
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/res/076_nyw.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Nikolai_Vavilov_NYWTS
.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 6 		5088)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p730.
3. ^ "Seth Barnes
Nicholson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seth-barnes
-nicholson
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Seth Barnes Nicholson."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seth-barnes
-nicholson
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730. {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholson, S. B., "Discovery,
observations, and orbit of the ninth
satellite of Jupiter", Lick Observatory
bulletin ; no. 271; Lick Observatory
bulletins ; no. 271., Berkeley :
University of California Press, 1915,
p.
147-149. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1915LicOB...8..147N
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA5  
[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 14 		5179)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
3. ^ H Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66,
1920.
4. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
5. ^ "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
6. ^ Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson,
Louis L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella,
Simon S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole
DC Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994. {Greinacher_Voltage_Multiplier
_199404xx.pdf}
7. ^ H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920).
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T.
S. Walton, "Experiments with High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
10. ^ "Cockcroft, John Douglas."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
14. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[4] Henry A.
Barton, "Comparison of protons and
electrons in the excitation of x-rays
by impact Original Research Article",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Volume 209, Issue 1, January 1930,
Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland13  
[1] Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.electrosuisse.ch/imag
es/database/Portrait/all/Greinacher.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 4 		6034)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Kenneth J. Alford." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kenneth-alf
ord
2. ^
http://marchdb.net/wiki/index.php?title=
Kenneth_J._Alford
3. ^ "93rd (Sutherland Highlanders)
Regiment of Foot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/93rd_%28Sut
herland_Highlanders%29_Regiment_of_Foot
4. ^
http://marchdb.net/wiki/index.php?title=
Kenneth_J._Alford {1914 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Colonel Bogey March".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel_Bog
ey_March
[2] "Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyll_and_
Sutherland_Highlanders
(93rd Highlanders, British army)
Scotland, UK2 3 (verify) 
[1] Kenneth J. Alford was the pseudonym
of Fredrick Joseph Ricketts. PD
source: http://marchdb.net/wiki/images/c
/c7/Kenneth_j_alford_1.jpg
85 YBN
[01/25/1915 AD] 3 		4043)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
2. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_bell_telephone_invite.htm
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_bell_telephone_invite.htm
{01/25/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[3] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>.
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
New York City and San Francisco, USA2
 
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
85 YBN
[01/??/1915 AD] 9 		4410)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
3. ^ Bragg, W.H.
and Bragg, W.L. "X-rays and Crystal
Structure.", London: Bell,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0D7PAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
4. ^ # Bakerian Lecture: X-Rays and
Crystal Structure # Author(s): W. H.
Bragg # Source: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical or Physical Character,
Vol. 215, (1915), pp.
253-274 http://www.jstor.org/stable/inf
o/91108?seq=1
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Bragg, W.H. and Bragg, W.L.
"X-rays and Crystal Structure.",
London: Bell,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0D7PAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
9. ^ Bragg, W.H. and Bragg, W.L.
"X-rays and Crystal Structure.",
London: Bell,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0D7PAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se {01/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] "Bragg, William Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[13] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[14] William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[15] William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[16] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913; W. H. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals (II),” Nature.,
89A (22 Sept. 1913), 246–248,
received 21 June 1913.
[17] W. H. Bragg and
W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Diamond,” Nature (22 Sept. 1913),
277–291, received 30 July.
[18] W. L.
Bragg, "The diffraction of short
electromagnetic waves by a crystal",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 17 (1913),
43–57.
[19] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The
Structure of the Diamond.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 89, No.
610 (Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England
(and Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England8  
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg
85 YBN
[01/??/1915 AD] 11 		4864)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657.
2. ^ Slipher, V. M.,
"Spectrographic Observations of
Nebulae", Popular Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Heber D. Curtis,
"Absorption Effects in the Spiral
Nebulae", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1917 December; 3(12): 678–682.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ce4SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA681&dq=calcium+shift+nebula
e&hl=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20n
ebulae&f=false AND
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1091356/ {Curtis_Heber_19171018.p
df}
5. ^Percival Lowell, "The Rotation of
Jupiter", , Popular Astronomy, v11,
pp1,
01/1903. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/1903PA.....11....1S
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Slipher, V. M.,
"Spectrographic Observations of
Nebulae", Popular Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
8. ^ Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Slipher, V. M.,
"Spectrographic Observations of
Nebulae", Popular Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
{01/1915}
11. ^ Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
{01/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[3] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[5] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[7] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[8] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
[9] Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
[10] "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>
[11] Lick Observatory, Heber Doust
Curtis, William Wallace Campbell,
Joseph Haines Moore, Ralph , Elmer
Wilson, William Hammond Wright, Studies
of the nebulae: made at the Lick
Observatory, University of ...", 1918
http://books.google.com/books?id=HYnnAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=calcium+shift+nebulae&h
l=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20nebu
lae&f=false
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA10  
[1] Table from [1] Vesto Melvin
Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22During+the+l
ast+two+years,+the+spectrographic+work%2
2&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tgPoopy7Dg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22During%20the%20l
ast%20two%20years%2C%20the%20spectrograp
hic%20work%22&f=false

[2] Slipher, V. M., ''Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae'', Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false PD

source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
85 YBN
[06/04/1915 AD] 5 		4748)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford,
"Radiations from Exploding Atoms",
Nature, 95, 1915,pp494-8.
3. ^ Rutherford,
"Radiations from Exploding Atoms",
Nature, 95, 1915,pp494-8.
4. ^ Rutherford,
"Radiations from Exploding Atoms",
Nature, 95, 1915,pp494-8.
5. ^ Rutherford,
"Radiations from Exploding Atoms",
Nature, 95, 1915,pp494-8. {06/04/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
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rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
85 YBN
[09/15/1915 AD] 14 		4510)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
2. ^ Millikan, R.A.;
"Einstein's Photoelectric Equation and
Contact Electromotive Force", Phys.
Rev. 7 (1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} {09/15/1915}
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Millikan, R.A.; "Einstein's
Photoelectric Equation and Contact
Electromotive Force", Phys. Rev. 7
(1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} {09/15/1915}
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Millikan, R.A.; "Einstein's
Photoelectric Equation and Contact
Electromotive Force", Phys. Rev. 7
(1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} {09/15/1915}
7. ^ Millikan,
R.A.; "Einstein's Photoelectric
Equation and Contact Electromotive
Force", Phys. Rev. 7 (1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} {09/15/1915}
8. ^ Millikan, R.
A., "A Direct Photoelectric
Determination of Planck's "h"", Phys.
Rev. 7, 355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Millikan, R.A.;
"Einstein's Photoelectric Equation and
Contact Electromotive Force", Phys.
Rev. 7 (1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf}
14. ^ Millikan, R.A.; "Einstein's
Photoelectric Equation and Contact
Electromotive Force", Phys. Rev. 7
(1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} {09/15/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
732>
[2] "Robert Andrews Millikan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[3] "Robert Andrews Millikan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[4] "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-400. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902971&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] R. A. Millikan, "A new modification
of the cloud method of determining the
elementary electrical charge and the
most probable value of that charge",
The American Physical Society, Vol 29,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iL4WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=A+new+modificat
ion+of+the+cloud+method+of+determining+t
he+elementary+electrical+charge+and+the+
most+probable+value+of+that+charge&hl=en
&ei=Dl02TNLmMc-nnQeG_9jxCg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A%20new%20modification%20o
f%20the%20cloud%20method%20of%20determin
ing%20the%20elementary%20electrical%20ch
arge%20and%20the%20most%20probable%20val
ue%20of%20that%20charge&f=false
[6] R. A. Millikan, "The isolation of
an ion, a precision measurement of its
charge, and the correction of Stoke's
law", Physical Review (Series I), 32
(4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA13  
[1] Figure from Millikan, R.A.;
''Einstein's Photoelectric Equation and
Contact Electromotive Force'', Phys.
Rev. 7 (1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} PD
source: http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw
.part2?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916

[2] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg
85 YBN
[11/??/1915 AD] 14 		4840) Goldberger marries a Gentile
(non-Jewish person10 ), and Asimov
comments that this is when mixed race
marriages are uncommon.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651-652.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p651-652.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651-652.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p651-652.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651-652. {1915}
7. ^
"pellagra." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/449241/pellagra>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651-652.
12. ^ "Joseph
Goldberger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldberger-
joseph
13. ^ "Goldberger, Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 451-453. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901676&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p651-652. {1915}
{11/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Goldberger".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Gold
berger
(US Public Health Service12 )
Washington, DC, USA13 (verify) 
[1] This image was copied from
wikipedia:en. The original description
was: Portrait of epidemiologist and
member of the U.S. w:en:Public Health
Service, Dr. w:en:Joseph
Goldberger. Obtained from the CDC
Public Health Image
Library. http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.
asp Image credit: CDC (PHIL
#8164). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Joseph_Goldberger_01.
jpg
85 YBN
[12/01/1915 AD] 25 		4881)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
2. ^ Adams, W. S.,
"The Spectrum of the Companion of
Sirius", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 27, No. 161,
p.236. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
915PASP...27..236A
and http://books.google.com/books?id=7i
UAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=%22The+Spectrum+o
f+the+Companion+of+Sirius%22&hl=en&ei=Yw
PnTOGNFY_6swPGne2xCw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=on
epage&q=%22The%20Spectrum%20of%20the%20C
ompanion%20of%20Sirius%22&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
4. ^ "Walter Sydney
Adams." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
5. ^ Record ID3685. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p660.
7. ^ Henry Norris
Russell, "Relations Between The Spectra
And Other Characteristics of the
Stars", Popular Astronomy, V22, N5,
WN215, May 1914,
p275. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+a
pparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en&
ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4Q
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20app
arent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22&
f=false
8. ^ J. B. Hearnshaw, "The analysis of
starlight: one hundred and fifty years
of astronomical ...", p352. The
analysis of starlight: one hundred and
fifty years of astronomical
. http://books.google.com/books?id=iCs4
AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA352&dq=spectrum+40+o2++eri
dani+B&hl=en&ei=GB_nTICzDI36swPu17yxCw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=spectrum%2040%
20o2%20%20eridani%20B&f=false
9. ^ Russell, H. N., "Notes on white
dwarfs and small companions",
Astronomical Journal, Vol. 51, p. 13
(1944). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1944AJ.....51...13R
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Adams, W. S., "The
Spectrum of the Companion of Sirius",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 27, No.
161,
p.236. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
915PASP...27..236A
and http://books.google.com/books?id=7i
UAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=%22The+Spectrum+o
f+the+Companion+of+Sirius%22&hl=en&ei=Yw
PnTOGNFY_6swPGne2xCw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=on
epage&q=%22The%20Spectrum%20of%20the%20C
ompanion%20of%20Sirius%22&f=false
12. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
13. ^ "Adams, Walter Sydney." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 54-58. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
25. ^ Adams, W. S., "The Spectrum of
the Companion of Sirius", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 27, No. 161,
p.236. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
915PASP...27..236A
and http://books.google.com/books?id=7i
UAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=%22The+Spectrum+o
f+the+Companion+of+Sirius%22&hl=en&ei=Yw
PnTOGNFY_6swPGne2xCw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=on
epage&q=%22The%20Spectrum%20of%20the%20C
ompanion%20of%20Sirius%22&f=false
{12/01/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Adams." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5195/Walter-Sydney-Adams>
[2] "Walter Sydney Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sydn
ey_Adams
[3] W. Adams, “The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius.”, Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 27 (1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se
[4] Walter Adams, "A Spectroscopic
Method of Determining Parallaxes",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 2 (1916), 147–152;
http://books.google.com/books?id=eu8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Meth
od+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&ei=Je
jZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=on
epage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%20of%
20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
[5] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
[6] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
[7] "Arnold Kohlschütter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321123/Arnold-Kohlschutter>
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA24  
[1] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg

[2] Description Walter Sydney
Adams.jpg Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1931 Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3459&q=SIL14-E1-10 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Accession
number: SIL14-E1-10 Date 20 May
2008(2008-05-20), 19:08:53 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Walter_Sydney_Adams.j
pg
85 YBN
[12/03/1915 AD] 7 		4995)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p696.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Peter Debye." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-debye

6. ^ "Debye, Peter Joseph William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ P. Debye, "Interferentz von
Rontgenstrahlen und Warmebewegun",
pI-III, Ann. Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 {Debye_Peter_19151204.pdf} "Inter
ference of x-rays and heat movement"
{12/03/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Debye." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154823/Peter-Debye>
[2] Debye, “Einige Resultate einer
kinetischen Theorie der Isolatoren,”,
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 13 (1912),
97–100
[3] Debye, “Zur Theorie der anomalen
Dispersion im Gebiete der langwelligen
elektrischen Strahlung,” in Berichte
der Deutschen physikalischen
Gesellschaft, 15 (1913), 777–793
[4] Debye,
Polar Molecules (New York, 1929)
[5] P.
Debye, "Zerstreuung von
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 351, Issue 6, pages 809–823,
1915 "Scattering of X-rays"
[6] P. Debye,
"Interferenzen an regellos orientierten
Teilchen im Röntgenlicht", Ann.
Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/d
ms/load/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002504294 "Inter
ference of irregularly oriented
particles in Rontgen-light"
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany6  
[1] Figures 1-5 from P. Debye,
''Interferentz von Rontgenstrahlen und
Warmebewegun'', pI-III, Ann.
Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 {Debye_Peter_19151204.pdf} ''Inte
rference of x-rays and heat
movement'' PD
source: http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
main/dms/img/#navi

[2] Description
Debye100.jpg Petrus Josephus
Wilhelmus Debije (1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg
85 YBN
[12/04/1915 AD] 10 11 		4917)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p667.
3. ^ Twort, “An
Investigation of the Nature of
Ultra-Microscopic Viruses”, Lancet,
V186, I4814, 1915, 1241–1243.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2DJB-34G-1&_c
di=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S014067360120383
3&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_c
overDate=12%2F04%2F1915&_sk=998135185&wc
hp=dGLbVlb-zSkzV&md5=349a66515aad41d7d9b
921e1bfb7b139&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Twort_
Frederick_19151204.pdf}
4. ^ "Félix d'Herelle." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/f-lix-d-her
elle
5. ^ "bacteriophage." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/48324/bacteriophage>.
6. ^ "Frederick Twort." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-t
wort
7. ^ Twort, “An Investigation of the
Nature of Ultra-Microscopic Viruses”,
Lancet, V186, I4814, 1915, 1241–1243.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2DJB-34G-1&_c
di=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S014067360120383
3&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_c
overDate=12%2F04%2F1915&_sk=998135185&wc
hp=dGLbVlb-zSkzV&md5=349a66515aad41d7d9b
921e1bfb7b139&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Twort_
Frederick_19151204.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Twort, “An
Investigation of the Nature of
Ultra-Microscopic Viruses”, Lancet,
V186, I4814, 1915, 1241–1243.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2DJB-34G-1&_c
di=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S014067360120383
3&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_c
overDate=12%2F04%2F1915&_sk=998135185&wc
hp=dGLbVlb-zSkzV&md5=349a66515aad41d7d9b
921e1bfb7b139&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Twort_
Frederick_19151204.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667. {12/04/1915}
11. ^ Twort,
“An Investigation of the Nature of
Ultra-Microscopic Viruses”, Lancet,
V186, I4814, 1915, 1241–1243.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2DJB-34G-1&_c
di=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S014067360120383
3&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_c
overDate=12%2F04%2F1915&_sk=998135185&wc
hp=dGLbVlb-zSkzV&md5=349a66515aad41d7d9b
921e1bfb7b139&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Twort_
Frederick_19151204.pdf} {12/04/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Twort, Frederick William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 519-521. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904404&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Frederick Twort". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_T
wort
[3] "Félix d'Herelle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_
d%27Herelle
(Brown Institution) London, England9
 
[1] Description Twort.jpg Frederick
Twort ca 1900 Date Source
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov.,
1951), pp. 504-517. Found on
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Image:Two
rt.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Twort.jpg

[2] Félix d'Herelle. Scanned from
the book ''Gesund durch Viren'' by
Thomas Häusler. The book states it was
taken around 1910, putting it into the
en:public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Felix_d%27Herelle.png

85 YBN
[1915 AD] 14 		4392)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p589.
3. ^ Innes, "A
Faint Star of Large Proper Motion",
Union Observatory Circular, no. 30
(1915)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p589.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589.
8. ^ "Innes, Robert
Thorburn Ayton." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-18.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902132&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Proxima Centauri." WordNet 1.7.1.
Princeton University, 2001. Answers.com
01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proxima-cen
tauri
10. ^ "Innes, Robert Thorburn Ayton."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-18. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902132&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Innes, Robert Thorburn
Ayton." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 17-18.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902132&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=D1lMAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA56&dq=%22A+Faint+Star+of+Larg
e+Proper+Motion%22&hl=en&ei=_5gFTLXzOcOB
8gbH3qDkDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2
2A%20Faint%20Star%20of%20Large%20Proper%
20Motion%22&f=false
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p589. {1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thor
burn_Ayton_Innes
[2] "Proxima centauri". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxima_cen
tauri
(Cape Observatory) South Africa12 13
 
[1] Description Alpha centauri
size.png English: This diagram
illustrates, from left to right, the
relative size of the Sun, α Centauri
A, α Centauri B and Proxima
Centauri. Date 26 June
2008(2008-06-26) Source Own work
by uploader. This illustration was
generated using Paint Shop Pro. Author
RJHall Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Alpha_centauri_size.p
ng

[2] Description Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes00.jpg Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes (1861-1933, Scottish-South
African astronomer Date
unknown Source
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/
ngcic/persons/innes.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Robert_Thorburn_Ayton
_Innes00.jpg
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 8 9 		4777)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Frederick Twort." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-t
wort
2. ^ Twort, "An Investigation of the
Nature of Ultra-Microscopic Viruses",
Lancet (1915), 2,
1241–1243. http://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-49N
2DJB-34G&_user=4422&_coverDate=12%2F04%2
F1915&_alid=1445584643&_rdoc=23&_fmt=hig
h&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt
_list_item&_cdi=4886&_sort=r&_st=13&_doc
anchor=&view=c&_ct=35&_acct=C000059600&_
version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5
=a048a51c7982c8db9e4e6ec7b681c4c3&search
type=a
{Twort_William_1915.pdf} AND http://
books.google.com/books?id=LZVPAAAAYAAJ&p
g=PR24&dq=An+Investigation+of+the+Nature
+of+Viruses+Ultra-Microscopic&hl=en&ei=i
UJ8TJzsNJT4swOvuKCDBw&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAw
3. ^ "Frederick Twort." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-t
wort
4. ^ Twort, "An Investigation of the
Nature of Ultra-Microscopic Viruses",
Lancet (1915), 2,
1241–1243. http://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-49N
2DJB-34G&_user=4422&_coverDate=12%2F04%2
F1915&_alid=1445584643&_rdoc=23&_fmt=hig
h&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt
_list_item&_cdi=4886&_sort=r&_st=13&_doc
anchor=&view=c&_ct=35&_acct=C000059600&_
version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5
=a048a51c7982c8db9e4e6ec7b681c4c3&search
type=a
{Twort_William_1915.pdf} AND http://
books.google.com/books?id=LZVPAAAAYAAJ&p
g=PR24&dq=An+Investigation+of+the+Nature
+of+Viruses+Ultra-Microscopic&hl=en&ei=i
UJ8TJzsNJT4swOvuKCDBw&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAw
5. ^ "Frederick Twort." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-t
wort
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Frederick Twort." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-t
wort
8. ^ "Frederick Twort." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-t
wort {1915}
9. ^ Twort, "An Investigation of
the Nature of Ultra-Microscopic
Viruses", Lancet (1915), 2,
1241–1243. http://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-49N
2DJB-34G&_user=4422&_coverDate=12%2F04%2
F1915&_alid=1445584643&_rdoc=23&_fmt=hig
h&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt
_list_item&_cdi=4886&_sort=r&_st=13&_doc
anchor=&view=c&_ct=35&_acct=C000059600&_
version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5
=a048a51c7982c8db9e4e6ec7b681c4c3&search
type=a
{Twort_William_1915.pdf} AND http://
books.google.com/books?id=LZVPAAAAYAAJ&p
g=PR24&dq=An+Investigation+of+the+Nature
+of+Viruses+Ultra-Microscopic&hl=en&ei=i
UJ8TJzsNJT4swOvuKCDBw&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAw

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
[2] "Twort, Frederick
William." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 519-521.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904404&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(London University) London, England7
 
[1] Description Twort.jpg Frederick
Twort ca 1900 Date Source
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov.,
1951), pp. 504-517. Author
c1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Twort.jpg
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 20 		4817) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649.
2. ^ "Harkins,
William Draper." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Harkins, William Draper."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Harkins, William
Draper." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649.
10. ^ "Harkins,
William Draper." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Harkins,
William Draper." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
20. ^ "Harkins, William Draper."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Draper Harkins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/255369/William-Draper-Harkins>.
[2] "William Draper Harkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dra
per_Harkins
[3] William D. Harkins and Ernest D.
Wilson, "The Structure of Complex Atoms
and the Changes of Mass and Weight
Involved in Their Formation",Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1915 May; 1(5):
276–283.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1090802/pdf/pnas01974-0020.pdf
[4] Harkins WD., "THE BUILDING OF ATOMS
AND THE NEW PERIODIC SYSTEM.", Science.
1919 Dec
26;50(1304):577-82. http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/i296627
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA19  
[1] William Draper Harkins
(1873-1951) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetec
h.com/articles/fall%202003/jpgs/ED.2A%20
Harkins.jpg
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 15 		4818)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649.
2. ^ Harkins WD.,
"THE BUILDING OF ATOMS AND THE NEW
PERIODIC SYSTEM.", Science. 1919 Dec
26;50(1304):577-82. http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/i296627 {Harkins_William_19191
226.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID4462. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record
ID4746. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ William D.
Harkins and Ernest D. Wilson, "The
Structure of Complex Atoms and the
Changes of Mass and Weight Involved in
their Formation", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 1, No. 5
(May 15, 1915), pp.
276-283. http://www.jstor.org/stable/83
266
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649.
8. ^ Harkins WD.,
"THE BUILDING OF ATOMS AND THE NEW
PERIODIC SYSTEM.", Science. 1919 Dec
26;50(1304):577-82. http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/i296627 {Harkins_William_19191
226.pdf}
9. ^ Harkins WD., "THE BUILDING OF
ATOMS AND THE NEW PERIODIC SYSTEM.",
Science. 1919 Dec
26;50(1304):577-82. http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/i296627 {Harkins_William_19191
226.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p649.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Harkins, William Draper."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ "Harkins, William Draper."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Draper Harkins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/255369/William-Draper-Harkins>
[2] "William Draper Harkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dra
per_Harkins
[3] William D. Harkins and Ernest D.
Wilson, "The Structure of Complex Atoms
and the Changes of Mass and Weight
Involved in Their Formation",Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1915 May; 1(5):
276–283.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1090802/pdf/pnas01974-0020.pdf
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA14  
[1] Table from Harkins WD., ''THE
BUILDING OF ATOMS AND THE NEW PERIODIC
SYSTEM.'', Science. 1919 Dec
26;50(1304):577-82. http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/i296627 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1642
325

[2] William Draper Harkins
(1873-1951) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetec
h.com/articles/fall%202003/jpgs/ED.2A%20
Harkins.jpg
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 4 		4878)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
2. ^ W. Adams, “The
Spectrum of the Companion of
Sirius.”, Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 27
(1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se
3. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
4. ^ W. Adams, “The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius.”, Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 27 (1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Adams." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5195/Walter-Sydney-Adams>.
[2] "Adams, Walter Sydney." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 54-58. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Walter Sydney Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sydn
ey_Adams
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA3  
[1] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg

[2] Description Walter Sydney
Adams.jpg Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1931 Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3459&q=SIL14-E1-10 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Accession
number: SIL14-E1-10 Date 20 May
2008(2008-05-20), 19:08:53 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Walter_Sydney_Adams.j
pg
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 6 		4933)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
2. ^ A. Einstein,
"Erklärung der Perihelbewegung des
Merkur aus der allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie", Preussische
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Sitzungsberichte, 1915 (part 2),
831–839. "Explanation of the
Perihelion Motion of Mercury from the
General Theory of Relativity"
3. ^ "List of
scientific publications by Albert
Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>.
6. ^ "List of scientific publications
by Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
{1915 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[2] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[6] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[7] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[8]
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleine
rt/files/
[9] A. Einstein, "Über die von der
molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[10] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[12] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[13] Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation Versus Relativity", 1922,
[14]
A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip und
die aus demselben gezogenen
Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna
Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton
University Press, v2, The Swiss years,
writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) http://books.google.com/
books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+re
tain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=e
n&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
%20of%20motion%20retain%20their%20form%2
2&f=false
[15] Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
1987
[16] "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen
Relativitaetstheorie" http://users.phys
ik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/1916_49_
769-822.pdf
[17] A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
[18] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
[19] Stachel, John. "Einstein, Albert."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 363-373. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905645&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[20] "Einstein: Theory of Relativity."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 319-333. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901296&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
( Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
for Physics) Berlin, Germany5  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 28 		4934)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
2. ^ A. Einstein,
"Feldgleichungen der Gravitation",
Preussische Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915
(part 2), 844–847. "The Field
Equations of Gravitation"
3. ^ "List of scientific
publications by Albert Einstein".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p673-677.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
9. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
Versus Relativity", 1922,
10. ^ Herbert
Dingle, "Science at a Crossroads",
1972.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>.
28. ^ "List of scientific publications
by Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
{1915 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[2] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[6] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[7] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[8]
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleine
rt/files/
[9] A. Einstein, "Über die von der
molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[10] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[12] A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip
und die aus demselben gezogenen
Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna
Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton
University Press, v2, The Swiss years,
writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) http://books.google.com/
books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+re
tain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=e
n&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
%20of%20motion%20retain%20their%20form%2
2&f=false
[13] Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
1987
[14] A. Einstein, "Die Grundlage der
allgemeinen Relativitaetstheorie",
Annalen der Physik, (1916) volume: 354
issue: 7 page:
769. http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~
kleinert/files/1916_49_769-822.pdf
and http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/andp.19163540702/abstract {Eins
tein_Albert_19160320.pdf}
[15] A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
[16] A. Einstein, "Erklärung der
Perihelbewegung des Merkur aus der
allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie",
Preussische Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915
(part 2), 831–839. "Explanation of
the Perihelion Motion of Mercury from
the General Theory of Relativity"
(Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
for Physics) Berlin, Germany27  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 4 		4970)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
2. ^ "Robert
Hutchings Goddard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html {1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[3] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[4] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[8] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 6 7 		6048) First Jazz composition in print,
Jelly Roll Morton's "Jelly Roll
Blues".1 2

Ferdinand Joseph LaMothe (1885-1941),
known professionally as Jelly Roll
Morton, US ragtime and early jazz
pianist, bandleader and composer,
composed "Jelly Roll Blues" around
1905, and this composition is the first
jazz arrangement in print (1915),
introducing more musicians to the New
Orleans style.3 4

(verify)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz.
London: Thames and Hudson, pp. 38,
56 ISBN 0-500-20318-0.
2. ^ "History of jazz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
jazz
3. ^ Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz.
London: Thames and Hudson, pp. 38,
56 ISBN 0-500-20318-0.
4. ^ "History of jazz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
jazz
5. ^
http://www.doctorjazz.co.uk/page10a.html
#onthe
6. ^ Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz.
London: Thames and Hudson, pp. 38,
56 ISBN 0-500-20318-0. {1915 (verify}
7. ^
"History of jazz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
jazz {1915 (verify}
(Will Rossiter) Chicago, Illinois, USA
(where published)5  
[1] Description Sheet music cover:
The 'Jelly Roll' Blues, by Ferd
Morton Date 1915 Source
JELLY ROLL MORTON - ON THE ROAD.
Retrieved on 2007-10-22. Author
Publisher: Will
Rossiter Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Jelly_Roll_Blues_1915
.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of
Jelly Roll Morton, cropped from group
photo of musicians and entertainers in
Los Angeles, California, at the
Cadillac Club, c. 1917 or 1918. Date
1917 or 1918 Source
Photograph from 1917 or 1918,
scanned from reprint in book ''Oh,
Mister Jelly'' by William Russell,
JazzMedia Aps, 1999 Author
Photographer not
credited. Permission (Reusing this
file) Mechanical reproduction of
copyright expired 2 dimensional
work. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/35/MortonBricktopRowCrop
MortonFace.jpg
84 YBN
[01/13/1916 AD] 13 14 		4808)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648.
2. ^ "Karl
Schwarzschild." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild {1916}
3. ^ Karl Schwarzschild, "Über
das Gravitationsfeld eines
Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen
Theorie", Sitzungberichte der
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1916 (1916),
p189–196. http://de.wikisource.org/wi
ki/%C3%9Cber_das_Gravitationsfeld_eines_
Massenpunktes_nach_der_Einsteinschen_The
orie http://books.google.com/books?id=r
JXiSAAACAAJ&dq=%C3%9Cber+das+Gravitation
sfeld+eines+Massenpunktes+nach+der+Einst
einschen+Theorie&hl=en&ei=B6ajTPqHB4PUtQ
PQwuj6Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA tr: S. Antoci
and A. Loinger as "On the gravitational
field of a mass point according to
Einstein's theory", History of Physics
(physics.hist-ph); General Relativity
and Quantum Cosmology (gr-qc),
Sitzungsber.Preuss.Akad.Wiss.Berlin
(Math.Phys.) 1916 (1916)
189-196. http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9
905030
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648. {1916}
14. ^ "Karl
Schwarzschild." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Schwarzschild."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528632/Karl-Schwarzschild>
[2] "Karl Schwarzschild". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Schwar
zschild
[3] Schwarzchild, Br. Meyermann, A.
Kohlschütter, and O. Birck,
"Aktinometrie der Sterne der BD bis zur
Grösse 7,5 in der Zone 0° bis +20°
Deklination" Teil A, Abhandlungen der
K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen, Math.-Phys. Kl., n.s. 6,
no. 6 (1910)
[4] Schwarzchild, "Beiträge zur
photographischen Photometrie der
Gestirne", Publikationen der von
Kuffnerschen Sternwarte, 5 (1900)
[5] Karl
Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus
inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der
Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungberichte
der Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 196 (1916),
p424–434. http://de.wikisource.org/wi
ki/Gravitationsfeld_einer_Kugel_aus_inko
mpressibler_Fl%C3%BCssigkeit tr:
translation by S. Antoci ,"On the
gravitational field of a sphere of
incompressible fluid according to
Einstein's
theory" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/99
12033 {Schwarzschild_Karl_19160224.pdf}

Berlin, Germany (published), Russia
(written)12  
[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g
84 YBN
[01/26/1916 AD] 24 25 		4855) Lewis is an early supporter of
Einstein's 1905 theory of relativity.20

In 1917 Lewis creates a compilation of
entropy data and creates an empirical
verification of Nernst’s third law.21

To me, without trying to sound rude,
both these examples show how Lewis
apparently accepted a large portion of
inaccurate, abstract scientific
theories.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
2. ^ "Gilbert N.
Lewis." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
3. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=RgDzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA767&lp
g=PA767&dq=%22A+number+of+years+ago,+to+
account+for+the+striking+fact%22&source=
bl&ots=poniqAOQyg&sig=WFu6ffeH4l_mrhTDnV
SY3Jv0GgU&hl=en&ei=4pbQTNXlBoS4sQOal_XVC
A&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%
20number%20of%20years%20ago%2C%20to%20ac
count%20for%20the%20striking%20fact%22&f
=false {Lewis_Gilbert_19160126.pdf}
4. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ William C. Bray, Gerald E. K.
Branch, "VALENCE AND TAUTOMERISM.", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1913, 35 (10), pp
1440–1447 DOI: 10.1021/ja02199a003
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ja
02199a003
6. ^ Gilbert N. Lewis, "VALENCE AND
TAUTOMERISM.", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1913,
35 (10), pp 1448–1455 DOI:
10.1021/ja02199a004 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/pdf/10.1021/ja02199a004
7. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf}
8. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=RgDzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA767&lp
g=PA767&dq=%22A+number+of+years+ago,+to+
account+for+the+striking+fact%22&source=
bl&ots=poniqAOQyg&sig=WFu6ffeH4l_mrhTDnV
SY3Jv0GgU&hl=en&ei=4pbQTNXlBoS4sQOal_XVC
A&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%
20number%20of%20years%20ago%2C%20to%20ac
count%20for%20the%20striking%20fact%22&f
=false {Lewis_Gilbert_19160126.pdf}
9. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=RgDzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA767&lp
g=PA767&dq=%22A+number+of+years+ago,+to+
account+for+the+striking+fact%22&source=
bl&ots=poniqAOQyg&sig=WFu6ffeH4l_mrhTDnV
SY3Jv0GgU&hl=en&ei=4pbQTNXlBoS4sQOal_XVC
A&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%
20number%20of%20years%20ago%2C%20to%20ac
count%20for%20the%20striking%20fact%22&f
=false {Lewis_Gilbert_19160126.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
13. ^ "Lewis,
Gilbert Newton." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 289-294.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert
Newton." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 289-294.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert
Newton." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 289-294.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
21. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
24. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} {01/26/1916}
25. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[3]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[4] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA23  
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
84 YBN
[01/26/1916 AD] 9 10 		4856)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
9. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} {01/26/1916}
10. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[3] "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[5]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[6] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA8  
[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
84 YBN
[02/08/1916 AD] 12 		4880)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
2. ^ Walter S. Adams,
"Investigations in Stellar
Spectroscopy.", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, V2,
02/08/1916,
p143. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic
+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&
ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ
#v=onepage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%
20of%20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
 {Adams_Walter_19160208.pdf}
3. ^ Walter S. Adams, "Investigations
in Stellar Spectroscopy.", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
V2, 02/08/1916,
p143. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic
+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&
ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ
#v=onepage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%
20of%20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
 {Adams_Walter_19160208.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Walter Sydney Adams." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
12. ^ Walter S. Adams, "Investigations
in Stellar Spectroscopy.", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
V2, 02/08/1916,
p143. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic
+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&
ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ
#v=onepage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%
20of%20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
 {Adams_Walter_19160208.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Adams." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5195/Walter-Sydney-Adams>
[2] "Adams, Walter Sydney." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 54-58. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Walter Sydney Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sydn
ey_Adams
[4] W. Adams, “The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius.”, Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 27 (1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se
[5] Walter Adams, "A Spectroscopic
Method of Determining Parallaxes",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 2 (1916), 147–152;
http://books.google.com/books?id=eu8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Meth
od+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&ei=Je
jZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=on
epage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%20of%
20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
[6] "Arnold Kohlschütter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321123/Arnold-Kohlschutter>.
[7] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA11  
[1] Figure 1 from part 1 of Walter S.
Adams, ''Investigations in Stellar
Spectroscopy.'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, V2,
02/08/1916,
p143. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic
+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&
ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ
#v=onepage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%
20of%20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
{Adams_Walter_19160208.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopi
c+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en
&ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A Spectroscopic Method of
Determining Parallaxes&f=false

[2] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg
84 YBN
[02/24/1916 AD] 26 27 28 		4809)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648.
4. ^ Karl
Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus
inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der
Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungberichte
der Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 196 (1916),
p424–434. http://de.wikisource.org/wi
ki/Gravitationsfeld_einer_Kugel_aus_inko
mpressibler_Fl%C3%BCssigkeit tr:
translation by S. Antoci ,"On the
gravitational field of a sphere of
incompressible fluid according to
Einstein's
theory" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/99
12033 {Schwarzschild_Karl_19160224.pdf}
also: http://zelmanov.ptep-online.com
/papers/zj-2008-04.pdf {Schwarzschild_K
arl_tr2_19160224.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648.
6. ^ Record ID4808.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "Karl Schwarzschild." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild {1916}
9. ^ "Karl Schwarzschild." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild {1916}
10. ^ Karl Schwarzschild,
"Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel
aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach
der Einsteinschen Theorie",
Sitzungberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
196 (1916),
p424–434. http://de.wikisource.org/wi
ki/Gravitationsfeld_einer_Kugel_aus_inko
mpressibler_Fl%C3%BCssigkeit tr:
translation by S. Antoci ,"On the
gravitational field of a sphere of
incompressible fluid according to
Einstein's
theory" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/99
12033 {Schwarzschild_Karl_19160224.pdf}
also: http://zelmanov.ptep-online.com
/papers/zj-2008-04.pdf {Schwarzschild_K
arl_tr2_19160224.pdf}
11. ^ Karl Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus
inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der
Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungberichte
der Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 196 (1916),
p424–434. http://de.wikisource.org/wi
ki/Gravitationsfeld_einer_Kugel_aus_inko
mpressibler_Fl%C3%BCssigkeit tr:
translation by S. Antoci ,"On the
gravitational field of a sphere of
incompressible fluid according to
Einstein's
theory" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/99
12033 {Schwarzschild_Karl_19160224.pdf}
also: http://zelmanov.ptep-online.com
/papers/zj-2008-04.pdf {Schwarzschild_K
arl_tr2_19160224.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "Schwarzschild, Karl."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 247-253. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903931&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
26. ^ Karl Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus
inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der
Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungberichte
der Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 196 (1916),
p424–434. http://de.wikisource.org/wi
ki/Gravitationsfeld_einer_Kugel_aus_inko
mpressibler_Fl%C3%BCssigkeit tr:
translation by S. Antoci ,"On the
gravitational field of a sphere of
incompressible fluid according to
Einstein's
theory" http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/99
12033 {Schwarzschild_Karl_19160224.pdf}
also: http://zelmanov.ptep-online.com
/papers/zj-2008-04.pdf {Schwarzschild_K
arl_tr2_19160224.pdf} {02/24/1916}
27. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p647-648. {1916}
{/1916}
28. ^ "Karl Schwarzschild." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-schwar
zschild {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Schwarzschild."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528632/Karl-Schwarzschild>
[2] "Karl Schwarzschild". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Schwar
zschild
[3] Schwarzchild, Br. Meyermann, A.
Kohlschütter, and O. Birck,
"Aktinometrie der Sterne der BD bis zur
Grösse 7,5 in der Zone 0° bis +20°
Deklination" Teil A, Abhandlungen der
K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen, Math.-Phys. Kl., n.s. 6,
no. 6 (1910)
[4] Schwarzchild, "Beiträge zur
photographischen Photometrie der
Gestirne", Publikationen der von
Kuffnerschen Sternwarte, 5 (1900)
[5] Karl
Schwarzschild, "Über das
Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes
nach der Einsteinschen Theorie",
Sitzungberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1916 (1916),
p189–196. http://de.wikisource.org/wi
ki/%C3%9Cber_das_Gravitationsfeld_eines_
Massenpunktes_nach_der_Einsteinschen_The
orie http://books.google.com/books?id=r
JXiSAAACAAJ&dq=%C3%9Cber+das+Gravitation
sfeld+eines+Massenpunktes+nach+der+Einst
einschen+Theorie&hl=en&ei=B6ajTPqHB4PUtQ
PQwuj6Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA tr: S. Antoci
and A. Loinger as "On the gravitational
field of a mass point according to
Einstein's theory", History of Physics
(physics.hist-ph); General Relativity
and Quantum Cosmology (gr-qc),
Sitzungsber.Preuss.Akad.Wiss.Berlin
(Math.Phys.) 1916 (1916)
189-196. http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9
905030
Berlin, Germany (published), Russia
(written)25  
[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g
84 YBN
[11/27/1916 AD] 7 		4437)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
2. ^ "Wilhelm Wien."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-wie
n
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Wien,
Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-342. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904646&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Wien, Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto
Fritz Franz." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-342.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904646&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
[4] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p598-599.
[5] W. Wien,
"Untersuchungen über die elektrische
Entladung in verdünnten Gasen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 310, Issue
6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART

[6] W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 313,
Issue 6, Date: 1902, Pages:
244-266. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485582/PDFSTART

[7] W. Wien, "Ueber die Natur der
positiven Elektronen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 314, Issue 11, Date:
1902, Pages:
660-664. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485776/PDFSTART

[8] W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany6  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
84 YBN
[11/??/1916 AD] 13 		4982)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
2. ^ Eddington, A.S.,
“On the Radiative Equilibrium of the
Stars,” Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 77, 16-35 (1916)
and 77, 596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
4. ^ Eddington, A.S.,
“On the Radiative Equilibrium of the
Stars,” Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 77, 16-35 (1916)
and 77, 596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf}
5. ^ Eddington, A.S., "The Internal
Constitution of the Stars", (Cambridge
Univ. Press, 1926; reissued with a
forward by S. Chandrasekhar, 1988).
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p446.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
Eddington, A.S., “On the Radiative
Equilibrium of the Stars,” Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 77, 16-35 (1916) and 77,
596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf}
12. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
13. ^ Eddington, A.S., “On the
Radiative Equilibrium of the Stars,”
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 77, 16-35 (1916)
and 77, 596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf}
{11/1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>
[2] Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
[3] Eddington, A. S., "The dynamics of
a globular stellar system", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 75,
p.366-376. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1915MNRAS..75..366E
[4] Eddington, A. S., "Stars, Gaseous,
On the pulsations of a gaseous star",
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 79, 1918,
p.2-22 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1918MNRAS..79R...2E/0000002.000
.html
[5] "Eddington, Arthur Stanley."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-282. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901279&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] A. Eddington, "Report on the
Relativity Theory of Gravitation",
1914. http://www.archive.org/stream/rep
ortontherelat028829mbp/reportontherelat0
28829mbp_djvu.txt
{Eddington_1918.pdf}
[7] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
[8] Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
Versus Relativity", 1922
[9] Herbert Dingle,
"Science at a Crossroads", 1972
[10] F. W.
Dyson, A. S. Eddington and C. Davidson,
"A Determination of the Deflection of
Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field,
from Observations Made at the Total
Eclipse of May 29, 1919", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical or Physical Character,
Vol. 220, (1920), pp.
291-333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/91
137
[11] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p442
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p446.
[13] Eddington, A.S., “The Internal
Constitution of the Stars,”
Presidential Address to Section A of
the British Association at Cardiff 42
Aug 1920, 34-49 (1920). Reprinted in
Nature 106, 14 (1920).
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England11 12  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 4 		4086)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p523.
3. ^
"Sharpey-Schäfer, Edward Albert",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp802-803.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharpey-Schafer, Sir Edward
Albert." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
1 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
167>.
[2] "Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-albe
rt-sharpey-schafer
[3] "Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Albe
rt_Sharpey-Schafer
[4] Sparrow EP, Finger S., "Edward
Albert Schäfer (Sharpey-Schafer) and
his contributions to neuroscience:
commemorating of the 150th anniversary
of his birth.", J Hist Neurosci. 2001
Mar;10(1):41-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/sites/entrez
[5] Writer, Desmond (2004),
"Resuscitation Great. Sir Edward
Sharpey-Schafer and his simple and
efficient method of performing
artificial respiration.", Resuscitation
Volume 61, Issue 2, May 2004, Pages
113-116. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T19-4C9X19V
-2&_user=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search
&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00005
9600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=44
22&md5=64f4e665ec2aa9c778258a5425b8e5b9
[6] Schäfer EA. Description of a
simple and efficient method of
performing artificial respiration in
the human subject, to which is appended
instructions for the treatment of the
apparently drowned. Med Chir Trans
1904;87:609–614 (discussion pp.
615–623).
(Edinburgh University) Edinburgh,
Scotland3  
[1] Edward Albert Schafer
(Sharpey-Schafer) CE
1850-1935 COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE
source: http://melvyl.worldcat.org/oclc/
28180217?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww
.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontent%2Ftandf%2F
jhin%26checksum%3D0b0576b46d5e880b4ab721
e77fe56939&title=&linktype=opacFtLink
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 6 7 		4317)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p569.
2. ^ "Barnard, Edward
Emerson." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 463-467.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900271&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Barnard, Edward Emerson."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 463-467. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Apr.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900271&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p569.
5. ^ "Barnard, Edward
Emerson." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 463-467.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900271&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p569. {1916}
7. ^ "Barnard,
Edward Emerson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Emerson Barnard." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-emer
son-barnard
[2] "Edward Emerson Barnard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-emer
son-barnard
[3] "Edward Emerson Barnard." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 30 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-emer
son-barnard
[4] "Edward Emerson Barnard".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Emer
son_Barnard
[5]
http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/specco
l/exhibits/barnard/barnarde.shtml
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p569.
[7] "Barnard, Edward
Emerson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
407>.
(Yerkes Observatory University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA5
 
[1] Description
Barnardstar2006.jpg Barnard's
star Date 21 May
2006(2006-05-21) Source
http://www.hwy.com.au/~sjquirk/imag
es/film/barnard.html Author Steve
Quirk Permission (Reusing this file)
http://www.hwy.com.au/~sjquirk/imag
es/film/barnard.html (see bottom) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Barnardstar2006.jpg

[2] Edward Emerson Barnard Photo from
Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick
Observatory 16 December 1857 1917
Bruce Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Barnard/barnard.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 6 		4511)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
2. ^ Millikan, R. A.,
"A Direct Photoelectric Determination
of Planck's "h"", Phys. Rev. 7,
355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Millikan, R. A., "A
Direct Photoelectric Determination of
Planck's "h"", Phys. Rev. 7, 355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf}
5. ^ Millikan, R. A., "A Direct
Photoelectric Determination of Planck's
"h"", Phys. Rev. 7, 355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf}
6. ^ Millikan, R. A., "A Direct
Photoelectric Determination of Planck's
"h"", Phys. Rev. 7, 355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
732>
[2] "Robert Andrews Millikan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[3] "Robert Andrews Millikan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[4] "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-400. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902971&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] R. A. Millikan, "A new modification
of the cloud method of determining the
elementary electrical charge and the
most probable value of that charge",
The American Physical Society, Vol 29,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iL4WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=A+new+modificat
ion+of+the+cloud+method+of+determining+t
he+elementary+electrical+charge+and+the+
most+probable+value+of+that+charge&hl=en
&ei=Dl02TNLmMc-nnQeG_9jxCg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A%20new%20modification%20o
f%20the%20cloud%20method%20of%20determin
ing%20the%20elementary%20electrical%20ch
arge%20and%20the%20most%20probable%20val
ue%20of%20that%20charge&f=false
[6] R. A. Millikan, "The isolation of
an ion, a precision measurement of its
charge, and the correction of Stoke's
law", Physical Review (Series I), 32
(4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/
[7] Millikan, R.A.; "Einstein's
Photoelectric Equation and Contact
Electromotive Force", Phys. Rev. 7
(1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA5  
[1] Figures from Millikan, R. A., ''A
Direct Photoelectric Determination of
Planck's ''h'''', Phys. Rev. 7,
355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf} PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v7/i
3/p355_1

[2] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 13 14 		4530) Sommerfeld publishes an
influential work that goes through a
number of editions in the 1920s,
"Atombau und Spektrallinien" (Atomic
Structure and Spectral Lines).10
Sommerf
eld, although not Jewish, opposes the
Fascism and anti-Jewishness in Germany
after WW I, and in 1940 Sommerfeld is
denounced and forced into retirement,
but survives WW2.11
Sommerfeld is
killed at age 83 by an automobile.12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p624.
3. ^ A.
Sommerfeld, "Zur Quantentheorie der
Spektrallinien", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 356 Issue 17, Pages 1 -
94. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112486272/abstract
4. ^ "Arnold Sommerfeld." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnold-somm
erfeld
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Arnold
Sommerfeld." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnold-somm
erfeld
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p624.
13. ^ "Arnold
Sommerfeld." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnold-somm
erfeld {1916}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p624. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sommerfeld, Arnold."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 15 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
669>.
[2] "Arnold Sommerfeld." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arnold-somm
erfeld
[3] "Sommerfeld, Arnold (Johannes
Wilhelm)." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 525-532.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 15
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904080&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Arnold Johannes Wilhelm
Sommerfeld". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Joha
nnes_Wilhelm_Sommerfeld
[5] Max Born, "Arnold Johannes Wilhelm
Sommerfeld. 1868-1951", Obituary
Notices of Fellows of the Royal
Society, Vol. 8, No. 21 (Nov., 1952),
pp. 274-296
http://www.jstor.org/stable/768813
 
[1] Description
Sommerfeld1897.gif Foto des
Physikers und Mathematikers Arnold
Sommerfeld Date
1897(1897) Source
http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~Sommerf
eld/Bilder/as97_01.gif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/74/Sommerfeld1897.gif
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 11 		4776)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p644.
3. ^ "Hérelle,
Félix d'." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
134>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
5. ^ "Hérelle,
Félix d'." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
134>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Hérelle, Félix d'." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
134>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
10. ^ "Hérelle,
Félix d'." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
134>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Félix d'Herelle." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/f-lix-d-her
elle
[2] "Hérelle, Félix D’." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 297-299. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901955&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Félix d'Herelle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_
d%27Herelle
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France9 10
 
[1] Description Felix
d'Herelle.png Félix
d'Herelle. Scanned from the book
''Gesund durch Viren'' by Thomas
Häusler. The book states it was taken
around 1910, putting it into the
en:public domain. Date Source
This file is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author User Magnus Manske
on en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Felix_d%27Herelle.png

84 YBN
[1916 AD] 5 		4944)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
2. ^ I. Langmuir, "A
High Vacuum Mercury Vapor Pump of
Extreme Speed", Phys. Rev. 8, 48–51
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v8/i1/p48_1
{Langmuir_Irving_1916.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
4. ^ "Langmuir,
Irving." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 22-25.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902472&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ I. Langmuir, "A High Vacuum
Mercury Vapor Pump of Extreme Speed",
Phys. Rev. 8, 48–51
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v8/i1/p48_1 {Langmuir_Irving_1916.pdf}


MORE INFO
[1] "Irving Langmuir."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329738/Irving-Langmuir>
[2] "Irving Langmuir." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irving-lang
muir
[3] "Irving Langmuir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Lang
muir
(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA4  
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] I. Langmuir,
''A High Vacuum Mercury Vapor Pump of
Extreme Speed'', Phys. Rev. 8, 48–51
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v8/i1/p48_1
{Langmuir_Irving_1916.pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v8/i
1/p48_1

[2] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 8 		5013) In 1950 Kendall, Hench, and
Reichstein share the Nobel Prize in
medicine and physiology.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704-705.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704-705.
7. ^ "Edward Calvin
Kendall." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>.
8. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>. {1916}
(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA7  
[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 19 		5023) In 1924 Siegbahn wins the Nobel
Prize in physics for his development of
X-ray spectroscopy.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707-708.
2. ^ "Manne
Siegbahn." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn
3. ^ "Siegbahn, Karl Manne Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 821-826. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905333&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Siegbahn, Karl Manne Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 821-826. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905333&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707-708.
7. ^ "Manne
Siegbahn." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707-708.
9. ^ "Siegbahn, Karl
Manne Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 821-826.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905333&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Manne Siegbahn, Einar Friman, "On
the high-frequency spectra (L-series)
of the elements tantalum-uranium",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
32, Issue 187 July 1916 , pages 39 -
49.
11. ^ Manne Siegbahn, Einar Friman, "On
the high-frequency spectra (L-series)
of the elements tantalum-uranium",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
32, Issue 187 July 1916 , pages 39 -
49.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p707-708.
18. ^ "Karl Manne
Georg Siegbahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543192/Karl-Manne-Georg-Siegbahn>.
19. ^ "Manne Siegbahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] Manne Siegbahn, Einar Friman,
"On an X-ray vacuum spectrograph",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 32, Issue 191, 1916,
Pages 494 –
496. {Siegbahn_Manne_191606xx.pdf}
[2] Manne Siegbahn,
"Precision-measurements in the X-ray
spectra.", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 37, Issue
222, 1919, Pages 601 – 612
[3] Manne
Siegbahn, "Precision-measurements in
the X-ray spectra. Part II",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 227, 1919,
Pages 639 – 646
[4] Manne Siegbahn; A. B.
Leide, "LXIV. Precision-measurements in
the X-ray spectra. Part
III", Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 227, 1919,
Pages 647 – 651
[5] Elis Hjalmar, "LIX.
Precision-measurements in the X-ray
spectra. Part IV.—K-series, the
elements Cu—Na", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 244, 1921, Pages 675 – 681
[6]
Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (1925)
[7] M.
Siegbahn, "Relations between the K and
L Series of the High-Frequency
Spectra", Nature, Volume 96, Issue
2416, pp. 676
(1916). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v96/n2416/abs/096676b0.html
[8] E Bäcklin, M Siegbahn,
“Semi-optical” lines in the X-ray
spectra, Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 49, Issue 292,
1925, Pages 752 – 753
(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden18
 
[1] The image of Swedish physicist, and
Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg
83 YBN
[03/03/1917 AD] 8 9 		4529)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p623.
2. ^ "Leavitt,
Henrietta Swan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 14 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
3. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 105-106. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902515&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 14 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
5. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 105-106. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902515&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta
Swan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
8. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 105-106. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902515&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1917}
9. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta
Swan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>. {1912 and 1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
[2] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
[3] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_S
wan_Leavitt
[4] Henrietta Leavitt, "1777 Variables
in the Magellanic Clouds",Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 60, no. 4,
Annals of Harvard College Observatory,
vol. 60, pp.87-108,
300,1908. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1908AnHar..60...87L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zZ
sRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+the
+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&source=
bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8r8b
oi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q3CA
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20the
%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compariso
n%22&f=false
[5] Solon I. Bailey, "Henrietta Swan
Leavitt" (obituary), Popular Astronomy,
V30, N4, April
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rzYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA197&lpg=PA197&dq=Solon
+I.+Bailey+in+Popular+Astronomy++leavitt
&source=bl&ots=VNqmN_m2oF&sig=xP3jSu5j8h
h_vECKwmtWn_aMaCg&hl=en&ei=7k8_TKiMHY3Ss
AOc0N32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[6] Leavitt, H. S. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the
Small Magellanic Cloud.", Harvard
College Observatory Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA7  
[1] Table 1 from: Leavitt, H. S. &
Pickering, E. C., ''Periods of 25
Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic
Cloud.'', Harvard College Observatory
Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg

[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://www.calstatela.edu/facult
y/kaniol/a360/leavitt_marcy.jpg
83 YBN
[04/15/1917 AD] 6 		4945)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
3. ^ Irving
Langmuir, "The Shapes of Group
Molecules Forming the Surfaces of
Liquids", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Apr.
15, 1917), pp. 251-257.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/83667?seq=6
 {Langmuir_Irving_19170415.pdf}
4. ^ Irving Langmuir, "The Shapes of
Group Molecules Forming the Surfaces of
Liquids", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Apr.
15, 1917), pp. 251-257.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/83667?seq=6
 {Langmuir_Irving_19170415.pdf}
5. ^ "Langmuir, Irving." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 22-25. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902472&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Irving Langmuir, "The Shapes of
Group Molecules Forming the Surfaces of
Liquids", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Apr.
15, 1917), pp. 251-257.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/83667?seq=6
 {Langmuir_Irving_19170415.pdf}
{04/15/1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Irving Langmuir."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329738/Irving-Langmuir>.
[2] "Irving Langmuir." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irving-lang
muir
[3] "Irving Langmuir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Lang
muir
[4] I. Langmuir, "A High Vacuum Mercury
Vapor Pump of Extreme Speed", Phys.
Rev. 8, 48–51
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v8/i1/p48_1
(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA5  
[1] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg
83 YBN
[06/??/1917 AD] 11 12 13 		4702) In 1937 Honda wins the Cultural
Order of the Rising Sun, an equivalent
award to the Nobel prize.7 (Is this
prize only for those in Japan? How much
money is the award?8 )

Relation to the Honda Soichiro of Honda
motor?9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p629.
3. ^ "Honda,
Kotaro." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 479-480.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902041&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ K. Honda, “On K. S. Magnet
Steel,” Science Reports of the Tohoku
Imperial University, 9 (1920),
417–422.
http://books.google.com/books?id=b4sFA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA495&lpg=PA495&dq=%22On+K.+S
.+Magnet+Steel%22&source=bl&ots=kIuFrAlW
dR&sig=KMPU1nFAiLW1Qre7kXpS0E7Eq4Q&hl=en
&ei=XktXTLqrCY_SsAOZ76jaAg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBgQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=%22On%20K.%20S.%20Magnet%2
0Steel%22&f=false
5. ^ K. Honda, “On K. S. Magnet
Steel,” Science Reports of the Tohoku
Imperial University, 9 (1920),
417–422.
http://books.google.com/books?id=b4sFA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA495&lpg=PA495&dq=%22On+K.+S
.+Magnet+Steel%22&source=bl&ots=kIuFrAlW
dR&sig=KMPU1nFAiLW1Qre7kXpS0E7Eq4Q&hl=en
&ei=XktXTLqrCY_SsAOZ76jaAg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBgQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=%22On%20K.%20S.%20Magnet%2
0Steel%22&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p629.
11. ^ "Honda,
Kotaro." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 479-480.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902041&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {06/1917}
12. ^ K. Honda, “On K.
S. Magnet Steel,” Science Reports of
the Tohoku Imperial University, 9
(1920), 417–422.
http://books.google.com/books?id=b4sFA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA495&lpg=PA495&dq=%22On+K.+S
.+Magnet+Steel%22&source=bl&ots=kIuFrAlW
dR&sig=KMPU1nFAiLW1Qre7kXpS0E7Eq4Q&hl=en
&ei=XktXTLqrCY_SsAOZ76jaAg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBgQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=%22On%20K.%20S.%20Magnet%2
0Steel%22&f=false {06/1917}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p629. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kotaro Honda". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaro_Hond
a
[2]
http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/e/datas/32
6.html
[3] K. Honda, H. Takagi, “On the
Magnetic Transformation of
Cementite,”, Science Reports of the
Tohoku Imperial University, 4 (1915),
161–167
[4] K. Honda, S. Kaya., “On the
Magnetisation of Single Crystals of
Iron,” Science Reports of the Tohoku
Imperial University, 15 (1926),
721–753
(Tokyo Imperial University) Tokyo,
Japan10  
[1] Honda, Kotaro * Photo no.1 :
Chuzo Gijutsu * b&w ; 14.5x10.6
cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/JP
EG_L/759-16/s0132l.jpg

[2] Honda, Kotaro * Photo no.2 :
Kindai Nihon no Kagakusha vol.2 *
b&w ; 8.9x7.5 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/JP
EG_R/769-183/s0133r.jpg
83 YBN
[07/28/1917 AD] 8 		4769)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641-642.
2. ^ Curtis, H. D.,
"New Stars in the Spiral Nebulae",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Volume 29, Aug
1917, p180.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fbDnA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA155&dq=intitle:astronomical
+intitle:pacific&hl=en&ei=tfp7TIHCBYLksQ
Ocz_mCBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=poss
ible%20that%20a%20single&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641-642.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p641-642.
5. ^ Curtis, H.
D., "New Stars in the Spiral Nebulae",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Volume 29, Aug
1917, p180.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fbDnA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA155&dq=intitle:astronomical
+intitle:pacific&hl=en&ei=tfp7TIHCBYLksQ
Ocz_mCBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=poss
ible%20that%20a%20single&f=false
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641-642.
7. ^ "Heber Doust
Curtis." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heber-doust
-curtis
8. ^ Curtis, H. D., "New Stars in the
Spiral Nebulae", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Volume 29, Aug 1917, p180.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fbDnA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA155&dq=intitle:astronomical
+intitle:pacific&hl=en&ei=tfp7TIHCBYLksQ
Ocz_mCBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=poss
ible%20that%20a%20single&f=false
{07/28/1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curtis, Heber Doust."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 508-509. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901044&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Heber Doust Curtis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heber_Doust
_Curtis
[3] Curtis, "Descriptions of 762
Nebulae and Clusters Photographed With
the Crossley Reflector", Publications
of the Lick Observatory, 31 (1918),
1–42. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=_owto7_wywoC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=Descr
iptions+of+762+Nebulae+and+Clusters+Phot
ographed+With+the+Crossley+Reflector,&so
urce=bl&ots=_tz7LwW_oh&sig=zCF5pxfogaxKb
OG83bOmULLp9Gw&hl=en&ei=3-17TNmuIoOmsQPB
n4yDBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&res
num=3&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Descri
ptions%20of%20762%20Nebulae%20and%20Clus
ters%20Photographed%20With%20the%20Cross
ley%20Reflector%2C&f=false
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA7  
[1] Heber Doust Curtis
(1872-1942) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/heber_curti
s.jpg

[2] Harlow Shapley
(1885-1972) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/harlow_shap
ley.jpg
83 YBN
[09/??/1917 AD] 2 		4865)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657.
2. ^ Slipher, V. M.,
"The spectrum of Lightning", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.55-58. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu//full/1917LowOB...3...55S/0000056.
000.html {09/1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[3] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[5] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[7] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[8] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
[9] Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
[10] Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA1  
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
83 YBN
[10/18/1917 AD] 2 		5025) Curtis is famous for debating
Harlow Shapley in 1920, Curtis taking
the more accurate "island universe"
theory against Shapley who takes the
view that the spiral nebulae are part
of our galaxy.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Heber D. Curtis, "Absorption
Effects in the Spiral Nebulae", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1917 December;
3(12): 678–682.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ce4SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA681&dq=calcium+shift+nebula
e&hl=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20n
ebulae&f=false AND
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1091356/ {Curtis_Heber_19171018.p
df}
2. ^ Heber D. Curtis, "Absorption
Effects in the Spiral Nebulae", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1917 December;
3(12): 678–682.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ce4SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA681&dq=calcium+shift+nebula
e&hl=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20n
ebulae&f=false AND
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1091356/ {Curtis_Heber_19171018.p
df} {10/18/1917}

MORE INFO
[1] Lick Observatory, Heber Doust
Curtis, William Wallace Campbell,
Joseph Haines Moore, Ralph , Elmer
Wilson, William Hammond Wright, Studies
of the nebulae: made at the Lick
Observatory, University of ...", 1918
http://books.google.com/books?id=HYnnAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=calcium+shift+nebulae&h
l=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20nebu
lae&f=false
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA1  
[1] Heber Curtis UNKNOWN
source: http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/nicole
/teaching/astr110/lectures/lecture27/pic
s/curtis_asp.jpg

[2] Heber Doust Curtis (1872-1942)..
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/heber_curti
s.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 15 16 		4295) In 1927 Wagner von Jauregg is
awarded a Nobel prize for physiology
and medicine.10
(One of a number of
dubious people to win the Nobel prize -
Moniz for the involuntary lobotomy
being another.11 )

The Oxford Dictionary of Scientists
reports that Wagner von Jauregg finds
it difficult to obtain an academic post
in orthodox medicine, and so turns to
psychiatry in 1883 and in 1889 succeeds
Krafft-Ebbing as professor of
psychiatry at the University of Graz.12
 (kind of funny - in stating that
psychiatry is not an orthodox health
science - I think if strictly
consent-only it could possibly be
called a highly experimental science,
but with many fields of science, in
particular because of the neuron
reading/writing secret, the theoretical
basis behind experiments is many times
highly inaccurate and unlikely.13 )
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p565.
2. ^ "Julius
Wagner-Jauregg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-wagn
er-jauregg
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p565.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Julius
Wagner-Jauregg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-wagn
er-jauregg
6. ^ "Wagner-Jauregg, Julius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
847>.
7. ^ "Wagner-Jauregg, Julius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
847>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p565.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "Julius Wagner-Jauregg." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-wagn
er-jauregg
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Wagner-Jauregg,
Julius." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 23
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
847>.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p565. {1917}
16. ^
"Wagner-Jauregg, Julius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
847>. {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Wagner-Jauregg." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julius-wagn
er-jauregg
(University of Vienna Hospital for
Nervous and Mental Diseases) Vienna,
Austria14  
[1] Description Julius
Wagner-Jauregg.jpg Julius
Wagner-Jauregg Date before
1930 (18 September 2009(2009-09-18)
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Masur
using CommonsHelper. (Original text :
Universität Graz,
http://www.uni-graz.at/en/print/uarc1www
_wagnerjauregg.jpg) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg
.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 4 		4524) A 100-inch reflecting telescope
is completed on Mount Wilson, planned
and supervised by George Ellery Hale
(CE 1868-1938), and funded by the
wealthy Los Angeles hardware business
owner John D. Hooker. This will remain
the largest telescope on earth for 40
years.1

Hale has for a third time built the
largest telescope on earth.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
2. ^ "Hale, George
Ellery." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 13
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
862>.
3. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623. {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Ellery Hale." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[2] "George Ellery Hale." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[3] "George Ellery Hale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elle
ry_Hale
[4] George E. Hale, "Photography of the
Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H
[5] George Ellery Hale, "The new
heavens", 1922
http://books.google.com/books?id=bx0SA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22The+Ne
w+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrCsAP1xL
jaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19395/19
395-h/19395-h.htm
[6] Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[7] George E. Hale, "A Test of the
Electromagnetic Theory of the Hydrogen
Vortices Surrounding Sun-Spots",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 11, No. 11.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/84605?seq=5
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA3  
[1] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 4 5 		4716)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631.
2. ^ "Claude,
Georges." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
242>.
3. ^ "Claude, Georges." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 299. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900918&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631. {1917}
5. ^ "Claude,
Georges." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9024
242>. {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Claude". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cla
ude
[2] "Vichy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vichy
[3]
http://www.thalesgroup.com/Countries/Uni
ted_States/About_us/History/
[4] "Fluorescent lamp". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent
_lamp
(unknown) Paris, France3 (presumably,
verify) 
[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 15 		4761) Langevin earns his Ph.D. under
Curie.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
2. ^ "Paul Langevin."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-langev
in
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-14. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
14. ^ "Langevin,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 9-14.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-14. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Langevin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langev
in
[2] P. Langevin, “Magnétisme et
théeorie des électrons” in Annales
de chimie et de physique, 5 (1905),
70-127;
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>.
(Collège de France) Paris, France14
(presumably) 
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 33 		4765) (read and show full paper31 )
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640.
2. ^ "Willem de
Sitter." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
3. ^ de Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 76,
p.699-728. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1916MNRAS..76..699D {De_Sitter_Wille
m_part1_191608xx.pdf}
4. ^ de Sitter, W., "On Einstein's
theory of gravitation and its
astronomical consequences. Second
paper", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 77,
p.155-184. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1916MNRAS..77..155D {De_Sitter_Willem
_part2_191610xx.pdf}
5. ^ De Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf}
6. ^ "Sitter, Willem De." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 448-450. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904036&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
8. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
9. ^ "Sitter, Willem De." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 448-450. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904036&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640.
11. ^ "Sitter, Willem
De." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 448-450. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904036&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ de Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 76,
p.699-728. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1916MNRAS..76..699D {De_Sitter_Wille
m_part1_191608xx.pdf}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640.
14. ^ "Willem de
Sitter." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 27
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
15. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ De Sitter, W.,
"Einstein's theory of gravitation and
its astronomical consequences. Third
paper", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ "Willem de
Sitter." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 27
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
33. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sitter, Willem de."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
024>
[2] Kragh, Helge. "Sitter, Willem De."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 455-458. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906095&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Willem de sitter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_de_s
itter
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands32  
[1] SITTER, Willem de
(1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/images/SITTER
.jpg

[2] Description
DeSitter.jpg Willem de Sitter (1872
– 1934) Date Source
http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/Bruc
eMedalists/deSitter/index.html Author
Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/DeSitter.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 9 10 11 		5026) Köhler is outspoken in his
criticism of Adolf Hitler’s
government and goes to the United
States in 1935.6 (perhaps an outsider
- unaware of neuron reading and
writing, as millions are?7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p708.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p708.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p708.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Wolfgang Köhler." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321102/Wolfgang-Kohler>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Wolfgang Köhler."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321102/Wolfgang-Kohler>.
9. ^ "Wolfgang Köhler." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321102/Wolfgang-Kohler>. {1917}
10. ^
Köhler, "Intelligenzprüfungen an
Menschenaffen" (1921; The Mentality of
Apes)
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr
=&id=qc99AAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=K%C3%
B6hler++W&ots=hleeFRlYnR&sig=GDfQRp-sJVW
e-8EtJKWKlc4HEdE {1917}
11. ^ Köhler,
"Intelligenzprüfungen an
anthropoiden.", (Königliche Akademie
der Wissenschaften, Berlin,
1917) Intelligence tests on
anthropoids
(Prussian Academy of Sciences at
Tenerife) Canary Islands8  
[1] Wolfgang Kohler UNKNOWN
source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/images/K
ohler.jpg

[2] Wolfgang Kohler UNKNOWN
source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/images/k
oehler04.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 10 		6049) The first recording of a jazz
musical composition is made by the
"Original Dixieland Jass Band", a New
Orleans, Dixieland Jazz band. Their
"Livery Stable Blues" is the first jazz
single issued.1 2 3 4 5 6 7

The band consists of five musicians who
previously had played in the Papa Jack
Laine bands, a diverse and racially
integrated group of musicians who
played for parades, dances, and
advertising in New Orleans. In late
1917 the spelling of the band's name is
changed to "Original Dixieland Jazz
Band".8

(verify)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "History of jazz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
jazz
2. ^ Schoenherr, Steven. "Recording
Technology History".
history.sandiego.edu.
3. ^ Thomas, Bob (1994). "The Origins
of Big Band Music". redhotjazz.com.
Retrieved 2008-12-24.
4. ^ Alexander, Scott. "The
First Jazz Records". redhotjazz.com.
Retrieved 2008-12-24.
5. ^ "Jazz Milestones".
apassion4jazz.net. Retrieved
2008-12-24.
6. ^ "Original Dixieland Jazz Band
Biography". pbs.org. Retrieved
2008-12-24.
7. ^ Martin, Henry; Waters, Keith
(2005). Jazz: The First 100 Years.
Thomson Wadsworth. p. 55.
8. ^ "History of
jazz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
jazz
9. ^ "Original Dixieland Jass Band".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Di
xieland_Jass_Band
10. ^ "History of jazz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
jazz {1917}
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA9
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: Original
Dixieland Jazz Band. Scanned by
Infrogmation from original 1918
promotional postcard while the band was
playing at Reisenweber's Cafe in New
York City. Shown are (left to right)
Tony Sbarbaro (aka Tony Spargo) on
drums; Edwin ''Daddy'' Edwards on
trombone; D. James ''Nick'' LaRocca on
cornet; Larry Shields on clarinet, and
Henry Ragas on piano. Français : Un
ensemble de Jazz Dixieland
photographié en 1918. Numérisation
par Infrogmation d'une carte postale
promotionelle annoncant un concert du
groupe au Reisenweber's Cafe à New
York (États-Unis). Les membres du
groupe sont (de gauche à droite) Tony
Sbarbaro (alias Tony Spargo) à la
batterie; Edwin ''Daddy'' Edwards au
trombone; D. James ''Nick'' LaRocca au
Cornet à pistons, Larry Shields à la
clarinette et Henry Ragas au
piano. Date 1917-1918 Source
Scanned by Infrogmation from
original 1918 promotional
postcard Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/ODJBcard.JPG
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 3 		6097) "Over There" is written and
recorded (by George M. Cohan during
World War I).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Over There". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over_There
2. ^ "Over There". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over_There
3. ^ "Over There". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over_There
{1917}
New York City, New York, USA2
(presumably) 
[1] Description Cover of sheet
music ''Over There'', 1917, with photo
of singer Nora Bayes. Date
1917 Source Sheet music
printed by William Jerome Publishing,
1917, via [1] Author George M.
Cohan PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/OverThereBayesVtEdu.j
pg
82 YBN
[03/16/1918 AD] 22 		4923) In 1902 Meitner becomes
interested in science when she reads of
the Curies' identifying radium.12
Emil
Fischer makes Meitner promise never to
enter laboratories where males are
working at first.13
In 1938 when the
Nazis take over Austria, Meitner, being
Jewish, is forced to leave. Through the
help of Debye and Coster, Meitner
enters the Netherlands without a
visa.
Meitner then goes to Bohr in Denmark
and Bohr helps her get a job with
Siegbahn.14 15
In 1966 Meitner is
awarded a share of the Fermi Award
issued by the Atomic Energy Commission,
and is the first woman to win the
award.16
Meitner never married.17

In 1945 Hahn wins the 1944 Nobel prize
in chemistry "for his discovery of the
fission of heavy nuclei".18
Fortunately the Nazis do not recognize
the potential destruction possible from
uranium fission.19
In 1946-1960 Hahn is
the president of the West German Max
Planck Society.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf}
2. ^ "protactinium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/protactiniu
m
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "protactinium." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/protactiniu
m
5. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670.
8. ^ O. Frisch, Lise
Meitner, “Disintegration of Uranium
by Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf}
9. ^ "protactinium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/protactiniu
m
10. ^ "protactinium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/protactiniu
m
11. ^ "protactinium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/protactiniu
m
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p670.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p670.
18. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1944/
19. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf}
20. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf}
21. ^ "Hahn, Otto." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
14-17. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901812&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ O Hahn, "Parent of Actinium. New
Radioactive Element of Long Life",
Phys, 1918. Physikalische Zeitschrift,
March 16, 1918 {03/16/1918}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p672-673
[6] "Otto Robert
Frisch". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[7] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[9] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[10] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[11] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
[12]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1944/hahn-bio.html
[13] Hans G. Graetzer, David L.
Anderson, "The Discovery of Nuclear
Fission" (New York, 1971)
[14] K. Fajans and
O. Gohring, (1913). "Über die komplexe
Natur des Ur X". Naturwissenschaften
14: 339. doi:10.1007/BF01495360.
http://www.digizeitschriften.de/no_cache
/home/jkdigitools/loader/?tx_jkDigiTools
_pi1%5BIDDOC%5D=201162&tx_jkDigiTools_pi
1%5Bpp%5D=425
[15] K. Fajans and O. Gohring (1913).
"Über das Uran X2-das neue Element der
Uranreihe". Physikalische Zeitschrift
14: 877–84
(Institut für Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem)
Berlin, Germany21  
[1] Protactinium on Periodic table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro
tactinium

[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg
82 YBN
[04/??/1918 AD] 18 		5008) The Sun is determined to be in
the outer part of our galaxy.7 8

Harlow Shapley (CE 1885-1972), US
astronomer,9 determines that the sun
is in the outer part of a galaxy by
measuring the position of globular
clusters using the variable-star method
to determine the distance of variable
stars within each globular cluster.
Between 1915 and 1920 Shapley uses the
100-inch telescope at Mount Wilson to
study the globular clusters, which are
very dense groups of stars, some
containing as many as a million stars
each. At this time 100 such clusters
are known. Shapley finds that the
globular clusters are all concentrated
in the direction of Sagittarius,
one-third of the clusters are found
within the boundaries of Sagittarius.
In 1914 Shapley worked out the variable
star distance measuring method worked
out by Henrietta Swan Leavitt a few
years earlier, and applied the
period-luminosity curve to the variable
stars in each globular cluster. From
the period and apparent brightness of
these variable stars, Shapley
calculates their distances. Shapley
finds that the clusters are distributed
roughly in the shape of a sphere around
a center in Sagittarius. It seems
logical to Shapley that these globular
clusters are centered around the center
of our galaxy. Shapley calculates this
center to be 50,000 light years away.
Oort will later reduce this to 30,000
light years. This is a much larger
estimate than all previous estimates.
Astronomers from Herschel to Kapteyn
thought the sun was near the center of
the galaxy, because the Milky Way is
equally bright in all directions.
Shapley explains that dark dust clouds
block the bright center and allow only
a view of stars near us, and outside
the plane of the galaxy. Radio
astronomy will confirm that the bright
center of the Milky Way is hidden
behind clouds of matter. At first,
according to Asimov, there was bitter
opposition to this view of the galaxy.
Just as Aristarchos and Copernicus had
moved the earth from the center of the
universe, Shapley moved the sun from
the center of the galaxy.10

Shapley writes in an article titled
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe" in Astrophysical
Journal:
" Introduction.—A fairly definite
conception of the arrangement of the
sidereal system evolves naturally from
the observational work discussed in the
preceding Contributions. We find, in
short, that globular clusters, though
extensive and massive structures, are
but subordinate items in the immensely
greater organization which is dimly
outlined by their positions. From the
new point of view our galactic universe
appears as a single, enormous,
allcomprehending unit, the extent and
form of which seem to be indicated
through the dimensions of the widely
extended assemblage of globular
clusters. The fundamental nature of the
galactic plane, in the dynamical
structure of all that we now recognize
as the sidereal universe, is manifested
by the distribution of clusters in
space. Near this plane lie the
celestial objects that we customarily
study. The open clusters, the diffused
and planetary nebulae, the naked-eye
stars, most variables, the objects that
define and compose the star
streams—all of these appear to be far
within a relatively narrow equatorial
region of the greater galactic system,
a region in which globular clusters are
not found. The Orion nebula and even
the Magellanic clouds are miniature
organizations in this general scheme,
and undoubtedly are dependents of the
Galaxy.

The adoption of such an arrangement of
sidereal objects leaves us with no
evidence of a plurality of stellar
"universes." Even the remotest of
recorded globular clusters do not seem
to be independent organizations. The
hypothesis that spiral nebulae are
separate galactic systems now meets
with further difficulties.
...
3. Relation of present interpretation
to earlier hypotheses.—In order to
show where the earlier working
hypotheses stand with respect to the
interpretation now offered, it may be
of interest to note the development,
during the course of this work on
clusters and variable stars, of the
ideas concerning the relation of
globular clusters to the galactic
organization. Until the last year or so
most students of stellar problems
believed rather vaguely that the sun
was not far from the center of the
universe, and that the radius of the
galactic system was of the order of
iooo parsecs. From the earlier
observational data Seeliger and Newcomb
derived a fairly central position for
the sun. Hertzsprung in 1906 estimated
the "Dimensionen" of the visible Milky
Way system to be of the order of 2000
parsecs, and some years later Walkey,
from consideration of extensive
distributional data, estimated a
distance of about seventeen hundred
parsecs for the galactic main stream.
In 1914, referring to the apparently
lens-shaped sidereal system, Eddington
wrote, "There is little evidence as to
the sun's position with respect to the
perimeter of the lens; all that we can
say is that it is not markedly
eccentric"; and the diameter of the
whole system (possibly excluding the
peripheral ring of galactic clouds) was
placed at some two or three thousand
parsecs, with emphasis on the
uncertainty. For a later computation
Eddington assumed the distance of the
Milky Way to be 2000 parsecs.

The work on the hypothetical
parallaxes of Cepheids and O-type stars
by Hertzsprung, and of eclipsing
binaries and Cepheids by Professor
Russell and the writer, began to give
concrete numerical expression to the
distances of remote galactic objects,
and in 1914 we have the statement: "Our
'universe' of stars must be some
thousands of light-years in diameter,"
but the computed radius of 2500 parsecs
was reduced to 1200 by allowing for a
presumably reasonable and necessary
scattering of light in space. The
necessity for such a correction seems
now definitely to have vanished, but
the general conception of the size of
the stellar system has not materially
changed.
....
5. The Milky Way and its asymmetry;
regions of maximum star
density.-—According to the present
view of the galactic system the
phenomenon of the Milky Way is largely
an optical one. Although the existence
of local and occasionally very
extensive condensations of Milky Way
stars is not denied, the conception of
a narrow encircling ring is abandoned.
The Milky Way girdle is chiefly a
matter of star depth, and its long
recognized weakness between longitudes
90° and 180° is now taken to be a
reflection of the eccentric position of
the sun.

On the basis of the third and fourth
diagrams of the seventh paper we
estimate provisionally that the limit
of the Galaxy is three times greater in
longitude 325° than in the opposite
direction. This does not require an
impossible difference of stellar
density in the two directions, even if
there is a considerable condensation
toward the center. A star of a given
absolute luminosity situated in the
galactic plane would appear less than
two and a half magnitudes fainter at
the boundary of the system beyond the
center than at the opposite point,
which is nearest the sun. The
remarkable one-sidedness of the Milky
Way has been little considered
heretofore in works on stellar
distribution. Nort, in studying the
Harvard map, has made an important
beginning by showing that the star
density is four or five times greater
in the direction of the southern star
clouds than in some of the shallower
galactic regions of the north.

The surpassing stellar density in the
direction now assigned to the center of
the galactic system is particularly
remarked by Chapman and Melotte1 in
their study of the Franklin-Adams
plates. They state that one plate with
center in a = 18h, δ= — 30°

covers the Sagittarius region of the
Southern Milky Way, and the star clouds
on limited portions of it are so thick
that in the case of twelve out of the

twenty-five areas counted on it, it was
found impossible to count every star
shown; the images of the faintest stars
in these regions merged into one
another forming a continuous gray
background. On every other plate of the
Franklin-Adams series even the faintest
star images shown were separate and
distinct, and the counts included all
stars visible. The extreme richness of
the Sagittarius region may be judged
of, then, when it is noticed that the
incomplete counts on it show far more
stars than are found in any other part
of the Milky Way.

The fathoming of the sidereal universe
need not long depend on globular
clusters alone. If the nearest part of
its boundary in the general direction
of Auriga and Gemini is not more
distant than 30,000 parsecs, no stars
in that locality with absolute
magnitude of zero or brighter will be
fainter than the apparent magnitude
17.5. B -type stars will therefore
contribute in future measurement of the
extent of the system; and the Cepheid
variables fainter than the fourteenth
magnitude will in time be fully as
valuable as the globular clusters in
outlining the diameter and contour of
the equatorial segment. As a ready
qualitative check of the direction and
distance of the center, the blue stars
in the Milky Way should persist to a
fainter magnitude in the southern sky
than in the direction of the
anti-center.

The possibly ellipsoidal form of the
system of globular clusters is
indicated in Fig. 1, which gives a
projection on the galactic plane of the
60 clusters for which R sin/3< 15,000 parsecs. If the elongation be accepted as a real characteristic of the stars also, it is evident that the apparently densest star regions, depending on the faintness of the stars involved in the estimate, may he in a longitude differing considerably from that of the center. The general direction of the galactic center is clearly toward the dense star clouds of Sagittarius and Scorpio; but the adopted galactic longitude, 325°, and the corresponding equatorial co-ordinates of the center, 0 = 17*5, S =—30°, are necessarily approximate.

The statistical center derived by
Charlier from B-type stars is in
Carina, in longitude 236°, a result
referring entirely to the local group
(within 500 parsecs of the sun) and not
influenced by the arrangement of the
general system. Stromberg, from bright
stars

of the redder spectral types, finds the
dynamical center in longitude 257°.
Nort,1 using stars to the eleventh
magnitude on the Harvard map of the
sky, gets farther outside the bounds of
the local cluster and obtains a maximum
stellar density in the Milky Way
between longitudes 280° and 290°; he
finds a density but one-fifth as great
in longitude 120°, the direction of
the anti*center. Chapman
270° Scorpio
and Melotte,
working to the still fainter limit of
the FranklinAdams plates, find in the
clouds of Sagittarius the only region
too dense for counting.

This progressive increase of the
longitude of maximum star density from
236° to 325° (with the increasing
predominance of the general system over
the local group), and the appearance to
be expected of the star clouds in the
directions of the two centers, are
both in
striking agreement with Gould's
observations of the brightness of the
Milky Way:1

Its brightest portion is unquestionably
in Sagittarius {the galactic center};
that in Carina {the local center} being
slightly inferior to this as regards
intrinsic brilliancy, although far more
magnificent and impressive on account
of the great number of bright stars
with which it is there spangled.
...".11



A parsec is a unit of astronomical
length based on the distance from Earth
at which stellar parallax is one second
of arc and is equal to 3.258
light-years, 3.086 × 1013 kilometers,
or 1.918 × 1013 miles.12

(Interesting to think that our Galaxy
may somehow relate to atomic
structure-for example our galaxy may be
an atom or photon at some larger
scale.13 )

(there must be many phenomena around
Sagittarius being in the direction of
the rest of the Milky Way Galaxy14 ).

(It is interesting that the Milky Way
must extend completely around the
earth.15 )

In modern times, about 150 globular
clusters have been identified in the
Milky Way Galaxy.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
2. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
4. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
6. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
8. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
11. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
12. ^ "parsec." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parsec
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "globular cluster." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/globular-cl
uster
17. ^ Shapley, H., "On the Nature and
Cause of Cepheid Variation",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
18. ^ Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe",
Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
{04/1918}
(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA17  
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false

[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
82 YBN
[06/21/1918 AD] 13 		6199) Electronic read and write
memory.9

This is the first use of the electric
switch as memory. This is the first
publicly known electronic reading and
writing, electronic memory, which with
transistors develops into memory chips
(ROM, RAM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash, etc).
Unlike laser (optical) reading and
writing (CDs, DVDs), and magnetic
reading and writing (cassette tapes,
VCR tapes, hard disks), the only moving
parts are electrons so electronic
memory uses less electricity, but is
not as permanent and does not last as
long as laser and magnetic recording.10


William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred
Jordan describe this circuit in a
patent filed in England entitled
"Improvements in Ionic Relays". They
write:
The relay is designed to produce a
large and permanent change in the
current flowing in an electrical
circuit by means of a small electrical
stimulus received from outside. In its
simplest form it consists of two
three-electrode ionic tubes with
resistances. it is well-known that when
the potential of the grid electrode
relative to the filament is increased
and decreased within certain limits,
the current that can be sent through
the tube from anode to filament by
means of a battery of constant voltage
increases and decreases
correspondingly. In what follows the
circuit comprising the space in the
tube between anode and filament, the
external conductors and the source of
E.M.F. will be called the plate circuit
and the current flowing in it the plate
current. The circuit comprising the
space in the tube between the grid and
the filament, external conductors and a
source of E.M.F. will be called the
grid circuit and the current flowing in
it the grid current.
The principle of the
relay is most easily explained when two
tubes, each with resistances and
battery in its plate circuit and with a
resistance and battery in its grid
circuit, are used and interconnected in
the following manner:-
The electrical stimulus
from outside which it is desired to
detect is applied in the grid circuit
of the first tube so as to make the
grid transiently more positive in
potential relative to the filament.
This causes an increase of current in
the plate circuit of the first tube and
consequently an increase of the
potential difference between the
terminals of the plate circuit
resistance. This increased potential
difference is transferred to the grid
circuit of the second tube in such a
manner the the grid becomes more
negative than before relative to its
filament. Consequently the plate
current of the second tube decreases
and the potential difference between
the terminals of its plate circuit
resistance decreases also. This
decrease of potential difference is now
transferred to the grid circuit of the
first tube in such a manner that it
tends to make the grid more positive
relative to the filament. The result of
these processes is that a positive
stimulus from outside given to the grid
of the first tube initiates a chain of
changes, which result finally in the
plate current of the first tube
attaining the highest value possible
under the E.M.F. of its battery and the
plate current of the second tube
falling to its lowest possible value.
This condition persists after the
disappearance of the initial stimulus.
In the initial condition with the
two-tube arrangement just described the
plate current of the first tube is made
very small and that of the second tube
large; after the reception of the
outside stimulus on the grid of the
first tube the final condition is a
large plate current in the first tube
and a small plate current in the second
tube. Either the decreases or the
increases of plate current can be used
for indicating. In order to restore the
initial conditions it is necessary to
interrupt for an instant the linkage
between the tubes or to stop the
operation of one or both of the tubes,
as for instance by dimming its
filament.
in the above described
arrangements only two tubes have been
used. More than two tubes may be used,
and when, more than two are used
inductance and capacity transformers
may be utilised as essential parts
between tubes in addition to
resistances.
...".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
2. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
3. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
4. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
5. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
6. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
7. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
8. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
9. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements
in ionic relays" British patent number:
GB 148582 (filed: 21 June 1918;
published: 5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
12. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
13. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
{06/21/1918}
(City and Guilds Technical College)
London, UK12  
[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E

[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif
82 YBN
[10/??/1918 AD] 16 		5880)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
2. ^ Aston, "Isotopes", 1922, p12.
3. ^
Alfred Walter Stewart, "Recent advances
in physical and inorganic chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co., 1920
http://books.google.com/books?id=8CBDA
AAAIAAJ
4. ^ J. Davidson Pratt and S. Smiles,
"Obituary notices: Victor Lefebure,
1891–1947; Alfred Walter Stewart,
1880–1947", J. Chem. Soc., 1948,
394-398. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1948/JR/jr9480000394 DO
I: 10.1039/JR9480000394
{Stewart_Alfred_Walter_obituary_1947xx
xx.pdf}
5. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
6. ^ Aston, "Isotopes", 1922, p12.
7. ^
Alfred Walter Stewart, "Recent advances
in physical and inorganic chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co., 1920
8. ^ Alfred
Walter Stewart, "Recent advances in
physical and inorganic chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co., 1920
http://books.google.com/books?id=8CBDA
AAAIAAJ
9. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "isobar." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isobar
14. ^ "Isobar (nuclide)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isobar_%28n
uclide%29
15. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
16. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
{10/1918}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Walter Stewart",
Journal of Chemical Education 1941 18
(10),
492 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed018p492
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland15  
[1] Figure 1 from: Alfred W. Stewart,
''Atomic Structure from the
Physico-Chemical Standpoint.'', Phil
Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf} PD
source: Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf

[2] Image from: ''Alfred Walter
Stewart'', Journal of Chemical
Education 1941 18 (10),
492 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed018p492 {Stewart_Alfred_Walter.jpg}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ed018p492
82 YBN
[11/10/1918 AD] 15 		4974)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
2. ^ "Robert
Hutchings Goddard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
4. ^ "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
6. ^ Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919).
7. ^ Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
8. ^ Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets"
(New York, 1946).
9. ^ U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
10. ^ U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
11. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
12. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
13. ^ "bazooka." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bazooka
14. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
15. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
(Aberdeen Proving Ground) Aberdeen,
Maryland, USA14  
Description Soldier with Bazooka
M1.jpg English: Soldier holding an M1
''Bazooka''. Date Author U.S.
Army Signal Corps
photograph.. 1943 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Soldier_with_Bazooka_
M1.jpg

English: Dr. Robert Hutchings Goddard
(1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has been
recognized as the father of American
rocketry and as one of the pioneers in
the theoretical exploration of space.
Robert Hutchings Goddard, born in
Worcester, Massachusetts, on October 5,
1882, was theoretical scientist as well
as a practical engineer. His dream was
the conquest of the upper atmosphere
and ultimately space through the use of
rocket propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in
1945, but was probably as responsible
for the dawning of the Space Age as the
Wrights were for the beginning of the
Air Age. Yet his work attracted little
serious attention during his lifetime.
However, when the United States began
to prepare for the conquest of space in
the 1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 6 7 		4430)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597.
2. ^ "Cannon, Annie
Jump." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 10
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
015>.
3. ^ Annie Jump Cannon, Edward Charles
Pickering, "The Henry Draper catalog",
Volume 94,
1919 http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
44RAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Henry+Draper+Catalogu
e&source=gbs_navlinks_s
4. ^ Annie Jump Cannon, Edward Charles
Pickering, "The Henry Draper catalog",
Volume 92,
1918 http://books.google.com/books?id=j
o4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_book_other_versions#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
5. ^ "Annie Jump Cannon." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon
6. ^ "Annie Jump Cannon." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon {1918}
7. ^ "Cannon, Annie Jump."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
015>. {1918}

MORE INFO
[1] "Annie Jump Cannon." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annie-jump-
cannon
[2] "Cannon, Annie Jump." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 49-50. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900776&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Annie Jump Cannon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_
Cannon
[4] Margaret W. Rossiter, "Women's
Work" in Science, 1880-1910, Isis, Vol.
71, No. 3 (Sep., 1980), pp.
381-398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
230118
[5] Cannon, A. J. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Spectra of bright southern stars
photographed with the 13-inch Boyden
telescope as part of the Henry Draper
Memorial", Annals of Harvard College
Observatory, vol. 28,
pp.129-P.6. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1901AnHar..28..129C
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA5  
[1] Description Annie Jump Cannon 1922
Portrait.jpg English: Mrs. Annie Jump
Cannon, head-and-shoulders portrait,
left profile. Library of Congress
permalink. Date
1922(1922) Source
http://lccn.loc.gov/96502154 http://
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/92776
/Annie-Jump-Cannon Author New
York World-Telegram and the Sun
Newspaper PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Annie_Jump_Cannon_192
2_Portrait.jpg

[2] Annie Jump Cannon PD
source: http://scriptamus.files.wordpres
s.com/2009/12/annie-jump-cannon.jpg
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 11 		4443)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Nernst, Hermann
Walther." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 24. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903139&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ "Nernst, Walther Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601. {1918}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Nernst." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[2] "Walther Nernst." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[3] "Walther Nernst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Ner
nst
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
[5] "Nernst, Walther
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany10  
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 6 		4978)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p432.
3. ^ Eddington, A.
S., "Stars, Gaseous, On the pulsations
of a gaseous star", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
79, 1918,
p.2-22 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1918MNRAS..79R...2E/0000002.000
.html
{Eddington_Arthur_variable_stars_1918.
pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington, "Stellar movements and the
structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p432. {1918}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
[2] "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
[3] Eddington, A. S., "The dynamics of
a globular stellar system", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 75,
p.366-376. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1915MNRAS..75..366E
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 11 		4979)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
2. ^ "Eddington,
Arthur Stanley." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-282.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901279&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Eddington, Arthur Stanley."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-282. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901279&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Eddington, Arthur Stanley."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-282. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901279&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
7. ^ "Sir Arthur
Stanley Eddington." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
8. ^ Arthur Eddington, "Report on the
Relativity Theory of Gravity", 1918,
p2. {Eddington_1918.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington, "Stellar movements and the
structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
11. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p432. {1918}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
[2] Eddington, A. S., "The dynamics of
a globular stellar system", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 75,
p.366-376. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1915MNRAS..75..366E
[3] Eddington, A. S., "Stars, Gaseous,
On the pulsations of a gaseous star",
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 79, 1918,
p.2-22 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1918MNRAS..79R...2E/0000002.000
.html
[4] A. Eddington, "Report on the
Relativity Theory of Gravitation",
1914. http://www.archive.org/stream/rep
ortontherelat028829mbp/reportontherelat0
28829mbp_djvu.txt
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England10  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 9 		5002) With the rise of the Nazi Party,
Hevesy, who was of Jewish descent,
leaves Germany for Copenhagen in 1934.4

The Nazis occupy Denmark in 1940, and
in 1942 Hevesy escapes to Sweden.5
In
1943 Hevesy wins the Nobel Prize in
chemistry.6
In 1959 Hevesy wins the
Atoms for Peace Award.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
3. ^ Georg V.
Hevesy, Fritz Paneth, "Die Löslichkeit
des Bleisulfids und
Bleichromats" http://onlinelibrary.wile
y.com/doi/10.1002/zaac.19130820125/abstr
act "The solubility of lead sulphide
and lead chromate"
4. ^ "Georg Charles von
Hevesy." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264499/Georg-Charles-von-Hevesy>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
8. ^ "Georg Charles
von Hevesy." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264499/Georg-Charles-von-Hevesy>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700. {1918}
(University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary8  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 11 		5070) In 1959 Heyrovský wins a Nobel
prize in chemistry.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726.
2. ^ J Heyrovský ,
"Elektrolysa se rtuťovou kapkovou
kathodou", 1922. English:
"Electrolysis with the mercury drop
cathode"
3. ^ N. V. Emelianova and J.
Heyrovský, "Maxima on current-voltage
curves. Part I. Electrolysis of nickel
salt solutions with the mercury
dropping cathode", Transactions of the
Faraday Society, 1928, 24,
257-267. http://www.rsc.org/publishing/
journals/TF/article.asp?doi=TF9282400257
 {Heyrovsky_Jaroslav_19271008.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726.
5. ^ "Jaroslav
Heyrovský." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jaroslav-he
yrovsk-2
6. ^ "Jaroslav Heyrovský." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jaroslav-he
yrovsk-2
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726.
10. ^ "Jaroslav
Heyrovský." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jaroslav-he
yrovsk-2
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726. {1918}
(Charles University) Prague,
Czechoslovakia10  
[1] Figure 1 from: N. V. Emelianova
and J. Heyrovský, ''Maxima on
current-voltage curves. Part I.
Electrolysis of nickel salt solutions
with the mercury dropping cathode'',
Transactions of the Faraday Society,
1928, 24,
257-267. http://www.rsc.org/publishing/
journals/TF/article.asp?doi=TF9282400257
{Heyrovsky_Jaroslav_19271008.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticlePDF/1928/TF/TF9282400257

[2] Jaroslav Heyrovský UNKNOWN
source: http://lem.ch.unito.it/gif/heyro
vsky2.gif
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 4 		6027)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gustav Holst." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/269664/Gustav-Theodore-Holst>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Gustav Holst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/269664/Gustav-Theodore-Holst>.
4. ^ "Gustav Holst." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/269664/Gustav-Theodore-Holst>. {1918}
(St. Paul’s Girls’ School or Morley
College) London, England3  
[1] Description English: Gustav
Holst (1874–1934) Date ca.
1921 Source National Portrait
Gallery - Portrait NPG Ax7745; Gustav
Theodore Holst Author Herbert
Lambert (1881–1936) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Gustav_Holst.jpg
81 YBN
[02/08/1919 AD] 15 		5068)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
2. ^ "Edwin H.
Armstrong." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/35567/Edwin-H-Armstrong>.
3. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,342,885, Method of receiving high
frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ "superheterodyne reception."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/574335/superheterodyne-reception>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
6. ^ "Edwin Howard
Armstrong#cite ref-Lessing 2-0".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howar
d_Armstrong#cite_ref-Lessing_2-0
7. ^ Lawrence Lessing (1956). Man Of
High Fidelity. J. B. Lippincott.
8. ^ "Edwin H.
Armstrong." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/35567/Edwin-H-Armstrong>.
9. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,342,885, Method of receiving high
frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S.
Patent 1,342,885, Method of receiving
high frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
15. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,342,885, Method of receiving high
frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {02/08/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Regenerative circuit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerativ
e_circuit
[2] Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,113,149, Wireless receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149
Paris, France14  
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Armstrong, E.
H., U.S. Patent 1,342,885, Method of
receiving high frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg
81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD] 4 		4749)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Rutherford,
Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61.
3. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
4. ^ Rutherford,
Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61. {04/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022.
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395.
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902.
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208.
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3.
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20.
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England3  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD] 20 		4750) Atomic transmutation. Humans
change atoms of nitrogen into atoms of
oxygen (transmutation) by colliding
accelerated alpha particles with
nitrogen gas.7 8

Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist,9 changes atoms of
nitrogen into atoms of oxygen
(transmutation) by colliding
accelerated alpha particles with
nitrogen gas.10 11

Rutherford publishes this in a paper
with the phrase "Light Atoms" in the
title which implies that light
particles are atomic in nature.12


Rutherford is the first to change one
element into another, by using helium
nuclei to push out protons (Hydrogen)
from nitrogen converting it to oxygen.
Rutherford sends alpha particles
through a cylinder that can be filled
with various gases. He observes that
oxygen lowers the number of
scintillations (illuminated dots on a
luminescent screen13 ), and concludes
that the gas absorbs some of the alpha
particles before they reach the zinc
sulfide screen. When the cylinder is
filled with hydrogen, very bright
scintillations appear, and Rutherford
concludes that alpha particles knock
forward the single proton nucleus of
the hydrogen atom, which then collide
with the screen and cause the bright
scintillations. However, Rutherford
finds that when nitrogen gas is in the
cylinder, the alpha particle
scintillations are reduced but
occasional scintillations of the
hydrogen kind appear. Rutherford
concludes that the alhpa particles are
knocking protons out of the nitrogen
atoms, and what remains has to be
oxygen. Rutherford is therefore the
first to change one element into
another. This was a dream of the
alchemists.14

Asimov claims that this is the first
"nuclear reaction". however, I think
that simple combustion can only be the
complete separation of an atom into
light particles, or certainly a large
portion of the atom including light
particles in the so-called nucleus are
emitted in a typical combustion. Asimov
states that because only one atom in
around 300,000 interacts with nuclei,
this is not a very practical form of
transmutation. However it seems clear
that transmutation of atoms is
extremely important, and clearly a
large part of secret research has been
focused on the goal of greatly
increasing the quantity of atomic
conversions. In particular, to convert
common atoms like silicon and iron into
more useful atoms like Hydrogen, Oxygen
and Nitrogen. This progress, like most
of neuron reading and writing, sadly
remains currently secret. If no such
research has occured and is occuring
this would seem extremely stupid and
short sighted.15

By 1924 Rutherford will have knocked
protons out of the nuclei of most of
the lighter elements.16

This is a very rich source of research,
and it seems clear that many people
must have developed this method of
transmutation, trying to make it
economical (perhaps recycling the alpha
particles, certainly trying many many
more, trying solids, trying other
particles. Fermi will use neutrons to
transmutate atoms. One very important
invention is a machine/process that can
convert the common abundant atoms of
moons and planets into more useful
atoms in particular hydrogen and
oxygen. In this way, all the silicon,
aluminum, iron, the most common
elements on planets and moons, (for
example on the earth moon) can be
converted into oxygen and hydrogen for
use as fuel, to breathe, and for water.
To some extent converting these into
nitrogen too is of value, and no doubt
phosphorus. Although Fermi finds that
all such elements are radioactive. I
can't believe over 80 years of
experimenting, the vast majority of
which is completely secret, people did
not find, methods to create oxygen in
bulk, probably using any radioactivity
to simply heat water to create
electricity, all contained and
completely safe for everything outside
the chamber.17

Rutherford writes in his paper titled
"Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms":
"It has been shown in paper I. that a
metal source, coated with a deposit of
radium C, always gives rise to a number
of scintillations on a zinc sulphide
screen far beyond the range of the α
particles. The swift atoms causing
these scintillations carry a positive
charge and are deflected by a magnetic
field, and have about the same range
and energy as the swift H atoms
produced by the passage of α particles
through hydrogen. These "natural"
scintillations are believed to be due
mainly to swift H atoms from the
radioactive source, but it is difficult
to decide whether they are expelled
from the radioactive source itself or
are due to the action of α particles
on occluded hydrogen.

The apparatus employed to study these
"natural" scintillations is the same as
that described in paper I. The intense
source of radium C was placed inside a
metal box about 3 cm. from the end, and
an opening in the end of the box was
covered with a silver plate of stopping
power equal to about 6 cm. of air. The
zinc sulphide screen was mounted
outside, about 1 mm. distant from the
silver plate, to admit of the
introduction of absorbing foils between
them. The whole apparatus was placed in
a strong magnetic field to deflect the
beta rays. The variation in the number
of these "natural" scintillations with
absorption in terms of cms. of air is
shown in fig. 1, curve A. In this case,
the air in the box was exhausted and
absorbing foils of aluminium were used.
Then dried oxygen or carbon dioxide was
admitted into the vessel, the number of
scintillations diminished to about the
amount to be expected from the stopping
power of the column of gas.

A surprising effect was noticed,
however, when dried air was introduced.
Instead of diminishing, the number of
scintillations was increased, and for
an absorption corresponding to about 19
cm. of air the number was about twice
that observed when the air was
exhausted. It was clear from this
experiment that the α particles in
their passage through air gave rise to
long-range scintillations which
appeared to the eye to be about equal
in brightness to H scintillations. A
systematic series of observations was
undertaken to account for the origin of
these scintillations. In the first
place we have seen that the passage of
α particles through nitrogen and
oxygen gives rise to numerous bright
scintillations which have a range of
about 9 cm. in air. These
scintillations have about the range to
be expected if they are due to swift N
or O atoms, carrying unit charge,
produced by collision with α
particles. All experiments have
consequently been made with an
absorption greater than 9 cm of air, so
that these atoms are completely stopped
before reaching the zinc sulphide
screen.

It was found that these long-range
scintillations could not be due to the
presence of water vapour in the air;
for the number was only slightly
reduced by thoroughly drying the air.
This is to be expected, since on the
average the number of additional
scintillations due to air was
equivalent to the number of H atoms
produced by the mixture of hydrogen at
6 cm. pressure with oxygen. Since on
the average the vapour pressure of
water in air was not more than 1 cm.,
the effects of complete drying would
not reduce the number by more than one
sixth. Even when oxygen and carbon
dioxide saturated with water vapour at
20° C. were introduced in place of dry
air, the number of scintillations was
much less than with dry air.

It is well known that the amount of
hydrogen or gases containing hydrogen
is normally very small in atmospheric
air. No difference was observed whether
the air was taken directly from the
room or from outside the laboratory or
was stored for some days over water.

There was the possibility that the
effect in air might be due to
liberation of H atoms from the dust
nuclei in the air. No appreciable
difference, however, was observed when
the dried air was filtered though long
plugs of cotton wool, or by storage
over water for some days to remove dust
nuclei.

Since the anomalous effect was observed
in air, but not in oxygen, or carbon
dioxide, it must be due either to
nitrogen or to one of the other gases
present in atmospheric air. The latter
possibility was excluded by comparing
the effects produced in air and in
chemically prepared nitrogen. The
nitrogen was obtained by the well-known
method of adding ammonium chloride to
sodium nitrite, and stored over water.
It was carefully dried before admission
to the apparatus. With pure nitrogen,
the number of long-range scintillations
under similar conditions was greater
than in air. As a result of careful
experiments, the ratio was found to be
1.25, the value to be expected if the
scintillations are due to nitrogen.

The results so far obtained show that
the long-range scintillations obtained
from air must be ascribed to nitrogen,
but it is important, in addition, to
show that they are due to collision of
α particles with atoms of nitrogen
through the volume of the gas. In the
first place, it was found that the
number of the scintillations varied
with the pressure of the air in the way
to be expected if they resulted from
collision of α particles along the
column of gas. In addition, when an
absorbing screen of gold or aluminium
was placed close to the source, the
range of the scintillations was found
to be reduced by the amount to be
expected if the range of the expelled
atom was proportional to the range of
the colliding α particles. These
results show that the scintillations
arise from the volume of the gas and
are not due to some surface effect in
the radioactive source.

In fig. 1 curve A the results of a
typical experiment are given showing
the variation in the number of natural
scintillations with the amount of
absorbing matter in their path measured
in terms of centimetres of air for α
particles. In these experiments carbon
dioxide was introduced at a pressure
calculated to give the same absorption
of the α rays as ordinary air. In
curve B the corresponding curve is
given when air at N.T.P. is introduced
in place of carbon dioxide. The
difference curve C shows the
corresponding variation of the number
of scintillations arising from the
nitrogen in the air. It was generally
observed that the ratio of the nitrogen
effect to the natural effect was
somewhat greater for 19 cm. than for 12
cm. absorption.

In order to estimate the magnitude of
the effect, the space between the
source and screen was filled with
carbon dioxide at diminished pressure
and a known pressure of hydrogen was
added. The pressure of the carbon
dioxide and of hydrogen were adjusted
so that the total absorption of α
particles in the mixed gas should be
equal to that of the air. In this way
it was found that the curve of
absorption of H atoms produced under
these conditions was somewhat steeper
than curve C of fig. 1. As a
consequence, the amount of hydrogen
mixed with carbon dioxide required to
produce a number of scintillations
equal to that of air, increased with
the increase of absorption. For
example, the effect in air was equal to
about 4 cm. of hydrogen at 12 cm.
absorption. For a mean value of the
absorption, the effect was equal to
about 6 cm. of hydrogen. This increased
absorption of H atoms under similar
conditions indicated either that (1)
the swift atoms from air had a somewhat
greater range than the H atoms, or (2)
that the atoms from air were projected
more in the line of flight of the α
particles.

While the maximum range of the
scintillations from air using radium C
as a source of α rays appeared to be
about the same, viz. 28 cm., as for H
atoms produced from hydrogen, it was
difficult to fix the end of the range
with certainty on account of the
smallness of the number and the
weakness of the scintillations. Some
special experiments were made to test
whether, under favourable conditions,
any scintillations due to nitrogen
could be observed beyond 28 cm. of air
absorption. For this purpose a strong
source (about 60 mg. Ra activity) was
brought within 2.5 cm. of the zinc
sulphide screen, the space between
containing dry air. On still further
reducing the distance, the screen
became too bright to detect very feeble
scintillations. No certain evidence of
scintillations was found beyond a range
of 28 cm. It would therefore appear
that (2) above is the more probable
explanation.

In a previous paper (III.) we have seen
that the number of swift atoms of
nitrogen or oxygen produced per unit
path by collision with α particles is
about the same as the corresponding
number of H atoms in hydrogen. Since
the number of long-range scintillations
in air is equivalent to that produced
under similar conditions in a column of
hydrogen at 6 cm. pressure, we may
consequently conclude that only one
long-range atom is produced for every
12 close collisions giving rise to a
swift nitrogen atom of maximum range 9
cm.

It is of interest to give data showing
the number of long-range scintillations
produced in nitrogen at atmospheric
pressure under definite conditions. For
a column of nitrogen 3.3 cm. long, and
for a total absorption of 19 cm. of air
from the source, the number due to
nitrogen per milligram of activity is
.6 per minute on a screen of 3.14 sq.
mm. area.

Both as regards range and brightness of
scintillations, the long-range atoms
from nitrogen closely resemble H atoms,
and in all probability are hydrogen
atoms. In order, however, to settle
this important point definitely, it is
necessary to determine the deflexion of
these atoms in a magnetic field. Some
preliminary experiments have been made
by a method similar to that employed in
measuring the velocity of the H atom
(see paper II.). The main difficulty is
to obtain a sufficiently large
deflexion of the stream of atoms and
yet have a sufficient number of
scintillations per minute for counting.
The α rays from a strong source passed
through dry air between two parallel
horizontal plates 3 cm. long and 1.6
mm. apart, and the number of
scintillations on the screen placed
near the end of the plates was observed
for different strengths of the magnetic
field. Under these conditions, when the
scintillations arise from the whole
length of the column of air between the
plates, the strongest magnetic field
available reduced the number of
scintillations by only 30 per cent.
When the air was replaced by a mixture
of carbon dioxide and hydrogen of the
same stopping power for α rays, about
an equal reduction was noted. As far as
the experiment goes, this is an
indication that the scintillations are
due to H atoms; but the actual number
of scintillations and the amount of
reduction was too small to place much
reliance on the result. In order to
settle this question definitely, it
will probably prove necessary to employ
a solid nitrogen compound, free from
hydrogen, as a source, and to use much
stronger sources of α rays. In such
experiments, it will be of importance
to discriminate between the deflexions
due to H atoms and possible atoms of
atomic weight 2. From the calculations
given in paper III., it is seen that a
collision of an α particle with a free
atom of mass 2 should give rise to an
atom of range about 32 cm. in air, and
of initial energy about .89 of that of
the H atom produced under similar
conditions. The deflexion of the pencil
of these rays in a magnetic field
should be about .6 of that shown by a
corresponding pencil of H atoms.

Discussion of results.
From the results so far
obtained it is difficult to avoid the
conclusion that the long-range atoms
arising from collision of α particles
with nitrogen are not nitrogen atoms
but probably atoms of hydrogen, or
atoms of mass 2. If this be the case,
we must conclude that the nitrogen atom
is disintegrated under the intense
forces developed in a close collision
with a swift α particle, and that the
hydrogen atom which is liberated formed
a constituent part of the nitrogen
nucleus. We have drawn attention in
paper III. to the rather surprising
observation that the range of the
nitrogen atoms in air is about the same
as the oxygen atoms, although we should
expect a difference of about 19 per
cent. If in collisions which give rise
to swift nitrogen atoms, the hydrogen
is at the same time disrupted, such a
difference might be accounted for, for
the energy is then shared between two
systems.

It is of interest to note, that while
the majority of the light atoms, as is
well known, have atomic weights
represented by 4n or 4n+3 where n is a
whole number, nitrogen is the only atom
which is expressed by 4n+2. We should
anticipate from radioactive data that
the nitrogen nucleus consists of three
helium nuclei each of atomic mass 4 and
either two hydrogen nuclei or one of
mass 2. If the H nuclei were outriders
of the main system of mass 12, the
number of close collisions with the
bound H nuclei would be less than if
the latter were free, for the α
particle in a collision comes under the
combined field of the H nucleus and of
the central mass. Under such
conditions, it is to be expected that
the α particle would only occasionally
approach close enough to the H nucleus
to give it the maximum velocity,
although in many cases it may give it
sufficient energy to break its bond
with the central mass. Such a point of
view would explain why the number of
swift H atoms from nitrogen is less
than the corresponding number in free
hydrogen and less also than the number
of swift nitrogen atoms. The general
results indicate that the H nuclei,
which are released, are distant about
twice the diameter of the electron
(7x10-13 cm.) from the centre of the
main atom. Without a knowledge of the
laws of force at such small distances,
it is difficult to estimate the energy
required to free the H nucleus or to
calculate the maximum velocity that can
be given to the escaping H atom. It is
not to be expected, a priori, that the
velocity or range of the H atom
released from the nitrogen atom should
be identical with that due to a
collision in free hydrogen.

Taking into account the great energy of
motion of the α particle expelled from
radium C, the close collision of such
an α particle with a light atom seems
to be the most likely agency to promote
the disruption of the latter; for the
forces on the nuclei arising from such
collisions appear to be greater than
can be produced by any other agency at
present available. Considering the
enormous intensity of the force brought
into play, it is not so much a matter
of surprise that the nitrogen atom
should suffer disintegration as that
the α particle itself escapes
disruption into its constituents. The
results as a whole suggest that, if α
particles--or similar projectiles--of
still greater energy were available for
experiment, we might expect to break
down the nucleus structure of many of
the lighter atoms.

I desire to express my thanks to Mr.
William Kay for his invaluable
assistance in counting
scintillations.".18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html
6. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html
8. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
10. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html
11. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html
19. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html
20. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html{04/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England19  
[1] Figure 1 from Ernest Rutherford,
''Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms'', Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/r
uth.gif

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
81 YBN
[05/26/1919 AD] 6 7 8 		4966)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919). Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
2. ^ Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
3. ^ Goddard, "Rockets" (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p427.
5. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
6. ^ Goddard, "Rockets" (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
{05/26/1919}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689. {1919}
8. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427. {1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[5] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Plate 1 from: Goddard, “A Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”,
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
71, no. 2 (1919). Reprinted
in: Goddard, ''Rockets'' (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
81 YBN
[05/29/1919 AD] 10 11 		4980)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
2. ^ "Sir Arthur
Stanley Eddington." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ F. W. Dyson, A. S.
Eddington and C. Davidson, "A
Determination of the Deflection of
Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field,
from Observations Made at the Total
Eclipse of May 29, 1919", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical or Physical Character,
Vol. 220, (1920), pp.
291-333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/91
137 {Eddington_Arthur_19191030.pdf}
5. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
6. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
Versus Relativity", 1922.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
10. ^ F. W. Dyson, A. S. Eddington and
C. Davidson, "A Determination of the
Deflection of Light by the Sun's
Gravitational Field, from Observations
Made at the Total Eclipse of May 29,
1919", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical or
Physical Character, Vol. 220, (1920),
pp.
291-333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/91
137 {Eddington_Arthur_19191030.pdf}
{05/29/1919}
11. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
{1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
[2] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p432
[3] Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
[4] Eddington, A. S., "The dynamics of
a globular stellar system", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 75,
p.366-376. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1915MNRAS..75..366E
[5] Eddington, A. S., "Stars, Gaseous,
On the pulsations of a gaseous star",
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 79, 1918,
p.2-22 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1918MNRAS..79R...2E/0000002.000
.html
[6] "Eddington, Arthur Stanley."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-282. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901279&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] A. Eddington, "Report on the
Relativity Theory of Gravitation",
1914. http://www.archive.org/stream/rep
ortontherelat028829mbp/reportontherelat0
28829mbp_djvu.txt
{Eddington_1918.pdf}
[8] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
 Príncipe Island, West Africa9  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
81 YBN
[05/??/1919 AD] 4 		3882)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Thought Recorder",
Electrical Experimenter, May 1919,
p12,84-85.
{Gernsback_Hugo_ThoughtRecorder_191905
01_full.pdf}
2. ^
http://store.g-books.com/index.php?main_
page=index&cPath=86_88
3. ^ "Hugo Gernsback". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Gernsb
ack
4. ^
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/te
chnical/electricalexperimenter/Electrica
lExperimenter1919-05.jpg.html {05/1919}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[2] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[3] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[4] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[5] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[6] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
3. Merging science fiction into science
fact.". Society for Amateur Scientists
(Society for Amateur Scientists),
October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html
[7]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[8]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
[9]
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
New York City, NY3 (presumably) 
[1] image from May 1919 ''Electrical
Experimenter'' [t Notice last initials
spell WR, perhaps the end of WW1
1914-1918 was given as a reason for
informing the outside excluded victims
about these many secret technological
advances. In particular probably to
show the public important information
they need to know about pertaining to
the creation of WW1, and perhaps how
many violent people are allowed to roam
free by the owners of the
camera-thought network.] PD
source: "The Thought Recorder",
Electrical Experimenter, May 1919,
p12,84-85.
Gernsback_Hugo_ThoughtRecorder_1919050
1_full.pdf

[2] Cover of May 1919 ''Electrical
Experimenter'' magazine PD
source: http://www.philsp.com/data/image
s/e/electrical_experimenter_191905.jpg
81 YBN
[06/08/1919 AD] 6 		3849)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.paleofuture.com/2007/05/this-
machine-records-all-your-thoughts.html
2. ^ "Audion." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 2006. Answers.com 28 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/audion-comp
uters-in-encyclopedia
3. ^ Record ID3882. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "This Machine
Records All Your Thoughts", Syracuse
Herald, 06/08/1919. t presumably. ^
5. ^
http://www.paleofuture.com/2007/05/this-
machine-records-all-your-thoughts.html
{06/08/1919}
6. ^
http://www.paleofuture.com/2007/05/this-
machine-records-all-your-thoughts.html
{06/08/1919}
Syracuse, NY4 5  
[1] ''This Machine Records All Your
Thoughts'' article in 06/08/1919
Syracuse Herald newspaper. PD
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_sGYULz
oQCgA/Rk1QLLEDg6I/AAAAAAAAApg/EaU86IZN3_
A/s1600-h/1919+June+8+Syracuse+Herald+-+
Syracuse+NY.jpg

[2] May 1919 Electrical
Experimenter[t] PD
source: http://www.philsp.com/data/image
s/e/electrical_experimenter_191905.jpg
81 YBN
[08/??/1919 AD] 32 33 		4905) In 1922 Aston wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry for for his
discovery of a large number of isotopes
(atoms of the same element that differ
in mass), using a mass spectrometer,
and for formulating the “whole number
rule” that isotopes have masses that
are integer values of the mass of the
hydrogen atom.27

Aston recognizes the possibility of
using the energy in the atom (which
Rutherford did not) and in his Nobel
speech he speaks of the dangers
involved in such an eventuality. (see
specifics.28 ) Rutherford publicly
doubted the use of energy from atoms
calling it "moonshine", however,
Rutherford appears to have hinted about
atomic fission explosives as early as
1915.29

Aston leaves much of his large estate
to Trinity College.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
3. ^ "Francis
William Aston." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>.
4. ^ F. W. Aston, "A positive ray
spectrograph", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue
228, 1919, Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928
{Aston_Francis_191908xx.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Francis
William Aston." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>.
8. ^ "Francis William Aston."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>.
9. ^ Record ID4272. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ F. Aston,
"The mass-spectra of chemical
elements", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 39, Issue
233, 1920, Pages 611 – 625
26. ^ For many
of Aston's Phil. Mag articles
see: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/s
earch~db=all?field1=all&first=1&searchmo
de=advanced&searchtitle=910323447&sortby
=old&ssubmit=true&term1=aston
27. ^ "Francis William Aston."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Record ID4748.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
31. ^ F. W. Aston, "A
positive ray spectrograph",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 228, 1919,
Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928 {Aston_Francis_191908xx.
pdf}
32. ^ F. W. Aston, "A positive ray
spectrograph", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue
228, 1919, Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928 {Aston_Francis_191908xx.
pdf} {08/1919}
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p663-664. {1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis William Aston." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
[2] "Francis William Aston."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
[3] "Aston, Francis William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900181&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Francis William Aston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Wil
liam_Aston
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1922/aston-bio.html
[6] G. Hevesy, "Francis William Aston.
1877-1945", Obit. Not. Fell. R. Soc.
May 1, 1948 5:634-650; (includes list
of works)
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1948.0002 http://www.r
sc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayA
rticleForFree.cfm?doi=JR9480001468&Journ
alCode=JR
[7] F. A. Lindemann; F. W. Aston , "The
possibility of separating isotopes",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 37, Issue 221, 1919,
Pages 523 – 534
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England31  
[1] Figures 1-4 from: F. W. Aston, ''A
positive ray spectrograph'',
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 228, 1919,
Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928
{Aston_Francis_191908xx.pdf}
source: Aston_Francis_191908xx.pdf

[2] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
81 YBN
[09/12/1919 AD] 17 		4790)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
2. ^ De Forest Patent
"Means for Recording and Producing
Sound" Patent number: 1482119 Filing
date: Sep 18, 1919 Issue date: Jan 29,
1924
3. ^ Record ID4792. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
5. ^ "Story of
the Talkies", Popular Mechanics, Dec
1928,
p939. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA938&dq=talkies&as_brr=
1#v=onepage&q=talkies&f=false
6. ^ Lee De Forest patent "Means for
Recording and Reproducing
Sound" Patent number: 1446246 Filing
date: Sep 18, 1919 Issue date: Feb 20,
1923
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ De Forest Patent "Means
for Recording and Producing
Sound" Patent number: 1482119 Filing
date: Sep 18, 1919 Issue date: Jan 29,
1924
16. ^ Lee De Forest patent "Means for
Recording and Reproducing
Sound" Patent number: 1446246 Filing
date: Sep 18, 1919 Issue date: Feb 20,
1923
17. ^ Lee De Forest patent "Means for
Recording and Reproducing
Sound" Patent number: 1446246 Filing
date: Sep 18, 1919 Issue date: Feb 20,
1923 {09/12/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "De Forest, Lee."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>.
[2] "Lee De Forest." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[3] "Lee De Forest." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[4] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[6] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
[8] Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[9] The Silent Drama Speaks", Liberty,
1975
(1928). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=nQYAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37&dq=sound+movies+c
ase&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=sound%20mov
ies%20case&f=false
(De Forest Phonofilm Corporation) New
York City, New York, USA15 16  
[1] Lee De Forest patent ''Means for
Recording and Reproducing
Sound'' Patent number: 1446246 Filing
date: Sep 18, 1919 Issue date: Feb 20,
1923 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hLROAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
81 YBN
[11/??/1919 AD] 6 		4163)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
4. ^ A. A. Michelson
and Henry G. Gale, "The Rigidity of the
Earth", The Astrophysical Journal, v50,
p330. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HhvOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA330&dq=michelson+water
+level&lr=#v=onepage&q=michelson%20water
%20level&f=false
5. ^ A. A. Michelson and Henry G. Gale,
"The Rigidity of the Earth", The
Astrophysical Journal, v50,
p330. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HhvOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA330&dq=michelson+water
+level&lr=#v=onepage&q=michelson%20water
%20level&f=false
6. ^ A. A. Michelson and Henry G. Gale,
"The Rigidity of the Earth", The
Astrophysical Journal, v50,
p330. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HhvOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA330&dq=michelson+water
+level&lr=#v=onepage&q=michelson%20water
%20level&f=false {11/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[7] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[9] "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531
[11] George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[12] Hendrik Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the Earth and the Ether",
Versl. K. Akad. W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544
[14] Albert
Michelson, "Interference Phenomena in a
new Form of Refractometer",
Philosophical Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
[15] Albert Michelson and Edward
Morley, "On a Method of making the
Wave-length of Sodium Light the actual
and practical standard of length",
American Journal of Science, V134,
1887,
p427. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[16] "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[17] Albert-A. MICHELSON, "Comparaison
du mètre international avec la
longueur d'onde de la lumière du
cadmium.", Comptes Rendus, v116, 1893,
p790. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k30724.r=michelson.f792.langEN tran
slation from French: Albert Michelson,
"Comparison of the International Metre
with the Wave-Length of the Light of
Cadmium.", Astronomy and astro-physics,
Volume 12,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_iKKbuNsc34C&pg=RA2-PA556&dq=michelson+d
ate:1893-1893#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[18]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wjrOAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=michelson+betelgeuse+d
ate:1920-1920#v=onepage&q=michelson%20be
telgeuse%20date%3A1920-1920&f=false
[19] A. A. Michelson, "On the
Application of Interference Methods To
Astronomical Measurements", proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
vol 6, 1920,
p474. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OxYLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=michelson+date:
1920-1920#v=snippet&q=betelgeuse&f=false

[20] A. A. Michelson and F. G. Pease,
"Measurement of the diameter of α
Orionis with the interferometer", The
Astrophysical Journal, vol 53,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
Y0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&dq=betelgeuse+as
trophysical+journal+date:1920-1921#v=one
page&q=betelgeuse&f=false
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA5  
[1] images from Michelson's 1919
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?pg
=PA334&dq=michelson%20water%20level&lr=&
id=HhvOAAAAMAAJ&output=text PD

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vY0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA54&dq=betelgeuse+
astrophysical+journal+date:1920-1921&out
put=text#c_top
81 YBN
[12/30/1919 AD] 9 		6095)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. de Hevesy and L. Zechmeister,
"Über den intermolekularen
Platzwechsel gleichartiger Atome",
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
53, Issue 3, pages 410–415, 13. März
1920 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/cber.19200530304/abstract {Hev
esy_Georg_von_19191230.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
3. ^ G. de Hevesy and
L. Zechmeister, "Über den
intermolekularen Platzwechsel
gleichartiger Atome", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (A
and B Series), Volume 53, Issue 3,
pages 410–415, 13. März
1920 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/cber.19200530304/abstract {Hev
esy_Georg_von_19191230.pdf}
4. ^ Francis Aston, "Isotopes", 1922,
p19-20.
5. ^ "George de Hevesy - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 1 Jul 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1943/hevesy-lecture.html
 {Hevesy_George_De_19441212.pdf}
6. ^ G. de Hevesy and L. Zechmeister,
"Über den intermolekularen
Platzwechsel gleichartiger Atome",
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
53, Issue 3, pages 410–415, 13. März
1920 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/cber.19200530304/abstract {Hev
esy_Georg_von_19191230.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ G. de Hevesy and L.
Zechmeister, "Über den
intermolekularen Platzwechsel
gleichartiger Atome", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (A
and B Series), Volume 53, Issue 3,
pages 410–415, 13. März
1920 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/cber.19200530304/abstract {Hev
esy_Georg_von_19191230.pdf}
9. ^ G. de Hevesy and L. Zechmeister,
"Über den intermolekularen
Platzwechsel gleichartiger Atome",
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
53, Issue 3, pages 410–415, 13. März
1920 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/cber.19200530304/abstract {Hev
esy_Georg_von_19191230.pdf}
{12/30/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] Georg V. Hevesy, Fritz
Paneth, "Die Löslichkeit des
Bleisulfids und Bleichromats",
Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie,
Volume 82, Issue 1, pages 323–328, 12
August
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/zaac.19130820125/abstract "Th
e solubility of lead sulphide and lead
chromate"
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1943". Nobelprize.org. 29 Jun 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1943/
(University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary8  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 5 		4452)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Paschen, “Das Spektrum des
Neon,” Annalen der Physik, 60 (1919),
405–453.
4. ^ "Paschen, Louis Carl Heinrich
Friedrich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 345-350.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Paschen, “Das Spektrum des
Neon,” Annalen der Physik, 60 (1919),
405–453.

MORE INFO
[1] "spectral line series."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
036>.
[2] "Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Carl_
Heinrich_Friedrich_Paschen
[3] Paschen, “Vita,” Dissertation
(1888); “Antrittsrede,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1925),
cii.
[4] Runge and Paschen. “Über das
Spectrum des Heliums,” in
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1895), 593, 639–643, presented 20
June 1895: “Über die Bestandtheile
des Cleveit-Gases,” ibid., 749,
759–763. presented 11 July 1895;
Runge to Kayser, 15 May 1895 and 13
July 1895.
[5] Nature, V52, N1344, August 1,
1895,
p327. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZkYCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA484&dq=intitle:nature+
LII&hl=en&ei=U5wjTODOIp_hnQeqyO0m&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CD
AQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=runge&f=false
[6] "Runge, Carl David Tolmé."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 610-615. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903781&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] Runge and Paschen, “Über die
Serienspectra der Elemente. Saue toff.
Schwefel und Selen.” in Annalen der
Physik, 61 (1697), 641–686.
[8] "Solar and
terrestrial Helium", The Chemical News,
V71, N1855, June 14, 1895,
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YCLOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&v
ed=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
[9] "Carl David Tolmé Runge".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_David_
Tolm%C3%A9_Runge
[10] henry Wilde, "On Helium and its
place in the Natural Classification of
Elementary Substances", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V400, N246, November
1895,
p466. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DlYwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=%22Terrestrial+
helium%22&hl=en&ei=-pgjTMHZKoGBnQfq5okB&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&v
ed=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22Terrestria
l%20helium%22&f=false
[11] Paschen, “Zur Kenntnis
ultraroter Linienspektra. I.
(Normalwellenlängen bis 27000
Å.-E),” in Annalen der Physik, 27
(1908), 537–570, received 12 Aug.
1908; W. Ritz, Gesammelte Werke, Pierre
Weiss, ed. (Paris, 1911), 521–525.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany4  
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg

[2] Description
CarleRunge.jpg Français : Portrait
de Carl David Tolmé Runge English:
Picture of en:Carl David Tolmé
Runge. Photographer and subject are
dead for >70years and therefore in the
public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ Date
2006-11-18 (first version);
2007-06-24 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was SuperGirl at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Kushboy at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/CarleRunge.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 12 		4906)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
2. ^ "Aston, Francis
William." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 320-322.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900181&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ F. W. Aston, "The Constitution of
the Elements", Nature 106, 468 (09
December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html
4. ^ "Francis William Aston." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Francis William Aston."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
8. ^ F. W. Aston,
"The Constitution of the Elements",
Nature 106, 468 (09 December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ G. Hevesy, "Francis
William Aston. 1877-1945", Obit. Not.
Fell. R. Soc. May 1, 1948 5:634-650;
(includes list of works)
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1948.0002 http://www.r
sc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayA
rticleForFree.cfm?doi=JR9480001468&Journ
alCode=JR
11. ^ F. W. Aston, "The Constitution of
the Elements", Nature 106, 468 (09
December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html
12. ^ F. W. Aston, "The Constitution of
the Elements", Nature 106, 468 (09
December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html {12/06/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis William Aston."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>
[2] "Francis William Aston."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
[3] "Francis William Aston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Wil
liam_Aston
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1922/aston-bio.html
[5] F. W. Aston, "A positive ray
spectrograph", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue
228, 1919, Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England11  
[1] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 4 		4943)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
2. ^ "Irving
Langmuir." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irving-lang
muir
3. ^ "Langmuir, Irving." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 22-25. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902472&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Irving Langmuir." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irving-lang
muir {1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Irving Langmuir."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329738/Irving-Langmuir>
[2] "Irving Langmuir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Lang
muir
(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA3  
[1] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 9 		4997) In 1922 Meyerhof wins the Nobel
Prize in medicine and physiology shared
with Hill.5
In 1938 Meyerhof leaves
Nazi Germany for France.6
In 1940 after
France falls to Nazi Germany Meyerhof
moves to the USA.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696-697.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p696-697.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696-697.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696-697.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p696-697.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696-697.
8. ^ "Meyerhof,
Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 359.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902945&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Meyerhof, Otto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 359. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 29 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902945&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Fritz Meyerhof." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-fritz-
meyerhof
(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany8
 
[1] Otto Fritz Meyerhof UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1922/meyerh
of_postcard.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 8 		5022) Starting in 1911, Frisch
conditions bees to relate the color
black to locations for food, showing
that the conditioned bees fly to a
black location instead of a location
emitting ultraviolet light (which bees
can see but humans cannot).3

Frisch
finds that bees communicate the
distance and direction of a food supply
to other members of the colony by two
types of rhythmic movements or dances:
circling and wagging. The circling
dance indicates that food is within 75
m (about 250 feet) of the hive, while
the wagging dance indicates a greater
distance. Frisch finds that a bee's
sense of smell is similar to that of
humans.4 Frisch also shows that bees
are unable to distinguish between
certain shapes, that they have a
limited range of color perception, but
can see light of shorter wavelength
than humans.5

(What is the proof of this - somehow
matching the motions to some particular
food source?6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Karl von Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220441/Karl-von-Frisch>.
2. ^ "Karl von Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220441/Karl-von-Frisch>.
3. ^ "Karl von Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220441/Karl-von-Frisch>.
4. ^ "Karl von Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220441/Karl-von-Frisch>.
5. ^ "Karl von Frisch." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-von-fr
isch
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Karl von Frisch." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-von-fr
isch
8. ^ "Karl von Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220441/Karl-von-Frisch>. {1919}

MORE INFO
[1] K. Frisch, "Beziehungen der
Pigmentzellen in der Fisch-haut zum
sympathischen Nervensystem.",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=sZlOAAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=RA1-PA5
-IA4&dq=K+Frisch&ots=K38bJ0Holr&sig=8XwN
eMgNghhKM1Rk21zapw6eU1o
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707.
(Munich Zoological Institute) Munich,
Germany7  
[1] Karl von Frisch UNKNOWN
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29730.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 17 		5043) In 1933 Stern leaves Germany when
Hitler comes to power.12
Stern moves
to the USA, and is professor of physics
at Carnegie Institute of Technology
(now Carnegie-Mellon university) in
Pittsburgh, PA.13
In 1943 Stern wins
the Nobel Prize in physics for work on
molecular beams.14
(The number of
people leading the field in particle
physics that leave Germany on the rise
of Hitler is amazing. Clearly the
people in Germany had a strong particle
physics program (as did England), and
must have completely lost that
advantage with the rise of Hitler. The
particle beam technology clearly is
massive, in particular with the neuron
reading and writing flying nano
devices.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715.
2. ^ "Stern, Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 40-43. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Eine direkte Messung der
thermischen Molekulargeschwindigkeit",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 2, Number 1,
49-56. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u5507246w2x0k887/ {Stern_Otto_19200
427.pdf} "A direct measurement of the
thermal molecular velocity"
4. ^ "Stern, Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 40-43. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine",
Comptes Rendus, 1911. "On the kinetic
theory of gases and the production of a
radiation source material"
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Stern,
Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 40-43.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p715.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
"Stern, Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 40-43.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ "Stern, Otto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 40-43. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1919}

MORE INFO
[1] I. Estermann and O. Stern,
"Beugung von Molekularstrahlen",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, 1930, Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ "Diffraction
of molecular beams"
[2] "Otto Stern." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany16  
[1] Figure 2 from: I. Estermann and O.
Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 9 10 		5071) Muller is part Jewish descent and
leaves Germany with the rise of Hitler
and goes to Russia on the invitation of
Vavilov.4
In 1937 Muller leaves Russia
after openly opposing Lysenko's views
on genetics.5
In 1955 Muller joins
Einstein and 6 other scientists in a
plea to outlaw nuclear bombs.6
Like
Galton, Muller promotes eugenics to
improve the “genetic health” of the
human species.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
2. ^ HJ Muller,"The
measurement of gene mutation rate in
Drosophila, its high variability, and
its dependence upon temperature",
Genetics,
1928 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprin
t/13/4/279.pdf Muller_Hermann_19271025.
pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
8. ^ "Hermann
Joseph Muller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-jos
eph-muller
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727. {1919}
10. ^
"Hermann Joseph Muller." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-jos
eph-muller {by 1918}

MORE INFO
[1] HJ Muller, "The Production of
Mutations by X-Rays", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1928 September; 14(9):
714–726.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1085688/pdf/pnas01821-0038.pdf
(Rice Institute) Houston, Texas8
 
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
80 YBN
[01/??/1920 AD] 4 		4914)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"Science and life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
3. ^ Frederick Soddy, "Science and
life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
4. ^ Frederick Soddy, "Science and
life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s {01/1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[2] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[5] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[6] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[7] Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
[8] Soddy, “Radioactivity,” Annual
Report, 7 (1910), 286
[9] D. Strömholm and
T. Svedberg, Zeitschrift für
Anorganische chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[10]
Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
[11] Frederick Soddy, “Contribution
to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99
(1921), 98.
[12] "Frederick Soddy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>.
[13] Soddy, Frustration in Science,
Foreword.
[14] Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
[15] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland3  
[1] Soddy's view of the contemporary
periodic table from ''Matter and
Energy'', 1912. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onep
age&q&f=false

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
80 YBN
[02/28/1920 AD] 		4819)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Harkins, William Draper." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 117-119. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1915}
4. ^ William D. Harkins,
"The Separation of the Element Chlorine
into Chlorine and Meta-Chlorine",
Science, New Series, Vol. 51, No.
1316 (Mar. 19, 1920), pp.
289-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
44909
5. ^ W. D. Harkins, "The Nuclei of
Atoms and the new Periodic System",
Phys. Rev. 15, 73–94 (1920)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v15/i
2/p73_1
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Harkins,
William Draper." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w

MORE INFO
[1] "William Draper Harkins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/255369/William-Draper-Harkins>
[2] "William Draper Harkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dra
per_Harkins
[3] William D. Harkins and Ernest D.
Wilson, "The Structure of Complex Atoms
and the Changes of Mass and Weight
Involved in Their Formation",Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1915 May; 1(5):
276–283.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1090802/pdf/pnas01974-0020.pdf
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA8  
[1] William Draper Harkins
(1873-1951) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetec
h.com/articles/fall%202003/jpgs/ED.2A%20
Harkins.jpg
80 YBN
[04/19/1920 AD] 4 		4322)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Are
Space and Time Really Infinite?",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
4. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
{04/19/1920}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
[2] "Pickering,
William Henry." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>.
[3] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[4] "William Henry Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[5] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[7] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[8] Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
[9] Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
[10] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html.
[11] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
[12] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
[13] Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
Jamaica3  
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
80 YBN
[04/26/1920 AD] 5 		4770)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641-642.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p641-642.
3. ^ "Heber Doust
Curtis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heber_Doust
_Curtis
4. ^ "Heber Doust Curtis." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heber-doust
-curtis
5. ^ "Curtis, Heber Doust." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 508-509. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901044&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {04/26/1920}

MORE INFO
[1] Curtis, "Descriptions of 762
Nebulae and Clusters Photographed With
the Crossley Reflector", Publications
of the Lick Observatory, 31 (1918),
1–42. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=_owto7_wywoC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=Descr
iptions+of+762+Nebulae+and+Clusters+Phot
ographed+With+the+Crossley+Reflector,&so
urce=bl&ots=_tz7LwW_oh&sig=zCF5pxfogaxKb
OG83bOmULLp9Gw&hl=en&ei=3-17TNmuIoOmsQPB
n4yDBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&res
num=3&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Descri
ptions%20of%20762%20Nebulae%20and%20Clus
ters%20Photographed%20With%20the%20Cross
ley%20Reflector%2C&f=false
[2] Curtis, H. D., "New Stars in the
Spiral Nebulae", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Volume 29, Aug 1917, p180.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fbDnA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA155&dq=intitle:astronomical
+intitle:pacific&hl=en&ei=tfp7TIHCBYLksQ
Ocz_mCBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=poss
ible%20that%20a%20single&f=false
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA4  
[1] Heber Doust Curtis
(1872-1942) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/heber_curti
s.jpg

[2] Harlow Shapley
(1885-1972) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/harlow_shap
ley.jpg
80 YBN
[06/03/1920 AD] 7 		4751)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
3. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Nuclear Constitution of
Atoms Backerian Lecture", The
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
97, 1920, pp374-400.
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400.
7. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Backerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400.
{06/03/1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
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Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
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[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
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[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
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[26] Rutherford, "The
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[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
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[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
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[31] Ernest
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(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England6  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
80 YBN
[12/01/1920 AD] 5 		5110)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
2. ^ A. Compton, "The
wave-length of hard gamma rays",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 41, Issue 245, 1921,
Pages 770 – 777.
{Compton_Arthur_19201201.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ A. Compton, "The
wave-length of hard gamma rays",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 41, Issue 245, 1921,
Pages 770 – 777.
{Compton_Arthur_19201201.pdf}
5. ^ A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777.
{Compton_Arthur_19201201.pdf}
{12/01/1920}

MORE INFO
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[2] A. Compton, "The total reflexion of
X-rays", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270,
1923, Pages 1121 –
1131. {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}
[3]
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cs/laureates/1927/compton-lecture.pdf
[4] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
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[5] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
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[6] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA4  
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 9 		4309)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
5. ^ "Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konstantin-
tsiolkovsky
6. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
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=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568. {1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
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615>.
Kaluga, Russia8 (presumably) 
[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 5 		4411)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725.
2. ^ W. L Bragg,
“The Arrangement of Atoms in
Crystals,” in Philosophical Magazine.
6th ser., 40 (1920). 169-
189. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/5
70391933-20948816/content~db=all~content
=a910337868
3. ^ "Bragg, Sir William Lawrence."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 61-64. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ W. L Bragg, “The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals,” in Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920). 169-
189. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/5
70391933-20948816/content~db=all~content
=a910337868
5. ^ W. L Bragg, “The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals,” in Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920). 169-
189. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/5
70391933-20948816/content~db=all~content
=a910337868

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[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
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[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
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-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
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[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
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adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593.
[13] "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
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Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
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[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[15] William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
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[16] William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[17] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913; W. H. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals (II),” Nature.,
89A (22 Sept. 1913), 246–248,
received 21 June 1913.
[18] W. H. Bragg and
W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Diamond,” Nature (22 Sept. 1913),
277–291, received 30 July.
[19] W. L.
Bragg, "The diffraction of short
electromagnetic waves by a crystal",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 17 (1913),
43–57.
[20] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The
Structure of the Diamond.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 89, No.
610 (Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
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Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
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[21] Bragg, W.H. and Bragg, W.L.
"X-rays and Crystal Structure.",
London: Bell,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0D7PAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
[22] # Bakerian Lecture: X-Rays and
Crystal Structure # Author(s): W. H.
Bragg # Source: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical or Physical Character,
Vol. 215, (1915), pp.
253-274 http://www.jstor.org/stable/inf
o/91108?seq=1
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England4  
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-bragg-900w.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 5 		4453)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p603.
2. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ “Nachtrag,” Annalen der
Physik, 63 (1920), 201–220; Paschen
and E. Back, “Liniengruppen
magnetisch vervollständigt,” in
Physica (Eindhoven), 1 (1921),
261–273; and Paschen, “Die
Funkenspektren des Aluminiums,” in
Annalen der Physik, 4th ser., 71
(1923), 142–161, 537–571.
4. ^ "Paschen, Louis
Carl Heinrich Friedrich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 345-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903302&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ “Nachtrag,” Annalen der
Physik, 63 (1920), 201–220; Paschen
and E. Back, “Liniengruppen
magnetisch vervollständigt,” in
Physica (Eindhoven), 1 (1921),
261–273; and Paschen, “Die
Funkenspektren des Aluminiums,” in
Annalen der Physik, 4th ser., 71
(1923), 142–161, 537–571. {1920
(verify}

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[2] "Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
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[4] Runge and Paschen. “Über das
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[5] Nature, V52, N1344, August 1,
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[12] Paschen,
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der Physik, 60 (1919), 405–453.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany4  
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg

[2] Description
CarleRunge.jpg Français : Portrait
de Carl David Tolmé Runge English:
Picture of en:Carl David Tolmé
Runge. Photographer and subject are
dead for >70years and therefore in the
public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ Date
2006-11-18 (first version);
2007-06-24 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was SuperGirl at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Kushboy at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/CarleRunge.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 2 		4553)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1920
(guess}
unknown  
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 2 		4554)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1920
(guess}
unknown  
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 2 		4555)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1920
(guess}
unknown  
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 2 		4556)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1920
(guess}
unknown  
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 2 		4557)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {1920
(guess}
unknown  
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 3 		4877)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www2.dupont.com/Heritage/en_US/19
23_dupont/1923_duco_indepth.html
2. ^
http://www2.dupont.com/Heritage/en_US/19
23_dupont/1923_duco_indepth.html
3. ^
http://www2.dupont.com/Heritage/en_US/19
23_dupont/1923_duco_indepth.html {1920}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
[2] "Charles F.
Kettering." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/315736/Charles-F-Kettering>.
[3] "Charles Kettering." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ket
tering-inventor
[4] "Kettering, Charles Franklin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 316. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902286&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Franklin Kettering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fra
nklin_Kettering
[6] Google Patents US Patent #1150523,
filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1
[7] "knock." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 09 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/knock
[8] Method and Means for Using Low
Compression Fuels US Patent #1635216,
filed Jan 3,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?id=n
E95AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&dq=
Charles+F+Kettering+Ethyl+Lead#v=onepage
&q=Charles%20F%20Kettering%20Ethyl%20Lea
d&f=false
[9]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blfreon.htm
[10] "chlorofluorocarbon."
Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 09 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chlorofluor
ocarbon
(DuPont's Redpath Laboratory) Parlin,
New Jersey2  
[1] Charles Franklin Kettering UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

[2] Works copyrighted before 1964 had
to have the copyright renewed sometime
in the 28th year. If the copyright was
not renewed the work is in the public
domain. It is best to search 6 months
before and after the required year.
Some magazines are published the month
before the cover date and some
registrations may be delayed for a few
months. This January 9, 1933 issue
of Time would have to be renewed in
1960. Online page scans of the Catalog
of Copyright Entries, published by the
US Copyright Office can be found here.
http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/cce
/ The search of the Renewals for
Periodicals for 1959, 1960 and 1961
show no renewal entries for Time. The
publishers, Time Inc., started renewing
the copyrights of Time magazine in 1964
with the July 6, 1936 issue. Most (if
not all) issues that were published
before July 1936 are in the public
domain. The copyright on this
magazine was not renewed and it is in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/87/Time-magazine-cover-charle
s-kettering.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 9 		4921)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p668-669.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p668-669.
3. ^ "Julius
Arthur Nieuwland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/414713/Julius-Arthur-Nieuwland>.
4. ^ J. A. Nieuwland, W. S. Calcott, F.
B. Downing, A. S. Carter, "ACETYLENE
POLYMERS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. I. THE
CONTROLLED POLYMERIZATION OF
ACETYLENE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, v53, n11 (1931),
p4197. {Nieuwland_Julius_19311105.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p668-669.
6. ^ J. A. Nieuwland,
W. S. Calcott, F. B. Downing, A. S.
Carter, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. I. THE CONTROLLED
POLYMERIZATION OF ACETYLENE", Journal
of the American Chemical Society, v53,
n11 (1931),
p4197. {Nieuwland_Julius_19311105.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Nieuwland, Julius
Arthur." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 121-122.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903175&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p668-669. {1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Arthur Nieuwland".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Arth
ur_Nieuwland
(Notre Dame University) Notre Dame,
Indiana, USA8  
[1] Julius Arthur Nieuwland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/n/fotos/nieuwland_julius.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 11 12 13 		4922) In 1934 Whipple wins the Nobel
Prize in medicine sharing with Minot
and Murphy for the cure for pernicious
anemia.8 (How common is anemia?
Perhaps common because many people lose
blood when injured, still how quickly
can liver work to cure anemia? Perhaps
there has been some more specific finds
about why liver works to cure anemia
since then.9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p669-670.
2. ^ "George H.
Whipple." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/641863/George-H-Whipple>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p669-670.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "George
Whipple." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-whip
ple
6. ^ "George Whipple." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-whip
ple
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p669-670.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"George Whipple." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-whip
ple
11. ^ "George H. Whipple."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/641863/George-H-Whipple>. {1920}
12. ^
"George Whipple." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-whip
ple {1923}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p669-670. {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Hoyt Whipple."
Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2nd
ed. Vol. 16. Detroit: Gale, 2004.
224-225. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404706828&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "George Hoyt Whipple". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Hoyt
_Whipple
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1934/whipple-bio.html
[4] George W. Corner, "George Hoyt
Whipple and His Friends: The Life-story
of a Nobel Prize Pathologist" (1963).
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA10  
[1] George Hoyt Whipple UNKNOWN
source: http://jameslogancourier.org/med
ia/quotes/20080828-WhippleGeorge.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 4 		4959)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p685-686.
2. ^ "Heinrich Georg
Barkhausen." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53448/Heinrich-Georg-Barkhausen>.
3. ^ "Heinrich Georg Barkhausen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53448/Heinrich-Georg-Barkhausen>.
4. ^ "Heinrich Georg Barkhausen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53448/Heinrich-Georg-Barkhausen>.
{1920}

MORE INFO
[1] H Barkhausen, "Rauschen der
Ferromagnetischen Materialen", Phys.
Zeitschrift, 1919 "Noise of
ferromagnetic materials"
(Technical Academy in Dresden) Dresden,
Germany3  
[1] Heinrich Barkhausen UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dresden.de/media/bild
er/geschichte/web/156_barkhausen.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 4 		5041)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p714.
2. ^ "Nikolay
Ivanovich Vavilov." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/624223/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Vavilov>.
3. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Vavilov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/624223/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Vavilov>.
4. ^ "Nikolay Ivanovich Vavilov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/624223/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Vavilov>.
{1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "Immunity to fungous diseases
as a physiological test in genetics and
systematics, exemplified in cereals",
Journal of Genetics, Volume 4, Number
1,
49-65. http://www.springerlink.com/inde
x/QX638755220M12XK.pdf
(University of Saratov) Saratov,
Russia3 (presumably) 
[1] Nikolai Vavilov
NYWTS.jpg Nikolai Vavilov, Russian
botanist and geneticist Date
1933(1933) Source Library of
Congress. New York World-Telegram & Sun
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c18109
Author World Telegram staff
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) ''No copyright restriction
known. Staff photographer reproduction
rights transferred to Library of
Congress through Instrument of Gift.''
See also
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/res/076_nyw.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Nikolai_Vavilov_NYWTS
.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 16 		5044)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715.
2. ^ "Otto Stern." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
3. ^ W. Gerlach and O. Stern, "Der
experimentelle Nachweis des
magnetischen Moments des Silberatoms",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 8, Number 1,
110-111. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/g635402018413p6g/ {Stern_Otto_192
11118.pdf} "The experimental proof of
the magnetic moment of the silver atom"
4. ^
Walther Gerlach and Otto Stern, "The
experimental proof of the directional
quantization in the magnetic field",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715.
7. ^ "Otto Stern." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
8. ^ "Otto Stern." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
9. ^ I. Estermann and O. Stern,
"Beugung von Molekularstrahlen",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, 1930, Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} "Diffraction of molecular
beams"
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Stern,
Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 40-43.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Otto Stern." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
{1920}

MORE INFO
[1] O. Stern, "Eine direkte
Messung der thermischen
Molekulargeschwindigkeit", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 2, Number 1,
49-56. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u5507246w2x0k887/ "A direct
measurement of the thermal molecular
velocity"
[2] Walther Gerlach and Otto Stern,
"Der experimentelle Nachweis der
Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/ "The
experimental proof of the direction of
quantization in the magnetic field"
(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany15  
[1] Figures 2 & 3 from: Walther
Gerlach and Otto Stern, ''Der
experimentelle Nachweis der
Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/ {Stern_Otto_192
20301.pdf} ''The experimental proof of
the direction of quantization in the
magnetic field'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p72218361287275g/fulltext.pdf

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 17 		5045)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715.
2. ^ I. Estermann and
O. Stern, "Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} "Diffraction of molecular
beams"
3. ^ "Otto Stern." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p715.
7. ^ "Otto
Stern." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
8. ^ "Otto Stern." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
9. ^ I. Estermann and O. Stern,
"Beugung von Molekularstrahlen",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, 1930, Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} "Diffraction of molecular
beams"
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ "Stern, Otto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 40-43. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ "Otto Stern." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
{1920}

MORE INFO
[1] O. Stern, "Eine direkte
Messung der thermischen
Molekulargeschwindigkeit", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 2, Number 1,
49-56. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u5507246w2x0k887/ "A direct
measurement of the thermal molecular
velocity"
[2] W. Gerlach and O. Stern, "Der
experimentelle Nachweis des
magnetischen Moments des Silberatoms",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 8, Number 1,
110-111. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/g635402018413p6g/ "The
experimental proof of the magnetic
moment of the silver atom"
[3] Walther
Gerlach and Otto Stern, "The
experimental proof of the directional
quantization in the magnetic field",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/
[4] Walther Gerlach and Otto Stern,
"Der experimentelle Nachweis der
Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/ "The
experimental proof of the direction of
quantization in the magnetic field"
(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany16  
[1] Figures 1,2 and 3 from: I.
Estermann and O. Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} ''Diffraction of molecular
beams'' UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 7 8 		5084)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
3. ^ "James
Chadwick." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-chadw
ick
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730. {1920}
8. ^ J
Chadwick, "The charge on the atomic
nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746.

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[3] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[4] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[5] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A. S., "The
Excitation of γ -Rays by the α -Rays
of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
 
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 9 10 		5119) Baade is an enemy alien being
German in the USA during World War II4
, but is allowed to do non-war related
science such as astronomy5 .
Baade
takes advantage of the war-time
blackout in Los Angeles to capture
photographs using the 100-inch (2.5 m)
reflecting telescope on Mount Wilson.6

Over the course of his life Baade
locates over 300 variable stars
(cephids) in the Andromeda Galaxy.7
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
2. ^ "Walter Baade."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
5. ^ "Walter Baade."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
6. ^ "Walter Baade." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
8. ^ "Walter Baade."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739. {1920}
10. ^
"Walter Baade." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e {1920}
(University of Hamburg's Bergedorf
Observatory) Hamburg, Germany8  
[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 13 		5180)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
3. ^ H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11 p59-66,
(1920).
4. ^ H Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66,
1920.
5. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
6. ^ "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
7. ^ Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson,
Louis L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella,
Simon S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole
DC Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994. {Greinacher_Voltage_Multiplier
_199404xx.pdf}
8. ^ H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920).
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E.
T. S. Walton, "Experiments with High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
11. ^ "Cockcroft, John Douglas."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
13. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh {1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[4] Henry A.
Barton, "Comparison of protons and
electrons in the excitation of x-rays
by impact Original Research Article",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Volume 209, Issue 1, January 1930,
Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland12  
[1] Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.electrosuisse.ch/imag
es/database/Portrait/all/Greinacher.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 3 4 		6063) Al Jolson records the George
Gershwin (CE 1898-1937) and Irving
Caesar song "Swanee".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Swanee (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swanee_%28s
ong%29
2. ^ "Columbia Records". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Re
cords
3. ^ "Swanee (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swanee_%28s
ong%29 {01/1920(recorded}
4. ^ "Swanee (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swanee_%28s
ong%29 {1919(composed}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gershwin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/231877/George-Gershwin>.
[2] "Porgy and Bess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_B
ess
[3] "George Gershwin." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gers
hwin
New York City, New York, USA
(probably)2  
[1] Description ''Swanee'' sheet
music cover, with photo of singer Al
Jolson Date 1919 Source
Sheet music published by T.B.
Harms, New York. Via
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.award/rpbaasm.115
2 Author George Gershwin and
Irving Caesar PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/SwaneeCoverGershwinJo
lson.jpg

[2] Description English: George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date 28
March 1937 Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division, Van Vechten Collection,
reproduction number LC-USZ62-42534 DLC
(b&w film copy neg.). Author
[show]Carl Van Vechten (1880–1964)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Permission (Reusing this
file) Yes Description George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date Source
Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division, Van Vechten
Collection, reproduction number
LC-USZ62-42534 DLC (b&w film copy
neg.). Author [show]Carl Van
Vechten (1880–1964) Link back to
Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.
jpg
79 YBN
[01/21/1921 AD] 11 12 		4924)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hahn, Otto." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
14-17. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901812&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p672-673
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p672-673
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Hahn, Otto." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
14-17. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901812&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p791.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ O.
Frisch, Lise Meitner, “Disintegration
of Uranium by Neutrons; a New Type of
Nuclear Reaction”, Nature, 143
(1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf} {1921}
11. ^ Otto Hahn, "Über ein
neues radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im
Uran", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9,
Number 5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/ {Hahn
_Otto_19210121.pdf} {01/21/1921}
12. ^ O. Frisch,
Lise Meitner, “Disintegration of
Uranium by Neutrons; a New Type of
Nuclear Reaction”, Nature, 143
(1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf} {1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie)
Berlin, Germany10  
[1] Figure from paper: Otto Hahn,
''Über ein neues radioaktives
Zerfallsprodukt im Uran'',
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/ {Hahn
_Otto_19210121.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/uhukv60t536j7486/fulltext.pdf

[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg
79 YBN
[02/26/1921 AD] 5 		4752)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "The Disintegration of
Elements by α-Particles", Nature,
March 10, 1921, 107, p41.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41.
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41. {02/26/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022.
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395.
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902.
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208.
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3.
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20.
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8.
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
79 YBN
[02/??/1921 AD] 12 		4162) This is reported on the front
page of the New York Times.9 Perhaps
michelson or others paid for it, or it
may show the early popularity and
respectability of the Nobel Prize.10
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wjrOAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=michelson+betelgeuse+d
ate:1920-1920#v=onepage&q=michelson%20be
telgeuse%20date%3A1920-1920&f=false
4. ^ A. A. Michelson, "On the
Application of Interference Methods To
Astronomical Measurements", proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
vol 6, 1920,
p474. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OxYLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=michelson+date:
1920-1920#v=snippet&q=betelgeuse&f=false

5. ^ A. A. Michelson and F. G. Pease,
"Measurement of the diameter of α
Orionis with the interferometer", The
Astrophysical Journal, vol 53,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
Y0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&dq=betelgeuse+as
trophysical+journal+date:1920-1921#v=one
page&q=betelgeuse&f=false
6. ^ A. A. Michelson and F. G. Pease,
"Measurement of the diameter of α
Orionis with the interferometer", The
Astrophysical Journal, vol 53,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
Y0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&dq=betelgeuse+as
trophysical+journal+date:1920-1921#v=one
page&q=betelgeuse&f=false
7. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wjrOAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=michelson+betelgeuse+d
ate:1920-1920#v=onepage&q=michelson%20be
telgeuse%20date%3A1920-1920&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ A. A.
Michelson and F. G. Pease, "Measurement
of the diameter of α Orionis with the
interferometer", The Astrophysical
Journal, vol 53,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
Y0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&dq=betelgeuse+as
trophysical+journal+date:1920-1921#v=one
page&q=betelgeuse&f=false
12. ^ A. A. Michelson and F. G. Pease,
"Measurement of the diameter of α
Orionis with the interferometer", The
Astrophysical Journal, vol 53,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
Y0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&dq=betelgeuse+as
trophysical+journal+date:1920-1921#v=one
page&q=betelgeuse&f=false {02/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[7] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[9] "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531
[11] George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[12] Hendrik Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the Earth and the Ether",
Versl. K. Akad. W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544
[14] Albert
Michelson, "Interference Phenomena in a
new Form of Refractometer",
Philosophical Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
[15] Albert Michelson and Edward
Morley, "On a Method of making the
Wave-length of Sodium Light the actual
and practical standard of length",
American Journal of Science, V134,
1887,
p427. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[16] "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
[17] Albert-A. MICHELSON, "Comparaison
du mètre international avec la
longueur d'onde de la lumière du
cadmium.", Comptes Rendus, v116, 1893,
p790. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k30724.r=michelson.f792.langEN tran
slation from French: Albert Michelson,
"Comparison of the International Metre
with the Wave-Length of the Light of
Cadmium.", Astronomy and astro-physics,
Volume 12,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_iKKbuNsc34C&pg=RA2-PA556&dq=michelson+d
ate:1893-1893#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA11  
[1] Michelson's Vertical interferometer
from 1920 paper PD
source: Images from Michelson's 1920
paper PD

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vY0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA54&dq=betelgeuse+
astrophysical+journal+date:1920-1921&out
put=text#c_top
79 YBN
[03/21/1921 AD] 5 		5238)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lampland, C. O., "Observed
Changes in the Structure of the "Crab"
Nebula (N. G. C. 1952)", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 33, No. 192,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
21PASP...33...79L
2. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292
3. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292
4. ^ Lampland, C. O., "Observed Changes
in the Structure of the "Crab" Nebula
(N. G. C. 1952)", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 33, No. 192,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
21PASP...33...79L
5. ^ Lampland, C. O., "Observed Changes
in the Structure of the "Crab" Nebula
(N. G. C. 1952)", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 33, No. 192,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
21PASP...33...79L {03/21/1921}
(Lowell Observatory) Flagstaff,
Arizona, USA4  		 
79 YBN
[03/??/1921 AD] 14 15 		5157)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750-751.
2. ^ Milne, E. A.,
"Radiative equilibrium in the outer
layers of a star", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81,
p.361-375. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1921MNRAS..81..361M
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p436.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750-751.
5. ^ Milne, E. A.,
"On the possibility of the emission of
high-speed atoms from the sun and
stars", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 86,
p.459-473. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1926MNRAS..86..459M
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750-751.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Milne, E. A.,
"Radiative equilibrium in the outer
layers of a star", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81,
p.361-375. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1921MNRAS..81..361M
14. ^ Milne, E. A., "Radiative
equilibrium in the outer layers of a
star", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 81,
p.361-375. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1921MNRAS..81..361M {03/1921}
15. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p436. {1921}

MORE INFO
[1] EA Milne, "A Newtonian
expanding universe",The Quarterly
Journal of Mathematics, 1934 - Oxford
Univ
Press http://qjmath.oxfordjournals.org/
cgi/reprint/os-5/1/64.pdf
[2] "Edward Arthur Milne."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/383029/Edward-Arthur-Milne>.
[3] Edward Milne, "World Structure and
the Expansion of the Universe", Nature
130, 9-10 (02 July 1932).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
130/n3270/pdf/130009a0.pdf
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England13  
[1] Edward Arthur Milne 1934 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne_1934.jpeg

[2] Edward Arthur Milne UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne.jpeg
79 YBN
[04/26/1921 AD] 3 		5239)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292
2. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292
3. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292 {04/26/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] Lampland, C. O., "Observed
Changes in the Structure of the "Crab"
Nebula (N. G. C. 1952)", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 33, No. 192,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
21PASP...33...79L
[2] J. J. L. D. and J. H. Oort, "The
"Guest-Star" of 1054", T'oung Pao,
Second Series, Vol. 36, Livr. 2 (1941),
pp.
174-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45
27212
[3] Baade, W., "The Crab Nebula.",
"Astrophysical Journal, vol. 96,
p.188. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
942ApJ....96..188B
[4] Ho Peng-Yokea, F.W. Paarb and P.W.
Parsonsc, "The Chinese guest star of
A.D. 1054 and the Crab Nebula", Vistas
in Astronomy, Volume 13, 1972, Pages
1-13. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TJG-473D842-N&
_user=4422&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1972&_rd
oc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=sear
ch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=006993bc94530f90974c9a4c518d5f2
f&searchtype=a
[5] Mayall, N. U. & Oort, J. H.,
"Further Data Bearing on the
Identification of the Crab Nebula with
the Supernova of 1054 A.D. Part II. The
Astronomical Aspects", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 54, No. 318,
p.95-104. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1942PASP...54...95M
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA2  		 
79 YBN
[07/??/1921 AD] 4 		4866)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657.
2. ^ Slipher, V.M.,
“The Spectrum of Venus, ” Lowell
Obs. Bull. 3, 3.85-3.89 (1921) Bull.
No. 84.
^. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//
full/1921LowOB...3...85S/0000086.000.htm
l
3. ^ "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.
4. ^ Slipher, V.M., “The Spectrum of
Venus, ” Lowell Obs. Bull. 3,
3.85-3.89 (1921) Bull. No. 84.
^. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//
full/1921LowOB...3...85S/0000086.000.htm
l {07/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[3] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[5] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[7] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[8] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
[9] Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
[10] Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
[11] Slipher, V. M., "The spectrum of
Lightning", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.55-58. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu//full/1917LowOB...3...55S/0000056.
000.html
[12] Bibliography for V. M.
Slipher: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.e
du/BruceMedalists/Slipher/SlipherRefs.ht
ml
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA3  
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
79 YBN
[09/26/1921 AD] 12 		5051) In 1929 Raman is knighted by the
British government.4
In 1930 Raman wins
the Nobel Prize in physics.5
In 1947
Raman is the Director of Raman Research
institute at Bangalore in India.6
Raman
is the first Asian human (human living
in India, China, or Russia?7 ) to get a
Nobel Prize.8
Raman trains more than
500 young Indian people in science and
education in an effort to build up
scientific research and education in
India.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
2. ^ C. V. RAMAN,
"The Colour of the Sea", Nature 108,
367-367 (17 November
1921) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v108/n2716/abs/108367a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19211117.pdf}
3. ^ "On the molecular scattering of
light in water and the colour of the
sea", Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Series A, Containing Papers
of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 101, No. 708 (Apr. 1,
1922), pp. 64-80
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
10. ^ C. V.
RAMAN., K. S. KRISHNAN, "A New Type of
Secondary Radiation", Nature 121,
501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf}
11. ^ "Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata
Raman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 31
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/490449/Sir-Chandrasekhara-Venkata-Rama
n>.
12. ^ C. V. RAMAN, "The Colour of the
Sea", Nature 108, 367-367 (17 November
1921) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v108/n2716/abs/108367a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19211117.pdf}
{09/26/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] C. V. RAMAN, "A Change of
Wave-length in Light Scattering",
Nature V121, p619 (21 April
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3051/pdf/121619b0.pdf
[2] C. V. RAMAN & K. S. KRISHNAN, "The
optical analogue of the Compton
effect", Nature 121, p711 (05 May
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3053/abs/121711a0.html
[3] CV Raman, NSN Nath, "The
diffraction of waves by high frequency
sound waves. I, II", Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci,
1935 http://www.optics.rochester.edu/wo
rkgroups/opt256/raman.pdf
[4] "Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chandrasekh
ara-venkata-raman
[5] Raman, C.V., "Newton and the
history of optics (1942), Indian
Academy of Sciences, Bangalore, India.
http://en.scientificcommons.org/206257
25
[6] Raman_Chandrasekhara_19211123.pdf
(University of Calcutta) Calcutta,
India10 11  
[1] Description The image of
Indian physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg
79 YBN
[09/??/1921 AD] 26 		4783) In 1936 Loewi with Sir Henry
Dale, receive the Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine for their
discoveries relating to the chemical
transmission of nerve impulses.21
In
1938 Loewi is placed under arrest (for
being Jewish22 ) when the Nazi's invade
Austria, but he is allowed to leave the
country if he gives his Nobel Prize
money to the Nazis.23
Loewi moves to
England and then in 1940 to the USA.24

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Loewi und E. Navratil, Über
humorale Übertragbarkeit der
Herznervenwirkung. Pflügers Arch. ges.
Physiol. 189 (1921), pp. 239–242.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/x0
1314653605h385/ {Loewi_Otto_1921.pdf}
2. ^ Elliot S. Valenstein, "The
Discovery of Chemical
Neurotransmitters", Brain and
Cognition Volume 49, Issue 1, June
2002, Pages 73-95
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WBY-45XTFM6-7&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2002&_rdoc=1&
_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_s
ort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00005960
0&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&
md5=3e3897eee6f675c932cd1115cbc34de8&sea
rchtype=a
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644-645.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644-645.
8. ^ "Otto Loewi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-loewi
9. ^ Loewi, "An Autobiographic Sketch",
p. 17. {ULSF: Concise dictionary
states: 'In an obvious oversight, Loewi
here places the nocturnal event in 1920
rather than 1921. For a virtually
identical version of the story, but
with the correct date, see Loewi, From
the Workshop of Discoveries, pp.
32-33.'}
10. ^ "Loewi, Otto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 451-457. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902655&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Otto Loewi." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-loewi
12. ^ "Loewi, Otto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 451-457. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902655&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ "vagus nerve." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vagus-nerve

14. ^ "vagus nerve." The Oxford
Companion to the Body. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vagus-nerve

15. ^ "voiding." Saunders Comprehensive
Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. D.C.
Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay,
Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/voiding-2
16. ^ "acetylcholine." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acetylcholi
ne
17. ^ "parasympathetic nervous
system." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parasympath
etic-nervous-system
18. ^ Elliot S. Valenstein, "The
Discovery of Chemical
Neurotransmitters", Brain and
Cognition Volume 49, Issue 1, June
2002, Pages 73-95
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WBY-45XTFM6-7&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2002&_rdoc=1&
_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_s
ort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00005960
0&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&
md5=3e3897eee6f675c932cd1115cbc34de8&sea
rchtype=a
19. ^ "Loewi, Otto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 451-457. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902655&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Loewi, Otto."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
740>.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644-645.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p644-645.
25. ^ "Loewi,
Otto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 451-457.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8
Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902655&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
26. ^ "Otto Loewi." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-loewi
{09/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Loewi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-loewi
[2] "Otto Loewi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Loewi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1936/loewi-bio.html
(University of Graz) Graz, Austria25
 
[1] Otto Loewi COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/loewi.jpg
79 YBN
[11/14/1921 AD] 15 16 17 		5092) Best, as a graduate student,
works a summer with Banting to isolate
insulin.10
Best's aunt had recently
died of diabetes and this serves as a
motivation.11

In 1923 Banting is awarded an annuity
by the Canadian Parliament and the
Banting Research Foundation is
established for him.12

In 1923 Banting and Macleod share the
Nobel prize in medicine and physiology,
the first Nobel Prize to be awarded to
Canadian people. Banting is furious
that the prize is shared with Macleod
who had merely given then laboratory
space, and not with Best who had done
his fair share of the labor. Banting
has to be persuaded to accept the
prize, and gives half his share of the
money to Best.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730-732.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p767.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p730-732.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "hormone." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hormone
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p767.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p767.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730-732.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p730-732.
14. ^ "Frederick
Banting." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 31
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-b
anting
15. ^ BANTING, F. G. AND BEST, C. H.,
"The Internal Secretion of the
Pancreas", Journal of laboratory and
Clinical medicine, 7: 251, 1922.
{11/14/1921}
16. ^ Charles H. Best, "The Internal
Secretion of the Pancreas", Can Med
Assoc J. 1962 November 17; 87(20):
1046–1051.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1849805/ {11/14/1921}
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p730-732. {1921}
(University of Toronto) Toronto,
Canada14  
[1] Description Fredrick
banting.jpg English: Frederick Banting
ca. 1920–1925 in Toronto,
Ontario Date ca. between
1920(1920) and 1925(1925) Source
Library and Archives of Canada -
PA-123481 Author Arthur S. Goss
(1881–1940) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/05/Fredrick_banting.jpg

[2] Portraits of Banting, Macleod,
Best and Collip
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/Sa7kWJAwZJI/AAAAAAAAJRk/R4SGOczX1r
8/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1923_Banting_Macl
eod.bmp
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 19 		4068) Although having only a high
school education, Burbank is profoundly
influenced by the books of Charles
Darwin, especially "The Variation of
Animals and Plants Under
Domestication". At the age of 21
Burbank purchases a 17-acre (7-hectare)
tract near Lunenberg, Mass., and begins
a 55-year plant-breeding career.7
After about a year he had developed the
Burbank potato, which was introduced to
Ireland to help combat the blight
epidemics. By selling the rights to
this potato he made $150, which he used
to travel to California, where three of
his brothers had already settled.8 In
Santa Rosa, Burbank establishes a
nursery garden, greenhouse, and
experimental farms that will become
famous throughout the earth.9

Burbank believes in inheritance by
acquired characteristics and lectures
on this at Stanford University in his
later years10 even after the
rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's
principles of heredity in 190111 12
which Burbank is aware of.13 Lysenko,
also a plant breeder will support this
erroneous view 50 years later.14

Burbank's work with plants convinces
him that the key to good breeding is
selection and environment, like many
others of this time, try to apply his
concepts to human society. The product
of his thinking on this subject is
first published in 1907 as "The
Training of the Human Plant". This book
reveals Burbank's firm belief in the
then-discredited theory of the
inheritance of acquired
characteristics, so unlike most
eugenists of the period, Burbank
stresses education and a good
environment generally as the best way
to remake human society.15 (Clearly
environment influences reproduction,
although there are no acquired
characteristics.16 )

In his life Burbank developes more than
800 new strains and varieties of
plants, including 113 varieties of
plums and prunes, 20 of which are still
commercially important, especially in
California and South Africa; 10
commercial varieties of berries; and
more than 50 varieties of lilies, in
addition to publishing a number of
books describing his methods.17
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p519-520.
2. ^ "Luther
Burbank." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luther-burb
ank
3. ^ Luther Burbank, "How plants are
trained to work for man‎",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
H601AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA69&dq=How+Plants+Are+T
rained+to+Work+for+Man#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p519-520.
5. ^ "Burbank,
Luther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
117>.
6. ^ "Luther Burbank." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luther-burb
ank
7. ^ "Burbank, Luther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
117>.
8. ^ "Luther Burbank." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luther-burb
ank
9. ^ "Burbank, Luther." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
117>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p519-520.
11. ^ "Burbank,
Luther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
117>.
12. ^ Record ID4053. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Luther
Burbank." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luther-burb
ank
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p519-520.
15. ^ "Luther
Burbank." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luther-burb
ank
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "Burbank, Luther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9018
117>.
18. ^ Luther Burbank, "How plants are
trained to work for man‎",
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
H601AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA69&dq=How+Plants+Are+T
rained+to+Work+for+Man#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
19. ^ "Luther Burbank." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luther-burb
ank {1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Luther Burbank". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Burb
ank
Santa Rosa, California, USA18  
[1] A CROSS OF ORANGE AND
LEMON These curious citrus fruits,
which occur spontaneously from time to
time, do not appear from immediate
crossing of the varieties, but from
latent tendencies which appear from
former crossings. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=H601AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA69&dq=How+Plants+Are+
Trained+to+Work+for+Man#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

[2] Description Burbank Shaw
c1902.jpg Luther Burbank Date
5 August 1902(1902-08-05) Source
Sean Bressie Collection Author
Shaw Photography PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Burbank_Shaw_c1902.jp
g
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 6 		4387)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
2. ^ "Frederick
Gowland Hopkins." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p587.
4. ^ "Frederick
Gowland Hopkins." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
5. ^ "Frederick Gowland Hopkins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins
6. ^ "Frederick Gowland Hopkins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-h
opkins {1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hopkins, Sir Frederick
Gowland." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9041
024>.
[2] "Hopkins, Frederick Gowland."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 498-502. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902048&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Frederick Gowland Hopkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_G
owland_Hopkins
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1929/hopkins-bio.html
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5  
[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 6 		4518)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
2. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
3. ^ "antigen." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antigen
4. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>.
5. ^ "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
6. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901} {1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
[3] Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
(The Hague) Netherlands5  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 5 		4854)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656.
4. ^ H. C. SHERMAN
and A. M. PAPPENHEIMER., "A dietetic
production of rickets in rats and its
prevention by an inorganic salt.",
Proceedings of the Society for
Experimental Biology and Medicine,
Volume 18,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yWISAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA193&dq=sherman+rickets
+dietetic+production+in+rats&hl=en&ei=a0
7LTI_kNIOgsQPV4M2ADw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=on
epage&q=sherman%20rickets%20dietetic%20p
roduction%20in%20rats&f=false
5. ^ H. C. SHERMAN and A. M.
PAPPENHEIMER., "A dietetic production
of rickets in rats and its prevention
by an inorganic salt.", Proceedings of
the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine, Volume 18,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yWISAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA193&dq=sherman+rickets
+dietetic+production+in+rats&hl=en&ei=a0
7LTI_kNIOgsQPV4M2ADw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=on
epage&q=sherman%20rickets%20dietetic%20p
roduction%20in%20rats&f=false

MORE INFO
[1]
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ed03
2p510
[2]
http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/biolib/hc/a
mericansociety/sherman.html
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA4  
[1] Henry Clapp
Sherman (1875-1955) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/bio
lib/hc/americansociety/images/ShermanHen
ry.jpg
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 6 7 		4955)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p684-685.
2. ^ "Sir Alexander
Fleming." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-alexand
er-fleming-1
3. ^ "Sir Alexander Fleming."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/209952/Sir-Alexander-Fleming>.
4. ^ "Sir Alexander Fleming." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-alexand
er-fleming-1
5. ^ "Sir Alexander Fleming." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-alexand
er-fleming-1
6. ^ "Fleming, Alexander." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 28-31. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901451&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1921}
7. ^ "Sir Alexander
Fleming." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-alexand
er-fleming-1 {1922}
(St Mary's Hospital) London, England5
 
[1] Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_4gF6Yu
GUwVM/TIpSqGwOklI/AAAAAAAAPRw/NNK_SagRmJ
0/s1600/alexander_fleming.jpg

[2] Sir Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/flemin
g_postcard.jpg
78 YBN
[01/26/1922 AD] 13 		5103) De Broglie's
great-great-grandfather died on the
guillotine during the French
Revolution.8 (So clearly De Broglie
must be somewhat wealthy. Of course,
truth exists independently of wealth. I
wonder what was the crime. It would be
interesting to see the thought-images
and nano-flying dust cams - in the
French Revolution were the wealthy
punished for their involvement in
secret violence - like 9/11, the
Kennedy killings, etc or were many
nonviolent and unfairly murdered?9 )
Durin
g WW I De Broglie is stationed in the
Eiffel Tower as a radio engineer.10
In
1929 De Broglie wins the Nobel Prize in
physics.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
2. ^ "Louis-Victor,
7e duke de Broglie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80727/Louis-Victor-7e-duc-de-Broglie>.

3. ^ De Broglie, "Rayonnement noir et
quanta de lumière", Journal de
Physique et le Radium, S6, V3, N11,
11/1922,
p422. http://jphysrad.journaldephysique
.org/index.php?option=com_toc&url=/artic
les/jphysrad/abs/1922/11/contents/conten
ts.html {Broglie_Louis_De_ajp-jphysrad_
1922_3_11_422_0_19220126.pdf}
4. ^ De Broglie, "Rayonnement noir et
quanta de lumière", Journal de
Physique et le Radium, S6, V3, N11,
11/1922,
p422. http://jphysrad.journaldephysique
.org/index.php?option=com_toc&url=/artic
les/jphysrad/abs/1922/11/contents/conten
ts.html {Broglie_Louis_De_ajp-jphysrad_
1922_3_11_422_0_19220126.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
12. ^ Lacki, Jan.
"Broglie, Louis (Victor Pierre Raymond)
De." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 409-415. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905527&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ De Broglie, "Rayonnement noir et
quanta de lumière", Journal de
Physique et le Radium, S6, V3, N11,
11/1922,
p422. http://jphysrad.journaldephysique
.org/index.php?option=com_toc&url=/artic
les/jphysrad/abs/1922/11/contents/conten
ts.html {Broglie_Louis_De_ajp-jphysrad_
1922_3_11_422_0_19220126.pdf}
{01/26/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] L. De Broglie, "Matière et
lumière" ("Matter and Light"),
1937. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iGq4AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Matter%20and%20Light%
22&source=gbs_book_other_versions
(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify)12  
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
78 YBN
[02/06/1922 AD] 9 		4323)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
2. ^ Pickering, W.
H., "Are Space and Time Really
Infinite?", Popular Astronomy, vol. 18,
08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Pickering, William H.,
"The Theory of Relativity", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
9. ^ Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P {02/06/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>
[2] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[3] "William Henry Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[4] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[6] Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
[7] Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
[8] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[9] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[10] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
[11] Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
Luxor, Egpyt8  
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
78 YBN
[03/01/1922 AD] 7 		5163) In 1966 Mulliken wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry "for his fundamental
work concerning chemical bonds and the
electronic structure of molecules by
the molecular orbital method".5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752-753.
2. ^ "Robert
Sanderson Mulliken." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-sand
erson-mulliken
3. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01426a015 {Mulliken_Robert_
19220301.pdf}
4. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01426a015 {Mulliken_Robert_
19220301.pdf}
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1966". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1966/
6. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01426a015 {Mulliken_Robert_
19220301.pdf}
7. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01426a015 {Mulliken_Robert_
19220301.pdf} {03/01/1922}
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA6  
[1] Description Mulliken,Robert 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken,
1929 at Chicago Deutsch: Robert
Mulliken, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Mulliken%2CRobert_192
9_Chicago.jpg
78 YBN
[03/03/1922 AD] 5 		4324)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
2. ^ Pickering, W.
H., "Shall we Accept Relativity",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Shall
we Accept Relativity", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
5. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES {03/03/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>
[2] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[3] "William Henry Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[4] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[6] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[7] Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
[8] Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
[9] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[10] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[11] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
[12] Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
Menton, France4  
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
78 YBN
[04/28/1922 AD] 6 		4325)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571.
2. ^ Pickering,
William H., "a Suggestion Regarding
Gravitation, II", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
3. ^ Record ID1931. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
6. ^ Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P {04/28/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>.
[2] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[3] "William Henry Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[4] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[6] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[7] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[8] Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
[9] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html.
[10] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
[11] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
[12] Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
Mandeville, Jamaica5  
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
78 YBN
[05/19/1922 AD] 11 		3612)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
2. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
3. ^ Record ID3616. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Thomas
Streissguth, "Communications: Sending
the Message", Oliver Press, Inc., 1997,
p104-105. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YAf1UqOy9kcC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=C
harles+Francis+Jenkins+may+19+1922&sourc
e=web&ots=4fgBJlRleZ&sig=AeO7vUVl-YRerSI
DzuHYs3Syxes&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=2&ct=result#PPA105,M1
{05/19/1922}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/jenkins.h
tml
10. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/jenkins.h
tml
11. ^ Thomas Streissguth,
"Communications: Sending the Message",
Oliver Press, Inc., 1997,
p104-105. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YAf1UqOy9kcC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=C
harles+Francis+Jenkins+may+19+1922&sourc
e=web&ots=4fgBJlRleZ&sig=AeO7vUVl-YRerSI
DzuHYs3Syxes&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=2&ct=result#PPA105,M1
{05/19/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Francis JENKINS,
"Transmitting Pictures by
Electricity", The Electrical Engineer,
25 July 1894
[2]
http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/jenkins189
4.htm
[3]
http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/J/html
J/jenkinschar/jenkinschar.htm
Washington, D.C., USA.10  
[1] C. Francis JENKINS, ''Transmitting
Pictures by Electricity'', The
Electrical Engineer, 25 July
1894. PD/Corel
source: http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/je
nkins1894a.JPG

[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
78 YBN
[05/27/1922 AD] 8 		5197)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p759.
2. ^ J. Bjerknes,
"Life cycle of cyclones and the polar
front theory of atmospheric
circulation",
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p759.
4. ^ "Jacob
Bjerknes." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacob-bjerk
nes
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p759.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Jacob
Bjerknes." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacob-bjerk
nes
8. ^ J. Bjerknes, "Life cycle of
cyclones and the polar front theory of
atmospheric circulation",
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf} {05/27/1922}
(Geophysical Institute) Bergen, Norway7
 
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. Bjerknes,
''Life cycle of cyclones and the polar
front theory of atmospheric
circulation'',
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf} PD
source: http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris
/sio217B/bjerknes.pdf

[2] American Geophysical Union, from
AIP Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/bjerknesj.jpg
78 YBN
[05/??/1922 AD] 10 11 		4104)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
2. ^ Kapteyn, J. C.,
"First Attempt at a Theory of the
Arrangement and Motion of the Sidereal
System", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
55, 1922,
p.302. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922ApJ....55..302K
3. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p527-528.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus
Cornelius." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
10. ^ "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 235-240. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {05/1922}
11. ^ Kapteyn, J. C.,
"First Attempt at a Theory of the
Arrangement and Motion of the Sidereal
System", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
55, 1922,
p.302. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922ApJ....55..302K {05/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacobus Kapteyn." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[2] "Jacobus Kapteyn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Kap
teyn
[3] "Jacobus Kapteyn." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
[4] "Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
659>
[5] Kapteyn, J. C. & Desetter, W., "The
Proper Motions of the Hyades, derived
from Plates prepared by Prof. Anders
Donna", Publications of the Kapteyn
Astronomical Laboratory Groningen, vol.
14, 1904,
pp.1-87. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1904PGro...14D...1K/0000003.0
00.html
[6] Kapteyn, "Remarks on the
determination of the number and mean
parallax of stars of different
magnitude and the absorption of light
in space", The Astronomical journal,
volume: 24, 1904, page:
115. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx
_local?sid=google&auinit=JC&aulast=Kapte
yn&atitle=Remarks+on+the+determination+o
f+the+number+and+mean+parallax+of+stars+
of+different+magnitude+and+the+absorptio
n+of+light+in+space&id=doi:10.1086/10359
0&title=The+Astronomical+journal&volume=
24&date=1904&spage=115&issn=0004-6256
[7] "Jacobus Kapteyn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacobus-kap
teyn
(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands9  
[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg
78 YBN
[08/01/1922 AD] 16 		4820) In 1944 Erlanger and Gasser share
the Nobel prize in medicine and
physiology.11 12
(Notice that the Nobel
committee is drawing attention to
scientific analysis of the nervous
system - a massive, but secret
enterprise - and then near the end of
WW2 when clearly the Nazi's were
certain to lose.13 )

(Erlanger's only son dies before he
does - how?14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649,716.
2. ^ "Joseph
Erlanger." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/191658/Joseph-Erlanger>.
3. ^ "Joseph Erlanger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
4. ^ "Erlanger, Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-399. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901334&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Erlanger, J., and H. S. Gasser, "a
study of the action currents of nerve
with the cathode ray oscillograph",
American Journal of Physiology., 62,
496-524. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%2
2a+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve
+with+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3
B9IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2
TOPQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%2
0currents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fa
lse
6. ^ "Joseph Erlanger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Erlanger, J., and H. S.
Gasser, "a study of the action currents
of nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph", American Journal of
Physiology., 62,
496-524. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%2
2a+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve
+with+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3
B9IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2
TOPQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%2
0currents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fa
lse
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p649,716.
12. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1944/
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Erlanger, J.,
and H. S. Gasser, "a study of the
action currents of nerve with the
cathode ray oscillograph", American
Journal of Physiology., 62,
496-524. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%2
2a+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve
+with+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3
B9IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2
TOPQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%2
0currents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fa
lse
16. ^ Erlanger, J., and H. S. Gasser,
"a study of the action currents of
nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph", American Journal of
Physiology., 62,
496-524. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%2
2a+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve
+with+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3
B9IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2
TOPQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%2
0currents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fa
lse {08/01/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Erlanger."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
[2] "Joseph Erlanger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Erla
nger
[3]
http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/wusm-his
t/growth/index.htm
[4] "Herbert Spencer Gasser."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/226665/Herbert-Spencer-Gasser>
[5] "Herbert Spencer Gasser." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-spe
ncer-gasser
[6] Joseph Erlanger and Herbert S.
Gasser, "Electrical signs of nervous
activity", Philadelphia, Univ. of
Pennsylvania Press, 1937
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA15  
[1] Figure 1 from: Erlanger, J., and
H. S. Gasser, ''a study of the action
currents of nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph'', American Journal of
Physiology., 62, 496-524. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%22a
+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve+w
ith+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3B9
IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2TO
PQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%20c
urrents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fals
e

[2] Figure 5 from: Erlanger, J., and
H. S. Gasser, ''a study of the action
currents of nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph'', American Journal of
Physiology., 62, 496-524. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%22a
+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve+w
ith+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3B9
IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2TO
PQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%20c
urrents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fals
e
78 YBN
[11/??/1922 AD] 5 		3883)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
2. ^ Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
3. Merging science fiction into science
fact.". Society for Amateur Scientists
(Society for Amateur Scientists),
October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Hugo Gernsback".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Gernsb
ack
5. ^
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/te
chnical/scienceinvention/ScienceAndInven
tion1922-11.jpg.html {11/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Thought Recorder",
Electrical Experimenter, May 1919
[2]
http://store.g-books.com/index.php?main_
page=index&cPath=86_88
[3]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[4] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[5]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/te
chnical/electricalexperimenter/Electrica
lExperimenter1919-05.jpg.html
[6] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[7] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[8] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[9]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[10]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
New York City, NY4 (presumably) 
[1] Cover of 11/1922 ''Science and
Invention'' magazine PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/main.
php/v/technical/scienceinvention/Science
AndInvention1922-11.jpg.html

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Radio_News_Nov_1928_p
g422.png
78 YBN
[12/09/1922 AD] 8 		5111)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
2. ^ A. Compton, "The
total reflexion of X-rays",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270, 1923,
Pages 1121 –
1131. {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}
3. ^ T. H. OSGOOD, "Soft X-ray
Spectra", Nature 119, 817-817 (04 June
1927) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.html
4. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray Spectra of
Long Wave-Length", Phys. Rev. 30,
567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A. Compton, "The
total reflexion of X-rays",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270, 1923,
Pages 1121 –
1131. {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}
8. ^ A. Compton, "The total reflexion
of X-rays", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue
270, 1923, Pages 1121 –
1131. {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}
{12/09/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-lecture.pdf
[3] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
[4] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1
[5] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
[6] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777
[7]
"Compton, Arthur Holly." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 366-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900965&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA7  
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
78 YBN
[12/13/1922 AD] 28 		5108) Compton is the son of
Presbyterian minister who was Dean of
Wooster College.19 (State how the
Presbyterian followers of Jesus differ
from other followers of Jesus.20 )
In
1927 Compton shares a Nobel Prize in
physics with Charles Wilson.21
Compton
is one of the top scientists in the
Manhattan Project that develops the
atomic bomb. Asimov states that Compton
remained on the best of terms with the
(US22 ) military.23
Compton directs
the research on methods of producing
plutonium.24
Compton approves the use
of the atomic bomb over Japan.25
Like
Millikan, Compton is an outspokenly
religious scientist.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
2. ^ A. Compton, "A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements", Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
4. ^ A. Compton, "A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements", Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
5. ^ A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
6. ^ A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1 {Compton_Arthur_19230509
.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
27. ^ A. Compton,
"A Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements", Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
28. ^ A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
{12/13/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777.
{Compton_Arthur_19201201.pdf}
[3] A. Compton, "The total reflexion of
X-rays", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270,
1923, Pages 1121 –
1131. {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-lecture.pdf
[5] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA27  
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 6 		3978)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Friedel, Georges", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p331-332.
2. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 462.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf}
3. ^ M. G. Friedel, "Les états
mésomorphes de la matiere", Annales de
Physique, vol. 18, p. 273-474,
1922. {Friedel_G_Etats_part_1922.pdf}
link: (English
translation:) http://www.personal.soton
.ac.uk/tim/crystals_that_flow/georges_fr
iedel1922.pdf
4. ^ "Friedel, Georges", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p331-332.
5. ^
http://www.annales.org/archives/x/gfried
el.html
6. ^ G. Friedel, Annales de Physique,
vol. 18, p. 273-474,
1922. link: (English
translation:) http://www.personal.soton
.ac.uk/tim/crystals_that_flow/georges_fr
iedel1922.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges Friedel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Fri
edel
[2] Timothy J. Sluckin, David A.
Dunmur, Horst Stegemeyer, "Crystals
that flow: classic papers from the
history of liquid crystals", 2004,
p43-. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Azo
xyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX0
W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en&
ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="On
 Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
School of Mines, Saint-Etienne, France
(presumably)4 5  
[1] Description Georges
Friedel.jpg portrait de Georges
Friedel(1865, Mulhouse –1933,
Strasbourg).jpg Date
15juin2007 Source
http://www.annales.org/archives/x/g
friedel.html Author arlette 1 PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Georges_Friedel.jpg

[2] Phase transition between a nematic
(left) and smectic A (right) phases
observed between crossed polarizers.
Black color corresponds to isotropic
medium GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Smectic_nematic.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 13 14 		4362)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p671-672.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p671-672.
3. ^ "McCollum,
Elmer Verner." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 590-591.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902726&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p671-672.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p671-672.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p671-672.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "McCollum, Elmer
Verner." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 590-591.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902726&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ "Elmer Verner McCollum." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elmer-verne
r-mccollum {1920}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p671-672. {1922}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p581-582.
[2] "Osborne, Thomas
Burr." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 241-244.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903245&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Elmer Verner McCollum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer_Verne
r_McCollum
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA12  
[1] Description Elmer
McCollum.jpg English: Elmer
McCollum Date 2008-03-03
(original upload date) (Original text
: 1896) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : Elmer
McCollum.com) Author Journal of
Nutrition Original uploader was
Sparrowman980 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Elmer_McCollum.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 5 		4444)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Nernst, Hermann Walther." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 24. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 11 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903139&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Nernst, Walther Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
5. ^ "Nernst, Hermann Walther."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 24. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 11 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903139&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Nernst." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[2] "Walther Nernst." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-ner
nst
[3] "Walther Nernst". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Ner
nst
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599-601.
[5] "Nernst, Walther
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9055
319>.
( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany4  
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 6 7 		4467)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p607.
3. ^ "John
Stanley Plaskett." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-stanle
y-plaskett
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Plaskett, John Stanley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
325>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607. {1922}
7. ^ "Plaskett,
John Stanley." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
325>. {1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Stanley Plaskett".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stanle
y_Plaskett
(Victoria Observatory) Victoria,
British Colombia5  
[1] John Stanley Plaskett
(1865-1941) National Research Council
of Canada PD
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
2202_plaskett2_g.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 14 		4490)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Poor, Charles Lane." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 83-84. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903474&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Gravitation versus Relativity (New
York, 1922); “Relativity: An
Approximation,” in Popular Astronomy,
31 (1923), 661;
3. ^ Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation versus Relativity" (New
York, 1922).
4. ^ Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation versus Relativity" (New
York, 1922), p99.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Charles Lane
Poor, "Gravitation versus Relativity"
(New York, 1922), p94.
7. ^ Robert Grant,
"History of physical astronomy: from
the earliest ages to the middle of the
...", 1852,
p88. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
P_ekCK1MQgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=1758+wal
msley+jupiter&source=bl&ots=zsFdAtj7iK&s
ig=SjyleX3mZhWpM1XsXxRsD7xXE3w&hl=en&ei=
U1dDTPWnLY2-sQOb0_iCDQ&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=1758%20walmsley%20jupiter&f=fa
lse
8. ^ Charles Walmesley, "Of the
Irregularities in the Motion of a
Satellite Arising from the Spheroidical
Figure of Its Primary Planet: In a
Letter to the Rev. James Bradley D. D.
Astronomer Royal, F. R. S. and Member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris;", Phil. Trans. 1757, 10/21/1758.
50:809-835;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1757.0111 {Walmesley_C
harles_1757.pdf} http://books.google.co
m/books?id=S-U_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295&lpg=PA2
95&dq=%22since+the+time+that+astronomers
+have+been+enabled%22&source=bl&ots=03k1
LyYeep&sig=Eb-Z2Mu_sAc_baKvdSXS4TI9YIs&h
l=en&ei=PVtDTLmNDZHCsAOwl-H5DA&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22since%20the%20time%
20that%20astronomers%20have%20been%20ena
bled%22&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Poor, Charles Lane."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 83-84. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903474&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Gravitation versus Relativity
(New York, 1922); “Relativity: An
Approximation,” in Popular Astronomy,
31 (1923), 661;

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Lane Poor".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lan
e_Poor
[2] “Relativity and the Motion of
Mercury,” in Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences, 29 (1925),
285–319;
[3] “Relativity and the Law of
Gravitation,” in Astronomische
Nachrichten, 238 (1930), 165–170
(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore,
Maryland, USA13  		 
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 5 		4726)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ George
Emory Hale, "The New Heavens",
1922. {Hale_George_The_New_Heavens_1922
.pdf}
4. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ George Emory Hale, "The New
Heavens",
1922. {Hale_George_The_New_Heavens_1922
.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hale, George Ellery."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
862>
[2] "George Ellery Hale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[3] "George Ellery Hale." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[4] "George Ellery Hale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elle
ry_Hale
[5] George E. Hale, "Photography of the
Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H
[6] George Ellery Hale, "The new
heavens", 1922
http://books.google.com/books?id=bx0SA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22The+Ne
w+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrCsAP1xL
jaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19395/19
395-h/19395-h.htm
[7] Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[8] George E. Hale, "A Test of the
Electromagnetic Theory of the Hydrogen
Vortices Surrounding Sun-Spots",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 11, No. 11.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/84605?seq=5
[9] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA4  
[1] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 7 8 		4875)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
2. ^ "knock." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 09 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/knock
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Kettering, Charles
Franklin." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 316.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5
Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902286&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Method and Means for Using Low
Compression Fuels US Patent #1635216,
filed Jan 3,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?id=n
E95AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&dq=
Charles+F+Kettering+Ethyl+Lead#v=onepage
&q=Charles%20F%20Kettering%20Ethyl%20Lea
d&f=false
6. ^ Google Patents US Patent #1150523,
filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660. {1921}
8. ^
"Kettering, Charles Franklin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 316. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 5 Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902286&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles F. Kettering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/315736/Charles-F-Kettering>
[2] "Charles Kettering." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ket
tering-inventor
[3] "Charles Franklin Kettering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fra
nklin_Kettering
(Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co)
Dayton, Ohio, USA6  
[1] Charles Franklin Kettering UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

[2] Thomas Midgley, Jr. UNKNOWN
source: http://science.kukuchew.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2008/10/thomas-midgley-jr
-2.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 8 		4940)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p680.
2. ^ "Sir Leonard
Woolley." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647811/Sir-Leonard-Woolley>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p680.
4. ^ "Sir Leonard
Woolley." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647811/Sir-Leonard-Woolley>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p680.
7. ^ "Sir Leonard
Woolley." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
27 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647811/Sir-Leonard-Woolley>.
8. ^ "Sir Leonard Woolley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647811/Sir-Leonard-Woolley>. {1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonard Woolley." The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Archaeology. Oxford University Press,
2002, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonard-woo
lley
[2] "Woolley, Charles Leonard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 504-505. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904722&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Charles Leonard Woolley".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Leo
nard_Woolley
Ur (modern Iraq)7  
[1] Leonard Woolley (right) and
T.E.Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) at
the British Museum's Excavations at
Carchemish, Syria, in the spring of
1913 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Leonard_Woolley_%28ri
ght%29_and_T.E.Lawrence_at_the_British_M
useum%27s_Excavations_at_Carchemish%2C_S
yria%2C_in_the_spring_of_1913.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 9 10 11 		4951)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682-683.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p682-683.
3. ^ Staudinger,
"Ueber Isopren und Kautschuk. 5.
Mitteilung. Ueber die Hydrierung des
Kautschuks und ueber seine
Konstitution", Helvetica chimica acta,
(1922) volume: 5 issue: 5 page:
785. "About isoprene rubber. 5.
Communication. On the hydrogenation of
the rubber and about its constitution"
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682-683.
5. ^ "Hermann
Staudinger." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564304/Hermann-Staudinger>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682-683.
7. ^ "Hermann
Staudinger." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564304/Hermann-Staudinger>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Hermann Staudinger."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564304/Hermann-Staudinger>. {1922}
10. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682-683. {1926}
11. ^
"Staudinger, Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-4. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 28 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904134&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1920}

MORE INFO
[1] H. Staudinger, “Ueber die
Konstitution des Kautschuks,”,
Berichte der Deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft, 57 (1924), 1206.
 
[1] Hermann Staudinger 1917 in
Zürich PD
source: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/bil
der/Portr_14413016AL_Staudinger.jpg/imag
e
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 11 		5047) Friedmann dies of typhoid fever
while still in his thirties.9
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715-716.
2. ^ A. Friendmann,
"Uber die Krümmung des Raumes", Z.
Phys, 1922 "About the curvature of
space"
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715-716.
4. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p438.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p715-716.
10. ^ "Friedmann,
Aleksandr Aleksandrovich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 187-189. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901530&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715-716. {1922}
(Academy of Sciences) Petrograd,
Russia10  
[1] Description Aleksandr
Fridman.png Russian mathematician
and physicists Alexander Frieadmann (in
Finnish Aleksandr Fridman) Date
Unkwnown Source Cropped From
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805210/258
81/frontmatter/9780521025881_frontmatter
.pdf UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Aleksandr_Fridman.png

77 YBN
[01/02/1923 AD] 8 		5003)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. COSTER & G. HEVESY, "On the
new element hafnium", Nature, 111,
79-79 (20 January
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v111/n2777/abs/111079a0.html {Heve
sy_Georg_19020102.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
5. ^ D. COSTER &
G. HEVESY, "On the new element
hafnium", Nature, 111, 79-79 (20
January
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v111/n2777/abs/111079a0.html {Heve
sy_Georg_19020102.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ D. COSTER & G. HEVESY,
"On the new element hafnium", Nature,
111, 79-79 (20 January
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v111/n2777/abs/111079a0.html {Heve
sy_Georg_19020102.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700. {01/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Charles von Hevesy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264499/Georg-Charles-von-Hevesy>
[2] Georg V. Hevesy, Fritz Paneth, "Die
Löslichkeit des Bleisulfids und
Bleichromats" http://onlinelibrary.wile
y.com/doi/10.1002/zaac.19130820125/abstr
act "The solubility of lead sulphide
and lead chromate"
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark7  
[1] Properties and image of
Hafnium GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haf
nium

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
77 YBN
[02/27/1923 AD] 7 8 		4996)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Peter Debye." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-debye

6. ^ "Peter Debye." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-debye

7. ^ "Peter Debye." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-debye
 {02/27/1923}
8. ^ P. Debye, E. Hückel, “Zur
Theorie der Elektrolyte. I.
Gefrierpunktserniedrigung und verwandte
Erscheinungen,” Physikalische
Zeitschrift,
185–206. French:http://www.lei.ucl.ac
.be/~matagne/SOLAIRE/SEM11/Debye.doc (1
0) P. Debye, E. Hückel, “Zur Theorie
der Elektrolyte. II. Das Grenzgesetz
für die elektrische Leitfähigkeit,”
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 305–325.
{02/27/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Debye." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154823/Peter-Debye>
[2] Debye, “Einige Resultate einer
kinetischen Theorie der Isolatoren,”,
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 13 (1912),
97–100
[3] Debye, “Zur Theorie der anomalen
Dispersion im Gebiete der langwelligen
elektrischen Strahlung,” in Berichte
der Deutschen physikalischen
Gesellschaft, 15 (1913), 777–793
[4] Debye,
Polar Molecules (New York, 1929)
[5] "Debye,
Peter Joseph William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696.
[7] P. Debye,
"Zerstreuung von Röntgenstrahlen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 351, Issue
6, pages 809–823, 1915 "Scattering
of X-rays"
[8] P. Debye, "Interferenzen an
regellos orientierten Teilchen im
Röntgenlicht", Ann. Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/d
ms/load/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002504294 "Inter
ference of irregularly oriented
particles in Rontgen-light"
[9] P. Debye,
"Interferentz von Rontgenstrahlen und
Warmebewegun", Ann. Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 (Continued in 3
parts) "Interference of x-rays and
heat movement"
[10] P. Debye, "Zur Theorie der
Elektrolyte", Phys Zeit, Vol. 24, No.
9, 1923, pages 185-206
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland6  
[1] Description Debye100.jpg Petrus
Josephus Wilhelmus Debije
(1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg
77 YBN
[05/04/1923 AD] 6 		5004)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Hevesy, "The Absorption and
Translocation of Lead by Plants A
Contribution to the Application of the
Method of Radioactive Indicators in the
Investigation of the Change of
Substance in Plants", Biochem J. 1923;
17(4-5): 439–445.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1263906/ {Hevesy_Georg_19230504.p
df}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
4. ^ "George de
Hevesy." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hevesy-geor
g-von
5. ^ G. Hevesy, "The Absorption and
Translocation of Lead by Plants A
Contribution to the Application of the
Method of Radioactive Indicators in the
Investigation of the Change of
Substance in Plants", Biochem J. 1923;
17(4-5): 439–445.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1263906/ {Hevesy_Georg_19230504.p
df}
6. ^ G. Hevesy, "The Absorption and
Translocation of Lead by Plants A
Contribution to the Application of the
Method of Radioactive Indicators in the
Investigation of the Change of
Substance in Plants", Biochem J. 1923;
17(4-5): 439–445.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1263906/ {Hevesy_Georg_19230504.p
df} {05/04/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Charles von Hevesy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264499/Georg-Charles-von-Hevesy>
[2] Georg V. Hevesy, Fritz Paneth, "Die
Löslichkeit des Bleisulfids und
Bleichromats" http://onlinelibrary.wile
y.com/doi/10.1002/zaac.19130820125/abstr
act "The solubility of lead sulphide
and lead chromate"
[3] D. COSTER & G. HEVESY,
"On the new element hafnium", Nature,
111, 79-79 (20 January
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v111/n2777/abs/111079a0.html
[4] "hafnium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hafnium
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark5  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
77 YBN
[06/14/1923 AD] 5 		3613)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
2. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
3. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
4. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/jenkins.h
tml
5. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ? {06/14/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Francis JENKINS,
"Transmitting Pictures by
Electricity", The Electrical Engineer,
25 July 1894.
[2]
http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/jenkins189
4.htm
[3] "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
[4]
http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/J/html
J/jenkinschar/jenkinschar.htm
[5] Thomas Streissguth,
"Communications: Sending the Message",
Oliver Press, Inc., 1997,
p104-105. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YAf1UqOy9kcC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=C
harles+Francis+Jenkins+may+19+1922&sourc
e=web&ots=4fgBJlRleZ&sig=AeO7vUVl-YRerSI
DzuHYs3Syxes&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=2&ct=result#PPA105,M1
Washington, D.C., USA.4  
[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG

[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
77 YBN
[09/06/1923 AD] 6 		4842)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Bosch." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-bosch
2. ^ US Patent
#1558559 http://www.google.com/patents?
hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1558559&id=hHFFAAAAEB
AJ&oi=fnd&dq=Alwin+Mittasch+and+Mathias+
Pier&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=Alwin
%20Mittasch%20and%20Mathias%20Pier&f=fal
se
3. ^ US Patent
#1558559 http://www.google.com/patents?
hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1558559&id=hHFFAAAAEB
AJ&oi=fnd&dq=Alwin+Mittasch+and+Mathias+
Pier&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=Alwin
%20Mittasch%20and%20Mathias%20Pier&f=fal
se
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ US Patent
#1558559 http://www.google.com/patents?
hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1558559&id=hHFFAAAAEB
AJ&oi=fnd&dq=Alwin+Mittasch+and+Mathias+
Pier&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=Alwin
%20Mittasch%20and%20Mathias%20Pier&f=fal
se
6. ^ US Patent
#1558559 http://www.google.com/patents?
hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1558559&id=hHFFAAAAEB
AJ&oi=fnd&dq=Alwin+Mittasch+and+Mathias+
Pier&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=Alwin
%20Mittasch%20and%20Mathias%20Pier&f=fal
se {09/06/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Bosch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Bosch
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1931/bosch-bio.html
[3] "ammonia synthesis." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ammonia-syn
thesis
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652.
[5] "Mittasch,
Alwin." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 427-428.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902992&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6]
http://edj.net/sinor/SFR4-99art7.html
(BASF) Ludwigshafen-on-the-Rhine,
Germany5  		 
77 YBN
[09/10/1923 AD] 39 		5104) De Broglie's
great-great-grandfather died on the
guillotine during the French
Revolution.34 (So clearly De Broglie
must be somewhat wealthy. Of course,
truth exists independently of wealth. I
wonder what was the crime. It would be
interesting to see the thought-images
and nano-flying dust cams - were the
wealthy punished for their involvement
in secret violence - like 9/11, the
Kennedy killings, etc?35 )
During WW I De
Broglie is stationed in the Eiffel
Tower as a radio engineer.36
In 1929 De
Broglie wins the Nobel Prize in
physics.37
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
2. ^ "Louis-Victor,
7e duke de Broglie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80727/Louis-Victor-7e-duc-de-Broglie>.

3. ^ Louis De Broglie, " Ondes et
quanta", Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci.
Paris 177 (1923)
pp.507. {Broglie_Louis_De_19230910.pdf}
{09/10/1923}
4. ^ Louis De Broglie,"Waves and
quanta", Nature, 112, 540-540 (13
October
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v112/n2815/abs/112540a0.html Engli
sh version (is shorter than French
paper of same title)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
6. ^ Louis De
Broglie,"Waves and quanta", Nature,
112, 540-540 (13 October
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v112/n2815/abs/112540a0.html Engli
sh version (is shorter than French
paper of same title)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
8. ^ Lacki, Jan.
"Broglie, Louis (Victor Pierre Raymond)
De." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 409-415. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905527&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Louis
De Broglie, " Ondes et quanta", Comptes
Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris 177 (1923)
pp.507. {Broglie_Louis_De_19230910.pdf}
{09/10/1923}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ De Broglie,
"Rayonnement noir et quanta de
lumière", Journal de Physique et le
Radium, S6, V3, N11, 11/1922,
p422. http://jphysrad.journaldephysique
.org/index.php?option=com_toc&url=/artic
les/jphysrad/abs/1922/11/contents/conten
ts.html {Broglie_Louis_De_ajp-jphysrad_
1922_3_11_422_0_19220126.pdf}
14. ^ Louis De Broglie,"Waves and
quanta", Nature, 112, 540-540 (13
October
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v112/n2815/abs/112540a0.html Engli
sh version (is shorter than French
paper of same title)
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ L. de Broglie, "Semi-optical
Lines in the X-ray Spectra.", Phil.
Mag., Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 49, Issue 292, 1925,
Pages 752 –
753. {Broglie_Louis_De_19250217.pdf}
33. ^ De Broglie L., Dauvillier A., "Le
système spectral des rayons Röntgen
et structure de l'atome", Journal de
Physique et le radium, V5, January
1924,
p1-19. {Broglie_Louis_De_ajp-jphysrad_1
924_5_1_1_0_19231201.pdf}
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
37. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p733-734.
38. ^ Lacki, Jan.
"Broglie, Louis (Victor Pierre Raymond)
De." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 409-415. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905527&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
39. ^ Louis De Broglie, " Ondes et
quanta", Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci.
Paris 177 (1923)
pp.507. {Broglie_Louis_De_19230910.pdf}
{09/10/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] L. De Broglie, "Matière et
lumière" ("Matter and Light"),
1937. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iGq4AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Matter%20and%20Light%
22&source=gbs_book_other_versions
(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify)38  
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
77 YBN
[12/29/1923 AD] 29 30 		5058) Electronic camera and image
display. This electric camera is a
"scanning" electric camera.7 8 Later
the CCD (charge-coupled device) will
allow a two-dimensional area (frame) of
light to be captured very quickly.[]

(and radio frequency light particle
(wireless) sending and receiving of
images (television)?9 )

Vladimir Kosma Zworykin (ZWoURiKiN) (CE
1889-1982) Russian-US electrical
engineer, invents the first publicly
known electronic scanning camera, the
"iconoscope".10 11 12 13

Zworykin's device focuses an image on a
screen made up of many small tiny
potassium hydride droplets which act as
photoelectric cells, each insulated,
which develops a charge that depends on
the intensity of the light on each drop
of metal. An electron beam moved with
an electromagnetic field is scans in
parallel lines over the screen,
discharging the photoelectric cells and
producing an electrical signal. Then to
draw the scanned image to another
screen, Zworykin uses the cathode-ray
tube invented in 1897 by Karl Ferdinand
Braun. The tube (which Zworykin calls a
‘kinescope’) has an electron beam
focused by electromagnetic fields to
illuminate a small spot on a
fluorescent screen. The beam is then
deflected by the fields in parallel
lines across the screen, and the
intensity of the beam varies according
to the intensity of the signal. In this
way it was possible to reconstruct the
electrical signals into an image. In
1923 an early version of this system is
made and Zworykin manages to transmit a
simple picture (a cross). By 1929
Zworykin is able to demonstrate a
better version suitable for practical
use.14 15

In 1848, Lord Kelvin had published
"Theory of Electric Images", although a
mathematical paper, this implies that
capture and storage of images
electronically was clearly in full
progress by 1848. In this sense Kelvin
should probably be credited.16 There
is no much question in my mind that
clearly by 1909 as indicated by Jean
Perin, there are already microscopic
flying dust-sized neuron readers and
writer, camera, microphone, light
particle transmitting and receiving
devices.17 This may imply that the
first electronic scanning electronic
camera was secretly invented in 1823
since the 100 year anniversary may have
been the agreement point between two
sides, or perhaps even a 200 year
point.18

In his December 29,1923 patent entitled
"Television System", Zworykin writes:
"...
My invention relates, in general, to
television systems.

One of the objects of my invention is
to provide a system for enabling a
person to see distant moving objects or
views by radio.

Another object of my invention is to
eliminate synchronizing devices
heretofore employed in television
systems.

Still another object of my invention
is to, provide a system for
broadcasting, from a central point,
moving pictures, scenes from plays, or
similar entertainments.

The above and other objects of my
invention will be explained more fully
hereinafter with reference to the
accompanying drawings forming a part of
this specification.

Referring now to the drawings,

Figure 1 is a diagram of a station
for broadcasting motion pictures or
other visual indications, and may be
considered the television transmitter.

Fig. 2 is a diagram of a receiving
station for receiving the scenes
broadcasted from the transmitting
station.

Fig. 3 is a fragmentary view of an
alternative arrangement for the
transmitting station.

Fig. 4 shows an arrangement whereby
the control of the transmitting and the
receiving stations may be exercised
from a central station; and
Fig. 5 shows
the circuits of the transmitting
station when a central station is used.

Both of these stations are shown by
means of concentional circuit and
apparatus diagrams in sufficient detail
to enable the invention to be readily
explained and understoof.
Any visual indications
may be broadcasted by the transmitting
set 1 consisting of apparatus and
circuits and be received by the
receiving set 2 consisting of apparatus
and circuits.
The apparatus of the transmitting
set 1 comprises an antenna system 3
which is so tuned that it may oscillate
at two separate and distinct
frequencies. The oscillating circuit
including the antenna 3 is connected on
one side by means of a transformer 4 to
the plate circuit of an amplifier
triode 5. The grid of the amplifier 5
is connected threough a transformer 6
to the plate circuits of modulator
triodes 7 and 9. An oscillator triode 9
is connected through a transformer 10
to the grid circuit of the modulator
triodes 8 and 8. The above arrangement
comprises what is known as an ordinary
"push-and-pull" transmitting
arrangement.
...

The light from the image placed before
the lens 37 is so varied that, upon the
focusing of this light upon the
photoelectric globules 36 of the
composite plate 32, electron emission
of varying intensity by these particles
takes place in accordance with the
light from the object placed before the
lens 37. This electron emission may be
considered a species of conduction
between the photoelectric globules 36
and the grid 39. This phenomena is
intensified by the argon vapor that
fills the container 33 as a result of
the ionization of the vapor.

In view of the fact that the aluminum
oxide plate 35 is an insulator, there
is no connection existing between the
grid 39 and the aluminum plate 34, even
though the photoelectric globules emit
electrons. When the cathode beam
strikes a particular point upon the
aluminum foil, it is of sufficient
intensity to penetrate it, as well as
the aluminum oxide. The action of the
cathode ray on the aluminum oxide in
its path, particularly In the presence
of the gas, is to produce a conductive
connection between the aluminum plate
34 and the particular globule or
globules of potassium hydride in the
path of the cathode ray. The electrons
emitted by these globules are therefore
subjected to the field produced by the
battery 42 acting across the conductive
part of the aluminum oxide. The amount
of the emission will depend upon the
degree of illumination of these
globules. The current flowing in the
circuit is dependent upon the electron
emission from the globule or globules
covered by the cathode beam. This
current is amplified by means of the
amplifier triode 12. The current from
the grid 39 to the grid of the tube 12
is so small that no grid leak is
necessary fur the tube 12 although one
may be supplied if desired. The output
of 53 the amplifier 12 now pauses the
modulator triodes 7 and 8 to transmit,
through the transformer 6, the
high-frequency oscillations, generated
by the oscillator triode 9, modulated
in accordance with the current in the
amplifier triode 12 which, In turn, is
governed by the intensity of the light
focused upon the particular spot at
which the cathode ray is located. The
intensity of this electron stream is of
course, governed by the intensity of
the light from the object.
...
When the cathode beam in the
cathode-ray tube of the transmitter is
in a certain particular position, the
oscillatory current generated by the
oscillator 9 is modulated In accordance
with the intensity of the light falling
upon that particular point. This
modulated current is radiated by the
antenna 3 and received by the antenna
51 at the receiving station. At this
particular point, the cathode beam in
the cathode-ray tube 55 will be in the
same relative position as the cathode
beam at the sending station. By the
action of the grid 14, the intensity of
the cathode ray reaching the
fluorescent screen at this particular
point is varied in accordance with the
light from the image at the
transmitting station.

Thus, for every particular point on the
image, the carrier current radiated by
the antenna 3 is modulated whereby the
potential on the grid 54 of the
receiving cathode-ray tube 55 is
varied, as is, also, the intensity of
fluorescence of the particular point
upon the fluorescent screen 60.

As the whole area of the composite
plate 32 at the transmitting station
and the fluorescent screen 60 at the
receiving station is covered by the
cathode beams in & of a second, the
image of the object will be displayed
on the screen 60 during jfe of a
second. However,.as the frequency of
the oscillation of the generator 23 is
18 cycles per second, the picture will
be transmitted twice and will remain on
the screen 60 during A of a 28 second.
Thus, due to the persistency of vision
phenomena, any movement of the object
before the lens 37 will be properly
transmitted and recorded upon the
fiuorescent screen 60 and will appear
thereupon as a moving image.

Of course, in place of transmitting the
image of actual objects, it is entirely
possible to send moving pictures, as
all that is necessary is to pass the
pictures before the lens §7 at the
required rate and a replica of them
will appear on the screen 60. In order
to place these pictures before a large
audience, it is, of course, possible to
intensify and focus them upon an
ordinary screen by means of any well
known optical system.

The operation of the system when the
apparatus used in Pig. 3 is employed at
the transmitting station is very
similar to that already described. The
cathode beam covers the area of the
fluorescent screen 75 under the
influence of the magnetic and
electrostatic fields. When the beam is
at one particular point, the light from
that spot will traverse the film 78,
lens 77 and photoelectric cell 76.

The variation of current of the
photoelectric cell 76 causes the
carrier frequency to be modu- ®°
lated in accordance with the current
flow which is directly proportional to
the intensity of light from the
fiuorescent spot that reaches the
photoelectric cell. As this condition
occurs for each „ particular point on
the picture, the whole picture will be
transmitted in the manner described.
The method of reproduction is the same
as has been explained in conjunction
with Figs. 1 and 2.
...
It will be seen that this arrangement
permits a number of transmitting
stations to transmit pictures or visual
indications with only one central
station for generating the
synchronizing frequency.

It is, of course, apparent, that any
number of receiving stations may
receive the image broadcasted in a
manner similar to that described.

My Invention is not limited to the
particular arrangement of apparatus
illustrated but may be variously
modified without departing from the
spirit and scope thereof, as set forth
in the appended claims.
...".19

This is the first wireless television
system, or wireless image and sound
communication system. Invisible light
particles with radio frequency send
images and sounds to receivers which
redraw the images on a screen and
replay the sounds through a speaker.
Television will surpass sound-only
radio, movies, books, magazines and
newspapers, and physical pleasure, as
the most popular form of entertainment
for the public. But this will be
surpassed when neuron reading and
writing goes public, and humans send
and receive images and sounds directly
to and from their brain using similar
cameras, transmitters and receivers.
There was and is, of course, a very
secret history and scientific
development of camera, microphones, and
neuron reading and writing particle
beam transmitting and receiving
devices. One focus of this secret
development is on miniturization of
these devices, and another focus is on
the movement of these devices. Clearly
the devices are extremely small, and
move by flying and hovering in space.
Currently neuron reading and writing,
that is receiving video square windows
directly to brain to appear before the
human eyes is very widespread, with
clearly millions of people paying to
receive videos. In addition, the
subject of the videos has changed from
scripted theater and stage productions
to watching other people, in particular
good-looking, and popular people.
Currently watching people in their
homes, for most people, without their
knowledge that they, and the images and
sounds in their mind, are being seen
and heard by many people, and that even
the images in their thoughts can be
seen, and not only seen, but written
and drawn on too. It seems clear that
neuron reading and writing, and the
microscopic devices that are used to
see, hear, transmit and receive images
and sounds will eventually go public,
but it is not clear when this will
happen.]

In 1940 Zworykin will invite James
Hillier to join his research group at
RCA, and it is at RCA that Hillier will
construct the electron microscope.20


(Is this the first radio transmitting
and receiving of an image, and or 30
images a second moving images?21 )

(Interesting the analogy of television
to telephone, in particular in light of
the concept of sending and receiving
images to and from brains using
particle beams. The view is that the
television camera and screen is similar
to a telephone but for pictures in
addition to sounds.22 )

(A major question is when is image
storage electronic? image storage
initially started on glass plates, and
then on paper, then on plastic film,
then in semiconductor metal.23 )

(Kind of interesting that the the
electronic circuit is from the dots,
through the gas, to an aluminum
plate.24 )

(Davisson at AT&T Bell Labs also
patents a similar electron beam device,
but apparently AT&T has so far, not
gone public with their massive
microscopic network.25 )

(It seems that possibly, given AT&T's
massive network, that Westinghouse
somehow must have been in conflict
with, or somehow been challenging AT&T
in going public with the electronic
scanning camera and wireless image
sending and receiving. Clearly
Westinghouse won, and the public won
whatever conflict must have occured.26
)

(From here, a major question is: how is
this device miniturized? For this,
electronic integrated circuits will be
able to quickly scan each
light-sensitive dot, and emit this
image serially to a receiver.27 )
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
2. ^ Zworykin, V. K., Television
System, United States Patent Office,
Patent No. 2,141,059,
1938-12-20. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
4. ^ Zworykin, V. K., Television
System, United States Patent Office,
Patent No. 2,141,059,
1938-12-20. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ
5. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
6. ^ Zworykin, V. K., Television
System, United States Patent Office,
Patent No. 2,141,059,
1938-12-20. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ
7. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
8. ^ Zworykin, V. K., Television
System, United States Patent Office,
Patent No. 2,141,059,
1938-12-20. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Zworykin, V. K.,
Television System, United States Patent
Office, Patent No. 2,022,450,
1935-11-26,
http://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-A
AAAEBAJ
11. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p719-720.
13. ^ "Vladimir
Kosma Zworykin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
14. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
15. ^ Zworykin, V. K., Television
System, United States Patent Office,
Patent No. 2,141,059,
1938-12-20. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ
16. ^ Record ID3478. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Record
ID4729. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Zworykin,
V. K., Television System, United States
Patent Office, Patent No. 2,141,059,
1938-12-20. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ
20. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Zworykin, V. K.,
Television System, United States Patent
Office, Patent No. 2,022,450,
1935-11-26,
http://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-A
AAAEBAJ
29. ^ Zworykin, V. K., Television
System, United States Patent Office,
Patent No. 2,022,450, 1935-11-26,
http://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-A
AAAEBAJ {12/29/1923}
30. ^ "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin {1923}

MORE INFO
[1] VK Zworykin, "Electric
high-frequency signaling apparatus", US
Patent 1,484,049,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT1484049&id=vBFCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=zworykin&printsec=abstract#v=on
epage&q=zworykin&f=false
[2] Method of and Apparatus for
Producing Images of Objects, United
States Patent Office, Patent No.
2,021,907, 1935
[3] Vladimir Zworykin (filed
1925, patented 1928). "Television
System". Patent No. 1,691,324,. United
States Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28
(for Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
Pittsberg, PA, USA) Haddenfield, New
Jersey, USA28  
[1] Drawing from Zworykin's 1923 patent
application Television
System. Vladimir K. Zworykin's patent
1923 Source
http://www.google.com/patents/about
?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ Date
1923 Author Vladimir K.
Zworykin Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Zworykin_patent_%281923%29
.jpg

[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 3 		4216)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
2. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
3. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699 {1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[10] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[11] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[12] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[13]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA2  
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 9 10 		4775) Euler-Chelpin is distantly
related to the famous mathematician
Euler.5
In 1929 Euler-Chelpin shares
the 1929 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with
Sir Arthur Harden for work on the role
of enzymes in the fermentation of
sugar.6
Although Euler-Chelpin became a
Swedish citizen in 1902 he served
Germany in both world wars.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p643.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p643.
3. ^ "Hans von
Euler-Chelpin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-von-eu
ler-chelpin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p643.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p643.
6. ^
"Euler-Chelpin, Hans von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
219>.
7. ^ "Hans von Euler-Chelpin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-von-eu
ler-chelpin
8. ^ "Euler-Chelpin, Hans von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
219>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p643. {1923}
10. ^ "Hans von
Euler-Chelpin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-von-eu
ler-chelpin {1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euler-Chelpin, Hans Karl
August Simon von." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 4.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
485-486. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901354&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Hans Karl August Simon von
Euler-Chelpin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Karl_A
ugust_Simon_von_Euler-Chelpin
(University of Stockholm) Stockholm,
Sweden8  
[1] Description
Euler-chelpin.jpg English: Hans von
Euler-Chelpin Date
1929(1929) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/ch
emistry/laureates/1929/euler-chelpin-bio
.html Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Euler-chelpin.jpg

[2] Notice what must be one of the
rare post-Hitler short-moustache - and
serving for the Nazi's in WW2 probably
was anti-Jewish[t] Euler-Chelpin, Hans
von. Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Web. 30 Aug. 2010
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
12012&rendTypeId=4
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 5 		4858) Gilbert Newton Lewis (CE
1875-1946), US chemist 1 with Merle
Randall publishes “Thermodynamics and
the Free Energy of Chemical
Substances”, which more than any
other book, clarifies and expands
Gibbs' chemical thermodynamics for
students. In this book Lewis replaces
the concept of “concentration” with
“activity” which is more useful in
working out rates of reactions and
questions of equilibria than the older
“concentration”. This modifies and
makes more accurate Guldberg and
Waage's law of mass action.2 (All of
this needs more specific info, I think
thermodynamics may be inaccurate and
too abstract to be of use, but clearly
accurately describing rates of
reactions is a real and useful thing.3
).

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657. {1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[3] "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[5]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[6] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
[7] GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002
[8] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA4  
[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 13 14 		4927) Brønsted's firm opposition to
Nazism during World War II won him
election to the Danish Parliament in
1947, but illness prevents him from
taking his seat.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670-671.
2. ^ "Johannes
Nicolaus Brønsted." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80949/Johannes-Nicolaus-Bronsted>.
3. ^ Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
“Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.”, Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670-671.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80949/Johannes-Nicolaus-Bronsted>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670-671.
9. ^ "Brønsted,
Johannes Nicolaus." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 2.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
498-499. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900656&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Johannes Nicolaus
Brønsted." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80949/Johannes-Nicolaus-Bronsted>.
12. ^ "Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80949/Johannes-Nicolaus-Bronsted>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670-671. {1923}
14. ^
"Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80949/Johannes-Nicolaus-Bronsted>.
{1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Nicolaus
Brønsted." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ni
colaus-br-nsted-1
[2] "Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ni
colaus_Br%C3%B8nsted
[3] Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted, “The
Activity Coefficients of Ions in Very
Dilute Solutions.”, Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 46 (1924),
p555–573. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01668a006
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark12  
[1] Brønsted, Johannes
Nicolaus Courtesy of the Royal Danish
Embassy; photograph, Elfelt,
Copenhagen UNKNOWN
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/07/6907-004-FB988F4E.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 4 		4967)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
3. ^ "Robert
Hutchings Goddard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689. {1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919). Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[6] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[7] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[8] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 12 		4987) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p692-693.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p692-693.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p692-693.
7. ^ "Otto
Heinrich Warburg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-heinri
ch-warburg
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p692-693.
9. ^ "Otto Heinrich
Warburg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-heinri
ch-warburg
10. ^ "Otto Heinrich Warburg." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-heinri
ch-warburg
11. ^ "Warburg, Otto Heinrich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 172-177. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p692-693. {1923}
(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology)
Berlin, Germany10 11  
[1] Title: Otto Heinrich Warburg
People in the image: *
Warburg, Otto Heinrich Prof. Dr.:
Direktor des Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institutes
für Zellphysiologie in Berlin-Dahlem,
Nobelpreis für Physiologie und Medizin
1931, Bundesrepublik Deutschland (PND
118629158) October
1931(1931-10) Source Deutsches
Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archive),
Bild 102-12525 Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Commons:Bundesarchiv CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg
_%28cropped%29.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 8 		4989)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p694.
3. ^ P. E. Smith,
“The Production of the Adiposogenital
Syndrome in the Rat With Preliminary
Notes on the Effects of a Replacement
Therapy", Proceedings of the Society
for Experimental Biology and Medicine,
21 (1923), 204–206.
4. ^ "endocrine system."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocrine-s
ystem
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Smith, Philip
Edward." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 472-477.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904054&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ P. E. Smith, “The Production of
the Adiposogenital Syndrome in the Rat
With Preliminary Notes on the Effects
of a Replacement Therapy", Proceedings
of the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine, 21 (1923), 204–206.
{1923 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] Philip Edward Smith, "The
Pigmentary, Growth and Endocrine
Disturbances Induced in the Anuran
Tadpole by the Early Ablation of the
Pars Buccalis of the
Hypophysis”,Wistar institute of
anatomy and biology,
1920. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=szobAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=
The+Pigmentary,+Growth+and+Endocrine+Dis
turbances+Induced+in+the+Anuran+Tadpole+
by+the+Early+Ablation+of+the+Pars+Buccal
is+of+the+Hypophysis%E2%80%9D&ots=6_7V__
GMQ7&sig=3u4csDICx2ERmGGA7Y00zi1N2wE#v=o
nepage&q=The%20Pigmentary%2C%20Growth%20
and%20Endocrine%20Disturbances%20Induced
%20in%20the%20Anuran%20Tadpole%20by%20th
e%20Early%20Ablation%20of%20the%20Pars%2
0Buccalis%20of%20the%20Hypophysis%E2%80%
9D&f=false
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA7  		 
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 17 		5000) Svedberg wins the 1926 Nobel
Prize in chemistry.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p697-698.
3. ^
"electrophoresis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electrophor
esis
4. ^Svedberg, Kolloid-Z.,
Zsigmondy-Festschrift, 1925, p. 53.
5. ^
The Svedberg, Robin Fåhraeus, "A NEW
METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE
MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF THE PROTEINS", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1926, 48 (2), pp
430–438 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01413a019
{Svedberg_Theodor_19250804.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698.
7. ^ "Theodor H.E.
Svedberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/575982/Theodor-H-E-Svedberg>.
8. ^ "centrifugal force." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/102839/centrifugal-force>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698.
10. ^
"electrophoresis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electrophor
esis
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ The Svedberg,
Robin Fåhraeus, "A NEW METHOD FOR THE
DETERMINATION OF THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT
OF THE PROTEINS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1926, 48 (2), pp
430–438 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01413a019
{Svedberg_Theodor_19250804.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698.
16. ^
"electrophoresis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electrophor
esis
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698. {1923}
(University of Uppsala) Upsala,
Sweden16  
[1] Theodor Svedberg Older than 70
years PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/The-svedberg-1.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 6 		5042) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p714-715.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Victor
Goldschmidt." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/victor-gold
schmidt
4. ^ "Victor Goldschmidt." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/victor-gold
schmidt
5. ^ "Victor Moritz Goldschmidt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/237916/Victor-Moritz-Goldschmidt>.
6. ^ "Victor Goldschmidt." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/victor-gold
schmidt {1923 (guess}
(University of Kristiania) Kristiania
(now Oslo), Sweden5 (presumably) 
[1] Victor Moritz Goldschmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/webdav
/site/GSL/shared/images/geoscientist/Gol
d%20Fig%208resized.JPG
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 9 		5078) (Sir) Harold Jeffreys (CE
1891-1989), English astronomer1
establishes that the large gas giant
planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune have cold surface temperatures
and are not still warm from interior
heat, and devises early models of their
planetary structure.2 3

(Works with Jeans on the tidal
hypothesis for the origin of the earth,
which increases the age of the earth to
billions from the estimate of tens of
millions of Helmholtz and Kelvin.)

(Determine if Jeffreys means surface of
outer atmosphere or liquid or solid
surface temperature. A Jupiter probe
measured high temperatures descending
into the clouds of Jupiter.4 )

(I think there must be something
similar to a terrestrial planet inside
each of the gas giant planets.5 )

(Q: Look at their density and estimate
how much is solid, liquid and gas. Are
the insides of these terrestrial
planets molten red hot liquid metal?
D=m/v If the mass of the Jovian planet
is used with the density of earth to
determine the volume of this density,
and then from that volume to simply
determine radius from V=4/3pi r^3, I
performed this simple calculation and
Jupiter would have a terrestrial 6
times the radius of earth.
mass of jupiter
318x that of earth. 1.8986x10^27kg
volume=1.43x10^15 km^3 1,321 earths
radius of
earth 6,371km, vol=1.08321x10^12 km^3
D=m/v
V=4/3pir^3
D(earth)=5.5e12 kg/km^3
D=m/v
5.5e12 kg/km^3=1.8986x10^27kg/v
v=3.452
x 10^14 km^3
V=4/3pi r^3
3.452 x 10^14 km^3=4.19
r^3
r=43,517 km
radius of earth 6,371km
Jupiter would
be 6.83 times the radius of earth. 7x
the radius of earth - and a large
terretrial inside is probably true for
the other Jovianic-terrestrial
planets.

Vjupiter= 1.43x10^15 km^3
1.43x10^15
km^3=4.19 r^3
RadiusJupiter=71,492
(69,883)

This would put the surface
43,517/69,883 = 38 percent below the
clouds, 26,366km below the clouds.
6 )

( Maybe they are cooled and only emit a
small amount of infrared if any. The
terrestrial nature of the moons of the
gas giant planets I think is evidence
that some dense matter (metals) formed
local groupings in the outer star
system. Either the moons formed around
Jupiter or were captured. I think the
ring of Jupiter is evidence that matter
does compress into moons around
planets. The constant gravitational
attraction of the large planet might
argue for the moons being formed in
isolation and then captured. It would
be interesting to think we are looking
at what used to be planets. Perhaps the
density of each moon indicates its
origin. Q: Does the density linearly
increase as the moon is closer to the
planet or are they more or less random?
Can it be argued that a denser moon was
probably formed closer to the sun than
a less dense moon? 7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Harold Jeffreys." A
Dictionary of Statistics. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jeffreys-si
r-harold
2. ^ "Sir Harold Jeffreys."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 02 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302351/Sir-Harold-Jeffreys>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Sir Harold
Jeffreys." A Dictionary of Statistics.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jeffreys-si
r-harold
9. ^ "Sir Harold Jeffreys."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jeffreys-si
r-harold {1923}
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England8  
[1] Sir Harold Jeffreys (1891-1989),
British Mathematician, Statistician and
Geophysicist. International
Seismological Centre, source:
http://www.isc.ac.uk/doc/intro/hist.html
UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/73/Harold_Jeffreys%2C_Sir.jpg

76 YBN
[01/29/1924 AD] 7 		5204)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605-606.
2. ^ H. NAGAOKA, Y.
SUGIURA & T. MISHIMA, "Isotopes of
Mercury and Bismuth revealed in the
Satellites of their Spectral Lines:.
Nature, 1924,
p459. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v113/n2839/pdf/113459a0.pdf {Nagaok
a_Hantaro_19240129.pdf}
3. ^ "The Reported Transmutation of
Mercury Into Gold", Nature, N2858,V114,
p197 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v114/n2858/pdf/114197a0.pdf {Nature_
19240809.pdf} doi:10.1038/113459a0
4. ^ "The Reported Transmutation of
Mercury Into Gold", Nature, N2858,V114,
p197 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v114/n2858/pdf/114197a0.pdf {Nature_
19240809.pdf} doi:10.1038/113459a0
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ H. NAGAOKA, Y. SUGIURA &
T. MISHIMA, "Isotopes of Mercury and
Bismuth revealed in the Satellites of
their Spectral Lines:. Nature, 1924,
p459. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v113/n2839/pdf/113459a0.pdf {Nagaok
a_Hantaro_19240129.pdf}
7. ^ H. NAGAOKA, Y. SUGIURA & T.
MISHIMA, "Isotopes of Mercury and
Bismuth revealed in the Satellites of
their Spectral Lines:. Nature, 1924,
p459. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v113/n2839/pdf/113459a0.pdf {Nagaok
a_Hantaro_19240129.pdf} {01/29/1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hantaro Nagaoka." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hantaro-nag
aoka
[2] "Hantaro Nagaoka". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantaro_Nag
aoka
[3] G. A. Schott, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904,
p43. http://books.google.com/books?id=3
3YCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA437&dq=Nagaoka&hl=en&ei
=OxEpTL-bFIHanAfIz_R1&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q=Nagaoka&f=false
[4] H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
[5]
Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
[6] H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
[7] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605-606.
[8] "atom."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-4835
7>.
(Institute of Physical and Chemical
Research) Tokyo, Japan6  
[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg
76 YBN
[02/12/1924 AD] 4 5 		6036)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "George Gershwin." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gers
hwin
2. ^ "George Gershwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/231877/George-Gershwin>.
3. ^ "George Gershwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/231877/George-Gershwin>.
4. ^ "George Gershwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/231877/George-Gershwin>. {02/12/1924}
{02/12/1924 (first performed}
5. ^ "George
Gershwin." The Concise Grove Dictionary
of Music. Oxford University Press,
Inc., 1994. Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gers
hwin {1924}
(Aeolian Concert Hall) New York City,
New York, USA3  
[1] Description English: George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date 28
March 1937 Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division, Van Vechten Collection,
reproduction number LC-USZ62-42534 DLC
(b&w film copy neg.). Author
[show]Carl Van Vechten (1880–1964)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Permission (Reusing this
file) Yes Description George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date Source
Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division, Van Vechten
Collection, reproduction number
LC-USZ62-42534 DLC (b&w film copy
neg.). Author [show]Carl Van
Vechten (1880–1964) Link back to
Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.
jpg
76 YBN
[06/07/1924 AD] 8 		5075) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p727-728.
2. ^ "Bothe, Walther
Wilhelm Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ W Bothe, H Geiger, "Ein Weg zur
experimentellen Nachprüfung der
Theorie von Bohr, Kramers, und Slater",
Zeitschrift für Physik, 26
(1924). http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/U432385Q72826470.pdf {Bothe_Walther_
19240607.pdf}
4. ^ "Walther Bothe." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-bot
he
5. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm
Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ W Bothe, H Geiger, "Ein Weg zur
experimentellen Nachprüfung der
Theorie von Bohr, Kramers, und Slater",
Zeitschrift für Physik, 26
(1924). http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/U432385Q72826470.pdf {Bothe_Walther_
19240607.pdf} {06/07/1924}

MORE INFO
[1] W Bothe, "Die Streuabsorption
der Elektronenstrahlen", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1929
-
Springer http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w6547570xm23t365/ "The
absorption of the scattered electron"
[2] W
Bothe, "Zur Vereinfachung von
Koinzidenzzählungen", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930
"For simplicity of coincidence
counts" http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/h8177uhn1n471273.pdf
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from: W Bothe, H Geiger,
''Ein Weg zur experimentellen
Nachprüfung der Theorie von Bohr,
Kramers, und Slater'', Zeitschrift für
Physik, 26
(1924). http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/U432385Q72826470.pdf {Bothe_Walther_
19240607.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u432385q72826470/fulltext.pdf

[2] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954
was divided equally between Max Born
''for his fundamental research in
quantum mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
76 YBN
[06/07/1924 AD] 7 		5076)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p727-728.
2. ^ "Bothe, Walther
Wilhelm Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ W Bothe, W. Kolhörster, “Das
Wesen der Hoehenstrahlung,” in
Zeitschrift für Physik, 56 (1929),
75–77.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm
Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ W Bothe, H Geiger, "Ein Weg zur
experimentellen Nachprüfung der
Theorie von Bohr, Kramers, und Slater",
Zeitschrift für Physik, 26
(1924). http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/U432385Q72826470.pdf {Bothe_Walther_
19240607.pdf} {06/07/1924}

MORE INFO
[1] W Bothe, "Die Streuabsorption
der Elektronenstrahlen", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1929
-
Springer http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w6547570xm23t365/ "The
absorption of the scattered electron"
[2] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p727-728.
[3] "Walther Bothe."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-bot
he
[4] W Bothe, "Zur Vereinfachung von
Koinzidenzzählungen", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930
"For simplicity of coincidence
counts" http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/h8177uhn1n471273.pdf
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany6 (presumably) 
[1] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954 was
divided equally between Max Born ''for
his fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
76 YBN
[06/13/1924 AD] 7 		4975) Like Schrödinger, Born leaves
German as soon as Hitler comes to
power, moving to Cambridge in 1933.4

In 1954 Born wins the Nobel Prize in
physics for work on quantum mechanics
with Bothe.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689.
2. ^ "Born, Max."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 39-44. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904832&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Max Born, "Über Quantenmechanik",
Zeitschrift für Physik (1924) V26,
N1, 12/1924,
p379-395. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/p8j137uwq1l32555/fulltext.pdf {B
orn_Max_19240618.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p689.
6. ^ Max Born,
"Über Quantenmechanik", Zeitschrift
für Physik (1924) V26, N1, 12/1924,
p379-395. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/p8j137uwq1l32555/fulltext.pdf {B
orn_Max_19240618.pdf}
7. ^ Max Born, "Über Quantenmechanik",
Zeitschrift für Physik (1924) V26,
N1, 12/1924,
p379-395. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/p8j137uwq1l32555/fulltext.pdf {B
orn_Max_19240618.pdf} {06/13/1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Born." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/74253/Max-Born>.
[2] Born, "Die Relativitiitstheorie
Einsteins and Hire physikalischen
Grundlagen" (Berlin, 1923), also in
English (London, 1924).
[3] Born, "Probteme
der Atomdynamik", 2 vols. (Berlin,
1926), also in English (Cambridge,
Mass., 1926).
[4] "Max Born." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-born
[5] Max Born, "Problems of Atomic
Dynamics: Two Series of Lectures On: I.
The Structure of the Atom... II. The
Lattice Theory of Rigid Bodies", 1926.
[6]
Max Born, "Quantum mechanics of
collision processes", Zeitschrift fur
Physik, 1926
[7] Max Born, "Eine neue
Formulierung der Quantengesetze für
periodische und nicht periodische
Vorgänge" English: "A new formulation
of the laws of quantization of periodic
and aperiodic phenomena", Journal of
Mathematical Physics, 1926
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany6  
[1] # Beschreibung: Max Born # Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg
76 YBN
[07/02/1924 AD] 17 		5139)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p743.
2. ^ "Bose,
Satyendranath." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904835&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Bose, Satyendranath." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 47-50. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904835&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ S. N. Bose, “Plancks Gesetz und
Lichtquantenhypothese” (”Plancks
Law and Light Quantum Hypothesis“),
Z. Phys, 26, 178
(1924) http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/j30330n763017620/ translation to
English: http://master-mc.u-strasbg.fr/
IMG/pdf/Bose_statistique.pdf
5. ^ S. N. Bose, “Plancks Gesetz und
Lichtquantenhypothese” (”Plancks
Law and Light Quantum Hypothesis“),
Z. Phys, 26, 178
(1924) http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/j30330n763017620/ translation to
English: http://master-mc.u-strasbg.fr/
IMG/pdf/Bose_statistique.pdf
6. ^ "Bose, Satyendranath." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 47-50. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904835&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Bose, Satyendranath." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 47-50. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904835&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Bose, Satyendranath."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904835&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
17. ^ S. N. Bose, “Plancks Gesetz
und Lichtquantenhypothese”
(”Plancks Law and Light Quantum
Hypothesis“), Z. Phys, 26, 178
(1924) http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/j30330n763017620/ translation to
English: http://master-mc.u-strasbg.fr/
IMG/pdf/Bose_statistique.pdf
{07/02/1924}

MORE INFO
[1] S. N. Bose,
"Wärmegleichgewicht im Strahlungsfeld
bei Anwesenheit von Materie",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 27, Number 1,
384-393. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/pmn47h24p0v1k0qt/ English:
"Heat balance in the radiation field in
the presence of matter."
(University of Dacca) East Bengal,
India16  
[1] Description
AatyenBose1925.jpg English: Satyendra
Nath Bose in Paris 1925 Date
1925(1925) Source Picture in
Siliconeer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/AatyenBose1925.jpg
76 YBN
[08/??/1924 AD] 5 		4753)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
3. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Further Experiments on the
Artificial Disintegration of the
Elements", Proceedings of the Physical
Society, August 1924, 36, pp417-22.
http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-7814/36
/1/347/pdf/prv36i1p417.pdf
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Further
Experiments on the Artificial
Disintegration of the Elements",
Proceedings of the Physical Society,
August 1924, 36, pp417-22.
http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-7814/36
/1/347/pdf/prv36i1p417.pdf
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Further
Experiments on the Artificial
Disintegration of the Elements",
Proceedings of the Physical Society,
August 1924, 36, pp417-22.
http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-7814/36
/1/347/pdf/prv36i1p417.pdf {08/1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] Figure from: Ernest Rutherford,
''Further Experiments on the Artificial
Disintegration of the Elements'',
Proceedings of the Physical Society,
August 1924, 36, pp417-22.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-7
814/36/1/347/pdf/prv36i1p417.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
76 YBN
[08/??/1924 AD] 6 		4896)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "magneto." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magneto
2. ^ " "Death Ray" is Carried by Shafts
of Light", Popular Mechanics, Aug 1924,
p189. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popul
ar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k8
o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU&
hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved
=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ " "Death Ray" is
Carried by Shafts of Light", Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924,
p189. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popul
ar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k8
o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU&
hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved
=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
6. ^ " "Death Ray" is Carried by Shafts
of Light", Popular Mechanics, Aug 1924,
p189. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popul
ar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k8
o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU&
hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved
=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
{08/1924}
Chicago, Illinois, USA5  
[1] Image from '' ''Death Ray'' is
Carried by Shafts of Light'', Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924, p189. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popu
lar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k
8o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU
&hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ve
d=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Image from '' ''Death Ray'' is
Carried by Shafts of Light'', Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924,
p189. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popu
lar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k
8o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU
&hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ve
d=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
76 YBN
[12/17/1924 AD] 14 		5199) Asimov states that Blackett's
strong support of Watson-Watt helps to
develop radar which saves Britain in
World War II.10 (However, it seems
clear that light particle technology
has been developed to so extreme an
advanced state, that the continued
secret of, for example, neuron reading
and writing, in my view is simply
extremely evil, without much question
in my mind - to exclude millions of
humans from even knowing, seeing what
it looks like, etc... just absolutely
shocking on the level of auschwitz,
that average people can be so
inhuman.11 )

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1948 is
awarded to Patrick M.S. Blackett "for
his development of the Wilson cloud
chamber method, and his discoveries
therewith in the fields of nuclear
physics and cosmic radiation".12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
2. ^ P. M. S.
Blackett, "The Ejection of Protons from
Nitrogen Nuclei, Photographed by the
Wilson Method", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 107, No. 742
(Feb. 2, 1925), pp. 349-360.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94255
{Blackett_Patrick_19241217.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
5. ^ P. M. S.
Blackett, "The Ejection of Protons from
Nitrogen Nuclei, Photographed by the
Wilson Method", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 107, No. 742
(Feb. 2, 1925), pp. 349-360.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94255
{Blackett_Patrick_19241217.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physics 1948".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1948/
13. ^ P. M. S. Blackett, "The Ejection
of Protons from Nitrogen Nuclei,
Photographed by the Wilson Method",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 107, No. 742 (Feb. 2, 1925), pp.
349-360.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94255 {Bl
ackett_Patrick_19241217.pdf}
14. ^ P. M. S. Blackett, "The Ejection
of Protons from Nitrogen Nuclei,
Photographed by the Wilson Method",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 107, No. 742 (Feb. 2, 1925), pp.
349-360.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94255
{Blackett_Patrick_19241217.pdf} {12/1
7/1924}
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England13  
[1] The Normal Forks (Plate 6). Each
photograph shows the fork due to the
elastic collision between an
alphaparticle and a nucleus of
hydrogen, helium or nitrogen.* Symbols
used in the description of the
photographs b. The angle of deflection
of the alpha-particle. 0. The angle
between the initial track of the
alpha-particle and the track of the
nucleus with which it has collided.
Angles in brackets have only been
measured roughly. m/M. The ratio of
the masses of the colliding particles,
calcuLlated from equation
(1 Photograph. Type of atom struck
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/94255.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] ca.m/ by alpha-particle. cale.
tthhe/Mor y. 1 Hydrogen 80 27' 680 0'
0-253 0-2520 2 ,, 80 39' 660 23' 0-241
0 2520 3 Helium 380 34' 500 53' 0-981
1*000 4 Nitrogen* (450) - - 5 ,
(510) 6 '' (320) - -- 7 ,, (1210)
- 8 , 1280 44' 200 10' 4-1t 350 9 .
980 51' 330 39' 4- 1j {400 10 --
(110?) . - * A few of these collisions
are probably due to collision with
oxygen rather than nitrogen nuclei. t
The probable error of these
determiniations of m/M for N and 0 is
large, of the order of 0 -6, so that
these collisions may still be with N
atoms. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are all due to
alpha-particleso f range greatert han 7
cm. The calculated values of m/M show
that the collisions are
approximately elastic,a resulto f
importancein view of the very intimaten
atureo f the collisions. The serieso f
photographs4 to 10 showe xampleso f
elasticc ollisionso f varying angles
between alpha-particles and nitrogen
atoms. They emphasise the marked
contrast between the elastic and the
inelastic collisions (Plate 7). The
track of the nitrogena tom itself in
Nos. 6 and 10 makesa fork for which 0
+ +b 90?. These are clearly due to the
collision of one nitrogen atom with
another. The short isolated length of
track in No. 8, which nearly passes
through the divide of the fork, is due
to '' contamination,'' that is, to an
alpha-particle emitted by some
radioactive body that has strayed into
the chamber itself. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 6 		3614)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "telephone and
telephone system." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
4. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
5. ^
http://www.corp.att.com/attlabs/reputati
on/timeline/24fax.html
6. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>. {1924}
Cleveland, OH, (to NYC, NY), USA4 5
 		 
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 6 		4525)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
3. ^ "Hale,
George Ellery." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 26-34.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Hale, George Ellery."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hale, George Ellery."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
862>.
[2] "George Ellery Hale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[3] "George Ellery Hale." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[4] "George Ellery Hale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elle
ry_Hale
[5] George E. Hale, "Photography of the
Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H
[6] George Ellery Hale, "The new
heavens", 1922
http://books.google.com/books?id=bx0SA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22The+Ne
w+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrCsAP1xL
jaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19395/19
395-h/19395-h.htm
[7] Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[8] George E. Hale, "A Test of the
Electromagnetic Theory of the Hydrogen
Vortices Surrounding Sun-Spots",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 11, No. 11.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/84605?seq=5
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA5  
[1] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 14 		4696) For this work, in 1935 Spemann
wins the Nobel prize in medicine and
physiology.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p627-628.
2. ^ "Hans
Spemann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
3. ^ "Hans Spemann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
4. ^ "Hans Spemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
5. ^ "Hans Spemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
6. ^ "Spemann, Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 567-569. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904095&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Spemann, Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 567-569. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904095&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p627-628.
12. ^ "Hans
Spemann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
13. ^ "Hans Spemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
14. ^ "Hans Spemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Spemann, Hans."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
062>.
[2] "Hans Spemann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Speman
n
[3] Hans Spemann, "Embryonic
Development and Induction", 1938 Note:
all but the last of Spemann's works are
translated into English in this
book. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4cJoPAAACAAJ&dq=Embryonic+Development+an
d+Induction&hl=en&ei=qA9STPaHCNCMnQe1xaC
2Aw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1935/spemann-bio.html
(University of Freiburg) Breisgau,
Germany12 13  
[1] Hans Spemann [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/309/0
00127925/hans-spemann.jpg

[2] Hans Spemann UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1935/spemann.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 19 		4981)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p442.
3. ^ Eddington, A.
S., "On the relation between the masses
and luminosities of the stars", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 84,
p.308-332. {Eddington_Arthur_1924.pdf}
27 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1924M
NRAS..84..308E
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
15. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p442.
16. ^ Eddington,
A. S., "On the relation between the
masses and luminosities of the stars",
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 84,
p.308-332. {Eddington_Arthur_1924.pdf}
27 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1924M
NRAS..84..308E
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
19. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p442. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>
[2] Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
[3] Eddington, A. S., "The dynamics of
a globular stellar system", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 75,
p.366-376. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1915MNRAS..75..366E
[4] Eddington, A. S., "Stars, Gaseous,
On the pulsations of a gaseous star",
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 79, 1918,
p.2-22 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1918MNRAS..79R...2E/0000002.000
.html
[5] "Eddington, Arthur Stanley."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-282. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901279&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] A. Eddington, "Report on the
Relativity Theory of Gravitation",
1914. http://www.archive.org/stream/rep
ortontherelat028829mbp/reportontherelat0
28829mbp_djvu.txt
{Eddington_1918.pdf}
[7] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
[8] Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
Versus Relativity", 1922
[9] Herbert Dingle,
"Science at a Crossroads", 1972
[10] F. W.
Dyson, A. S. Eddington and C. Davidson,
"A Determination of the Deflection of
Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field,
from Observations Made at the Total
Eclipse of May 29, 1919", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical or Physical Character,
Vol. 220, (1920), pp.
291-333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/91
137
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England18  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 5 		5010) In 1934 Minot shares the Nobel
Prize in medicine and physiology with
Whipple and Murphy.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p703-704.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p703-704.
4. ^ "George Richards
Minot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/384541/George-Richards-Minot>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p703-704. {1924}
(Collis P. Huntington Memorial
Hospital, Harvard University)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA4
(presumably) 
[1] George Richards Minot UNKNOWN
source: http://assets.bolohealth.com/ass
ets/images/1815/George_Richards_Minot.jp
g
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 8 9 		5027)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p708.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p708.
3. ^ D Keilin,
"On the appearance of gas in the
tracheae of insects", Volume 1, Issue
2, pages 63–70, April
1924. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1924.tb00534.x/abs
tract {Keilin_David_19240207.pdf}
4. ^ D Keilin, "On cytochrome, a
respiratory pigment, common to animals,
yeast, and higher plants", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
B, 1925
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ D Keilin, "On
the appearance of gas in the tracheae
of insects", Volume 1, Issue 2, pages
63–70, April
1924. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1924.tb00534.x/abs
tract {Keilin_David_19240207.pdf}
8. ^ D Keilin, "On the appearance
of gas in the tracheae of insects",
Volume 1, Issue 2, pages 63–70,
April
1924. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1924.tb00534.x/abs
tract {Keilin_David_19240207.pdf}
{02/07/1924}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p708. {1924}
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England7  
[1] David Keilin UNKNOWN
source: http://biology.ucsd.edu/~msaier/
transport/petermitchell/DK.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 11 		5118) A student of Dart's, Josephine
Salmons, in the summer of 1924, had
brought Dart a fossil collected from a
limestone mine at Taung, Bechuanaland.
Dart names the species the skull
belongs to, "Australopithecus
africanus", meaning southern African
ape, and declares this species to be
intermediate between apes and humans.4
5

Dart and Broom then begin a systematic
search and uncover a number of other
fossils to confirm the existence of the
Australopithecus.6

The Leakys, Donald Johannsen and others
will show that Australopithicines
walked on two legs.7

Most people accept that a single
australopithecus is a direct ancestor
of all sapiens.8 (Verify9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737.
2. ^ Raymond Dart,
"Australopithecus africanus The Man-Ape
of South Africa", nature 115, 195-199
(07 February
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2884/abs/115195a0.html {Dart_
Raymond_19250207.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737.
4. ^ "Raymond Arthur
Dart." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/raymond-dar
t
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p737.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p737.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737. {1924}
(University of Witwatersrand)
Johannesburg, South Africa10  
[1] Figure 3 from: Raymond Dart,
''Australopithecus africanus The
Man-Ape of South Africa'', nature 115,
195-199 (07 February
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2884/abs/115195a0.html {Dart_
Raymond_19250207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v115/n2884/pdf/115195a0.pdf

[2] Raymond A Dart holding Taung
skull, 1925 (Dart Collection,
photographer unknown) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.wits.ac.za/NR/rdonlyr
es/7756F53B-42E2-4C04-A016-692D30A5F138/
0/dart1925.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 3 		6039) Giacomo Puccini (CE 1858-1924),
Italian composer, composes the opera
"Turandot" with the famous "Nessum
Dorma".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giacomo Puccini." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/482661/Giacomo-Puccini>.
2. ^ "Giacomo Puccini." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/482661/Giacomo-Puccini>.
3. ^ "Giacomo Puccini." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/482661/Giacomo-Puccini>. {1924
(incomplete at time of death)
(presumably}
Viareggio, Italy2 (presumably) 
[1] Description Composer
en:Giacomo Puccini in a studio
photograph. Date 2007-01-29
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was NewYork1956
at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/GiacomoPuccini.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 3 		6064) Al Jolson records the famous song
"California, Here I Come", a song
written for the 1921 Broadway musical
"Bombo", starring Al Jolson. The song
is written by Buddy DeSylva and Joseph
Meyer, with Jolson often listed as a
co-author.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "California Here I Come".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_
Here_I_Come
2. ^ "California Here I Come".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_
Here_I_Come
3. ^ "California Here I Come".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_
Here_I_Come {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Brunswick Records".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunswick_R
ecords
(Brunswick) Dubuque, Iowa, USA
(possibly)2  		 
75 YBN
[01/01/1925 AD] 21 22 		5060) Spiral nebulae proven to be other
galaxies containing stars and to be
very far away.8 9

US astronomer, Edwin Hubble (CE
1889-1953)10 shows that M31
(Andromeda) contains stars, and uses
the period of a variable star in M31 to
show that it is very far away (930,000
light-years).11 12

Hubble using the largest telescope at
this time, a 100-inch telescope on
Mount Wilson is the first to identify
individual stars in the Andromeda
“nebula” (later known to be a
galaxy), and finding variable stars,
using the period-luminosity law of
Shapley and Leavitt, Hubble calculates
that Andromeda is 800,000 light years
away, eight times the distance of the
farthest identifiable star in our own
galaxy, and so there is no question
that the Andromeda nebula is located
outside of our own galaxy. Hubble
calculates other spiral nebulae to be
even farther, billions of light years
away, and so in this way Hubble starts
to study of the universe beyond our own
galaxy. Hubble calls these nebulae
outside of our galaxy “extragalactic
nebulae”, and Shapley will later
suggest that they be called galaxies,
recognizing that our own galaxy is only
one of many.13 14

Apparently Hubble's original 1925 paper
has not survived, but a summary appears
in the "Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific".
This paper was read for Hubble on
January 1, 1925 at the Annual
Astronomical Society meeting.15
Hubble
writes in "Cepheids in Spiral
Nebulae":
"Messier 31 and 33, the only spirals
that can be seen with the naked eye,
have recently been made the subject of
detailed investigations with the
100-inch and 60-inch reflectors of the
Mount Wilson Observatory. Novae are a
common phenomenon in M31 and Duncan has
reported three variables within the
area covered by M33. With these
exceptions there seems to have been no
definite evidence of actual stars
involved in spirals. Under good
observing conditions, however, the
outer regions of both spirals are
resolved into dense swarms of images in
no way differing from those of ordinary
stars. A survey of the plates made with
the blink-comparator has revealed many
variable among the stars, a large
proportion of which show the
characteristic light-curve of the
Cepheids.
Up to the present time some 47
variables, including Duncan's three,
and one true nova have been found in
M33. For M31, the numbers are 36
variables and 46 novae, including the
22 novae previously discovered by Mount
Wilson observers. Periods and
photographic magnitudes have been
determined for 22 Cepheids in M33 and
12 in M31. Others of the variables are
probably Cepheids, judging from their
sharp rise and slow decline, but some
are definitely not of this type. One in
particular, Duncan's No. 2 in M33, has
been brightening fairly steadily with
only minor fluctuations since about
1906. It has now reached the 15th
magnitude and has a spectrum of the
bright line B type.
...
Shapley's period-luminosity curve for
Cepheids, as given in his study of
globular clusters, is constructed on a
basis of visual magnitudes. It can be
reduced to photgraphic magnitudes by
means of his relation between period
and colour-index, given in the same
paper, and the result represents his
original data. The slope is of the
order of that for spirals, but is not
precisely the same. In comparing the
two, greater weight must be given to
the brighter portion of the curve for
the spirals, because of the greater
reliability of the magnitude
determinations. When this is done, the
resulting values of M-m are -21.8 and
-21.9 for M31 and M33 respectively.
These must be corrected by half the
average ranges of the Cepheids in the
two spirals, and the final values are
then on the order of -22.3 for both
nebulae. The corresponding distance is
about 285,000 parsecs* {ULSF: original
footnote: *Equal to 930,000
light-years}. The greatest uncertainty
is probably in the zero-point of
Shapley's curve.
The results rest on three
major assumptions: (1) The variables
are actually connected with the
spirals; (2) There is no serious amount
of absorption due to amorphous
nebulosity in the spirals; (3) The
nature of Cepheid variation is uniform
throughout the observable portion of
the universe. As for the first, besides
the weighty arguments based on analogy
and probability, it may be mentioned
that no Cepheids have been found on the
several plates of the neighboring
selected areas Nos. 21 and 45, on a
special series of plates centred on
BD+35°207, just midway between the two
spirals, nor in ten other fields well
distributed in galactic latitude, for
which six or more long exposures are
available. The second assumption is
very strongly supported by the small
dispersion in the period-luminosity
curve for M33. In M31, in spite of the
somewhat larger dispersion, there is no
evidence of an absorption-effect to be
measured in magnitudes.
These two spirals are not
unique. Variables have also been found
in M81, M101, and N.G.C. 2403, although
as yet sufficient plates have not been
accumulated to determine the nature of
their variation.".16

(Hubble's writing sounds kind of
pro-sex with "naked" and "covered" in
the first paragraph.17 )
(It must have
been confusing until Shapley made the
name change from extra-galactic nebulae
to galaxy, because there are nebulae
like the gas cloud in Orion that are
not "extra-galactic nebulae".18 )

(Show the actual calculations of
distance if possible. How does the
magnification of the telescope, and
size of image enter into the
equations?19 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
2. ^ Hubble, E. P.,
"Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
4. ^ Hubble, E. P.,
"Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
7. ^ Hubble, E.
P., "Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
9. ^ Hubble, E. P.,
"Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
12. ^ Hubble, E.
P., "Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
14. ^ Berendzen, R. &
Hoskin, M., "Hubble's Announcement of
Cepheids in Spiral Nebulae",
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Leaflets, Vol. 10, No. 504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html
15. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html
16. ^ Hubble, E. P., "Cepheids in
spiral nebulae", The Observatory, Vol.
48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html
21. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html {01/01/1925}
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The
realm of the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&o
ts=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA20  
[1] Hubble's Famous M31 VAR!
plate On the night of October 5-6,
1923, Carnegie astronomer Edwin P.
Hubble took a plate of the Andromeda
Galaxy (Messier 31) with the Hooker
100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory. This plate, with
identification number H335H (''Hooker
plate 335 by Hubble''), is famous for
having led to his discovery of the
first Cepheid variable star in M31,
which established beyond any doubt that
M31 was a separate galaxy from our
own. Shown here are three images of
Plate H335H as well as three images of
a similar plate, H331H, which Hubble
took the night before. The letters N
on Plate H335H mark Novae, stars marked
by Hubble as new when compared with
earlier plates. The first Cepheid
variable discovered has its letter N
crossed out and is marked ''VAR!'',
showing that Hubble originally thought
it was a nova, but eventually
discovered that it varied in brightness
like a Cepheid. The first image of
H335H shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). The first image of H335H
shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). COPYRIGHT: The above
images are all copyright protected.
Downloads for inspection, scientific
and historical work are free. However,
any reproduction in commercial products
(including books) must be licensed by
Carnegie Observatories and will be
assessed a permission fee. For
permission to use any of these images
in a commercial product, please contact
John Grula NONCOMMERICAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_emuls_0681_38_wm.jpg

[2] Edwin Hubble (with pipe)
Photograph of famous deceased scientist
Edwin Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg
75 YBN
[01/16/1925 AD] 22 		5233) The 1945 Nobel Prize in Physics
is awarded to Wolfgang Pauli "for the
discovery of the Exclusion Principle,
also called the Pauli Principle".20
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p772-773.
2. ^ W. Pauli, "Über
den Zusammenhang des Abschlusses der
Elektronengruppen im Atom mit der
Komplexstruktur der Spektren", ("On the
relation of the completion of electron
groups in the atom with the complex
structure of spectra"), Zeitschrift
für physik. V31 N1 (1925),
p765. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/20w1m0vr050j033r/ English
translation is in: D. Ter Haar, "The
Old Quantum Theory", 1967, p184: W.
Pauli, "On the Connexion between the
Completion of Electron Groups in an
Atom with the Complex Structure of
Spectra". {Pauli_Wolfgang_english_19250
116.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p772-773.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p772-773.
5. ^ "Pauli,
Wolfgang." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 422-425.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p445.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ W. Pauli, "Über den
Zusammenhang des Abschlusses der
Elektronengruppen im Atom mit der
Komplexstruktur der Spektren", ("On the
relation of the completion of electron
groups in the atom with the complex
structure of spectra"), Zeitschrift
für physik. V31 N1 (1925),
p765. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/20w1m0vr050j033r/ {Pauli_Wolfgang_en
glish_19250116.pdf} English
translation is in: D. Ter Haar, "The
Old Quantum Theory", 1967, p184: W.
Pauli, "On the Connexion between the
Completion of Electron Groups in an
Atom with the Complex Structure of
Spectra".
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1945". Nobelprize.org.
1 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1945/
21. ^ W. Pauli, "Über den Zusammenhang
des Abschlusses der Elektronengruppen
im Atom mit der Komplexstruktur der
Spektren", ("On the relation of the
completion of electron groups in the
atom with the complex structure of
spectra"), Zeitschrift für physik. V31
N1 (1925),
p765. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/20w1m0vr050j033r/ {Pauli_Wolfgang_en
glish_19250116.pdf} English
translation is in: D. Ter Haar, "The
Old Quantum Theory", 1967, p184: W.
Pauli, "On the Connexion between the
Completion of Electron Groups in an
Atom with the Complex Structure of
Spectra".
22. ^ W. Pauli, "Über den Zusammenhang
des Abschlusses der Elektronengruppen
im Atom mit der Komplexstruktur der
Spektren", ("On the relation of the
completion of electron groups in the
atom with the complex structure of
spectra"), Zeitschrift für physik. V31
N1 (1925),
p765. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/20w1m0vr050j033r/ {Pauli_Wolfgang_en
glish_19250116.pdf} English
translation is in: D. Ter Haar, "The
Old Quantum Theory", 1967, p184: W.
Pauli, "On the Connexion between the
Completion of Electron Groups in an
Atom with the Complex Structure of
Spectra". {01/16/1925}
(Institute fur Theoretische Physik)
Hamburg, Germany21  
[1] Wolfgang Pauli UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/p
ictures/people/people-portrait-pauli.jpg

75 YBN
[02/21/1925 AD] 12 		5105)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
2. ^ E. V. APPLETON &
M. A. F. BARNETT , "Local Reflection
of Wireless Waves from the Upper
Atmosphere", nature 115, 333-334 (07
March
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2888/abs/115333a0.html
Appleton_Edward_19250221.pdf}
3. ^ E. V. Appleton and M. A. F.
Barnett, "On Some Direct Evidence for
Downward Atmospheric Reflection of
Electric Rays", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 109, No. 752
(Dec. 1, 1925), pp. 621-641
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94440
{Appleton_Edward_19251014.pdf}
4. ^ "Edward Victor Appleton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-vict
or-appleton
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
7. ^ E. V.
APPLETON , "The Existence of more than
one Ionised Layer in the Upper
Atmosphere", nature 120, 330-330 (03
September
1927). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v120/n3018/abs/120330a0.html {Appl
eton_Edward_19270903.pdf}
8. ^ "Edward Victor Appleton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-vict
or-appleton
9. ^ E. V. APPLETON & M. A. F. BARNETT
, "Local Reflection of Wireless Waves
from the Upper Atmosphere", nature 115,
333-334 (07 March
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2888/abs/115333a0.html
Appleton_Edward_19250221.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
12. ^ E. V. APPLETON
& M. A. F. BARNETT , "Local Reflection
of Wireless Waves from the Upper
Atmosphere", nature 115, 333-334 (07
March
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2888/abs/115333a0.html
Appleton_Edward_19250221.pdf}
{02/21/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] E. V. APPLETON , "The
Existence of more than one Ionised
Layer in the Upper Atmosphere", nature
120, 330-330 (03 September
1927). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v120/n3018/abs/120330a0.html
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
(King's College) London, England11
 
[1] Edward Victor Appleton UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ukssdc.ac.uk/ionosond
es/history/evappleton.gif
75 YBN
[03/19/1925 AD] 3 		6065)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sweet Georgia Brown". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Georg
ia_Brown
2. ^ "Ben Bernie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Bernie
3. ^ "Sweet Georgia Brown". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Georg
ia_Brown {03/19/1925 (recorded}
New York City, New York, USA2
(probably) 		 
75 YBN
[04/04/1925 AD] 4 		4754)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Disintegration of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature, April 4 1925, 115,
pp493-4.
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Disintegration
of Atomic Nuclei", Nature, April 4
1925, 115, pp493-4.
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford,
"Disintegration of Atomic Nuclei",
Nature, April 4 1925, 115, pp493-4.
{04/04/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022.
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395.
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902.
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208.
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3.
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20.
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8.
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400.
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41.
[34] Ernest Rutherford,
"Artificial Disintegration of the
Elements", Proceedings of the Physical
Society, August 1924, 36, pp417-22.
[35] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
75 YBN
[05/18/1925 AD] 32 		4882)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
2. ^ Adams, "The
Relativity Displacement of the Spectral
Lines in the companion of Sirius",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, v11, issue7, (1925),
p382–387.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7/382
{Adams_Walter_19250518.pdf}
3. ^ "Adams, Walter Sydney." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 54-58. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Eddington, Stars and
Atoms, 1927, p.
52. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZK
Q5AAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:Mh8uMejB96UC
6. ^ "Adams, Walter Sydney." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 54-58. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p660.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Adams, "The Relativity
Displacement of the Spectral Lines in
the companion of Sirius", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
v11, issue7, (1925), p382–387.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7/382
{Adams_Walter_19250518.pdf}
16. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Record
ID4881. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Record
ID3685. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
31. ^ "Walter Sydney
Adams." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
32. ^ Adams, "The Relativity
Displacement of the Spectral Lines in
the companion of Sirius", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
v11, issue7, (1925), p382–387.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7/382
{Adams_Walter_19250518.pdf}
{05/18/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Adams." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5195/Walter-Sydney-Adams>
[2] "Walter Sydney Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sydn
ey_Adams
[3] W. Adams, “The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius.”, Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 27 (1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se
[4] Walter Adams, "A Spectroscopic
Method of Determining Parallaxes",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 2 (1916), 147–152;
http://books.google.com/books?id=eu8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Meth
od+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&ei=Je
jZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=on
epage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%20of%
20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
[5] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
[6] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
[7] "Arnold Kohlschütter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321123/Arnold-Kohlschutter>
[8] Adams, W. S., "The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 27, No. 161,
p.236. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
915PASP...27..236A
and http://books.google.com/books?id=7i
UAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=%22The+Spectrum+o
f+the+Companion+of+Sirius%22&hl=en&ei=Yw
PnTOGNFY_6swPGne2xCw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=on
epage&q=%22The%20Spectrum%20of%20the%20C
ompanion%20of%20Sirius%22&f=false
[9] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between The Spectra And Other
Characteristics of the Stars", Popular
Astronomy, V22, N5, WN215, May 1914,
p275. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+a
pparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en&
ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4Q
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20app
arent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22&
f=false
[10] J. B. Hearnshaw, "The analysis of
starlight: one hundred and fifty years
of astronomical ...", p352. The
analysis of starlight: one hundred and
fifty years of astronomical
. http://books.google.com/books?id=iCs4
AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA352&dq=spectrum+40+o2++eri
dani+B&hl=en&ei=GB_nTICzDI36swPu17yxCw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=spectrum%2040%
20o2%20%20eridani%20B&f=false
[11] Russell, H. N., "Notes on white
dwarfs and small companions",
Astronomical Journal, Vol. 51, p. 13
(1944). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1944AJ.....51...13R
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA31  
[1] Table from: Adams, ''The
Relativity Displacement of the Spectral
Lines in the companion of Sirius'',
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, v11, issue7, (1925),
p382–387.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7/382
{Adams_Walter_19250518.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7
/382

[2] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg
75 YBN
[06/06/1925 AD] 13 14 15 		5024)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707-708.
2. ^ "Manne
Siegbahn." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn
3. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
4. ^ "Manne Siegbahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn
5. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
6. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
7. ^ "Siegbahn, Karl Manne Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 821-826. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905333&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
13. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html {06/06/1925}
14. ^ "Manne
Siegbahn." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn {1925}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707-708. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543192/Karl-Manne-Georg-Siegbahn>
[2] Manne Siegbahn, Einar Friman, "On
an X-ray vacuum spectrograph",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 32, Issue 191, 1916,
Pages 494 – 496
[3] Manne Siegbahn,
"Precision-measurements in the X-ray
spectra.", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 37, Issue
222, 1919, Pages 601 – 612
[4] Manne
Siegbahn, "Precision-measurements in
the X-ray spectra. Part II",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 227, 1919,
Pages 639 – 646
[5] Manne Siegbahn; A. B.
Leide, "LXIV. Precision-measurements in
the X-ray spectra. Part
III", Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 227, 1919,
Pages 647 – 651
[6] Elis Hjalmar, "LIX.
Precision-measurements in the X-ray
spectra. Part IV.—K-series, the
elements Cu—Na", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 244, 1921, Pages 675 – 681
[7]
Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (1925)
[8]
Manne Siegbahn, Einar Friman, "On the
high-frequency spectra (L-series) of
the elements tantalum-uranium",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
32, Issue 187 July 1916 , pages 39 - 49
[9]
M. Siegbahn, "Relations between the K
and L Series of the High-Frequency
Spectra", Nature, Volume 96, Issue
2416, pp. 676
(1916). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v96/n2416/abs/096676b0.html
[10] E Bäcklin, M Siegbahn,
“Semi-optical” lines in the X-ray
spectra, Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 49, Issue 292,
1925, Pages 752 – 753
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden12  
[1] Figures 2 and 3: M Siegbahn, ''La
réflexion et la réfraction des rayons
X'', Journal de Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/20/52/11/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1925_6
_7_228_0.pdf

[2] The image of Swedish physicist,
and Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg
75 YBN
[07/13/1925 AD] 9 		5059)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
2. ^ "Vladimir
Kosma Zworykin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p719-720.
4. ^ "Vladimir Kosma
Zworykin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
5. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
6. ^ "Vladimir
Kosma Zworykin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
7. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
{07/13/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
[2] VK Zworykin, "Electric
high-frequency signaling apparatus", US
Patent 1,484,049,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT1484049&id=vBFCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=zworykin&printsec=abstract#v=on
epage&q=zworykin&f=false
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
 
[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
75 YBN
[09/05/1925 AD] 7 		5112)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
2. ^ A. H. Compton
and R. L. Doan, "X-Ray Spectra from a
Ruled Reflection Grating", PNAS 1925
V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
{Compton_Arthur_19250905.pdf}
3. ^ "Compton, Arthur Holly." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 366-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900965&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
{Compton_Arthur_19250905.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ A. H. Compton and R. L.
Doan, "X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled
Reflection Grating", PNAS 1925 V11
(I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
{Compton_Arthur_19250905.pdf}
7. ^ A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
{Compton_Arthur_19250905.pdf} {09/05/
1925}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-lecture.pdf
[3] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1
[4] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
[5] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777
[6]
A. Compton, "The total reflexion of
X-rays", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270,
1923, Pages 1121 – 1131
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA6  
[1] Figures 2-5 from: A. H. Compton
and R. L. Doan, ''X-Ray Spectra from a
Ruled Reflection Grating'', PNAS 1925
V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
{Compton_Arthur_19250905.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/11/1
0/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5-47
ce-93b4-6e4248df2927

[2] Arthur Compton and his assistant
Richard Doan headed the Metallurgical
Laboratory at the University of
Chicago. Compton made Doan research
director at Clinton Laboratories in
1943. PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlrev
iew/rev25-34/1-1314.jpg
75 YBN
[10/22/1925 AD] 13 		5292) Dr. Julius Edgar Lilienfeld was a
German scientist who worked at the
University of Leipzig before
immigrating to the U.S. in the 1920's
(due to the increasing persecution of
Jews in Germany). Lilienfeld operated
the first large scale hydrogen
liquification facility in Germany.10

It may be that Lilienfeld was aware of
neuron reading and writing in Germany,
but then when excluded, or persecuted
because of being jewish, he went to the
USA, and in the USA, perhaps he was
also excluded from neuron reading and
writing, as a German immigrant, and so
felt no fear or reason not to patent
and go public with some technology he
had learned about as an insider. I can
only guess, it would be interesting to
see the actual story as told by the
flying dust cameras and neuron thought
image and sound readers.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
2. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
5. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
6. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, "METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS", US Filing date: Oct 8, 1926,
Canada filing date: October 22, 1925,
Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
13. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {10/22/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lilienfeld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lili
enfeld
[2] Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[3] Julius Lilienfeld, "Device for
Controlling Electric Current", Patent
number: 1900018, Filing date: Mar 28,
1928, Issue date: Mar 7
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Julius Lilienfeld, "Rectifying
Apparatus for Alternating Current",
Patent number: 1611653, Filing date:
Mar 27, 1926, Issue date: Dec 21,
1926. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
L7RrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[5] Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
Brooklyn, New York City, New York,
USA12  
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
75 YBN
[11/16/1925 AD] 27 		5282) As a youth after WW I, Heisenberg
engaged in street fights with
Communists in Munich.15 (Here,
Heisenberg clearly shows no interest in
stopping violence, or support for laws
against violence.16 )

In 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded to Werner Heisenberg "for the
creation of quantum mechanics, the
application of which has, inter alia,
led to the discovery of the allotropic
forms of hydrogen".17 ("inter alia" is
Latin for "among other things") The
theory of a quantum was originated by
Max Planck.18 Quantum atomic theory
which views atomic motions as
controlled by integral quanta of energy
and momenta was formulated by Niels
Bohr in 1913.19

In his life Heisenberg publishes over
500 independent works, of which some
100 may be considered original
scientific contributions. The others
concern philosophical, cultural
political, and popular subjects.20

(I think I need to look more closely at
exactly what Heisenberg was claiming,
but to me I think we can model the
universe using integers although it is
almost useless for practical purposes.
I think even if humans forever have
have uncertainty in knowing where and
what velocity, matter exists in certain
exact locations with exact
velocities.21 )

Asimov states that Heisenberg is one of
the few top notch scientists who find
themselves able to work under the
Nazis. Heisenberg accepts high
positions under the Nazis, although
refusing them might mean being
murdered.22 However, in 1937
Heisenberg receives a call to join the
University of Munich. Thereupon the
official SS journal publishes an
article signed by Stark that calls
Heisenberg a "white Jew" and the
"Ossietzky of physics".23

During WW2 Heisenberg is in charge of
German research on the atomic bomb. The
war ends before they are successful.24


After WW 2 Heisenberg moves to West
Germany.25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
2. ^ M. Born, W.
Heisenberg and P. Jordan, "Zur
Quantenmechanik. II.", " Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 35, Numbers 8-9,
557-615.". http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r46w151t550pl624/ {Heisenberg_W
erner_19251116.pdf}
3. ^ W Heisenberg, "Über
quantentheoretische Umdeutung
kinematischer und mechanischer
Beziehungen.", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 33, Number
1,
879-893. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w22847j178u03029/ {Heisenberg_Wer
ner_19250729.pdf} English: "Quantum-th
eoretical re-interpretation of
kinematic and mechanical
relations" http://fisica.ciens.ucv.ve/~
svincenz/SQM261.pdf {Heisenberg_Werner_
English_19250729.pdf}
4. ^ M. Born and P. Jordan, "Zur
Quantenmechanik", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 34,
Number 1,
858-888. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/n37p409386132728/ {Born_Max_19250
927.pdf}
5. ^ M. Born, W. Heisenberg and P.
Jordan, "Zur Quantenmechanik. II.", "
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 35, Numbers 8-9,
557-615.". http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r46w151t550pl624/ {Heisenberg_W
erner_19251116.pdf}
6. ^ "Werner Heisenberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physics 1932".
Nobelprize.org. 8 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1932/
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Heisenberg, Werner
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 394-403.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905152&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
20. ^ "Heisenberg, Werner Karl."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 394-403. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905152&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
23. ^ "Werner
Heisenberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
26. ^ M. Born, W.
Heisenberg and P. Jordan, "Zur
Quantenmechanik. II.", " Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 35, Numbers 8-9,
557-615.". http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r46w151t550pl624/ {Heisenberg_W
erner_19251116.pdf}
27. ^ M. Born, W. Heisenberg and P.
Jordan, "Zur Quantenmechanik. II.", "
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 35, Numbers 8-9,
557-615.". http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r46w151t550pl624/ {Heisenberg_W
erner_19251116.pdf} {11/16/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Über den anschaulichen
Inhalt der quantentheoretischen
Kinematik und Mechanik", ("On the
ideological content of quantum
theoretical kinematics and mechanics"),
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 43, Numbers 3-4,
172-198. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/t8173612621026q5/
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany26  
[1] Werner Karl Heisenberg Library of
Congress There are some photos of
Heisenberg with unusual looking hair
style, which is characteristic of
theoretical math and physics people. it
goes back into the 1800s if not
earlier. Perhaps it is some kind of
gimmick to attract attention, or
perhaps just simply an expression of a
creative non-conformist mind.[t] PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSwerner.jpg
75 YBN
[11/20/1925 AD] 13 14 		5254)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776-777.
2. ^ "George Eugene
Uhlenbeck." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/612745/George-Eugene-Uhlenbeck>.
3. ^ Uhlenbeck, G. E.; Goudsmit, S.,
"Spinning Electrons and the Structure
of Spectra", Nature, Volume 117, Issue
2938, pp. 264-265 (1926).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_George_
192512xx.pdf}
4. ^ Uhlenbeck, G. E.; Goudsmit, S.,
"Ersetzung der Hypothese vom
unmechanischen Zwang durch eine
Forderung bezüglich des inneren
Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons",
Naturwissenschaften, Nov. 20, 1925,
p953-954. {Uhlenbeck_George_19251120.pd
f}
5. ^ "George Eugene Uhlenbeck."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/612745/George-Eugene-Uhlenbeck>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776-777.
7. ^ Uhlenbeck, G.
E.; Goudsmit, S., "Spinning Electrons
and the Structure of Spectra", Nature,
Volume 117, Issue 2938, pp. 264-265
(1926).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_George_
192512xx.pdf}
8. ^ N. BOHR, "Spinning Electrons and
the Structure of Spectra", Nature,
Volume 117, Issue 2938,
p265. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_Ge
orge_192512xx.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Uhlenbeck, G. E.; Goudsmit, S.,
"Spinning Electrons and the Structure
of Spectra", Nature, Volume 117, Issue
2938, pp. 264-265 (1926).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_George_
192512xx.pdf}
13. ^ Uhlenbeck, G. E.; Goudsmit, S.,
"Spinning Electrons and the Structure
of Spectra", Nature, Volume 117, Issue
2938, pp. 264-265 (1926).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_George_
192512xx.pdf} {11/20/1925}
14. ^ Uhlenbeck, G. E.;
Goudsmit, S., "Ersetzung der Hypothese
vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine
Forderung bezüglich des inneren
Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons",
Naturwissenschaften, Nov. 20, 1925,
p953-954. {Uhlenbeck_George_19251120.pd
f} {11/20/1925}
(Instituut voor Theoretische
Natuurkunde) Leyden, Netherlands12
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Uhlenbeck, G. E.;
Goudsmit, S., ''Spinning Electrons and
the Structure of Spectra'', Nature,
Volume 117, Issue 2938, pp. 264-265
(1926).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_George_
192512xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v117/n2938/pdf/117264a0.pdf

[2] George Uhlenbeck, Hendrik Kramers,
and Samuel Goudsmit around 1928 in Ann
Arbor. Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit proposed
the idea of electron spins three years
earlier when they were studying in
Leiden with Paul Ehrenfest. A high
resolution picture may be obtained from
AIP's Emilio Sergè Visual
Archives source:
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/ph
yslist.html
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/
gif/phys/uhkrgo.jpg alternative:
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
PictDisplay/Kramers.html
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.u
k/PictDisplay/Uhlenbeck.html
According to MacTutor: We believe
that most of the images are in the
public domain and that provided you use
them on a website you are unlikely to
encounter any difficulty. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/UhlenbeckKramer
sGoudsmit.jpg/300px-UhlenbeckKramersGoud
smit.jpg
75 YBN
[11/??/1925 AD] 3 		4802)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Radio Waves from the Brain?",
Popular Science, 11/1925,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Ferdinando+Cazzam
ali&hl=en&ei=8iyhTI7OOIL0swOqw_yMAQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Ferdinando%20Cazz
amali&f=false
2. ^ "Radio Waves from the Brain?",
Popular Science, 11/1925,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Ferdinando+Cazzam
ali&hl=en&ei=8iyhTI7OOIL0swOqw_yMAQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Ferdinando%20Cazz
amali&f=false
3. ^ "Radio Waves from the Brain?",
Popular Science, 11/1925,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Ferdinando+Cazzam
ali&hl=en&ei=8iyhTI7OOIL0swOqw_yMAQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Ferdinando%20Cazz
amali&f=false
New York City, NY, USA2   
75 YBN
[11/??/1925 AD] 7 		4803)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Radio Waves from the Brain?",
Popular Science, 11/1925,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Ferdinando+Cazzam
ali&hl=en&ei=8iyhTI7OOIL0swOqw_yMAQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Ferdinando%20Cazz
amali&f=false
2. ^ "Telepathy", Theosophy, 02/1926,
p185-187. {Telepathy_Theosophy_192602xx
.pdf}
3. ^ Theosophy, 1928, Vol
16 http://books.google.com/books?id=9Nv
RAAAAMAAJ&q=Ferdinando+Cazzamali&dq=Ferd
inando+Cazzamali&hl=en&ei=2gOlTKSlB5OosA
PQ9qD9Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Theosophy, Feb 1926, Vol
14
http://books.google.com/books?ei=iQalT
LfaNpDEsAPW0KD9Dg&ct=result&id=3drRAAAAM
AAJ&dq=intitle%3Atheosophy&q=cazzamali#s
earch_anchor
6. ^ "Radio Waves from the Brain?",
Popular Science, 11/1925,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Ferdinando+Cazzam
ali&hl=en&ei=8iyhTI7OOIL0swOqw_yMAQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Ferdinando%20Cazz
amali&f=false
7. ^ "Radio Waves from the Brain?",
Popular Science, 11/1925,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Ferdinando+Cazzam
ali&hl=en&ei=8iyhTI7OOIL0swOqw_yMAQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Ferdinando%20Cazz
amali&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] Kenneth Wilcox Payne, "Is
Telepathy All Bunk? What Scientists
Have Discovered About This Widely
Discussed Subject in Thousands of
Exhaustive Tests", 02/1928, p32.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VycDA
AAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_a
tb#v=onepage&q&f=false
(University of Milan5 )Milan, Italy6
 		 
75 YBN
[12/24/1925 AD] 9 10 		4512)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
3. ^ Millikan, R.
A., "High Frequency Rays of Cosmic
Origin I. Sounding Balloon Observations
at Extreme Altitudes", Phys. Rev. 27,
353–361
(1926) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v27/i4/p353_1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Millikan, Robert
Andrews." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902971&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 395-400. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902971&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p619-620.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
Millikan, R. A., "High Frequency Rays
of Cosmic Origin I. Sounding Balloon
Observations at Extreme Altitudes",
Phys. Rev. 27, 353–361
(1926) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v27/i4/p353_1 {12/24/1925}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p619-620. {1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Millikan, Robert Andrews."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
732>
[2] "Robert Andrews Millikan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[3] "Robert Andrews Millikan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-mill
ikan
[4] R. A. Millikan, "A new modification
of the cloud method of determining the
elementary electrical charge and the
most probable value of that charge",
The American Physical Society, Vol 29,
p560. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iL4WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA560&dq=A+new+modificat
ion+of+the+cloud+method+of+determining+t
he+elementary+electrical+charge+and+the+
most+probable+value+of+that+charge&hl=en
&ei=Dl02TNLmMc-nnQeG_9jxCg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A%20new%20modification%20o
f%20the%20cloud%20method%20of%20determin
ing%20the%20elementary%20electrical%20ch
arge%20and%20the%20most%20probable%20val
ue%20of%20that%20charge&f=false
[5] R. A. Millikan, "The isolation of
an ion, a precision measurement of its
charge, and the correction of Stoke's
law", Physical Review (Series I), 32
(4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/
[6] Millikan, R.A.; "Einstein's
Photoelectric Equation and Contact
Electromotive Force", Phys. Rev. 7
(1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916
[7] Millikan, R. A., "A Direct
Photoelectric Determination of Planck's
"h"", Phys. Rev. 7, 355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA 
[1] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg

[2] Description Robert Andrews
Millikan.jpg English: A picture on the
inside cover of the book listed
below. Date 2008-09-13 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Odie5533 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : The
Electron: Its Isolation and
Measurements and the Determination of
Some of its Properties, Robert Andrews
Millikan, 1917) Author Robert
Andrews Millikan Original uploader was
Chhe at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Robert_Andrews_Millik
an.jpg
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 8 9 		4299)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p566.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p566.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "John
Jacob Abel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
6. ^ "Abel, John Jacob." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-12. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830900017&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "John Jacob Abel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Apr.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
8. ^ "Abel, John Jacob." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-12. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830900017&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1925}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p566. {1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abel, John Jacob."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
310>.
[2] "John Jacob Abel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-jacob-
abel
[3] "John Jacob Abel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_
Abel
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA7  
[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 6 		4990)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694.
2. ^ "Roy Chapman
Andrews." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/24006/Roy-Chapman-Andrews>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Roy
Chapman Andrews." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/24006/Roy-Chapman-Andrews>.
6. ^ "Roy Chapman Andrews."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/24006/Roy-Chapman-Andrews>. {1925}
Central Asia5  
[1] Roy Chapman Andrews 50488r.jpg Roy
Chapman Andrews English: TITLE: Roy
Cha[p]man Andrews en:Roy Chapman
Andrews CALL NUMBER: LC-B2-
5348-13[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-50489 (digital file from
original negative) No known
restrictions on publication. MEDIUM:
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [no date
recorded on caption
card] NOTES: Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Forms part of: George
Grantham Bain Collection (Library of
Congress). Temp. note: Batch eight
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: en:Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 50489 Original
found at: [1] CARD #:
ggb2006014905 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Roy_Chapman_Andrews_5
0488r.jpg
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 11 		5017) In 1947 Robinson wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry.8
From 1945-1950
Robinson is the President of the Royal
Society.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705-706.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p705-706.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705-706.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705-706.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p705-706.
10. ^ "Sir Robert
Robinson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/505762/Sir-Robert-Robinson>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705-706. {1925}
(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England10  
[1] Sir Robert Robinson (September 13,
1886 – February 8, 1975), English
organic chemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_
prizes/chemistry/laureates/1947/robinson
_postcard.jpg Article Robert
Robinson (organic chemist) Portion
used UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/93/Robert_Robinson_organic_ch
emist.jpg
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 12 		5065) Vannevar Bush (CE 1890-1974), US
electrical engineer,3 and colleagues
at MIT build a machine that can solve
differential equations. (Kelvin had
worked out the theory for such a
machine 50 years earlier and Babbage
had tried to build a computer 100 years
before). According to Asimov, this is
the first analog computer. The first
electronic computer (Eniac) will be
built in 1946 (using vacuum tubes as
electric switches4 ). Computers will
greatly speed mathematical calculation
and universe modeling. For example, the
calculations to a work out (an average,
or year's worth of5 ) the orbit of
planet Mars, which took Kepler 4 years
to calculate, can be done in 1964 in 8
seconds, and pi can be calculated to
10,000 places in a few hours.6

Bush designs a series of mechanical
calculators, termed "differential
analyzers", that are initially useful
for simulating the operations of
electric power grids.7

(Show and explain how these machines
work. Do they use any electricity? If
not using electricity, I don't think
they should be called "analog"
computers.8 )

(Clearly electronic computers go back
into the 1800s, but how far back, like
neuron reading and writing, is unknown.
There is something a little absurd in
the statement: "Bush designed a series
of mechanical calculators, termed
differential analyzers, that were
initially useful for simulating the
operations of electric power grids," -
because they have electricity but are
publicly using mechanical calculators?
In particular given 200 years of neuron
reading and writing.9 )
While still at
MIT, he cofounded a successful radio
tube company: Raytheon.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722-723.
2. ^ V Bush, "The
differential analyzer. A new machine
for solving differential equations
Journal of the Franklin Institute",
Volume 212, Issue 4, October 1931,
Pages
447-488. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WPXW1
-1HB&_user=4422&_coverDate=10%2F31%2F193
1&_alid=1644913333&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_or
ig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list
_item&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docancho
r=&view=c&_ct=3&_acct=C000059600&_versio
n=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=2b820
d719a1c43fafaa98b875e421d9d&searchtype=a
 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=jv_kN
wAACAAJ&dq=%22The+differential+analyzer%
22&hl=en&ei=sWsfTZKkJYSosAPgxoTXCg&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0C
CMQ6AEwAA {Bush_Vannevar_193110xx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722-723.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722-723.
7. ^ "Vannevar Bush."
The Oxford Companion to American
Military History. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 2000. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vannevar-bu
sh
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Vannevar
Bush." The Oxford Companion to American
Military History. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 2000. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vannevar-bu
sh
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722-723.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p722-723. {1925}
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA11  
[1] Vannevar Bush's Differential
Analyzer, 1931 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/diff_
ann_31.gif

[2] Vannevar Bush with his
Differential Analyzer in
1945 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/vbush
_45.gif
74 YBN
[01/26/1926 AD] 5 		6264)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Record ID3616. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "television."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
3. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
4. ^
http://www.helensburghheroes.com/heroes/
john_logie_baird
5. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
{01/26/1926}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p76
[2] "John Logie Baird."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/49348/John-Logie-Baird>
(Royal Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg

[2] John Logie Baird UNKNOWN
source: http://www.helensburghheroes.com
/files/baird.jpg
74 YBN
[02/07/1926 AD] 21 		5272) In 1922 Fermi gets a doctorate
degree a few months before Benito
Mussolini seizes power in Italy.9
In
1938 the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded to Enrico Fermi "for his
demonstrations of the existence of new
radioactive elements produced by
neutron irradiation, and for his
related discovery of nuclear reactions
brought about by slow neutrons".10
Fermi is anti-fascist and at the Nobel
Prize ceremony does not wear the
Fascist uniform or give the Fascist
salute, and the controlled Italian
press castigates Fermi for these
omissions. Fermi's wife is Jewish and
as Hitler's influence becomes more
pronounced in Italy, anti-Jewish laws
are passed. From Stockholm, where Fermi
accepts the prize, he and his family
sail to the United States. Bohr had
hinted to Fermi that he would win the
prize and so Fermi prepared for this
trip to the USA. Fermi becomes a
professor of physics at Columbia
University.11

(In Fermi's Nobel Prize speech he
concludes by giving thanks to other
people who had not already been
mentioned, which may be a play on the
German word for people which is
"menchun", but maybe I am reading into
this too much. Was Fermi's speech in
English?12 )

Fermi approves the use of the fission
bomb over Japan.13

Fermi opposes the development of the
more deadly H-bomb (fusion bomb).14

Fermi dies of a stomach cancer never
seeing uranium fission used for
non-explosive uses in electric reactors
by Rickover and Hinton.15

Element 100 discovered the year after
Fermi's death is named in his honor.16


(Dying so young at age 53, perhaps
somebody slipped him some radioactive
atoms in his food, or he had some on
his body which entered his mouth.17 )

(Ernest Lawrence and Fermi, both born
around the same time, had unusually
early deaths - which may be an
indication of the rise of first strike
violent people with particle beam
supremecy - clearly the violent had
control in the USA through much of the
1950s, certainly in 1963 and as the
controlled demolition of 9/11 shows to
the present day.18 )

(Fermi represents the first
international scientist making
internationally recognized scientific
contributions from Italy since,
perhaps, Volta around 1800. What
explains this scientific silence?19 )
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ E. Fermi, "Sulla
quantizzazione del gas perfetto
monoatomico", Ren. Lincei, 3, 1926,
p145-149. reprinted in: Enrico
Fermi, "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers", V1,
p178. {Fermi_Enrico_19260207.pdf}
3. ^ E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/ {Fermi_Enrico_19260
324.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p447.
5. ^ E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/ {Fermi_Enrico_19260
324.pdf}
6. ^ E Fermi, "Eine statistische
Methode zur Bestimmung einiger
Eigenschaften des Atoms und ihre
Anwendung auf die Theorie des
periodischen Systems der Elemente",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers 1-2,
73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/ {Fermi_Enrico_
19280223.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1938". Nobelprize.org.
7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ E. Fermi,
"Zur Quantelung des idealen einatomigen
Gases", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36, Numbers
11-12, 902-912. "The quantization of
the ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/ {Fermi_Enrico_19260
324.pdf}
21. ^ E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione
del gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren.
Lincei, 3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted
in: Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1,
p178. {Fermi_Enrico_19260207.pdf}
{02/07/1926}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy20  
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
74 YBN
[02/??/1926 AD] 6 		5875) In 1983, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded to
Barbara McClintock "for her discovery
of mobile genetic elements".4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ L. F. Randolph and B. McClintock,
"Polyploidy in Zea Mays L.", The
American Naturalist, Vol. 60, No. 666
(Jan. - Feb., 1926), pp.
99-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2456
317
2. ^ "Barbara McClintock." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/barbara-mcc
lintock
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1983".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Jun 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1983/
5. ^ L. F. Randolph and B. McClintock,
"Polyploidy in Zea Mays L.", The
American Naturalist, Vol. 60, No. 666
(Jan. - Feb., 1926), pp.
99-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2456
317
6. ^ L. F. Randolph and B. McClintock,
"Polyploidy in Zea Mays L.", The
American Naturalist, Vol. 60, No. 666
(Jan. - Feb., 1926), pp.
99-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2456
317 {02/1926}
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA5  
[1] McClintock,
Barbara Portrait Born: 1902 AD Died:
1992 AD, at 90 years of age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.s9.com/images/portrai
ts/19876_McClintock-Barbara.jpg
74 YBN
[03/06/1926 AD] 9 		5165)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Friedrich Hund." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/276471/Friedrich-Hund>.
2. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "The
Assignment of Quantum Numbers for
Electrons in Molecules. I", Phys. Rev.
32, 186–222 (1928)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v32/i
2/p186_1 {Mulliken_Robert_19280430.pdf}

3. ^ "Friedrich Hund." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/276471/Friedrich-Hund>.
4. ^ F. Hund, "Zur Deutung einiger
Erscheinungen in den Molekelspektren"
("To explain some phenomena in the
Molecular Spectra."), Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36,
Numbers 9-10,
657-67. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/pg425m73j6k1vp3r/
5. ^ "Robert Sanderson Mulliken." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-sand
erson-mulliken
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ F. Hund, "Zur
Deutung einiger Erscheinungen in den
Molekelspektren" ("To explain some
phenomena in the Molecular Spectra."),
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 36, Numbers 9-10,
657-67. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/pg425m73j6k1vp3r/
9. ^ F. Hund, "Zur Deutung einiger
Erscheinungen in den Molekelspektren"
("To explain some phenomena in the
Molecular Spectra."), Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36,
Numbers 9-10,
657-67. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/pg425m73j6k1vp3r/ {03/06/1926}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752-753.
[2] Robert S.
Mulliken, "THE SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES
BY THERMAL AND PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01426a015
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1966". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1966/
[4] Simões, Ana. "Mulliken, Robert
Sanderson." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 23. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 209-214.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany8  
[1] Description Hund,Friedrich 1920er
Göttingen.jpg English: Friedrich
Hund, Göttingen in the
twenties Deutsch: Friedrich Hund,
Göttingen in den 20er Jahren Date
1920er Jahre Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b7/Hund%2CFriedrich_1920
er_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg

[2] Description Mulliken Hund 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken
and Friedrich Hund, 1929 at
Chicago Deutsch: Robert Mulliken und
Friedrich Hund, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Mulliken_Hund_1929_Ch
icago.jpg
74 YBN
[03/16/1926 AD] 4 5 6 		4968)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
3. ^ "Robert
Hutchings Goddard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^ Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
{03/16/1926}
5. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
{03/16/1926}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919) Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[6] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
(Aunt Effie's Farm) Auburn,
Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
74 YBN
[03/18/1926 AD] 15 16 		5063) In 1932 Adrian wins the Nobel
Prize for physiology and medicine
shared with Sherrington.11
In 1950
Adrian is President of Royal Society.12

(Clearly this relates to neuron reading
and writing. Perhaps this is viewed as
helping the public to create neuron
reading devices.13 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722.
4. ^ ED Adrian, "The
impulses produced by sensory nerve
endings", The Journal of physiology,
March 18, 1926 The Journal of
Physiology, V61, 49-72.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/1/49.f
ull.pdf {Adrian_Edgar_19260318.pdf}
5. ^ "Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron
Adrian." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-adria
n
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p722.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p722.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ ED Adrian, "The impulses produced
by sensory nerve endings", The Journal
of physiology, March 18, 1926 The
Journal of Physiology, V61, 49-72.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/1/49.f
ull.pdf {Adrian_Edgar_19260318.pdf}
15. ^ ED Adrian, "The impulses
produced by sensory nerve endings", The
Journal of physiology, March 18, 1926
The Journal of Physiology, V61, 49-72.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/1/49.f
ull.pdf {Adrian_Edgar_19260318.pdf}
{03/18/1926 (verify}
16. ^ "Edgar Adrian, 1st
Baron Adrian." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-adria
n {03/18/1926 (verify}
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England14  
[1] Edgar Douglas Adrian Nobel Prize
Image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1932/adrian
_postcard.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: ED Adrian, ''The
impulses produced by sensory nerve
endings'', The Journal of physiology,
March 18, 1926 The Journal of
Physiology, V61, 49-72.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/1/49.f
ull.pdf
{Adrian_Edgar_19260318.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/
1/49.full.pdf
74 YBN
[06/02/1926 AD] 7 8 		5038) In 1946 Sumner wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry shared with Northrup
and Stanley.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p712-713.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p712-713.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p712-713.
6. ^ JB Sumner, "The
isolation and crystallization of the
enzyme urease", Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 1926 -
ASBMB http://www.jbc.org/content/69/2/4
35.short {Sumner_James_19260602.pdf}
7. ^ JB Sumner, "The isolation and
crystallization of the enzyme urease",
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1926 -
ASBMB http://www.jbc.org/content/69/2/4
35.short {Sumner_James_19260602.pdf}
{06/02/1926}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p712-713. {1926}
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA6  
[1] James Batcheller Sumner Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1946/sumne
r_postcard.jpg
74 YBN
[06/17/1926 AD] 35 36 		5187) Iréne Joliot-Curie is the elder
daughter of Pierre and Marie Curie.10

Both Iréne and Frédéric are raised
without religion (and therefore
probably without seeing and hearing
thought11 ).12
In 1925 Langevin
recommends Frédéric to be an
assistant to Marie Curie.13
Iréne
marries Frédéric Joliot, and both are
atheists.14 (Interesting that Joliot
shares his last name with Curie for
himself too.15 )
In 1931 The
Joliot-Curies work together on
radioactivity.16
In November 1935,
Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie are
awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry
for “their synthesis of new
radioactive elements.".17
Marie Curie
had died the year before.18
In 1936,
the Joliot-Curies take a stand on the
side of Republican Spain.19
To slow
neutrons for uranium fission, Frederic
Joliot, obtains about six tons of
uranium oxide from the Belgian Congo,
and orders form Norway the only sizable
stock of heavy water then existing. The
heavy water arrives safely in Paris
even though World War II has begun, but
there is too little time before the
invasion of France for it to be used
there. Joliot decides to remain in
France but has Halban and Kowarski
carry the precious substance with them
to England to continue the group’s
investigations.20

Asimov relates the story of how the
Joliot-Curies smuggle a quantity of
heavy water (the only sizable quantity
on earth) necessary for atomic bomb
research out of France and the grasp of
the Nazis. The Joliot-Curies also hide
their uranium, reclaim it after the
war, and it is used to build France's
first nuclear reactor in 1948.21

In May 1944, Irène and their children
take refuge in Switzerland, and
Frédéric lives in Paris under the
name of Jean-Pierre Gaumont. His
laboratory at the Collège de France,
at which he organizes the production of
explosives, serves as an arsenal during
the battle for the liberation of Paris.
In recognition, Frederic is designated
a commander of the Legion of Honour
with a military title and is decorated
with the Croix de Guerre.22

In 1942 Frederic joins the then
clandestine Communist party.23

Frédéric Joliot-Curie is an admitted
Communist, having joined the party
during World War II after the Nazis had
executed Langevin's son-in-law, and
because of this is removed from his
position as head of the French atomic
energy commission in 1950. (To me,
although I do not support Communism,
it's similar to religion, it is simply
a belief, a philosophy, it is well
within the realm of free thought,
non-violent belief and disagreement. In
my opinion, nobody should be jailed for
their philosophy so long as they are
nonviolent.24 )

In April 1950, during the climax of the
cold war and anticommunism, Prime
Minister Georges Bidault removes
Frederic without explanation from his
position as high commissioner, and a
few months later Irène is also
deprived of her position as
commissioner in the Commissariat à
l’Energie Atomique.25 (It seems like
there was somehow a resurgence of
Nazism, or that form of radical
so-called conservatism, clearly an
anti-science group.26 )

In 1951 Frédéric Joliot-Curie is
awarded with the Stalin Peace Prize,
and remains an outspoken Communist for
the rest of his life. (Stalin's vicious
rule should have been a clue to the
faulty structure of Communism,
certainly in Russia; how it collapsed
into a vicious long-lasting
undemocratic monarchy. The view I have
which seems inevitable to me, is the
future of full democracy without
religion, the representative system
moving towards a full democracy and
religions falling to the past.27 )

In 1954 Iréne Joliot-Curie's
application for membership in the
American Chemical Society is rejected
because of the society's disapproval of
her politics (Asimov explains that
Iréne Joliot-Curie was active in
movements considered
Communist-influenced).28
Iréne
Joliot-Curie dies of leukemia like
Marie after years of work with
radiation.29

(Frédéric Joliot-Curie recognizes
that in uranium fission neutrons are
produced, and begins work on an
explosive chain reaction, but the war
interrupts his work. Asimov comments
that Joliot-Curie may have built the
first atomic bomb had France not been
invaded in 1940.)

(Somewhat unusual to have died so young
and within 2 years of each other.30 )

(It seems a distinct possibility that
the Curies may simply have been
murdered with particle beams, perhaps
the thought-screen movies will answer
that question.31 )

(The Joliot-Curies are an interesting
story of a futuristic couple; life
without religion and full of science is
certainly the future, although
Communism is clearly a failure and full
democracy seems the inevitable future.
It seems clear that many people viewed
Communism as the opposite end of the
spectrum to the 2000 year powerful
Christianity, so it's clear why people
in favor of science and opposed to the
supernatural claims of religion would
gravitate to the Communist side, but
clearly people can have atheism and
full democracy too, for example, many
founders of the representative
democracy in the USA were vocal critics
of religions.32 )

(It is very interesting to see that
atoms can just be changed by beams of
particles. This must lead to systematic
conversion, and there must be many
thousands of interesting transmutations
secretly recorded. Perhaps some of
these are public but hidden.
Systematically converting aluminum into
oxygen and hydrogen would be very
useful in living independently on other
planets where aluminum is common. The
other key idea is building up a proton
from photons. It is interesting that
many of the products of neutron and
alpha particle bombardment remain
radioactive. I guess perhaps many
isotope atoms are unstable and decay,
but why wouldn't stable isotopes be
made? Clearly some stable isotopes must
be made in these particle collisions.
Why isn't the stable isotope the rule
instead of the exception? Find all the
+n +p +a +b reactions and examine as
many as possible. Since radioactivity
is mostly helium, electrons and high
frequency light particles, it seems
clear that all of those particles can
be put to use, perhaps in heating
water, or other materials. Clearly,
there must be some very fascinating
science that has been kept secret in
the field of nuclear physics and
engineering.33 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ Irène Curie and
P. Mercier, "Sur la distribution de
longueur des rayons α du radium C et
du radium A", Journal de physique et le
radium, 7, 1926,
289. {Curie_Irene_19260617.pdf}
3. ^ Irène Curie and P. Mercier, "",
Journal de physique et le radium, 3,
1925, 299.
4. ^ Irène Curie and P. Mercier,
"", Journal de physique et le radium,
3, 1925, 299.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
17. ^ "Joliot,
Frédéric." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 151-157.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
19. ^ "Frédéric and
Irène Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>.
20. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
22. ^ "Frédéric and
Irène Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>.
23. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
29. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^
"Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
35. ^ Irène Curie and P. Mercier, "Sur
la distribution de longueur des rayons
α du radium C et du radium A", Journal
de physique et le radium, 7, 1926,
289. {Curie_Irene_19260617.pdf}
{06/17/1926}
36. ^ Irène Curie and P. Mercier, "",
Journal de physique et le radium, 3,
1925, 299.

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France34
 
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: Irène
Curie and P. Mercier, ''Sur la
distribution de longueur des rayons α
du radium C et du radium A'', Journal
de physique et le radium, 7, 1926,
289. {Curie_Irene_19260617.pdf}
source: Curie_Irene_19260617.pdf

[2] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg
74 YBN
[06/26/1926 AD] 16 17 		5131) In 1926 Noddack and Tacke marry
and continue work on rhenium.14
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741.
2. ^ Walter Noddack,
Ida Tacke, "Die Ekamangane",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 13, Number
26,
567-574. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/g2l4q32160275026/
{Noddack_Walter_19250626.pdf}
3. ^ "Noddack, Walter." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 136. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 18 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903185&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "MASURIUM AND RHENIUM ", Science
News, Science, New Series, Vol. 61, No.
1591 (Jun. 26, 1925), pp.
x-xiv http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfpl
us/1649511.pdf?acceptTC=true {Noddack_W
alter_science_19250626.pdf}
5. ^ "rhenium." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rhenium
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741.
7. ^
http://www.ptb.de/cms/en/ib/geschichte-i
b.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p751.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p741.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741.
12. ^ "Noddack,
Walter." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 136.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903185&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ "rhenium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rhenium
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741.
15. ^ Walter Noddack,
Ida Tacke, "Die Ekamangane",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 13, Number
26,
567-574. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/g2l4q32160275026/
{Noddack_Walter_19250626.pdf}
16. ^ Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, "Die
Ekamangane", Naturwissenschaften,
Volume 13, Number 26,
567-574. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/g2l4q32160275026/
{Noddack_Walter_19250626.pdf}
{06/26/1925}
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741. {05/1925}
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany15  
[1] Description Rhenium single crystal
bar and 1cm3 cube.jpg Deutsch: Ein
hochreiner (99,999 % = 5N)
Rhenium-Einkristall, hergestellt nach
dem Zonenschmelzverfahren, ein
elektronenstrahlgeschmolzener (99,995 %
= 4N5) Rheniumbarren, sowie für den
Größenvergleich ein reiner (99,99 % =
4N) 1 cm3 Rhenium-Würfel. English: A
high purity (99.999 %) rhenium single
crystal made by the floating zone
process, an ebeam remelted (99.995 %)
rhenium bar and as well as a high
purity (99.99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 rhenium
cube for comparison. Date 25
September 2010(2010-09-25) Source
Own work Author Alchemist-hp
(talk)
(www.pse-mendelejew.de) Permission CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Rhenium_single_crysta
l_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg

[2] Walter Noddack 1893 -
1960 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptb.de/cms/uploads/RT
EmagicC_82fb10ee7d.png.png
74 YBN
[08/02/1926 AD] 11 		5267) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1939
is awarded to Ernest Lawrence "for the
invention and development of the
cyclotron and for results obtained with
it, especially with regard to
artificial radioactive elements".4

During WW2 Lawrence is in Oak Ridge in
one of the less successful attempts to
separate quantities of uranium-235 from
ordinary uranium, to be included into
the “atomic pile” being built in
Chicago by Fermi.5
Like Compton,
Lawrence approves of the use of the
atomic bomb against Japanese cities and
has no concern about the social aspects
of the new weapon.6
In 1957 Lawrence
wins the Fermi award, the highest
scientific honor the US can offer.7
In
1961 after Lawrence's death, element
103 is named Lawrencium in his honor.8


Lawrence was sent by President Dwight
Eisenhower to Geneva in 1958 to
participate in nuclear test ban
negotiations with the Soviet Union, but
Lawrence became sick and had to be
rushed back to California, where he
died.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
2. ^ Ernest O.
Lawrence, "The Ionization of Atoms by
Electron Impact", Phys. Rev. 28,
947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_192608
02.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1939". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1939/
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
9. ^ "Ernest O.
Lawrence." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-lawr
ence
10. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, "The
Ionization of Atoms by Electron
Impact", Phys. Rev. 28, 947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_192608
02.pdf}
11. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, "The
Ionization of Atoms by Electron
Impact", Phys. Rev. 28, 947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_192608
02.pdf} {08/02/1926}

MORE INFO
[1] Ernest O. Lawrence and J. W.
Beams, "On the Nature of Light", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1927 April; 13(4):
207–212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1084928/
(Sloan Laboratory, Yale University) New
Haven, Connecticut, USA10  
[1] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg

[2] young Ernest Orlando Lawrence
portrait credit: Lawrence Berkeley
Nat'l Lab XBD200008-01247.TIF
UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
576/3522995029_d0ac347864.jpg
74 YBN
[12/14/1926 AD] 17 18 		5146) In 1949 Giauque wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry "for his
contributions in the field of chemical
thermodynamics, particularly concerning
the behaviour of substances at
extremely low temperatures".15
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747.
2. ^ "William
Giauque." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747.
4. ^ W. F. Giauque,
"PARAMAGNETISM AND THE THIRD LAW OF
THERMO-DYNAMICS. INTERPRETATION OF THE
LOW-TEMPERATURE MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
OF GADOLINIUM SULFATE", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1927, 49 (8), pp
1870–1877. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01407a004 {Giauque_William_
19261214.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "William Giauque." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747.
8. ^ "William
Giauque." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
9. ^ W. F. Giauque and D. P.
MacDougall, "Attainment of Temperatures
Below 1° Absolute by Demagnetization
of Gd2(SO4)3·8H2O", Phys. Rev. 43,
768–768
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i9/p768_1
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1949/giauque.html
16. ^ W. F. Giauque, H. L. Johnston,
"AN ISOTOPE OF OXYGEN, MASS 18.
INTERPRETATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION BANDS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1929, 51 (5), pp
1436–1441. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01380a018 {Giauque_William_
19290114.pdf}
17. ^ W. F. Giauque, "PARAMAGNETISM AND
THE THIRD LAW OF THERMO-DYNAMICS.
INTERPRETATION OF THE LOW-TEMPERATURE
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF GADOLINIUM
SULFATE", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1927, 49
(8), pp
1870–1877. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01407a004 {Giauque_William_
19261214.pdf} {12/14/1926}
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p747. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] W. F. Giauque, H.L. Johnston,
"An Isotope of Oxygen, Mass 17, in the
Earth’s Atmosphere", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1929, 51 (12), pp
3528–3534 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01387a004
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA16  
[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 9 		4871)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p658-659.
2. ^ "Willem Hendrik
Keesom." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314161/Willem-Hendrik-Keesom>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p658-659.
4. ^ "Willem Hendrik
Keesom." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
05 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314161/Willem-Hendrik-Keesom>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Willem Hendrik Keesom." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 05 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314161/Willem-Hendrik-Keesom>.
9. ^ "Willem Hendrik Keesom."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314161/Willem-Hendrik-Keesom>. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willem Hendrik Keesom".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Hend
rik_Keesom
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands8  
[1] Willem Hendrik Keesom
(1876-1956) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.knaw.nl/waals/images/
Keesom_portret.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 16 		4976) Like Schrödinger, Born leaves
German as soon as Hitler comes to
power, moving to Cambridge in 1933.13

In 1954 Born wins the Nobel Prize in
physics for work on quantum mechanics
with Bothe.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689.
2. ^ "Max Born."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/74253/Max-Born>.
3. ^ "Max Born." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/74253/Max-Born>.
4. ^ "Max Born." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-born
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689.
6. ^ "Born, Max."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 39-44. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904832&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Max Born, "Eine neue Formulierung
der Quantengesetze für periodische und
nicht periodische Vorgänge",
Zeitschrift fur Physik, Volume 36,
Number 3, 1926,
p174-187. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v728627336t79458/ English: "A
new formulation of the laws of
quantization of periodic and aperiodic
phenomena", Journal of Mathematical
Physics, 1926 {Born_Max_19260105.pdf}
8. ^ "Born, Max." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 39-44. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904832&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Max Born, "Quantenmechanik der
Stossvorgänge", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 37,
Number 12, 1925,
p863-867 http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h06w8465t710u328/ {Born_Max_19260
625.pdf} "Quantum mechanics of
collision processes"
10. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p447.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p689.
15. ^ "Born,
Max." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 39-44. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904832&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Max Born." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 28 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/74253/Max-Born>. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] Born, "Die
Relativitiitstheorie Einsteins and Hire
physikalischen Grundlagen" (Berlin,
1923), also in English (London, 1924)
[2]
Born, "Probteme der Atomdynamik", 2
vols. (Berlin, 1926), also in English
(Cambridge, Mass., 1926)
[3] Max Born,
"Problems of Atomic Dynamics: Two
Series of Lectures On: I. The Structure
of the Atom... II. The Lattice Theory
of Rigid Bodies", 1926
[4] Max Born, "Über
Quantenmechanik", Zeitschrift für
Physik (1924) V26, N1, 12/1924,
p379-395. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/p8j137uwq1l32555/fulltext.pdf
[5] M. Born, P. Jordan, "Zur
Quantentheorie aperiodischer
Vorgänge", Zeitschrift für Physik,
v33, N1, 12/1925,
p479-505. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/p4372167116t6133/fulltext.pdf
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany15  
[1] # Beschreibung: Max Born # Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 25 		5032) In 1928 Hitler comes to power and
Schrödinger, although not Jewish,
moves to his native Austria.
Schrödinger once interferes with storm
troopers bent on a pogrom, and is
nearly killed.20
In 1933 Schrödinger
shares the Nobel Prize in physics with
Dirac.21
In 1938 Austria is absorbed
by Nazi Germany and Schrödinger moves
to England.22
In 1956 Schrödinger
returns to Vienna to live out the rest
of his life.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p710-711.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p710-711.
3. ^ E
Schrödinger, "An undulatory theory of
the mechanics of atoms and molecules",
Physical Review, vol. 28, Issue 6, pp.
1049-1070.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926PhRv
...28.1049S {Schrodinger_Erwin_19260903
.pdf}
4. ^ E. Schrodinger, Ann. der Physik
V79, p361, p489, p734; V80, p437 V81,
p109 (1926); Die Naturwissenschaften
V14, p664 (1926). first paper: E.
Schrödinger, "Quantisierung als
Eigenwertproblem",
p361–376. ("Quantization as an
eigenvalue
problem") {Schrodinger_Erwin_19260127.p
df}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p710-711.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Erwin
Schrödinger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528287/Erwin-Schrodinger>.
8. ^ E Schrödinger, "An undulatory
theory of the mechanics of atoms and
molecules", Physical Review, vol. 28,
Issue 6, pp. 1049-1070.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926PhRv
...28.1049S {Schrodinger_Erwin_19260903
.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p710-711.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p710-711.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p710-711.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p710-711.
24. ^ "Erwin
Schrödinger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528287/Erwin-Schrodinger>.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p710-711. {1926}
(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Switzerland24  
[1] * Beschreibung: Erwin Schrödinger
*Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html *Lizenzstatus: Public
Domain English: * Description
: Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian
physicist * Source :
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinge
r.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 6 		5072)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
2. ^ HJ Muller, "The
Production of Mutations by X-Rays",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928
September; 14(9): 714–726.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1085688/pdf/pnas01821-0038.pdf
{Muller_Hermann_19270424.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Hermann Joseph Muller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396855/Hermann-Joseph-Muller>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Joseph Muller." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-jos
eph-muller
[2] HJ Muller,"The measurement of gene
mutation rate in Drosophila, its high
variability, and its dependence upon
temperature", Genetics,
1928 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprin
t/13/4/279.pdf [Muller_Hermann_19271025
.pdf}
(University of Texas) Austin, Texas,
USA5  
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 14 		5156)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p750.
3. ^ "Lindblad,
Bertil." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 364-365.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902623&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Lindblad, B., "On the state of
motion in the galactic system",
Journal: Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 87,
p.553-564. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1927MNRAS..87..553L
5. ^ Lindblad, B., "On the Cause of
Star-Streaming", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 62,
p.191 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1925ApJ....62..191L/0000193.000.
html
6. ^ "Bertil Lindblad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/341832/Bertil-Lindblad>.
7. ^ "Lindblad, Bertil." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 364-365. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902623&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Lindblad, B., "On the Cause of
Star-Streaming", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 62,
p.191 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1925ApJ....62..191L/0000193.000.
html
9. ^ "Lindblad, Bertil." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 364-365. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902623&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Lindblad, Bertil." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 364-365. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902623&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750. {1926}
(Uppsala University) Uppsala, Sweden13
 
[1] Bertil Lindblad UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gothard.hu/astronomy/
astronomers/images/Bertil_Lindblad.1895-
1965.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 5 		6050) Louis Armstrong (CE 1901-1971),
US trumpeter and one of the most
influential artists in jazz history1 ,
records "Heebie Jeebies". This is among
the first recordings with scat singing
(improvised vocal jazz using
non-sensical words). So popular is the
recording the group becomes the most
famous jazz band in the USA even though
they as yet have not performed live to
any great degree. Young musicians
across the country, black and white,
are turned on by Armstrong’s new type
of jazz.2 3 (verify)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Armstrong." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/35584/Louis-Armstrong>.
2. ^ "Louis Armstrong". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armst
rong
3. ^ Bergreen, Laurence "Louis
Armstrong: An Extravagant Life",
p267. ISBN 0-553-06768-0
4. ^ "Louis Armstrong."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/35584/Louis-Armstrong>.
5. ^ "Louis Armstrong". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armst
rong {1926}
New York City, New York, USA4
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: Louis
Armstrong, jazz trumpeter Français :
Le trompetiste et chanteur de jazz
Louis Armstrong. Türkçe: 20.
yüzyılın en önemli
müzisyenlerinden Louis Armstrong
trompet çalarken (1953). Date
1953 Source Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division, New York World-Telegram and
the Sun Newspaper Photograph
Collection. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Louis_Armstrong_resto
red.jpg
73 YBN
[03/03/1927 AD] 32 33 34 		4957) Davisson joined the Bell
Telephone Laboratory (then Western
Electric) in 1917 and remains there
until his retirement in 1946.28
In
1937, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to Clinton Joseph
Davisson and George Paget Thomson "for
their experimental discovery of the
diffraction of electrons by
crystals".29 (What role did Thomson
play in the discovery?30 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, "The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560
(16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
2. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1937/davisson-lecture.pdf
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p685.
4. ^ C. DAVISSON &
L. H. GERMER, "The Scattering of
Electrons by a Single Crystal of
Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560 (16 April
1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
5. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, "The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560
(16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Clinton Davisson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clinton-dav
isson
10. ^ "Proof Protons Act like Waves
Wins Physicist A. A. A. S. $1,000
Prize" The Science News-Letter Vol.
17, No. 457 (Jan. 11, 1930), p.
19 Published by: Society for Science &
the Public Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3905831
11. ^ "Clinton Davisson." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clinton-dav
isson
12. ^ Record ID4404. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ C. DAVISSON
& L. H. GERMER, "The Scattering of
Electrons by a Single Crystal of
Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560 (16 April
1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ C. J. Davisson and L.
H. Germer, "Reflection and Refraction
of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928 August;
14(8): 619–627.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1085652/ {Davisson_Clinton_192804
23.pdf}
16. ^ Record ID5100. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ "Clinton Davisson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clinton-dav
isson
29. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1937/
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H.
GERMER, "The Scattering of Electrons by
a Single Crystal of Nickel", Nature
119, 558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
32. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, "The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560
(16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} {03/03/1927}
33. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1937/davisson-lecture.pdf
{1927}
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p685. {1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clinton Joseph Davisson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152874/Clinton-Joseph-Davisson>
[2] "Davisson, Clinton Joseph."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 597-598. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901093&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Clinton Joseph Davisson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Jos
eph_Davisson
[4] C. J. Davisson and C. J. Calbick,
"Electron Lenses", Phys. Rev. 42,
580–580
(1932) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v42/i4/p580_1
[5] C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer, "A
Test for Polarization of Electron Waves
by Reflection", Phys. Rev. 33,
760–772 (1929)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v33/i
5/p760_1
[6] C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer,
"Reflection of Electrons by a Crystal
of Nickel", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1928 April; 14(4): 317–322
[7] Davisson, C. J.,
"The Scattering of Electrons by
Crystals", The Scientific Monthly,
Volume 28, Issue 1, pp.
41-51. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
29SciMo..28...41D
[8] Francis X. Dercum, "On the Nature
of Thought and Its Limitation",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 68, No. 4
(1929), pp.
275-302. http://www.jstor.org/stable/98
4341
[9] Davisson and Germer, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci., 14, 317
(1928). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC1085484/
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA31  
[1] Clinton Davisson.jpg English:
Clinton Davisson Date
1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Clinton_Davisson.jpg

[2] Image of page 1 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n2998/pdf/119558a0.pdf
73 YBN
[03/06/1927 AD] 5 		4767) Bertrand Arthur William Russell
(CE 1872-1970), 3d Earl English
mathematician and philosopher1
publishes "Why I am not a Christian",
which criticizes the religion formed
around Jesus and the belief that any
God exists.2

(Russell does not make the argument,
which I think is the best in my mind,
as to why to reject the theory of Gods
controlling nature, and that is that
for centuries there was only
polytheism, long before monotheism, so
if we reject Poseidon ruling the seas,
and Venus all aspects of love, why not
reject the theory of the existance of
any God existing in the universe or
controlling nature?3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p640-641.
2. ^
http://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/whynot.html

3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/whynot.html

5. ^
http://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/whynot.html
 {03/06/1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Russell, Bertrand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
464>.
[2] "Bertrand Russell." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bertrand-ru
ssell
[3] "Bertrand Russell." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bertrand-ru
ssell
[4] "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 9-17. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903793&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Bertrand Arthur William Russell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Ar
thur_William_Russell
[6] "rigorous." Roget's II: The New
Thesaurus, Third Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1995. Answers.com 27
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rigorous
(National Secular Society, South London
Branch, at Battersea Town Hall) London,
England4  
[1] Description: In defiance of his
Grandmother's disapproval, Russell
married the American Alys Pearsall
Smith on 13 December 1894 in the Quaker
Meeting House in St. Martin's Lane,
London. The photograph of him as a
young man is from his Aunt Agatha's
album. Russell left Alys in 1911 but
there was no divorce until
1921. Archive Box Number: RA3 Rec.
Acq. 941 Date: Dec. 13, 1894 PD
source: http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bert
rand/2_br_5.jpg

[2] Person(s) in Photograph: Bertrand
Russell Description: This is an
engraved portrait of Bertrand
Russell. Archive Box Number:
2,4 Date: 1907 PD
source: http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bert
rand/2_br_2.jpg
73 YBN
[03/28/1927 AD] 17 		5284)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
6. ^ "Werner
Heisenberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
7. ^ W. Heisenberg, "Über den
anschaulichen Inhalt der
quantentheoretischen Kinematik und
Mechanik", ("On the Idiological Content
of Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and
Mechanics"), Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 43, Numbers
3-4,
172-198. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/t8173612621026q5/
{Heisenberg_Werner_19270328.pdf} Engl
ish: ("On the Actual Content of
Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and
Mechanics"),
http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=8729
29&id=1&as=false∨=false&qs=Ne%3D35%26N
s%3DHarvestDate%257c1%26N%3D126%2B52%2B4
294888845 {Heisenberg_Werner_English_19
270328.pdf} Another translation
from: John Archibald Wheeler and
Woyciech Hubert Zurek, "Quantum theory
and measurement", Princeton University
Press,
1983. {Heisenberg_Werner_English2_19270
328.pdf}
8. ^ "Werner Heisenberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Werner Heisenberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ W.
Heisenberg, "Über den anschaulichen
Inhalt der quantentheoretischen
Kinematik und Mechanik", ("On the
Idiological Content of Quantum
Theoretical Kinematics and Mechanics"),
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 43, Numbers 3-4,
172-198. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/t8173612621026q5/
{Heisenberg_Werner_19270328.pdf} Engl
ish: ("On the Actual Content of
Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and
Mechanics"),
http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=8729
29&id=1&as=false∨=false&qs=Ne%3D35%26N
s%3DHarvestDate%257c1%26N%3D126%2B52%2B4
294888845 {Heisenberg_Werner_English_19
270328.pdf} Another translation
from: John Archibald Wheeler and
Woyciech Hubert Zurek, "Quantum theory
and measurement", Princeton University
Press,
1983. {Heisenberg_Werner_English2_19270
328.pdf}
17. ^ W. Heisenberg, "Über den
anschaulichen Inhalt der
quantentheoretischen Kinematik und
Mechanik", ("On the Idiological Content
of Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and
Mechanics"), Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 43, Numbers
3-4,
172-198. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/t8173612621026q5/
{Heisenberg_Werner_19270328.pdf} Engl
ish: ("On the Actual Content of
Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and
Mechanics"),
http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=8729
29&id=1&as=false∨=false&qs=Ne%3D35%26N
s%3DHarvestDate%257c1%26N%3D126%2B52%2B4
294888845 {Heisenberg_Werner_English_19
270328.pdf} Another translation
from: John Archibald Wheeler and
Woyciech Hubert Zurek, "Quantum theory
and measurement", Princeton University
Press,
1983. {Heisenberg_Werner_English2_19270
328.pdf} {03/28/1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1932". Nobelprize.org. 8 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1932/
[2] W Heisenberg, "Über
quantentheoretische Umdeutung
kinematischer und mechanischer
Beziehungen.", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 33, Number
1,
879-893. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w22847j178u03029/ English: "Qu
antum-theoretical re-interpretation of
kinematic and mechanical
relations" http://fisica.ciens.ucv.ve/~
svincenz/SQM261.pdf
[3] M. Born, W. Heisenberg and P.
Jordan, "Zur Quantenmechanik. II.", "
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 35, Numbers 8-9,
557-615.". http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r46w151t550pl624/
[4] M. Born and P. Jordan, "Zur
Quantenmechanik", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 34,
Number 1,
858-888. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/n37p409386132728/
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark16  
[1] Werner Karl Heisenberg Library of
Congress There are some photos of
Heisenberg with unusual looking hair
style, which is characteristic of
theoretical math and physics people. it
goes back into the 1800s if not
earlier. Perhaps it is some kind of
gimmick to attract attention, or
perhaps just simply an expression of a
creative non-conformist mind.[t] PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSwerner.jpg
73 YBN
[04/14/1927 AD] 23 		5236) Oort is Kapteyn's last student.20

After the Nazis occupy the Netherlands,
the Leiden observatory is closed.21
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
2. ^ "Jan Oort." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-oort
3. ^ Oort, J. H., "Observational
evidence confirming Lindblad's
hypothesis of a rotation of the
galactic system", Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands, Vol. 3,
p.275. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1927BAN.....3..275O/0000275.000.
html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
5. ^ Oort, J. H.,
"Observational evidence confirming
Lindblad's hypothesis of a rotation of
the galactic system", Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands, Vol. 3,
p.275. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1927BAN.....3..275O/0000275.000.
html
6. ^ Oort, J. H., "Observational
evidence confirming Lindblad's
hypothesis of a rotation of the
galactic system", Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands, Vol. 3,
p.275. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1927BAN.....3..275O/0000275.000.
html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
21. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
22. ^ Oort, J. H.,
"Observational evidence confirming
Lindblad's hypothesis of a rotation of
the galactic system", Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands, Vol. 3,
p.275. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1927BAN.....3..275O/0000275.000.
html
23. ^ Oort, J. H., "Observational
evidence confirming Lindblad's
hypothesis of a rotation of the
galactic system", Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands, Vol. 3,
p.275. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1927BAN.....3..275O/0000275.000.
html {04/14/1927}

MORE INFO
[1] Oort, J. H., "Investigations
concerning the rotational motion of the
galactic system together with new
determinations of secular parallaxes,
precession and motion of the equinox",
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes
of the Netherlands, Vol. 4,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
27BAN.....4...79O
(Observatory) Leiden, Netherlands22
 
[1] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg
73 YBN
[04/19/1927 AD] 8 9 		4946)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
3. ^ "Irving
Langmuir." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irving-lang
muir
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p681-682.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Langmuir, Irving." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 22-25. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902472&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Irving Langmuir, "Flames of Atomic
Hydrogen", Ind. Eng. Chem., 1927, 19
(6), pp
667–674. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ie50210a009 {Langmuir_Irving_19
270419.pdf} {04/19/1927}
9. ^ "Langmuir, Irving."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 22-25. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902472&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Irving Langmuir."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329738/Irving-Langmuir>.
[2] "Irving Langmuir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Lang
muir
[3] I. Langmuir, "A High Vacuum Mercury
Vapor Pump of Extreme Speed", Phys.
Rev. 8, 48–51
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v8/i1/p48_1
[4] Irving Langmuir, "The Shapes of
Group Molecules Forming the Surfaces of
Liquids", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Apr.
15, 1917), pp. 251-257.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/83667?seq=6
(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA7  
[1] Figure 3 from: Irving Langmuir,
''Flames of Atomic Hydrogen'', Ind.
Eng. Chem., 1927, 19 (6), pp
667–674. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ie50210a009 {Langmuir_Irving_19
270419.pdf}
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ie50210a009

[2] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg
73 YBN
[05/05/1927 AD] 17 		5306) Wigner works with Fermi and
Szilard in Chicago to develop a nuclear
bomb.11
Wigner helps to design the
nuclear installations at Hanford,
Washington.12 (State what kind of
installation.13 )
In 1960 Wigner wins the
Atoms for Peace award.14
The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1963 is divided, one
half awarded to Eugene Paul Wigner "for
his contributions to the theory of the
atomic nucleus and the elementary
particles, particularly through the
discovery and application of
fundamental symmetry principles",the
other half jointly to Maria
Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen
"for their discoveries concerning
nuclear shell structure".15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790-791.
2. ^ "Eugene Paul
Wigner." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 14
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugene-wign
er
3. ^ "Eugene Paul Wigner." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugene-wign
er
4. ^ E. Wigner, "Einige Folgerungen aus
der Schrödingerschen Theorie für die
Termstrukturen", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 43,
Numbers 9-10, 1927,
624-652. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w781433358348155/ {Wigner_Eugene_
19270505.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Eugene Paul Wigner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugene-wign
er
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Eugene Paul Wigner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugene-wign
er
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790-791.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790-791.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p790-791.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790-791.
15. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1963". Nobelprize.org.
14 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1963/
16. ^ E. Wigner, "Einige Folgerungen
aus der Schrödingerschen Theorie für
die Termstrukturen", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 43,
Numbers 9-10, 1927,
624-652. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w781433358348155/ {Wigner_Eugene_
19270505.pdf}
17. ^ "Eugene Paul Wigner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugene-wign
er {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Wigner and E. E. Witmer,
"Über die Struktur der zweiatomigen
Molekelspektren nach der
Quantenmechanik", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 51,
Numbers 11-12, 1928,
859-886. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/gw1k173441v71jw2/
[2] E. Feenberg and E. Wigner, "On the
Structure of the Nuclei Between Helium
and Oxygen", Phys. Rev. 51, 95–106
(1937) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v51/i2/p95_1
[3] Eugene Feenberg and Julian K.
Knipp, "Intranuclear Forces", Phys.
Rev. 48, 906–912
(1935). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v48/i11/p906_1
(Institute fur Theoretische Physik)
Berlin, Germany16  
[1] Wigner's similarity in appearance
to Carl Sagan is interesting. Wigner
uses the word ''Sagen'' (say) in a 1927
paper.[t]
source: http://www.nassauchurch.org/ceme
tery/images/eugene_paul_wigner.jpg
73 YBN
[05/21/1927 AD] 7 		5291) In 1925 Lindbergh buys his own
plane and becomes an airmail pilot.5
In
the 1930s Lindbergh fights against the
US entering WW II.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p786.
3. ^ "monoplane."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monoplane
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p786.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p786.
{05/20/1972-05/21/1927}
 
[1] Description
LindberghStLouis.jpg Charles
Lindbergh, with Spirit of St. Louis in
background Date 31 May
1927(1927-05-31) Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID cph.3a23920. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/LindberghStLouis.jpg
73 YBN
[05/24/1927 AD] 19 		5100) George P. Thomson is the son of
J. J. Thomson.16
In 1927 Thomson
shares the Nobel prize in physics with
Davisson.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733.
2. ^ G. P. Thomson,
"Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin
Film.", Nature, (June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID4957. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ G. P. Thomson
and C. G. Fraser, "A Camera for
Electron Diffraction", Vol. 128, No.
808 (Aug. 5, 1930), pp. 641-648.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/95489
{Thomson_George_P_19300506.pdf}
5. ^ G. P. THOMSON , "The Diffraction
of Cathode Rays by Thin Films of
Platinum", Nature, 120, 802-802 (03
December 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
120/n3031/abs/120802a0.html
{Thomson_George_Paget_19271117.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733.
7. ^ Record ID4957.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ G. P. Thomson, "Diffraction of
Cathode Rays by a Thin Film.", Nature,
(June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ G. P. Thomson,
"Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin
Film.", Nature, (June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf}
11. ^ G. P. Thomson, "Experiments on
the Diffraction of Cathode Rays.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical
Character Vol. 117, No. 778 (Feb. 1,
1928), pp. 600-609
{Thomson_George_P_19271104.pdf}
12. ^ G. P. Thomson and C. G. Fraser,
"A Camera for Electron Diffraction",
Vol. 128, No. 808 (Aug. 5, 1930), pp.
641-648.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/95489
{Thomson_George_P_19300506.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p733.
18. ^ G. P.
Thomson, "Diffraction of Cathode Rays
by a Thin Film.", Nature, (June 18,
1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf}
19. ^ G. P. Thomson, "Diffraction of
Cathode Rays by a Thin Film.", Nature,
(June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf}
{05/24/1927}
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland18  
[1] Figure 1 from: G. P. Thomson,
''Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin
Film.'', Nature, (June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf} COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg
73 YBN
[06/16/1927 AD] 22 		4907)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
2. ^ "Francis William
Aston." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
3. ^ F. Aston, "Atoms and Their Packing
Fractions", Nature, Volume 120, Issue
3035, pp. 956-959
(1927). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v120/n3035/pdf/120956a0.pdf {Asto
n_Francis_Atoms_and_Their_Packing_Fracti
ons_1927.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p663-664.
7. ^ "Francis
William Aston." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Francis William Aston."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
10. ^ Aston, "A new mass-spectrograph
and the whole number rule." (Bakerian
lecture.) Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 115,
1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Aston, "A new mass-spectrograph
and the whole number rule." (Bakerian
lecture.) Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 115,
1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
12. ^ Aston, "A new mass-spectrograph
and the whole number rule." (Bakerian
lecture.) Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 115,
1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Aston, "A new mass-spectrograph
and the whole number rule." (Bakerian
lecture.) Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 115,
1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
14. ^ Aston, "A new mass-spectrograph
and the whole number rule." (Bakerian
lecture.) Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 115,
1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ "Francis William Aston." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
22. ^ Aston, "A new mass-spectrograph
and the whole number rule." (Bakerian
lecture.) Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 115,
1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
{06/16/1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis William Aston."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>
[2] "Francis William Aston."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
[3] "Aston, Francis William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900181&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Francis William Aston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Wil
liam_Aston
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1922/aston-bio.html
[6] G. Hevesy, "Francis William Aston.
1877-1945", Obit. Not. Fell. R. Soc.
May 1, 1948 5:634-650; (includes list
of works)
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1948.0002 http://www.r
sc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayA
rticleForFree.cfm?doi=JR9480001468&Journ
alCode=JR
[7] F. W. Aston, "A positive ray
spectrograph", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue
228, 1919, Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928
[8] Aston, "Isotopes", 1922
[9] F. W. Aston,
"The Constitution of the Elements",
Nature 106, 468 (09 December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England21  
[1] Figure 1 from: Aston, ''A new
mass-spectrograph and the whole number
rule.'' (Bakerian lecture.) Proc. Roy.
Soc. A, 115, 1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf

[2] Mass spectrogragh of 1917 [1]
Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
73 YBN
[06/30/1927 AD] 11 12 		5232) In 1933 as a Jewish human, London
leaves Germany.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771.
2. ^ "Fritz London."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-londo
n
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ W. Heitler and F. London,
"Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und
homöopolare Bindung nach der
Quantenmechanik", ("Interaction of
neutral atoms and homopolar bond,
according to quantum mechanics"),
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 44, Numbers 6-7,
455-472. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j434g68810rj5315/
{London_Fritz_19270630.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p771.
10. ^ W. Heitler
and F. London, "Wechselwirkung
neutraler Atome und homöopolare
Bindung nach der Quantenmechanik",
("Interaction of neutral atoms and
homopolar bond, according to quantum
mechanics"), Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 44, Numbers
6-7,
455-472. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j434g68810rj5315/
{London_Fritz_19270630.pdf}
11. ^ W. Heitler and F. London,
"Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und
homöopolare Bindung nach der
Quantenmechanik", ("Interaction of
neutral atoms and homopolar bond,
according to quantum mechanics"),
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 44, Numbers 6-7,
455-472. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j434g68810rj5315/
{London_Fritz_19270630.pdf}
{06/30/1927}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771. {1927}
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland10  
[1] Description London,Fritz 1928
München.jpg English: Fritz London,
Munich 1928 at the Bunsen
congress. Deutsch: Fritz London,
München 1928 beim
Bunsenkongress. Date
1928(1928) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/London%2CFritz_1928_M
%C3%BCnchen.jpg
73 YBN
[08/01/1927 AD] 9 		5114)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. H. OSGOOD, "Soft X-ray
Spectra", Nature 119, 817-817 (04 June
1927) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.html
{Osgood_TH_19270411.pdf}
2. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray Spectra of
Long Wave-Length", Phys. Rev. 30,
567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1 {Osgood_TH_19270801.pdf
}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ T. H. OSGOOD,
"Soft X-ray Spectra", Nature 119,
817-817 (04 June
1927) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.html
{Osgood_TH_19270411.pdf}
6. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray Spectra of
Long Wave-Length", Phys. Rev. 30,
567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1 {Osgood_TH_19270801.pdf
}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray
Spectra of Long Wave-Length", Phys.
Rev. 30, 567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1 {Osgood_TH_19270801.pdf
}
9. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray Spectra of
Long Wave-Length", Phys. Rev. 30,
567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1 {Osgood_TH_19270801.pdf
} {08/01/1927}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-lecture.pdf
[3] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
[4] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1
[5] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
[6] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777
[7]
"Compton, Arthur Holly." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 366-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900965&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
[9] A. Compton, "The
total reflexion of X-rays",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270, 1923,
Pages 1121 – 1131.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA8  
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
73 YBN
[08/26/1927 AD] 13 		5756) Griffith is killed working in his
laboratory in London during an air-raid
in 1941.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fred. Griffith, "The Significance
of Pneumococcal Types", The Journal of
Hygiene Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jan., 1928),
pp.
113-159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
26734 {Griffith_Frederick_08261927.pdf}

2. ^ "Fred Griffith." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fred-griffi
th
3. ^
http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~rwinning/ge
netics/bactrec.htm
4. ^ "Fred Griffith." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fred-griffi
th
5. ^ "Oswald Avery." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/45627/Oswald-Avery>.
6. ^
http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~rwinning/ge
netics/bactrec.htm
7. ^ Fred. Griffith, "The Significance
of Pneumococcal Types", The Journal of
Hygiene Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jan., 1928),
pp.
113-159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
26734 {Griffith_Frederick_08261927.pdf}

8. ^ Fred. Griffith, "The Significance
of Pneumococcal Types", The Journal of
Hygiene Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jan., 1928),
pp.
113-159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
26734 {Griffith_Frederick_08261927.pdf}

9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Fred Griffith." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fred-griffi
th
11. ^ Fred. Griffith, "The Significance
of Pneumococcal Types", The Journal of
Hygiene Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jan., 1928),
pp.
113-159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
26734 {Griffith_Frederick_08261927.pdf}

12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Fred. Griffith, "The
Significance of Pneumococcal Types",
The Journal of Hygiene Vol. 27, No. 2
(Jan., 1928), pp.
113-159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
26734 {Griffith_Frederick_08261927.pdf}
{08/26/1927}
(Ministry of Health) London, England11
(verify this is in London at the time12
) 
[1] Description portrait Source
courtesy Dr. Maclyn McCarty,
contributed by Dr. Steven
Lehrer Article Frederick
Griffith Portion used original
photo appears to have been cropped Low
resolution? yes, image quality
poor Purpose of use photo of
subject Replaceable?
irreplaceable, very difficult to
find image of this individual Other
information date of photo,
photographer, and copyright holder, if
any, unknown UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Griffithm.jpg
73 YBN
[09/03/1927 AD] 6 7 		5106)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
2. ^ E. V. APPLETON ,
"The Existence of more than one Ionised
Layer in the Upper Atmosphere", nature
120, 330-330 (03 September
1927). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v120/n3018/abs/120330a0.html {Appl
eton_Edward_19270903.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735.
6. ^ E. V. APPLETON ,
"The Existence of more than one Ionised
Layer in the Upper Atmosphere", nature
120, 330-330 (03 September
1927). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v120/n3018/abs/120330a0.html {Appl
eton_Edward_19270903.pdf} {09/03/1927}
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p734-735. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Victor Appleton." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-vict
or-appleton
[2] E. V. APPLETON & M. A. F. BARNETT
, "Local Reflection of Wireless Waves
from the Upper Atmosphere", nature 115,
333-334 (07 March
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2888/abs/115333a0.html
[3] E. V. Appleton and M. A. F.
Barnett, "On Some Direct Evidence for
Downward Atmospheric Reflection of
Electric Rays", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 109, No. 752
(Dec. 1, 1925), pp. 621-641
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94440
(King's College) London, England5
 
[1] Edward Victor Appleton UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ukssdc.ac.uk/ionosond
es/history/evappleton.gif
73 YBN
[11/04/1927 AD] 4 		5101)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733.
2. ^ G. P. Thomson,
"Experiments on the Diffraction of
Cathode Rays.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character Vol. 117, No. 778
(Feb. 1, 1928), pp. 600-609
{Thomson_George_P_19271104.pdf}
3. ^ G. P. Thomson, "Experiments on the
Diffraction of Cathode Rays.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical
Character Vol. 117, No. 778 (Feb. 1,
1928), pp. 600-609
{Thomson_George_P_19271104.pdf}
4. ^ G. P. Thomson, "Experiments on the
Diffraction of Cathode Rays.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical
Character Vol. 117, No. 778 (Feb. 1,
1928), pp. 600-609
{Thomson_George_P_19271104.pdf}
{11/04/1927}

MORE INFO
[1] G. P. THOMSON , "The
Diffraction of Cathode Rays by Thin
Films of Platinum", Nature, 120,
802-802 (03 December 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
120/n3031/abs/120802a0.html
[2] G. P. Thomson, "Diffraction of
Cathode Rays by a Thin Film.", Nature,
(June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland3  
[1] Figures from: G. P. Thomson,
''Experiments on the Diffraction of
Cathode Rays.'', Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character Vol. 117, No. 778
(Feb. 1, 1928), pp. 600-609
{Thomson_George_P_19271104.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9498
0

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg
73 YBN
[12/12/1927 AD] 18 		5113)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
2. ^ A. Compton,
"X-rays as a branch of optics",
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
{Compton_Arthur_19271212.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
5. ^ A. Compton,
"X-rays as a branch of optics",
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
{Compton_Arthur_19271212.pdf}
6. ^ "Bose, Satyendranath." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 47-50. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904835&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-bio.html
18. ^ A. Compton, "X-rays as a branch
of optics",
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
{Compton_Arthur_19271212.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1
[3] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
[4] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777
[5]
A. Compton, "The total reflexion of
X-rays", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270,
1923, Pages 1121 – 1131
[6] "Compton,
Arthur Holly." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 366-372.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900965&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA17  
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
73 YBN
[12/13/1927 AD] 10 11 12 		4870) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950
is awarded jointly to Otto Paul Hermann
Diels and Kurt Alder "for their
discovery and development of the diene
synthesis".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657-658.
2. ^ K. Alder, O.
Diels, "Synthesen in der
hydroaromatischen Reihe, I. Mitteilung,
Anlagerungen von
‘Dien’-kohlenwasserstoffen", Justus
Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, no.460
(1928),
98. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/jlac.19284600106/abstract {Diel
s_Otto_1928.pdf}
3. ^ "Diels, Otto Paul Hermann."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901168&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657-658.
6. ^ "Otto Paul
Hermann Diels." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 04 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/162657/Otto-Paul-Hermann-Diels>.
7. ^ "Diels, Otto Paul Hermann."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901168&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1950". Nobelprize.org. 14 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1950/
9. ^ "Diels, Otto Paul Hermann."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901168&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ K. Alder, O. Diels, "Synthesen in
der hydroaromatischen Reihe, I.
Mitteilung, Anlagerungen von
‘Dien’-kohlenwasserstoffen", Justus
Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, no.460
(1928),
98. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/jlac.19284600106/abstract {Diel
s_Otto_1928.pdf} {12/13/1927}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p657-658. {1928}
12. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1950/diels-bio.html
{1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Paul Hermann Diels." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 04
Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-paul-h
ermann-diels
[2] "Otto Paul Hermann Diels".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Paul_H
ermann_Diels
(Christian Albrecht University) Kiel,
Germany9  
[1] Figure 1 from: K. Alder, O. Diels,
''Synthesen in der hydroaromatischen
Reihe, I. Mitteilung, Anlagerungen von
‘Dien’-kohlenwasserstoffen'',
Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie,
no.460 (1928),
98. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/jlac.19284600106/abstract {Diel
s_Otto_1928.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19284600106/abstract

[2] Otto Paul Hermann Diels UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/dielsc.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 6 7 		4519)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Landsteiner, Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>. {1901}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622. {1927}
7. ^
"Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901} {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
[3] Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
[4] "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[5] "antigen." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antigen
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA5  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 6 7 		4520)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
2. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
3. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
4. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
5. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 12
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>. {1901}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622. {1927}
7. ^
"Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901} {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
[3] Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
[4] "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[5] "antigen." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antigen
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA5  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 8 		4780)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
2. ^ "Nevil
Sidgwick." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nevil-sidgw
ick
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p644.
6. ^ "Nevil
Sidgwick." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nevil-sidgw
ick
7. ^ "Nevil Sidgwick." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nevil-sidgw
ick
8. ^ "Nevil Sidgwick." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nevil-sidgw
ick {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sidgwick, Nevil Vincent."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9067
643>.
[2] "Sidgwick, Nevil Vincent." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 418-420. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904015&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Nevil Sidgwick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevil_Sidgw
ick
(Oxford University) Oxford, England7
 
[1] Nevil Sidgwick UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lincoln.ox.ac.uk/uplo
ads/media/history%20-%20famous%20alumni/
.thumbnails/alumni%20-%20sidgwick_150x40
0.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 4 		4821)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Erlanger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/191658/Joseph-Erlanger>.
2. ^ Erlanger, J., and H. S. Gasser,
"The differential action of pressure on
fibers of different sizes in a mixed
nerve.", Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. & Med.
24: 313-314.
3. ^ "Joseph Erlanger."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/191658/Joseph-Erlanger>.
4. ^ Erlanger, J., and H. S. Gasser,
"The differential action of pressure on
fibers of different sizes in a mixed
nerve.", Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. & Med.
24: 313-314. {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649,716.
[2] "Joseph
Erlanger." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
[3] "Joseph Erlanger." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
[4] "Erlanger, Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-399. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901334&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Joseph Erlanger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Erla
nger
[6]
http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/wusm-his
t/growth/index.htm
[7] "Herbert Spencer Gasser."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/226665/Herbert-Spencer-Gasser>.
[8] "Herbert Spencer Gasser." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-spe
ncer-gasser
[9]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1944/
[10] Joseph Erlanger and Herbert S.
Gasser, "Electrical signs of nervous
activity", Philadelphia, Univ. of
Pennsylvania Press, 1937.
[11] Erlanger, J.,
and H. S. Gasser, "a study of the
action currents of nerve with the
cathode ray oscillograph", American
Journal of Physiology., 62,
496-524. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%2
2a+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve
+with+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3
B9IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2
TOPQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%2
0currents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fa
lse
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA3  
[1] oseph Erlanger, M.D.
(1874-1965) Professor and Head of
Physiology, 1910-1946 Professor of
Physiology, 1946-1965 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/ErlangerJ_large.jpg

[2] Herbert S. Gasser, M.D.
(1888-1963) Assistant and Associate
Professor of Physiology,
1916-1921 Professor and Head of
Pharmacology, 1921-1931 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/GasserHS_large.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 8 9 		4847) Moniz is the University of
Lisbon’s first professor of neurology
(1911–44).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p654.
2. ^ "António Egas
Moniz." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/180095/Antonio-Egas-Moniz>.
3. ^ L Haas, "Egas Moniz
(1874–1955)", J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiatry. 2003 May; 74(5): 653. doi:
10.1136/jnnp.74.5.653. http://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1738411/pdf/
v074p00653.pdf
4. ^ Moniz, "Diagnostic des tumeurs
cérébrales et épreuve de
l’encéphalographie artérielle"
(Diagnostics of cerebral tumours and
application of arterial
encephalography), Paris, 1931. also: J
Am Med Assoc. 1931;97(16):1174.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "António
Egas Moniz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/180095/Antonio-Egas-Moniz>.
7. ^ "Egas Moniz, Antonio Caetano De
Abreu Freire." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901284&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "António Egas Moniz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/180095/Antonio-Egas-Moniz>. {1927}
9. ^ L
Haas, "Egas Moniz (1874–1955)", J
Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003 May;
74(5): 653. doi:
10.1136/jnnp.74.5.653. http://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1738411/pdf/
v074p00653.pdf {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Egas Moniz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 28 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/moniz-anton
io-caetano-de-abreu-freire-egas
[2] "Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire
Egas Moniz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Cae
tano_De_Abreu_Freire_Egas_Moniz
[3] "Egas Moniz - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Oct 2010
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/med
icine/laureates/1949/moniz-bio.html
(University of Lisbon) Lisbon,
Portugal7  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Cerebral
angiography, arteria vertebralis
sinister injection.JPG Cerebral
angiography, injection in the left
vertebral artery, with retrograde flow
in the contralateral vertebral artery,
the basilar artery and the posterior
communicating artery. The posterior
cerebral circulation can be seen,
including the posterior part of the
arterial circle of Willis. Date
Source From my {ULSF: unknown
author} own practice Author This
file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Cerebral_angiography%
2C_arteria_vertebralis_sinister_injectio
n.JPG

[2] Description Moniz.jpg English:
Nobel prize winner Egas Moniz Date
before 1955(1955) Source
nobelprize.org Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-Sweden-photo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Moniz.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 5 		4869)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657-658.
2. ^ "Otto Paul
Hermann Diels." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 04 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/162657/Otto-Paul-Hermann-Diels>.
3. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1950/diels-bio.html
4. ^ "Diels, Otto Paul Hermann."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901168&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1950/diels-bio.html
{1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Paul Hermann Diels." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 04
Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-paul-h
ermann-diels
[2] "Otto Paul Hermann Diels".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Paul_H
ermann_Diels
(Christian Albrecht University) Kiel,
Germany4  
[1] Otto Paul Hermann Diels UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/dielsc.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 9 		4886)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661.
2. ^ "Windaus, Adolf
Otto Reinhold." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto
Reinhold." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto
Reinhold." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolf Windaus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/645115/Adolf-Windaus>
[2] "Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-otto-
reinhold-windaus
[3] "Adolf Windaus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Winda
us
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1928/windaus-bio.html
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany8  
[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 8 		4947) In 1949 Hess shares the Nobel
Prize for physiology or medicine with
Egas Moniz (the first to perform
lobotomies on humans5 ).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682.
2. ^ Akert K.,
"Walter Rudolf Hess (1881-1973) and His
Contribution to Neuroscience", Journal
of the history of the neurosciences
0964-704X. ^ Akert (1999) volume: 8
issue: 3 page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf}
3. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p682.
7. ^ "Walter
Rudolf Hess." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-rudo
lf-hess
8. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf} {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Rudolf Hess."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264128/Walter-Rudolf-Hess>.
[2] Hardcastle, Valerie Gray. "Hess,
Walter Rudolf." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 302-306.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905745&v=2.1&u=&it=r&p=GVR
L&sw=w
[3] "Walter Rudolf Hess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rudo
lf_Hess
[4] Walter Rudolf Hess, The Biology of
Mind (1964).
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland7  
[1] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 4 		4998)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697.
2. ^ D Black, "On a
lower molar hominid tooth from the Chou
Kou Tien deposit", by the Geological
survey of China, 1927.
3. ^ "Black,
Davidson." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 171-172.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900470&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697. {1927}
(Chou Kou Tien) Peking, China3  
[1] English: Canadian physical
anthropologist Davidson Black Date
1920s (?) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Davidson_Black.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 10 		5089) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730.
2. ^ Pettit, E. &
Nicholson, S. B., "Temperature of the
Dark Side of the Moon and of the Moon
During Eclipse", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 39, No. 230,
p.227. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1927PASP...39..227P/0000228.000
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730.
4. ^ Pettit, E. &
Nicholson, S. B., "Stellar radiation
measurements.", Astrophys. J., 68,
279-308
(1928). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1928ApJ....68..279P
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Seth Barnes Nicholson."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seth-barnes
-nicholson
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730. {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholson, S. B., "Discovery,
observations, and orbit of the ninth
satellite of Jupiter", Lick Observatory
bulletin ; no. 271; Lick Observatory
bulletins ; no. 271., Berkeley :
University of California Press, 1915,
p.
147-149. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1915LicOB...8..147N
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA9  
[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 16 17 18 		5143) In 1922 Lemaître is ordained a
priest.13

(Perhaps a religious person would
prefer that the universe have a moment
of creation. The idea of an infinitely
old and large universe perhaps seems
illogical because people feel that all
things must have a beginning and end. I
can not rule out that the universe does
not have a beginning or end, but it
seems doubtful to me, and in addition,
clearly the universe must be so large
that there will forever be a majority
of the universe that we will never be
able to see one light particle from
because of the physical limitation on
our size, and the speed in which we can
move. Just knowing the reality of how
we can't possibly see it all, is a good
enough argument to presume that the
rest goes on indefinitely. Some might
argue that this universe is a tiny
particle in some other universe. The
size of the universe in terms of scale,
or magnification, must also be
infinite. The universe is probably the
one thing that advanced life will never
be able to explain fully because nobody
can possibly see it all, and can only
see what must be an extremely small
part of the universe.14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p744-745.
2. ^ "Georges
Lemaître." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georges-lem
a-tre
3. ^ G Lemaitre, "Un Univers homogène
de masse constante et de rayon
croissant" ("A homogeneous universe of
constant mass and increasing radius"),
Ann. Soc. Sci. Brux., 47A,
1927. English translation: G
Lemaître, "A homogeneous universe of
constant mass and increasing radius
accounting for the radial velocity of
extra-galactic nebulae", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society,
1931 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
1MNRAS..91..483L {Lemaitre_Georges_1927
xxxx.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p744-745.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Georges Lemaître." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georges-lem
a-tre
7. ^ G Lemaitre, "Un Univers homogène
de masse constante et de rayon
croissant" ("A homogeneous universe of
constant mass and increasing radius"),
Ann. Soc. Sci. Brux., 47A,
1927. English translation: G
Lemaître, "A homogeneous universe of
constant mass and increasing radius
accounting for the radial velocity of
extra-galactic nebulae", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society,
1931 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
1MNRAS..91..483L {Lemaitre_Georges_1927
xxxx.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p744-745.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
"Georges Lemaître." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georges-lem
a-tre
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p744-745. {1927}
17. ^
"Georges Lemaître." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georges-lem
a-tre {1927}
18. ^ G Lemaitre, "Un Univers
homogène de masse constante et de
rayon croissant" ("A homogeneous
universe of constant mass and
increasing radius"), Ann. Soc. Sci.
Brux., 47A, 1927. English
translation: G Lemaître, "A
homogeneous universe of constant mass
and increasing radius accounting for
the radial velocity of extra-galactic
nebulae", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society,
1931 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
1MNRAS..91..483L {Lemaitre_Georges_1927
xxxx.pdf}
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium15  
[1] Georges Lemaître, docerend aan de
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Circa
1933. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Lemaitre.jpg

[2] Georges Lemaître between Robert
Millikan and Albert Einstein,
California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, January 10th 1933 Photo:
Archives Lemaitre UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cism.ucl.ac.be/Images
/c001-003.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 9 		5185)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1956/semenov.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p751-752.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p756-757.
4. ^ C. N.
Hinshelwood and H. W. Thompson, "The
Kinetics of the Combination of Hydrogen
and Oxygen", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 118, No. 779 (Mar. 1,
1928), pp.
170-183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/94
896
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1956/semenov.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Zaitseva, Elena.
"Semenov, Nikolaî Nikolaevich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 411-417. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906084&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p756-757. {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] Semenov, "Chemical Kinetics
and Chain Reactions" , 1934, Eng: 1935
[2]
Zaitseva, Elena. "Semenov, Nikolaî
Nikolaevich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 411-417.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906084&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Electronic Phenomena Laboratory of the
Petrograd Physical-Technical
Radiological Institute) (Petrograd now)
Leningrad, Russia8 (presumably) 
[1] Nikolay Nikolaevich
Semenov COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1956/semen
ov_postcard.jpg

[2] Sir Cyril Hinshelwood UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/540/0
00100240/cyril-hinshelwood-1.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 17 		5530) Ley is a consultant for the
science fiction movie "Frau im Mond".6

Ley is strongly anti-Nazi and in 1935
moves to the USA.7

In 1940 Von Braun joins the Nazi
party.8
In 1942 Von Braun is briefly
imprisoned until Hitler is persuaded
that the rocket program cannot continue
without him.9
At the close of World War
II, von Braun and many colleagues go
westward to surrender to the US. Von
Braun's arm is broken when his driver
falls asleep at the week and smashes
the car.10
In 1947 Von Braun is allowed
to return to Germany to marry his
eighteen-year-old second cousin.11
On
01/31/1958 Von Braun is the leader of
the group at Huntsville, Alabama that
puts the US's first satellite (Explorer
I) into orbit. Asimov states that they
may have been first, but were hindered
by Eisenhower and the Soviet Sputnik is
first by 4 months.12
In 1962 Von
Braun's team begins construction on the
Saturn 5 rocket that will carry people
to the moon.13

(I think the ex-Nazi's should have been
hired only as consultants, not as
supervisors. it seems absurd that
people in the US could not quickly
learn and develop rockets. Depending on
their crimes, they probably should have
been allowed to return to Germany. It
should have been put to popular vote as
all things should be. Simply building
missiles that are used to murder during
war, I don't think is a major crime if
a crime at all, it's like those who
manufacture knives used by other people
to murder. Racism is clearly evil and
inaccurate, but is nonviolent and
within the realm of freedom of
thought.14 )

(It's interesting that this rocket
group probably would have developed one
of the early moon cities, had violent
people not taken over Germany in 1935
and World War 2 occured, and had,
instead, the rocket group been free to
follow their own interests.15 )
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Wernher von Braun."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/78018/Wernher-von-Braun>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p449-450.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
5. ^ "Wernher von
Braun." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/78018/Wernher-von-Braun>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "Wernher von Braun."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/78018/Wernher-von-Braun>.
17. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p449-450. {1927}
(Berlin Institute of Technology)
Berlin, Germany16  
[1] Members of the Verein für
Raumschiffahrt, circa 1930. Left to
right: Rudolf Nebel, Franz Ritter,
unknown, Kurt Heinisch, unknown,
Hermann Oberth, unknown, Klaus Riedel,
Wernher von Braun, unknown UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Verein_fur_Raumschiffahrt.jpg

[2] Willy Ley NASA photo PD
source: http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/
arch/findaids/images/NASM-9A02977~A_smal
l.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 3 4 		5720)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://techchannel.att.com/play-video.cf
m/2011/4/6/AT&T-Archives-That-Little-Big
-Fellow
2. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eroI30Lfv
6Q
3. ^
http://techchannel.att.com/play-video.cf
m/2011/4/6/AT&T-Archives-That-Little-Big
-Fellow {1927}
4. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eroI30Lfv
6Q {1927}
 
[1] Image of thought-screen from AT&T
1927 movie ''That Little Big
Man''. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e
roI30Lfv6Q
72 YBN
[01/??/1928 AD] 11 		5240)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
2. ^ Hubble, E. P.,
"Novae or Temporary Stars",
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Leaflets, Vol. 1,
p.55. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1928ASPL....1...55H/0000056.000.
html
3. ^ Lampland, C. O., "Observed Changes
in the Structure of the "Crab" Nebula
(N. G. C. 1952)", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 33, No. 192,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
21PASP...33...79L
4. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292
5. ^ Hubble, E. P., "Novae or Temporary
Stars", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 1,
p.55. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1928ASPL....1...55H/0000056.000.
html
6. ^ J. J. L. D. and J. H. Oort, "The
"Guest-Star" of 1054", T'oung Pao,
Second Series, Vol. 36, Livr. 2 (1941),
pp.
174-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45
27212
7. ^ Baade, W., "The Crab Nebula.",
"Astrophysical Journal, vol. 96,
p.188. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
942ApJ....96..188B
8. ^ Ho Peng-Yokea, F.W. Paarb and P.W.
Parsonsc, "The Chinese guest star of
A.D. 1054 and the Crab Nebula", Vistas
in Astronomy, Volume 13, 1972, Pages
1-13. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TJG-473D842-N&
_user=4422&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1972&_rd
oc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=sear
ch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=006993bc94530f90974c9a4c518d5f2
f&searchtype=a
9. ^ Mayall, N. U. & Oort, J. H.,
"Further Data Bearing on the
Identification of the Crab Nebula with
the Supernova of 1054 A.D. Part II. The
Astronomical Aspects", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 54, No. 318,
p.95-104. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1942PASP...54...95M
10. ^ Hubble, E. P., "Novae or
Temporary Stars", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 1,
p.55. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1928ASPL....1...55H/0000056.000.
html
11. ^ Hubble, E. P., "Novae or
Temporary Stars", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 1,
p.55. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1928ASPL....1...55H/0000056.000.
html {01/1928}

MORE INFO
[1] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The
realm of the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&o
ts=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[2] Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA10  
[1] Edwin Hubble (with pipe) Photograph
of famous deceased scientist Edwin
Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg

[2] Edwin Hubble UNKNOWN
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac
.uk/BigPictures/Hubble.jpeg
72 YBN
[02/16/1928 AD] 17 18 		5052) In 1929 Raman is knighted by the
British government.9
In 1930 Raman wins
the Nobel Prize in physics.10
In 1947
Raman is the Director of Raman Research
institute at Bangalore in India.11
Rama
n is the first Asian human (human
living in India, China, or Russia?12 )
to get a Nobel Prize.13
Raman trains
more than 500 young Indian people in
science and education in an effort to
build up scientific research and
education in India.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
2. ^ C. V. RAMAN., K.
S. KRISHNAN, "A New Type of Secondary
Radiation", Nature 121, 501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
4. ^ "Sir
Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chandrasekh
ara-venkata-raman
5. ^ C. V. RAMAN & K. S. KRISHNAN,
"The optical analogue of the Compton
effect", Nature 121, p711 (05 May
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3053/abs/121711a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19280322.pdf}
6. ^ C. V. RAMAN., K. S. KRISHNAN, "A
New Type of Secondary Radiation",
Nature 121, 501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p717-718.
15. ^ C. V.
RAMAN., K. S. KRISHNAN, "A New Type of
Secondary Radiation", Nature 121,
501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf}
16. ^ "Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata
Raman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 31
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/490449/Sir-Chandrasekhara-Venkata-Rama
n>.
17. ^ C. V. RAMAN., K. S. KRISHNAN, "A
New Type of Secondary Radiation",
Nature 121, 501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf} {02/16/1928}
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718. {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] C. V. RAMAN, "A Change of
Wave-length in Light Scattering",
Nature V121, p619 (21 April
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3051/pdf/121619b0.pdf
[2] CV Raman, NSN Nath, "The
diffraction of waves by high frequency
sound waves. I, II", Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci,
1935 http://www.optics.rochester.edu/wo
rkgroups/opt256/raman.pdf
(University of Calcutta) Calcutta,
India15 16  
[1] C. V. RAMAN & K. S. KRISHNAN,
''The optical analogue of the Compton
effect'', Nature 121, p711 (05 May
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3053/abs/121711a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19280322.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v121/n3053/pdf/121711a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: [1]
Description The image of Indian
physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg
72 YBN
[02/??/1928 AD] 5 		4801)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kenneth Wilcox Payne, "Is
Telepathy All Bunk? What Scientists
Have Discovered About This Widely
Discussed Subject in Thousands of
Exhaustive Tests", 02/1928, p32.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VycDA
AAAMBAJ&pg=PA32
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Kenneth Wilcox
Payne, "Is Telepathy All Bunk? What
Scientists Have Discovered About This
Widely Discussed Subject in Thousands
of Exhaustive Tests", 02/1928, p32.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VycDA
AAAMBAJ&pg=PA32
5. ^ Kenneth Wilcox Payne, "Is
Telepathy All Bunk? What Scientists
Have Discovered About This Widely
Discussed Subject in Thousands of
Exhaustive Tests", 02/1928, p32.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VycDA
AAAMBAJ&pg=PA32 {02/1928}
New York City, NY, USA4  
[1] Image from: Kenneth Wilcox Payne,
''Is Telepathy All Bunk? What
Scientists Have Discovered About This
Widely Discussed Subject in Thousands
of Exhaustive Tests'', 02/1928, p32.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VycDA
AAAMBAJ&pg=PA32 UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
72 YBN
[03/07/1928 AD] 25 		5256) In the 1920s by using X-ray
"diffraction", Pauling determines the
three-dimensional arrangement of atoms
in several important silicate and
sulfide minerals. Pauling will also use
electron "diffraction" to determine the
structure of some substances.19

In 1954 Pauling wins the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry "for his research into the
nature of the chemical bond and its
application to the elucidation of the
structure of complex substances".20

In 1958 Pauling and his wife present an
appeal for a test ban to the United
Nations in the form of a document
signed by 9,235 scientists from 44
countries. In 1960 Pauling is called
upon to defend his actions regarding a
test ban before a congressional
subcommittee and refuses to reveal the
names of those who had helped him
collect signatures.
In 1962 Pauling
wins the Nobel Peace Prize. Pauling is
outspoken against nuclear testing and
for nuclear disarmament. Pauling is the
second person after Marie Curie to win
two Nobel Prizes.21

Pauling publishes reprts stating that
when taken in large enough quantities
(megadoses), vitamin C helps the body
fight off colds and other diseases, and
later that vitamin C is useful in
treating cancer, however,
investigations at the Mayo Clinic
involving human cancer patients do not
corroborate Pauling’s results.22 (To
me this casts doubts on Pauli's valence
theory, and the critical perception of
people in the quantum physics field. It
seems possible that Pauling had never
heard of neuron writing and was
possibly a victim of neuron writing by
the extreme violent criminals who
killed JFK, and own so much of the
neuron writing infrastructure, in an
effort to discredit liberal anti-war
and perhaps pro-democracy views.23 )
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
2. ^ "Linus Carl
Pauling." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/linus-carl-
pauling
3. ^ Linus Pauling, "The
Shared-Electron Chemical Bond", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/ {Pauling_Linus
_19280307.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
(:0: C Y)
6. ^ Linus
Pauling, "The Shared-Electron Chemical
Bond", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928
April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/ {Pauling_Linus
_19280307.pdf}
7. ^ Linus Pauling, "The Application of
the Quantum Mechanics to the Structure
of the Hydrogen Molecule and Hydrogen
Molecule-Ion and to Related Problems.",
Chem. Rev., 1928, 5 (2), pp
173–213. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60018a003 {Pauling_Linus_1928
07xx.pdf}
8. ^ Linus. Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE
CHEMICAL BOND. APPLICATION OF RESULTS
OBTAINED FROM THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND
FROM A THEORY OF PARAMAGNETIC
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE STRUCTURE OF
MOLECULES", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53
(4), pp
1367–1400. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01355a027 {Pauling_Linus_19
310217.pdf}
9. ^ "Linus Pauling." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/447161/Linus-Pauling>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
11. ^ "Linus
Pauling." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/447161/Linus-Pauling>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Linus Pauling."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/447161/Linus-Pauling>.
20. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1954". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1954/index.html
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
22. ^ "Linus
Pauling." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/447161/Linus-Pauling>.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Linus Pauling, "The
Shared-Electron Chemical Bond", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/ {Pauling_Linus
_19280307.pdf}
25. ^ Linus Pauling, "The
Shared-Electron Chemical Bond", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/ {Pauling_Linus
_19280307.pdf} {03/07/1928}

MORE INFO
[1] Linus Pauling, "The Nature of
the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of
Molecules and Crystals" (1939)
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California24  
[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg
72 YBN
[03/28/1928 AD] 5 		5293)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
2. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
3. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {03/28/1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lilienfeld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lili
enfeld
[2] Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[3] Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[4] Julius Lilienfeld, "Device for
Controlling Electric Current", Patent
number: 1900018, Filing date: Mar 28,
1928, Issue date: Mar 7
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[5] Julius Lilienfeld, "Rectifying
Apparatus for Alternating Current",
Patent number: 1611653, Filing date:
Mar 27, 1926, Issue date: Dec 21,
1926. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
L7RrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA4
 
[1] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
72 YBN
[04/30/1928 AD] 9 		5164)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752-753.
2. ^ "Robert
Sanderson Mulliken." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-sand
erson-mulliken
3. ^ "Friedrich Hund." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/276471/Friedrich-Hund>.
4. ^ "Robert Sanderson Mulliken." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-sand
erson-mulliken
5. ^ Simões, Ana. "Mulliken, Robert
Sanderson." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 23. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 209-214.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "The
Assignment of Quantum Numbers for
Electrons in Molecules. I", Phys. Rev.
32, 186–222 (1928)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v32/i
2/p186_1 {Mulliken_Robert_19280430.pdf}

7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Robert S.
Mulliken, "The Assignment of Quantum
Numbers for Electrons in Molecules. I",
Phys. Rev. 32, 186–222 (1928)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v32/i
2/p186_1 {Mulliken_Robert_19280430.pdf}
{04/30/1928}

MORE INFO
[1] Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01426a015
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1966". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1966/
(Washington Square College, New York
University) New York City, New York,
USA  
[1] Description Mulliken,Robert 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken,
1929 at Chicago Deutsch: Robert
Mulliken, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Mulliken%2CRobert_192
9_Chicago.jpg

[2] Description Hund,Friedrich 1920er
Göttingen.jpg English: Friedrich
Hund, Göttingen in the
twenties Deutsch: Friedrich Hund,
Göttingen in den 20er Jahren Date
1920er Jahre Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b7/Hund%2CFriedrich_1920
er_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg
72 YBN
[07/11/1928 AD] 6 		5789) Alexander Lippisch (CE 1894-1976)
builds and tests "Ente" (English:
"Duck"), the first aircraft to fly
using rocket power. The plane has two
black powder rocket engines.2 3

(It seems very likely that much of this
research has, like remote neuron
reading and writing, artificial muscle
running and jumping robots, etc - been
kept secret for many decades - it seems
likely that there may even be very
advanced development on the moon, mars
and around the other planets - if not,
there certainly should be by now -
given 200 years of neuron reading and
writing.4 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lippisch Ente". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lippisch_En
te
2. ^ "Lippisch Ente". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lippisch_En
te
3. ^ "Alexander Lippisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_L
ippisch
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Lippisch Ente".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lippisch_En
te
6. ^ "Lippisch Ente". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lippisch_En
te {07/11/1928 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.rexresearch.com/lippisch/lipp
isch.htm
[2] Video of Ente:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q4_6P5ue2
g4
Wasserkuppe, Germany5 (verify) 
[1] Description RRG Raketen-Ente
Deutsches Segelflugmuseum 02
2009-05-31.jpg Deutsch: RRG
Raketen-Ente: Frontansicht Date
Source Own work Author
Martin.bergner Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/RRG_Raketen-Ente_Deut
sches_Segelflugmuseum_02_2009-05-31.jpg

[2] Alexander Lippisch in
''Life'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rexresearch.com/lippi
sch/50505022.jpg
72 YBN
[07/22/1928 AD] 8 		5830) In 1933, Ascheim and Zondek have
to leave their duties and finally
Germany during National Socialism
because they are Jewish.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
"Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons", Journal
of Molecular Medicine, Volume 7, Number
30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: "The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary" {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.pd
f}
2. ^ "Pregnancy test." The Oxford
Companion to the Body. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pregnancy-t
est-2
3. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/92446
63
4. ^
http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/thinblue
line/explanations.html
5. ^
http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/thinblue
line/introduction.html
6. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/92446
63
7. ^ S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
"Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons", Journal
of Molecular Medicine, Volume 7, Number
30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: "The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary" {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.pd
f}
8. ^ S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
"Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons", Journal
of Molecular Medicine, Volume 7, Number
30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: "The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary" {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.pd
f} {07/22/1928}
(Aus der Universitats-Frauenklinik der
Charite zu Berlin) Berlin, Germany7
 		 
72 YBN
[08/02/1928 AD] 14 		5345) Gamow is the grandson of tsarist
general, and son of a teacher.10
In
1934 Gamow moves to the USA.11
(I
seriously doubt much of Gamow's work.
Asimov calls him a first-rate
scientist, but without trying to sound
mean or unpleasant, in my own view, I
think much of Gamow's work is simply
inaccurate. Perhaps he was paid a
first-rate to mislead the neuron
excluded. And this work is in the
spirit of mathematical abstraction (and
some might say deception, since a major
embrace of secrecy and corruption
happened in 1810 and later that was a
terrible turn for life on earth) that
is so characteristic of the 1900s. In
my view, and I think any unbiased
historian must agree, science
completely flew off into an erroneous
direction with space-dilation, the
big-bang theory, background radiation,
etc. We may find, as more
thought-images reach the public, that
much of this pseudo-science corruption
originates simply in the minds of the
neuron owners.12 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON
, "Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html {Gurney_Ronal
d_19280730.pdf}
2. ^ G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
{Gamow_George_19280802.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
4. ^ "Gamow, George."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 271-273. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901576&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON
, "Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html {Gurney_Ronal
d_19280730.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p799.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
{Gamow_George_19280802.pdf}
14. ^ G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
{Gamow_George_19280802.pdf}
{08/02/1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gamow." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gamo
w
[2] "George Gamow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/225123/George-Gamow>
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany13  
[1] Figure 4 from: G. Gamow, ''Zur
quantentheorie des atomkernes'',
European physical journal. A, Hadrons
and nuclei,(1928) volume: 51 issue:
3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
{Gamow_George_19280802.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/mw52h8867mr4x185/

[2] Figure 1 from: RONALD W. GURNEY &
EDW. U. CONDON , ''Wave Mechanics and
Radioactive Disintegration'', Nature,
09/22/1928, Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html {Gurney_Ronal
d_19280730.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v122/n3073/index.html
72 YBN
[08/??/1928 AD] 3 		3884)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael A. Banks, "Hugo
Gernsback: The man who invented the
future. Part 3. Merging science fiction
into science fact.". Society for
Amateur Scientists (Society for Amateur
Scientists), October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html.
2. ^ "Hugo Gernsback". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Gernsb
ack
3. ^
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/te
chnical/scienceinvention/ScienceAndInven
tion1922-11.jpg.html {11/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Thought Recorder",
Electrical Experimenter, May 1919
[2]
http://store.g-books.com/index.php?main_
page=index&cPath=86_88
[3]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[4] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[5]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/te
chnical/electricalexperimenter/Electrica
lExperimenter1919-05.jpg.html
[6] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[7] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[8] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[9]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[10]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
[11]
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
New York City, NY2 (presumably) 
[1] Cover of May 1919 ''Electrical
Experimenter'' magazine PD
source: http://www.philsp.com/data/image
s/e/electrical_experimenter_191905.jpg

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Radio_News_Nov_1928_p
g422.png
72 YBN
[12/28/1928 AD] 3 		5294)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
2. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {12/28/1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lilienfeld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lili
enfeld
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
[3] Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Julius Lilienfeld, "Device for
Controlling Electric Current", Patent
number: 1900018, Filing date: Mar 28,
1928, Issue date: Mar 7
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[5] Julius Lilienfeld, "Rectifying
Apparatus for Alternating Current",
Patent number: 1611653, Filing date:
Mar 27, 1926, Issue date: Dec 21,
1926. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
L7RrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[6] Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
Cesarhurst, New York City, New York,
USA2  
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
''Amplifier for Electronic Circuits'',
Patent number: 1877140, Filing date:
Dec 8, 1928, Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=jvhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 4 		4213)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^ "George
Eastman." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
3. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
4. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699 {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[6] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[7] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[8] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[9] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[10] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA3
(presumably) 
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 4 		4468)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p607.
2. ^ "John Stanley
Plaskett." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-stanle
y-plaskett
3. ^ "Plaskett, John Stanley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
325>.
4. ^ "John Stanley Plaskett." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-stanle
y-plaskett {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Stanley Plaskett".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stanle
y_Plaskett
(Victoria Observatory) Victoria,
British Colombia3  
[1] John Stanley Plaskett
(1865-1941) National Research Council
of Canada PD
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
2202_plaskett2_g.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 6 7 		4876)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p659-660.
2. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blfreon.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718-719.
4. ^
"chlorofluorocarbon." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 09 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chlorofluor
ocarbon
5. ^ Google Patents US Patent #1150523,
filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blfreon.htm {1928}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p718-719. {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles F. Kettering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/315736/Charles-F-Kettering>
[2] "Charles Kettering." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-ket
tering-inventor
[3] "Kettering, Charles Franklin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 316. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902286&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Charles Franklin Kettering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fra
nklin_Kettering
[5] "knock." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 09 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/knock
[6] Method and Means for Using Low
Compression Fuels US Patent #1635216,
filed Jan 3,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?id=n
E95AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&dq=
Charles+F+Kettering+Ethyl+Lead#v=onepage
&q=Charles%20F%20Kettering%20Ethyl%20Lea
d&f=false
(General Motors Corporation) Dayton,
Ohio, USA5 (verify) 
[1] Thomas Midgley, Jr. UNKNOWN
source: http://science.kukuchew.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2008/10/thomas-midgley-jr
-2.jpg

[2] Charles Franklin
Kettering UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 8 9 		4915) In 1929 Jeans publishes “The
Universe Around Us” and in 1934
“Through Space and Time” both of
which explain astronomy to the public.4


Jeans puts forward the idea that a star
came close to our sun and pulled out
matter from the sun that formed into a
cigar shape, the larger part forming
the Jovian planets, the smaller parts
forming the terrestrial and smaller
planets beyond the gas giant planets.5


Jeans doubts the nebular hypothesis of
the solar system by Laplace, because
the planets contain 98 percent of the
angular momentum of the solar system
(the sun rotates slowly while the
planets orbit quickly). (Actually, as
far as I can see this is incorrect and
the opposite of the actual physical
truth. If the star system was all
connected, all the planets would orbit
in the same time the sun rotates which
is only 20 earth days or something. The
Sun rotates faster than any object
going around it. So the planets orbit
the Sun much slower than the sun
rotates around it's own axis,
indicating that the planets if anything
trail behind the rotation of the sun.
The spiral shape of spiral galaxies is
also an example of this, the spiral
portion on the outside drags behind the
faster rotating center. I am surprised
that Jeans and Asimov miss this simple
point. In addition, it seems very
likely that in simple Newtonian
gravitation models, randomly
distributed masses can fall into
rotation. Without question, any mass
that falls into and is captured by a
larger group of masses takes an
elliptical orbit around the larger
mass, so this is a simple explanation
for why matter tends to orderly orbit a
central larger mass.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p665-666.
2. ^ "Sir James
Jeans." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302187/Sir-James-Jeans>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p665-666.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p665-666.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Sir James Jeans." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302187/Sir-James-Jeans>.
8. ^ James Jeans, "Astronomy and
Cosmogony", Cambridge,
1928. http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook
.jsf?bid=CBO9780511694363
9. ^ "Sir James Jeans." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302187/Sir-James-Jeans>. {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jeans, James Hopwood."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 84-86. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902175&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "James Jeans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Jeans

[3] James Jeans, "The Universe Around
Us", Cambridge, 1929
[4] James Jeans, "The
Stars in Their Courses", 1931
[5] James
Jeans, "Through Space and Time", 1934
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA7  
[1] Description James Hopwood
Jeans.jpg English: Sir James Hopwood
Jeans Polski: Sir James Hopwood Jeans,
zdjęcie zeskanowane z książki Nowy
świat fizyki, oryginalny tytuł:The
Mysterious Universe, autorstwa sir
Jamesa Hopwooda Jeansa, wydawnictwo
Trzaska, Evert i Michalski S.A.,
Warszawa Date 1930-1939 Source
Nowy świat fizyki, oryginalny
tytuł:The Mysterious Universe, James
Hopwood Jeans, wydawnictwo Trzaska,
Evert i Michalski S.A.,
Warszawa Author Kokorik
(Uploader) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/James_Hopwood_Jeans.j
pg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 13 		4956) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1945 was awarded jointly to
Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris
Chain and Sir Howard Walter Florey "for
the discovery of penicillin and its
curative effect in various infectious
diseases".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p684-685.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p684-685.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p684-685.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p684-685.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p684-685.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1945/
12. ^ "Sir Alexander Fleming." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-alexand
er-fleming-1
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p684-685. {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Alexander Fleming."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/209952/Sir-Alexander-Fleming>
[2] "Fleming, Alexander." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 28-31. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901451&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(St Mary's Hospital) London, England12
 
[1] Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_4gF6Yu
GUwVM/TIpSqGwOklI/AAAAAAAAPRw/NNK_SagRmJ
0/s1600/alexander_fleming.jpg

[2] Penicillin core [t not entire
molecule?] Penicillin
core.svg English: chemical structure
of the Penicillin core Deutsch:
gemeinsame Struktur von
Penicilinen Date 20 July
2009(2009-07-20) Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penicillin_core
.svg/2000px-Penicillin_core.svg.png
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 7 		4984) Haworth works on atomic bomb
project in WW II.4
In 1937 Haworth wins
a Nobel Prize in chemistry shared with
Karrer.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p691.
3. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p691.
6. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.html
7. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.html
{by 1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Norman Haworth."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257576/Sir-Norman-Haworth>.
[2] WN Haworth, "The constitution of
sugars", Longmans, Green & Co.,
1929. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/jctb.5000481005/abstract
[3] "Walter Haworth." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-hawo
rth
(St. Andrews University) St. Andrews,
Scotland6  
[1] English: Walter Norman
Haworth Date 1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Norman_Haworth.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 13 		5033) With the rise of the Nazi
movement, Paneth goes to England and
takes a position as guest lecturer at
the Imperial College of Science and
Technology, London.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p711-712.
2. ^ FA Paneth, KI
Reasbeck, "Helium 3 content and age of
meteorites", Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta, 1952 -
Elsevier http://linkinghub.elsevier.com
/retrieve/pii/0016703752900136
{Paneth_Friedrich_19520903.pdf}
3. ^ RB Jacobi, FA Paneth, "Meteorites
and the age of the solar system",
Nature,
1942. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/194
2Natur.149..235A {Paneth_Friedrich_1942
0228.pdf}
4. ^ Paneth, F. A. , et al, Z.
Electrochem, V34, 645, 1928. Nature
V125, N3152, p490,
1930. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v125/n3152/pdf/125490c0.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p711-712.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p711-712.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ R. J. Strutt, "On the Accumulation
of Helium in Geological Time.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
V81, N547,
09/11/1908. http://www.jstor.org/stable
/93092 {Strutt_R_J_19080728.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Friedrich
Adolf Paneth." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/441198/Friedrich-Adolf-Paneth>.
12. ^ Paneth, F. A. , et al, Z.
Electrochem, V34, 645, 1928. Nature
V125, N3152, p490,
1930. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v125/n3152/pdf/125490c0.pdf
13. ^ Paneth, F. A. , et al, Z.
Electrochem, V34, 645, 1928. Nature
V125, N3152, p490,
1930. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v125/n3152/pdf/125490c0.pdf
Königsberg, Germany12  
[1] Friedrich Adolf Paneth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.meteoroids.de/images/
paneth.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 16 		5132) Szent-Györgyi deliberately
wounds himself to get out of the
Austrian army during WW I.11
In 1937
Szent-Györgyi wins the Nobel Prize in
medicine and physiology.12
During WW
II, Szent-Györgyi is active in the
anti-Nazi underground.13
Szent-Györgyi
speaks out against war.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
2. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-szen
t-gy-rgyi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
4. ^ Joseph Louis
Svirbely and Albert Szent-Györgyi,
"The chemical nature of vitamin C",
Biochem J. 1933; 27(1): 279–285.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1252872/
5. ^ "Albert Szent-Györgyi." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-szen
t-gy-rgyi
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
7. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-szen
t-gy-rgyi
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
9. ^ Joseph Louis
Svirbely and Albert Szent-Györgyi,
"The chemical nature of vitamin C",
Biochem J. 1933; 27(1): 279–285.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1252872/
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
15. ^ Allchin,
Douglas. "Szent-Györgyi, Albert Imre."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 567-573. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906127&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742. {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] Albert Szent-Györgyi,
"Chemistry of muscular contraction",
Academic Press, 1947, 1951
(University of Szeged) Szeged,
Hungary15  
[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 21 		5222) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1961 is awarded to Georg von
Békésy "for his discoveries of the
physical mechanism of stimulation
within the cochlea".18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p767-768.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p767-768.
3. ^ "Georg von
Békésy." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 31
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58968/Georg-von-Bekesy>.
4. ^ G Von Bekesy, "Zur Theorie des
Hörens. Die Schwingungsform der
Basilarmembran", ("On the theory of
hearing. The waveform of the basilar
membrane"), Phys. Z, 1928
5. ^ Georg v.
Békésy, "Zur Theorie des Hörens bei
der Schallaufnahme durch
Knochenleitung", ("On the theory of
hearing in a sound recording by bone
conduction"), Annalen der Physik,
Volume 405, Issue 1, pages 111–136,
1932. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19324050109/abstract {Be
kesy_Georg_von_19311214.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Georg von Bekesy." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-von-b
-k-sy
8. ^ "Georg von Békésy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58968/Georg-von-Bekesy>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p767-768.
10. ^ "Georg von
Békésy." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 31
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58968/Georg-von-Bekesy>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1961 was awarded
to Georg von Békésy "for his
discoveries of the physical mechanism
of stimulation within the cochlea".
19. ^ "Georg
von Békésy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58968/Georg-von-Bekesy>.
20. ^ Georg v. Békésy, "Zur Theorie
des Hörens bei der Schallaufnahme
durch Knochenleitung", ("On the theory
of hearing in a sound recording by bone
conduction"), Annalen der Physik,
Volume 405, Issue 1, pages 111–136,
1932. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19324050109/abstract {Be
kesy_Georg_von_19311214.pdf}
21. ^ G Von Bekesy, "Zur Theorie des
Hörens. Die Schwingungsform der
Basilarmembran", ("On the theory of
hearing. The waveform of the basilar
membrane"), Phys. Z, 1928
(Hungarian Telephone System Research
Laboratory) Budapest, Hungary19 20
 
[1] Figure 16 from; [6] Georg v.
Békésy, ''Zur Theorie des Hörens bei
der Schallaufnahme durch
Knochenleitung'', (''On the theory of
hearing in a sound recording by bone
conduction''), Annalen der Physik,
Volume 405, Issue 1, pages 111–136,
1932. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19324050109/abstract {Be
kesy_Georg_von_19311214.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19324050109/abstract

[2] Georg von Békésy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1961/bekesy
_postcard.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 7 		5709)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Steamboat Willie",
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBgghnQF6
E4
2. ^ "Mickey Mouse." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mickey-mous
e
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Greg Merritt, "Celluloid
mavericks: the history of American
independent film", p56-58.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Greg
Merritt, "Celluloid mavericks: the
history of American independent film",
p56-58.
7. ^ "Mickey Mouse." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mickey-mous
e {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] Claude Bragdon, "Mickey Mouse
and What He Means," Scribner's, July
1934, v95, 40-43.
[2] "Mickey Mouse".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey_Mous
e
[3] Irving Wallace, "Mickey Mouse, and
how he grew", Springfield, Ohio :
Crowell-Collier Pub. Co., 1949.
[4]
Kenworthy, John (2001). The Hand Behind
the Mouse (Disney ed.). New York. pp.
53–54.
Manhattan, New York, New York City,
USA6  
[1] [t Notice Mickey taking off the hat
- perhaps to show the then 100+ year
secret of the eye and thought screen
circular windows.] Description
Screenshot from the Mickey Mouse
cartoon Steamboat Willie (1928). Film
© 1928 Walt Disney Productions Source
Screenshot from Mickey Mouse in
Black and White Volume 1. (Timecode
00:00:04 of main feature). DVD issued
by Walt Disney Home Entertainment,
December 2003. DVD © Disney. Film
copyright MCMXXIX (1929)
DISNEY. Article Steamboat
Willie Portion used Entire
frame COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/23/Steamboat-willie-title2.jp
g

[2] ''Mickey Mouse'' is shown
publicly. This is clear evidence for
neuron reading and writing as early as
1928. These two or three circles or
oval represent a direct-to-brain front
microcamera+eye screen+thought screen
configuration - this is the standard
picture that many neuron-addicted
consumers see when looking at other
humans. Seeing these two circles in
their most common position - as if
looking at a black haired main with
thought and eye screen - must have give
relief to those in the know - those
neuron consumers. They must have
thought, after WW1 and all the neuron
abuse and lies they saw - ''now here is
some hope - seeing eyes and ears will
probably go public within 10
years...''. But how wrong and
inaccurate that false hope has proven
to be. Ownership of neuron writing,
perhaps by its nature, has caused a
shocking stagnation that persists -
like religious myths - for possibly
thousands of years. Note that ''MM''
has a lot of significance as an
abbreviation for ''mass murder'',
''muscle mover'', ''muscle
molestation'', the upside-down WW of
''William Wollaston''. PD
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 4 		6101) "I Wanna Be Loved By You" is
written by Herbert Stothart and Harry
Ruby, with lyrics by Bert Kalmar, for
the 1928 musical "Good Boy". The song
is first performed in late 1928 by
Helen Kane, who became known as the
'Boop-Boop-a-Doop Girl' because of her
baby-talk, scat-singing tag line to
that song. This version was recorded
right when Kane's popularity starts to
reach its peak, and becomes her
signature song. Two years later, a
cartoon character named Betty Boop is
modeled after Kane.1

(Notice the lyric "I know what's on my
mind.".2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I Wanna Be Loved By You".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Wanna_Be_
Loved_By_You
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "I Wanna Be Loved By
You". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Wanna_Be_
Loved_By_You
4. ^ "I Wanna Be Loved By You".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Wanna_Be_
Loved_By_You {1928}
New York City, New York, USA3
(guess) 
[1] Description English: This is a
Image of Helen Kane which i own Date
Source Photograph Author
died 70 years
ago Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Helen_kane.JPG
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 8 		6265)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
2. ^ Sheldon and Grisewood, "Television
To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}
3. ^ Sheldon and Grisewood, "Television
To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml {by 1928}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p76
[2] "John Logie Baird."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/49348/John-Logie-Baird>
[3]
http://www.helensburghheroes.com/heroes/
john_logie_baird
[4] "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>
[5] Moseley and Chapple, "Television
Present Methods of Picture
Transmission", 1929
London, England (verify) 
[1] Sheldon and Grisewood, ''Television
To-Day and To-Morrow'',
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Sheldon and Grisewood,
"Television To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}

[2] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 4 		6266)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
2. ^
http://www.ge.com/innovation/timeline/in
dex.html
3. ^
http://www.ge.com/innovation/timeline/in
dex.html
4. ^
http://www.ge.com/innovation/timeline/in
dex.html {1928}
(General Electric, WGY) Schenectady,
New York, USA3  
[1] Television 1927 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ge.com/innovation/tim
eline/index.html
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 5 6 		6267)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p76.
3. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
4. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p76.
{1928}
6. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml {by 1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Logie Baird."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/49348/John-Logie-Baird>.
[2]
http://www.helensburghheroes.com/heroes/
john_logie_baird
[3] "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
[4] Moseley and Chapple, "Television
Present Methods of Picture
Transmission", 1929.
[5] Sheldon and
Grisewood, "Television To-Day and
To-Morrow", 1930.
London, England (verify) 
[1] Sheldon and Grisewood, ''Television
To-Day and To-Morrow'',
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Sheldon and Grisewood,
"Television To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}

[2] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg
71 YBN
[01/14/1929 AD] 13 14 15 		5147)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747.
2. ^ "William
Giauque." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
3. ^ W. F. Giauque, H. L. Johnston, "AN
ISOTOPE OF OXYGEN, MASS 18.
INTERPRETATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION BANDS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1929, 51 (5), pp
1436–1441. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01380a018 {Giauque_William_
19290114.pdf}
4. ^ W. F. Giauque, H.L. Johnston, "An
Isotope of Oxygen, Mass 17, in the
Earth’s Atmosphere", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1929, 51 (12), pp
3528–3534 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01387a004 {Giauque_William_1
9290627.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747.
6. ^ "William
Giauque." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p747.
9. ^ W. F.
Giauque, H. L. Johnston, "AN ISOTOPE OF
OXYGEN, MASS 18. INTERPRETATION OF THE
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION BANDS", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1929, 51 (5), pp
1436–1441. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01380a018 {Giauque_William_
19290114.pdf}
10. ^ W. F. Giauque, H.L. Johnston, "An
Isotope of Oxygen, Mass 17, in the
Earth’s Atmosphere", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1929, 51 (12), pp
3528–3534 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01387a004 {Giauque_William_1
9290627.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ W. F. Giauque, H. L.
Johnston, "AN ISOTOPE OF OXYGEN, MASS
18. INTERPRETATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION BANDS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1929, 51 (5), pp
1436–1441. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01380a018 {Giauque_William_
19290114.pdf}
13. ^ W. F. Giauque, H. L. Johnston,
"AN ISOTOPE OF OXYGEN, MASS 18.
INTERPRETATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION BANDS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1929, 51 (5), pp
1436–1441. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01380a018 {Giauque_William_
19290114.pdf} {01/14/1929}
14. ^ "William Giauque."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque {1929}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p747. {1929}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA12  
[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg
71 YBN
[01/17/1929 AD] 20 21 		5061)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
4. ^ Record
ID4863. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
7. ^ E Hubble, "A
relation between distance and radial
velocity among extra-galactic nebulae",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1929 March
15; 15(3): 168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f}
8. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f}
9. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f}
20. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f} {01/17/1929}
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722. {1929}

MORE INFO
[1] Hubble, E. P., "Cepheids in
spiral nebulae", The Observatory, Vol.
48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261
[2]
Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M., "Hubble's
Announcement of Cepheids in Spiral
Nebulae", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No. 504, p.
425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..4245B/0000437.0
00.html
[3] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The realm of
the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&o
ts=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Edwin Hubble, "The Realm of the
Nebulae", 1936.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA19  
[1] [t Notice how the ''hump'' or
''bell'' of the spectrum, the region of
most intensity, of the galacitc
spectra, appears to stay centered for
each galaxy- it doesn't shift in either
direction - in my mind, the phenomenon
appears to be more of a scaling or
magnifying back of emission lines not a
shifting right or left.] From Edwin
Hubble, ''The Realm of the Nebulae'',
1936. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1931ApJ....74...43H

[2] Figure 1 from: E Hubble, ''A
relation between distance and radial
velocity among extra-galactic
nebulae'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1929 March 15; 15(3): 168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: Edwin Hubble, "The Realm of the
Nebulae", 1936.
71 YBN
[01/31/1929 AD] 4 		4958)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, "The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560
(16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
2. ^ C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer,
"A Test for Polarization of Electron
Waves by Reflection", Phys. Rev. 33,
760–772 (1929)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v33/i
5/p760_1 {Davisson_Clinton_192905xx.pdf
}
3. ^ C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer,
"A Test for Polarization of Electron
Waves by Reflection", Phys. Rev. 33,
760–772 (1929)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v33/i
5/p760_1 {Davisson_Clinton_192905xx.pdf
}
4. ^ C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer,
"A Test for Polarization of Electron
Waves by Reflection", Phys. Rev. 33,
760–772 (1929)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v33/i
5/p760_1 {Davisson_Clinton_192905xx.pdf
} {01/31/1929}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p685.
[2] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p733.
[3] "Clinton
Joseph Davisson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152874/Clinton-Joseph-Davisson>.
[4] "Clinton Davisson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clinton-dav
isson
[5] "Davisson, Clinton Joseph."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 597-598. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901093&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Clinton Joseph Davisson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Jos
eph_Davisson
[7] C. J. Davisson and C. J. Calbick,
"Electron Lenses", Phys. Rev. 42,
580–580
(1932) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v42/i4/p580_1
[8] C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer,
"Reflection of Electrons by a Crystal
of Nickel", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1928 April; 14(4): 317–322.
[9] C. J. Davisson
and L. H. Germer, "Reflection and
Refraction of Electrons by a Crystal of
Nickel", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928
August; 14(8): 619–627.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1085652/
[10] "Proof Protons Act like Waves Wins
Physicist A. A. A. S. $1,000
Prize" The Science News-Letter Vol.
17, No. 457 (Jan. 11, 1930), p.
19 Published by: Society for Science &
the Public Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3905831
[11] Davisson, C. J., "The Scattering
of Electrons by Crystals", The
Scientific Monthly, Volume 28, Issue 1,
pp.
41-51. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
29SciMo..28...41D
[12]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1937/davisson-lecture.pdf
[13] Francis X. Dercum, "On the Nature
of Thought and Its Limitation",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 68, No. 4
(1929), pp.
275-302. http://www.jstor.org/stable/98
4341
[14] Davisson and Germer, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci., 14, 317
(1928). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC1085484/
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA3  
[1] Clinton Davisson.jpg English:
Clinton Davisson Date
1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Clinton_Davisson.jpg

[2] Image of page 1 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n2998/pdf/119558a0.pdf
71 YBN
[02/23/1929 AD] 9 		5383)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Nature of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
2. ^ Skobelzyn, D.V., "Über eine neue
Art sehr schneller b-Strahlen" Z. Phys.
54 (1929)
686. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/w03541353308h810/ {Skobeltzyn_Dmitri_
V_19290223.pdf} English: "A New Type
of Very Fast Beta Rays", Selected
Papers of Soviet Physicists, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk 93 (1967) 331.
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.move?
s_c=DIRAC+1928B&m=2
3. ^ "Dmitri Skobeltsyn". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Skob
eltsyn
4. ^
http://www.sinp.msu.ru/eng/maininc/skob.
html
5. ^ Skobelzyn, D.V., "Über eine neue
Art sehr schneller b-Strahlen" Z. Phys.
54 (1929)
686. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/w03541353308h810/ {Skobeltzyn_Dmitri_
V_19290223.pdf} English: "A New Type
of Very Fast Beta Rays", Selected
Papers of Soviet Physicists, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk 93 (1967) 331.
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.move?
s_c=DIRAC+1928B&m=2
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Skobelzyn,
D.V., "Über eine neue Art sehr
schneller b-Strahlen" Z. Phys. 54
(1929)
686. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/w03541353308h810/ {Skobeltzyn_Dmitri_
V_19290223.pdf} English: "A New Type
of Very Fast Beta Rays", Selected
Papers of Soviet Physicists, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk 93 (1967) 331.
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.move?
s_c=DIRAC+1928B&m=2
9. ^ Skobelzyn, D.V., "Über eine neue
Art sehr schneller b-Strahlen" Z. Phys.
54 (1929)
686. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/w03541353308h810/ {Skobeltzyn_Dmitri_
V_19290223.pdf} English: "A New Type
of Very Fast Beta Rays", Selected
Papers of Soviet Physicists, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk 93 (1967) 331.
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.move?
s_c=DIRAC+1928B&m=2 {02/23/1929}
(Phys.-Techn. und Polytechn. Institut)
Leningrad, (Soviet Union now) Russia8
 
[1] Table 1 from: [2] Skobelzyn,
D.V., ''Über eine neue Art sehr
schneller b-Strahlen'' Z. Phys. 54
(1929)
686. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/w03541353308h810/ {Skobeltzyn_Dmitri_
V_19290223.pdf} English: ''A New Type
of Very Fast Beta Rays'', Selected
Papers of Soviet Physicists, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk 93 (1967) 331.
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.move?
s_c=DIRAC+1928B&m=2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/w03541353308h810/

[2] Dmitri V. Skobeltsyn UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sinp.msu.ru/eng/maini
nc/skob.gif
71 YBN
[04/22/1929 AD] 37 38 39 		4781) Berger's first subject in these
experiments is his young son.34

Berger is reportedly disturbed by
Nazism and commits suicide by hanging
himself on June 1, 1941, however,
nobody should trust any report of
suicide in the neuron reading and
writing secret years, in particular
somebody who went public with anything
relating to neuron reading and
writing.35
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
2. ^
"electroencephalography." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
300>.
3. ^ Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/ {Berger_Hans_19
29_cr.pdf}
4. ^ Hans Berger, tr: Pierre Gloor,
"Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
5. ^ Hans
Berger, tr: Pierre Gloor, "Hans Berger
on the Electroencephalogram of Man",
1969.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden Ci ty, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p644.
8. ^ Hans Berger,
tr: Pierre Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
9. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p644.
11. ^ "Berger,
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-2.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900386&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Hans Berger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-berger

13. ^ "electroencephalography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
300>.
14. ^ Record ID4369. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Berger,
Hans." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-2.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900386&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/ {Berger_Hans_19
29_cr.pdf}
17. ^ Hans Berger, tr: Pierre Gloor,
"Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^
Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/ {Berger_Hans_19
29_cr.pdf}
37. ^ Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/ {Berger_Hans_19
29_cr.pdf} {04/19/1929}
38. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p644. {1929}
39. ^
"electroencephalography." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
300>. {1929}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Berger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Berger

(University of Jena) Jena, Germany36
 
[1] Figure 4 from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
71 YBN
[04/26/1929 AD] 12 13 		5476)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, "Polarizing Refracting
Bodies", Patent number: 1918848, Filing
date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date: Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p830.
3. ^ "Edwin H. Land."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-herbe
rt-land
4. ^ Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, "Polarizing Refracting
Bodies", Patent number: 1918848, Filing
date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date: Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
5. ^ Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, "Polarizing Refracting
Bodies", Patent number: 1918848, Filing
date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date: Jul 18,
1933
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p830.
7. ^ Edwin H. Land
and Joseph S. Friedman, "Polarizing
Refracting Bodies", Patent number:
1918848, Filing date: Apr 26, 1929,
Issue date: Jul 18, 1933
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Edwin Herbert Land."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329092/Edwin-Herbert-Land>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Edwin H. Land and
Joseph S. Friedman, "Polarizing
Refracting Bodies", Patent number:
1918848, Filing date: Apr 26, 1929,
Issue date: Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
12. ^ Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, "Polarizing Refracting
Bodies", Patent number: 1918848, Filing
date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date: Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {04/26/2929}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p830. {1932}
(Norwich Research, Inc.) Norwich,
Connecticut, USA11  
[1] Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, ''Polarizing Refracting
Bodies'', Patent number: 1918848,
Filing date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date:
Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=s3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin H. Land UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kipnotes.com/land.jpg

71 YBN
[05/10/1929 AD] 15 		5445) In 1986, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided, one half awarded to
Ernst Ruska "for his fundamental work
in electron optics, and for the design
of the first electron microscope",the
other half jointly to Gerd Binnig and
Heinrich Rohrer "for their design of
the scanning tunneling microscope".13
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_e/mainframe_
e.html
2. ^ Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_work1_19290510.pdf}
3. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
5. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
7. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

8. ^
http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_e/mainframe_
e.html
9. ^ http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ E. Ruska und M.
Knoll, "Die magnetische Sammelspule
für schnelle Elektronenstrahlen.", Z.
techn. Physik 12 (1931) 389-400 und
448, eingegangen am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html {Rysk
a_Ernst_q003_19310421.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
14. ^ Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_work1_19290510.pdf}
15. ^ Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_work1_19290510.pdf}
{05/10/1929}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] M. Knoll and E. Ruska,
"Das Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume
78, Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/
[3] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany14  
[1] Ernst Ruska, ''Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.'',
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_work1_19290510.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q001/q001.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
71 YBN
[07/28/1929 AD] 18 		5361) In 1935 Herzberg leaves Germany
and moves to Canada after the rise of
Hitler.10 Although not of Jewish
background, his surname is commonly
misidentified as Jewish and his wife is
Jewish.11

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1971 is
awarded to Gerhard Herzberg "for his
contributions to the knowledge of
electronic structure and geometry of
molecules, particularly free
radicals".12

Herzberg is noted for his extensive
work on the technique and
interpretation of the spectra of
molecules. Herzberg determines the
properties of many molecules, ions, and
radicals and also contributes to the
use of spectroscopy in astronomy (for
example in detecting hydrogen in
space).13

Herzberg uses spectral analysis to show
the relationship of the spectra to the
molecular structure of gases, in
particular simple two-atom molecules of
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
monoxide. Herzberg detects the presence
of atom groupings that are
intermediates in chemical reactions.14
(chronology15 )
(more specific: which
molecules? and their significance.16 )
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
2. ^ "Gerhard
Herzberg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerhard-her
zberg
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p457.
4. ^ W. Heitler and G. Herzberg,
"Gehorchen die Stickstoffkerne der
Boseschen Statistik?",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
34,
673-674. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j0102q63006p7527/ {Herzberg_Gerha
rd_19290728.pdf} English: "Do
nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics?"
5. ^
Johnston, Sean F. "Herzberg, Gerhard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 298-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905744&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
11. ^ Johnston, Sean
F. "Herzberg, Gerhard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 21. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 298-302. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905744&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1971". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1971/
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1971". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1971/
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ W. Heitler and G. Herzberg,
"Gehorchen die Stickstoffkerne der
Boseschen Statistik?",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
34,
673-674. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j0102q63006p7527/ {Herzberg_Gerha
rd_19290728.pdf} English: "Do
nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics?"
18. ^ W.
Heitler and G. Herzberg, "Gehorchen die
Stickstoffkerne der Boseschen
Statistik?", Naturwissenschaften,
Volume 17, Number 34,
673-674. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j0102q63006p7527/ {Herzberg_Gerha
rd_19290728.pdf} English: "Do
nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics?"
{07/28/1929}

MORE INFO
[1] Gerhard Herzberg, "Atomic
Spectra and Atomic Structure" (1937)
[2]
Gerhard Herzberg, "Molecular Spectra
and Molecular Structure" (4 vols.
1939–79)
[3] Herzberg, Gerhard, "Molecular
Spectra and Molecular Structure. I.
Spectra of Diatomic Molecules",
American Journal of Physics, Volume 19,
Issue 6, pp. 390-391
(1951). http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/
ajpias/v19/i6/p390_s2
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany17  
[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg
71 YBN
[07/??/1929 AD] 8 		4969) Robert Hutchings Goddard (CE
1882-1945), launches the first
instrument-carrying rocket near
Worcester, Massachusetts. This is a
larger rocket than Goddard's first
rocket (using a few thousand dollars of
funding from the Smithsonian
Institute). This rocket carries a
barometer, a thermometer, and a small
camera to photograph the proceedings
This rocket goes faster and higher than
the first rocket. Like Langley before
him, The New York Times ridicules
Goddard's efforts. The noise of this
second rocket brings calls to the
police, and officials order Goddard to
stop launching rockets. Goddard then
creates an experimental station for
launching rockets near Roswell, New
Mexico, using $50,000 from Daniel
Guggenhein who is pursuaded by Charles
Lindbergh. Here Goddard will built
large rockets and develop many of the
ideas that are now standard in
rocketry. Goddard designs combustion
chambers2 , and developed the first
pumps suitable for rocket fuels,
self-cooling rocket motors3 .

(TODO: Chronology on fuel pump and
self-cooling rocket4 )

(how are the photos captured? How many
images?5 ).
(TODO: Give specifics about
NY Times ridicule6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
3. ^ "Robert
Hutchings Goddard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
{07/1929}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[5] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
[6] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[7] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[8] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
Worchester, Massachusetts, USA7  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
71 YBN
[07/??/1929 AD] 9 		4972)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings
Goddard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^ "Speed of sound." McGraw-Hill's
Essential American Slang Dictionary.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/speed-of-so
und
5. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689. {07/1929}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[5] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
[6] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[7] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[8] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
Worchester, Massachusetts, USA8  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
71 YBN
[08/26/1929 AD] 5 		5211)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761-762.
2. ^ F Zwicky, "On
the Large Scale Distribution of Matter
in the Universe", Phys. Rev. 61,
489–503
(1942). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v61/i7-8/p489_1 http://prola.aps.org/
abstract/PR/v61/i7-8/p489_1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ F. Zwicky, "ON THE
REDSHIFT OF SPECTRAL LINES THROUGH
INTERSTELLAR SPACE", Proc Natl Acad Sci
U S A. 1929 October 15; 15(10):
773–779. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC522555/
5. ^ F. Zwicky, "ON THE REDSHIFT OF
SPECTRAL LINES THROUGH INTERSTELLAR
SPACE", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1929
October 15; 15(10):
773–779. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC522555/ {08/26/1929}

MORE INFO
[1] W. Baade and F. Zwicky, "On
Super-Novae", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA4  
[1] Fritz Zwicky The picture appears
on the website of the Fritz Zwicky
Stiftung (the Swiss Fritz Zwicky
Foundation at:
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.ch/), but I
do not believe it is in fact
copyrighted by any specific
organisation. I have been allowed to
have it on my scientific,
non-commercial site at www.swemorph.com
for some years. There is no commercial
interest involved here. Pictures of
Zwicky are generally allowed for
scientific, non-commercial use. Source
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.c COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/7d/Zwicky1.png
71 YBN
[08/??/1929 AD] 9 10 11 		5136) In 1943 Doisy wins the Nobel
Prize in medicine and physiology with
Dam for vitamin K composition.7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
2. ^ "Edward Adelbert
Doisy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
4. ^ "Edward Adelbert
Doisy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
5. ^ EDWARD A. DOISY, CLEMENT D. VELER,
AND SIDNEY THAYER, "The preparation of
the crystalline ovarian hormone from
the urine of pregnant women", April 1,
1930 The Journal of Biological
Chemistry, V86, p499-509.
http://www.jbc.org/content/86/2/499.sh
ort {Doisy_Edward_19300201.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
8. ^ "Edward Adelbert
Doisy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
9. ^ EDWARD A. DOISY, CLEMENT D. VELER,
AND SIDNEY THAYER, "The preparation of
the crystalline ovarian hormone from
the urine of pregnant women", April 1,
1930 The Journal of Biological
Chemistry, V86, p499-509.
http://www.jbc.org/content/86/2/499.sh
ort {Doisy_Edward_19300201.pdf}
{08/1929}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743. {1929}
11. ^
"Edward Adelbert Doisy." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert {1929}
(St. Louis University) St. Louis,
Missouri, USA8  
[1] Description The image of
American Nobel laureate Edward Adelbert
Doisy (1893-1986). Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/859/000128475
/ Date uploaded: 18:39, 23 July
2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/71/Edward_A._Doisy.jpg
71 YBN
[09/13/1929 AD] 15 16 		5358) Forssmann is captured by the USA
in World War II and spends time in a
prison camp.13
In 1956, the Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to André Frédéric Cournand,
Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W.
Richards "for their discoveries
concerning heart catheterization and
pathological changes in the circulatory
system".14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p802.
2. ^ Werner
Forssmann, "Die Sondierung des Rechten
Herzens", ("THE SOUNDING OF THE RIGHT
HEART") Journal of Molecular Medicine,
Volume 8, Number 45,
2085-2087. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/m3748762541316x5/ {Forssmann_We
rner_19290913.pdf}
3. ^ "Werner Forssmann." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/werner-fors
smann
4. ^ "Werner Forssmann." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/werner-fors
smann
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p802.
6. ^ "Werner
Forssmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/werner-fors
smann
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p802.
8. ^ "Werner
Forssmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/werner-fors
smann
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p802.
14. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1956/
15. ^ Werner Forssmann, "Die Sondierung
des Rechten Herzens", ("THE SOUNDING OF
THE RIGHT HEART") Journal of Molecular
Medicine, Volume 8, Number 45,
2085-2087. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/m3748762541316x5/ {Forssmann_We
rner_19290913.pdf} {09/13/1929}
16. ^ "Werner
Forssmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/werner-fors
smann {1929}
(Chirurgischen Abteilung des Augusta
Viktoria-Heims zu Eberswalde) 
[1] Figure from: Werner Forssmann,
''Die Sondierung des Rechten Herzens'',
(''THE SOUNDING OF THE RIGHT HEART'')
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
8, Number 45,
2085-2087. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/m3748762541316x5/ {Forssmann_We
rner_19290913.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/m3748762541316x5/

[2] Werner Theodor Otto
Forssmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1956/forssmann.jpg

71 YBN
[11/14/1929 AD] 12 		5318) 1936 Director of Kaiser Wilhelm
Institute for Biochemistry at Berlin.
The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry for 1939 is divided
equally between Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt "for his work on sex
hormones" and Leopold Ruzicka "for his
work on polymethylenes and higher
terpenes".9 However, like Domagk and
Kuhn, Butenandt is forced by the Nazi
government to refuse the award until
1949.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
2. ^ Record ID5316.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ "Adolf Butenandt." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-buten
andt
4. ^ "Adolf Butenandt." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-buten
andt
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
6. ^ "Adolf
Butenandt." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/86456/Adolf-Friedrich-Johann-Butenandt
>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1939". Nobelprize.org. 17
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1939/
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
11. ^ A. Butenandt,
"Über "Progynon" ein krystallisiertes
weibliches Sexualhormon",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
45,
879. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/g503613433t28ql3/ {Butenandt_Adolf_19
291114.pdf}
12. ^ A. Butenandt, "Über "Progynon"
ein krystallisiertes weibliches
Sexualhormon", Naturwissenschaften,
Volume 17, Number 45,
879. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/g503613433t28ql3/ {Butenandt_Adolf_19
291114.pdf} {11/14/1929}
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany11  
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 10 11 		4695)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p626-627.
2. ^ "Phoebus
Levene." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phoebus-lev
ene
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p626-627.
4. ^ "Phoebus
Levene." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phoebus-lev
ene
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p626-627.
6. ^ "Phoebus
Levene." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phoebus-lev
ene
7. ^ "Oswald Avery." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oswald-aver
y
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Levene, Phoebus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
964>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p626-627. {1929}
11. ^
"Phoebus Levene." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phoebus-lev
ene {1929}

MORE INFO
[1] "Levene, Phoebus Aaron
Theodor." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-276.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902590&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Phoebus Levene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoebus_Lev
ene
(Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA9
 
[1] Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene,
1915. CC
source: http://www.dnalc.org/content/c16
/16345/16345_18.jpg

[2] n Levene.jpg English: en:Phoebus
Levene Polski: pl:Phoebus Levene Date
Unknown Source [1] Author
author of photograph
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public
domain'' http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/se
rvlet/detail/NLMNLM~1~1~101421672~177086
:-Dr--Phoebus-A--Levene-?qvq=q:Phoebus+L
evene;lc:NLMNLM~1~1&mi=0&trs=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Levene.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 7 		4850)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655?.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p655?.
3. ^ David R.
Goddard, Leonor Michaelis, "A Study on
Keratin", American Society for
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
(ASBMB),
05/16/1934. http://www.jbc.org/content/
106/2/605.full.pdf
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Leonor
Michaelis." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonor-mich
aelis
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655?. {1929}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michaelis, Leonor." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 620-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905250&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Leonor Michaelis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonor_Mich
aelis
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA6  
[1] Leonor Michaelis UNKNOWN
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/Site
/Discover/Chemistry-in-History/Themes/Bi
omolecules/Proteins-and-Sugars/asset_upl
oad_file390_61288_thumbnail.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 16 17 		4919)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667-668.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p667-668.
3. ^ Russell, H.
N., "On the Composition of the Sun's
Atmosphere", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667-668.
5. ^ Russell, H. N.,
"On the Composition of the Sun's
Atmosphere", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf}
6. ^ Russell, H. N., "On the
Composition of the Sun's Atmosphere",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf}
7. ^ Russell, H. N., "On the
Composition of the Sun's Atmosphere",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Russell, H. N., "On the
Composition of the Sun's Atmosphere",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667-668. {1929}
17. ^
Russell, H. N., "On the Composition of
the Sun's Atmosphere", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Norris Russell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513190/Henry-Norris-Russell>.
[2] "Henry Norris Russell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-norri
s-russell
[3] "Russell, Henry Norris." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 17-24. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903796&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Henry Norris Russell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Norri
s_Russell
[5] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name.
[6] Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
[7] Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false
[8] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.", Popular
Astronomy, V22, May 1914, V22, N5,
WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA15  
[1] Figure from: Russell, H. N., ''On
the Composition of the Sun's
Atmosphere'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1929ApJ....70...11R&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=11&epage=11&send=Send+PDF&filety
pe=.pdf

[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 9 10 		4935) Schmidt drinks alcohol regularly,
and his last year is in a psychiatric
hospital.6 (For what activity?7 )
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678.
2. ^ "Bernhard
Schmidt." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-sc
hmidt
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Bernhard Schmidt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-sc
hmidt
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ "Bernhard Voldemar Schmidt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527756/Bernhard-Voldemar-Schmidt>.
9. ^ "Bernhard Voldemar Schmidt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527756/Bernhard-Voldemar-Schmidt>.
{1929}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678. {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "Schmidt, Bernhard Voldemar."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 186. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903886&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Bernhard Voldemar Schmidt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Vo
ldemar_Schmidt
[3] Schmidt, B., "Ein lichtstarkes
komafreies Spiegelsystem", Mitteilungen
der Hamburger Sternwarte in Bergedorf,
vol. 7,
pp.15-17. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/1938MiHam...7...15S/0000028.0
00.html
[4] "Schmidt camera". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidt_cam
era
(Hamburg Observatory) Bergedorf,
Germany8  
[1] Description Schmidt telescope
(PSF).png Line art of Schmidt
telescope. Date Source Pearson
Scott Foresman, donated to the
Wikimedia Foundation Author
Pearson Scott Foresman PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Schmidt_telescope_%28
PSF%29.png

[2] Bernhard Voldemar
Schmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://www.google.com/imgres?img
url=http://www.todayinsci.com/S/Schmidt_
Bernhard/SchmidtBernhardThm.jpg&imgrefur
l=http://www.todayinsci.com/12/12_01.htm
&usg=__2_ju5ndP13wCKOezz4swDGHz1hM=&h=12
5&w=100&sz=4&hl=en&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=
ONZznw5W3VGZTM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=80&prev=/i
mages%3Fq%3DBernhard%2BVoldemar%2BSchmid
t%2Btelescope%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%
3Doff%26biw%3D968%26bih%3D568%26tbs%3Dis
ch:1&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=346&ei=KGkY
TarIF4qisAPJtIGICg&oei=KGkYTarIF4qisAPJt
IGICg&esq=1&page=1&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:
0,s:0&tx=47&ty=23
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 		4954) In 1930 Fischer wins the Nobel
Prize in chemistry "for his researches
into the constitution of haemin and
chlorophyll and especially for his
synthesis of haemin".13
Fischer kills
himself in dispair after air raids on
Munich destroyed his laboratory.14
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p683-684.
2. ^ "Hans Fischer."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-fische
r
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Hans Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-fische
r
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p683-684.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p683-684.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p683-684.
8. ^ "Hans Fischer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/208414/Hans-Fischer>.
9. ^ "Hans Fischer." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-fische
r
10. ^ "Fischer, Hans." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-158. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904878&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1930".
Nobelprize.org. 28 Dec 2010
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1930/
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p683-684.
 
[1] English: heme b Deutsch: Häm
b Date 3 August
2010(2010-08-03) Source Own
work PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Heme_b.svg/2000
px-Heme_b.svg.png

[2] Description Hans Fischer
(Nobel).jpg Deutsch: de:Hans Fischer
(Chemiker) (1881–1945) Date
1930(1930) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1930/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Hans_Fischer_%28Nobel
%29.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 9 		5144) In 1945 Virtanen wins the Nobel
prize in chemistry "for his research
and inventions in agricultural and
nutrition chemistry, especially for his
fodder preservation method".7
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p746.
2. ^ "Virtanen,
Artturi Ilmari." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 45-46.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904501&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p746.
4. ^ "fodder." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fodder
5. ^ "Artturi Ilmari Virtanen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artturi-ilm
ari-virtanen
6. ^ "Virtanen, Artturi Ilmari."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 45-46. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904501&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1945/
8. ^ "Virtanen, Artturi Ilmari."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 45-46. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904501&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Virtanen, Artturi Ilmari."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 45-46. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904501&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1929}
(Biochemical Research Institute at
Helsinki) Helsinki, Finland8  
[1] Description
Virtanen.jpg Artturi Virtanen Date
1945(1945) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1945/virtanen-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Virtanen.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 5 6 		5287)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Robert Jemison Van de Graaff."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 11 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/622605/Robert-Jemison-Van-de-Graaff>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785. {1929}
6. ^ "Robert
Jemison Van de Graaff." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 11 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/622605/Robert-Jemison-Van-de-Graaff>.
{1929}

MORE INFO
[1] L. C. Van Atta, E. W. Samson,
and R. J. Van de Graaf Progress
Report on the Electrostatic
High-Voltage Generator at Round Hill
Br J Radiol 1933 6: 614.
http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/reprint
/6/70/614 {Van_De_Graaf_19330815.pdf}
[2] "Robert J. Van de Graaff." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-j-va
n-de-graaff
(Oxford Univerity) Oxford, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Description Robert J. Van de
Graaff.jpg Polski: Robert J.Van de
Graaff. Date ok. 1935 Source
http://wwwnt.if.pwr.wroc.pl/kwazar/
mtk2/fizycy/126165/images/images5.jpg A
uthor Minęło 70 lat od śmierci
autora. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Robert_J._Van_de_Graa
ff.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 7 		5371)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p727-728.
2. ^ Clark, George W.
"Rossi, Bruno Benedetto." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 280-285. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906055&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Record ID5370.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Clark, George W. "Rossi, Bruno
Benedetto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 280-285.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906055&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1929}

MORE INFO
[1] W Bothe, "Die Streuabsorption
der Elektronenstrahlen", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1929
-
Springer http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w6547570xm23t365/ "The
absorption of the scattered electron"
[2]
"Walther Bothe." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-bot
he
[3] W Bothe, "Zur Vereinfachung von
Koinzidenzzählungen", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930
"For simplicity of coincidence
counts" http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/h8177uhn1n471273.pdf
[4] W Bothe, W. Kolhörster, “Das
Wesen der Hoehenstrahlung,” in
Zeitschrift für Physik, 56 (1929),
75–77.
[5] W Bothe, H Geiger, "Ein Weg zur
experimentellen Nachprüfung der
Theorie von Bohr, Kramers, und Slater",
Zeitschrift für Physik, 26
(1924). http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/U432385Q72826470.pdf
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany6 (presumably) 
[1] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954 was
divided equally between Max Born ''for
his fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 3 4 		6055)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Happy Days Are Here Again#cite
ref-0". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Days_
Are_Here_Again#cite_ref-0
2. ^ "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro-Goldw
yn-Mayer
3. ^ "Happy Days Are Here Again#cite
ref-0". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Days_
Are_Here_Again#cite_ref-0 {1930
(recorded}
4. ^ "Happy Days Are Here Again#cite
ref-0". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Days_
Are_Here_Again#cite_ref-0 {1929
(composed) (verify}
Los Angeles, California, USA2
(verify) 		 
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 3 		6066) "Singin' In The Rain" (lyrics by
Arthur Freed and music by Nacio Herb
Brown) recorded.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Singin' in the Rain (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singin%27_i
n_the_Rain_%28song%29
2. ^ "Singin' in the Rain (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singin%27_i
n_the_Rain_%28song%29
3. ^ "Singin' in the Rain (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singin%27_i
n_the_Rain_%28song%29 {1929}
Hollywood, California, USA2
(probably) 		 
70 YBN
[01/??/1930 AD] 5 		5178)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Henry
A. Barton, "Comparison of protons and
electrons in the excitation of x-rays
by impact Original Research Article",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Volume 209, Issue 1, January 1930,
Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a {
Barton_Henry_193001xx.pdf}
5. ^ Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a {
Barton_Henry_193001xx.pdf} {01/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[4] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[5] H
Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66,
1920.
[6]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[7] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[8] Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson,
Louis L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella,
Simon S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole
DC Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994.
[9] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[10]
http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4494_
1.html
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA4  
[1] Description: middle age; full-face;
eyeglasses, mustache, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Barton, Henry
Askew COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/barton_henry_a1.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
70 YBN
[02/14/1930 AD] 16 		5353) In 1943 Oppenheimer is placed in
charge of the laboratories at Los
Alamos, New Mexico, where the first
atomic bomb is designed and
constructed, amd near where it is first
exploded.9
Oppenheimer approves the use
of the fission bomb over Japan.10
Oppenh
eimer is reluctant to develop the more
destructive hydrogen bomb.11
In 1954
Oppenheimer is labeled "a loyal citizen
but not a good security risk" by the
Atomic Energy Commission. The testimony
of Teller who is in favor of developing
the H-bomb helps to convict Oppenheimer
of this charge and Oppenheimer is
denied access to classified
information. Henry Smyth a commissioner
strongly dissents.12
In 1963
Oppenheimer wins the Fermi award which
President Kennedy intends to award
personally, but Kennedy is murdered and
President Johnson gives the award. In
the controversy that followed, Congress
lowers the award from $50,000 to
$25,000.13

(To die so young and given neuron
writing, it seems likely that
oppenheimer was probably murdered as
many people were in the 1960s. Perhaps
even many mindless vicious idiot neuron
consumers who observed applauded and
must pay to see bizarre and violent and
no doubt many sex-related videos beamed
to their eyes. It seems possible that
given 200 years of a secret neuron
network that high paid sex actors are
used as a ruse for the violent to
murder their enemies under the guise of
blaming some other person in the "heat
of sexual passion". Or perhaps there is
no sexual element, just cold-blooded,
everybody clothed, military
murdering.14 )

http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v38/i9/
p1787_1
range of neutrons and electrons –
measure velocity, frequency?
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
2. ^ J. R.
Oppenheimer, "On the Theory of
Electrons and Protons", Phys. Rev. 35,
562–563
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v35/i5/p562_1
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer, "On the Theory
of Electrons and Protons", Phys. Rev.
35, 562–563
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v35/i5/p562_1
16. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer, "On the Theory
of Electrons and Protons", Phys. Rev.
35, 562–563
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v35/i5/p562_1 {02/14/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oppenheimer, J. Robert."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 213-218. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903231&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California15  
[1] Description
JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg English:
Official portrait of J. Robert
Oppenheimer, first director of Los
Alamos National Laboratory. Français
: Le portrait officiel de Robert
Oppenheimer, alors premier directeur du
Laboratoire national de Los
Alamos. Date ca.
1944(1944) Source Taken from a
Los Alamos publication (Los Alamos:
Beginning of an era, 1943-1945, Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
1986.). Author Department of
Energy, Office of Public
Affairs Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions This
version was apparently scanned from a
book; there's a slightly lower-quality
version at ARC with ID 558579. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/JROppenheimer-LosAlam
os.jpg
70 YBN
[02/18/1930 AD] 5 		4795)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden Ci ty, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
2. ^ Berger, "Über
das Elektroenkephalogramm des
Menschen.", Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
3. ^
Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
4. ^
Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
5. ^
Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
{02/18/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Berger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Berger

[2] "Hans Berger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-berger

[3] Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
[5]
"electroencephalography." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
300>.
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany4
 
[1] Figure from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, ''Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man'', 1969.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
70 YBN
[02/18/1930 AD] 13 14 		5398) Tombaugh's family is too poor to
send him to college.8
The news of Pluto
will be announced on March 13, 1930 the
75 anniversary of Lowell's birth.9
For
finding Pluto, Tombaugh is awarded with
a scholarship to the University of
Kansas and gets his bachelor's degree
and a masters.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809-810.
2. ^ "Clyde
Tombaugh." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clyde-tomba
ugh
3. ^ V. M. Slipher and Clyde W.
Tombaugh, "The Sun's New
Trans-Neptunian Planet", Science
news-letter, Slipher (1930) volume:
17 issue: 467 page:
179 http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volume
=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018&is
sue=467 {Tombaugh_Clyde_19300322.pdf}
4. ^ "Clyde W. Tombaugh." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/598927/Clyde-W-Tombaugh>.
5. ^ "Clyde W. Tombaugh." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/598927/Clyde-W-Tombaugh>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809-810.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809-810.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p809-810.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809-810.
11. ^ V. M. Slipher
and Clyde W. Tombaugh, "The Sun's New
Trans-Neptunian Planet", Science
news-letter, Slipher (1930) volume:
17 issue: 467 page:
179 http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volume
=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018&is
sue=467 {Tombaugh_Clyde_19300322.pdf}
12. ^ "Clyde W. Tombaugh."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/598927/Clyde-W-Tombaugh>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809-810.
{02/18/1930}
14. ^ "Clyde W. Tombaugh."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/598927/Clyde-W-Tombaugh>.
{02/18/1930}
(Lowell Observatory) Flagstaff,
Arizona, USA11 12  
[1] Figure from: V. M. Slipher and
Clyde W. Tombaugh, ''The Sun's New
Trans-Neptunian Planet'', Science
news-letter, Slipher (1930) volume:
17 issue: 467 page:
179 http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volume
=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018&is
sue=467 {Tombaugh_Clyde_19300322.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/openurl?vol
ume=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018
&issue=467

[2] Clyde Tombaugh UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/OmULmJ
2J69frI92xQHLcSDuSdotFnlp5vrU83Zy5Ou1VGm
P8uNw7L9f1oAqu0CpZ*J6MKCCs00aW-p6dKhG2oW
oSGlRfeMRp/ClydeTombaugh.jpg
70 YBN
[02/??/1930 AD] 6 		5009)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Shapley, "The Super-Galaxy
Hypothesis.", H Shapley - Harvard
College Observatory Circular,
1930. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
30HarCi.350....1S {Shapley_Harlow_19300
2xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ H.
Shapley, "The Super-Galaxy
Hypothesis.", H Shapley - Harvard
College Observatory Circular,
1930. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
30HarCi.350....1S {Shapley_Harlow_19300
2xx.pdf}
5. ^ H. Shapley, "The Super-Galaxy
Hypothesis.", H Shapley - Harvard
College Observatory Circular,
1930. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
30HarCi.350....1S {Shapley_Harlow_19300
2xx.pdf}
6. ^ H. Shapley, "The Super-Galaxy
Hypothesis.", H Shapley - Harvard
College Observatory Circular,
1930. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
30HarCi.350....1S {Shapley_Harlow_19300
2xx.pdf} {02/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe",
Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
[2] "parsec." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parsec
[3] Shapley, H., "On the Nature and
Cause of Cepheid Variation",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
70 YBN
[04/04/1930 AD] 13 14 		5220) Theiler never has any academic
degrees.9 (including MD?10 )

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1951 is awarded to Max Theiler
"for his discoveries concerning yellow
fever and how to combat it".11
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
2. ^ Max Theiler,
"Susceptibility of White Mice to the
Virus of Yellow Fever", Science, New
Series, Vol. 71, No. 1840 (Apr. 4,
1930), p.
367. http://www.jstor.org/stable/165522
6?&Search=yes&searchText=mice&searchText
=virus&searchText=white&searchText=yello
w&searchText=fever&searchText=Susceptibi
lity&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoB
asicSearch%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%25
2Fj100000%26Query%3DSusceptibility%2Bof%
2Bwhite%2Bmice%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bvirus%2Bof%2
Byellow%2Bfever%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.
y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=3
1&returnArticleService=showFullText
3. ^ THEILER, Max, "Studies on the
Action of Yellow Fever Virus in Mice.",
Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 1930, July 8
Vol. 24 No. 2 pp.
249-272. http://www.cabdirect.org/abstr
acts/19302901799.html;jsessionid=D4C7D5A
F2ECB9A0A67D37BDF09F767D0?freeview=true
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1951". Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1951/
12. ^ Max Theiler, "Susceptibility of
White Mice to the Virus of Yellow
Fever", Science, New Series, Vol. 71,
No. 1840 (Apr. 4, 1930), p.
367. http://www.jstor.org/stable/165522
6?&Search=yes&searchText=mice&searchText
=virus&searchText=white&searchText=yello
w&searchText=fever&searchText=Susceptibi
lity&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoB
asicSearch%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%25
2Fj100000%26Query%3DSusceptibility%2Bof%
2Bwhite%2Bmice%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bvirus%2Bof%2
Byellow%2Bfever%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.
y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=3
1&returnArticleService=showFullText
13. ^ Max Theiler, "Susceptibility of
White Mice to the Virus of Yellow
Fever", Science, New Series, Vol. 71,
No. 1840 (Apr. 4, 1930), p.
367. http://www.jstor.org/stable/165522
6?&Search=yes&searchText=mice&searchText
=virus&searchText=white&searchText=yello
w&searchText=fever&searchText=Susceptibi
lity&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoB
asicSearch%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%25
2Fj100000%26Query%3DSusceptibility%2Bof%
2Bwhite%2Bmice%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bvirus%2Bof%2
Byellow%2Bfever%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.
y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=3
1&returnArticleService=showFullText
{04/04/1930}
14. ^ "Max Theiler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theiler-max
 {1930}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA12  
[1] Description Portrait of Max
Theiler Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/561/0001
29174/ Article Max
Theiler Portion used No Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e0/Max_Theiler00.jpg
70 YBN
[05/06/1930 AD] 3 		5102)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p733.
2. ^ G. P. Thomson
and C. G. Fraser, "A Camera for
Electron Diffraction", Vol. 128, No.
808 (Aug. 5, 1930), pp. 641-648.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/95489
{Thomson_George_P_19300506.pdf}
3. ^ G. P. Thomson and C. G. Fraser, "A
Camera for Electron Diffraction", Vol.
128, No. 808 (Aug. 5, 1930), pp.
641-648.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/95489
{Thomson_George_P_19300506.pdf}
{05/06/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] G. P. THOMSON , "The
Diffraction of Cathode Rays by Thin
Films of Platinum", Nature, 120,
802-802 (03 December 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
120/n3031/abs/120802a0.html
[2] G. P. Thomson, "Diffraction of
Cathode Rays by a Thin Film.", Nature,
(June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf
[3] G. P. Thomson, "Experiments on the
Diffraction of Cathode Rays.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical
Character Vol. 117, No. 778 (Feb. 1,
1928), pp. 600-609
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland2  
[1] Figure 1 from: G. P. Thomson,
''Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin
Film.'', Nature, (June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf} COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg
70 YBN
[06/03/1930 AD] 9 		5369) In 1938 the Mussolini regime
falls under Hitler's thumb and Rossi is
forced to leave Italy.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
2. ^ "Bruno Rossi." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bruno-rossi

3. ^ Bruno Rossi, "On the Magnetic
Deflection of Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev.
36, 606
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v36/i3/p606_1
4. ^ Bruno Rossi, "Directional
Measurements on the Cosmic Rays Near
the Geomagnetic Equator", Phys. Rev.
45, 212
(1934). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v45/i3/p212_1
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
8. ^ Bruno Rossi, "On
the Magnetic Deflection of Cosmic
Rays", Phys. Rev. 36, 606
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v36/i3/p606_1
9. ^ Bruno Rossi, "On the Magnetic
Deflection of Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev.
36, 606
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v36/i3/p606_1 {06/03/1930}
(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Charlottenburg, Germany8  
[1] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
70 YBN
[06/17/1930 AD] 11 		5403) When World War II starts in 1939
Godel fleas Europe with his wife,
taking the trans-Siberian railway
across Asia, sailing across the Pacific
Ocean, and then taking another train
across the United States to Princeton,
N.J., where, with the help of Einstein,
Godel is hired at the newly formed
Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS).7


In 1949 Gödel shows that Einstein’s
theory of general relativity allows for
the possibility of time travel.8 (To
me this shows perhaps creativity, but a
willingness to develop fraudulent or
highly unlikely theories of physics of
the universe.9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
2. ^ "Kurt Gödel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236770/Kurt-Godel>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Kurt Gödel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236770/Kurt-Godel>.
8. ^ "Kurt Gödel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236770/Kurt-Godel>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Kurt Gödel, "Über
formal unentscheidbare Sätze der
Principia Mathematica und verwandter
Systeme I", Monatshefte für
Mathematik, 1930, Volume 38, Number 1,
173-198, DOI:
10.1007/BF01700692 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p03501kn35215860/ {Gode
l_Kurt_19300617.pdf} English: "On
Formally Undecidable Propositions of
Principia Mathematica and Related
Systems"
11. ^ Kurt Gödel, "Über formal
unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia
Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I",
Monatshefte für Mathematik, 1930,
Volume 38, Number 1, 173-198, DOI:
10.1007/BF01700692 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p03501kn35215860/ {Gode
l_Kurt_19300617.pdf} English: "On
Formally Undecidable Propositions of
Principia Mathematica and Related
Systems" {06/17/1930}
(University of Wien) Vienna, (Austria
now) Germany10  
[1] scription 1925 kurt
gödel.png English: Portrait of Kurt
Gödel, one of the most significant
logicians of the 20th century, as a
student in Vienna. Deutsch: Portrait
von Kurt Gödel, einem der
bedeutendsten Logiker der 20.
Jahrhunderts, als Student der
Universität Wien Date
1924-1927 Source
Familienalbum der Familie Gödel,
Scan from Gianbruno Guerrerio, Kurt
Gödel - Logische Paradoxien und
mathematische Wahrheit, S.24 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/1925_kurt_g%C3%B6del.
png
70 YBN
[07/19/1930 AD] 12 13 		5020)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p706-707.
2. ^ "Robert Julius
Trumpler." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/607280/Robert-Julius-Trumpler>.
3. ^ Heber D. Curtis, "Absorption
Effects in the Spiral Nebulae", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1917 December;
3(12): 678–682.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ce4SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA681&dq=calcium+shift+nebula
e&hl=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20n
ebulae&f=false AND
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1091356/ {Curtis_Heber_19171018.p
df}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ R. J. Trumpler,
"Absorption of Light in the Galactic
System", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 42, No. 248,
p.214. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
930PASP...42..214T {Trumpler_Robert_193
00719.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ R. J. Trumpler, "Absorption of
Light in the Galactic System",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 42, No.
248,
p.214. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
930PASP...42..214T {Trumpler_Robert_193
00719.pdf}
12. ^ R. J. Trumpler, "Absorption of
Light in the Galactic System",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 42, No.
248,
p.214. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
930PASP...42..214T {Trumpler_Robert_193
00719.pdf} {07/19/1930}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p706-707. {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] Lick Observatory, Heber Doust
Curtis, William Wallace Campbell,
Joseph Haines Moore, Ralph , Elmer
Wilson, William Hammond Wright, Studies
of the nebulae: made at the Lick
Observatory, University of ...", 1918
http://books.google.com/books?id=HYnnAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=calcium+shift+nebulae&h
l=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20nebu
lae&f=false
(Mount Hamilton) Santa Clara County,
California, USA11  
[1] Robert Julius Trumpler UNKNOWN
source: http://thienvanhoc.org/news/imag
es/stories/Image/chuyenmuc/ngaynaynamxua
/rtrumpler.JPG

[2] Note how the absorption lines
associated with the element calcium in
older stars shift to redder wavelengths
as a galaxy's distance increases...
[t But not how the emission spectral
lines don't shift in any way
whatsoever. Given the above explanation
that the calcium absorption lines are
due to interstellar matter, it may be
that the calcium frequency photons are
absorbed quickly near the star, and
then UNKNOWN
source: http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/ai
z/teaching/a204/images/hubble_law.gif
70 YBN
[08/19/1930 AD] 21 		5177) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951
is awarded jointly to Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft and Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton "for their pioneer work on the
transmutation of atomic nuclei by
artificially accelerated atomic
particles".18

In 1961 Cockcroft wins the "Atoms for
Peace" award.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
2. ^ J. D.
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
4. ^ J. D.
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
5. ^ Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a {
Barton_Henry_193001xx.pdf}
6. ^ H Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66,
1920.
7. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
8. ^ "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
9. ^ Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson,
Louis L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella,
Simon S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole
DC Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994. {Greinacher_Voltage_Multiplier
_199404xx.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1951". Nobelprize.org.
24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
20. ^ J. D.
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
21. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
{08/19/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920).
[4] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932).
[5]
"Cockcroft, John Douglas." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England20  
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD] 29 		5268)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E.
Edlefsen, "On the Production of High
Speed protons", Science, 72, No. 1867,
376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
2. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF IONS,
Patent 1948384, Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf}
3. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of High Speed
Canal Rays without the Use of High
Voltages", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1
(Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
4. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High
Speed ions Without the Use of High
Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2021_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_1931
1019.pdf}
5. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley
Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High
Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i4/p834_1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
7. ^ "Ernest Orlando
Lawrence." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332920/Ernest-Orlando-Lawrence>.
8. ^ "Ernest O. Lawrence." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-lawr
ence
9. ^ "Ernest Orlando Lawrence."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332920/Ernest-Orlando-Lawrence>.
10. ^ "Ernest O. Lawrence." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-lawr
ence
11. ^ "Ernest Orlando Lawrence."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332920/Ernest-Orlando-Lawrence>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
13. ^ E. O. Lawrence
and N. E. Edlefsen, "On the Production
of High Speed protons", Science, 72,
No. 1867, 376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
14. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of High Speed
Canal Rays without the Use of High
Voltages", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1
(Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
15. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High
Speed ions Without the Use of High
Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2021_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_1931
1019.pdf}
16. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley
Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High
Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i4/p834_1
17. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF IONS,
Patent 1948384, Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf}
18. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E.
Edlefsen, "On the Production of High
Speed protons", Science, 72, No. 1867,
376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
19. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF IONS,
Patent 1948384, Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf}
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ernest O.
Lawrence and David H. Sloan, "The
Production of High Speed Canal Rays
without the Use of High Voltages",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Jan. 15,
1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
29. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E.
Edlefsen, "On the Production of High
Speed protons", Science, 72, No. 1867,
376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
{10/10/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1939". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1939/
[2] Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Ionization
of Atoms by Electron Impact", Phys.
Rev. 28, 947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1
[3] Ernest O. Lawrence and J. W. Beams,
"On the Nature of Light", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1927 April; 13(4):
207–212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1084928/
[4] Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, "The
Photoelectric Effect in Potassium
Vapour as a Function of the Frequency
of Light.", Thesis (PH.D.)--YALE
UNIVERSITY, 1925.Source: American
Doctoral Dissertations, Source code:
L1925., page: 0094
[5] John H. Lawrence,
Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "Comparative Effects of
X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor
Tissue", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1936
September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/
[6] John H. Lawrence and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "The Biological Action of
Neutron Rays", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 22, No.
2 (Feb. 15, 1936), pp.
124-133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86
398
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA28  
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD] 6 		5269)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
2. ^ John H. Lawrence
and Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Biological
Action of Neutron Rays", Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 22, No.
2 (Feb. 15, 1936), pp.
124-133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86
398 {Lawrence_Ernest_19351217.pdf}
3. ^ John H. Lawrence and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "The Biological Action of
Neutron Rays", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 22, No.
2 (Feb. 15, 1936), pp.
124-133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86
398 {Lawrence_Ernest_19351217.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and
David H. Sloan, "The Production of High
Speed Canal Rays without the Use of
High Voltages", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 17, No.
1 (Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
6. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E. Edlefsen,
"On the Production of High Speed
protons", Science, 72, No. 1867, 376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
{10/10/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1939". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1939/
[2] Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Ionization
of Atoms by Electron Impact", Phys.
Rev. 28, 947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1
[3] Ernest O. Lawrence and J. W. Beams,
"On the Nature of Light", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1927 April; 13(4):
207–212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1084928/
[4] Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, "The
Photoelectric Effect in Potassium
Vapour as a Function of the Frequency
of Light.", Thesis (PH.D.)--YALE
UNIVERSITY, 1925.Source: American
Doctoral Dissertations, Source code:
L1925., page: 0094
[5] Ernest O. Lawrence,
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High
Speed ions Without the Use of High
Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2021_1
[7] Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley
Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High
Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i4/p834_1
[8] "Ernest Orlando Lawrence."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332920/Ernest-Orlando-Lawrence>
[9] John H. Lawrence, Paul C.
Aebersold, and Ernest O. Lawrence,
"Comparative Effects of X-Rays and
Neutrons on Normal and Tumor Tissue",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1936
September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
70 YBN
[10/23/1930 AD] 15 16 17 		5077)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p727-728.
2. ^ W Bothe, "The
Nature of the Penetrating Radiation",
nature 123, 638-638 (27 April
1929. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v123/n3104/abs/123638a0.html
3. ^ W Bothe, W. KOLHÖRSTER, "Eine
Kern-γ-Strahlung bei leichten
Elementen", Naturwissenschaften,
1930 http://www.springerlink.com/index/
u7g05k4310132743.pdf "A nuclear
γ-radiation in light elements"
4. ^ W. Bothe,H.
Becker, “Kunstliche Erregung von
Kern-γ-Strahlen”, Zertschrift für
Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 "Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays" http://www.springerlink.com/in
dex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walther
_19301023.pdf}
5. ^ Record ID4750. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Bothe,
Walther Wilhelm Georg." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 337-339. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm
Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p727-728.
10. ^ "Bothe, Walther
Wilhelm Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ W. Bothe,H. Becker,
“Kunstliche Erregung von
Kern-γ-Strahlen”, Zertschrift für
Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 "Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays" http://www.springerlink.com/in
dex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walther
_19301023.pdf} {10/23/1930}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p727-728. {1930}
17. ^
"Walther Bothe." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-bot
he {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] W Bothe, "Die Streuabsorption
der Elektronenstrahlen", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1929
-
Springer http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w6547570xm23t365/ "The
absorption of the scattered electron"
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany14  
[1] W. Bothe,H. Becker, “Kunstliche
Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen”,
Zertschrift für Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 ''Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays'' http://www.springerlink.com/i
ndex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walthe
r_19301023.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/r3g8x8558826u77j/fulltext.pdf

[2] Figures 4 and 5 from: The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1954 was divided
equally between Max Born ''for his
fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
70 YBN
[11/15/1930 AD] 6 		5212)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p762.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p762.
3. ^ W. T.
ASTBURY & H. J. WOODS, "The X-Ray
Interpretation of the Structure and
Elastic Properties of Hair Keratin",
Nature 126, 913-914 (13 December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html {Astb
ury_William_19301115.pdf}
4. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & H. J. WOODS, "The
X-Ray Interpretation of the Structure
and Elastic Properties of Hair
Keratin", Nature 126, 913-914 (13
December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html {Astb
ury_William_19301115.pdf}
5. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & H. J. WOODS, "The
X-Ray Interpretation of the Structure
and Elastic Properties of Hair
Keratin", Nature 126, 913-914 (13
December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html {Astb
ury_William_19301115.pdf}
6. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & H. J. WOODS, "The
X-Ray Interpretation of the Structure
and Elastic Properties of Hair
Keratin", Nature 126, 913-914 (13
December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html {Astb
ury_William_19301115.pdf} {11/15/1930}
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England5
 
[1] Figure 1 from: W. T. ASTBURY & H.
J. WOODS, ''The X-Ray Interpretation of
the Structure and Elastic Properties of
Hair Keratin'', Nature 126, 913-914 (13
December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html {Astb
ury_William_19301115.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/pdf/126913b0.pdf

[2] William T.
Astbury 1950s 1898-1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-astbury-150w.jpg
70 YBN
[12/04/1930 AD] 18 19 		5234)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p772-773.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p457-458.
3. ^ "Pauli, Wolfgang."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 422-425. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p772-773.
5. ^ J Chadwick,
"Intensitätsverteilung im magnetischen
Spektrum der ß-Strahlen von Radium B+
C", "Distribution in intensity in the
magnetic spectrum of the β-rays of
Radium B and C", Druck von Friedr.
Vieweg und Sohn, 1914 English: J.
Chadwick, "Distribution in Intensity in
the Magnetic Spectrum of the β rays of
Radium (B + C)", Verhandlungen der
Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft
(1914) 16, pp. 383-391.
6. ^ "The Reines-Cowan
Experiments: Detecting the
Poltergeist". Los Alamos Science 25: 3.
1997.
http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?
25-02.pdf.
7. ^ "The Reines-Cowan Experiments:
Detecting the Poltergeist". Los Alamos
Science 25: 3. 1997.
http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?
25-02.pdf.
8. ^ Physics Today, September 1978
9. ^
"Pauli, Wolfgang." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 10.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
422-425. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 31 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ "The Reines-Cowan Experiments:
Detecting the Poltergeist". Los Alamos
Science 25: 3. 1997.
http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?
25-02.pdf.
18. ^ "Pauli, Wolfgang." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 422-425. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/04/1930}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p772-773. {1931}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1945". Nobelprize.org. 1 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1945/
[2] W. Pauli, "Über den Zusammenhang
des Abschlusses der Elektronengruppen
im Atom mit der Komplexstruktur der
Spektren", ("On the relation of the
completion of electron groups in the
atom with the complex structure of
spectra"), Zeitschrift für physik. V31
N1 (1925),
p765. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/20w1m0vr050j033r/
[3] D. ter Haar , The old quantum
theory, Pergaman Press, Oxford, 1967
(Physical Institute of the Federal
Institute of Technology) Zürich,
Switzerland17  
[1] Wolfgang Pauli UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/p
ictures/people/people-portrait-pauli.jpg

70 YBN
[1930 AD] 4 		4505)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p617-618.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p617-618.
3. ^ "Ipatieff,
Vladimir Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9042
717>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p617-618. {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vladimir Nikolayevich
Ipatieff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-ni
kolayevich-ipatieff
[2] Moskowitz, Sanford L. "Ipatieff,
Vladimir Nikolaevitch (1967–1952)."
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. Ed.
John Zumerchik. Vol. 2. New York:
Macmillan Reference USA, 2001. 678-681.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3407300151&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vladimir Ipatieff". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Ip
atieff
[4] "isoprene." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 08 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isoprene
[5] "isoprene." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 08
Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isoprene
[6] C. G. Williams, Proceedings of the
Royal Society 1860 10.
[7] "isoprene."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9042
963>.
(Universal Oil Products Company)
Chicago, ILlinois, USA3  
[1] Химик Владимир
Ипатьев Photograph from Guver
archives
http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/hila/rusc
ollection/ipat_br.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/ru/b/bc/Ipatieff1.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 4 		4804)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Upton Sinclair, "Mental Radio",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4sbmCMiXmo8C&pg=PR7&dq=mental+radio+eins
tein&hl=en&ei=Zm2iTI68MoOfnweK2tmIBA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=mental%20radio%2
0einstein&f=false and
http://books.google.com/books?id=4sbmC
MiXmo8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=mental+ra
dio&source=bl&ots=tVARWsDCNi&sig=0QlVYNy
PH1L3rpy6YA82Uw1T9BU&hl=en&ei=9DChTJn5AY
qosAOc0pDVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resu
lt&resnum=4&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&
f=false
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Upton Sinclair, "Mental
Radio",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4sbmCMiXmo8C&pg=PR7&dq=mental+radio+eins
tein&hl=en&ei=Zm2iTI68MoOfnweK2tmIBA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=mental%20radio%2
0einstein&f=false and
http://books.google.com/books?id=4sbmC
MiXmo8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=mental+ra
dio&source=bl&ots=tVARWsDCNi&sig=0QlVYNy
PH1L3rpy6YA82Uw1T9BU&hl=en&ei=9DChTJn5AY
qosAOc0pDVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resu
lt&resnum=4&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&
f=false
4. ^ Upton Sinclair, "Mental Radio",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4sbmCMiXmo8C&pg=PR7&dq=mental+radio+eins
tein&hl=en&ei=Zm2iTI68MoOfnweK2tmIBA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=mental%20radio%2
0einstein&f=false and
http://books.google.com/books?id=4sbmC
MiXmo8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=mental+ra
dio&source=bl&ots=tVARWsDCNi&sig=0QlVYNy
PH1L3rpy6YA82Uw1T9BU&hl=en&ei=9DChTJn5AY
qosAOc0pDVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resu
lt&resnum=4&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&
f=false
New York City, NY, USA3 (verify) 
[1] Description This is the front
book cover art for the book Mental
Radio by the author(s) Upton Sinclair.
The book cover art copyright is
believed to belong to the publisher, T.
Werner Laurie or the cover
artist. Source May be found at
the following website:
http://www.espresearch.com/mentalradio/.
Article Mental Radio Portion
used The entire front cover.
Because the image is a book cover, a
form of product packaging, the entire
image is needed to identify the
product, properly convey the meaning
and branding intended, and avoid
tarnishing or misrepresenting the
image. Low resolution? The copy
is of sufficient resolution for
commentary and identification but lower
resolution than the original book
cover. Copies made from it will be of
inferior quality, unsuitable as artwork
on pirate versions or other uses that
would compete with the commercial
purpose of the original
artwork. Purpose of use Main
infobox. The image is used for
identification in the context of
critical commentary of the work for
which it serves as cover art. It makes
a significant contribution to the
user's understanding of the article,
which could not practically be conveyed
by words alone.The image is placed in
the infobox at the top of the article
discussing the work, to show the
primary visual image associated with
the work, and to help the user quickly
identify the work and know they have
found what they are looking for.Use for
this purpose does not compete with the
purposes of the original work, namely
the book cover creator's ability to
provide book cover design services and
in turn marketing books to the
public. Replaceable? As a book
cover, the image is not replaceable by
free content; any other image that
shows the packaging of the book would
also be copyrighted, and any version
that is not true to the original would
be inadequate for identification or
commentary. Other information Use
of the book cover in the article
complies with Wikipedia non-free
content policy and fair use under
United States copyright law as
described
above. http://www.espresearch.com/men
talradio/ COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e1/Mentalradio.gif
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 4 		4999)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697.
2. ^ D Black, "On
an adolescent skull of Sinanthropus
pekinensis in comparison with an adult
skull of the same species and with
other hominid skulls, recent and
fossil", Geological Survey of China,
1930
3. ^ "Black, Davidson." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 171-172. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900470&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697. {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] D Black, "On a lower molar
hominid tooth from the Chou Kou Tien
deposit", by the Geological survey of
China, 1927.
(Chou Kou Tien) Peking, China3
(presumably) 
[1] English: Canadian physical
anthropologist Davidson Black Date
1920s (?) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Davidson_Black.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 13 		5031) Houssay had fallen out with the
dictator of Argentina, Juan Domingo
Péron.5
In 1943 Houssay is dismissed
from his university post along with 150
other educators for taking too firm a
pro-US stand at a time when Péron is
flirting with the German Nazis.6
(Interesting that Argentina is where
many Nazi's fled at the end of WW II,
Klaus von Barbie being one notable, and
also Fritz Thiessan, a funder of
Prescott Bush.7 )(Firing 150 educators
shows the anti-science view of Péron,
which is typical of the extreme part of
the other side (the monarchistic,
military dictatorship, violent, evil
side). So many things for me can simply
be reduced to those that do violence
versus those for stopping violence.8 )

In 1947 Houssay shares the Nobel prize
in medicine and physiology with Coris.
The controlled Argentinian press,
instead of celebrating the first Nobel
Prize to a South American person,
complains that the award is politically
motivated as a blow to Péron. Houssay
responds that one must not confuse
little things (Péron) with big things
(the Nobel Prize).9
In 1955 when Péron
is driven into exile, Houssay is
reinstated.10

Houssay publishs over 600 scientific
papers and several books.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bernardo Alberto Houssay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernardo-ho
ussay
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709-710.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709-710.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p709-710.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709-710.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p709-710.
11. ^ "Houssay,
Bernardo Alberto." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 15.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
228-229. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 31 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904896&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Houssay, Bernardo Alberto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 228-229. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904896&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ "Houssay, Bernardo Alberto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 228-229. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904896&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {by 1930}
(University of Buenos Aires School of
Medicine) Buenos Aires, Argentina12
 		 
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 7 		5079) Northrop's father was killed in a
laboratory explosion when he was a
zoology instructor at Columbia
University.4
In 1946 Northrop wins the
Nobel Prize in chemistry, shared with
Sumner and Stanley.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Howard Northrop." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-howard
-northrop
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p728.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p728.
6. ^ "John Howard
Northrop." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-howard
-northrop
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728. {1930}
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA6
 
[1] The image of American chemist and
Nobel laureate John Howard Northrop
(1891-1987) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/479/000100179
/ Date 16:12, 14 December 2008
(UTC) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3a/John_Howard_Northrop.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 9 		5160) In 1956 Semenov shares the Nobel
Prize in chemistry with Hinshelwood.
Semenov is the first Soviet citizen to
win a Nobel Prize.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1956/semenov.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p751-752.
3. ^ Zaitseva, Elena.
"Semenov, Nikolaî Nikolaevich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 411-417. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906084&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Zaitseva, Elena. "Semenov,
Nikolaî Nikolaevich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 411-417. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906084&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p751-752.
8. ^ Zaitseva,
Elena. "Semenov, Nikolaî Nikolaevich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 411-417. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906084&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ Zaitseva, Elena. "Semenov,
Nikolaî Nikolaevich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 411-417. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906084&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1930-1934}

MORE INFO
[1] Semenov, "Chemical Kinetics
and Chain Reactions" , 1934, Eng: 1935
[2]
Semenov, Z. phys. Chem, 11B, 464 (1930)
[3]
Semenov, Phys. Z. d. Sowjetunion, 1,
546 (1932)
(Electronic Phenomena Laboratory of the
Petrograd Physical-Technical
Radiological Institute) (Petrograd now)
Leningrad, Russia8  
[1] Nikolay Nikolaevich
Semenov COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1956/semen
ov_postcard.jpg

[2] Artist [show]Boris Mikhailovich
Kustodiev (1878–1927) Link back to
Creator infobox template Kustodiev
self portrait.jpg Alternative names
Кустодиев Борис
Михайлович; Kustodiew;
Kustodijew Date of birth/death 7
March 1878(1878-03-07) 28 May
1927(1927-05-28) Location of
birth/death Astrakhan, Russia /
Астрахань, Россия }}
Leningrad, Soviet Union /
Ленинград, СССР
}} Description Portrait of Prof.
Pyotr Kapitsa and Prof. Nikolai
Semyonov Date 1921(1921) Medium
Oil on canvas Current location
Kapitsa collection,
Moscow }} Source/Photographer
http://www.abcgallery.com/K/kustodi
yev/kustodiyev39.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/KustodiyevSemenov_Kap
itsa.JPG
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 10 11 		5173)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
2. ^ "Bernard Lyot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352996/Bernard-Ferdinand-Lyot>.
3. ^ Lyot, "La couronne solaire etudiee
en dehors des eclipses", Comptes
Rendus, 191 (1930),
834–836; {Lyot_Bernard_1930.pdf}
4. ^ "coronagraph." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coronagraph

5. ^ "Bernard Lyot." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352996/Bernard-Ferdinand-Lyot>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Bernard Lyot." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352996/Bernard-Ferdinand-Lyot>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755. {1930}
11. ^ "Bernard
Lyot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 23
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352996/Bernard-Ferdinand-Lyot>.
{1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lyot, Bernard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 581-582. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902718&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Pic du Midi Observatory) Bigorre,
France9  
[1] Figures from: [12] Lyot, ''La
couronne solaire etudiee en dehors des
eclipses'', Comptes Rendus, 191 (1930),
834–836; {Lyot_Bernard_1930.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: ftp://ftp.bnf.fr/000/N0003144_PD
F_834_836DM.pdf

[2] Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot, French
astronomer, invented the
coronograph. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-lyot.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 12 		5176) When the Nazis invade, Hassel
publishes in Scandinavian journals
instead of the more widely-read German
journals.8

From 1943 to 1945 the Nazis keep Hassel
in jail with other faculty members of
the University of Oslo.9

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1969 is
awarded jointly to Derek H. R. Barton
and Odd Hassel "for their contributions
to the development of the concept of
conformation and its application in
chemistry".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
2. ^ "Odd Hassel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256686/Odd-Hassel>.
3. ^ O. Hassel, "Das
Cyclohexanproblem", Zeitschrift für
Elektrochemie und angewandte
physikalische Chemie, Volume 37, Issue
8-9, pages 540–542, August
1931 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/bbpc.19310370825/abstract
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p755.
6. ^ "Odd
Hassel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 23
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256686/Odd-Hassel>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p755.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1969".
Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1969/
11. ^ "Odd Hassel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256686/Odd-Hassel>.
12. ^ "Odd Hassel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256686/Odd-Hassel>. {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "Odd Hassel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/odd-hassel
(University of Oslo) Oslo, Norway11
 
[1] Odd Hassel Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1969/hassel.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 3 		6069) "I Got Rhythm" (music by George
Gershwin, lyrics by Ira Gershwin) is
published.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I Got Rhythm". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Got_Rhyth
m
2. ^ "George Gershwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/231877/George-Gershwin>.
3. ^ "I Got Rhythm". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Got_Rhyth
m {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gershwin." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gers
hwin
New York City, New York, USA2
(probably) 
[1] Description English: George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date 28
March 1937 Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division, Van Vechten Collection,
reproduction number LC-USZ62-42534 DLC
(b&w film copy neg.). Author
[show]Carl Van Vechten (1880–1964)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Permission (Reusing this
file) Yes Description George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date Source
Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division, Van Vechten
Collection, reproduction number
LC-USZ62-42534 DLC (b&w film copy
neg.). Author [show]Carl Van
Vechten (1880–1964) Link back to
Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.
jpg
69 YBN
[02/17/1931 AD] 7 		5257)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
2. ^ "Linus Carl
Pauling." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/linus-carl-
pauling
3. ^ A. E. Mirsky and Linus Pauling,
"On the Structure of Native, Denatured,
and Coagulated Proteins", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1936 July; 22(7):
439–447.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076802/ {Pauling_Linus_19360601.
pdf}
4. ^ "Linus Pauling." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/447161/Linus-Pauling>.
5. ^ A. E. Mirsky and Linus Pauling,
"On the Structure of Native, Denatured,
and Coagulated Proteins", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1936 July; 22(7):
439–447.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076802/ {Pauling_Linus_19360601.
pdf}
6. ^ Linus Pauling, "The
Shared-Electron Chemical Bond", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/ {Pauling_Linus
_19280307.pdf}
7. ^ Linus Pauling, "The
Shared-Electron Chemical Bond", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/ {Pauling_Linus
_19280307.pdf} {03/07/1928}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1954". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1954/index.html
[2] Linus Pauling, "The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, and the Structure of
Molecules and Crystals" (1939).
[3] Linus.
Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE CHEMICAL
BOND. APPLICATION OF RESULTS OBTAINED
FROM THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND FROM A
THEORY OF PARAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
TO THE STRUCTURE OF MOLECULES", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (4), pp
1367–1400. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01355a027
[4] Linus Pauling, "The Application of
the Quantum Mechanics to the Structure
of the Hydrogen Molecule and Hydrogen
Molecule-Ion and to Related Problems.",
Chem. Rev., 1928, 5 (2), pp
173–213. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60018a003
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California6  
[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg
69 YBN
[05/29/1931 AD] 38 		5299) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1933
is awarded jointly to Erwin
Schrödinger and Paul Adrien Maurice
Dirac "for the discovery of new
productive forms of atomic theory".36
In
1932 Dirac is made Lucasian Professor
of Mathematics at Cambridge.37
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p788-789.
2. ^ "Paul Adrien
Maurice Dirac." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-adrien
-maurice-dirac
3. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Schuster, Arthur,
"Potential Matter.—A Holiday Dream",
Nature, Volume 58, Issue 1503, pp. 367
(1898). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
898Natur..58..367S Schuster_Arthur_1898
0818.pdf}
6. ^ "Arthur Schuster." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/schuster-si
r-arthur
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p788-789.
8. ^ P. A. M. Dirac,
"Quantised Singularities in the
Electromagnetic Field", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 133, No. 821
(Sep. 1, 1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p788-789.
12. ^ "P.A.M.
Dirac." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/164795/P-A-M-Dirac>.
13. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "On the Theory of
Quantum Mechanics", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 112, No. 762
(Oct. 1, 1926), pp.
661-677. http://www.jstor.org/stable/94
692 {Dirac_Paul_19260826.pdf}
14. ^ "P.A.M. Dirac." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/164795/P-A-M-Dirac>.
15. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "The Quantum
Theory of the Electron", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 117, No. 778
(Feb. 1, 1928), pp.
610-624. http://www.jstor.org/stable/94
981 {Dirac_Paul_19280102.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "A
Theory of Electrons and Protons",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 126, No. 801 (Jan. 1, 1930), pp.
360-365. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
359 {Dirac_Paul_19291206.pdf}
18. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
19. ^ "P.A.M. Dirac." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/164795/P-A-M-Dirac>.
20. ^ Record ID5189. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1933". Nobelprize.org.
14 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1933/
37. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p788-789.
38. ^ P. A. M. Dirac,
"Quantised Singularities in the
Electromagnetic Field", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 133, No. 821
(Sep. 1, 1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
{05/29/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] Paul Dirac, "Quantum Theory
of the Electron" (1928)
[2] Paul Dirac, "The
Principles of Quantum Mechanics" (1930;
3rd ed. 1947)
[3] P. A. M. Dirac, "The
Fundamental Equations of Quantum
Mechanics", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
December 1, 1925
109:642-653. http://rspa.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/109/752/642.citatio
n and http://www.jstor.org/stable/9444
1?&Search=yes&searchText=Equations&searc
hText=Mechanics&searchText=Quantum&searc
hText=Fundamental&searchText=dirac&list=
hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch
%3Facc%3Don%26Query%3DThe%2BFundamental%
2BEquations%2Bof%2BQuantum%2BMechanics%2
Bdirac%26gw%3Djtx%26acc%3Don%26prq%3DThe
%2BFundamental%2BEquations%2Bof%2BQuantu
m%2BMechanics%26Search%3DSearch%26hp%3D2
5%26wc%3Don%26acc%3Don&prevSearch=&item=
25&ttl=1019&returnArticleService=showFul
lText
[4] P. A. M. Dirac, "On the
Annihilation of Electrons and Protons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1930),
26:
361-375. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=2040316
[5] P. A. M. Dirac, "The basis of
statistical quantum mechanics",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1929),
25:
62-66. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=2024364
[6] Dirac, P. A. M., "The Proton.",
Nature, Volume 126, Issue 3181, pp.
605-606
(1930). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
930Natur.126..605D
 
[1] Opis Dirac 3.jpg Paul
Dirac Data circa 1930 Źródło
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.a
c.uk/PictDisplay/Dirac.html Autor
Cambridge University, Cavendish
Laboratory [1] Licencja (Ponowne
użycie tego pliku) patrz
poniżej. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Dirac_3.jpg
69 YBN
[06/11/1931 AD] 11 		5260)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
2. ^ "Linus Carl
Pauling." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/linus-carl-
pauling
3. ^ Linus. Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE
CHEMICAL BOND. II. THE ONE-ELECTRON
BOND AND THE THREE-ELECTRON BOND", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (9), pp
3225–3237. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01360a004 {Pauling_Linus_19
310611.pdf}
4. ^ Linus. Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE
CHEMICAL BOND. APPLICATION OF RESULTS
OBTAINED FROM THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND
FROM A THEORY OF PARAMAGNETIC
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE STRUCTURE OF
MOLECULES", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53
(4), pp
1367–1400. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01355a027 {Pauling_Linus_19
310217.pdf}
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p460.
6. ^ Linus. Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE
CHEMICAL BOND. APPLICATION OF RESULTS
OBTAINED FROM THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND
FROM A THEORY OF PARAMAGNETIC
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE STRUCTURE OF
MOLECULES", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53
(4), pp
1367–1400. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01355a027 {Pauling_Linus_19
310217.pdf}
7. ^ Linus. Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE
CHEMICAL BOND. II. THE ONE-ELECTRON
BOND AND THE THREE-ELECTRON BOND", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (9), pp
3225–3237. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01360a004 {Pauling_Linus_19
310611.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Linus. Pauling,
"THE NATURE OF THE CHEMICAL BOND. II.
THE ONE-ELECTRON BOND AND THE
THREE-ELECTRON BOND", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1931, 53 (9), pp
3225–3237. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01360a004 {Pauling_Linus_19
310611.pdf}
11. ^ Linus. Pauling, "THE NATURE OF
THE CHEMICAL BOND. II. THE ONE-ELECTRON
BOND AND THE THREE-ELECTRON BOND", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (9), pp
3225–3237. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01360a004 {Pauling_Linus_19
310611.pdf} {06/11/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] Linus Pauling, "The Nature of
the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of
Molecules and Crystals" (1939)
[2] ([:0: C Y)
[3]
Linus Pauling, "The Application of the
Quantum Mechanics to the Structure of
the Hydrogen Molecule and Hydrogen
Molecule-Ion and to Related Problems.",
Chem. Rev., 1928, 5 (2), pp
173–213. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60018a003
[4] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1954". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1954/index.html
[5] Linus Pauling, "The Shared-Electron
Chemical Bond", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California10  
[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg
69 YBN
[09/10/1931 AD] 38 		5446) Ernst August Friedrich Ruska (CE
1906-1988), German electrical
engineer,13 14 and Max Knoll (CE
1897-1969)15 build the first electron
microscope, using magnetic fields to
focus electron beams similar to how a
lens focuses light beams. Ruska will go
on, as others like Hillier do to make
the electron microscope practical. De
Broglie had theorized that electrons
posses a wave aspect and Davisson had
demonstrated this. (The view I support
is that the wavelength of electron
beams relates to the distance between
electrons, and that electrons are
particles and are probably not wave
objects.16 ) The claim is that shorter
the wavelength of light, the greater
the magnification, and electron waves
are much shorter than waves of light.17
18 19

This microscope can only magnify an
object 16x.20 In 1933 Ruska builds an
electron microscope that for the first
time gives higher magnification than a
light microscope.21

Ruska's microscope is a "transmission
electron microscope" (TEM). The
transmission electron microscope works
on the same principle as an optical
microscope but uses electrons in the
place of light and electromagnets in
the place of glass lenses. Development
of the transmission electron microscope
will be quickly followed in 1935 by the
development of the "scanning electron
microscope" (SEM) by Max Knoll.22 23
(verify24 )

In a later 1932 paper, (translated from
German with Google) "The Electron
Microscope", Knoll and Ruska write for
an abstract: "The main electron-optical
imaging systems and their suitability
for the larger electron-rendered object
image, are given and discussed. The
general conditions for error-free
images that define and limit the
resolving power are given. A magnetic
electron cold cathode for high-speed
electrons and the design of magnetic
lenses are described and several
photomicrographs are reproduced. The
methods of electron microscope and
imaging systems suitable for an ion
microscope are discussed.".25

In 1858 John Peter Gassiot (CE
1797-1877) had used a magnetic field to
change the direction of the beam caused
by a high voltage through a vacuum
tube.26

In 1897 Karl Braun had invented the
oscilloscope showing that a beam of
electrons can be moved by
electromagnetic fields to draw an
electronic picture.27

(Translate and read relevent parts of
1931 paper.28 )

(I doubt the claim that wavelength
relates to magnification, because I
think magnification has more to do with
the precision of the size of the
focused beam. The more precise the beam
can be positioned, the higher the
magnification.29 )

(EX: Can a lens focus electron beams?30
)
(Zworykin's em appears perhaps later
in 193931 )
(Might the light particle
provide even higher resolution, being
smaller than the electron?32 )
(In theory
it might be possible to simply send a
square of electrons and record the
image reflected, however, the electrons
would have to be released in the same
quantity and interval, and maintain a
straight line all the way to the
target. If electron beams, the beams
would need to all be of equal strength.
Possibly a single electron source in
the center that emits a sphere of
electrons might be able to record a
reflected picture.33 )

(It seems likely that the electron
microscope was secretly discovered
earlier, given the secret of neuron
reading and writing. If true then Ruska
would be either an excluded who figured
it out, or a spokesperson for making
the electron microscope public.34 )

(Determine correct paper. The paper of
09/10/1931 appears to be the first to
use the world "mikroskop"35 )

(The future path for the electron
microscope is clear - to make it much
smaller and less expensive so all
average people can access an electron
microscope for examining objects around
them.36 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
2. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
4. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

5. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
6. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
8. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

9. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
10. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
12. ^ "Ernst Ruska."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
14. ^ "Ernst Ruska."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

15. ^
http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
18. ^
http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_e/mainframe_
e.html
19. ^ Max Knoll, et al, "Electron
Microscope", Patent number: 2131536
Filing date: Jun 23, 1934, Issue date:
Sep 27,
1938 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT2131536&id=g4VhAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=knoll+m&printsec=abstract#v=one
page&q=knoll%20m&f=false
20. ^
http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
21. ^
http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_e/mainframe_
e.html
22. ^ Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475.
23. ^ "Microscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska,
"Das Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume
78, Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
26. ^ Record ID2881. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Record
ID4088. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska,
"Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.", Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
38. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} {09/10/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany37  
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
69 YBN
[10/03/1931 AD] 16 17 		5161) In 1937 Carothers kills himself11
 with cyanide12 at the age of 4113 .
(It seems possible that this was a
neuron written suicide of an outsider,
that is, a person that had never heard
of neuron reading and writing.14 )
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752.
2. ^ "Wallace
Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
3. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752.
5. ^ "Wallace
Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
6. ^ Furukawa, Yasu. "Carothers,
Wallace Hume." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Julian W.
Hill, "STUDIES OF POLYMERIZATION AND
RING FORMATION. XII. LINEAR
SUPERPOLYESTERS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1932, 54 (4), pp
1559–1566. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01343a048
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752.
12. ^ Furukawa, Yasu.
"Carothers, Wallace Hume." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 20. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 47-50. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ "Wallace Carothers." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "Wallace Hume
Carothers." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/96637/Wallace-Hume-Carothers>.
16. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf} {10/03/1931}
17. ^ "Wallace
Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others {1931}
( E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA15  
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
69 YBN
[10/13/1931 AD] 12 		5319)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
2. ^ Dr. A. Butenandt
Priv.-Doz., "Über die chemische
Untersuchung der Sexualhormone",
Angewandte Chemie, Volume 44, Issue 46,
pages 905–908, 14. November
1931 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19310444602/abstract {But
enandt_Adolf_19311013.pdf}
3. ^ A. BUTENANDT, "Chemical
Constitution of the Follicular and
Testicular Hormones", Nature 130,
238-238 (13 August
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v130/n3276/abs/130238a0.html
4. ^ "Adolf Butenandt." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-buten
andt
5. ^ "Adolf Butenandt." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-buten
andt
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "androsterone." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
8. ^ "androsterone." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
9. ^ "testosterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testosteron
e
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Dr. A. Butenandt
Priv.-Doz., "Über die chemische
Untersuchung der Sexualhormone",
Angewandte Chemie, Volume 44, Issue 46,
pages 905–908, 14. November
1931 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19310444602/abstract {But
enandt_Adolf_19311013.pdf}
12. ^ Dr. A. Butenandt Priv.-Doz.,
"Über die chemische Untersuchung der
Sexualhormone", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 44, Issue 46, pages 905–908,
14. November
1931 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19310444602/abstract {But
enandt_Adolf_19311013.pdf} {10/13/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Butenandt, "Über
"Progynon" ein krystallisiertes
weibliches Sexualhormon",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
45,
879. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/g503613433t28ql3/
[2] "Adolf Butenandt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/86456/Adolf-Friedrich-Johann-Butenandt
>.
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1939". Nobelprize.org. 17 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1939/
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany11  
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
69 YBN
[11/29/1931 AD] 5 		5213)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p762.
2. ^ W. T. ASTBURY &
THOBA C. MARWICK, "Structure of the
Crystal Lattice of Cellulose", Nature
127, 12-13 (03 January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf}
3. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & THOBA C. MARWICK,
"Structure of the Crystal Lattice of
Cellulose", Nature 127, 12-13 (03
January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf}
4. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & THOBA C. MARWICK,
"Structure of the Crystal Lattice of
Cellulose", Nature 127, 12-13 (03
January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf}
5. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & THOBA C. MARWICK,
"Structure of the Crystal Lattice of
Cellulose", Nature 127, 12-13 (03
January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf} {11/29/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] W. T. ASTBURY & H. J. WOODS,
"The X-Ray Interpretation of the
Structure and Elastic Properties of
Hair Keratin", Nature 126, 913-914 (13
December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England4
 
[1] Figure 1 from: W. T. ASTBURY &
THOBA C. MARWICK, ''Structure of the
Crystal Lattice of Cellulose'', Nature
127, 12-13 (03 January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/pdf/127012a0.pdf

[2] William T.
Astbury 1950s 1898-1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-astbury-150w.jpg
69 YBN
[11/29/1931 AD] 8 		5214)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p762.
2. ^ "William
Astbury." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ast
bury
3. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & FLORENCE O. BELL,
"X-Ray Study of Thymonucleic Acid",
Nature 141, 747-748 (23 April
1938). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v141/n3573/abs/141747b0.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p762.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ W. T.
ASTBURY & FLORENCE O. BELL, "X-Ray
Study of Thymonucleic Acid", Nature
141, 747-748 (23 April
1938). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v141/n3573/abs/141747b0.html
7. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & THOBA C. MARWICK,
"Structure of the Crystal Lattice of
Cellulose", Nature 127, 12-13 (03
January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf}
8. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & THOBA C. MARWICK,
"Structure of the Crystal Lattice of
Cellulose", Nature 127, 12-13 (03
January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf} {11/29/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] W. T. ASTBURY & H. J. WOODS,
"The X-Ray Interpretation of the
Structure and Elastic Properties of
Hair Keratin", Nature 126, 913-914 (13
December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England7
 
[1] William T.
Astbury 1950s 1898-1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-astbury-150w.jpg
69 YBN
[12/05/1931 AD] 25 		5125) In 1934 Urey wins the Nobel Prize
in chemistry "for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen".19

During World War II he was in charge of
the separation of isotopes in the
atomic-bomb project. Urey's research
also led to a large-scale method of
obtaining deuterium oxide (heavy water)
for use as a neutron moderator in
reactors.20

(It seems likely that some of Urey's
work must be secret. It seems possible
that the Manhattan project followed
Urey, or Urey followed the project,
from Columbia to Chicago. Of particular
value is the idea of separating bulk
matter into valuable atoms. This will
be a major process of the future -
simply taking an asteroid and
separating it into useful components.21
)

Urey is against war, against nuclear
power, and denounced Senator Joseph
McCarthy at a time when it was
dangerous to do so.22

(I see so-called "nuclear" power, as
being probably the similar to simply
combustion in atoms releasing light
particles. Ultimately, matter is going
to provide everything life of any star
needs, and so the ultimate source of
fuel, oxygen, water, etc - is going to
be from some method of extracting the
light particles from accumulated
matter. So, I think the big process is
going to be seperating down big chunks
of matter into useful atoms, - many
being separated into light particles in
the process. In the short term, I think
alcohol and methane from waste
recycling are likely answers to
replacing fossil fuel combustion. In
addition, radioactive sources, and
controlled uranium fission is a fine
choice for electricity. Nuclear waste
can be atomically converted to source
light particles. Ultimately, all atoms
can be converted to photons and
therefore completely used to move other
objects.23 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
2. ^ H. C. Urey,
“Natural System of Atomic Nuclei”,
Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 53 (1931), 2872.
3. ^ H. C. Urey and
Charles A. Bradley. Jr., “On the
Relative Abundances of Isotopes,”
Physical Review, 38 (1931), 718–724.
4. ^ Harold
C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde, and G. M.
Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2",
Physical Review, 39 (1932), 164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
5. ^ H. C. Urey, C. F. G. Brickwedde
and G. M. Murphy, “A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2 and its Concentration,”
Physical Review, 40 (1932),
1–15. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103
/PhysRev.40.1
6. ^ "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Harold Clayton Urey." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/harold-c-ur
ey
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
9. ^ H. C. Urey,
“Natural System of Atomic Nuclei”,
Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 53 (1931), 2872.
10. ^ Harold C.
Urey, F. G. Brickwedde, and G. M.
Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2",
Physical Review, 39 (1932), 164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
11. ^ "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "triple point." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/triple-poin
t
13. ^ "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1934/
20. ^ "Harold Clayton Urey." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/harold-c-ur
ey
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^
Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde, and
G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope of
Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
25. ^ Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde,
and G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
{12/05/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] HC Urey, "Atoms, molecules
and quanta", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 37
(1931), 506-507.
http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1931-
37-07/S0002-9904-1931-05170-3/home.html
[2] HC Urey, "The separation and
properties of the isotopes of
hydrogen", Science, Volume 78, Issue
2034, pp.
566-571. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
59134?origin=ads
[3] Edward W. Washburn and Harold C.
Urey, "Concentration of the H2 Isotope
of Hydrogen by the Fractional
Electrolysis of Water", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1932 July; 18(7): 496–498.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076263/
[4]
http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf/servlet/
GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=PHTOAD0000
05000008000012000001&idtype=cvips&prog=n
ormal
(Bureau of Standards) Washington, D. C.
(and Columbia University) New York
City, New York, USA24  
[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
69 YBN
[12/16/1931 AD] 9 		5370)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
2. ^ "Bruno Rossi." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bruno-rossi

3. ^ Bruno Rossi, "Absorptionsmessungen
der durchdringenden
Korpuskularstrahlung in einem Meter
Blei", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20,
Number 4, 65, DOI:
10.1007/BF01503771. http://www.springer
link.com/content/qww043l2h7811222/ "Abs
orption measurements of particle
radiation penetrating in a meter of
lead."
4. ^ Clark, George W. "Rossi, Bruno
Benedetto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 280-285.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906055&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Record ID5371. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Bruno Rossi,
"Absorptionsmessungen der
durchdringenden Korpuskularstrahlung in
einem Meter Blei", Naturwissenschaften,
Volume 20, Number 4, 65, DOI:
10.1007/BF01503771. http://www.springer
link.com/content/qww043l2h7811222/ "Abs
orption measurements of particle
radiation penetrating in a meter of
lead."
9. ^ Bruno Rossi, "Absorptionsmessungen
der durchdringenden
Korpuskularstrahlung in einem Meter
Blei", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20,
Number 4, 65, DOI:
10.1007/BF01503771. http://www.springer
link.com/content/qww043l2h7811222/ "Abs
orption measurements of particle
radiation penetrating in a meter of
lead." {12/16/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] Bruno Rossi, "On the Magnetic
Deflection of Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev.
36, 606
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v36/i3/p606_1
[2] Bruno Rossi, "Directional
Measurements on the Cosmic Rays Near
the Geomagnetic Equator", Phys. Rev.
45, 212
(1934). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v45/i3/p212_1
(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy8  
[1] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
69 YBN
[12/19/1931 AD] 12 13 14 		5288)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert J. Van de Graaff." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-j-va
n-de-graaff
2. ^ Robert Jemison Van De Graaff,
"Electrostatic Generator", Patent
number: 1991236, Filing date: Dec 16,
1931, Issue date: Feb 12,
1935 http://www.google.com/patents?id=i
NN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
4. ^ L. C. Van Atta,
E. W. Samson, and R. J. Van de Graaf
Progress Report on the Electrostatic
High-Voltage Generator at Round Hill
Br J Radiol 1933 6: 614.
http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/reprint
/6/70/614 {Van_De_Graaf_19330815.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
6. ^ "Robert Jemison
Van de Graaff." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 11 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/622605/Robert-Jemison-Van-de-Graaff>.
7. ^ Robert Jemison Van De Graaff,
"Electrostatic Generator", Patent
number: 1991236, Filing date: Dec 16,
1931, Issue date: Feb 12,
1935 http://www.google.com/patents?id=i
NN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Robert J. Van de Graaff." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-j-va
n-de-graaff
12. ^ Robert Jemison Van De Graaff,
"Electrostatic Generator", Patent
number: 1991236, Filing date: Dec 16,
1931, Issue date: Feb 12,
1935 http://www.google.com/patents?id=i
NN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {12/19/1931}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785. {1931}
14. ^ "Robert
J. Van de Graaff." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-j-va
n-de-graaff {1931}
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA11  
[1] Figure 1 from Robert Jemison Van
De Graaff, ''Electrostatic Generator'',
Patent number: 1991236, Filing date:
Dec 16, 1931, Issue date: Feb 12,
1935 http://www.google.com/patents?id=i
NN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=iNN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Robert J. Van de
Graaff.jpg Polski: Robert J.Van de
Graaff. Date ok. 1935 Source
http://wwwnt.if.pwr.wroc.pl/kwazar/
mtk2/fizycy/126165/images/images5.jpg A
uthor Minęło 70 lat od śmierci
autora. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Robert_J._Van_de_Graa
ff.jpg
69 YBN
[12/28/1931 AD] 9 		5188)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ "Sur
l’excitation des rayons gamma
nucléaires du bore par les particules
alpha. Energie quantique du rayonnement
gamma du polonium", Comptes rendus . .
. des sciences, 193 (1931),
p1415. {Joliot-Curie_Frederic_Irene_193
11228.pdf}
3. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Sur l’excitation des rayons
gamma nucléaires du bore par les
particules alpha. Energie quantique du
rayonnement gamma du polonium", Comptes
rendus . . . des sciences, 193 (1931),
p1415. {Joliot-Curie_Frederic_Irene_193
11228.pdf} {12/28/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joliot-Curie, Irène."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France8
(presumably) 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
69 YBN
[12/??/1931 AD] 3 4 		6060) "All of Me" is written and
recorded (written by: Gerald Marks and
Seymour Simons).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "All of Me (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_of_Me_%
28song%29
2. ^
http://www.secondhandsongs.com/work/1459
9
3. ^ "All of Me (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_of_Me_%
28song%29 {12/1931}
4. ^
http://www.secondhandsongs.com/work/1459
9 {12/1931}
  
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 5 		4964)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
2. ^ "Geiger, Hans
(Johannes) Wilhelm." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Geiger, Hans (Johannes) Wilhelm."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Geiger, Hans (Johannes) Wilhelm."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Geiger, Hans (Johannes) Wilhelm."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1931}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Geiger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227810/Hans-Geiger>.
[2] "Hans Geiger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/geiger-joha
nnes-wilhelm
[3] Walter Makower, Hans Geiger,
"Practical measurements in
radio-activity",
1912 http://books.google.com/books?hl=e
n&lr=&id=el9DAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=H
.+Geiger&ots=k5qZOjwAMG&sig=2SVeUiGDuE5G
vCdJsV_nxbxUmR4#v=onepage&q=H.%20Geiger&
f=false
[4] H Geiger, "A method of counting
alpha and beta rays", Deutsch Phys Ges,
1913
[5] H. Geiger; J. M. Nuttall, "The
ranges of the α particles from
uranium", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 23, Issue 135,
1912, Pages 439 – 445.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany4  
[1] Figure 1: Rutherford-Geiger alpha
particle counter design Figure 2:
Geiger 1912 design UNKNOWN
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1
&contentSet=GALE

[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 8 		4991)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Auguste Piccard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459310/Auguste-Piccard>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
5. ^ "Auguste
Piccard." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/auguste-pic
card
6. ^ "Auguste Piccard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459310/Auguste-Piccard>.
7. ^ "Piccard, Auguste." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 597-598. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903405&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694-695. {1931}
Augsburg, Germany7  
[1] Description
AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer.jpg Englis
h: Paul Kipfer and August Piccard
prepare to enter the stratosphere in a
pressurized gondola lifted by a
hydrogen filled balloon on May 27th,
1931. Date May 27th, 1931.
2007-10-24 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Storkk using CommonsHelper. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/AugustePiccardandPaul
Kipfer.jpg

[2] Title: Auguste Piccard People
in the image: * Piccard, Auguste
Prof.: Physiker, Ballonfahrer,
Stratosphären- und Tiefseeforscher,
Schweiz August 1932(1932-08) Source
Deutsches Bundesarchiv (German
Federal Archive), Bild
102-13738 Author Unknown CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102
-13738%2C_Auguste_Piccard.jpg
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 8 		5054) In 1937 Karrer wins the Nobel
prize in chemistry shared with
Haworth.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p718.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718.
4. ^ "Paul Karrer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/312666/Paul-Karrer>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718.
7. ^ "Paul Karrer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/312666/Paul-Karrer>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718. {1931}
(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland7  
[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 11 12 		5251) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1938
is awarded to Richard Kuhn "for his
work on carotenoids and vitamins",5
however, Kuhn has to wait until end of
World War II to claim the award because
of Hitler's refusal to allow German
people to accpet Nobel prizes after
Carl von Ossietzky, in a Nazi
concentration camp.6

Ossietzky was a German pacifist and
journalist who is imprisoned (in 1932)
for articles exposing the secret
rearmament in Germany. After Adolf
Hitler's rise to power in 1933,
Ossietzky is sent to the Sonnenburg
concentration camp. Suffering from
tuberculosis, he is removed (1936) to a
prison hospital shortly before the
announcement that he has been awarded
the 1935 Nobel Peace Prize. The German
government then protests and bars all
Germans from future acceptance of a
Nobel Prize. Still imprisoned,
Ossietzky dies two years later.7 8 9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
2. ^ "Richard Kuhn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324454/Richard-Kuhn>.
3. ^ "Richard Kuhn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324454/Richard-Kuhn>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1938". Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1938/
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
7. ^ "Carl von
Ossietzky." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 05
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-von-os
sietzky
8. ^ "Carl von Ossietzky." The Oxford
Companion to German Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1976, 1986, 1997,
2005. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-von-os
sietzky
9. ^ "Carl von Ossietzky - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace
/laureates/1935/ossietzky.html
10. ^ Richard Kuhn and Edgar Lederer,
"Fraktionierung und Isomerisierung des
Carotins" Naturwissenschaften, Volume
19, Number 14,
306. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k12h62015kv17871/
11. ^ Richard Kuhn and Edgar Lederer,
"Fraktionierung und Isomerisierung des
Carotins" Naturwissenschaften, Volume
19, Number 14,
306. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k12h62015kv17871/ {1931}
12. ^ Richard Kuhn
und Edgar Lederer, "Über α- und
β-Carotin.", Hoppe-Seyler´s
Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie.
Volume 200, Issue 4-6, Pages 246–254,
ISSN (Online) 1437-4315. {1931}
(Kaiser Wilhelm-Institut fur
Medizinische Forschung, Institut fur
Chemie) Heidelberg, Germany10  
[1] Richard Kuhn, Nobel Prize
photo Photo supplied by archiv zur
Geschichte der
Max-Planck-Geschellschaft,
Berlin-Dahlem COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1938/kuhn_
postcard.jpg
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 3 		6053)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Duke Ellington." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
2. ^ "It
Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got
That Swing)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_Don%27t_
Mean_a_Thing_%28If_It_Ain%27t_Got_That_S
wing%29
3. ^ "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It
Ain't Got That Swing)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_Don%27t_
Mean_a_Thing_%28If_It_Ain%27t_Got_That_S
wing%29 {1931 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/duke-elling
ton
[2] "Take the a train". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_the_a_
train
(Lincoln Tavern) Chicago, Illinois,
USA2 (verify) 
[1] Duke Ellington band UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kalamu.com/bol/wp-con
tent/content/images/duke%20ellington%202
0.jpg
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 3 		6057)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "As Time Goes By (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_Time_Goe
s_By_%28song%29
2. ^ "Herman Hupfeld". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Hupf
eld
3. ^ "As Time Goes By (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_Time_Goe
s_By_%28song%29 {1931}
Montclair, New Jersey2  
[1] Herman Hupfeld PD
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/252/28882287.jpg
68 YBN
[02/17/1932 AD] 27 28 		5086)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
2. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
4. ^ J. Chadwick,
"The Existence of a Neutron",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
5. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730.
10. ^ "Rutherford,
Ernest." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ J. Chadwick, "The
Existence of a Neutron", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 136, No. 830
(Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
27. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf} {possible neutron:)
02/17/1932}
28. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber,
"The Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[8] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect a
neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England26  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
68 YBN
[02/23/1932 AD] 7 		5181)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
2. ^ J. D.
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html {Cockcroft_John_19
320223.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID5179. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ J. D.
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html {Cockcroft_John_19
320223.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E.
T. S. Walton, "Experiments with High
Velocity Positive Ions. (I) Further
Developments in the Method of Obtaining
High Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R.
Soc. Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html {Cockcroft_John_19
320223.pdf}
7. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html {Cockcroft_John_19
320223.pdf} {02/23/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[4] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[5] H
Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66, 1920
[6]
Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis
L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella, Simon
S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC
Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994
[7] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[8]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[9] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[10] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[11] "Cockcroft, John Douglas."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[12] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[13] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[14] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[15] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html
[16] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[17] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. III. The Disintegration
of Lithium, Boron, and Carbon by Heavy
Hydrogen Ions", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
May 1, 1934 144:704-720;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1934.0078 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/144/8
53/704.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[18] J. D. Cockcroft, C. W. Gilbert,
and E. T. S. Walton, "Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. IV. The
Production of Induced Radioactivity by
High Velocity Protons and Diplons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A January 1, 1935
148:225-240;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1935.0015 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/148/8
63/225.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[19] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. V. Further Experiments
on the Disintegration of Boron", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 2, 1936
154:246-261;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0049 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/246.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[20] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. VI. The Disintegration
of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen by
Deuterons", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A March
2, 1936 154:261-279;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0050 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/261.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England6  
[1] Figure 6 from: J. D. Cockcroft and
E. T. S. Walton, ''Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. (I)
Further Developments in the Method of
Obtaining High Velocity Positive
Ions'', Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A June 1,
1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html {Cockcroft_John_19
320223.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/136/830/619.full.pdf+html


[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
68 YBN
[02/??/1932 AD] 9 10 		5062)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
2. ^ Hubble, E.,
"Nebulous Objects in Messier 31
Provisionally Identified as Globular
Clusters", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
76,
p.44. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
32ApJ....76...44H {Hubble_Edwin_193202x
x.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
4. ^ Hubble, E.,
"Nebulous Objects in Messier 31
Provisionally Identified as Globular
Clusters", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
76,
p.44. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
32ApJ....76...44H {Hubble_Edwin_193202x
x.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Hubble,
E., "Nebulous Objects in Messier 31
Provisionally Identified as Globular
Clusters", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
76,
p.44. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
32ApJ....76...44H {Hubble_Edwin_193202x
x.pdf}
9. ^ Hubble, E., "Nebulous Objects in
Messier 31 Provisionally Identified as
Globular Clusters", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 76,
p.44. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
32ApJ....76...44H {Hubble_Edwin_193202x
x.pdf} {02/1932}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722. {1931}

MORE INFO
[1] Hubble, E. P., "Cepheids in
spiral nebulae", The Observatory, Vol.
48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261
[2]
Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M., "Hubble's
Announcement of Cepheids in Spiral
Nebulae", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No. 504, p.
425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..4245B/0000437.0
00.html
[3] E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/
[4] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The realm of
the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&o
ts=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA8  
[1] Hubble, E., ''Nebulous Objects in
Messier 31 Provisionally Identified as
Globular Clusters'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 76,
p.44. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
32ApJ....76...44H {Hubble_Edwin_193202x
x.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
932ApJ....76...44H

[2] Edwin Hubble (with pipe)
Photograph of famous deceased scientist
Edwin Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg
68 YBN
[03/01/1932 AD] 11 		5342) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1967 is awarded jointly to
Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline
and George Wald "for their discoveries
concerning the primary physiological
and chemical visual processes in the
eye".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p798.
2. ^ H. KEFFER
HARTLINE AND C. H. GRAHAM, "NERVE
IMPULSES FROM SINGLE RECEPTORS IN THE
EYE", JOURNAL OF CELLULAR AND
COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY, V1, Num 2,
1932, p227. Reprinted in: American
Journal of Physiology, January 1938
vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p798.
4. ^ "Haldan Keffer
Hartline." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 19
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256177/Haldan-Keffer-Hartline>.
5. ^ H. KEFFER HARTLINE AND C. H.
GRAHAM, "NERVE IMPULSES FROM SINGLE
RECEPTORS IN THE EYE", JOURNAL OF
CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932, p227. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1967". Nobelprize.org. 20 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
10. ^ H. KEFFER HARTLINE AND C. H.
GRAHAM, "NERVE IMPULSES FROM SINGLE
RECEPTORS IN THE EYE", JOURNAL OF
CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932, p227. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf}
11. ^ H. KEFFER HARTLINE AND C. H.
GRAHAM, "NERVE IMPULSES FROM SINGLE
RECEPTORS IN THE EYE", JOURNAL OF
CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932, p227. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} {03/01/1932}
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA10
 
[1] Figure 1 from: H. KEFFER HARTLINE
AND C. H. GRAHAM, ''NERVE IMPULSES FROM
SINGLE RECEPTORS IN THE EYE'', JOURNAL
OF CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/
content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html

[2] Haldan Keffer Hartline Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1967/hartline.jpg
68 YBN
[04/16/1932 AD] 12 		5182)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
2. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID4750. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
6. ^ "John
Cockcroft." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T.
S. WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium
by Swift Protons", Nature 129, 649-649
(30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ J. D.
COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON ,
"Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
12. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S.
WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by
Swift Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf} {04/16/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[2] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[3] H Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66, 1920
[4]
Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis
L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella, Simon
S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC
Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994
[5] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[6]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[7] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[8] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[9] "Cockcroft, John Douglas." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[11] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[12] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[13] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[14] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England11  
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
68 YBN
[04/23/1932 AD] 4 		5053)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p696.
2. ^ P. Debye and F.
W. Sears, "On the Scattering of Light
by Supersonic Waves", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1932 June; 18(6): 409–414.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076242/ {Debye_Peter_19320423.pd
f}
3. ^ P. Debye and F. W. Sears, "On the
Scattering of Light by Supersonic
Waves", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1932
June; 18(6): 409–414.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076242/ {Debye_Peter_19320423.pd
f}
4. ^ P. Debye and F. W. Sears, "On the
Scattering of Light by Supersonic
Waves", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1932
June; 18(6): 409–414.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076242/ {Debye_Peter_19320423.pd
f} {04/23/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Debye." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/154823/Peter-Debye>
[2] Debye, “Einige Resultate einer
kinetischen Theorie der Isolatoren,”,
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 13 (1912),
97–100
[3] Debye, “Zur Theorie der anomalen
Dispersion im Gebiete der langwelligen
elektrischen Strahlung,” in Berichte
der Deutschen physikalischen
Gesellschaft, 15 (1913), 777–793
[4] Debye,
Polar Molecules (New York, 1929)
[5] "Debye,
Peter Joseph William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 617-621. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901105&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] P. Debye, "Zerstreuung von
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 351, Issue 6, pages 809–823,
1915 "Scattering of X-rays"
[7] P. Debye,
"Interferenzen an regellos orientierten
Teilchen im Röntgenlicht", Ann.
Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/d
ms/load/img/?PPN=GDZPPN002504294 "Inter
ference of irregularly oriented
particles in Rontgen-light"
[8] P. Debye,
"Interferentz von Rontgenstrahlen und
Warmebewegun", Ann. Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 (Continued in 3
parts) "Interference of x-rays and
heat movement"
[9] P. Debye, "Zur Theorie der
Elektrolyte", Phys Zeit, Vol. 24, No.
9, 1923, pages 185-206
[10] "Peter Debye." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-debye

[11] P. Debye, E. Hückel, “Zur
Theorie der Elektrolyte. I.
Gefrierpunktserniedrigung und verwandte
Erscheinungen,” Physikalische
Zeitschrift,
185–206. French:http://www.lei.ucl.ac
.be/~matagne/SOLAIRE/SEM11/Debye.doc (1
0) P. Debye, E. Hückel, “Zur Theorie
der Elektrolyte. II. Das Grenzgesetz
für die elektrische Leitfähigkeit,”
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 305–325.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
3  
[1] Description Debye100.jpg Petrus
Josephus Wilhelmus Debije
(1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg
68 YBN
[04/29/1932 AD] 5 		5385)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p807-808.
2. ^ Jansky, Karl G.,
"Directional Studies of Atmospherics at
High Frequencies", Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J {Jansky_Kar
l_19320429.pdf}
3. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Directional
Studies of Atmospherics at High
Frequencies", Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J {Jansky_Kar
l_19320429.pdf}
4. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Directional
Studies of Atmospherics at High
Frequencies", Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J {Jansky_Kar
l_19320429.pdf}
5. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Directional
Studies of Atmospherics at High
Frequencies", Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J {Jansky_Kar
l_19320429.pdf} {04/29/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] Jansky, Karl G., "Radio Waves
from Outside the Solar System", Nature,
Volume 132, Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J
[2] Jansky, KG, "Electrical phenomena
that apparently are of interstellar
origin.", Pop. Astron., 41, 548-55.
(1935)
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&plate_s
elect=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&journal=
PA
[3] "NEW RADIO WAVES TRACED TO CENTRE
OF THE MILKY WAY", New York Times,
front page, May 5,
1933. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abs
tract.html?res=F10A10F83D5E1A7A93C7A9178
ED85F478385F9&scp=1&sq=karl+jansky&st=p
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA4  
[1] [t Note that the image with the
oval shape is somewhat deceptive in my
opinion, because the shape is probably
more like a rectangle that extends
infront of the antenna out to
infinity.] Figure from: Jansky, Karl
G., ''Directional Studies of
Atmospherics at High
Frequencies'', Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J {Jansky_Kar
l_19320429.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J

[2] Karl Jansky c1933 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky4.jpg
68 YBN
[04/30/1932 AD] 9 		5244) On April 12, 1933 Krebs is among
the numerous Jewish people who are
dismissed from their academic posts in
accordance with the newly decreed law
for the reform of the civil service.
The Rockefeller Foundation, which had
already supported Krebs’s work in
Freiburg through a grant to
Thannhauser, offers Kreb a one–year
fellowship at Cambridge in England.6

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1953 is divided equally
between Hans Adolf Krebs "for his
discovery of the citric acid cycle" and
Fritz Albert Lipmann "for his discovery
of co-enzyme A and its importance for
intermediary metabolism".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p775-776.
2. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs
and Kurt Henseleit, "Untersuchungen
über die Harnstoffbildung im
Tierkörper", ("Studies on the
formation of urea in the body"),
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf}
3. ^ "Hans Adolf Krebs." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-adolf-
krebs
4. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and Kurt
Henseleit, "Untersuchungen über die
Harnstoffbildung im Tierkörper",
("Studies on the formation of urea in
the body"), Journal of Molecular
Medicine, Volume 11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Krebs, Hans Adolf."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 496-506. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905196&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1953". Nobelprize.org. 4 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/
8. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and Kurt
Henseleit, "Untersuchungen über die
Harnstoffbildung im Tierkörper",
("Studies on the formation of urea in
the body"), Journal of Molecular
Medicine, Volume 11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf}
9. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and Kurt
Henseleit, "Untersuchungen über die
Harnstoffbildung im Tierkörper",
("Studies on the formation of urea in
the body"), Journal of Molecular
Medicine, Volume 11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf} {04/30/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] Hans Adolf Krebs, "Weitere
Untersuchungen über den Abbau der
Aminosäuren im Tierkörper.",
Hoppe-Seyler´s Zeitschrift für
physiologische Chemie. Volume 218,
Issue 3-4, Pages 157–159.
http://www.reference-global.com/doi/ab
s/10.1515/bchm2.1933.218.3-4.157
[2] Hans Adolf Krebs, "Untersuchungen
über den Stoffwechsel der Aminosäuren
im Tierkörper. Mit 2 Figuren im
Text.", Hoppe-Seyler´s Zeitschrift
für physiologische Chemie. Volume 217,
Issue 5-6, Pages
191–227 http://www.reference-global.c
om/doi/abs/10.1515/bchm2.1933.217.5-6.19
1 {Krebs_Hans_19330418.pdf} English:
"Studies on the metabolism of amino
acids in the body."
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany8  
[1] Diagrams from: Hans Adolf Krebs
and Kurt Henseleit, ''Untersuchungen
über die Harnstoffbildung im
Tierkörper'', (''Studies on the
formation of urea in the body''),
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/vx83193475454683/

[2] Description The image of
German-British physician Hans Adolf
Krebs (1922-2000) Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/ Date 13:51,
27 November 2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/ba/Hans_Adolf_Krebs.jpg
68 YBN
[05/08/1932 AD] 21 		5386) In 1928 Jansky starts working for
Bell Telephone Laboratories.19
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p807-808.
2. ^ Jansky, Karl G.,
"Radio Waves from Outside the Solar
System", Nature, Volume 132, Issue
3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf}
3. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Radio Waves from
Outside the Solar System", Nature,
Volume 132, Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p807-808.
5. ^ Record ID5376.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p807-808.
7. ^ "NEW RADIO WAVES
TRACED TO CENTRE OF THE MILKY WAY", New
York Times, front page, May 5,
1933. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abs
tract.html?res=F10A10F83D5E1A7A93C7A9178
ED85F478385F9&scp=1&sq=karl+jansky&st=p
{Jansky_Karl_NYTimes_19330505.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Radio
Waves from Outside the Solar System",
Nature, Volume 132, Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf}
10. ^ Jansky, KG, "Electrical phenomena
that apparently are of interstellar
origin.", Popular Astronomy, 41,
548-55. (1935)
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&plate_s
elect=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&journal=
PA... {Jansky_Karl_19330914.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p807-808.
20. ^ Jansky,
Karl G., "Radio Waves from Outside the
Solar System", Nature, Volume 132,
Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf}
21. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Radio Waves
from Outside the Solar System", Nature,
Volume 132, Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf} {05/08/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] Jansky, Karl G., "Directional
Studies of Atmospherics at High
Frequencies", Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA20  
[1] figure 1 from: Jansky, KG,
''Electrical phenomena that apparently
are of interstellar origin.'', Popular
Astronomy, 41, 548-55. (1935)
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&plate_s
elect=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&journal=
PA... {Jansky_Karl_19330914.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&p
late_select=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&jo
urnal=PA...

[2] He built an antenna, pictured
here, designed to receive radio waves
at a frequency of 20.5 MHz (wavelength
about 14.5 meters). It was mounted on
a turntable that allowed it to rotate
in any direction, earning it the name
''Jansky's merry-go-round''. By
rotating the antenna, one could find
what the direction was to any radio
signal. After recording signals
from all directions for several months,
Jansky identified three types of
static: 1. nearby thunderstorms, 2.
distant thunderstorms, and 3. a faint
steady hiss of unknown origin. Jansky
spent over a year investigating the
third type of static. It rose and fell
once a day, leading Jansky to think at
first that he was seeing radiation from
the Sun. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky1.gif
68 YBN
[05/09/1932 AD] 11 12 		5167)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p753.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p753.
3. ^ JW. A.
Waugh, C. G. King, "ISOLATION AND
IDENTIFICATION OF VITAMIN C", July 1,
1932 The Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 97, 325-331.
http://www.jbc.org/content/97/1/325.fu
ll.pdf {King_Charles_Glen_19320509.pdf}

4. ^
http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsbur
ghtrib/news/cityregion/s_589353.html#ixz
z1Bq0ANSmu
5. ^ Record ID5132. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"antiscorbutic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antiscorbut
ic
7. ^ "Charles Glen King." A Dictionary
of Food and Nutrition. Oxford
University Press, 1995, 2003, 2005.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-gle
n-king
8. ^ JW. A. Waugh, C. G. King,
"ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF
VITAMIN C", July 1, 1932 The Journal
of Biological Chemistry, 97, 325-331.
http://www.jbc.org/content/97/1/325.fu
ll.pdf {King_Charles_Glen_19320509.pdf}

9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p753.
10. ^ JW. A. Waugh,
C. G. King, "ISOLATION AND
IDENTIFICATION OF VITAMIN C", July 1,
1932 The Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 97, 325-331.
http://www.jbc.org/content/97/1/325.fu
ll.pdf {King_Charles_Glen_19320509.pdf}

11. ^ JW. A. Waugh, C. G. King,
"ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF
VITAMIN C", July 1, 1932 The Journal
of Biological Chemistry, 97, 325-331.
http://www.jbc.org/content/97/1/325.fu
ll.pdf {King_Charles_Glen_19320509.pdf}
{05/09/1932}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p753. {1932}
(University of Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA10  
[1] Charles Glen King COPYRIGHTED
source: http://files.pittsburghlive.com/
photos/2008-09-20/0921-pitthist-b.jpg
68 YBN
[06/07/1932 AD] 17 		5286)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
2. ^ W. Heisenberg,
"Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei 1932, Volume 77, Numbers 1-2,
1-11. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/gt251k5258372318/ English: "On the
structure of the atomic nuclei.
I" {Heisenberg_Werner_19320607.pdf}
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p463.
4. ^ "Werner Heisenberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
5. ^ B. Cassen and E. U. Condon, "On
Nuclear Forces", Phys. Rev. 50,
846–849
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i9/p846_1 {Condon_Edward_19360810
.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Werner Heisenberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p784-785.
9. ^ "Werner
Heisenberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259761/Werner-Heisenberg>.
10. ^ W. Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der
Atomkerne. I", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei 1932, Volume 77,
Numbers 1-2,
1-11. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/gt251k5258372318/ English: "On the
structure of the atomic nuclei.
I" {Heisenberg_Werner_19320607.pdf}
11. ^ Heisenberg, "Collected Works",
1984,
p183-196. {Heisenberg_Werner_Karl_1984x
xxx.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ W. Heisenberg, "Über
den Bau der Atomkerne. I", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei 1932,
Volume 77, Numbers 1-2,
1-11. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/gt251k5258372318/ English: "On the
structure of the atomic nuclei.
I" {Heisenberg_Werner_19320607.pdf}
17. ^ W. Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der
Atomkerne. I", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei 1932, Volume 77,
Numbers 1-2,
1-11. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/gt251k5258372318/ {Heisenberg_Werner
_19320607.pdf} English: "On the
structure of the atomic nuclei.
I" {06/07/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1932". Nobelprize.org. 8 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1932/
[2] W. Heisenberg, "Über den
anschaulichen Inhalt der
quantentheoretischen Kinematik und
Mechanik", ("On the Idiological Content
of Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and
Mechanics"), Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 43, Numbers
3-4,
172-198. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/t8173612621026q5/
English: ("On the Actual Content
of Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and
Mechanics"),
http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=8729
29&id=1&as=false∨=false&qs=Ne%3D35%26N
s%3DHarvestDate%257c1%26N%3D126%2B52%2B4
294888845
[3] W Heisenberg, "Über
quantentheoretische Umdeutung
kinematischer und mechanischer
Beziehungen.", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 33, Number
1,
879-893. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w22847j178u03029/ English: "Qu
antum-theoretical re-interpretation of
kinematic and mechanical
relations" http://fisica.ciens.ucv.ve/~
svincenz/SQM261.pdf
[4] M. Born, W. Heisenberg and P.
Jordan, "Zur Quantenmechanik. II.", "
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 35, Numbers 8-9,
557-615.". http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r46w151t550pl624/
[5] M. Born and P. Jordan, "Zur
Quantenmechanik", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 34,
Number 1,
858-888. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/n37p409386132728/
[6] Heisenberg
Bibliography: http://www.aip.org/histor
y/heisenberg/bibliography/contents.htm
(University of Leipsig) Leipsig,
Germany16  
[1] Werner Karl Heisenberg Library of
Congress There are some photos of
Heisenberg with unusual looking hair
style, which is characteristic of
theoretical math and physics people. it
goes back into the 1800s if not
earlier. Perhaps it is some kind of
gimmick to attract attention, or
perhaps just simply an expression of a
creative non-conformist mind.[t] PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSwerner.jpg
68 YBN
[06/15/1932 AD] 8 		5183)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
2. ^ J. D.
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
3. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ J. D.
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
8. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
{06/15/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[4] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[5] H
Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66, 1920
[6]
Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis
L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella, Simon
S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC
Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994
[7] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[8]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[9] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[10] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[11] "Cockcroft, John Douglas."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[12] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[13] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[14] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[15] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html
[16] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[17] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. III. The Disintegration
of Lithium, Boron, and Carbon by Heavy
Hydrogen Ions", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
May 1, 1934 144:704-720;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1934.0078 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/144/8
53/704.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[18] J. D. Cockcroft, C. W. Gilbert,
and E. T. S. Walton, "Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. IV. The
Production of Induced Radioactivity by
High Velocity Protons and Diplons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A January 1, 1935
148:225-240;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1935.0015 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/148/8
63/225.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[19] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. V. Further Experiments
on the Disintegration of Boron", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 2, 1936
154:246-261;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0049 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/246.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[20] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. VI. The Disintegration
of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen by
Deuterons", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A March
2, 1936 154:261-279;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0050 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/261.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England7  
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. D. Cockcroft
and E. T. S. Walton, ''Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. II. The
Disintegration of Elements by High
Velocity Protons'', Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
A July 1, 1932 137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/137/831/229.full.pdf+html
?sid=e2be827d-e445-4270-a941-c4c2aaa2a38
5

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
68 YBN
[06/??/1932 AD] 8 9 		4883)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660.
2. ^ Adams, W. S.,
Dunham, T., Jr., "Absorption Bands in
the Infra-Red Spectrum of Venus",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 44, No.
260,
p.243-245. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/
full/1932PASP...44..243A {Adams_Walter_
Dunham_Theodore_1932.pdf}
3. ^ Adams, W. S., Dunham, T., Jr.,
"Absorption Bands in the Infra-Red
Spectrum of Venus", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 44, No. 260,
p.243-245. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1932PASP...44..243A {Adams_Walter_Du
nham_Theodore_1932.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Walter
Sydney Adams." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
8. ^ Adams, W. S., Dunham, T., Jr.,
"Absorption Bands in the Infra-Red
Spectrum of Venus", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 44, No. 260,
p.243-245. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1932PASP...44..243A {Adams_Walter_Du
nham_Theodore_1932.pdf}
9. ^
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1932PASP.
..44..253N {06/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Adams." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5195/Walter-Sydney-Adams>
[2] "Walter Sydney Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sydn
ey_Adams
[3] W. Adams, “The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius.”, Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 27 (1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se
[4] Walter Adams, "A Spectroscopic
Method of Determining Parallaxes",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 2 (1916), 147–152;
http://books.google.com/books?id=eu8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Meth
od+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&ei=Je
jZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=on
epage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%20of%
20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
[5] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
[6] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A
[7] "Arnold Kohlschütter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/321123/Arnold-Kohlschutter>
[8] Adams, W. S., "The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 27, No. 161,
p.236. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
915PASP...27..236A
and http://books.google.com/books?id=7i
UAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=%22The+Spectrum+o
f+the+Companion+of+Sirius%22&hl=en&ei=Yw
PnTOGNFY_6swPGne2xCw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=on
epage&q=%22The%20Spectrum%20of%20the%20C
ompanion%20of%20Sirius%22&f=false
[9] Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between The Spectra And Other
Characteristics of the Stars", Popular
Astronomy, V22, N5, WN215, May 1914,
p275. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+a
pparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en&
ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4Q
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20app
arent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22&
f=false
[10] J. B. Hearnshaw, "The analysis of
starlight: one hundred and fifty years
of astronomical ...", p352. The
analysis of starlight: one hundred and
fifty years of astronomical
. http://books.google.com/books?id=iCs4
AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA352&dq=spectrum+40+o2++eri
dani+B&hl=en&ei=GB_nTICzDI36swPu17yxCw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=spectrum%2040%
20o2%20%20eridani%20B&f=false
[11] Russell, H. N., "Notes on white
dwarfs and small companions",
Astronomical Journal, Vol. 51, p. 13
(1944). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1944AJ.....51...13R
[12] "Adams, Walter Sydney." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 54-58. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 9 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[13] Eddington, Stars and Atoms, 1927,
p.
52. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZK
Q5AAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:Mh8uMejB96UC
[14] Adams, "The Relativity
Displacement of the Spectral Lines in
the companion of Sirius", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
v11, issue7, (1925), p382–387.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7/382
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA7  
[1] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg

[2] Description Walter Sydney
Adams.jpg Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1931 Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3459&q=SIL14-E1-10 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Accession
number: SIL14-E1-10 Date 20 May
2008(2008-05-20), 19:08:53 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Walter_Sydney_Adams.j
pg
68 YBN
[07/02/1932 AD] 10 		5158)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750-751.
2. ^ "Edward Arthur
Milne." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/383029/Edward-Arthur-Milne>.
3. ^ EA Milne, "A Newtonian expanding
universe",The Quarterly Journal of
Mathematics, 1934 - Oxford Univ
Press http://qjmath.oxfordjournals.org/
cgi/reprint/os-5/1/64.pdf
4. ^ Edward Milne, "World Structure and
the Expansion of the Universe", Nature
130, 9-10 (02 July 1932).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
130/n3270/pdf/130009a0.pdf {Milne_Edwar
d_19320702.pdf}
5. ^ Edward Milne, "World Structure and
the Expansion of the Universe", Nature
130, 9-10 (02 July 1932).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
130/n3270/pdf/130009a0.pdf {Milne_Edwar
d_19320702.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Edward
Milne, "World Structure and the
Expansion of the Universe", Nature 130,
9-10 (02 July 1932).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
130/n3270/pdf/130009a0.pdf {Milne_Edwar
d_19320702.pdf}
10. ^ Edward Milne, "World Structure
and the Expansion of the Universe",
Nature 130, 9-10 (02 July 1932).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
130/n3270/pdf/130009a0.pdf {Milne_Edwar
d_19320702.pdf} {07/02/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] Milne, E. A., "Radiative
equilibrium in the outer layers of a
star", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 81,
p.361-375. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1921MNRAS..81..361M
[2] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p436.
[3] Milne, E. A., "On the possibility
of the emission of high-speed atoms
from the sun and stars", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 86,
p.459-473. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1926MNRAS..86..459M
(Wadham College) Oxford, England9
 
[1] Edward Arthur Milne 1934 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne_1934.jpeg

[2] Edward Arthur Milne UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne.jpeg
68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD] 16 		5380) In 1936, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided equally between
Victor Franz Hess "for his discovery of
cosmic radiation" and Carl David
Anderson "for his discovery of the
positron".14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
2. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
4. ^ "David
Anderson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/david-ander
son
5. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
7. ^ Carl D.
Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of
Easily Deflectable Positives", Science,
1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
8. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1936". Nobelprize.org.
22 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/
15. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
16. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} {08/02/1932}
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California15  
[1] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g

[2] Carl David Anderson Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1936/anderson.jpg
68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD] 18 		5381) In 1936, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided equally between
Victor Franz Hess "for his discovery of
cosmic radiation" and Carl David
Anderson "for his discovery of the
positron".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
2. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
4. ^ "David
Anderson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/david-ander
son
5. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
7. ^ Carl D.
Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of
Easily Deflectable Positives", Science,
1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
8. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1936". Nobelprize.org. 22 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/
17. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
18. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} {08/02/1932}
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California17  
[1] Figure 1: Carl D. Anderson, ''The
Positive Electron'', Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v43/i6/p491_1

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
68 YBN
[08/21/1932 AD] 9 		5200)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
3. ^ P. M. S.
BLACKETT & G. OCCHIALINI, "Photography
of Penetrating Corpuscular Radiation",
Nature 130, 363-363 (03 September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html {Black
ett_Patrick_19320821.pdf}
4. ^ P. M. S. BLACKETT & G.
OCCHIALINI, "Photography of Penetrating
Corpuscular Radiation", Nature 130,
363-363 (03 September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html {Black
ett_Patrick_19320821.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ P. M. S. BLACKETT & G.
OCCHIALINI, "Photography of Penetrating
Corpuscular Radiation", Nature 130,
363-363 (03 September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html {Black
ett_Patrick_19320821.pdf}
9. ^ P. M. S. BLACKETT & G.
OCCHIALINI, "Photography of Penetrating
Corpuscular Radiation", Nature 130,
363-363 (03 September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html {Black
ett_Patrick_19320821.pdf} {08/21/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] P. M. S. Blackett, "The
Ejection of Protons from Nitrogen
Nuclei, Photographed by the Wilson
Method", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 107, No. 742 (Feb. 2,
1925), pp. 349-360.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94255
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1948".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1948/
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England8  
[1] Figure 2 from: P. M. S. BLACKETT &
G. OCCHIALINI, ''Photography of
Penetrating Corpuscular Radiation'',
Nature 130, 363-363 (03 September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html {Black
ett_Patrick_19320821.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v130/n3279/pdf/130363a0.pdf

[2] Description
Blackett-large.jpg English: Patrick
Blackett, Baron Blackett, ca.
1950 Date PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377
68 YBN
[10/23/1932 AD] 14 		5377) In 1935 Wildt moves from Germany
to the USA.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805.
2. ^ R. Wildt,
"Methan in den Atmosphären der großen
Planeten", Naturwissenschaften, Volume
20, Number 47, 851, DOI:
10.1007/BF01504582 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/j53n955j56271003/ Engli
sh: "Methane in the atmospheres of
giant planets"
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805.
4. ^ R. WILDT, "The
Atmospheres of the Giant Planets",
Nature 134, 418-418 (15 September 1934)
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Rupert Wildt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rupert-wild
t
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p805.
13. ^ R. Wildt,
"Methan in den Atmosphären der großen
Planeten", Naturwissenschaften, Volume
20, Number 47, 851, DOI:
10.1007/BF01504582 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/j53n955j56271003/ Engli
sh: "Methane in the atmospheres of
giant planets"
14. ^ R. Wildt, "Methan in den
Atmosphären der großen Planeten",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20, Number
47, 851, DOI:
10.1007/BF01504582 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/j53n955j56271003/ Engli
sh: "Methane in the atmospheres of
giant planets" {10/23/1932}

MORE INFO
[1]
doi:10.1038/134418a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v134/n3385/abs/134418
a0.html
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany13  
[1] Rupert Wildt (1905-76) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/images/Wildt.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 3 		4217)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1930.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2700
2. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1930.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2700
3. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1930.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2700 {1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[10] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[11] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[12] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[13]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA2  
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 5 		4887)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p660-661.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661. {1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolf Windaus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/645115/Adolf-Windaus>.
[2] "Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-otto-
reinhold-windaus
[3] "Adolf Windaus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Winda
us
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1928/windaus-bio.html
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany4  
[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 6 		4888)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661.
2. ^ "Windaus, Adolf
Otto Reinhold." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Adolf Windaus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/645115/Adolf-Windaus>.
4. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Windaus, Adolf Otto Reinhold."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 443-446. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904689&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p660-661. {1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolf Otto Reinhold
Windaus." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-otto-
reinhold-windaus
[2] "Adolf Windaus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Winda
us
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1928/windaus-bio.html
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany5  
[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 4 		4948)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682.
2. ^ Akert K.,
"Walter Rudolf Hess (1881-1973) and His
Contribution to Neuroscience", Journal
of the history of the neurosciences
0964-704X. ^ Akert (1999) volume: 8
issue: 3 page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf}
3. ^ "Walter Rudolf Hess." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-rudo
lf-hess
4. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf} {1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Rudolf Hess."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264128/Walter-Rudolf-Hess>
[2] Hardcastle, Valerie Gray. "Hess,
Walter Rudolf." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 302-306.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905745&v=2.1&u=&it=r&p=GVR
L&sw=w
[3] "Walter Rudolf Hess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rudo
lf_Hess
[4] Walter Rudolf Hess, The Biology of
Mind (1964)
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland3  
[1] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 5 		4971)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
5. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html {1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>
[2] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[3] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[5] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[6] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
[7] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[8] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[9] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[10] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
(Clark University) Worchester,
Massachusetts, USA4  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 7 		4988)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p692-693.
2. ^ "Otto Warburg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/635734/Otto-Warburg>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p692-693.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Otto
Heinrich Warburg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-heinri
ch-warburg
7. ^ "Otto Warburg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/635734/Otto-Warburg>. {by 1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Warburg, Otto Heinrich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 172-177. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell
Physiology) Berlin, Germany6  
[1] Title: Otto Heinrich Warburg
People in the image: *
Warburg, Otto Heinrich Prof. Dr.:
Direktor des Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institutes
für Zellphysiologie in Berlin-Dahlem,
Nobelpreis für Physiologie und Medizin
1931, Bundesrepublik Deutschland (PND
118629158) October
1931(1931-10) Source Deutsches
Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archive),
Bild 102-12525 Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Commons:Bundesarchiv CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg
_%28cropped%29.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 4 		5080)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Howard Northrop." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-howard
-northrop
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728.
3. ^ "John Howard
Northrop." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-howard
-northrop
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728. {1932}
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA3
 
[1] The image of American chemist and
Nobel laureate John Howard Northrop
(1891-1987) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/479/000100179
/ Date 16:12, 14 December 2008
(UTC) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3a/John_Howard_Northrop.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 12 13 		5155) In 1939 Domagk wins the Nobel
Prize in physiology and medicine "for
the discovery of the antibacterial
effects of prontosil".9
Domagk is
jailed for a week because Hitler was
enraged in 1935 when the Nobel
committee award the Nobel Prize for
Peace to Karl von Ossietzky, a German
in a concentration camp. Hitler refuses
to allow German citizens to accept
Nobel prizes. Domagk is forced to
withdraw his acceptance. In 1947 Domagk
will visit Stockholm and accept the
prize.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p749-750.
2. ^ Gerhard Domagk,
"Ein Beitrag zur Chemotherapie der
bakteriellen Infektionen" ("A
contribution to the chemotherapy of
bacterial infections"), Dtsch med
Wochenschr 1935; 61(7):
250-253. https://www.thieme-connect.com
/ejournals/abstract/dmw/doi/10.1055/s-00
28-1129486
3. ^ "Domagk, Gerhard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 153-156. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901203&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Domagk, Gerhard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 153-156. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901203&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p749-750.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p749-750.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1939".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1939/
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p749-750.
11. ^ "Domagk,
Gerhard." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 153-156.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901203&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p749-750. {1932}
13. ^
"Domagk, Gerhard." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 4.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
153-156. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 20 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901203&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1932}
(I. G. Farbenindustrie)
Wuppertal-Elberfeld, Germany11  
[1] Gerhard DomagkGerhard Johannes Paul
Domagk COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1939/domagk.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 6 7 		5324) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1955 is awarded to Hugo
Theorell "for his discoveries
concerning the nature and mode of
action of oxidation enzymes".4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793-794.
2. ^ "Hugo Theorell."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-theore
ll
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793-794.
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1955".
Nobelprize.org. 18 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1955/
5. ^ "Hugo Theorell." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-theore
ll
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793-794. {1932}
7. ^ H
Theorell, "Kristallinisches myoglobin",
Biochemische Zeitschrift, 1932
(Uppsala University) Uppsala, Sweden5
 
[1] Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1955/theorell.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 13 14 		5333) At age 6 Neumann can divide two
eight digit numbers in his head.4
In
1928 Von Neumann first writes about
game theory and subsequently will
develop game theory. Game theory works
out the best stratagies to follow in
simple games, such as coin matching.
However, the principles will apply to
more complicates games such as
business, war, and even scientific
research can be viewed as a game of
humans trying to win against the
challanges of the universe.5
Von
Neumann helps to construct giant
computers which perform high speed
calculations that help the production
of the H-bomb and in reducing the
H-bomb to a size small enough to be
fired by missile.6 (Perhaps Von
Neumann was involved with microscopic
flying neuron reading and writing
camera radio devices?7 )
In 1930 Von
Neumann leaves Europe to work in
Princeton.8 (Perhaps an early view of
the rise of anti-Jewish views? Von
Neumann was the son of a well-to-do
Jewish banker according to the Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.9 )

In 1954 Von Neumann testifies for
Oppenheimer when Oppenheimer, who
opposed the development of the H-bomb,
was being investigated. Teller
testifies against Oppenheimer.10
In
1956 Von Neumann wins the Fermi
award.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p796-797.
2. ^ "John von
Neumann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/632750/John-von-Neumann>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p796-797.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p796-797.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p796-797.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John
von Neumann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-von-ne
umann
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p796-797.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p796-797.
12. ^ "John von
Neumann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/632750/John-von-Neumann>.
13. ^ "John von Neumann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/632750/John-von-Neumann>. {1932}
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p796-797. {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] John von Neumann,
"Mathematische Grundlagen der
Quantenmechanik.", ("The Mathematical
Foundations of Quantum Mechanics")
(1932,1943,1955,1968)
[2] John von Neumann, "Mathematische
Begruendung der Quantenmechanik",
Goettinger Nachrichten, Vol. 1, No. 9.
(1927), pp. 1-57.
[3] "Von Neumann, Johann
(or John)." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 88-92.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904522&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA12  
[1] John von Neumann & the
EDSAC--1949 The EDSAC (Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer) had
3,000 vacuum tubes and the programs
were input using paper tapes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptc.dcs.edu:16080/Moo
dy/comphistory/Von_Neumann_5.jpeg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 5 		6261)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p71.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p71.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.basf.com/group/corporate/en/a
bout-basf/history/1925-1944/index
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p71.
{1932}
(BASF) Ludwigshafen, Germany4  
[1] Sensation at the 1935 Berlin Radio
Fair: The magnetophone developed by AEG
with the new magnetic tape from
Ludwigshafen. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basf.com/group/corpor
ate/en/function/conversions:/publish/con
tent/about-basf/history/1925-1944/images
/Magnetophon.jpg

[2] English: German Radio Station
TORN.FU.G. Approx. 1939. Together
with tape recorder Ton Sb, it formed a
basic radio station of the regimental
control link. Transmitter power was 2
watts, wavelength range 85 - 120 meters
(2.5 to 3.5 MHz). As Red Army radio
stations (RAF, RB, RCB etc.) operated
in this frequency band also, in
combination with multifunction tape
unit it was used for radio intelligence
and spreading of false
information. Military History Museum
of Artillery, Engineers and Signal
Corps, Saint Petersburg. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%93%D0%95%D0
%A0%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%
D0%AF_%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%
A1%D0%A2%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_T
ORN.FU.G._%28%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29
.jpg/1252px-%D0%93%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%9C%D0%
90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF_%D0%A0%
D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%9
0%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_TORN.FU.G._%28
%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29.jpg
67 YBN
[01/30/1933 AD] 6 		5115)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
2. ^ A. Compton, "A
Geographic Study of Cosmic Rays", Phys.
Rev. 43, 387–403
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p387_1
3. ^ A. Compton, "A Geographic Study of
Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev. 43, 387–403
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p387_1
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A. Compton, "A Geographic
Study of Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev. 43,
387–403
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p387_1
6. ^ A. Compton, "A Geographic Study of
Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev. 43, 387–403
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p387_1 {01/30/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1
[3] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
[4] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777.
[5]
A. Compton, "The total reflexion of
X-rays", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270,
1923, Pages 1121 – 1131.
[6] "Compton,
Arthur Holly." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 366-372.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900965&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
[8] A. Compton, "X-rays as a branch of
optics",
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
[9]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-bio.html
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA5  
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
67 YBN
[02/08/1933 AD] 12 		5247) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1967 is awarded jointly to
Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline
and George Wald "for their discoveries
concerning the primary physiological
and chemical visual processes in the
eye".9 (Perhaps this was a push to go
public or generate some public research
with neuron reading and writing.10 )
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
2. ^ "Ragnar Granit."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ragnar-gran
it
3. ^ "Ragnar Granit." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ragnar-gran
it
4. ^ Granit R., "The components of the
retinal action potential in mammals and
their relation to the discharge in the
optic nerve.", J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long {Granit_Ragnar_1933
0208.pdf}
5. ^ Granit R., "The components of the
retinal action potential in mammals and
their relation to the discharge in the
optic nerve.", J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long {Granit_Ragnar_1933
0208.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1967". Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Granit R., "The
components of the retinal action
potential in mammals and their relation
to the discharge in the optic nerve.",
J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long {Granit_Ragnar_1933
0208.pdf}
12. ^ Granit R., "The components of the
retinal action potential in mammals and
their relation to the discharge in the
optic nerve.", J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long {Granit_Ragnar_1933
0208.pdf} {02/08/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] R. Granit, Sensory Mechanisms
of the Retina (1947)
[2] R. Granit, "The
Visual Pathway" (1962)
(Oxford Univerity) Oxford, England11
 
[1] Granit R., ''The components of the
retinal action potential in mammals and
their relation to the discharge in the
optic nerve.'', J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long {Granit_Ragnar_1933
0208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/77/
3/207.long

[2] Description Ragnar Arthur
Granit (October 30, 1900 – March 12,
1991), Finnish/Swedish
neuroscientist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/medicine/laureates/1967/granit_post
card.jpg Article Ragnar
Granit Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes Purpose of use
It is only being used to
illustrate the article in
question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/63/Ragnar_Granit.jpg
67 YBN
[03/27/1933 AD] 15 		5201)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
2. ^ Chadwick, J.;
Blackett, P. M. S.; Occhialini, G.,
"New Evidence for the Positive
Electron", Nature, Volume 131, Issue
3309, pp. 473
(1933). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v131/n3309/pdf/131473b0.pdf {Blac
kett_Patrick_19330327.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
4. ^ J. Chadwick, P.
M. S. Blackett and G. P. S. Occhialini,
"Some Experiments on the Production of
Positive Electrons", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 144, No. 851
(Mar. 1, 1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Chadwick, J.;
Blackett, P. M. S.; Occhialini, G.,
"New Evidence for the Positive
Electron", Nature, Volume 131, Issue
3309, pp. 473
(1933). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v131/n3309/pdf/131473b0.pdf {Blac
kett_Patrick_19330327.pdf}
15. ^ Chadwick, J.; Blackett, P. M. S.;
Occhialini, G., "New Evidence for the
Positive Electron", Nature, Volume 131,
Issue 3309, pp. 473
(1933). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v131/n3309/pdf/131473b0.pdf {Blac
kett_Patrick_19330327.pdf} {03/27/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] P. M. S. Blackett, "The
Ejection of Protons from Nitrogen
Nuclei, Photographed by the Wilson
Method", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 107, No. 742 (Feb. 2,
1925), pp. 349-360.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94255
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1948".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1948/
[3] P. M. S. BLACKETT & G. OCCHIALINI,
"Photography of Penetrating Corpuscular
Radiation", Nature 130, 363-363 (03
September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England14  
[1] Description
Blackett-large.jpg English: Patrick
Blackett, Baron Blackett, ca.
1950 Date PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377

[2] Patrick Blackett Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Blackett-large.jpg
67 YBN
[03/??/1933 AD] 22 		4164)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ "Mysterious
Variation in Speed of Light", Popular
Science Monthly, March 1934,
p25 http://books.google.com/books?id=GS
gDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25&dq=michelson+speed+li
ght+date:1933-1934&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=michelson%20speed%20light%20date%3A1
933-1934&f=false
3. ^ AA Michelson, FG Pease, F Pearson,
"Measurement of the velocity of light
in a partial vacuum", The Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 82, 1935,
p26. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
5ApJ....82...26M
4. ^ AA Michelson, FG Pease, F Pearson,
"Measurement of the velocity of light
in a partial vacuum", The Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 82, 1935,
p26. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
5ApJ....82...26M
5. ^ John L. Coontz, "Find Mysterious
Error in Speed of Light", Popular
Science Monthly, 12/1932,
p36. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA36&dq=michelson+speed+l
ight+date:1932-1934&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson%20speed%20light%20date%3A
1932-1934&f=false
6. ^ "Mysterious Variation in Speed of
Light", Popular Science Monthly, March
1934,
p25 http://books.google.com/books?id=GS
gDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25&dq=michelson+speed+li
ght+date:1933-1934&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=michelson%20speed%20light%20date%3A1
933-1934&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
10. ^ Froome and
Essen, "The Velocity of Light and Radio
Waves", 1969, p v-vi.
11. ^ Froome and Essen,
"The Velocity of Light and Radio
Waves", 1969, p51.
12. ^ Essen, L. and
Gordon-Smith, A. C. (1945) J. IEE, 92,
Part III A, Num 9, p1374.
13. ^ Smith,
Franklin, Whiting (1947) JIEE, 94, Part
III, p391.
14. ^ Aslakson, Nature, v64,
1949a, p711.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Froome and
Essen, "The Velocity of Light and Radio
Waves", 1969, p75-80.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ AA Michelson,
FG Pease, F Pearson, "Measurement of
the velocity of light in a partial
vacuum", The Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 82, 1935,
p26. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
5ApJ....82...26M
22. ^ AA Michelson, FG Pease, F
Pearson, "Measurement of the velocity
of light in a partial vacuum", The
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 82, 1935,
p26. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
5ApJ....82...26M {frmo 09/1929-03/1933
results reported in 1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[7] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[9] "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531
[11] George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[12] Hendrik Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the Earth and the Ether",
Versl. K. Akad. W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544
[14] Albert
Michelson, "Interference Phenomena in a
new Form of Refractometer",
Philosophical Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
[15] Albert Michelson and Edward
Morley, "On a Method of making the
Wave-length of Sodium Light the actual
and practical standard of length",
American Journal of Science, V134,
1887,
p427. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[16] "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[17] Albert-A. MICHELSON, "Comparaison
du mètre international avec la
longueur d'onde de la lumière du
cadmium.", Comptes Rendus, v116, 1893,
p790. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k30724.r=michelson.f792.langEN tran
slation from French: Albert Michelson,
"Comparison of the International Metre
with the Wave-Length of the Light of
Cadmium.", Astronomy and astro-physics,
Volume 12,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_iKKbuNsc34C&pg=RA2-PA556&dq=michelson+d
ate:1893-1893#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[18]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wjrOAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=michelson+betelgeuse+d
ate:1920-1920#v=onepage&q=michelson%20be
telgeuse%20date%3A1920-1920&f=false
[19] A. A. Michelson, "On the
Application of Interference Methods To
Astronomical Measurements", proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
vol 6, 1920,
p474. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OxYLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=michelson+date:
1920-1920#v=snippet&q=betelgeuse&f=false

[20] A. A. Michelson and F. G. Pease,
"Measurement of the diameter of α
Orionis with the interferometer", The
Astrophysical Journal, vol 53,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
Y0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&dq=betelgeuse+as
trophysical+journal+date:1920-1921#v=one
page&q=betelgeuse&f=false
[21] A. A. Michelson and Henry G. Gale,
"The Rigidity of the Earth", The
Astrophysical Journal, v50,
p330. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HhvOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA330&dq=michelson+water
+level&lr=#v=onepage&q=michelson%20water
%20level&f=false
Irvine, CA, USA21  
[1] Figure from 1935 paper in
Astrophysical Journal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cache/seri/ApJ../0082/600/0000029.000
.gif

[2] from 1933 Popular
Science COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=GSgDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
67 YBN
[04/10/1933 AD] 11 		5189)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ F. Joliot,
“Contribution à l’étude des
Électrons positifs,” Comptes Rendus,
196 (1933),
1105; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1105.image {Joliot_Frederic
_19330410.pdf}
3. ^ Mme Irene Curie, M. F. Joliot,
"Sur l’origine des électrons
positifs" ("On the Origin of the
positive electrons"), Comptes Rendus,
196 (1933),
1581. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1581.image {Curie_Irene_Jol
iot_Frederic_19330522.pdf}
4. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ F. Joliot, “Contribution à
l’étude des Électrons positifs,”
Comptes Rendus, 196 (1933),
1105; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1105.image {Joliot_Frederic
_19330410.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
"Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ F. Joliot, “Contribution à
l’étude des Électrons positifs,”
Comptes Rendus, 196 (1933),
1105; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1105.image {Joliot_Frederic
_19330410.pdf} {04/10/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joliot-Curie, Irène."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Radium Institute) Paris, France10
(presumably) 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
67 YBN
[04/12/1933 AD] 6 7 		5148)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747.
2. ^ "William
Giauque." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
3. ^ "William Giauque." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
4. ^ W. F. Giauque and D. P.
MacDougall, "Attainment of Temperatures
Below 1° Absolute by Demagnetization
of Gd2(SO4)3·8H2O", Phys. Rev. 43,
768–768
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i9/p768_1 {Giauque_William_193304
12.pdf}
5. ^ W. F. Giauque and D. P.
MacDougall, "Attainment of Temperatures
Below 1° Absolute by Demagnetization
of Gd2(SO4)3·8H2O", Phys. Rev. 43,
768–768
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i9/p768_1 {Giauque_William_193304
12.pdf}
6. ^ W. F. Giauque and D. P.
MacDougall, "Attainment of Temperatures
Below 1° Absolute by Demagnetization
of Gd2(SO4)3·8H2O", Phys. Rev. 43,
768–768
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i9/p768_1 {Giauque_William_193304
12.pdf} {04/12/1933}
7. ^ "William Giauque." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque {1933}

MORE INFO
[1] W. F. Giauque, H. L.
Johnston, "AN ISOTOPE OF OXYGEN, MASS
18. INTERPRETATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION BANDS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1929, 51 (5), pp
1436–1441. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01380a018
[2] W. F. Giauque, H.L. Johnston, "An
Isotope of Oxygen, Mass 17, in the
Earth’s Atmosphere", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1929, 51 (12), pp
3528–3534 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01387a004
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1949/giauque.html
[4] W. F. Giauque, "PARAMAGNETISM AND
THE THIRD LAW OF THERMO-DYNAMICS.
INTERPRETATION OF THE LOW-TEMPERATURE
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF GADOLINIUM
SULFATE", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1927, 49
(8), pp
1870–1877. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01407a004
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg
67 YBN
[05/22/1933 AD] 10 		5190)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ Mme Irene Curie,
M. F. Joliot, "Sur l’origine des
électrons positifs" ("On the Origin of
the positive electrons"), Comptes
Rendus, 196 (1933),
1581. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1581.image {Curie_Irene_Jol
iot_Frederic_19330522.pdf}
3. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Mme Irene Curie, M. F.
Joliot, "Sur l’origine des électrons
positifs" ("On the Origin of the
positive electrons"), Comptes Rendus,
196 (1933),
1581. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1581.image {Curie_Irene_Jol
iot_Frederic_19330522.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
"Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Mme Irene Curie, M. F. Joliot,
"Sur l’origine des électrons
positifs" ("On the Origin of the
positive electrons"), Comptes Rendus,
196 (1933),
1581. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1581.image {Curie_Irene_Jol
iot_Frederic_19330522.pdf} {05/22/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joliot-Curie, Irène."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] F. Joliot, “Contribution à
l’étude des Électrons positifs,”
Comptes Rendus, 196 (1933),
1105; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3148d/f1105.image
(Radium Institute) Paris, France9
(presumably) 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
67 YBN
[06/16/1933 AD] 6 		5278)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p783-784.
2. ^ M. L. E.
Oliphant, Lord Rutherford, "Experiments
on the Transmutation of Elements by
Protons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 141, No. 843 (Jul. 3,
1933), pp.
259-281. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
218?&Search=yes&searchText=oliphant&list
=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearc
h%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100819
%26Query%3Doliphant%26acc%3Don%26Search.
x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearc
h=&item=8&ttl=160&returnArticleService=s
howFullText {Oliphant_Marcus_19330616.p
df}
3. ^ "Sir Mark Oliphant." Britannica
Book of the Year, 2001. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 07 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/427657/M-L-Oliphant>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, Lord
Rutherford, "Experiments on the
Transmutation of Elements by Protons",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 141, No. 843 (Jul. 3, 1933), pp.
259-281. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
218?&Search=yes&searchText=oliphant&list
=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearc
h%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100819
%26Query%3Doliphant%26acc%3Don%26Search.
x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearc
h=&item=8&ttl=160&returnArticleService=s
howFullText {Oliphant_Marcus_19330616.p
df}
6. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, Lord
Rutherford, "Experiments on the
Transmutation of Elements by Protons",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 141, No. 843 (Jul. 3, 1933), pp.
259-281. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
218?&Search=yes&searchText=oliphant&list
=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearc
h%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100819
%26Query%3Doliphant%26acc%3Don%26Search.
x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearc
h=&item=8&ttl=160&returnArticleService=s
howFullText {Oliphant_Marcus_19330616.p
df} {06/16/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck
and Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England5  
[1] Description Sir Mark
Oliphant.jpg English: Photograph of
Sir Mark Oliphant AC KBE Date
1939(1939) Source
http://www.portrait.gov.au/static/c
oll_741Sir+Mark+Oliphant.php Author
Bassano Ltd Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Sir_Mark_Oliphant.jpg

67 YBN
[07/30/1933 AD] 7 8 9 		5069)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
2. ^ Armstrong, E.
H., U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
5. ^ Armstrong, E.
H., U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066
6. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066
7. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066
{07/30/1933}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726. {1939}
9. ^ "Edwin
H. Armstrong." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/35567/Edwin-H-Armstrong>. {1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "Regenerative circuit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerativ
e_circuit
[2] Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,113,149, Wireless receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149
[3] "superheterodyne reception."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/574335/superheterodyne-reception>.
[4] Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,342,885, Method of receiving high
frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
New York City, New York, USA6  
[1] Figure 1 from: Armstrong, E. H.,
U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&output=text

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg
67 YBN
[08/01/1933 AD] 19 20 21 		4985)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691.
2. ^ "Sir Norman
Haworth." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257576/Sir-Norman-Haworth>.
3. ^ Haworth, Hirst, Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry, Volume
52, Issue 31, pages 645–646, 4 August
1933. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/jctb.5000523107/abstract
4. ^ Reichstein, Grussner, Oppenauer,
Helv. Chim. Acta, 1933, 16, 561.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691.
6. ^ "Sir Norman
Haworth." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257576/Sir-Norman-Haworth>.
7. ^ "Tadeus Reichstein." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tadeus-reic
hstein
8. ^ R. G. Ault, D. K. Baird, H. C.
Carrington, W. N. Haworth, R. Herbert,
E. L. Hirst, E. G. V. Percival, F.
Smith and M. Stacey, "Synthesis of d-
and of l-ascorbic acid and of analogous
substances", J. Chem. Soc., 1933,
1419-1423.
9. ^ Haworth and Hirst, J . SOCC. hem.
Ind., 1933, 52, 645; Aug.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691.
11. ^ "Sir Norman
Haworth." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257576/Sir-Norman-Haworth>.
12. ^ Haworth, Hirst, Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry, Volume
52, Issue 31, pages 645–646, 4 August
1933. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/jctb.5000523107/abstract
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Tadeus Reichstein." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tadeus-reic
hstein
15. ^ "Sir Norman Haworth."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/257576/Sir-Norman-Haworth>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p691.
17. ^ "Tadeus
Reichstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tadeus-reic
hstein
18. ^ Haworth, Hirst, Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry, Volume
52, Issue 31, pages 645–646, 4 August
1933. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/jctb.5000523107/abstract
19. ^ Haworth, Hirst, Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry, Volume
52, Issue 31, pages 645–646, 4 August
1933. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/jctb.5000523107/abstract
{08/01/1933}
20. ^ "Tadeus Reichstein." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tadeus-reic
hstein {1933}
21. ^ R. G. Ault, D. K. Baird,
H. C. Carrington, W. N. Haworth, R.
Herbert, E. L. Hirst, E. G. V.
Percival, F. Smith and M. Stacey,
"Synthesis of d- and of l-ascorbic acid
and of analogous substances", J. Chem.
Soc., 1933, 1419-1423.

MORE INFO
[1] WN Haworth, "The constitution
of sugars", Longmans, Green & Co.,
1929. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/jctb.5000481005/abstract
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.html
[3] "Walter Haworth." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-hawo
rth
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland17 and (Birmingham
University) Birmingham, England18
 
[1] Description Thadeus Reichstein
ETH-Bib Portr 10137.jpg Deutsch:
Porträt von Tadeus Reichstein Date
Unknown Source
ETH-Bibliothek Zürich,
Bildarchiv Author ETH Zürich CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Thadeus_Reichstein_ET
H-Bib_Portr_10137.jpg

[2] English: Walter Norman
Haworth Date 1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Norman_Haworth.jpg
67 YBN
[08/06/1933 AD] 9 		5435) In the summer of 1933, the Nazis
had come to power in Germany and the
National Research Council insisted that
Wald, who is Jewish, must return to the
United States.5

In 1967, the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is awarded jointly to
Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline
and George Wald "for their discoveries
concerning the primary physiological
and chemical visual processes in the
eye".6

In 1969, Wald’s life changes
dramatically after he delivers a speech
at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology called "A Generation in
Search of a Future" (Wald, 1969). This
speech, which criticizes the U.S. war
in Vietnam and the nation’s buildup
of nuclear weapons, is published in
periodicals around the planet earth,
and it propels Wald into the limelight
of social activism.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ GEORGE WALD , "Vitamin A in the
Retina", Nature 132, 316-317 (26 August
1933)
doi:10.1038/132316a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v132/n3330/abs/132316
a0.html {Wald_George_19330806.pdf}
2. ^ Kenney, Diana E. "Wald, George."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 211-216. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819.
4. ^ GEORGE WALD ,
"Vitamin A in the Retina", Nature 132,
316-317 (26 August 1933)
doi:10.1038/132316a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v132/n3330/abs/132316
a0.html {Wald_George_19330806.pdf}
5. ^ Kenney, Diana E. "Wald, George."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 211-216. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1967". Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
7. ^ Kenney, Diana E. "Wald, George."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 211-216. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ GEORGE WALD , "Vitamin A in the
Retina", Nature 132, 316-317 (26 August
1933)
doi:10.1038/132316a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v132/n3330/abs/132316
a0.html {Wald_George_19330806.pdf}
9. ^ GEORGE WALD , "Vitamin A in the
Retina", Nature 132, 316-317 (26 August
1933)
doi:10.1038/132316a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v132/n3330/abs/132316
a0.html {Wald_George_19330806.pdf}
{08/06/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Wald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wald

(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland8  
[1] George Wald Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laskerfoundation.org/
awards/images/1953_basic_wald.jpg
67 YBN
[10/07/1933 AD] 6 		5474)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gordon L. Locher, "Neutrons from
Cosmic-Ray Stösse", Phys. Rev. 44,
779–781
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v44/i9/p779_2 {Locher_Gordon_19331007
.pdf}
2. ^ Gordon L. Locher, "Neutrons from
Cosmic-Ray Stösse", Phys. Rev. 44,
779–781
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v44/i9/p779_2 {Locher_Gordon_19331007
.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID5472. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Gordon L.
Locher, "Neutrons from Cosmic-Ray
Stösse", Phys. Rev. 44, 779–781
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v44/i9/p779_2 {Locher_Gordon_19331007
.pdf}
5. ^ http://www.udel.edu/aboutus/
6. ^ Gordon L. Locher, "Neutrons
from Cosmic-Ray Stösse", Phys. Rev.
44, 779–781
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v44/i9/p779_2 {Locher_Gordon_19331007
.pdf} {10/07/1933}
(Bartol Research Foundation of the
Franklin Institute, University of
Delaware) Newark, Delaware, USA4 5
 
[1] Figure 7 from: Gordon L. Locher,
''Neutrons from Cosmic-Ray Stösse'',
Phys. Rev. 44, 779–781
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v44/i9/p779_2 {Locher_Gordon_19331007
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v44/i9/p779_2
67 YBN
[12/12/1933 AD] 12 		5447)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} English: "
On progress in construction and
performance of the magnetic electron
microscope."
2. ^
http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_e/mainframe_
e.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
4. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

5. ^
http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_e/mainframe_
e.html
6. ^ E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} English: "
On progress in construction and
performance of the magnetic electron
microscope."
7. ^ "Ernst Ruska." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513086/Ernst-Ruska>.
8. ^ E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} English: "
On progress in construction and
performance of the magnetic electron
microscope."
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ E. Ruska,
"Über Fortschritte im Bau und in der
Leistung des magnetischen
Elektronenmikroskops.", Z. Phys. 87
(1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} English: "
On progress in construction and
performance of the magnetic electron
microscope."
12. ^ E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} English: "
On progress in construction and
performance of the magnetic electron
microscope." {12/12/1933}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/
[4] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[5] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475
[8] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany11  
[1] E. Ruska, ''Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.'',
Z. Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen
am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q013/q013.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 		3885)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
2. ^ "Hugo Gernsback". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Gernsb
ack

MORE INFO
[1] "The Thought Recorder",
Electrical Experimenter, May 1919.
[2]
http://store.g-books.com/index.php?main_
page=index&cPath=86_88
[3]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[4] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[5]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/te
chnical/electricalexperimenter/Electrica
lExperimenter1919-05.jpg.html
[6] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[7] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[8] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[9] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
3. Merging science fiction into science
fact.". Society for Amateur Scientists
(Society for Amateur Scientists),
October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html.
[10]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[11]
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
[12]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/te
chnical/scienceinvention/ScienceAndInven
tion1922-11.jpg.html
[13]
http://io9.com/5112030/golden+age-scienc
e-fiction-and-gay-chickens-went-hand-in-
wing
New York City, NY2 (presumably) 
[1] Sexology 1937-08 PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/main.
php?g2_view=core.DownloadItem&g2_itemId=
6967&g2_serialNumber=2

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Radio_News_Nov_1928_p
g422.png
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 6 		4778)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
2. ^ Record ID4748.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
3. ^ Record ID4749. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
6. ^ J. L. Heilbron, Robert W. Seidel,
"Lawrence and his laboratory: a history
of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory",
1989,
p41. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
tMoJ63k6SUC&pg=PA41&dq=%22anyone+who+say
s+that,+with+the+means+at+present+at+our
+disposal%22&hl=en&ei=WVR5TKSVMJGesQOHl-
XsCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22anyon
e%20who%20says%20that%2C%20with%20the%20
means%20at%20present%20at%20our%20dispos
al%22&f=false {Fall 1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
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ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
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tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
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rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41
[34] Ernest Rutherford,
"Artificial Disintegration of the
Elements", Proceedings of the Physical
Society, August 1924, 36, pp417-22
[35] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730
[36] Ernest
Rutherford, "Disintegration of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature, April 4 1925, 115,
pp493-4
[37] Rutherford, Wynn-Williams, Lewis,
Bowden, "Analysis of α-Rays by an
Annular Magnetic Field", Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 139, 1933,
pp617-37
[38] Oliphant, Rutherford, "Experiments
on the Transmutation of Elements by
Protons, Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 141, 1933, pp259-81
[39] Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5  
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 8 		4812)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^ Carol Bird,
"Tremendous New Power Soon to Be
Unleashed", Kansas City Journal-Post,
09/10/1933, in Solutions, pp101-102.
3. ^ Nikola
Tesla, David Hatcher Childress, The
fantastic inventions of Nikola Tesla,
1933 http://books.google.com/books?id=f
XB0fm-QqLMC&pg=RA1-PA276&lpg=RA1-PA276&d
q=%22I+became+convinced+that+a+definite+
image+formed+in+though&source=bl&ots=IPL
2VRCCsW&sig=N1ikb628zX1rAtaB-R2gVLIhUT0&
hl=en&ei=7SClTMixHZSmsQO7-dD9Dg&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved
=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^
http://www.energeticforum.com/psychic-pa
ranormal/3358-reflection-mind-projected-
thought-into-water-photographed.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
7. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {10/12/1887 (verify
this is the correct patent}
8. ^ Carol Bird,
"Tremendous New Power Soon to Be
Unleashed", Kansas City Journal-Post,
09/10/1933, in Solutions, pp101-102.

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[5] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[6] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[9] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[11] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
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[12] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
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Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[13] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23, c.8
[14] New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
[15]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
[16] "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
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[17] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA6 7 (verify) 
[1] Nikola Tesla and his
thought-projector, news paper
illustration, 1933 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alien.mur.at/gedankenproj
ektor/pix/tesla_big224.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 10 11 		4822)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p649,716.
2. ^ "Joseph
Erlanger." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/191658/Joseph-Erlanger>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Joseph Erlanger." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
5. ^ "Joseph Erlanger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
6. ^ "Herbert Spencer Gasser."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/226665/Herbert-Spencer-Gasser>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Joseph
Erlanger." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/191658/Joseph-Erlanger>.
10. ^ "Joseph Erlanger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/191658/Joseph-Erlanger>. {1933}
11. ^
Erlanger, J., and H. S. Gasser, "A
comparison of the characteristics of
axons through their individual
electrical responses.", Amer. J.
Physiol. 106: 524-564, 1933.

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Erlanger."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-erla
nger
[2] "Erlanger, Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 397-399. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901334&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Joseph Erlanger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Erla
nger
[4]
http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/wusm-his
t/growth/index.htm
[5] "Herbert Spencer Gasser." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-spe
ncer-gasser
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1944/
[7] Joseph Erlanger and Herbert S.
Gasser, "Electrical signs of nervous
activity", Philadelphia, Univ. of
Pennsylvania Press, 1937.
[8] Erlanger, J.,
and H. S. Gasser, "a study of the
action currents of nerve with the
cathode ray oscillograph", American
Journal of Physiology., 62,
496-524. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%2
2a+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve
+with+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3
B9IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2
TOPQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%2
0currents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fa
lse
[9] Erlanger, J., and H. S. Gasser,
"The differential action of pressure on
fibers of different sizes in a mixed
nerve.", Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. & Med.
24: 313-314.
[10] Erlanger, J., and H. S.
Gasser, "The absolute refractory phase
of the alpha, beta and gamma fibers in
the sciatic nerve of the frog", Amer.
J. Phsioyl. 81: 473-474.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA9  
[1] oseph Erlanger, M.D.
(1874-1965) Professor and Head of
Physiology, 1910-1946 Professor of
Physiology, 1946-1965 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/ErlangerJ_large.jpg

[2] Herbert S. Gasser, M.D.
(1888-1963) Assistant and Associate
Professor of Physiology,
1916-1921 Professor and Head of
Pharmacology, 1921-1931 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/GasserHS_large.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 14 		4859)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
4. ^ Gilbert Lewis,
"Neutron Refraction", Phys. Rev. 51,
issue 12, 1105–1105
(1937) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v51/i12/p1105_2
{Lewis_Gilbert_19370524.pdf}
5. ^ Gilbert Lewis, "Refraction of
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 51, 369–369
(1937) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v51/i5/p369_1 {Lewis_Gilbert_19370301.
pdf}
6. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ C. S. Schneider, "Coherent Nuclear
Scattering Amplitudes of Germanium,
Copper and Oxygen for Thermal
Neutrons", Acta Cryst., A32, 375,
1976. http://journals.iucr.org/a/issues
/1976/03/00/a12902/a12902.pdf {Schneide
r_C_S_19760516.pdf}
8. ^ J. Plompa, J.G. Barkerb, V.O. de
Haana, W.G. Bouwmana and A.A. van
Wella, "Neutron refraction by
cylindrical metal wires", Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics
Research Section A: Accelerators,
Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated
Equipment Volume 574, Issue 2, 1 May
2007, Pages
324-329. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TJM-4N5CX4R
-6&_user=4422&_coverDate=05%2F01%2F2007&
_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=s
earch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_search
StrId=1526138692&_rerunOrigin=scholar.go
ogle&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVer
sion=0&_userid=4422&md5=1345087e5c309549
76a459c73e80d72d&searchtype=a#bib9
{Plomp_20070501.pdf}
9. ^ M. L. Goldberger, "Theory of the
Refraction and the Diffraction of
Neutrons by Crystals", V71, N5,
Physical Review,
03/01/1947. http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR
/v71/i5/p294_1 {Goldberger_M_L_19470301
.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657. {1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[3] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[4]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[5] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
[6] GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002
[7] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA13  
[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 5 		4983)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p689-690.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p689-690. {1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>
[2] Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
[3] Eddington, A. S., "The dynamics of
a globular stellar system", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 75,
p.366-376. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1915MNRAS..75..366E
[4] Eddington, A. S., "Stars, Gaseous,
On the pulsations of a gaseous star",
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 79, 1918,
p.2-22 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1918MNRAS..79R...2E/0000002.000
.html
[5] "Eddington, Arthur Stanley."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-282. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901279&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] A. Eddington, "Report on the
Relativity Theory of Gravitation",
1914. http://www.archive.org/stream/rep
ortontherelat028829mbp/reportontherelat0
28829mbp_djvu.txt
{Eddington_1918.pdf}
[7] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
[8] Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
Versus Relativity", 1922
[9] Herbert Dingle,
"Science at a Crossroads", 1972
[10] F. W.
Dyson, A. S. Eddington and C. Davidson,
"A Determination of the Deflection of
Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field,
from Observations Made at the Total
Eclipse of May 29, 1919", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical or Physical Character,
Vol. 220, (1920), pp.
291-333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/91
137
[11] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p446
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p442
[13] Arthur Eddington, "The Internal
Constitution of the Stars", Cambridge
University Press, 1926
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 19 		5273)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p465.
3. ^ E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and
E. Segré, "Tentativo di una Teoria Dei
Raggi β", La Ricerca Scientifica, 2,
No. 12, p491; 1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, "Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers", v1, 1962,
p559.
4. ^ "Versuch einer Theorie der
β-Strahlen. I ", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 88,
Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
5. ^ Record ID5234. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
7. ^ "Chadwick,
James." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 143-148.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
9. ^ E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and
E. Segré, "Tentativo di una Teoria Dei
Raggi β", La Ricerca Scientifica, 2,
No. 12, p491; 1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, "Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers", v1, 1962,
p559.
10. ^ "Versuch einer Theorie der
β-Strahlen. I ", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 88,
Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "Versuch einer Theorie
der β-Strahlen. I ", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 88,
Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
19. ^ E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B.
Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and E. Segré,
La Ricerca Scientifica, 2, No. 12;
1933.

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of
Atomic Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04
January 1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[6] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[7] E. Fermi, "Le ultime particelle
constitutive della materia", "The
ultimate particle contructed of
matter.", Atti. Soc. It. Progr. Sci.,
22 Riunione, Bari 1933-XI vol 2, 7-14
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy18
(presumably) 
[1] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, ''Tentativo
di una Teoria Dei Raggi β'', La
Ricerca Scientifica, 2, No. 12, p491;
1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, ''Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers'', v1, 1962,
p559.
source: Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.p
df

[2] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B.
Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and E. Segré,
''Tentativo di una Teoria Dei Raggi
β'', La Ricerca Scientifica, 2, No.
12, p491; 1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, ''Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers'', v1, 1962,
p559.
source: Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.p
df
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 5 		5281)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ E. Fermi, "Le
ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", "The ultimate constituent
particles of the matter.", Atti. Soc.
It. Progr. Sci., 22 Riunione, Bari
1933-XI vol 2,
7-14. {Fermi_Enrico_ultime_particelle_1
933xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Versuch einer Theorie
der β-Strahlen. I ", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 88,
Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
5. ^ E. Fermi, "Le ultime particelle
costitutive della materia", "The
ultimate constituent particles of the
matter.", Atti. Soc. It. Progr. Sci.,
22 Riunione, Bari 1933-XI vol 2,
7-14. {Fermi_Enrico_ultime_particelle_1
933xxxx.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of
Atomic Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04
January 1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[6] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p465.
[8] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy4
(presumably) 
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 3 		6067) "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in
the Money)" is recorded (lyrics by Al
Dubin, music by Harry Warren).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in
the Money)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gold_Di
ggers%27_Song_%28We%27re_in_the_Money%29

2. ^ "Gold Diggers of 1933". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Digger
s_of_1933
3. ^ "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in
the Money)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gold_Di
ggers%27_Song_%28We%27re_in_the_Money%29
 {1933}
(Warner Brothers Studio) Burbank,
California, USA2  		 
66 YBN
[01/15/1934 AD] 16 17 		5191)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ I. Curie, F.
Joliot, "Un nouveau type de
radioactivé", Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
3. ^ "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
11. ^ I. Curie, F.
Joliot, "Un nouveau type de
radioactivé", Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
16. ^ "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {01/15/1934}
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
{1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>
[2] F. Joliot, I. Curie, "Artificially
Produced Radioelements", Joint
Conference of the International Union
of Pure and Applied Physics, and the
Physical Society, 1 (Cambridge, 1934)
[3] F.
Joliot, "Preuve chimique de la
transmutation des éléments", Journal
de physique, 5 (1934), 153;
[4] "Les
nouveaux radioéléments. Preuves
chimiques des transmutations", Journal
de chimie physique, 31 (1934), 611
(Radium Institute) Paris, France15
(presumably) 
[1] Figure from: I. Curie, F. Joliot,
''Un nouveau type de radioactivé'',
Comptes rendus, V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image

[2] Chemical equation from; I.
Curie, F. Joliot, ''Un nouveau type de
radioactivé'', Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image
66 YBN
[01/15/1934 AD] 18 19 		5192)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ F. Joliot, "I.
PRODUCTION ARTIFICIELLE D’ÉLÉMENTS
RADIOACTIFS II. PREUVE CHIMIQUE DE LA
TRANSMUTATION DES ÉLÉMENTS", Journal
de physique, 5 (1934),
153. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jp
a-00233216/
{Joliot_Frederic_Curie_Irene_19340320.
pdf}
3. ^ F. Joliot, "Les nouveaux
radioéléments. Preuves chimiques des
transmutations", Journal de chimie
physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
4. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ F.
Joliot, "I. PRODUCTION ARTIFICIELLE
D’ÉLÉMENTS RADIOACTIFS II. PREUVE
CHIMIQUE DE LA TRANSMUTATION DES
ÉLÉMENTS", Journal de physique, 5
(1934),
153. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jp
a-00233216/
{Joliot_Frederic_Curie_Irene_19340320.
pdf}
10. ^ I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Les
nouveaux radioéléments. Preuves
chimiques des transmutations", Journal
de chimie physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
11. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Un nouveau
type de radioactivé", Comptes rendus,
V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
14. ^ F. Joliot, "I. PRODUCTION
ARTIFICIELLE D’ÉLÉMENTS
RADIOACTIFS II. PREUVE CHIMIQUE DE LA
TRANSMUTATION DES ÉLÉMENTS", Journal
de physique, 5 (1934),
153. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jp
a-00233216/
{Joliot_Frederic_Curie_Irene_19340320.
pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ F. Joliot,
"Les nouveaux radioéléments. Preuves
chimiques des transmutations", Journal
de chimie physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
18. ^ "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {01/15/1934}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
{1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>
[2] I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Artificially
Produced Radioelements", Joint
Conference of the International Union
of Pure and Applied Physics, and the
Physical Society, 1 (Cambridge, 1934)
(Radium Institute) Paris, France17
 
[1] Figure from: I. Curie, F. Joliot,
''Un nouveau type de radioactivé'',
Comptes rendus, V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image

[2] Chemical equation from; I.
Curie, F. Joliot, ''Un nouveau type de
radioactivé'', Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image
66 YBN
[01/22/1934 AD] 6 		5413)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Walter A. Jacobs and Lyman C.
Craig, "The ergot alkaloids. II. The
degradation of ergotinine with alkali.
Lysergic acid", Journal of biological
chemistry (1934) volume: 104 page:
547. http://www.jbc.org/content/104/3/5
47.full.pdf+html {Craig_Lyman_19340122.
pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p813.
3. ^ "Lyman Creighton
Craig." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lyman-creig
hton-craig
4. ^ "LSD." Encyclopedia of American
History. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lsd-crystal
line-compound
5. ^ Walter A. Jacobs and Lyman C.
Craig, "The ergot alkaloids. II. The
degradation of ergotinine with alkali.
Lysergic acid", Journal of biological
chemistry (1934) volume: 104 page:
547. http://www.jbc.org/content/104/3/5
47.full.pdf+html {Craig_Lyman_19340122.
pdf}
6. ^ Walter A. Jacobs and Lyman C.
Craig, "The ergot alkaloids. II. The
degradation of ergotinine with alkali.
Lysergic acid", Journal of biological
chemistry (1934) volume: 104 page:
547. http://www.jbc.org/content/104/3/5
47.full.pdf+html {Craig_Lyman_19340122.
pdf} {01/22/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] L. C. Craig, Otto Post,
"Apparatus for Countercurrent
Distribution", Anal. Chem., 1949, 21
(4), pp
500–504. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ac60028a013
[2] Craig, "Counter-current
distribution.", Federation proceedings,
(1948) volume: 7 issue: 3 page: 469
-73.
[3] Howard Rasmussen, Lyman C. Craig,
and With the technical assistance of
Gerty Hochster, "Isolation of a
Parathyroid Polypeptide from Acetic
Acid Extracts of Bovine Parathyroid
Glands", J. Biol. Chem. 1961 236:
1083-1086.
http://www.jbc.org/content/236/4/1083.
full.pdf+html?sid=92c6f70e-4102-4282-a63
c-826d6edfbc30
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA5
 
[1] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg
66 YBN
[02/10/1934 AD] 8 		5202)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
2. ^ J. Chadwick, P.
M. S. Blackett and G. P. S. Occhialini,
"Some Experiments on the Production of
Positive Electrons", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 144, No. 851
(Mar. 1, 1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p760-761.
4. ^ J. Chadwick, P.
M. S. Blackett and G. P. S. Occhialini,
"Some Experiments on the Production of
Positive Electrons", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 144, No. 851
(Mar. 1, 1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
5. ^ J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of Positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Chadwick, J.; Blackett,
P. M. S.; Occhialini, G., "New Evidence
for the Positive Electron", Nature,
Volume 131, Issue 3309, pp. 473
(1933). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v131/n3309/pdf/131473b0.pdf {Blac
kett_Patrick_19330327.pdf}
8. ^ J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of Positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
{02/10/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] P. M. S. Blackett, "The
Ejection of Protons from Nitrogen
Nuclei, Photographed by the Wilson
Method", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 107, No. 742 (Feb. 2,
1925), pp. 349-360.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/94255
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1948".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1948/
[3] P. M. S. BLACKETT & G. OCCHIALINI,
"Photography of Penetrating Corpuscular
Radiation", Nature 130, 363-363 (03
September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England7
(presumably) 
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: [6] J.
Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and G. P.
S. Occhialini, ''Some Experiments on
the Production of Positive Electrons'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1, 1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/2935587.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Description
Blackett-large.jpg English: Patrick
Blackett, Baron Blackett, ca.
1950 Date PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377
66 YBN
[02/24/1934 AD] 6 		5184)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755-756, 794.
2. ^ J. D.
COCKCROFT, C. W. GILBERT, E. T. S.
WALTON, "Production of Induced
Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", Nature 133, 328-328 (3 March
1934) doi:10.1038/133328a0
Letter http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/pdf/133328a0.pdf {Cockc
roft_John_19340224.pdf}
3. ^ J. D. Cockcroft, C. W. Gilbert,
and E. T. S. Walton, "Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. IV. The
Production of Induced Radioactivity by
High Velocity Protons and Diplons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A January 1, 1935
148:225-240;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1935.0015 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/148/8
63/225.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19340926.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT, C. W.
GILBERT, E. T. S. WALTON, "Production
of Induced Radioactivity by High
Velocity Protons", Nature 133, 328-328
(3 March 1934) doi:10.1038/133328a0
Letter http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/pdf/133328a0.pdf {Cockc
roft_John_19340224.pdf}
6. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT, C. W. GILBERT, E.
T. S. WALTON, "Production of Induced
Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", Nature 133, 328-328 (3 March
1934) doi:10.1038/133328a0
Letter http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/pdf/133328a0.pdf {Cockc
roft_John_19340224.pdf} {02/24/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920).
[4] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932).
[5] H
Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66,
1920.
[6] Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson,
Louis L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella,
Simon S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole
DC Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994.
[7] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[8]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[9] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[10] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[11] "Cockcroft, John Douglas."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[12] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1951". Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[13] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[14] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[15] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html
[16] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[17] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[18] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. III. The Disintegration
of Lithium, Boron, and Carbon by Heavy
Hydrogen Ions", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
May 1, 1934 144:704-720;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1934.0078 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/144/8
53/704.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[19] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. V. Further Experiments
on the Disintegration of Boron", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 2, 1936
154:246-261;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0049 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/246.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[20] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. VI. The Disintegration
of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen by
Deuterons", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A March
2, 1936 154:261-279;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0050 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/261.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[21] J. D. COCKCROFT, E. T. S. WALTON,
"Disintegration of Light Elements by
Fast Protons", Nature 131, 23-23 (7
January 1933) doi:10.1038/131023a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
131/n3297/pdf/131023a0.pdf
[22] Cockcroft, J. D., "High-Energy
Electron Accelerators as Pulsed Neutron
Sources", Nature, Volume 163, Issue
4153, pp. 869
(1949). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v163/n4153/pdf/163869a0.pdf
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England5  
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
66 YBN
[03/17/1934 AD] 31 		4755)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
3. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
5. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
7. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
9. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
11. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
12. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
14. ^ "heavy
hydrogen." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 26
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/deuterium-1

15. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
16. ^ "Deuteron." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/deuteron-2
17. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
20. ^ "heavy hydrogen." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/deuterium-1

21. ^ "Deuteron." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/deuteron-2
22. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Purnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
23. ^ Record ID5555. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, Marcus Oliphant, Paul
Hartek, "Transmutation Effects observed
with Heavy Hydrogen", Nature, March 17,
1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, Marcus Oliphant, Paul
Hartek, "Transmutation Effects observed
with Heavy Hydrogen", Nature, March 17,
1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
31. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html
{03/17/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
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l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
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[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41
[34] Ernest Rutherford,
"Artificial Disintegration of the
Elements", Proceedings of the Physical
Society, August 1924, 36, pp417-22
[35] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730
[36] Ernest
Rutherford, "Disintegration of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature, April 4 1925, 115,
pp493-4
[37] Rutherford, Wynn-Williams, Lewis,
Bowden, "Analysis of α-Rays by an
Annular Magnetic Field", Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 139, 1933,
pp617-37
[38] Oliphant, Rutherford, "Experiments
on the Transmutation of Elements by
Protons, Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 141, 1933, pp259-81
[39] Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England30  
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
66 YBN
[03/19/1934 AD] 10 11 		5210)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761-762.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p761-762.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761-762.
4. ^ W. Baade and F.
Zwicky, "On Super-Novae", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf {Zwicky_Fritz_19340319.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ W. Baade and F. Zwicky, "On
Super-Novae", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf {Zwicky_Fritz_19340319.pdf}
10. ^ W. Baade and F. Zwicky, "On
Super-Novae", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf {Zwicky_Fritz_19340319.pdf}
{03/19/1934}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761-762. {1934}
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA9  
[1] Fritz Zwicky The picture appears
on the website of the Fritz Zwicky
Stiftung (the Swiss Fritz Zwicky
Foundation at:
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.ch/), but I
do not believe it is in fact
copyrighted by any specific
organisation. I have been allowed to
have it on my scientific,
non-commercial site at www.swemorph.com
for some years. There is no commercial
interest involved here. Pictures of
Zwicky are generally allowed for
scientific, non-commercial use. Source
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.c COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/7d/Zwicky1.png

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
66 YBN
[03/25/1934 AD] 9 		5274)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ Fermi,
"Radioattivita Indotta Da Bombardamento
Di Neutroni. -I.", 'Ric. Scient.,' vol.
5, p282 (1934); Reprinted in "Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers", V1, 1962,
p645. English translation
pp674-675. {Fermi_Enrico_19340325.pdf}
{Fermi_Enrico_19340325c.pdf} {Fermi_En
rico_19340325b.pdf} later
works: Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1,
pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934).
3. ^ E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604 {Fermi_Enrico_19340725.pdf}
4. ^ Fermi, "Radioattivita Indotta Da
Bombardamento Di Neutroni. -I.", 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 5, p282 (1934);
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers", V1, 1962, p645. English
translation
pp674-675. {Fermi_Enrico_19340325.pdf}
{Fermi_Enrico_19340325c.pdf} {Fermi_En
rico_19340325b.pdf} later
works: Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1,
pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934).
5. ^ Fermi, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 5, p282 (1934); Fermi,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 283, 330
(1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi,
Rasetti and Segre, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol.
1, pp. 452, 652, 21 (1934); Fermi,
Rasetti and D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 533 (1934); Fermi,
'Nature,' "Radioactivity Induced by
Neutron Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368
pp. 757, 898 (1934). See also Fermi, '
Nuovo Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934);
Amaldi, Fermi, Rasetti and
Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442
(1934); Amaldi and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,'
vol.11,. p. 452 (1934); ' D'Agostino '
Gazz. Chim. Ital.,' in press (1934).
6. ^
Fermi, "Radioattivita Indotta Da
Bombardamento Di Neutroni. -I.", 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 5, p282 (1934);
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers", V1, 1962, p645. English
translation
pp674-675. {Fermi_Enrico_19340325.pdf}
{Fermi_Enrico_19340325c.pdf} {Fermi_En
rico_19340325b.pdf} later
works: Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1,
pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934).
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Fermi,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5, p282 (1934);
Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 283,
330 (1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi,
Rasetti and Segre, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol.
1, pp. 452, 652, 21 (1934); Fermi,
Rasetti and D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 533 (1934); Fermi,
'Nature,' "Radioactivity Induced by
Neutron Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368
pp. 757, 898 (1934). See also Fermi, '
Nuovo Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934);
Amaldi, Fermi, Rasetti and
Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442
(1934); Amaldi and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,'
vol.11,. p. 452 (1934); ' D'Agostino '
Gazz. Chim. Ital.,' in press (1934).
9. ^
Fermi, "Radioattivita Indotta Da
Bombardamento Di Neutroni. -I.", 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 5, p282 (1934);
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers", V1, 1962, p645. English
translation
pp674-675. {Fermi_Enrico_19340325.pdf}
{Fermi_Enrico_19340325c.pdf} {Fermi_En
rico_19340325b.pdf} later
works: Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1,
pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934). {03/25/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy8
(presumably) 
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
66 YBN
[04/11/1934 AD] 7 8 		5320)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
2. ^ Adolf Butenandt,
Ulrich Westphal, "Zur Isolierung und
Charakterisierung des
Corpus-luteum-Hormons", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (A
and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 8,
pages 1440–1442, 8. August
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340670831/abstract {Bu
tenandt_Adolf_19340724.pdf} English: "
On the isolation and characterization
of the corpus luteum hormone"
3. ^ Adolf
Butenandt, Josef Schmidt,
"Überführung des Pregnandiols in
Corpus-luteum-Hormon", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (A
and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 11,
pages 1901–1904, 7. November
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340671126/abstract {Bu
tenandt_Adolf_19341026.pdf} English: "
Transfer of pregnanediol in corpus
luteum hormone".
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
5. ^ "progesterone."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/progesteron
e
6. ^ Adolf Butenandt, Ulrich Westphal,
"Zur Isolierung und Charakterisierung
des Corpus-luteum-Hormons", Berichte
der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft
(A and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 8,
pages 1440–1442, 8. August
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340670831/abstract {Bu
tenandt_Adolf_19340724.pdf} English: "
On the isolation and characterization
of the corpus luteum hormone"
7. ^ Adolf
Butenandt, Ulrich Westphal, "Zur
Isolierung und Charakterisierung des
Corpus-luteum-Hormons", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (A
and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 8,
pages 1440–1442, 8. August
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340670831/abstract {Bu
tenandt_Adolf_19340724.pdf} English: "
On the isolation and characterization
of the corpus luteum hormone"
{04/11/1934}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793. {1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolf Butenandt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-buten
andt
[2] A. Butenandt, "Über "Progynon" ein
krystallisiertes weibliches
Sexualhormon", Naturwissenschaften,
Volume 17, Number 45,
879. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/g503613433t28ql3/
[3] "Adolf Butenandt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/86456/Adolf-Friedrich-Johann-Butenandt
>.
[4] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1939". Nobelprize.org. 17 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1939/
[5] "androsterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
[6] "testosterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testosteron
e
[7] "androsterone." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
[8] Dr. A. Butenandt Priv.-Doz., "Über
die chemische Untersuchung der
Sexualhormone", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 44, Issue 46, pages 905–908,
14. November
1931 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19310444602/abstract
[9] A. BUTENANDT, "Chemical
Constitution of the Follicular and
Testicular Hormones", Nature 130,
238-238 (13 August
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v130/n3276/abs/130238a0.html
(Institute der Technische Hochschule)
Danzig-Langfuhr, Germany (Austria)6
 
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
66 YBN
[04/14/1934 AD] 12 		5279)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck and
Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation Effects
Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p783-784.
3. ^ "Sir Mark
Oliphant." Britannica Book of the Year,
2001. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/427657/M-L-Oliphant>.
4. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck and
Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation Effects
Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
5. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck and
Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation Effects
Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, Lord
Rutherford, "Experiments on the
Transmutation of Elements by Protons",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 141, No. 843 (Jul. 3, 1933), pp.
259-281. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
218?&Search=yes&searchText=oliphant&list
=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearc
h%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100819
%26Query%3Doliphant%26acc%3Don%26Search.
x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearc
h=&item=8&ttl=160&returnArticleService=s
howFullText {Oliphant_Marcus_19330616.p
df}
12. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck and
Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation Effects
Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
{04/14/1934}
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England11
(presumably) 
[1] Description Sir Mark
Oliphant.jpg English: Photograph of
Sir Mark Oliphant AC KBE Date
1939(1939) Source
http://www.portrait.gov.au/static/c
oll_741Sir+Mark+Oliphant.php Author
Bassano Ltd Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Sir_Mark_Oliphant.jpg

66 YBN
[05/??/1934 AD] 35 36 		5275)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla
possibilità di produrre elementi di
numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric.
Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E.
Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
2. ^
Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
3. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
4. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla
possibilità di produrre elementi di
numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric.
Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E.
Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
5. ^
Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
6. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
7. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla
possibilità di produrre elementi di
numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric.
Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E.
Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
8. ^
Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
9. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
11. ^ E Fermi, F
Rasetti, "Sulla possibilità di
produrre elementi di numero atomico
maggiore di 92", Ric. Sci., 1934,
p452,536. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, 0.
DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E. Segre, Rie.
Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
12. ^ Enrico Fermi,
"Possible Production of Elements of
Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature
133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
13. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
15. ^ E Fermi, F
Rasetti, "Sulla possibilità di
produrre elementi di numero atomico
maggiore di 92", Ric. Sci., 1934,
p452,536. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, 0.
DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E. Segre, Rie.
Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
16. ^ Enrico Fermi,
"Possible Production of Elements of
Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature
133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
17. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
18. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla
possibilità di produrre elementi di
numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric.
Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E.
Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
19. ^
Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
20. ^ Record ID4926. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Record
ID4925. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
25. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
26. ^ Enrico Fermi,
"Possible Production of Elements of
Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature
133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
27. ^ Enrico Fermi, "Possible
Production of Elements of Atomic Number
Higher than 92", Nature 133, 898-899
(16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Record ID5455.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Record ID5547. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
31. ^ "Enrico
Fermi - Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org.
26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Enrico Fermi,
"Possible Production of Elements of
Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature
133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}
35. ^ E Fermi, F
Rasetti, "Sulla possibilità di
produrre elementi di numero atomico
maggiore di 92", Ric. Sci., 1934,
p452,536. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, 0.
DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E. Segre, Rie.
Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452; {05/1934}
36. ^ Enrico
Fermi, "Possible Production of Elements
of Atomic Number Higher than 92",
Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy34
 
[1] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/rb/ft700007rb/figur
es/ft700007rb_00009.jpg

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
66 YBN
[06/07/1934 AD] 11 		4853)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p655.
2. ^ "Sir Henry
Dale." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/150109/Sir-Henry-Dale>.
3. ^ HH Dale, W Feldberg, "The chemical
transmission of secretory impulses to
the sweat glands of the cat", The
Journal of Physiology,
1934. http://jp.physoc.org/content/82/1
/121.full.pdf
4. ^ HH Dale, W Feldberg, M Vogt,
"Release of acetylcholine at voluntary
motor nerve endings", The Journal of
Physiology,
1936. http://jp.physoc.org/content/86/4
/353.full.pdf
5. ^ "Sir Henry Dale." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/150109/Sir-Henry-Dale>.
6. ^ Ewins, "ACETYLCHOLINE, A NEW
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE OF ERGOT.", The
Biochemical journal, Volume 8,
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8SoBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=The+occ
urrence+in+ergot+and+action+of+acetylcho
line&source=bl&ots=rL--irlehW&sig=MGRwQQ
A4Hg84gDmpfnVC0vFBSuc&hl=en&ei=nzzLTJ3IJ
o7EsAOYiOHZDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=7&ved=0CDgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q
=The%20occurrence%20in%20ergot%20and%20a
ction%20of%20acetylcholine&f=false
7. ^ "Henry Hallett Dale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-halle
tt-dale
8. ^ Record ID4783. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ HH Dale, W Feldberg, "The
chemical transmission of secretory
impulses to the sweat glands of the
cat", The Journal of Physiology,
1934. http://jp.physoc.org/content/82/1
/121.full.pdf
11. ^ HH Dale, W Feldberg, "The
chemical transmission of secretory
impulses to the sweat glands of the
cat", The Journal of Physiology,
1934. http://jp.physoc.org/content/82/1
/121.full.pdf {06/07/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Hallett Dale."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-halle
tt-dale
[2] "Dale, Henry Hallett." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 104-107. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904861&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Henry Hallett Dale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Halle
tt_Dale
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1936/dale-bio.html
[5] HH Dale, PP Laidlaw, "The
physiological action of
β-iminazolylethylamine", The Journal
of Physiology,
1910. http://jp.physoc.org/content/41/5
/318.full.pdf
[6] HH Dale, PP Laidlaw, "Further
observations on the action of
β-iminazolylethylamine", The Journal
of Physiology,
1911. http://jp.physoc.org/content/43/2
/182.full.pdf
[7] HH Dale, "The occurrence in ergot
and action of acetyl-choline", J
Physiol Journal of Physiology 48
(1914), pp. iii–iv.
(National Institute For Medicine)
Hampstead, London10  
[1] Henry Hallett Dale UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/dale.jpg

[2] Sir Henry Hallett Dale (1875 -
1968) and Otto Loewi (1873 - 1961)
UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/SW5ML7DC4mI/AAAAAAAAIqw/ys3TSoyw94
w/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1936_Dale_and_Loe
wi.bmp
66 YBN
[06/28/1934 AD] 29 		5205) When the Nazis came into power in
1933, Szilard goes to Vienna and, in
1934, to London, where he joins the
physics staff of the medical college of
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.13

In 1939 when the uranium fission found
by Hahn is announced by Meitner,
Szilard understands that this
chain-reaction is practical. Szilard
convinces physicists in the USA not to
publish their work in particle physics
to avoid giving the Nazi's any ideas.14
 And also in 1939, Wigner, Teller and
Szilard (all Hungarian refugees)
persuade Einstein to send his famous
letter (written by Szilard) to
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and
this sets in motion the Manhattan
Project that will prepare the first
nuclear bomb.15 16

(I doubt that any "letter" was
necessary, and this story of Szilard
and Einstein's letter is probably
irrelevent to the development of atomic
explosives in the USA. Because clearly
FDR and many others must have received
direct-to-neuron video messages.
Certainly no letter was necessary, FDR
clearly received thought-mail, or
thought-messages by this time, and it
was enough to make a concerted effort
to send a video-message to FDR's brain
to get a message through, but perhaps a
formal letter would increase the
importance of the message.17 )

Szilard is one of the large group of
scientists that advocate using the bomb
over an uninhabited territory as a
demonstration. The military, and some
scientists such as Compton disagree and
Harry Truman decided to explode a
nuclear bomb over Hiroshima and
Nagasaki.18

(Detonating the bomb over an
uninhabited territory is by far the
more humane decision. I think for sure,
a second bomb is too murderous. It is a
tough debate. I think a person needs to
calculate how much time is involved in
creating another bomb. I think in some
way, the nuclear bomb over Japan was
felt to be a justified payback for the
first strike invasion of Pearl Harbor.
In any event, the nuclear bombs did
bring the war to a quick end. Everybody
should see the neuron images and make
their own determination. With war, a
minority of wealthy dictators brutally
send young poor people to their death
without any choice. Probably no large
scale violent conflicts would ever have
a chance to start if we had a planet of
full and constant democracy, and full
and total free information.19 )

Szilard labors to ban nuclear warfare
and even nuclear testing.20
(I reject
a test ban on nuclear testing, except
for exploding nuclear bombs on, in or
in the atmosphere of earth. For
example, I see nothing wrong with a
safe atomic bomb explosion far from the
earth in space, perhaps out near the
orbit of Jupiter or Neptune. But this
will probably wait for many decades
until humans are moving between the
planets. The debate about using uranium
fission in space will be a heated one,
but one that eventually will fall to
those who want to build faster ships.
Maybe some more acceptable form of
propulsion will be found such as
anti-protons...anyway we look at it,
clearly nuclear atom separation uranium
fission, or some other fission or
fusion is probably going to be the
fastest form of propulsion. Possibly
gravitational acceleration may result
in a similar velocity using the large
mass of the sun, and Jupiter. 21 )

In 1946 Szilard is appointed to the
chair of biophysics at the University
of Chicago, where he remained until his
death.22 (Perhaps for some reason
Szilard was forced to leave particle
physics?23 )

In 1959 Szilard wins the Atoms for
Peace award.24
(It seems unlikely that
a person secretive about fission would
not be secretive about hearing thought,
but maybe, with the fall of the Nazis,
reflecting on their rise and abuses of
the innocent excluded unaware of the
advance of the technology, Szilard
supported going public with neuron
reading and writing.25 )

(I think always the case is that, there
should be a worry about allowing
violent people, in particular first
degree murderers have access to ideas
of mass destruction, but the case is
less strong for seeing and hearing
thoughts, the telephone, etc,
non-destructive technology. Ultimately,
violence should be exposed and stopped,
and secrecy, I think, tends to increase
the chances of violent people getting
away with violence, and the spiraling
out of control of unseen, unstopped
violence on earth, the controlled
demolition of of the World Trade Center
buildings on 09/11/2001 and subsequent
massive coverup by many thousands of
people is a prime example of where
secrecy and misinformation can have
very violent, risky, destructive
consequences which threaten survival of
life of earth. But how far should
people go to keep information out of
the hands of murderers?26 )

In 1964 Szilard hypothesizes about the
influence living objects might have on
the physics of the universe in his
paper "On the decrease of entropy in a
thermodynamic system by the
intervention of intelligent beings".27

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. Szilárd, "Improvements in or
relating to the transmutation of
chemical elements," British patent
number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934;
published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
3. ^ "Leo Szilard." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
5. ^ L. Szilárd,
"Improvements in or relating to the
transmutation of chemical elements,"
British patent number: GB630726 (filed:
28 June 1934; published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf}
6. ^ "Leo Szilard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
8. ^ L. Szilárd,
"Improvements in or relating to the
transmutation of chemical elements,"
British patent number: GB630726 (filed:
28 June 1934; published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf}
9. ^ Record ID4778. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "Leo
Szilard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 30
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/579362/Leo-Szilard>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p761.
16. ^ "Leo
Szilard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 30
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/579362/Leo-Szilard>.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "Leo
Szilard." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ L. Szilard, "On the decrease of
entropy in a thermodynamic system by
the intervention of intelligent
beings", Behavioral Science, Volume 9,
Issue 4, pages 301–310,
1964. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/bs.3830090402/abstract
28. ^ L. Szilárd, "Improvements in or
relating to the transmutation of
chemical elements," British patent
number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934;
published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf}
29. ^ L. Szilárd, "Improvements in or
relating to the transmutation of
chemical elements," British patent
number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934;
published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf} {06/28/1934}
(Claremont Haynes & Co) London,
England28  
[1] Figure 2 from: L. Szilárd,
''Improvements in or relating to the
transmutation of chemical elements,''
British patent number: GB630726 (filed:
28 June 1934; published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf} PD
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/publicat
ionDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8
B286F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacene
t_levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT
=D&date=19360330&DB=&locale=

[2] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg
66 YBN
[07/11/1934 AD] 9 		4248)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^ "Tesla, at 78,
Bares New 'Death-Beam"', New York
Times, July 11, 1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf}
3. ^ "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Tesla, at 78,
Bares New 'Death-Beam"', New York
Times, July 11, 1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf}
9. ^ "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf} {07/11/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tesla, Nikola."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>
[2] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[4] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[5] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[6] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[7] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[9] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[11]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[12] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[13] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[14] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[15] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23, c.8
[16] New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
[17] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[18] Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[19] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[20] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[21]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Hotel New Yorker) New York City, NY,
USA8  
[1] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD

source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
66 YBN
[07/11/1934 AD] 7 8 		5367) In 1970, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von
Euler and Julius Axelrod "for their
discoveries concerning the humoral
transmittors in the nerve terminals and
the mechanism for their storage,
release and inactivation".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804.
2. ^ "Ulf von Euler."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ulf-svante-
von-euler
3. ^ U. S. v. Euler, "Zur Kenntnis der
pharmakologischen Wirkungen von
Nativsekreten und Extrakten männlicher
accessorischer Geschlechtsdrüsen",
Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of
Pharmacology, Volume 175, Number 1,
78-84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01861161 English: "On the
pharmacologic action of normal
secretions and extracts of male
accessory sexual glands"
4. ^ Von Euler, "On
the specific vaso-dilating and plain
muscle stimulating substances from
accessory genital glands in man and
certain animals (prostaglandin and
vesiglandin)", Journal of physiology,
(1936) volume: 88 issue: 2 page:
213. http://jp.physoc.org/content/88/2/
213.full.pdf
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1970". Nobelprize.org. 22 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1970/
6. ^ U. S. v. Euler, "Zur Kenntnis der
pharmakologischen Wirkungen von
Nativsekreten und Extrakten männlicher
accessorischer Geschlechtsdrüsen",
Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of
Pharmacology, Volume 175, Number 1,
78-84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01861161 English: "On the
pharmacologic action of normal
secretions and extracts of male
accessory sexual glands"
7. ^ U. S. v. Euler,
"Zur Kenntnis der pharmakologischen
Wirkungen von Nativsekreten und
Extrakten männlicher accessorischer
Geschlechtsdrüsen",
Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of
Pharmacology, Volume 175, Number 1,
78-84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01861161 English: "On the
pharmacologic action of normal
secretions and extracts of male
accessory sexual glands" {07/11/1934}
8. ^ "Ulf von
Euler." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ulf-svante-
von-euler {1935}
(Karolinischen Institues) Stockholm,
Sweden6  
[1] Ulf S. von Euler Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/euler_
postcard.jpg

[2] Description Ulf Svante von
Euler (7 February 1905 – 9 March
1983), Swedish physiologist and
pharmacologist Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Ulf
von Euler Portion used
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Ulf_von_Euler.jpg
66 YBN
[08/09/1934 AD] 		4867)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p657.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Vesto
Melvin Slipher." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[3] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[5] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[7] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[8] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
[9] Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
[10] Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
[11] Slipher, V. M., "The spectrum of
Lightning", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.55-58. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu//full/1917LowOB...3...55S/0000056.
000.html
[12] Bibliography for V. M.
Slipher: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.e
du/BruceMedalists/Slipher/SlipherRefs.ht
ml
[13] Slipher, V.M., “The Spectrum of
Venus, ” Lowell Obs. Bull. 3,
3.85-3.89 (1921) [Bull. No.
84]. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1921LowOB...3...85S/0000086.000.h
tml
[14] Arthur Adel, V. M. Slipher, "The
Constitution of the Atmopsheres of the
Giant Planets", Phys. Rev. 46, Issue
10, p902–906 (1934).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v46/i
10/p902_1
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA3  
[1] Figure 2 from: Arthur Adel, V. M.
Slipher, ''The Constitution of the
Atmopsheres of the Giant Planets'',
Phys. Rev. 46, Issue 10, p902–906
(1934).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v46/i
10/p902_1 {Slipher_Vesto_Melvin_1934080
9.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v46/i10/p902_1

[2] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
66 YBN
[08/18/1934 AD] 22 		5087) Goldhaber moves from German with
the advent of Hitler and in 1938 moves
to the USA.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730,838.
2. ^ J Chadwick, M
Goldhaber, "A Nuclear Photo-effect:
Disintegration of the Diplon by
γ-Rays", Volume 134 Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
3. ^ J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561 {Chadwick_James_19350802.pdf}
4. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html {Szilard_Leo
_19340917.pdf}
5. ^ J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
6. ^ "Maurice Goldhaber." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-gol
dhaber
7. ^ J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730,838.
9. ^ LEO SZILARD, T.
A. CHALMERS, "Detection of Neutrons
Liberated from Beryllium by Gamma Rays:
a New Technique for Inducing
Radioactivity", Nature 134, 494-495 (29
September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html {Szilard_Leo
_19340917.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ J Chadwick, M
Goldhaber, "A Nuclear Photo-effect:
Disintegration of the Diplon by
γ-Rays", Volume 134 Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p729-730,838.
21. ^ "Chadwick,
James." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 143-148.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
{08/18/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[8] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[9] J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence of
a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf
[10] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect
a neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England21  
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
66 YBN
[09/10/1934 AD] 7 		5208)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
2. ^ LEO SZILARD, T.
A. CHALMERS, "Chemical Separation of
the Radioactive Element from its
Bombarded Isotope in the Fermi Effect",
Nature 134, 462-462 (22 September 1934)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
134/n3386/pdf/134462b0.pdf {Szilard_Leo
_19340910.pdf}
3. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Chemical Separation of the Radioactive
Element from its Bombarded Isotope in
the Fermi Effect", Nature 134, 462-462
(22 September 1934)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
134/n3386/pdf/134462b0.pdf {Szilard_Leo
_19340910.pdf}
4. ^ "Leo Szilard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/579362/Leo-Szilard>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A.
CHALMERS, "Chemical Separation of the
Radioactive Element from its Bombarded
Isotope in the Fermi Effect", Nature
134, 462-462 (22 September 1934)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
134/n3386/pdf/134462b0.pdf {Szilard_Leo
_19340910.pdf}
7. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Chemical Separation of the Radioactive
Element from its Bombarded Isotope in
the Fermi Effect", Nature 134, 462-462
(22 September 1934)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
134/n3386/pdf/134462b0.pdf {Szilard_Leo
_19340910.pdf} {09/10/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] L. Szilárd, "Improvements in
or relating to the transmutation of
chemical elements," British patent
number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934;
published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale=
[2] "Leo Szilard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
[3] LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html
[4] A. BRASCH, F. LANGE, A. WALY, T. E.
BANKS, T. A. CHALMERS, LEO SZILARD, F.
L. HOPWOOD, "Liberation of Neutrons
from Beryllium by X-Rays: Radioactivity
Induced by Means of Electron Tubes",
Nature 134, 880-880 (8 December
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3397/pdf/134880a0.pdf
(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England6  
[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

[2] Leo Szilard, near Oxford, spring
1936. (Copyright U.C. Regents; used by
permission. Contact Mandeville Special
Collections Library, U.C. San Diego,
for information on obtaining Szilard
images.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dannen.com/images/szi
lard1.gif
66 YBN
[09/17/1934 AD] 6 		5206)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
2. ^ LEO SZILARD, T.
A. CHALMERS, "Detection of Neutrons
Liberated from Beryllium by Gamma Rays:
a New Technique for Inducing
Radioactivity", Nature 134, 494-495 (29
September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html {Szilard_Leo
_19340917.pdf}
3. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html {Szilard_Leo
_19340917.pdf}
4. ^ A. BRASCH, F. LANGE, A. WALY, T.
E. BANKS, T. A. CHALMERS, LEO SZILARD,
F. L. HOPWOOD, "Liberation of Neutrons
from Beryllium by X-Rays: Radioactivity
Induced by Means of Electron Tubes",
Nature 134, 880-880 (8 December
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3397/pdf/134880a0.pdf {Szila
rd_Leo_19341126.pdf}
5. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html {Szilard_Leo
_19340917.pdf}
6. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html {Szilard_Leo
_19340917.pdf} {09/17/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] L. Szilárd, "Improvements in
or relating to the transmutation of
chemical elements," British patent
number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934;
published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale=
[2] "Leo Szilard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
[3] "Leo Szilard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/579362/Leo-Szilard>.
(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England5  
[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

[2] Leo Szilard, near Oxford, spring
1936. (Copyright U.C. Regents; used by
permission. Contact Mandeville Special
Collections Library, U.C. San Diego,
for information on obtaining Szilard
images.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dannen.com/images/szi
lard1.gif
66 YBN
[09/17/1934 AD] 5 		5388)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
2. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"Two New White Dwarfs of Large
Parallax", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
3. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
4. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "New White Dwarfs,
Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
5. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K {09/17/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er
 
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg
66 YBN
[11/14/1934 AD] 3 		5196)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. Joliot, "Les nouveaux
radioéléments. Preuves chimiques des
transmutations", Journal de chimie
physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
2. ^ F. Joliot, "Les nouveaux
radioéléments. Preuves chimiques des
transmutations", Journal de chimie
physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
3. ^ F. Joliot, "Les nouveaux
radioéléments. Preuves chimiques des
transmutations", Journal de chimie
physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
{11/14/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>
[2] I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Artificially
Produced Radioelements", Joint
Conference of the International Union
of Pure and Applied Physics, and the
Physical Society, 1 (Cambridge, 1934)
[3] I.
Curie, F. Joliot, "Les nouveaux
radioéléments. Preuves chimiques des
transmutations", Journal de chimie
physique, 31 (1934), 611.
[4] I. Curie, F.
Joliot, "Un nouveau type de
radioactivé", Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image
[5] "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France2
 
[1] Table from: F. Joliot, ''Les
nouveaux radioéléments. Preuves
chimiques des transmutations'', Journal
de chimie physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
source: Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf

[2] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg
66 YBN
[11/17/1934 AD] 34 		5452) In 1949, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded to Hideki Yukawa
"for his prediction of the existence of
mesons on the basis of theoretical work
on nuclear forces".29 Yukawa is the
first Japanese person to win a Nobel
Prize.30

(I think this theory is highly
speculative and in my view is not
proven, and there are many other
theories. I think this theory of a
nuclear force will ultimately be proven
false. These awards are probably a
reflection of a majority of people in
science, and if the majority buy into
some theory and pursue it for decades,
it appears to be legitimate, and
therefore is awarded.31 )

(Determine if Yukawa has any recorded
comments about Pearl Harbor, Hirohito,
Hiroshima, Hitler, Nazism.32 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hideki Yukawa , "On the
Interaction of Elementary Particles.
I", Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc. Jpn. 17
(1935), 48-57.
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/1/1/
and http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.pa
rt2?s_c=YUKAWA+1935 {Yukawa_Hideki_1934
1117.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p821-822.
3. ^ "Hideki Yukawa."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hideki-yuka
wa
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p821-822.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p821-822.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p821-822.
11. ^ Hideki Yukawa ,
"On the Interaction of Elementary
Particles. I", Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc.
Jpn. 17 (1935), 48-57.
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/1/1/
and http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.pa
rt2?s_c=YUKAWA+1935 {Yukawa_Hideki_1934
1117.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1949". Nobelprize.org.
7 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1949/
30. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p821-822.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Hideki Yukawa , "On the
Interaction of Elementary Particles.
I", Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc. Jpn. 17
(1935), 48-57.
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/1/1/
and http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.pa
rt2?s_c=YUKAWA+1935 {Yukawa_Hideki_1934
1117.pdf}
34. ^ Hideki Yukawa , "On the
Interaction of Elementary Particles.
I", Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc. Jpn. 17
(1935), 48-57.
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/1/1/
and http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.pa
rt2?s_c=YUKAWA+1935 {Yukawa_Hideki_1934
1117.pdf} {11/17/1934}
(Osaka Imperial University) Osaka,
Japan33  
[1] Hideki Yukawa Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1949/yukawa_
postcard.jpg

[2] Hideki Yukawa UNKNOWN
source: http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/
585/1/yukawa.jpg
66 YBN
[11/26/1934 AD] 6 		5207)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
2. ^ A. BRASCH, F.
LANGE, A. WALY, T. E. BANKS, T. A.
CHALMERS, LEO SZILARD, F. L. HOPWOOD,
"Liberation of Neutrons from Beryllium
by X-Rays: Radioactivity Induced by
Means of Electron Tubes", Nature 134,
880-880 (8 December
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3397/pdf/134880a0.pdf {Szila
rd_Leo_19341126.pdf}
3. ^ A. BRASCH, F. LANGE, A. WALY, T.
E. BANKS, T. A. CHALMERS, LEO SZILARD,
F. L. HOPWOOD, "Liberation of Neutrons
from Beryllium by X-Rays: Radioactivity
Induced by Means of Electron Tubes",
Nature 134, 880-880 (8 December
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3397/pdf/134880a0.pdf {Szila
rd_Leo_19341126.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A. BRASCH, F. LANGE, A.
WALY, T. E. BANKS, T. A. CHALMERS, LEO
SZILARD, F. L. HOPWOOD, "Liberation of
Neutrons from Beryllium by X-Rays:
Radioactivity Induced by Means of
Electron Tubes", Nature 134, 880-880 (8
December
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3397/pdf/134880a0.pdf {Szila
rd_Leo_19341126.pdf}
6. ^ A. BRASCH, F. LANGE, A. WALY, T.
E. BANKS, T. A. CHALMERS, LEO SZILARD,
F. L. HOPWOOD, "Liberation of Neutrons
from Beryllium by X-Rays: Radioactivity
Induced by Means of Electron Tubes",
Nature 134, 880-880 (8 December
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3397/pdf/134880a0.pdf {Szila
rd_Leo_19341126.pdf} {11/26/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] L. Szilárd, "Improvements in
or relating to the transmutation of
chemical elements," British patent
number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934;
published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale=
[2] "Leo Szilard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
[3] "Leo Szilard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/579362/Leo-Szilard>.
[4] LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html
(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England5  
[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

[2] Leo Szilard, near Oxford, spring
1936. (Copyright U.C. Regents; used by
permission. Contact Mandeville Special
Collections Library, U.C. San Diego,
for information on obtaining Szilard
images.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dannen.com/images/szi
lard1.gif
66 YBN
[12/04/1934 AD] 8 		5126)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
2. ^ Harold C. Urey,
Lotti J. Greiff, "Isotopic Exchange
Equilibria", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1935,
57 (2), pp
321–327. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01305a026 {Urey_Harold_193412
04.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
4. ^ Thomas Ivan
Taylor and Harold C. Urey,
"Fractionation of the Lithium and
Potassium Isotopes by Chemical Exchange
with Zeolites", J. Chem. Phys. 6, 429
(1938). http://jcp.aip.org/resource/1/j
cpsa6/v6/i8/p429_s1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Harold C. Urey, F. G.
Brickwedde, and G. M. Murphy, "A
Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2", Physical
Review, 39 (1932), 164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
{12/05/1931}
7. ^ "Harold Clayton Urey." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/harold-c-ur
ey
8. ^ Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde,
and G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
{12/05/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] H. C. Urey, “Natural System
of Atomic Nuclei”, Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 53 (1931),
2872
[2] H. C. Urey and Charles A. Bradley.
Jr., “On the Relative Abundances of
Isotopes,” Physical Review, 38
(1931), 718–724
[3] H. C. Urey, C. F. G.
Brickwedde and G. M. Murphy, “A
Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and its
Concentration,” Physical Review, 40
(1932),
1–15. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103
/PhysRev.40.1
[4] "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] HC Urey, "Atoms, molecules and
quanta", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 37
(1931), 506-507.
http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1931-
37-07/S0002-9904-1931-05170-3/home.html
[6] HC Urey, "The separation and
properties of the isotopes of
hydrogen", Science, Volume 78, Issue
2034, pp.
566-571. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
59134?origin=ads
[7] Edward W. Washburn and Harold C.
Urey, "Concentration of the H2 Isotope
of Hydrogen by the Fractional
Electrolysis of Water", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1932 July; 18(7): 496–498.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076263/
[8]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1934/
[9] A. Ruark and Harold Urey, "Atoms,
Molecules, and Quanta", (New York,
1930)
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA6 7  
[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
66 YBN
[12/??/1934 AD] 4 		5531)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p449-450.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p449-450.
4. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p449-450. {12/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wernher von Braun."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/78018/Wernher-von-Braun>
(Kummersdorf Army Proving Grounds)
Kummersdorf, Germany3  
[1] Description Wernher von Braun
crop.jpg Dr. von Braun became
Director of the NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center on July 1,
1960. Français : Le Dr. Von Braun,
directeur du centre de vol spatial de
la NASA, mai 1964 Date
1964-05 NOTE: DESCRIPTION
DATES CONTRADICT EACHOTHER Source
NASA More
specifically? Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Wernher_von_Braun_cro
p.jpg

[2] Description Heinz Haber Wernher
von Braun Willy Ley (1954).jpg Dr.
Wernher von Braun (center), then Chief
of the Guided Missile Development
Division at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama,
discusses a ''bottle suit'' model with
Dr. Heinz Haber (left), an expert on
aviation medicine, and Willy Ley, a
science writer on rocketry and space
exploration. Date 1 July
1954(1954-07-01) Source NASA, ID
MSFC-9605274
[http://nix.nasa.gov/info?id=MSFC-960527
4 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Heinz_Haber_Wernher_v
on_Braun_Willy_Ley_%281954%29.jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 5 6 		4904)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662-663.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p662-663.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662-663.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p662-663. {1934}
6. ^
"William Beebe." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/58284/William-Beebe>. {1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Beebe." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-wil
liam-beebe
[2] "William Beebe." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 22.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 52-54. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404707958&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Charles William Beebe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wil
liam_Beebe
 
[1] Description WCS Beebe Barton
600.jpg Charles William (''Will'')
Beebe (1877–1962) (pictured left) and
Frederick Otis Barton, Jr.
(1899–1992) was standing next to the
bathysphere, a Date between
1930(1930) and 1932(1932) Source
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explo
rations/05stepstones/logs/aug15/aug15.ht
ml Author U.S. Federal Government
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e4/WCS_Beebe_Barton_600.
jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 7 		5011)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p704.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Williams, Robert Runnels." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 392-394. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 30 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904666&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704. {1934}
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA6  		 
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 2 		5035)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p712.
2. ^ Ružička,
Leopold." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 764-765.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1934}

MORE INFO
[1] L Ruzicka, "Constitution of
Muscone", Helv. Chim. Acta, 1926
[2] L
Ruzicka, "Zur Kenntnis des
Kohlenstoffringes I. Über die
Konstitution des Zibetons", Helvetica
Chimica Acta, Volume 9, Issue 1, pages
230–248,
1926. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19260090129/abstract "To
the attention of the carbon ring I. On
the constitution of the civetone"
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands1 (check) 
[1] The image of Croat-Swiss Nobel
laureate Leopold Ružička
(1922-2008) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.hazu.hr/ENG/indexENG.html Da
te COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/06/Leopold_Ruzicka.jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 8 		5036)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p712.
2. ^ Ružička,
Leopold." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 764-765.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Sexualhormon,
trans-Dehydroandrosteron und des
Androsten-3, 17-dion", "Sex hormone,
and the trans-Dehydroandrosteron
androstene-3, 17-dione"
4. ^ Ruzicka, M. W.
Goldberg,. Jules Meyer, H. Brüngger,
E. Eichenberger, "Zur Kenntnis der
Sexualhormone II. Über die Synthese
des Testikelhormons (Androsteron) und
Stereoisomerer desselben durch Abbau
hydrierter Sterine", Helvetica Chimica
Acta, Volume 17, Issue 1, pages
1395–1406,
1934 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/hlca.193401701170/abstract
5. ^ Ružička, Leopold." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 764-765. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Leopold Ružička." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/514383/Leopold-Ruzicka>.
7. ^ "Leopold Ružička." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/514383/Leopold-Ruzicka>.
8. ^ Ružička, Leopold." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 764-765. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1934}

MORE INFO
[1] L Ruzicka, "Constitution of
Muscone", Helv. Chim. Acta, 1926
[2] L
Ruzicka, "Zur Kenntnis des
Kohlenstoffringes I. Über die
Konstitution des Zibetons", Helvetica
Chimica Acta, Volume 9, Issue 1, pages
230–248,
1926. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19260090129/abstract "To
the attention of the carbon ring I. On
the constitution of the civetone"
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland7
(presumably) 
[1] The image of Croat-Swiss Nobel
laureate Leopold Ružička
(1922-2008) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.hazu.hr/ENG/indexENG.html Da
te COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/06/Leopold_Ruzicka.jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 10 		5048) The phase-contrast microscope,
slightly changes the phase of
diffracted light compared with direct
light so that objects in a cell take on
color and objects within the cell
become clear without staining, and
therefore without killing the cell.2

While studying the flaws that occur in
some diffraction gratings because of
the imperfect spacing of engraved
lines, Zernicke discovers the
phase-contrast principle.3 This uses
the fact that light passing through
bodies with a different refractive
index from the surrounding medium has a
different phase. The microscope
contains a plate in the focal plane,
which causes interference patterns and
thus increases the contrast. For
instance, it can make living cells
observable without killing them by
staining and fixing. The method of
phase contrast also allows the detail
in transparent objects or on metal
surfaces to be observed.4

(More details about how microscope
works5 )

(The phase of light or any beam of
particles is a very interesting topic.
One question is: how do detectors
understand that 2 beams are actually
the same frequency when they both have
different starting times/points (and
are therefore out of phase)? In
electronics the resonant frequency of
the inductor-capacitor circuit simply
accumulates particles - and only works
for a specific frequency of light. In
addition, what is the effect of two out
of phase particle beams? Can this
explain the interference patterns of an
interferometer? What is happening there
at the particle level? For example a
single tiny beam of white light is made
of single beams of other frequencies
but appears white to a detector in a
human eye. This detector sees a
specific color wavelength, no matter
when that beam starts. What does a beam
made of individual out of phase same
frequency beams appear like to a
detector? Like a single wavelength
beam? Like a higher wavelength beam? 6
)

(Explain how the light phase is changed
in a phase-contrast microscope, show
images of phase-contrast microscopes.7
)

(Explain how this is interpreted in the
light-as-a-material-particle view.8 )
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p716.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p716.
3. ^ "Frits
Zernike." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 31
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/656632/Frits-Zernike>.
4. ^ "Frits Zernike." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frits-zerni
ke
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ von F. Zernike, "Beugungstheorie
des schneidenver-fahrens und seiner
verbesserten form, der
phasenkontrastmethode", Physica, Volume
1, Issues 7-12, May 1934, Pages
689-704. "Diffraction theory of
cutting contempt proceedings, and its
improved form, the phase-contrast
method"
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p716. {1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Phase contrast microscope".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_contr
ast_microscope
(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands9  
[1] Cheek cell phase
contrast.jpg This is a phase
contrast image of a cheek cell. This
image has been uploaded for practice
and will be explained further when I
finish finals Date 7 February
2007(2007-02-07) Source Spencer
Diamond ©2007 Author Photograph
taken by Spencer Diamond at the
Biological Imaging Facility in Koshland
Hall on the campus of UC Berkeley. GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Cheek_cell_phase_cont
rast.jpg

[2] Zernike.jpg English: Frits
Zernike Date 1953(1953) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1953/zernike-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Zernike.jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 9 		5141) In 1922 Oberth has his
dissertation on rocket design rejected
when trying for a Ph.D. at Heidelberg.4

In 1940 Oberth becomes a German
citizen.5 (Was Oberth opposed to
Hitler's brutal views and many others
of the Nazi society?6 )
Oberth works with
von Braun at Peenemunde (building
rockets such as the V-27 ).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hermann Julius Oberth." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oberth-herm
ann-julius
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p743-744.
3. ^ "Die Rakete zu
den Planetenräumen" ("The Rocket into
Interplanetary Space"), 1934.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p743-744.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p743-744.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p743-744.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p743-744. {1934}
 
[1] Hermann Oberth COPYRIGHTED
source: http://wwwdelivery.superstock.co
m/WI/223/1895/PreviewComp/SuperStock_189
5-11274.jpg

[2] Description Photo of Hermann
Oberth - GPN-2003-00099.jpg English:
Hermann Oberth (1894-1989) is
considered to be one of the top three
pioneers in modern rocketry and is
credited with suggesting that space
stations would be essential if humans
wished to travel to other planets.
Oberth was the only one out of the
three (Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and
Robert Goddard are the other two) to
see human spaceflight come to fruition.
He was inspired by the tales of Jules
Verne in From the Earth to the Moon and
Travel to the Moon. He is also the
author of Die Rakete zu den
Planetenraumen, published in 1923. The
book inspired many to pursue
spaceflight, despite its challenges.
Oberth was a guest at the Apollo 11
launch in July 1969 as well as at the
launch of the STS-51J, Atlantis
mission. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA Description Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Photo_of_Hermann_Ober
th_-_GPN-2003-00099.jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 14 		5154)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748-749.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p748-749.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748-749.
4. ^ J. Rhine,
"Extra-sensory Perception", Bruce
Humphries, Boston, 1935.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/essplyw.ht
m
and http://foia.fbi.gov/extrasensory_pe
rception/extrasensory_perception_part01.
pdf {FBI_extrasensory_perception_part01
.pdf}
13. ^ "Rhine, J(oseph) B(anks)
(1895-1980)." Encyclopedia of Occultism
and Parapsychology. Ed. J. Gordon
Melton. 5th ed. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale
Group, 2001. 1308-1309. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3403803871&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748-749. {1934}
(Duke University) Durham, North
Carolina, USA13 (verify) 
[1] Joseph banks Rhine UNKNOWN
source: http://library.thinkquest.org/C0
120993/images/historical02.jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 15 		5276)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ Fermi, Amaldi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 280 (1934);
3. ^ E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
"Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79 {Fermi_Enrico_19350215.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
5. ^ E. Amaldi, O.
D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B. Pontecorvo, F.
Rasetti and E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity Produced by Neutron
Bombardment. II", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79 {Fermi_Enrico_19350215.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Enrico Fermi,
"Possible Production of Elements of
Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature
133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
15. ^ Fermi, Amaldi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2,
p. 280 (1934);

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
[13] E. Segre (Ed.): "Enrico Fermi:
Collected Papers" (Nore e Memorie),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
(Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
Roma) 1962, Vol. 1 , p. 640
[14] E Fermi,
"Le ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", Societa italiana per il
progresso, 1934
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy14
(presumably) 
[1] Table of transmutations from: [3]
E. Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
''Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79 {Fermi_Enrico_19350215.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9637
9

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 19 20 		5356) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1958
is awarded jointly to Pavel
Alekseyevich Cherenkov, Il´ja
Mikhailovich Frank and Igor
Yevgenyevich Tamm "for the discovery
and the interpretation of the Cherenkov
effect".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p801.
2. ^ "Pavel
Alekseevich Cherenkov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pavel-aleks
eyevich-cherenkov
3. ^ "Pavel Alekseevich Cherenkov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pavel-aleks
eyevich-cherenkov
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p801.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1958/
18. ^ "Pavel Alekseevich Cherenkov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pavel-aleks
eyevich-cherenkov
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p801. {1934}
20. ^ "Pavel
Alekseevich Cherenkov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pavel-aleks
eyevich-cherenkov {1934}

MORE INFO
[1] PA Cherenkov, "The visible
glow of pure liquids under the action
of gamma-rays", Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR, Sov. Phys. Dokl., V2, p451, 1934.
[2] I
Tamm, “Kogerentnoe izluchenie
bystrogo elektrona v srede”
(“Coherent Radiation of Fast
Electrons Passing Through Matter”),
Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR, 14, no. 3
(1937), 107 – 112.
[3] I Tamm, I. M. Frank
and P. A. Cherenkov, "Svechenie
chistykh zhidkostey pod deystviem
bystrykh elektronov" ("Luminenscence of
Pure Liquids Under the Influence of
Fast Electrons"), Izvestiya Akademii
nauk SSSR, Seria fiz. (1938), nos. 1
– 2, 29.
(Lebedev Institute of Physics) Moscow,
(Soviet Union now) Russia18  
[1] English: Pavel A.
Cherenkov Русский: Павел
Алексеевич
Черенков Date
1958(1958) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1958/cerenkov-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cerenkov.jpg/22
0px-Cerenkov.jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 3 		6070) "On the Good Ship Lollipop"
(music by Richard A. Whiting, lyrics by
Sidney Clare, sung by Shirley Temple)
is recorded in the 1934 movie "Bright
Eyes".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "On the Good Ship Lollipop".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Good
_Ship_Lollipop
2. ^ "Sam Fox Publishing Company".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Fox_Pub
lishing_Company
3. ^ "On the Good Ship Lollipop".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Good
_Ship_Lollipop {1934}
(Sam Fox Publishing Company) New York
City, USA2 (possibly) 		 
65 YBN
[01/01/1935 AD] 30 31 32 		5492) Chandrasekhar is the nephew of
Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who
won the Nobel Prize for Physics in
1930.26

Chandrasekhar is asked or feels it
necessary to add a note in the
beginning of the book and a footnote to
Albert Michelson's chapter on
relativity in the 1968 (also in the
1962?) reprint of Michelson's "Studies
in Optics" (1927) which reads: "In
describing these ideas bearing on
special relativity, Professor Michelson
adopts a cautious attitude, sometimes
giving the impression of skepticism.
Such an attitude was justifiable at the
time in view of the revolutionary
character of the theory. However, at
the present time the experimental basis
for special relativity is so wide and
the theoretical ramifications so many
that there can no longer be any doubt
about its validity. In chapter xiv
reference is also made to the
'generalized theory of relativity.'
However, this theory represents a
development along somewhat different
lines and except in a very general way
does not bear on the subject matter of
these two chapters. The foundations of
the general theory (unlike those of the
special theory) are still in the
process of change and evolution.".27
This is a perfect example of the
bizarre and authoritarian enforcement
of the dogma of relativity and
time-dilation- most likely due to
pressure placed on those in science by
owners of direct-to-neuron writing
devices in order to maintain an
absolutely ignorant uneducated
non-scientific barefoot
agrarian-society 1400s public.28
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The highly
collapsed configurations of a stellar
mass (Second paper)", Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf}
2. ^ S. Chandrasekhar, "Introduction to
the Study of Stellar Structure", U. of
Chicago, 1939.
3. ^ "Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/105462/Subrahmanyan-Chandrasekhar>.
4. ^ "Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/subrahmanya
n-chandrasekhar
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p836.
6. ^ "Chandrasekhar
limit." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 17 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chandrasekh
ar-limit
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p836.
8. ^ G. Gamow, M.
Schoenberg, "Neutrino Theory of Stellar
Collapse", Phys. Rev. 59, 539–547
(1941) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v59/i7/p539_1
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p836.
10. ^ "plasma." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plasma
11. ^ S. Chandrasekhar, "Introduction
to the Study of Stellar Structure", U.
of Chicago, 1939.
12. ^ Eddington, A.S.,
“On the Radiative Equilibrium of the
Stars,” Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 77, 16-35 (1916)
and 77, 596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E {Eddingto
n_Arthur_Stanley_191611xx.pdf}
13. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The highly
collapsed configurations of a stellar
mass (Second paper)", Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf}
14. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The
increasing role of general relativity
in astronomy", The Observatory, Vol.
92, p. 160
(1972). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1972Obs....92..160C {Chandrasekhar_Subr
ahmanyan_19720502.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ "Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/105462/Subrahmanyan-Chandrasekhar>.
27. ^ Albert Michelson, "Studies In
Optics", Third Edition, (1927), 1962,
1968.
28. ^ Albert Michelson, "Studies In
Optics", Third Edition, (1927), 1962,
1968.
29. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The highly
collapsed configurations of a stellar
mass (Second paper)", Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf}
30. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The highly
collapsed configurations of a stellar
mass (Second paper)", Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf} {01/01/1935}
31. ^ S. Chandrasekhar,
"Introduction to the Study of Stellar
Structure", U. of Chicago, 1939.
32. ^
"Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/subrahmanya
n-chandrasekhar {1939}
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England29  
[1] Figure 2 from: Chandrasekhar, S.,
''The highly collapsed configurations
of a stellar mass (Second paper)'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207.000
.html

[2] 2. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar The
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility
was renamed the Chandra X-ray
Observatory in December of 1998 to
honor the late Indian-American Nobel
laureate, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
(Photo: Univ. of Chicago) UNKNOWN
source: http://chandra.harvard.edu/graph
ics/resources/illustrations/chandraYoung
-72.jpg
65 YBN
[01/01/1935 AD] 3 4 5 		5501)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The
increasing role of general relativity
in astronomy", The Observatory, Vol.
92, p. 160
(1972). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1972Obs....92..160C {Chandrasekhar_Subr
ahmanyan_19720502.pdf}
2. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The highly
collapsed configurations of a stellar
mass (Second paper)", Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf}
3. ^ Chandrasekhar, S., "The highly
collapsed configurations of a stellar
mass (Second paper)", Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf} {01/01/1935}
4. ^ S. Chandrasekhar,
"Introduction to the Study of Stellar
Structure", U. of Chicago, 1939.
5. ^
"Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/subrahmanya
n-chandrasekhar {1939}

MORE INFO
[1] G. Gamow, M. Schoenberg,
"Neutrino Theory of Stellar Collapse",
Phys. Rev. 59, 539–547
(1941) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v59/i7/p539_1
[2] "plasma." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 14
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plasma
[3] Eddington, A.S., “On the
Radiative Equilibrium of the Stars,”
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 77, 16-35 (1916)
and 77, 596-612
(1917). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
916MNRAS..77...16E http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1917MNRAS..77..596E
[4] "Chandrasekhar limit." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 17 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chandrasekh
ar-limit
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] Figure 2 from: Chandrasekhar, S.,
''The highly collapsed configurations
of a stellar mass (Second paper)'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207.000
.html

[2] 2. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar The
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility
was renamed the Chandra X-ray
Observatory in December of 1998 to
honor the late Indian-American Nobel
laureate, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
(Photo: Univ. of Chicago) UNKNOWN
source: http://chandra.harvard.edu/graph
ics/resources/illustrations/chandraYoung
-72.jpg
65 YBN
[01/26/1935 AD] 9 10 		5133)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
2. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-szen
t-gy-rgyi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
4. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi, Mechanism of
Respiration", Nature 135, 305-305 (23
February 1935)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
135/n3408/abs/135305b0.html {Szent-Gyor
gyi_19350126.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
7. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi, Mechanism of
Respiration", Nature 135, 305-305 (23
February 1935)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
135/n3408/abs/135305b0.html {Szent-Gyor
gyi_19350126.pdf}
8. ^ "Albert Szent-Györgyi, Mechanism
of Respiration", Nature 135, 305-305
(23 February 1935)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
135/n3408/abs/135305b0.html {Szent-Gyor
gyi_19350126.pdf}
9. ^ "Albert Szent-Györgyi, Mechanism
of Respiration", Nature 135, 305-305
(23 February 1935)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
135/n3408/abs/135305b0.html {Szent-Gyor
gyi_19350126.pdf} {01/26/1935}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p741-742. {1935}

MORE INFO
[1] Albert Szent-Györgyi,
"Chemistry of muscular contraction",
Academic Press, 1947, 1951.
(University of Szeged) Szeged, Hungary8
 
[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg
65 YBN
[02/26/1935 AD] 25 		5098)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732-733.
2. ^ "Sir Robert
Alexander Watson-Watt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637658/Sir-Robert-Alexander-Watson-Wat
t>.
3. ^ Record ID2899. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record
ID3287. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Record ID4485.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.q-track.com/Files/files/Schan
tz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf
7. ^ Christian Hülsmeyer, Verfaren, um
entfernte metallische Gegenstande
mittels elektrischer Wellen einem
Beobachter zu melden, German Patent
165,546, April 30, 1904.
8. ^ Record ID4761.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732-733.
10. ^
http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
11. ^ "Sir Robert Alexander
Watson-Watt." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637658/Sir-Robert-Alexander-Watson-Wat
t>.
12. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Robert Watson-Watt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wats
on-watt
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "Robert Watson-Watt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wats
on-watt
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732-733.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735.
21. ^
"Watson-Watt, Robert Alexander."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 977-978. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905388&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^
http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
25. ^
http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
{02/26/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] Frank Adcock, Improvement in
Means for Determining the Direction of
a Distant Source of Electro-magnetic
Radiation, UK Patent 130490, August 7,
1919.
[2] Robert A. Watson-Watt and J.F.
Herd: “An Instantaneous Direct
Reading Goniometer,” J. IEE (London),
vol. 64, p. 11, 1926, also Wireless
World vol. 18 p. 366, 1926.
Daventry, England24  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Robert
Watson-Watt.jpg English: Portrait
photograph of Robert Watson-Watt Date
Creation - unknown. Publication -
1955. Source Joubert de la
Ferté, Philip [1955]. The Third
Service. London: Thames and Hudson.
Plate 18 Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Page X of Joubert de la
Ferté's book lists the source of the
photograph as the Air ministry. As a
former department of the British
Government, Air Ministry works are
covered by Crown Copyright. As this
work was created before 1 June 1957, it
is now in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Robert_Watson-Watt.jp
g
65 YBN
[02/??/1935 AD] 12 		5162)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Furukawa, Yasu. "Carothers,
Wallace Hume." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Julian W. Hill, Wallace H.
Carothers, "Cyclic and Polymeric
Formals", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1935, 57
(5), pp
925–928 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01308a045 {Caruthers_Wallace_1
9350321.pdf}
3. ^ Wallace Hume Carothers, patent
2130948 "Synthetic
Fiber" http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT2130948&id=crtfAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=W+Carothers+diamine&printsec=
abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Furukawa, Yasu.
"Carothers, Wallace Hume." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 20. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 47-50. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752.
7. ^ "Wallace
Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
8. ^ Furukawa, Yasu. "Carothers,
Wallace Hume." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Wallace Carothers." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752.
11. ^ "Wallace Hume
Carothers." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/96637/Wallace-Hume-Carothers>.
12. ^ Furukawa, Yasu. "Carothers,
Wallace Hume." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {02/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] Wallace H. Carothers, Julian
W. Hill, "STUDIES OF POLYMERIZATION AND
RING FORMATION. XII. LINEAR
SUPERPOLYESTERS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1932, 54 (4), pp
1559–1566. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01343a048
[2] Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042
(E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA11  
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
65 YBN
[04/08/1935 AD] 11 12 		5145) In 1940 Dam stays in the USA when
the Nazis invade Denmark.8
In 1943 Dam
wins the Nobel Prize in medicine and
physiology with Doisy.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p746-747.
2. ^ "Henrik Dam." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrik-dam
3. ^ Henrik Dam, "The antihaemorrhagic
vitamin of the chick", Biochem J. 1935
June; 29(6): 1273–1285.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1266625/ {Dam_Henrik_19350408.pdf
}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p746-747.
5. ^ Henrik Dam, "The
antihaemorrhagic vitamin of the chick",
Biochem J. 1935 June; 29(6):
1273–1285.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1266625/ {Dam_Henrik_19350408.pdf
}
6. ^ Henrik Dam, "The antihaemorrhagic
vitamin of the chick", Biochem J. 1935
June; 29(6): 1273–1285.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1266625/ {Dam_Henrik_19350408.pdf
}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p746-747.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p746-747.
10. ^ Henrik Dam,
"The antihaemorrhagic vitamin of the
chick", Biochem J. 1935 June; 29(6):
1273–1285.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1266625/ {Dam_Henrik_19350408.pdf
}
11. ^ Henrik Dam, "The antihaemorrhagic
vitamin of the chick", Biochem J. 1935
June; 29(6): 1273–1285.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1266625/ {Dam_Henrik_19350408.pdf
} {04/08/1935}
12. ^ "Henrik Dam." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrik-dam
{1935}
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark10  
[1] (Carl Peter) Henrik Dam
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1943/dam.jpg
65 YBN
[05/16/1935 AD] 8 		5374)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Shearer, "The X-ray
Microscope", British Journal of
Radiology, (1936), 9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
{Shearer_Gary_19350516.pdf}
2. ^ Paul Kirkpatrick, "The X-Ray
Microscope", Scientific American, March
1949, Volume 180 No 3,pp44 - 47,
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0349-44 h
ttp://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/
journal/v180/n3/index.html
{Kirkpatrick_Paul_194903xx.pdf}
3. ^ G. Shearer, "The X-ray
Microscope", British Journal of
Radiology, (1936), 9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
{Shearer_Gary_19350516.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ G.
Shearer, "The X-ray Microscope",
British Journal of Radiology, (1936),
9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
{Shearer_Gary_19350516.pdf}
8. ^ G. Shearer, "The X-ray
Microscope", British Journal of
Radiology, (1936), 9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
{Shearer_Gary_19350516.pdf}
{05/16/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "X-ray microscope".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_micro
scope
[2] W. Binks , "George Shearer, M.A.,
D.Sc., Ph.D., F. Inst.P.", British
Journal of Radiology (1949) 22,
492. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/con
tent/abstract/22/260/492
[3] G. Shearer, "The X-ray Microscope",
British Journal of Radiology, (1936),
9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
(National Physical Laboratory)
Teddington, Middlesex, England7  		 
65 YBN
[05/31/1935 AD] 3 		5532)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936). Reprinted in "Rockets", 2002
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
2. ^ Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936). Reprinted in "Rockets", 2002
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
3. ^ Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936). Reprinted in "Rockets", 2002
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
{05/31/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[8] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
[9]
"Speed of sound." McGraw-Hill's
Essential American Slang Dictionary.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/speed-of-so
und
[10]
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
[11] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689.
(Mescalero Ranch) Roswell, New Mexico,
USA2  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
65 YBN
[06/05/1935 AD] 9 		5436)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Wald, "Carotenoids and the
visual cycle", The Journal of general
physiology, (1935) volume: 19 issue:
2 page:
351. http://jgp.rupress.org/content/19/
2/351.full {Wald_George_19350605.pdf}
2. ^ Kenney, Diana E. "Wald, George."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 211-216. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819.
4. ^ Kenney, Diana E.
"Wald, George." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 211-216.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Mar. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Record ID3756. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Kenney, Diana
E. "Wald, George." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 25.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
211-216. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 2 Mar. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ G. Wald, "Carotenoids and the
visual cycle", The Journal of general
physiology, (1935) volume: 19 issue:
2 page:
351. http://jgp.rupress.org/content/19/
2/351.full {Wald_George_19350605.pdf}
8. ^ G. Wald, "Carotenoids and the
visual cycle", The Journal of general
physiology, (1935) volume: 19 issue:
2 page:
351. http://jgp.rupress.org/content/19/
2/351.full {Wald_George_19350605.pdf}
9. ^ G. Wald, "Carotenoids and the
visual cycle", The Journal of general
physiology, (1935) volume: 19 issue:
2 page:
351. http://jgp.rupress.org/content/19/
2/351.full {Wald_George_19350605.pdf}
{06/05/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1967".
Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
[2] GEORGE WALD , "Vitamin A in the
Retina", Nature 132, 316-317 (26 August
1933)
doi:10.1038/132316a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v132/n3330/abs/132316
a0.html
[3] "George Wald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wald

(Kaiser Wilkelm-Institut fur
medizinische Forschung, Heidelberg,
Germany and University of Chicago)
Chicago, Illinois, USA8  
[1] Figure 4 from: G. Wald,
''Carotenoids and the visual cycle'',
The Journal of general physiology,
(1935) volume: 19 issue: 2 page:
351. http://jgp.rupress.org/content/19/
2/351.full {Wald_George_19350605.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jgp.rupress.org/content/1
9/2/351.full

[2] George Wald Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laskerfoundation.org/
awards/images/1953_basic_wald.jpg
65 YBN
[06/26/1935 AD] 13 14 		5215) In 1933, being a German-Jewish
scientist, Schoenheimer emigrates to
the USA.10
In 1941 Schoenheimer kills
himself.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p762-763.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p762-763.
3. ^
Schoenheimer, R., and Rittenberg, D.,
"Deuterium as an Indicator in the Study
of Intermediary Metabolism. I." (1935)
J. Biol. Chem. p111,
p163–168. {Schoenheimer_Rudolf_193506
26.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p762-763.
5. ^ Schoenheimer,
R., and Rittenberg, D., "Deuterium as
an Indicator in the Study of
Intermediary Metabolism. I." (1935) J.
Biol. Chem. p111,
p163–168. {Schoenheimer_Rudolf_193506
26.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p762-763.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p762-763.
12. ^
Schoenheimer, R., and Rittenberg, D.,
"Deuterium as an Indicator in the Study
of Intermediary Metabolism. I." (1935)
J. Biol. Chem. p111,
p163–168. {Schoenheimer_Rudolf_193506
26.pdf}
13. ^ Schoenheimer, R., and Rittenberg,
D., "Deuterium as an Indicator in the
Study of Intermediary Metabolism. I."
(1935) J. Biol. Chem. p111,
p163–168. {Schoenheimer_Rudolf_193506
26.pdf} {06/26/1935}
14. ^ Schoenheimer, R., and
Rittenberg, D., "Deuterium as an
Indicator in the Study of Intermediary
Metabolism. I." (1935) J. Biol. Chem.
p111,
p163–168. {Schoenheimer_Rudolf_193506
26.pdf}
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA12  
[1] Rudolf Schoenheimer in his
laboratory at Columbia University.
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/277/4
3/F1.medium.gif
65 YBN
[07/11/1935 AD] 8 		4249)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560-561.
2. ^ New York Times,
11 July 1935, p 23,
c.8 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/A
rticles/jul_11_1935b.htm {Tesla_article
s.pdf}
3. ^ "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
4. ^ New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23,
c.8 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/A
rticles/jul_11_1935b.htm {Tesla_article
s.pdf}
5. ^ New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
6. ^ "Nikola Tesla".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
7. ^ New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23,
c.8 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/A
rticles/jul_11_1935b.htm {Tesla_article
s.pdf}
8. ^ New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23,
c.8 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/A
rticles/jul_11_1935b.htm {Tesla_article
s.pdf} {07/11/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tesla, Nikola."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
[2] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[4] "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[6] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[7] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[9] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[11]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[12] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[13] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[14] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[15] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[16] Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[17] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[18] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[19] "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm
[20]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Hotel New Yorker) New York City, NY,
USA7  
[1] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD

source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
65 YBN
[07/12/1935 AD] 9 10 		5016)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p705.
3. ^ A. Dempster,
"Isotopic constitution of uranium",
Nature 136, 180-180 (03 August
1935) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v136/n3431/abs/136180a0.html {Demps
ter_Arthur_19350712.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ A.
Dempster, "Isotopic constitution of
uranium", Nature 136, 180-180 (03
August
1935) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v136/n3431/abs/136180a0.html {Demps
ter_Arthur_19350712.pdf}
9. ^ A. Dempster, "Isotopic
constitution of uranium", Nature 136,
180-180 (03 August
1935) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v136/n3431/abs/136180a0.html {Demps
ter_Arthur_19350712.pdf} {07/12/1935}
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705. {1935}
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA8  
[1] Description Dempster Mass
Spectrometer.gif Arthur Dempster's
1918 mass spectrometer Date April
1918(1918-04) Source
http://link.aps.org/abstract/PR/v11
/p316 Author Arthur Jeffrey
Dempster Permission (Reusing this
file) Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Dempster_Mass_Spectro
meter.gif

[2] canadian physicist Arthur Jeffrey
Dempster (1886-1950) who discovered
isotope U-235 of uranium later used for
atomic bomb c. 1947... Caption:
UNSPECIFIED - APRIL 05: canadian
physicist Arthur Jeffrey Dempster
(1886-1950) who discovered isotope
U-235 of uranium later used for atomic
bomb c. 1947 (Photo by Apic/Getty
Images) Date created: 01 Jan 1947
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cache3.asset-cache.net/xc
/89858305.jpg?v=1&c=NewsMaker&k=2&d=77BF
BA49EF878921CC759DF4EBAC47D0AC0863BBF1D7
5F7368CACE8D45A7D1EF863AA9E5F332AFC4
65 YBN
[07/28/1935 AD] 10 11 		5357) In 1946, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is divided, one half awarded
to James Batcheller Sumner "for his
discovery that enzymes can be
crystallized", the other half jointly
to John Howard Northrop and Wendell
Meredith Stanley "for their preparation
of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure
form".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Isolation of a crystalline
protein possessing the properties of
tobacco mosaic virus", Science, Stanley
(1935), volume: 81, issue: 2113,
page:
644. http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volum
e=81&date=1935&spage=644&issn=00368075&i
ssue=2113
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p801-802.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p801-802.
4. ^
"nucleoprotein." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleoprote
in
5. ^ "Isolation of a crystalline
protein possessing the properties of
tobacco mosaic virus", Science, Stanley
(1935), volume: 81, issue: 2113,
page:
644. http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volum
e=81&date=1935&spage=644&issn=00368075&i
ssue=2113
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1946". Nobelprize.org. 21
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1946/
9. ^ "Isolation of a crystalline
protein possessing the properties of
tobacco mosaic virus", Science, Stanley
(1935), volume: 81, issue: 2113,
page:
644. http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volum
e=81&date=1935&spage=644&issn=00368075&i
ssue=2113
10. ^ "Isolation of a crystalline
protein possessing the properties of
tobacco mosaic virus", Science, Stanley
(1935), volume: 81, issue: 2113,
page:
644. http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volum
e=81&date=1935&spage=644&issn=00368075&i
ssue=2113 {07/28/1935}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p801-802. {1935}
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) Princeton, New Jersey, USA9
 
[1] Wendell Meredith Stanley (16 August
1904 – 15 June 1971), American
biochemist, virologist and Nobel
laureate Source
http://www.gpaulbishop.com/GPB%20Hi
story/GPB%20Archive/Section%20-%205/M.%2
0Stanley/stanley_w_01.JPG Article
Wendell Meredith Stanley Portion
used Entire COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/53/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley.j
pg
65 YBN
[07/31/1935 AD] 5 		5252)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. Karrer, K. Schöpp, F. Benz,
"Synthesen von Flavinen IV", Helvetica
Chimica Acta, Volume 18, Issue 1, pages
426–429,
1935. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19350180152/abstract
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
3. ^ Richard Kuhn,
Karl Reinemund, Friedrich Weygand,
Rudolf Ströbele, "Uber die Synthese
des Lactoflavins (Vitamin B2)",
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
68, Issue 9, pages 1765–1774, 11.
September
1935. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19350680922/abstract
4. ^ Richard Kuhn, Karl Reinemund,
Friedrich Weygand, Rudolf Ströbele,
"Uber die Synthese des Lactoflavins
(Vitamin B2)", Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft (A and B
Series), Volume 68, Issue 9, pages
1765–1774, 11. September
1935. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19350680922/abstract
5. ^ Richard Kuhn, Karl Reinemund,
Friedrich Weygand, Rudolf Ströbele,
"Uber die Synthese des Lactoflavins
(Vitamin B2)", Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft (A and B
Series), Volume 68, Issue 9, pages
1765–1774, 11. September
1935. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19350680922/abstract
{07/31/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1938". Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1938/
[2] "Richard Kuhn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324454/Richard-Kuhn>.
[3] Richard Kuhn and Edgar Lederer,
"Fraktionierung und Isomerisierung des
Carotins" Naturwissenschaften, Volume
19, Number 14,
306. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k12h62015kv17871/
[4] Richard Kuhn und Edgar Lederer,
"Über α- und β-Carotin.",
Hoppe-Seyler´s Zeitschrift für
physiologische Chemie. Volume 200,
Issue 4-6, Pages 246–254, ISSN
(Online) 1437-4315.
[5] "Carl von Ossietzky." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-von-os
sietzky
[6] "Carl von Ossietzky." The Oxford
Companion to German Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1976, 1986, 1997,
2005. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-von-os
sietzky
[7] "Carl von Ossietzky - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace
/laureates/1935/ossietzky.html
(Kaiser Wilhelm-Institut fur
Medizinische Forschung, Institut fur
Chemie) Heidelberg, Germany4  
[1] Richard Kuhn, Nobel Prize
photo Photo supplied by archiv zur
Geschichte der
Max-Planck-Geschellschaft,
Berlin-Dahlem COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1938/kuhn_
postcard.jpg
65 YBN
[08/28/1935 AD] 7 		5507)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730,838.
2. ^ J. Chadwick, M.
Goldhaber, "Disintegration by Slow
Neutrons", Mathematical Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=1737152 {Chadwick_James_19350828.pdf
}
3. ^ Record ID5278. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record
ID5087. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ J. Chadwick, M.
Goldhaber, "Disintegration by Slow
Neutrons", Mathematical Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=1737152 {Chadwick_James_19350828.pdf
}
6. ^ J. Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by Slow Neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=1737152 {Chadwick_James_19350828.pdf
}
7. ^ J. Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by Slow Neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=1737152 {Chadwick_James_19350828.pdf
} {08/28/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[8] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[9] J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence of
a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf
[10] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect
a neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
[11] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[12] "Maurice Goldhaber." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-gol
dhaber
[13] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England6  
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
65 YBN
[08/28/1935 AD] 5 		5509)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730,838.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p729-730,838.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ J. Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by Slow Neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=1737152 {Chadwick_James_19350828.pdf
}
5. ^ J. Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by Slow Neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=1737152 {Chadwick_James_19350828.pdf
} {08/28/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[8] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[9] J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence of
a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf
[10] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect
a neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
[11] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[12] "Maurice Goldhaber." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-gol
dhaber
[13] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England4  
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
65 YBN
[10/22/1935 AD] 16 17 		5451) (Notice the submission date of 2
days before 10/24- a day that may have
neuron reading and writing
significance.14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Knoll, Max, "Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper". Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation"
2. ^ M. Knoll and R. Theile,
"Elektronenabtaster zur
Strukturabbildung von Oberflächen und
dünnen Schichten", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
113, Numbers 3-4, 260-280, DOI:
10.1007/BF01341357 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g17gt38328152704/ {Knol
l_Max_19390503.pdf}
English: "Charging potential and
secondary emission of bodies under
electron irradiation"
3. ^
http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
4. ^ Knoll, Max, "Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper". Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation"
5. ^ M. Knoll and R. Theile,
"Elektronenabtaster zur
Strukturabbildung von Oberflächen und
dünnen Schichten", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
113, Numbers 3-4, 260-280, DOI:
10.1007/BF01341357 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g17gt38328152704/ {Knol
l_Max_19390503.pdf}
English: "Charging potential and
secondary emission of bodies under
electron irradiation"
6. ^ "Scanning electron
microscope." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scanning-el
ectron-microscope
7. ^ "scanning electron microscope."
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Archaeology. Oxford University Press,
2002, 2003. Answers.com 07 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scanning-el
ectron-microscope
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
9. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

10. ^ Record ID5446. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Knoll, Max,
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik
1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf}
12. ^ M. Knoll and R. Theile,
"Elektronenabtaster zur
Strukturabbildung von Oberflächen und
dünnen Schichten", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
113, Numbers 3-4, 260-280, DOI:
10.1007/BF01341357 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g17gt38328152704/ {Knol
l_Max_19390503.pdf}
English: "Charging potential and
secondary emission of bodies under
electron irradiation"
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Knoll, Max, "Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper". Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation"
16. ^ Knoll, Max, "Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper". Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation" {10/22/1935}
17. ^ Knoll, Max,
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik
1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation"

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[5] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann.
Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen
am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] M. Knoll, J. Kugler, "Subjective
Light Pattern Spectroscopy in the
Encephalographic Frequency Range",
Nature, V184, N4701, 12/05/1959,
p1823-1824. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v184/n4701/pdf/1841823a0.pdf
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany15
(presumably) 
[1] Knoll, Max, ''Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper''. Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: ''
Charging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation'' COPYRIGHTED
source: {Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf}

[2] Max Knoll (1897-1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.knoll1967.gif
65 YBN
[10/28/1935 AD] 7 		5095)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730,838.
2. ^ J Chadwick, M.
Goldhaber, "Disintegration by slow
neutrons", Mathematical Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
{Chadwick_James_19351028.pdf}
3. ^ J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
{Chadwick_James_19351028.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J Chadwick, M.
Goldhaber, "Disintegration by slow
neutrons", Mathematical Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
{Chadwick_James_19351028.pdf}
7. ^ J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
{Chadwick_James_19351028.pdf}
{10/28/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[3] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[4] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[5] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[6] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[7] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[8] J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence of
a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf
[9] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect a
neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
[10] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[11] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[12] J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
[13] "Maurice Goldhaber." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-gol
dhaber
(Gonville and Caius College University
of Cambridge) Cambridge, England6
 
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
65 YBN
[11/19/1935 AD] 7 		5498)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. V. Hill, "Excitation and
Accommodation in Nerve", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814
(Feb. 1, 1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p706.
3. ^ "A.V. Hill."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265773/A-V-Hill>.
4. ^ A. V. Hill, "Excitation and
Accommodation in Nerve", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814
(Feb. 1, 1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ A. V. Hill, "Excitation
and Accommodation in Nerve",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series B, Biological Sciences,
Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1, 1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
}
7. ^ A. V. Hill, "Excitation and
Accommodation in Nerve", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814
(Feb. 1, 1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} {11/19/1935}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1922/hill.html
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p706.
(University College) London, England6
 
[1] Figure 1 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9

[2] Figure 2 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9
65 YBN
[11/23/1935 AD] 11 12 		5456) In 1957, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded to
Daniel Bovet "for his discoveries
relating to synthetic compounds that
inhibit the action of certain body
substances, and especially their action
on the vascular system and the skeletal
muscles".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Tréfouël, J. Tréfouël, F.
Nitti and D. Bovet, Activite du
p-aminophenylsulfamide sur les
infections streptococciques, Comptes
Rendus Séances de la Societe de
Biologie, 120 (1935), pp. 756–762.
{Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
3. ^ "Daniel Bovet."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bovet-danie
l
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
5. ^ "Daniel Bovet."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bovet-danie
l
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1957".
Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1957/
8. ^ J. Tréfouël, J. Tréfouël, F.
Nitti and D. Bovet, Activite du
p-aminophenylsulfamide sur les
infections streptococciques, Comptes
Rendus Séances de la Societe de
Biologie, 120 (1935), pp. 756–762.
{Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf}
9. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/archives/e
_bov0.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
11. ^ J. Tréfouël,
J. Tréfouël, F. Nitti and D. Bovet,
Activite du p-aminophenylsulfamide sur
les infections streptococciques,
Comptes Rendus Séances de la Societe
de Biologie, 120 (1935), pp.
756–762. {Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf}
{11/23/1935}
12. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/archives/e
_bov0.html {1935}
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France8 9 10
 
[1] Figure from: J. Tréfouël, J.
Tréfouël, F. Nitti and D. Bovet,
Activite du p-aminophenylsulfamide sur
les infections streptococciques,
Comptes Rendus Séances de la Societe
de Biologie, 120 (1935), pp.
756–762.
{Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf

[2] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg
65 YBN
[??/?/1935 AD] 6 		5508)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fermi, Amaldi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5
(2), p. 280 (1934); Fermi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5 (2), p.
380 (1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5 (2), p. 381
(1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 5 (2), p. 467 (1934);
vol. 6 (1), p. 123 (1935).
{Fermi_Enrico_19340325c.pdf}
2. ^ E. Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E.
Fermi, B. Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E.
Segrè, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment. II",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868
(Apr. 10, 1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79 {Fermi_Enrico_19350215.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID5507. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Fermi, Amaldi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2,
p. 280 (1934); Fermi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 380
(1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 381 (1934);
Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 467 (1934); vol.
1, p. 123 (1935).
{Fermi_Enrico_19340325c.pdf}
6. ^ Fermi, Amaldi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2,
p. 280 (1934); Fermi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 380
(1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 381 (1934);
Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 467 (1934); vol.
1, p. 123
(1935). {Fermi_Enrico_19340325c.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
[13] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[14] E. Segre (Ed.): "Enrico Fermi:
Collected Papers" (Nore e Memorie),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
(Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
Roma) 1962, Vol. 1 , p. 640
[15] E Fermi,
"Le ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", Societa italiana per il
progresso, 1934
[16] ENRICO FERMI,
"Reactions Produced by Neutrons in
Heavy Elements", Nature 146, 640-642
(16 November
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v146/n3707/abs/146640a0.html
[17] E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, "On the
Absorption and the Diffusion of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 899–928
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i10/p899_1
[18] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783
[19] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy5
 
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 9 		4786)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p473.
3. ^ "Carrel, Alexis."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900797&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Alexis
Carrel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
8. ^ "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
9. ^ "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el {1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carrel, Alexis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
489>.
[2] "Alexis Carrel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carr
el
[3] Quoted in Andrés Horacio Reggiani.
Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics
and Population Research under Vichy
(French historical studies, 25:2 Spring
2002), p. 339. Also quoted in French by
Didier Daeninckx in Quand le
négationnisme s’invite à
l’université., on Amnistia.net
website
[4] Quoted in Szasz, Thomas. The
Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse
University Press, 1977.
[5] Carrel A, Guthrie
CC., "Functions of a transplanted
kidney, Science
1905;22:473 http://www.sciencemag.org/c
gi/reprint/22/563/473.pdf?ijkey=3fd812ba
500b7242d35bdbf85fd806af00b43325
[6] Carrel, The Surgery of Blood
Vessels, Bull., Johns Hopkins Hosp,
1907, v18, p18.
[7] Theodore Tuffier and
Alexis Carrel, "PATCHING AND SECTION OF
THE PULMONARY ORIFICE OF THE HEART", J
Exp Med 1914 20:3-8. Published July 1,
1914, doi:10.1084/jem.20.1.3
http://jem.rupress.org/content/20/1/3.
full.pdf+html
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA7
8  
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 6 		5014)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>.
6. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>. {1935}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704-705.
(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA5  
[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 5 		5037)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p712.
2. ^ "Leopold
Ružička." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 31
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/514383/Leopold-Ruzicka>.
3. ^ L. Ruzicka, A. Wettstein,
"Sexualhormone VII. Über die
künstliche Herstellung des
Testikelhormons Testosteron
(Androsten‐3‐on‐17‐ol)",
Helvetica Chimica Acta, Volume 18,
Issue 1, pages 1264–1275, 1935 "VII
sex hormones on the artificial
production of testosterone
Testikelhormons
(androstene-3-on-17-ol)" http://onlinel
ibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hlca.193501
801176/abstract
4. ^ "Leopold Ružička." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/514383/Leopold-Ruzicka>.
5. ^ L. Ruzicka, A. Wettstein,
"Sexualhormone VII. Über die
künstliche Herstellung des
Testikelhormons Testosteron
(Androsten‐3‐on‐17‐ol)",
Helvetica Chimica Acta, Volume 18,
Issue 1, pages 1264–1275, 1935 "VII
sex hormones on the artificial
production of testosterone
Testikelhormons
(androstene-3-on-17-ol)" http://onlinel
ibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hlca.193501
801176/abstract

MORE INFO
[1] L Ruzicka, "Constitution of
Muscone", Helv. Chim. Acta, 1926
[2] L
Ruzicka, "Zur Kenntnis des
Kohlenstoffringes I. Über die
Konstitution des Zibetons", Helvetica
Chimica Acta, Volume 9, Issue 1, pages
230–248,
1926. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19260090129/abstract "To
the attention of the carbon ring I. On
the constitution of the civetone"
[3] Ružička,
Leopold." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 764-765.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905308&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Sexualhormon,
trans-Dehydroandrosteron und des
Androsten-3, 17-dion", "Sex hormone,
and the trans-Dehydroandrosteron
androstene-3, 17-dione"
[5] Ruzicka, M. W.
Goldberg,. Jules Meyer, H. Brüngger,
E. Eichenberger, "Zur Kenntnis der
Sexualhormone II. Über die Synthese
des Testikelhormons (Androsteron) und
Stereoisomerer desselben durch Abbau
hydrierter Sterine", Helvetica Chimica
Acta, Volume 17, Issue 1, pages
1395–1406,
1934 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/hlca.193401701170/abstract
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland4
(presumably) 
[1] The image of Croat-Swiss Nobel
laureate Leopold Ružička
(1922-2008) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.hazu.hr/ENG/indexENG.html Da
te COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/06/Leopold_Ruzicka.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 4 		5055)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Paul
Karrer." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 31
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/312666/Paul-Karrer>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718. {1935}
(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland3  
[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 4 		5081)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Howard Northrop." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-howard
-northrop
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728.
3. ^ "John Howard
Northrop." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-howard
-northrop
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728. {1935}
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA3
 
[1] The image of American chemist and
Nobel laureate John Howard Northrop
(1891-1987) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/479/000100179
/ Date 16:12, 14 December 2008
(UTC) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3a/John_Howard_Northrop.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 8 		5094)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dunoyer De Segonzac, Louis
Dominique Joseph Armand." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 253-254. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901261&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ L. Dunoyer, Comptes Rendus, 202
(1936), 474–476; 220 (1945),
520–522, 686–688, 816–817,
907–909; 221 (1945), 97–99; 230
(1950), 57–58; 232 (1951),
1080–1082; 233 (1951), 125,
919–921. "stitution de l'aluminium,
déposé par évaporation dans le
vide, à l'argent déposé chimiquement
sur le verre pour les miroirs
de Diverses publications étrangères
ont montré, depuis quelques
mois, l'intérêt que présentait la
substitution de l'aluminium, déposé
par évaporation dans le vide, à
l'argent déposé chimiquement sur le
verre pour
les {Dunoyer_Louis_aluminized_mirror_
1935xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Dunoyer De Segonzac,
Louis Dominique Joseph Armand."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 253-254. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901261&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ L. Dunoyer, Comptes Rendus, 202
(1936), 474–476; 220 (1945),
520–522, 686–688, 816–817,
907–909; 221 (1945), 97–99; 230
(1950), 57–58; 232 (1951),
1080–1082; 233 (1951), 125,
919–921. "stitution de l'aluminium,
déposé par évaporation dans le
vide, à l'argent déposé chimiquement
sur le verre pour les miroirs
de Diverses publications étrangères
ont montré, depuis quelques
mois, l'intérêt que présentait la
substitution de l'aluminium, déposé
par évaporation dans le vide, à
l'argent déposé chimiquement sur le
verre pour
les {Dunoyer_Louis_aluminized_mirror_
1935xxxx.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Dunoyer De Segonzac,
Louis Dominique Joseph Armand."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 253-254. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901261&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1935}
8. ^ "Dunoyer De
Segonzac, Louis Dominique Joseph
Armand." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 253-254.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901261&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1935}

MORE INFO
[1] L. Dunoyer, Comptes Rendus,
152 (1911), 592–595; 153 (1911).
333–336; 154 (1912), 815–818,
1344–1346; 155 (1912), 144–147,
270–273; 157 (1913), 1068–1070; 158
(1914), 1068–1071, 1265–1267,
written with R. W. Wood; Bulletin de la
Société française de physique, four
memoirs between 1912 and 1914; Journal
de physique et radium, 185 (1913);
Collection de mémoirs relatifs à la
physique (1912); Radium, seven memoirs
between 1910 and 1914
[2] L. Dunoyer, "Sur
la théorie cinétique des gaz et la
réalisation d'un rayonnement matériel
d'origine", Comptes Rendus, 1911. "On
the kinetic theory of gases and the
production of a radiation source
material"
[3] L. Dunoyer, "Sur la réalisation
d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale" "On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics", Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf
(Institut d’Optique) Paris, France7
 		 
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 13 		5166) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1947 is divided, one half
jointly to Carl Ferdinand Cori and
Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz "for
their discovery of the course of the
catalytic conversion of glycogen" and
the other half to Bernardo Alberto
Houssay "for his discovery of the part
played by the hormone of the anterior
pituitary lobe in the metabolism of
sugar".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cori, C.F. and G.T. Cori.
“Mechanism of formation of
hexosemonophosphate in muscle and
isolation of a new phosphate ester.”
Proceedings of the Society for
Experimental Biology and Medicine. 34
(1936): 702-5.
2. ^ Cori, C.F., G.T. Cori, and
A.H. Hegnauer. “Resynthesis of muscle
glycogen from hexosemonophosphate.”
Journal of Biological Chemistry. 120
(1937): 193-202.
3. ^ "Gerty Theresa Radnitz
Cori." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-ferdin
and-cori
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p753-754.
5. ^ "Gerty Theresa
Radnitz Cori." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-ferdin
and-cori
6. ^ "Gerty Theresa Radnitz Cori." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-ferdin
and-cori
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p753-754.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1947".
Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1947/
12. ^ "Gerty Theresa Radnitz Cori." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-ferdin
and-cori
13. ^ "Gerty Theresa Radnitz Cori." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-ferdin
and-cori {1935}
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA12  
[1] Drs. Carl and Gerty Cori in their
laboratory at the Washington University
School of Medicine in St. Louis,
Missouri, 1947. Source: U.S National
Library of Medicine, Images from the
History of Medicine
Collection Photographer
unknown provided by National Library
of Medicine PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1947/cori_cori_lab
_photo.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 12 		5325)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793-794.
2. ^ "Hugo Theorell."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-theore
ll
3. ^ "apoenzyme." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apoenzyme
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793-794.
5. ^ "Hugo Theorell."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-theore
ll
6. ^ H Theorell, "Quantitative
Bestrahlungsversuche an gelbem Ferment,
Flavinphosphorsaure und Lacto-flavin",
Biochem. Ztschr, 1935
7. ^ H Theorell, Ober
die Wirkungsgruppe des gelben Ferments,
Biochem, 1935.
8. ^ "Hugo Theorell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-theore
ll
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793-794.
11. ^ "Hugo
Theorell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-theore
ll
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793-794. {1935}

MORE INFO
[1] H Theorell, "Kristallinisches
myoglobin", Biochemische Zeitschrift,
1932
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1955". Nobelprize.org. 18 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/med
icine/laureates/1955/
(Uppsala University) Uppsala, Sweden11
 
[1] Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1955/theorell.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 5 		6037)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "George Gershwin." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gers
hwin
2. ^ "George Gershwin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/231877/George-Gershwin>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Porgy and Bess".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_B
ess
5. ^ "George Gershwin." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gers
hwin {1935}
New York City, New York, USA4
(verify) 
[1] Description English: George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date 28
March 1937 Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division, Van Vechten Collection,
reproduction number LC-USZ62-42534 DLC
(b&w film copy neg.). Author
[show]Carl Van Vechten (1880–1964)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Permission (Reusing this
file) Yes Description George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date Source
Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division, Van Vechten
Collection, reproduction number
LC-USZ62-42534 DLC (b&w film copy
neg.). Author [show]Carl Van
Vechten (1880–1964) Link back to
Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.
jpg
64 YBN
[01/??/1936 AD] 10 11 		6319) Humason started as a janitor at
the Mount Wilson observatory, and was
the assistant of Hubble.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
2. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728-729.
4. ^ Humason, M. L.,
"The Apparent Radial Velocities of 100
Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
5. ^ ML Humason, NU Mayall, AR
Sandage, "Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.", The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H {Humason_Milton_1956
04xx.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Hubble, E. P., "The realm
of the nebulae", Yale University Press,
1936, p117.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728-729.
9. ^ Humason, M. L.,
"The Apparent Radial Velocities of 100
Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
10. ^ Humason, M. L., "The
Apparent Radial Velocities of 100
Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
11. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] Hubble, E. & Humason, M. L,
"The Velocity-Distance Relation among
Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 74, p.43
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA9  
[1] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}

[2] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
64 YBN
[02/13/1936 AD] 12 		5457)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bovet D., Staub A., "Action
protectrice des éthers phénoliques au
cours de l’intoxication
histaminique." C. R. Seances Soc. Biol.
Fil. (1936),
124:547–549. {Bovet_Daniele_19360213.
pdf} English: "Protective action of
phenolic ethers in histamine
poisoning."
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
3. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/archives/e
_bov0.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
5. ^ "Daniel Bovet."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bovet-danie
l
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
7. ^ S. J. Hill, et
al, "International Union of
Pharmacology. XIII. Classification of
Histamine Receptors", Pharmacological
Reviews September 1, 1997 vol. 49
no. 3
253-278. http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.
org/content/49/3/253.full#xref-ref-40-1
8. ^ "anaphylaxis." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anaphylaxis

9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/archives/e
_bov0.html
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
12. ^ Bovet D., Staub
A., "Action protectrice des éthers
phénoliques au cours de
l’intoxication histaminique." C. R.
Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. (1936),
124:547–549. {Bovet_Daniele_19360213.
pdf} English: "Protective action of
phenolic ethers in histamine
poisoning." {02/13/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1957".
Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1957/
[2] J. Tréfouël, J. Tréfouël, F.
Nitti and D. Bovet, Activite du
p-aminophenylsulfamide sur les
infections streptococciques, Comptes
Rendus Séances de la Societe de
Biologie, 120 (1935), pp. 756–762.
[3]
http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/archives/e
_bov0.html
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France10 11
 
[1] Figure from: [1] Bovet D., Staub
A., ''Action protectrice des éthers
phénoliques au cours de
l’intoxication histaminique.'' C. R.
Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. (1936),
124:547–549. {Bovet_Daniele_19360213.
pdf} English: ''Protective action of
phenolic ethers in histamine
poisoning.'' COPYRIGHTED
source: Bovet_Daniele_19360213.pdf

[2] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg
64 YBN
[03/11/1936 AD] 13 		5496) In 1934 Katz leaves Germany for
Britain.10

In 1970, the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is awarded jointly to Sir
Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler and Julius
Axelrod "for their discoveries
concerning the humoral transmittors in
the nerve terminals and the mechanism
for their storage, release and
inactivation".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
2. ^ "Sir Bernard
Katz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 14
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/313400/Sir-Bernard-Katz>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
11. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970".
Nobelprize.org. 15 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1970/
12. ^ Bernhard Katz, "Neuromuscular
Transmission in Crabs", Journal of
Physiology, 1936,
p199 http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3/
199.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19360311.pd
f}
13. ^ Bernhard Katz, "Neuromuscular
Transmission in Crabs", Journal of
Physiology, 1936,
p199 http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3/
199.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19360311.pd
f} {03/11/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] Bernhard Katz, "Multiple
Response to Constant Current in Frog's
Medullated Nerve", Journal of
Physiology, 1936, p239
(University College) London, England12
 
[1] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg
64 YBN
[03/28/1936 AD] 6 		5346)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
2. ^ G. Gamow and E.
Teller, "Selection Rules for the
β-Disintegration", Phys. Rev. 49,
895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1 {Gamow_George_19360328
.pdf}
3. ^ "George Gamow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/225123/George-Gamow>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ G. Gamow and E. Teller,
"Selection Rules for the
β-Disintegration", Phys. Rev. 49,
895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1 {Gamow_George_19360328
.pdf}
6. ^ G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Selection
Rules for the β-Disintegration", Phys.
Rev. 49, 895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1 {Gamow_George_19360328
.pdf} {03/28/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gamow." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gamo
w
[2] G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
[3] RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON ,
"Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html
[4] "Gamow, George." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 271-273. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901576&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA5  
[1] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg
64 YBN
[05/27/1936 AD] 8 		5134) Szent-Györgyi isolates flavones
that can change the permeability of
capillaries, in other words how easily
substances can pass through the
capillary walls. It is not clear if
these are vitamins, but for some time
are called “vitamin P”.5

Szent-Gyorgyi writes:
"VARIOUS chemical and
clinical observations have led to the
assumption that ascorbic acid is
accompanied in the cell by a substance
of similar importance and related
activity. In absence of both
substances, the symptoms of lack of
ascorbic acid (scurvy) prevail and
conceal symptoms of the deficiency of
the second substance. In the lack of
suitable experimental animals or
conditions, progress was dependent on
spontaneous pathological conditions,
caused or influenced by this second
factor.
In collaboration with L. Armentano
and A. Bensath, we have dounf that in
certain pathological conditions,
characterised by an increased
permeability or fragility of the
capillary wall, ascorbic acid is
ineffective, while the condition can
readilyu be cured by the administration
of extracts of hungarian red pepper
('vitapric') or lemon juice. The
extracts were effective in cases of
decreased resistance of the capillary
wall toward whole blood (vascular type
of haemorrhagic purpura) as well as in
cases in which the capillary wall
showed an increased permeability
towards plasma protein only (various
septic conditions). The extracts were
fractinoated. The active substance was
found in the end in a fraction
consisting of preactivcally pure flavon
or flavonol glycoside. 40 mgm. of this
fraction given daily intravenously to
man restored in a fortnight regularly
the normal capillary resistance.
Spontaneous bleeding ceased, the
capillary walls lost their fragility
towards pressure differences and no
more plasma protein left the vascular
system on increased venous pressure.

These results suggest that this great
group of vegtable dyes, the flavons or
flavonols, also play an important role
in animal life, and that the dyes are
of vitamin nature. The group is not to
be confused with the yellow dye,
discovered by one of us and termed
'flaves' (like cytoflave), which dye
forms the prosthetic group of Warburg's
yellow enzyme and has later been
renamed by R. Kuhn 'flavins'. We
propose to give the name 'vitamin P' to
the substance responsible for the
action on vascular permeability.
...".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
2. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-szen
t-gy-rgyi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
6. ^ Albert
Szent-Györgyi, "Vitamin P: Flavonols
as Vitamins", Nature 138, 27-27 (04
July
1936). {Szent-Gyorgyi_Albert_19360527.p
df}
7. ^ Albert Szent-Györgyi, "Vitamin P:
Flavonols as Vitamins", Nature 138,
27-27 (04 July
1936). {Szent-Gyorgyi_Albert_19360527.p
df}
8. ^ Albert Szent-Györgyi, "Vitamin P:
Flavonols as Vitamins", Nature 138,
27-27 (04 July
1936). {Szent-Gyorgyi_Albert_19360527.p
df} {05/27/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] Albert Szent-Györgyi,
"Chemistry of muscular contraction",
Academic Press, 1947, 1951.
[2] "Albert
Szent-Györgyi, Mechanism of
Respiration", Nature 135, 305-305 (23
February 1935)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
135/n3408/abs/135305b0.html
(University of Szeged) Szeged, Hungary7
 
[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg
64 YBN
[05/28/1936 AD] 9 		5563) In March 1952 Turing is
prosecuted for homosexuality, then a
crime in Britain, and sentenced to 12
months of hormone "therapy".4

Turing dies of potassium cyanide, which
is ruled a suicide but could have been
an accident.5 (Could have been murder
- only the dust-sized camera images
would reveal if true.6 )

(Much of the public views on computers
and artificial intelligence is of
little value - in particular because
nobody imagined that flying and walking
cameras, seeing thought-images and
hearing thought-sounds, and artificial
muscle robots would be a common
occurance. Knowing and seeing these
things vastly changes the view on what
thought is, and how truth can be viewed
as more of a sensory match phenomenon,
and a three space dimension and 1 time
dimension problem. But beyond that - my
own preference is for the practical
application of logic in developing
walking robots that can clean, cook,
drive, etc - provide productive support
for humans.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. M. Turing, "On computable
numbers", Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society, (1937), volume:
2 issue: 42 page:
230. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=5&sqi=2&ved=0CD8QFjAE&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fplms.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcont
ent%2Fs2-42%2F1%2F230.full.pdf&rct=j&q=o
n%20computable%20numbers%20turing&ei=wMa
OTbxyyIPRAYWZ9bUL&usg=AFQjCNHGHvxE4C_jka
Hozs9BEhh4Pf8JGA&cad=rja
{Turing_Alan_Mathison_19360528.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p843-844.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p473.
4. ^ "Alan M. Turing."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/609739/Alan-M-Turing>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p843-844.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ A. M. Turing, "On computable
numbers", Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society, (1937), volume:
2 issue: 42 page:
230. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=5&sqi=2&ved=0CD8QFjAE&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fplms.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcont
ent%2Fs2-42%2F1%2F230.full.pdf&rct=j&q=o
n%20computable%20numbers%20turing&ei=wMa
OTbxyyIPRAYWZ9bUL&usg=AFQjCNHGHvxE4C_jka
Hozs9BEhh4Pf8JGA&cad=rja
{Turing_Alan_Mathison_19360528.pdf}
9. ^ A. M. Turing, "On computable
numbers", Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society, (1937), volume:
2 issue: 42 page:
230. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=5&sqi=2&ved=0CD8QFjAE&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fplms.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcont
ent%2Fs2-42%2F1%2F230.full.pdf&rct=j&q=o
n%20computable%20numbers%20turing&ei=wMa
OTbxyyIPRAYWZ9bUL&usg=AFQjCNHGHvxE4C_jka
Hozs9BEhh4Pf8JGA&cad=rja
{Turing_Alan_Mathison_19360528.pdf}
{05/28/1936}
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA8  
[1] Description Alan
Turing Source
http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs
_sscs/sscs/08Spring/KFig6_turing.jpg Ar
ticle Alan Turing Portion used
All Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To show
how he looks like Replaceable? No
free photographic replacement
found COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Alan_Turing_photo.jpg
64 YBN
[06/22/1936 AD] 8 9 		5137)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
2. ^ "Edward Adelbert
Doisy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
3. ^ "Edward Adelbert Doisy." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
4. ^ D. W. MAcCORQUODALE, SIDNEY A.
THAYER, AND EDWARD A. DOISY, "THE
ISOLATION OF THE PRINCIPAL ESTROGENIC
SUBSTANCE OF LIQUOR FOLLICULI",
September 1, 1936 The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 115, p435-448.
http://www.jbc.org/content/115/2/435.s
hort {Doisy_Edward_19360622.pdf}
5. ^ D. W. MAcCORQUODALE, SIDNEY A.
THAYER, AND EDWARD A. DOISY, "THE
ISOLATION OF THE PRINCIPAL ESTROGENIC
SUBSTANCE OF LIQUOR FOLLICULI",
September 1, 1936 The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 115, p435-448.
http://www.jbc.org/content/115/2/435.s
hort {Doisy_Edward_19360622.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Edward Adelbert Doisy."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2011. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
8. ^ D. W. MAcCORQUODALE, SIDNEY A.
THAYER, AND EDWARD A. DOISY, "THE
ISOLATION OF THE PRINCIPAL ESTROGENIC
SUBSTANCE OF LIQUOR FOLLICULI",
September 1, 1936 The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 115, p435-448.
http://www.jbc.org/content/115/2/435.s
hort {Doisy_Edward_19360622.pdf}
{06/22/1936}
9. ^ "Edward Adelbert Doisy." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert {1936}

MORE INFO
[1] EDWARD A. DOISY, CLEMENT D.
VELER, AND SIDNEY THAYER, "The
preparation of the crystalline ovarian
hormone from the urine of pregnant
women", April 1, 1930 The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, V86, p499-509.
http://www.jbc.org/content/86/2/499.sh
ort
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
[3] "Edward Adelbert
Doisy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
(St. Louis University) St. Louis,
Missouri, USA7  
[1] Figure 1 from: D. W.
MAcCORQUODALE, SIDNEY A. THAYER, AND
EDWARD A. DOISY, ''THE ISOLATION OF THE
PRINCIPAL ESTROGENIC SUBSTANCE OF
LIQUOR FOLLICULI'', September 1, 1936
The Journal of Biological Chemistry,
115, p435-448.
http://www.jbc.org/content/115/2/435.s
hort {Doisy_Edward_19360622.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/115/2
/435.short

[2] Description The image of
American Nobel laureate Edward Adelbert
Doisy (1893-1986). Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/859/000128475
/ Date uploaded: 18:39, 23 July
2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/71/Edward_A._Doisy.jpg
64 YBN
[07/15/1936 AD] 10 		5359) In 1970, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided equally between
Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén "for
fundamental work and discoveries in
magnetohydro- dynamics with fruitful
applications in different parts of
plasma physics" and Louis Eugène
Félix Néel "for fundamental work and
discoveries concerning
antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism
which have led to important
applications in solid state physics".8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p802-803.
2. ^
"Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407917/Louis-Eugene-Felix-Neel>. ?
3. ^
Michel Prévot et David Dunlop, "LOUIS
NEEL: FORTY YEARS OF
MAGNETISM". http://www.google.com/url?s
a=t&source=web&cd=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQFjAA&
url=http%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.f
r%2Fdocs%2F00%2F05%2F39%2F82%2FPDF%2FNee
l40years_English.pdf&rct=j&q=Propri%C3%A
9t%C3%A9s%20magn%C3%A9tiques%20des%20fer
rites%3B%20ferrimagn%C3%A9tisme%20et%20a
ntiferromagn%C3%A9tisme&ei=X0ViTd6bBYqCs
QOrhvnECA&usg=AFQjCNHZfakgO81y8kWEjYyTjW
RhG6JVBw&cad=rja
4. ^ "Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407917/Louis-Eugene-Felix-Neel>. ?
5. ^
L. Néel (1936b). Théorie du
paramagnétisme constant; application
au manganèse. C. R. Acad. Sc., 203,
304-306.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
3155r/f304.image
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physics 1970". Nobelprize.org. 21
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1970/
9. ^ "Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407917/Louis-Eugene-Felix-Neel>.
10. ^ L. Néel (1936b). Théorie du
paramagnétisme constant; application
au manganèse. C. R. Acad. Sc., 203,
304-306.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
3155r/f304.image {07/15/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] L. Néel (1948a).
Propriétés magnétiques des ferrites.
Ferrimagnétisme et
antiferromagnétisme. Ann. Phys., 3,
137-198.
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
France9  
[1] Louis-Eugène-Félix
Néel UNKNOWN
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcQGt2LVIvBJx7sasmw50PKhmzJQBJbsi
OSay82m-BrTDDOaoEh5&t=1
64 YBN
[07/23/1936 AD] 5 		5270)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
2. ^ John H.
Lawrence, Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest
O. Lawrence, "Comparative Effects of
X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor
Tissue", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1936
September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/ {Lawrence_Ernest_1936072
3.pdf}
3. ^ John H. Lawrence, Paul C.
Aebersold, and Ernest O. Lawrence,
"Comparative Effects of X-Rays and
Neutrons on Normal and Tumor Tissue",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1936
September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/ {Lawrence_Ernest_1936072
3.pdf}
4. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of High Speed
Canal Rays without the Use of High
Voltages", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1
(Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
5. ^ John H. Lawrence, Paul C.
Aebersold, and Ernest O. Lawrence,
"Comparative Effects of X-Rays and
Neutrons on Normal and Tumor Tissue",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1936
September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/ {Lawrence_Ernest_1936072
3.pdf} {07/23/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1939". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1939/
[2] Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Ionization
of Atoms by Electron Impact", Phys.
Rev. 28, 947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1
[3] Ernest O. Lawrence and J. W. Beams,
"On the Nature of Light", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1927 April; 13(4):
207–212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1084928/
[4] Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, "The
Photoelectric Effect in Potassium
Vapour as a Function of the Frequency
of Light.", Thesis (PH.D.)--YALE
UNIVERSITY, 1925.Source: American
Doctoral Dissertations, Source code:
L1925., page: 0094.
[5] Ernest O. Lawrence,
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High
Speed ions Without the Use of High
Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2021_1
[7] Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley
Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High
Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i4/p834_1
[8] "Ernest Orlando Lawrence."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/332920/Ernest-Orlando-Lawrence>.
[9] E. O. Lawrence and N. E. Edlefsen,
"On the Production of High Speed
protons", Science, 72, No. 1867, 376
(1930).
[10] John H. Lawrence and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "The Biological Action of
Neutron Rays", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 22, No.
2 (Feb. 15, 1936), pp.
124-133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86
398
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA4  
[1] Figures 4 and 5 from: John H.
Lawrence, Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest
O. Lawrence, ''Comparative Effects of
X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor
Tissue'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1936 September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/ {Lawrence_Ernest_1936072
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1076813/

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
64 YBN
[08/08/1936 AD] 7 		5479)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. Grey Walter, "THE LOCATION OF
CEREBRAL TUMOURS BY
ELECTRO-ENCEPHALOGRAPHY", The
Lancet Volume 228, Issue 5893, 8
August 1936, Pages
305-308. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-49MDRHS
-R5&_user=4422&_coverDate=08%2F08%2F1936
&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin
=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acc
t=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_u
serid=4422&md5=04c54a327508d7b86d4751c4a
41f2eeb&searchtype=a {Walter_William_Gr
ey_19360808.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p832-838.
3. ^ "William Grey
Walter." Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 13 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-gre
y-walter
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ F. Golla, W. Grey Walter,
and G. W. T. H. Fleming, "Electrically
Induced Convulsions", (Section of
Psychiatry), Proc R Soc Med. 1940
March; 33(5): 261–267.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1997420/ {Walter_William_Grey_194
00109.pdf}
6. ^ W. Grey Walter, "THE LOCATION OF
CEREBRAL TUMOURS BY
ELECTRO-ENCEPHALOGRAPHY", The
Lancet Volume 228, Issue 5893, 8
August 1936, Pages
305-308. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-49MDRHS
-R5&_user=4422&_coverDate=08%2F08%2F1936
&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin
=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acc
t=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_u
serid=4422&md5=04c54a327508d7b86d4751c4a
41f2eeb&searchtype=a {Walter_William_Gr
ey_19360808.pdf}
7. ^ W. Grey Walter, "THE LOCATION OF
CEREBRAL TUMOURS BY
ELECTRO-ENCEPHALOGRAPHY", The
Lancet Volume 228, Issue 5893, 8
August 1936, Pages
305-308. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-49MDRHS
-R5&_user=4422&_coverDate=08%2F08%2F1936
&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin
=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acc
t=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_u
serid=4422&md5=04c54a327508d7b86d4751c4a
41f2eeb&searchtype=a {Walter_William_Gr
ey_19360808.pdf} {08/08/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] Walter, "An imitation of
life", Scientific American, (May 1950)
volume: 182 issue: 5 page:
42-45. http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf
[2] Walter, "The electrical activity of
the brain", Annual Review of
Physiology, (1949) volume: 11 issue:
1 page:
199. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/a
bs/10.1146/annurev.ph.11.030149.001215
[Walter_William_Grey_1949xxxx.pdf}
(The Central Pathological Laboratory
and the Hospital for Epilepsy and
Paralysis) Maida Vale, United Kingdom6
 
[1] Dr. W. Grey Walter UNKNOWN
source: http://cyberneticzoo.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/09/ELMER-p1-825x1024.jp
g
64 YBN
[08/10/1936 AD] 5 		5540)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
2. ^ B. Cassen and E. U. Condon, "On
Nuclear Forces", Phys. Rev. 50,
846–849
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i9/p846_1 {Condon_Edward_19360810
.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ B. Cassen and E. U.
Condon, "On Nuclear Forces", Phys. Rev.
50, 846–849
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i9/p846_1 {Condon_Edward_19360810
.pdf}
5. ^ B. Cassen and E. U. Condon, "On
Nuclear Forces", Phys. Rev. 50,
846–849
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i9/p846_1 {Condon_Edward_19360810
.pdf} {08/10/1936}
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA4  		 
64 YBN
[08/14/1936 AD] 13 		5344)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p798-799.
2. ^ John J. Bittner,
"Some Possible Effects of Nursing on
the Mammary Gland Tumor Incidence in
Mice" (p. 162), Science, New Series,
Vol. 84, No. 2172, Aug. 14,
1936. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16612
86 {Bittner_John_J_19360814.pdf}
3. ^ "John Joseph Bittner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-joseph
-bittner
4. ^ John J. Bittner, "THE
MILK-INFLUENCE OF BREAST TUMORS IN
MICE", Science 1 May 1942: Vol. 95
no. 2470 pp.
462-463. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/95/2470/462.abstract
5. ^ Graff, S., Moore, D. H., Stanley,
W. M., Randall, H. T. and Haagensen, C.
D. (1949), Isolation of mouse mammary
carcinoma virus. Cancer, 2: 755–762.
6. ^ "Mouse
Mammery Tumor Virus" A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mouse-mamma
ry-tumor-virus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p798-799.
8. ^ Graff, S.,
Moore, D. H., Stanley, W. M., Randall,
H. T. and Haagensen, C. D. (1949),
Isolation of mouse mammary carcinoma
virus. Cancer, 2: 755–762.
9. ^ "Mouse Mammery
Tumor Virus" A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mouse-mamma
ry-tumor-virus
10. ^ John J. Bittner, "Some Possible
Effects of Nursing on the Mammary Gland
Tumor Incidence in Mice" (p. 162),
Science, New Series, Vol. 84, No. 2172,
Aug. 14,
1936. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16612
86 {Bittner_John_J_19360814.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ John J. Bittner, "Some
Possible Effects of Nursing on the
Mammary Gland Tumor Incidence in Mice"
(p. 162), Science, New Series, Vol. 84,
No. 2172, Aug. 14,
1936. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16612
86 {Bittner_John_J_19360814.pdf}
13. ^ John J. Bittner, "Some Possible
Effects of Nursing on the Mammary Gland
Tumor Incidence in Mice" (p. 162),
Science, New Series, Vol. 84, No. 2172,
Aug. 14,
1936. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16612
86 {Bittner_John_J_19360814.pdf}
{08/14/1936}
(Jackson Laboratory) Bar Harbor, Maine,
USA12  
[1] John Joseph Bittner COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.or
g/content/22/3/393.full.pdf+html
64 YBN
[08/17/1936 AD] 5 		5336)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, "Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 486–487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Dana P. Mitchell
and Philip N. Powers, "Bragg Reflection
of Slow Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50,
486–487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf}
5. ^ Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, "Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 486–487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf} {08/17/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p447.
[4] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[6] E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione del
gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren. Lincei,
3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted in:
Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1, p178.
[7] E. Fermi, W.
J. Sturm, and R. G. Sachs, "The
Transmission of Slow Neutrons through
Microcrystalline Materials", Phys. Rev.
71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1
[8] O. Halpern, M. Hamermesh, and M. H.
Johnson, "The Passage of Neutrons
Through Crystals and Polycrystals",
Phys. Rev. 59, 981–996
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i12/p981_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA4  		 
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 2 		3979)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.google.com/books?id=AKyuk5YDQ
C8C&pg=PA161&dq=The+Liquid+Crystal+Light
+Valve+marconi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=The%
20Liquid%20Crystal%20Light%20Valve%20mar
coni&f=false
2. ^
http://www.google.com/books?id=AKyuk5YDQ
C8C&pg=PA161&dq=The+Liquid+Crystal+Light
+Valve+marconi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=The%
20Liquid%20Crystal%20Light%20Valve%20mar
coni&f=false {1936}
  
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 7 		4486) Broom wrongly believes that with
the human species evolution has come to
an end and the evolution of humans
represents the sixth and final day of
creation as in Genesis.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612-613.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p612-613.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612-613.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p612-613.
5. ^
"Australopithecus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-2500
22>.
6. ^ "Robert Broom." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-broo
m
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612-613. {1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "Broom, Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-506. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900660&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Broom". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Broo
m
Sterkfontein, Transvaal, South Africa5
6  
[1] English: Portrait of Robert Broom
(1866-1951) Date 2008-12-05
(original upload date) (Original text
: unknown) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Anrie using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
http://paleo.amnh.org/portraits/index.ht
ml American Museum of Natural History,
Division of Paleontology, Archived
Portraits of Paleontologists and
Members of Staff) Author unknown
Original uploader was Rotational at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Robert_Broom00.jpg
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 22 23 		4848)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p654.
2. ^
"psychosurgery." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 01 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psychosurge
ry
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p654.
4. ^ "lobotomy." The
New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy,
Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2002. Answers.com 01 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lobotomy
5. ^ E. Moniz, "Tentatives opératoires
dans le traitement de certaines
psychoses" (Tentative methods in the
treatment of certain psychoses), Paris
: Masson, 1936. also in: J Am Med
Assoc.
1937;108(21):1828. http://jama.ama-assn
.org/cgi/content/summary/108/21/1828-g
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ E. Moniz, "Tentatives
opératoires dans le traitement de
certaines psychoses" (Tentative methods
in the treatment of certain psychoses),
Paris : Masson, 1936. also in: J Am
Med Assoc.
1937;108(21):1828. http://jama.ama-assn
.org/cgi/content/summary/108/21/1828-g
8. ^ E. Moniz, "Tentatives opératoires
dans le traitement de certaines
psychoses" (Tentative methods in the
treatment of certain psychoses), Paris
: Masson, 1936. also in: J Am Med
Assoc.
1937;108(21):1828. http://jama.ama-assn
.org/cgi/content/summary/108/21/1828-g
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Egas Moniz -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 29 Oct 2010
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/med
icine/laureates/1949/moniz-bio.html
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Egas Moniz, Antonio
Caetano De Abreu Freire." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901284&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "Egas Moniz, Antonio
Caetano De Abreu Freire." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901284&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ "António Egas Moniz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/180095/Antonio-Egas-Moniz>.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Egas Moniz,
Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901284&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
22. ^ "António Egas Moniz."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/180095/Antonio-Egas-Moniz>. {1936}
23. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p654. {1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "Egas Moniz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 28 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/moniz-anton
io-caetano-de-abreu-freire-egas
[2] "Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire
Egas Moniz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Cae
tano_De_Abreu_Freire_Egas_Moniz
(University of Lisbon) Lisbon,
Portugal21  
[1] translation of descirption of
surgical instrument p195: il est
constitue essentiellement par une
canule de metal avec 11 cm. de longueur
et 2 mm. de diametre externe (fig. 26
(I)). Une de ces extremites (2) est
fermee et arrondie, l'autre ouverte
(3), s'elargissant de maniere a former
un manchon ou s'adapte la tete ou piece
a commande du leucotome (4). A 5mm.
de l'extremite, il y a une ouverture en
fente longitudinale (5) avec 1 cm. de
longueur et a peu pres 1 mm. de
largeur. En dedans de la canule
existe un fil en acier de 1 mm. de
diametre. Il est attache a l'extremite
arrondie de la sonde et il est de 1 cm.
plus long que la canule. L'autre
extremite du fil qui, etant plus long
(6) sort de la canule, est liee a une
piece independante de la canule (4),
piece qui peut s'adapter au manchon
terminal de la sonde (3). Quand on
veut faire la coupe de la substance
blanche du lobe prefrontal, on force le
fil en dedans de la sonde jusqu'a
adapter la piece (4) au canon.
L'excedent du fil sort alors par la
fente longitudinale (5) formant l'anse
(7) qu'on voit dans la figure 27, de 0
cm, 5 dans la plus grande largeur.
C'est cette anse qui, en tournant
l'appareil, fait les coupes dans les
centres ovales des lobes prefrontaux.
La canule doit etre divisee en
centimetres comptes du milieu de la
fente longitudinal. La numeration
doit etre bien visible. Sans cela, il
est impossible de bien calculer le
point ouu la coupe devra etre
faite. ''It is essentially a metal
tube with 11 cm. long and 2 mm. outer
diameter (Fig. 26 (I)). One of these
ends (2) is closed and rounded, the
other open (3), wider so as to form a
sleeve or fits the head piece or a
control leucotomy (4). A 5mm. of
extremity, there is an opening in the
longitudinal slot (5) with 1 cm. in
length and about 1 mm. wide. Inside
of the tube is a steel wire of 1 mm.
diameter. It is attached to the rounded
end of the probe and it is 1 cm. longer
than the tube. The other end of the
wire, being longer (6) out of the tube,
is related to a separate part of the
tube (4), piece that can adapt to the
sleeve terminal of the probe (3).
When you want to cut the white matter
of the prefrontal lobe, forcing the
wire inside the probe to adjust the
play (4) to the barrel. The excess wire
then exits through the longitudinal
slot (5) forming the loop (7) we see in
Figure 27, 0 cm, 5 in the largest
width. It is this loop which, by
rotating the device, made the cuts in
the centers of the prefrontal lobes
oval. The cannula should be divided
into centimeters accounts of the middle
of the longitudinal slot. The
numerator should be clearly visible.
Otherwise, it is impossible to fully
calculate the point at which the cut
will be made....''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Moniz.jpg

[2] Description Moniz.jpg English:
Nobel prize winner Egas Moniz Date
before 1955(1955) Source
nobelprize.org Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-Sweden-photo PD
source:
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 6 		5012)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p704.
3. ^ "Williams,
Robert Runnels." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 392-394.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904666&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704.
5. ^ "Williams,
Robert Runnels." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 392-394.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904666&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704. {1936}
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA5  		 
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 11 12 		5028)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Cumming Rose." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709.
3. ^ "William Cumming
Rose." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "William
Cumming Rose." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709. {1935}
12. ^ "William
Cumming Rose." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose {1936}

MORE INFO
[1] WC Rose, "Feeding experiments
with mixtures of highly purified amino
acids", Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 1934 -
ASBMB. http://www.jbc.org/content/107/1
/57.full.pdf
[2] WC Rose, "The nutritive
significance of the amino acids and
certain related compounds", Science 1
October 1937:
298-300. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/86/2231/298.citation
(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois10  
[1] WILLIAM CUMMING ROSE UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wrose.GIF
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 8 9 		5116) Haldane is an assistant to his
father at age 8.4
Haldane is an
outspoken atheist.5
In the 1930s
Haldane supports Communism, helps
refugees from Nazi Germany, but then
leaves the Communist party, although
remains a Marxist, becoming
disillusioned at the rise of Lysenko
under Stalin.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p736-737.
2. ^ "Haldane, John
Burdon Sanderson." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
21-23. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 14 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901816&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p736-737.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p736-737.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p736-737.
7. ^ "J. B. S.
Haldane." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-b-s-halda
ne
8. ^ "Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 21-23. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901816&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1936}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p736-737. {1932}

MORE INFO
[1] J. B. S. Haldane, "The Part
Played by Recurrent Mutation in
Evolution", The American Naturalist,
Vol. 67, No. 708 (Jan. - Feb., 1933),
pp.
5-19. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24571
27
(University College) London, England7
 
[1] English: J.B.S. Haldane, in Oxford
UK, 1914. Image downloaded from
http://students.washington.edu/gw0/moder
nsynthesis/images/haldane.png and
converted to JPG. Date 2006-12-11
(first version); 2006-07-17 (last
version) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Richard001 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bunzil at en.wikipedia.
Later version(s) were uploaded by
Isoar4jc, Lloyd Wood at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/J._B._S._Haldane.jpg
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 4 5 		5117)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p736-737.
2. ^ "J. B. S.
Haldane." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-b-s-halda
ne
3. ^ "J. B. S. Haldane." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-b-s-halda
ne
4. ^ "Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 21-23. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901816&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1936}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p736-737. {1932}

MORE INFO
[1] J. B. S. Haldane, "The Part
Played by Recurrent Mutation in
Evolution", The American Naturalist,
Vol. 67, No. 708 (Jan. - Feb., 1933),
pp.
5-19. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24571
27
(University College) London, England3
 
[1] English: J.B.S. Haldane, in Oxford
UK, 1914. Image downloaded from
http://students.washington.edu/gw0/moder
nsynthesis/images/haldane.png and
converted to JPG. Date 2006-12-11
(first version); 2006-07-17 (last
version) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Richard001 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bunzil at en.wikipedia.
Later version(s) were uploaded by
Isoar4jc, Lloyd Wood at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
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64 YBN
[1936 AD] 11 		5140) In 1935 the Soviet government
establishes a biochemical institute in
Oparin's honor in Moscow.8
In 1946
Oparin becomes the director of the
biochemical institute in Moscow.9
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Aleksandr Oparin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429565/Aleksandr-Oparin>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
3. ^ A. Oparin,
translated by S. Morgulis,
"Vozniknovenie zhizni na zemle" ("The
Origin of Life"), 1936, 1938, 1953.
4. ^
Sidney W. Fox, Kaoru Harada and Jean
Kendrick, "Production of Spherules from
Synthetic Proteinoid and Hot Water",
Science, New Series, Vol. 129, No. 3357
(May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf}
5. ^ "coacervate." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 22 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coacervate
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
7. ^ "coacervate." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 22
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coacervate
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
10. ^ "Aleksandr
Oparin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429565/Aleksandr-Oparin>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743. {1936}
Moscow, (Soviet Union) Russia10  
[1] Description Alexander Oparin,
Hero of the Russian Federation Source
http://cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/0
10/001/248618472.jpg Article
Alexander Oparin Portion used
portrait Low resolution? The
image is of sufficient resolution for
illustration, but considerably lower
resolution than original. Any copies
made from this image would be of
inferior quality, unsuitable as artwork
on pirate versions or other uses that
would compete with the commercial
purpose of the original photo. The
image does not in any way limit the
ability of the copyright owners to
market or sell their product. Purpose
of use This photo is used as the
primary means of visual identification
for informational and educational
purposes, and a deceased member of
Russian Scout history, and as such
cannot be replaced. Replaceable?
Being a photo of long-deceased
persons, it is not replaceable by a
free image. Other information Use
of this image in the above article
complies with Wikipedia non-free
content policy and fair use under
United States copyright law as
described above. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/37/Alexander_Oparin.jpg
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 5 6 		5422)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816.
2. ^ Sabin,
"Cultivation of poliomyelitis virus in
vitro in human embryonic nervous
tissue", Proceedings of the Society for
Experimental Biology and Medicine,
(1936) volume: 31 page: 357.
3. ^ "Albert
Bruce Sabin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
4. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
5. ^ Sabin, "Cultivation of
poliomyelitis virus in vitro in human
embryonic nervous tissue", Proceedings
of the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine, (1936) volume: 31 page:
357.
6. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>. {1936}
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA4
 
[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 2 		5722)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEXeiOpyJ
XQ
2. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEXeiOpyJ
XQ {1936}
 
[1] Image from Paramount Pictures
Popeye short animate film ''Hold The
Wire'', with phone line identity theft
typical of neuron writing,
1936 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f
EXeiOpyJXQ
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 3 		6041)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sergey Prokofiev." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/478552/Sergey-Prokofiev>.
2. ^ "Sergey Prokofiev." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/478552/Sergey-Prokofiev>.
3. ^ "Sergey Prokofiev." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/478552/Sergey-Prokofiev>. {1936}
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia2
(presumably) 
[1] Description Russian composer
Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953) Date
ca. 1918 Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.28258. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Sergei_Prokofiev_02.j
pg
63 YBN
[01/25/1937 AD] 9 		5300) In 1947 Tiselius is made
Vice-president of Nobel Foundation.5
(Doesn't this cause a conflict of
interest in his award? Perhaps he
abstained.6 )

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry of 1948 is
awarded to Arne Tiselius "for his
research on electrophoresis and
adsorption analysis, especially for his
discoveries concerning the complex
nature of the serum proteins".7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p789.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p789.
3. ^ "Arne
Tiselius." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arne-tiseli
us
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p789.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1948".
Nobelprize.org. 14 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1948/
8. ^ "Arne Tiselius." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arne-tiseli
us
9. ^ Arne Tiselius, "A new apparatus
for electrophoretic analysis of
colloidal mixtures", Trans. Faraday
Soc., 1937, 33,
524-531. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524 {T
iselius_Arne_19370125.pdf} {01/25/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] Arne Tiselius,
"Electrophoresis of serum globulin,
Electrophoretic analysis of normal and
immune sera", Biochem J. 1937
September; 31(9): 1464–1477.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1267100/
[2] A Tiselius (1930). "The
moving-boundary method of studying the
electrophoresis of proteins". Nova Acta
Regiae Societatis Scientiarum
Upsaliensis Ser. IV, Vol. 7 (4).
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden8  
[1] Figure 3 from: Arne Tiselius, ''A
new apparatus for electrophoretic
analysis of colloidal mixtures'',
Trans. Faraday Soc., 1937, 33,
524-531. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524 {T
iselius_Arne_19370125.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524

[2] Description Arne
Tiselius.jpg Arne Wilhelm Kaurin
Tiselius Date 1948(1948) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1948/tiselius-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arne_Tiselius.jpg
63 YBN
[02/18/1937 AD] 6 		5453)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p821-822.
2. ^ Hideki Yukawa
and Shoichi Sakata, "On the Nuclear
Transformation with the Absorption of
the Orbital Electron", Phys. Rev. 51,
677–678
(1937). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v51/i8/p677_2 {Yukawa_Hideki_19370218
.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p821-822.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Hideki
Yukawa and Shoichi Sakata, "On the
Nuclear Transformation with the
Absorption of the Orbital Electron",
Phys. Rev. 51, 677–678
(1937). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v51/i8/p677_2 {Yukawa_Hideki_19370218
.pdf}
6. ^ Hideki Yukawa and Shoichi Sakata,
"On the Nuclear Transformation with the
Absorption of the Orbital Electron",
Phys. Rev. 51, 677–678
(1937). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v51/i8/p677_2 {Yukawa_Hideki_19370218
.pdf} {02/18/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] Hideki Yukawa , "On the
Interaction of Elementary Particles.
I", Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc. Jpn. 17
(1935), 48-57.
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/1/1/
and http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.pa
rt2?s_c=YUKAWA+1935
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1949".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1949/
(Osaka Imperial University) Osaka,
Japan5  
[1] Hideki Yukawa Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1949/yukawa_
postcard.jpg

[2] Hideki Yukawa UNKNOWN
source: http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/
585/1/yukawa.jpg
63 YBN
[03/01/1937 AD] 18 		5245)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p775-776.
2. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs
and Kurt Henseleit, "Untersuchungen
über die Harnstoffbildung im
Tierkörper", ("Studies on the
formation of urea in the body"),
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf}
3. ^ "Krebs cycle." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/citric-acid
-cycle
4. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and William
Arthur Johnson, "Metabolism of ketonic
acids in animal tissues", Biochem J.
1937 April; 31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf}
5. ^ "Hans Adolf Krebs." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-adolf-
krebs
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p474.
7. ^ "Hans Adolf Krebs." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-adolf-
krebs
8. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and William
Arthur Johnson, "Metabolism of ketonic
acids in animal tissues", Biochem J.
1937 April; 31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Hans Adolf
Krebs and William Arthur Johnson,
"Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal
tissues", Biochem J. 1937 April; 31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf}
18. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and William
Arthur Johnson, "Metabolism of ketonic
acids in animal tissues", Biochem J.
1937 April; 31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf} {03/01/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1953".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/
[2] Hans Adolf Krebs and Leonard Victor
Eggleston, "The oxidation of pyruvate
in pigeon breast muscle", Biochem J.
1940 March; 34(3):
442–459. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1265297/
(University of Sheffield) Sheffield,
England17  
[1] Chemical equations from: Hans
Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson,
''Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal
tissues'', Biochem J. 1937 April;
31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1266984/

[2] Description The image of
German-British physician Hans Adolf
Krebs (1922-2000) Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/ Date 13:51,
27 November 2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/ba/Hans_Adolf_Krebs.jpg
63 YBN
[03/17/1937 AD] 16 		5471)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. C. Bawden and N. W. Pirie,
"The Isolation and some Properties of
Liquid Crystalline Substances from
Solanaceous Plants Infected with Three
Strains of Tobacco Mosaic Virus",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series B, Biological Sciences,
Vol. 123, No. 832 (Aug. 3, 1937), pp.
274-320. http://www.jstor.org/stable/82
116 {Bawden_Frederick_19370317.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p827-828.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p827-828.
4. ^ "Sir
Frederick Charles Bawden." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-frederi
ck-charles-bawden
5. ^ "Sir Frederick Charles Bawden." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-frederi
ck-charles-bawden
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p827-828.
7. ^ "Sir Frederick
Charles Bawden." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-frederi
ck-charles-bawden
8. ^ F. C. Bawden and N. W. Pirie, "The
Isolation and some Properties of Liquid
Crystalline Substances from Solanaceous
Plants Infected with Three Strains of
Tobacco Mosaic Virus", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 123, No. 832
(Aug. 3, 1937), pp.
274-320. http://www.jstor.org/stable/82
116 {Bawden_Frederick_19370317.pdf}
9. ^ F. C. BAWDEN, F. M. L. SHEFFIELD,
"THE INTRACELLULAR INCLUSIONS OF SOME
PLANT VIRUS DISEASES", Annals of
Applied Biology, Volume 26, Issue 1,
pages 102–115, February
1939. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1744-7348.1939.tb06959.x/abs
tract {Bawden_Frederick_19380824.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ F. C. Bawden
and N. W. Pirie, "The Isolation and
some Properties of Liquid Crystalline
Substances from Solanaceous Plants
Infected with Three Strains of Tobacco
Mosaic Virus", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 123, No. 832 (Aug. 3,
1937), pp.
274-320. http://www.jstor.org/stable/82
116 {Bawden_Frederick_19370317.pdf}
16. ^ F. C. Bawden and N. W. Pirie,
"The Isolation and some Properties of
Liquid Crystalline Substances from
Solanaceous Plants Infected with Three
Strains of Tobacco Mosaic Virus",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series B, Biological Sciences,
Vol. 123, No. 832 (Aug. 3, 1937), pp.
274-320. http://www.jstor.org/stable/82
116 {Bawden_Frederick_19370317.pdf}
{03/17/1937}
(Rothamsted Experimental Station)
Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England15
 
[1] * Buy a print of this image *
License this image Sir Frederick
Charles Bawden by Walter
Bird bromide print, 1967 8 1/8 in. x
6 1/8 in. (205 mm x 156 mm) NPG
x163955 UNKNOWN
source: http://images.npg.org.uk/790_500
/6/8/mw109368.jpg
63 YBN
[03/18/1937 AD] 11 12 		5221)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
2. ^ Theiler M and
Smith HH. "The effect of prolonged
cultivation in vitro upon the
pathogenicity of yellow fever virus.",
J Exp Med, 1937, 65:
767-786 http://jem.rupress.org/cgi/repr
int/65/6/767
3. ^ Theiler M and Smith HH. "The use
of yellow fever virus modified by in
vitro cultivation for human
immunization.", J Exp Med, 1937, 65:
787-800. http://jem.rupress.org/cgi/rep
rint/65/6/787
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p766-767.
6. ^ "Max
Theiler." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theiler-max

7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
Theiler M and Smith HH. "The effect of
prolonged cultivation in vitro upon the
pathogenicity of yellow fever virus.",
J Exp Med, 1937, 65:
767-786 http://jem.rupress.org/cgi/repr
int/65/6/767
11. ^ Theiler M and Smith HH. "The
effect of prolonged cultivation in
vitro upon the pathogenicity of yellow
fever virus.", J Exp Med, 1937, 65:
767-786 http://jem.rupress.org/cgi/repr
int/65/6/767 {03/18/1937}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p766-767. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1951/
[2] THEILER, Max, "Studies on the
Action of Yellow Fever Virus in Mice.",
Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 1930, July 8
Vol. 24 No. 2 pp.
249-272. http://www.cabdirect.org/abstr
acts/19302901799.html;jsessionid=D4C7D5A
F2ECB9A0A67D37BDF09F767D0?freeview=true
(Rockefeller Foundation) New York City,
New York, USA10  
[1] Description Portrait of Max
Theiler Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/561/0001
29174/ Article Max
Theiler Portion used No Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e0/Max_Theiler00.jpg
63 YBN
[04/??/1937 AD] 7 		6268)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Frank Whittle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>.
2. ^ "jet engine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 27 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/303238/jet-engine>.
3. ^ "jet engine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jet-engine
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p79.
5. ^
"Sir Frank Whittle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>.
6. ^ "Frank Whittle." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-whitt
le
7. ^ "Frank Whittle." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-whitt
le {04/1937}
(British Thomson-Houston works) Rugby,
England6  
[1] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG

[2] Description Frank Whittle
adjusts a slide rule while seated at
his desk at the Ministry of Aircraft
Production. Date 30 December
1943 Source IWMLondonThumbnail.jpg
This is photograph No. CH 11867 from
the Imperial War Museum Collections.
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Author
British Government PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Frank_Whittle_CH_0118
67.jpg
63 YBN
[05/14/1937 AD] 11 		5548)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p670.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p672-673,787.
4. ^ "Fritz
Strassmann." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 13 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-stras
smann
5. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
6. ^ Record ID5455.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Record ID5547. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Otto Hahn -
Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1944/hahn-lecture.html {
Hahn_Otto_19461213.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and
F. Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
11. ^ L. Meitner,
O. Hahn and F. Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
{05/14/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
[11] Otto Hahn, "Über ein neues
radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im Uran",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany10  
[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg

[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg
63 YBN
[05/22/1937 AD] 36 37 		5515)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
2. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
3. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
4. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
5. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
6. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
7. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
8. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
9. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
10. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
12. ^ "Erwin
Mueller." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
13. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
14. ^
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TVX-46SXSBK-1T&_user=
4422&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F1978&_rdoc=1&_
fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_
sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C0000596
00&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422
&md5=90abdb4ffb2f0d4f68ef1bf267ac94d5&se
archtype=a
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
16. ^ Erwin W.
Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
18. ^ Erwin W.
Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
19. ^ Erwin W.
Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
20. ^ Erwin W.
Müller, "Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract {Mu
eller_Erwin_W_19570405.pdf}
21. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
22. ^ G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
"Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy", Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61 (1982)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v49/i1
/p57_1 {Binning_G_19820430.pdf}
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted
Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted
Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted
Huntington.
35. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
36. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
{05/22/1937}
37. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er {1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "Erwin Wilhelm Mueller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Wilhe
lm_Mueller
(Siemens and Halske) Berlin, Germany35
 
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
63 YBN
[06/30/1937 AD] 17 		5364) In the summer of 1938, during his
second visit to Berkeley, Segré learns
that, because of his Jewish origins,
his professorship at Palermo has been
revoked by Benito Mussolini’s
government. At Lawrence’s invitation,
Segré becomes a research associate at
the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley.14


In 1938 Segré is removed from his
Palermo post by Italy's Fascist
government while in the USA, and Segré
stays in the USA.

In 1959, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to Emilio Gino Segrè
and Owen Chamberlain "for their
discovery of the antiproton".15
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
2. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal {Segre_Emilio_19390110.p
df}
3. ^ E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209 {Se
gre_Emilio_194307xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
6. ^ "Emilio Segrè."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
7. ^ "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
8. ^ "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
9. ^ "technetium." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
10. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
11. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal {Segre_Emilio_19390110.p
df}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Seidel,
Robert. "Segrè, Emilio Gino." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 407-411. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906083&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1959". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1959/
16. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
17. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df} {06/30/1937}
(Royal University) Polermo, Italy16
 
[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
63 YBN
[07/06/1937 AD] 7 		6051)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Benny Goodman." Contemprary
Musicians. Gale Group., 1989-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/benny-goodm
an
2. ^ "Benny Goodman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Goodm
an
3. ^ "Sing, Sing, Sing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing,_Sing,
_Sing
4. ^ "Sing, Sing, Sing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing,_Sing,
_Sing
5. ^ "Benny Goodman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Goodm
an
6. ^ "Sing, Sing, Sing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing,_Sing,
_Sing
7. ^ "Benny Goodman." Contemprary
Musicians. Gale Group., 1989-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/benny-goodm
an {1937}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGM2HPM6B
Dc
Hollywood, California, USA6
(verify) 
[1] Description Cropped screenshot
of Benny Goodman from the film Stage
Door Canteen. Date 1943 Source
Stage Door Canteen film Author
Film screenshot PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/BennyGoodmanStageDoor
Canteen.jpg

[2] Description Front cover of
the album The Wildest! by Louis
Prima. Source Derived from a scan
of the album cover (creator of this
digital version is irrelevant as the
copyright in all equivalent images is
still held by the same party) Copyright
held by the record company or the
artist. Claimed as fair use
regardless. Article The
Wildest! COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c4/Thewildest.jpeg
63 YBN
[07/09/1937 AD] 8 		5046)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p715.
2. ^ "Stern, Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 40-43. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ I. Estermann, O. C. Simpson, and
O. Stern , "The Magnetic Moment of the
Proton", Phys. Rev. 52, 535–545
(1937). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v52/i6/p535_1 {Stern_Otto_19370709.pd
f}
4. ^ "Stern, Otto." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
40-43. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ I. Estermann, O.
C. Simpson, and O. Stern , "The
Magnetic Moment of the Proton", Phys.
Rev. 52, 535–545
(1937). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v52/i6/p535_1 {Stern_Otto_19370709.pd
f}
8. ^ I. Estermann, O. C. Simpson, and
O. Stern , "The Magnetic Moment of the
Proton", Phys. Rev. 52, 535–545
(1937). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v52/i6/p535_1 {Stern_Otto_19370709.pd
f} {07/09/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] I. Estermann and O. Stern,
"Beugung von Molekularstrahlen",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, 1930, Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ "Diffraction
of molecular beams"
[2] "Otto Stern." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
[3] O. Stern, "Eine direkte Messung der
thermischen Molekulargeschwindigkeit",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 2, Number 1,
49-56. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u5507246w2x0k887/ "A direct
measurement of the thermal molecular
velocity"
[4] W. Gerlach and O. Stern, "Der
experimentelle Nachweis des
magnetischen Moments des Silberatoms",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 8, Number 1,
110-111. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/g635402018413p6g/ "The
experimental proof of the magnetic
moment of the silver atom"
[5] Walther
Gerlach and Otto Stern, "The
experimental proof of the directional
quantization in the magnetic field",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/
[6] Walther Gerlach and Otto Stern,
"Der experimentelle Nachweis der
Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/ "The
experimental proof of the direction of
quantization in the magnetic field"
(Carnegie institute of Technology)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA7  
[1] Figure 2 from: I. Estermann and O.
Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg
63 YBN
[09/??/1937 AD] 9 		5449)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
2. ^ "Gerhard
Herzberg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerhard-her
zberg
3. ^ Herzberg, "On the possibility of
detecting molecular hydrogen and
nitrogen in planetary and stellar
atmospheres by their rotation-vibration
spectra", Astrophysical journal, (1938)
volume: 87 page:
428. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
8ApJ....87..428H
{Herzberg_Gerhard_193709xx.pdf}
4. ^ Gerard Kuiper, "The Atmospheres of
the Earth and Planets", 1848, 1952,
p412.
5. ^ Herzberg, "On the possibility of
detecting molecular hydrogen and
nitrogen in planetary and stellar
atmospheres by their rotation-vibration
spectra", Astrophysical journal, (1938)
volume: 87 page:
428. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
8ApJ....87..428H
{Herzberg_Gerhard_193709xx.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Herzberg, "On
the possibility of detecting molecular
hydrogen and nitrogen in planetary and
stellar atmospheres by their
rotation-vibration spectra",
Astrophysical journal, (1938) volume:
87 page:
428. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
8ApJ....87..428H
{Herzberg_Gerhard_193709xx.pdf}
9. ^ Herzberg, "On the possibility of
detecting molecular hydrogen and
nitrogen in planetary and stellar
atmospheres by their rotation-vibration
spectra", Astrophysical journal, (1938)
volume: 87 page:
428. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
8ApJ....87..428H
{Herzberg_Gerhard_193709xx.pdf}
{09/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1971". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1971/
[2] Gerhard Herzberg, "Atomic Spectra
and Atomic Structure" (1937)
[3] Gerhard
Herzberg, "Molecular Spectra and
Molecular Structure" (4 vols.
1939–79)
[4] W. Heitler and G. Herzberg,
"Gehorchen die Stickstoffkerne der
Boseschen Statistik?",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
34,
673-674. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j0102q63006p7527/ English: "Do
nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics?"
[5]
Johnston, Sean F. "Herzberg, Gerhard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 298-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905744&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p457
[7]
Herzberg, Gerhard, "Molecular Spectra
and Molecular Structure. I. Spectra of
Diatomic Molecules", American Journal
of Physics, Volume 19, Issue 6, pp.
390-391
(1951). http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/
ajpias/v19/i6/p390_s2
(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada8  
[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg
63 YBN
[09/??/1937 AD] 19 20 		5525) At fifteen Reber is active with
ham radio.13
Reber fails to bounce
radio signals off the moon, but the
Army Signal Corps will succeed at this
after World War II.14 (Clearly light
from the Sun is reflected off the moon
all the way to our eye, so any
frequency of light can be reflected off
the moon, Jupiter, and any other
visible object. The key is that a very
large initial signal is needed so that
enough particles reflect back in the
direction of the receiver.15 )
In 1947
Reber gives his radio telescope to the
National Bureau of Standards.16

In his later years Reber speaks out on
what he sees as problems with
relativity theory and big-bang
cosmology. Reber believes that much of
the redshift observed in the spectra of
distant galaxies is due to the forward
scattering of light as it moves through
space.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
2. ^ "Grote Reber."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
4. ^ "Grote Reber."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
5. ^ Grote Reber. "Early Radio
Astronomy in Wheaton, Illinois." Proc.
IRE, 46, 15,
1958. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4065216&q
ueryText%3DEarly+Radio+Astronomy+at+Whea
ton%2C+Illinoiss*%26openedRefinements%3D
*%26searchField%3DSearch+All {Reber_Gro
te_19571105.pdf}
6. ^ "Grote Reber." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
7. ^ Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All {Reber_Grote_19420508.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
17. ^ "Grote Reber."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
18. ^ Grote Reber. "Early Radio
Astronomy in Wheaton, Illinois." Proc.
IRE, 46, 15,
1958. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4065216&q
ueryText%3DEarly+Radio+Astronomy+at+Whea
ton%2C+Illinoiss*%26openedRefinements%3D
*%26searchField%3DSearch+All {Reber_Gro
te_19571105.pdf}
19. ^ Grote Reber. "Early Radio
Astronomy in Wheaton, Illinois." Proc.
IRE, 46, 15,
1958. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4065216&q
ueryText%3DEarly+Radio+Astronomy+at+Whea
ton%2C+Illinoiss*%26openedRefinements%3D
*%26searchField%3DSearch+All {Reber_Gro
te_19571105.pdf} {09/1937}
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p840-841. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_reber.
shtml
[2] G. Reber and E. H. Conklin, "UHF
receivers", Radio, no. 225, pp. 112
1938
[3] G. Reber, "Electric resonance
chambers", Communications , vol. 18,
pp. 5 1938
[4] G. Reber, "Electromagnetic
horns", Communications , vol. 19,
pp. 13 1939
[5] G. Reber, Radio, no. 235,
pp. 17 1939
[6] G. Reber, "Cosmic
static", Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol.
28, pp. 68 1940.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_al
l.jsp?arnumber=1687092&tag=1
[7] G. Reber, "Solar radiation at 480
Mc/sec.", Nature, vol. 158, pp. 945
1946
[8]
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.
jsp?arnumber=1265335
[9]
http://www.nrao.edu/archives/Reber/reber
_publist.shtml
Wheaton, Illinois, USA18  
[1] Figure 3: The first ''dish'' radio
telescope. Source: Estate of G
Reber UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_ORIGDISHa.jpg

[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg
63 YBN
[12/03/1937 AD] 10 11 		5142) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p744.
2. ^ "Pyotr Kapitsa."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-kapit
sa
3. ^ P. Kaptiza, "Viscosity of Liquid
Helium below the λ-Point", Nature 141,
74-74 (08 January
1938). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v141/n3558/abs/141074a0.html
{Kapitza_Peter_19271203.pdf}
4. ^ Josephson, Paul. "Kapitsa (or
Kapitza), Petr Leonidovich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 80-86. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905809&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p744.
6. ^ "viscosity."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/viscosity
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ P. Kaptiza, "Viscosity of
Liquid Helium below the λ-Point",
Nature 141, 74-74 (08 January
1938). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v141/n3558/abs/141074a0.html
{Kapitza_Peter_19271203.pdf}
9. ^ P. Kaptiza, "Viscosity of Liquid
Helium below the λ-Point", Nature 141,
74-74 (08 January
1938). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v141/n3558/abs/141074a0.html
{Kapitza_Peter_19271203.pdf}
10. ^ P. Kaptiza, "Viscosity of Liquid
Helium below the λ-Point", Nature 141,
74-74 (08 January
1938). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v141/n3558/abs/141074a0.html
{Kapitza_Peter_19271203.pdf}
{12/03/1937}
11. ^ Josephson, Paul. "Kapitsa (or
Kapitza), Petr Leonidovich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 80-86. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905809&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1937}
(Institute for Physical Problems,
Academy of Sciences) Moscow, (Soviet
Union) Russia9  
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Title: Kapitsa (or Kapitza), Petr
Leonidovich Known As: Kapitsa, Pyotr
Leonidovich; Kapitza, Peter; Kapitza,
Pyotr Leonidovich; Kapitsa, Pyotr L.;
Kapitsa, Petr Leonidovich; Kapitsa,
Pyotr Russian Physicist ( 1894 -
1984 ) Author(s): Paul
Josephson Source: Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 22.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
p80-86. Document Type:
Biography Bookmark: Bookmark this
Document eBook links: * eTable
of Contents * eBook Index *
List of Illustrations Charles
Scribner's Sons Full Text: COPYRIGHT
2008 Charles Scribner's Sons, a part of
Gale, Cengage Learning Page
80 KAPITSA (OR KAPITZA), PETR
LEONIDOVICH (b. Kronstadt, Russia, 8
July 1894; d. Moscow, U.S.S.R, 8 April
1984), physics of low temperatures,
solid-state physics,
engineering. Kapitsa contributed to
the development of low-temperature
physics. His 1930s studies on liquid
helium earned a Nobel Prize (1978). An
enigmatic figure, he served as a symbol
of science in the Soviet Union during
the Stalin era and beyond. He had an
international reputation, living much
of his early career in England, yet was
not permitted in 1934 to return to his
laboratory in Cambridge where he had
worked with Ernest Rutherford for a
dozen years, and nearly abandoned his
career. He rose to the top of the
physics establishment, yet fell under
house arrest in Moscow in the late
1940s. He protected such leading Soviet
physicists as Vladimir Fock and Lev
Landau from almost certain death during
the Great Terror in Page 81
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0022_0_img4832&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4d35678b&digest=8
7d0820c774ca2dca88437eeb1fdc633
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 12 		3622)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chester F. Carlson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/96110/Chester-F-Carlson>.
2. ^
http://www.xerox.com/go/xrx/template/019
a.jsp?view=Details&subject=Other+Photos&
Xcntry=USA&Xlang=en_US
3. ^ "photocopying machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457786/photocopying-machine>.
4. ^ "photocopying machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457786/photocopying-machine>.
5. ^ "laser printer." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2008. Answers.com 30 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/laser-print
er
6. ^ "photocopying machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457786/photocopying-machine>.
7. ^
http://www.issp.bas.bg/lab/ephi/Museum/a
cad_GNadjakov/GN11-page2.html
8. ^
http://www.issp.bas.bg/lab/ephi/Museum/a
cad_GNadjakov/GN11-page5.html
9. ^ "Photocopying". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopyin
g
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Chester Carlson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chester-car
lson
12. ^ "photocopying machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457786/photocopying-machine>. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chester Carlson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Car
lson
New York City NY, USA11  
[1] Astoria 10-22-38 (The first
xerographic image) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xerox.com/images/usa/
en/p/pa_firstimage.jpg

[2] Schematic drawing of the
xeroxgraphic photocopying process.
Vectorization of the image. Original
image made by 'Wschneider' on the
German wikipedia. 1. Charging:
The surface of a cylindrical drum is
given an electrostatic charge by either
a high voltage wire called a corona
wire or a charge roller. The drum is
coated with a photoconductive material.
A is a semiconductor that becomes
conductive when exposed to light.
2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates
the original document, and the white
areas of the original document reflect
the light onto the surface of the
photoconductive drum. The areas of the
drum that are exposed to light (those
areas that correspond to white areas of
the original document) become
conductive and therefore discharge to
ground. The area of the drum not
exposed to light (those areas that
correspond to black portions of the
original document) remain negatively
charged. The result is a latent
electrical image on the surface of the
drum. 3. Developing: The toner is
positively charged. When it is applied
to the drum to develop the image, it is
attracted and sticks to the areas that
are negatively charged (black areas),
just as paper sticks to a toy balloon
with a static charge. 4. Transfer:
The resulting toner image on the
surface of the drum is transferred from
the drum onto a piece of paper with a
higher negative charge than the
drum. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Xerographic_pho
tocopy_process_en.svg/309px-Xerographic_
photocopy_process_en.svg.png
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 10 		4843)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p652.
3. ^ Blakeslee,
"Methods of inducing doubling of
chromosomes in plants: by treatment
with colchicine", The Journal of
Heredity {0022-1503} Blakeslee (1937)
volume: 28 issue: 12 page:
393 http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/reprint/28/12/393.pdf
{Blakeslee_Albert_Francis_1937.pdf}
4. ^ Blakeslee, "Methods of inducing
doubling of chromosomes in plants: by
treatment with colchicine", The Journal
of Heredity {0022-1503} Blakeslee
(1937) volume: 28 issue: 12 page:
393 http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/reprint/28/12/393.pdf
{Blakeslee_Albert_Francis_1937.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652.
7. ^ "autumn crocus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colchicum
8. ^ "corm." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Oct.
2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/corm
9. ^ "Albert Francis Blakeslee."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2010. Answers.com 26 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/blakeslee-a
lbert-francis
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p652. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Francis Blakeslee."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/68822/Albert-Francis-Blakeslee>
[2] "Albert Francis Blakeslee." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/blakeslee-a
lbert-francis
[3] "Albert Francis Blakeslee".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Fran
cis_Blakeslee
(Carnegie Institution of Washington)
Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., USA9  
[1] Figure 11 from Blakeslee,
''Methods of inducing doubling of
chromosomes in plants: by treatment
with colchicine'', The Journal of
Heredity {0022-1503} Blakeslee (1937)
volume: 28 issue: 12 page:
393 http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/reprint/28/12/393.pdf
{Blakeslee_Albert_Francis_1937.pdf}
source: http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org
/content/28/12/393.full.pdf

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/Illustration_Colchicu
m_autumnale0.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 8 9 		5029)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Cumming Rose." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709.
3. ^ WC Rose, "The
nutritive significance of the amino
acids and certain related compounds",
Science 1 October 1937:
298-300. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/86/2231/298.citation
4. ^ "William Cumming Rose." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "William Cumming
Rose." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709. {1937}
9. ^ WC Rose,
"The nutritive significance of the
amino acids and certain related
compounds", Science 1 October 1937:
298-300. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/86/2231/298.citation

MORE INFO
[1] WC Rose, "Feeding experiments
with mixtures of highly purified amino
acids", Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 1934 -
ASBMB. http://www.jbc.org/content/107/1
/57.full.pdf
(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois7  
[1] WILLIAM CUMMING ROSE UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wrose.GIF
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 7 8 		5030)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Cumming Rose." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709.
3. ^ "William Cumming
Rose." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"William Cumming Rose." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cum
ming-rose
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p709. {1937}
8. ^ WC Rose,
"The nutritive significance of the
amino acids and certain related
compounds", Science 1 October 1937:
298-300. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/86/2231/298.citation

MORE INFO
[1] WC Rose, "Feeding experiments
with mixtures of highly purified amino
acids", Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 1934 -
ASBMB. http://www.jbc.org/content/107/1
/57.full.pdf
(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois6  
[1] WILLIAM CUMMING ROSE UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wrose.GIF
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 15 		5151) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1958
is awarded jointly to Pavel
Alekseyevich Cherenkov, Il´ja
Mikhailovich Frank and Igor
Yevgenyevich Tamm "for the discovery
and the interpretation of the Cherenkov
effect".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748,828.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p748,828.
3. ^ "Cerenkov
radiation." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 19
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cerenkov-ra
diation
4. ^ Kojevnikov, Alexei. "Cherenkov,
Pavel Alekseyevich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 20. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 106-111. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905575&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748,828.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1958/
14. ^ "Tamm, Igor Evgenievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 239-242. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904247&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748,828. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1] I Tamm, “Kogerentnoe
izluchenie bystrogo elektrona v
srede” (“Coherent Radiation of Fast
Electrons Passing Through Matter”),
Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR, 14, no. 3
(1937), 107 – 112
[2] I Tamm, I. M. Frank
and P. A. Cherenkov, “Svechenie
chistykh zhidkostey pod deystviem
bystrykh elektronov”
(“Luminenscence of Pure Liquids Under
the Influence of Fast Electrons”),
Izvestiya Akademii nauk SSSR, Seria
fiz. (1938), nos. 1 – 2, 29
(Moscow University) Moscow, (Soviet
Union) Russia14  
[1] Photo of Igor Tamm from the
official web site of the Russian
Academy of Sciences:
http://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P=
.id-52317.ln-en COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/50/Tamm.jpg

[2] Il'ja Mikhailovich
Frank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1958/frank_p
ostcard.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 11 		5174)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p755.
3. ^ Claridge,
George C. (1937). "Coronium". Journal
of the Royal Astronomical Society of
Canada 31: 337–346.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bi
b_query?bibcode=1937JRASC..31..337C&db_k
ey=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=45dc5
ac9f629234.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Lyot,
Bernard." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 581-582.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902718&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard Lyot." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352996/Bernard-Ferdinand-Lyot>.
[2] "coronagraph." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coronagraph

(Observatory) Meudon, France10  
[1] Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot, French
astronomer, invented the
coronograph. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-lyot.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 9 10 		5223) In 1932 Lipmann leaves Germany to
Denmark to move away from the growth of
the Nazi movement.5
In 1939 Lipmann
moves from Denmark to the USA.6

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1953 is divided equally
between Hans Adolf Krebs "for his
discovery of the citric acid cycle" and
Fritz Albert Lipmann "for his discovery
of co-enzyme A and its importance for
intermediary metabolism".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
2. ^ "Fritz Albert
Lipmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
3. ^ "Fritz Albert Lipmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
4. ^ "Fritz Albert Lipmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
7. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/
8. ^ "Fritz Albert Lipmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
9. ^ FRITZ LIPMANN, "Role of Phosphate
in Pyruvic Acid Dehydrogenation",
Nature, 144, 381-382 (26 August
1939). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v144/n3643/pdf/144381b0.pdf {1937}
10. ^
Lipmann, Enzymologia, 4, 65 (1937).
(Carlsberg Foundation) Copenhagen,
Denmark8  
[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 6 		5229)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p770.
2. ^ "Theodosius
Dobzhansky." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodosius-
dobzhansky
3. ^ "Theodosius Dobzhansky."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodosius-
dobzhansky
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p770.
5. ^ "Theodosius
Dobzhansky." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodosius-
dobzhansky
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p770. {1937}
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California5  
[1] Theodosius Dobzhansky UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_c6wsrQ9x
mjg/Rtt-gMwrH1I/AAAAAAAAAPs/x5CJ36yU5IA/
s1600-h/Young+Theodosius+Dobzhansky.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 9 10 		5266)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. A. Elvehjem, R. J. Madden, F.
M. Strong, D. W. Woolley, "RELATION OF
NICOTINIC ACID AND NICOTINIC ACID AMIDE
TO CANINE BLACK TONGUE", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1937, 59 (9), pp
1767–1768. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01288a509 {Elvehjem_Conrad_
19370813.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779-780.
3. ^ "Conrad
Elvehjem." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conrad-
4. ^ "Conrad Elvehjem." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conrad-
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779-780.
6. ^ "Conrad
Elvehjem." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conrad-elve
hjem
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779-780.
8. ^ C. A. Elvehjem,
R. J. Madden, F. M. Strong, D. W.
Woolley, "RELATION OF NICOTINIC ACID
AND NICOTINIC ACID AMIDE TO CANINE
BLACK TONGUE", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1937,
59 (9), pp
1767–1768. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01288a509 {Elvehjem_Conrad_
19370813.pdf}
9. ^ C. A. Elvehjem, R. J. Madden, F.
M. Strong, D. W. Woolley, "RELATION OF
NICOTINIC ACID AND NICOTINIC ACID AMIDE
TO CANINE BLACK TONGUE", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1937, 59 (9), pp
1767–1768. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01288a509 {Elvehjem_Conrad_
19370813.pdf} {08/16/1937}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p779-780. {1937}
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA8  
[1] Conrad Arnold Elvehjem President,
1958-1962 UNKNOWN
source: http://archives.library.wisc.edu
/uw-archives/chancellors/images/Elvehjem
.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 5 		5348)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
2. ^ George Gamow,
"Structure of atomic nuclei and nuclear
transformations: being a second edition
of Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and
Radioactivity", Oxford, The Clarendon
Press, 1937.
3. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and G. M.
Volkoff, "On Masive Neutron Cores",
Physical Review, February 1939, 55,
p374. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v55/i4/p374_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_193
90103.pdf}
4. ^ G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Selection
Rules for the β-Disintegration", Phys.
Rev. 49, 895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1 {Gamow_George_19360328
.pdf}
5. ^ George Gamow, "Structure of atomic
nuclei and nuclear transformations:
being a second edition of Constitution
of Atomic Nuclei and Radioactivity",
Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1937.

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gamow." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gamo
w
[2] G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
[3] RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON ,
"Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html
[4] "Gamow, George." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 271-273. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901576&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "George Gamow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/225123/George-Gamow>.
[6] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Selection
Rules for the β-Disintegration", Phys.
Rev. 49, 895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA4
(presumably) 
[1] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 4 		6040)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Orff." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/431845/Carl-Orff>.
2. ^ "Carl Orff." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-orff
3. ^ http://www.orff.de/
4. ^ "Carl Orff." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/431845/Carl-Orff>. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carmina Burana (Orff)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmina_Bur
ana_%28Orff%29
Frankfurt/Main, Germany (first
performance)3  
[1] Carl Orff UNKNOWN
source: http://www.orff.de/typo3temp/pic
s/f1943ec28e.jpg
62 YBN
[01/31/1938 AD] 15 		5216) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1944
is awarded to Isidor Isaac Rabi "for
his resonance method for recording the
magnetic properties of atomic
nuclei".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763.
2. ^ "Isidor Isaac
Rabi." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isidor-isaa
c-rabi
3. ^ I. I. Rabi, J. R. Zacharias, S.
Millman, and P. Kusch, "A New Method of
Measuring Nuclear Magnetic Moment",
Phys. Rev. 53, 318–318
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i4/p318_1 {Rabi_Isidor_19380131.p
df}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763.
5. ^ "moment." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/moment
6. ^ "electronic magnetic moment."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electronic-
magnetic-moment
7. ^ "Nuclear magnetic moment."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-mag
netic-moment
8. ^ "spin." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/spin
9. ^ I. I. Rabi, J. R. Zacharias,
S. Millman, and P. Kusch, "A New Method
of Measuring Nuclear Magnetic Moment",
Phys. Rev. 53, 318–318
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i4/p318_1 {Rabi_Isidor_19380131.p
df}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1944". Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1944/
14. ^ I. I. Rabi, J. R. Zacharias, S.
Millman, and P. Kusch, "A New Method of
Measuring Nuclear Magnetic Moment",
Phys. Rev. 53, 318–318
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i4/p318_1 {Rabi_Isidor_19380131.p
df}
15. ^ I. I. Rabi, J. R. Zacharias, S.
Millman, and P. Kusch, "A New Method of
Measuring Nuclear Magnetic Moment",
Phys. Rev. 53, 318–318
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i4/p318_1 {Rabi_Isidor_19380131.p
df} {01/31/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] G. Breit and I. I. Rabi,
"Measurement of Nuclear Spin", Phys.
Rev. 38, 2082–2083
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2082_2
[2] S. Millman and I. I. Rabi, J. R.
Zacharias, "On the Nuclear Moments of
Indium", Phys. Rev. 53, 384–391
(1938) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v53/i5/p384_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA14  
[1] ULSF: Note that this figure is not
from the paper described in this
record, but from a different
paper. Figure 1 from: S. Millman and
I. I. Rabi, J. R. Zacharias, ''On the
Nuclear Moments of Indium'', Phys. Rev.
53, 384–391
(1938) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v53/i5/p384_1 {Rabi_Isidor_19380111.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED [1] Isidor Isaac Rabi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v53/
i5/p384_1


source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1944/rabi.jpg
62 YBN
[03/30/1938 AD] 5 6 		5253)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
2. ^ Richard Kuhn,
Gerhard Wendt, "Über das aus Reiskleie
und Hefe isolierte Adermin (Vitamin
B6)", Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
71, Issue 5, page 1118, 4. Mai
1938. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19380710533/abstract
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
4. ^ Richard Kuhn,
Gerhard Wendt, "Über das aus Reiskleie
und Hefe isolierte Adermin (Vitamin
B6)", Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
71, Issue 5, page 1118, 4. Mai
1938. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19380710533/abstract
5. ^ Richard Kuhn, Gerhard Wendt,
"Über das aus Reiskleie und Hefe
isolierte Adermin (Vitamin B6)",
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft (A and B Series), Volume
71, Issue 5, page 1118, 4. Mai
1938. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19380710533/abstract
{03/30/1938}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776. {1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1938". Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1938/
[2] "Richard Kuhn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324454/Richard-Kuhn>.
[3] Richard Kuhn and Edgar Lederer,
"Fraktionierung und Isomerisierung des
Carotins" Naturwissenschaften, Volume
19, Number 14,
306. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k12h62015kv17871/
[4] Richard Kuhn und Edgar Lederer,
"Über α- und β-Carotin.",
Hoppe-Seyler´s Zeitschrift für
physiologische Chemie. Volume 200,
Issue 4-6, Pages 246–254, ISSN
(Online) 1437-4315.
[5] "Carl von Ossietzky." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-von-os
sietzky
[6] "Carl von Ossietzky." The Oxford
Companion to German Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1976, 1986, 1997,
2005. Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-von-os
sietzky
[7] "Carl von Ossietzky - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace
/laureates/1935/ossietzky.html
[8] Richard Kuhn, Karl Reinemund,
Friedrich Weygand, Rudolf Ströbele,
"Uber die Synthese des Lactoflavins
(Vitamin B2)", Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft (A and B
Series), Volume 68, Issue 9, pages
1765–1774, 11. September
1935. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19350680922/abstract
[9] P. Karrer, K. Schöpp, F. Benz,
"Synthesen von Flavinen IV", Helvetica
Chimica Acta, Volume 18, Issue 1, pages
426–429,
1935. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19350180152/abstract
(Kaiser Wilhelm-Institut fur
Medizinische Forschung, Institut fur
Chemie) Heidelberg, Germany4  
[1] Richard Kuhn, Nobel Prize
photo Photo supplied by archiv zur
Geschichte der
Max-Planck-Geschellschaft,
Berlin-Dahlem COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1938/kuhn_
postcard.jpg
62 YBN
[04/12/1938 AD] 4 		4794)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden Ci ty, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
2. ^ Hans Berger, tr:
Pierre Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
3. ^ Hans
Berger, tr: Pierre Gloor, "Hans Berger
on the Electroencephalogram of Man",
1969.
4. ^ Hans Berger, tr: Pierre Gloor,
"Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
{04/12/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Berger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Berger

[2] "Hans Berger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-berger

[3] Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644
[5]
"electroencephalography." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
300>
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany3
 
[1] Figure 4 from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
62 YBN
[04/??/1938 AD] 8 		6271)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p82.
2. ^ "polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE)." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 27 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/469146/polytetrafluoroethylene>.
3. ^ US 2230654, Plunkett, Roy J,
"Tetrafluoroethylene polymers", issued
4 February
1941. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
S1JQAAAAEBAJ and
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc
?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2230654
4. ^ "Teflon." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teflon
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p82.
6. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p82.
7. ^ US
2230654, Plunkett, Roy J,
"Tetrafluoroethylene polymers", issued
4 February
1941. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
S1JQAAAAEBAJ and
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc
?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2230654
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p82.
{04/1938}
(E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company) 6
WIlmington, Delaware, USA7  
[1] Freshly cooked frozen w:blintzes in
a frying pan. Photo taken by me, in the
kitchen of my house. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/90/100_0783.JPG/12
80px-100_0783.JPG

[2] Polytetrafluoroethylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tef
lon
62 YBN
[06/01/1938 AD] 10 		5544) Seaborg does work in connection
with preparing plutonium for use in the
atomic bomb at the University of
Chicago.6
In 1951 the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded jointly to Edwin
Mattison McMillan and Glenn Theodore
Seaborg "for their discoveries in the
chemistry of the transuranium
elements".7
Seaborgium is named in
Seaborg's honor, making him the only
person for whom a chemical element is
named during his lifetime.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
2. ^ J. J. Livingood
and G. T. Seaborg, "Radioactive Iodine
Isotopes", Phys. Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
3. ^ "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
4. ^
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
8. ^ "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
9. ^ J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
10. ^ J. J. Livingood and G. T.
Seaborg, "Radioactive Iodine Isotopes",
Phys. Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2 {06/01/1938}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA9  
[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg
62 YBN
[06/16/1938 AD] 42 		5382)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
2. ^ "David
Anderson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/david-ander
son
3. ^ Geballe, Ronald; Lord, Jere J.;
Streib, John F., "Seth H. Neddermeyer",
Physics Today, vol. 41, issue 11, p.
109. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/
nph-data_query?bibcode=1988PhT....41k.10
9G&link_type=EJOURNAL&db_key=PHY&high=
4. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of
Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf}
5. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Nature of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
6. ^ Robert A. Millikan, "Mesotron as
the Name of the New Particle", Phys.
Rev. 55, 105
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i1/p104_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193812
07.pdf}
7. ^ Record ID5339. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
9. ^ Robert A.
Millikan, "Mesotron as the Name of the
New Particle", Phys. Rev. 55, 105
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i1/p104_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193812
07.pdf}
10. ^ Record ID5339. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
12. ^ Seth H.
Neddermeyer and Carl D. Anderson,
"Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles", Rev.
Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
13. ^ Record ID5338. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Record ID5338.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
18. ^ Seth H.
Neddermeyer and Carl D. Anderson,
"Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles", Rev.
Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
19. ^ Anderson and Neddermeyer, Int.
Conf. on Phys. Lond., p171 (1934).
20. ^ Seth
H. Neddermeyer and Carl D. Anderson,
"Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles", Rev.
Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
21. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of
Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf}
22. ^ Robert A. Millikan, "Mesotron as
the Name of the New Particle", Phys.
Rev. 55, 105
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i1/p104_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193812
07.pdf}
23. ^ Science Service, "PARTICLES IN
COSMIC RAYS SIMILAR TO BUT DIFFERENT
FROM THE ELECTRON", Science News (pp.
8a-10a) http://www.jstor.org/stable/166
2775 {Anderson_Carl_D_19361120.pdf}
24. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Nature of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
25. ^ Record ID5339. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Carl D.
Anderson, Raymond V. Adams, Paul E.
Lloyd, and R. Ronald Rau, "On the Mass
and the Disintegration Products of the
Mesotron", Phys. Rev. 72, 724
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i8/p724_1
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Carl D.
Anderson, "The Positive Electron",
Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
42. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of
Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} {06/16/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1936". Nobelprize.org. 22 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/
[2] Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257
[3] Carl D. Anderson and Seth H.
Neddermeyer, "Cloud Chamber
Observations of Cosmic Rays at 4300
Meters Elevation and Near Sea-Level",
Phys. Rev. 50, 263
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i4/p263_1
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California41  
[1] Figure 1 from: Seth H. Neddermeyer
and Carl D. Anderson, ''Cosmic-Ray
Particles of Intermediate Mass'', Phys.
Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v54/i1/p88_2

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
62 YBN
[06/22/1938 AD] 15 		5448)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
2. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
3. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
4. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
6. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

7. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
8. ^ http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
9. ^ Record ID5446. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
"Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
15. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} {06/22/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/
[4] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[5] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann.
Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen
am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475
[8] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[9] E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html En
glish: "On progress in construction
and performance of the magnetic
electron microscope."
[10] "Ernst Ruska."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513086/Ernst-Ruska>
(Berliner Medizinischen
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany14  
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
62 YBN
[09/01/1938 AD] 9 		5354)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
2. ^ George Gamow,
"Structure of atomic nuclei and nuclear
transformations: being a second edition
of Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and
Radioactivity", Oxford, The Clarendon
Press, 1937.
3. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and
Robert Serber, "On the Stability of
Stellar Neutron Cores", Phys. Rev. 54,
540–540
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i7/p540_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_1
9380901.pdf}
4. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and Robert
Serber, "On the Stability of Stellar
Neutron Cores", Phys. Rev. 54,
540–540
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i7/p540_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_1
9380901.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. R.
Oppenheimer and Robert Serber, "On the
Stability of Stellar Neutron Cores",
Phys. Rev. 54, 540–540
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i7/p540_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_1
9380901.pdf}
9. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and Robert
Serber, "On the Stability of Stellar
Neutron Cores", Phys. Rev. 54,
540–540
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i7/p540_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_1
9380901.pdf} {09/01/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] J. R. Oppenheimer, "On the
Theory of Electrons and Protons", Phys.
Rev. 35, 562–563
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v35/i5/p562_1
[2] "Oppenheimer, J. Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 213-218. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903231&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] J. R. Oppenheimer and G. M.
Volkoff, "On Masive Neutron Cores",
Physical Review, February 1939, 55,
p374. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v55/i4/p374_1
[4] J. R. Oppenheimer and H. Snyder,
"On continued gravitational
contraction", Physical review, (1939)
volume: 56 issue: 5 page:
455. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
56/i5/p455_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA8  
[1] Description
JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg English:
Official portrait of J. Robert
Oppenheimer, first director of Los
Alamos National Laboratory. Français
: Le portrait officiel de Robert
Oppenheimer, alors premier directeur du
Laboratoire national de Los
Alamos. Date ca.
1944(1944) Source Taken from a
Los Alamos publication (Los Alamos:
Beginning of an era, 1943-1945, Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
1986.). Author Department of
Energy, Office of Public
Affairs Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions This
version was apparently scanned from a
book; there's a slightly lower-quality
version at ARC with ID 558579. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/JROppenheimer-LosAlam
os.jpg
62 YBN
[09/01/1938 AD] 6 		5355)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p800-801.
2. ^ George Gamow,
"Structure of atomic nuclei and nuclear
transformations: being a second edition
of Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and
Radioactivity", Oxford, The Clarendon
Press, 1937.
3. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and G. M.
Volkoff, "On Masive Neutron Cores",
Physical Review, February 1939, 55,
p374. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v55/i4/p374_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_193
90103.pdf}
4. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and H. Snyder,
"On continued gravitational
contraction", Physical review, (1939)
volume: 56 issue: 5 page:
455. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
56/i5/p455_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_1939
0710.pdf}
5. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and Robert
Serber, "On the Stability of Stellar
Neutron Cores", Phys. Rev. 54,
540–540
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i7/p540_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_1
9380901.pdf}
6. ^ J. R. Oppenheimer and Robert
Serber, "On the Stability of Stellar
Neutron Cores", Phys. Rev. 54,
540–540
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i7/p540_1 {Oppenheimer_J_Robert_1
9380901.pdf} {09/01/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] J. R. Oppenheimer, "On the
Theory of Electrons and Protons", Phys.
Rev. 35, 562–563
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v35/i5/p562_1
[2] "Oppenheimer, J. Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 213-218. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903231&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] Description
JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg English:
Official portrait of J. Robert
Oppenheimer, first director of Los
Alamos National Laboratory. Français
: Le portrait officiel de Robert
Oppenheimer, alors premier directeur du
Laboratoire national de Los
Alamos. Date ca.
1944(1944) Source Taken from a
Los Alamos publication (Los Alamos:
Beginning of an era, 1943-1945, Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
1986.). Author Department of
Energy, Office of Public
Affairs Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions This
version was apparently scanned from a
book; there's a slightly lower-quality
version at ARC with ID 558579. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/JROppenheimer-LosAlam
os.jpg
62 YBN
[09/07/1938 AD] 27 		5418) In 1933 Bethe leaves Germany for
England when Hitler comes to power.21
In
1935 Bethe accepts a post at Cornell
University in the USA.22
Bethe was
engaged in the development of the
atomic bomb.23

In 1967 the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded to Hans Bethe "for his
contributions to the theory of nuclear
reactions, especially his discoveries
concerning the energy production in
stars".24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.F. von Weizsäcker (1937)
"Über Elementumwandlungen im Innern
der Sterne. I" (On transformations of
elements in the interiors of stars. I),
Physikalische Zeitschrift (Physics
Journal), vol. 38, pages 176-191.
2. ^ C.F. von
Weizsäcker (1938) "Über
Elementumwandlungen im Innern der
Sterne. II" (On transformations of
elements in the interiors of stars.
II), Physikalische Zeitschrift, vol.
39, pages 633-646.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p844.
4. ^ "Carl Friedrich,
Freiherr (Baron) von Weizsäcker."
Britannica Book of the Year, 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1339287/Carl-Friedrich-Freiherr-von-We
izsacker>.
5. ^ "Hans Bethe." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-bethe
6. ^ "Hans Bethe." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 28 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-bethe
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p814-815.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p814-815.
12. ^ H. A. Bethe,
"Energy Production in Stars", Phys.
Rev. 55, 434–456
(1939). {Bethe_Hans_19380907.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p814-815.
22. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p814-815.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p814-815.
24. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1967". Nobelprize.org.
28 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1967/
25. ^ "Carl Friedrich, Freiherr (Baron)
von Weizsäcker." Britannica Book of
the Year, 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1339287/Carl-Friedrich-Freiherr-von-We
izsacker>.
26. ^ H. A. Bethe, "Energy Production
in Stars", Phys. Rev. 55, 434–456
(1939). {Bethe_Hans_19380907.pdf}
27. ^ H. A. Bethe, "Energy Production
in Stars", Phys. Rev. 55, 434–456
(1939). {Bethe_Hans_19380907.pdf}
{09/07/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Bethe." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/63405/Hans-Bethe>
(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute) Berlin,
Germany25 (and Cornell University)
Ithaca, New York, USA26  
[1] Description Carl Friedrich von
Weizsaecker.jpg Carl Friedrich von
Weizsäcker, Göttingen DPI Date
1993 (picture taken) Source
Modified version of Image:Friedric
Hund1.jpg, showing only the person on
the left. Author Ian Howard (of
the original
picture) Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Carl_Friedrich_von_We
izsaecker.jpg

[2] Description Hans
Bethe.jpg Hans Bethe Date Source
http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhatt
an/images/Bethe.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hans_Bethe.jpg
62 YBN
[10/07/1938 AD] 4 		6059)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Somewhere over the rainbow".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somewhere_o
ver_the_rainbow
2. ^ "Somewhere over the rainbow".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somewhere_o
ver_the_rainbow
3. ^ "MGM". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM
4. ^ "Somewhere over the rainbow".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somewhere_o
ver_the_rainbow {10/07/1938}
(Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios) Los
Angeles, California, USA2 3  
[1] Description This is a poster
for The Wizard of Oz. The poster art
copyright is believed to belong to the
distributor of the film,
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer DVD & Blu-ray
Release: Warner Home Video,, the
publisher of the film or the graphic
artist. Source The poster art can
or could be obtained from
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer DVD & Blu-ray
Release: Warner Home Video Article
The Wizard of Oz (1939
film) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/d5/Wizard_oz_movieposter.jpg
62 YBN
[10/25/1938 AD] 12 13 		5352) In 1933 Elsasser leaves Germany
with the rise of Hitler.9
In 1936
Elsasser moves to the USA.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799-800.
2. ^ "Eddy current."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eddy-curren
t
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799-800.
4. ^ "moon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/moon
5. ^ "Venus." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/venus
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799-800.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p799-800.
11. ^ Walter M.
Elsasser, "On the Origin of the Earth's
Magnetic Field", Phys. Rev. 55,
489–498
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i5/p489_1
12. ^ Walter M. Elsasser, "On the
Origin of the Earth's Magnetic Field",
Phys. Rev. 55, 489–498
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i5/p489_1 {10/25/1938}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p799-800. {1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Maurice Elsasser." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-maur
ice-elsasser
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California11  
[1] Walter Maurice Elsasser
(1904–1991) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yalosabes.com/images/
/elsasser_walter_maurice.gif
62 YBN
[11/24/1938 AD] 7 		5464) In 1957 the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded to Todd "for his
work on nucleotides and nucleotide
co-enzymes".4

(Determine what molecule Todd actually
isolated.5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p825.
2. ^ Thomas Spence
Work, Franz Bergel, and Alexander
Robertus Todd, "The active principles
of Cannabis indica resin. I", Biochem
J. 1939 January; 33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/
3. ^ A. JACOB & A. R. TODD,
"Cannabidiol and Cannabol, Constituents
of Cannabis indica Resin", Nature 145,
350-350 (02 March
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v145/n3670/abs/145350a0.html
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1957". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1957/
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Thomas Spence Work, Franz
Bergel, and Alexander Robertus Todd,
"The active principles of Cannabis
indica resin. I", Biochem J. 1939
January; 33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/
7. ^ Thomas Spence Work, Franz Bergel,
and Alexander Robertus Todd, "The
active principles of Cannabis indica
resin. I", Biochem J. 1939 January;
33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/ {11/24/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Todd." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-t
odd
(Lister Institute) London, England6
 
[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg
62 YBN
[12/17/1938 AD] 7 		5339)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homi J. Bhabha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homi_J._Bha
bha
2. ^ D. I. Blokhintsev, "In memoriam:
Homi Jehangir Bhabha", Atomic Energy,
Volume 21, Number 1,
618-619. Translated from Atomnaya
Énergiya, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 7–8,
July,
1966 http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/r7271822065t8607/
3. ^ H. J. BHABHA, "The Fundamental
Length Introduced by the Theory of the
Mesotron (Meson)", Nature, Volume 143
Number 3616, (Feb 18, 1939),
p276. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v143/n3616/index.html {Bhabha_Homi_
J_19381217.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p479.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ H. J. BHABHA, "The
Fundamental Length Introduced by the
Theory of the Mesotron (Meson)",
Nature, Volume 143 Number 3616, (Feb
18, 1939),
p276. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v143/n3616/index.html {Bhabha_Homi_
J_19381217.pdf}
7. ^ H. J. BHABHA, "The Fundamental
Length Introduced by the Theory of the
Mesotron (Meson)", Nature, Volume 143
Number 3616, (Feb 18, 1939),
p276. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v143/n3616/index.html {Bhabha_Homi_
J_19381217.pdf} {12/17/1938}
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England6  
[1] Description Homi Jehangir
Bhabha.jpg Homi Jehangir
Bhabha Date Source Oberwolfach
Photo Collection:
http://owpdb.mfo.de/detail?photo_id=332
Author Konrad Jacobs,
Erlangen Permission (Reusing this
file) http://owpdb.mfo.de CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Homi_Jehangir_Bhabha.
jpg
62 YBN
[12/22/1938 AD] 13 		4926)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hahn, O., and Strassmann, F.,
"Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten
der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans
mittels Neutronen entstehenden
Erdalkalimetalle", Naturwiss., V27, N1,
1939, p11-15
. http://www.springerlink.com/content/t
651037146l4g56w/fulltext.pdf written:
12/22/1938 {"Concerning the Existence
of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from
Neutron Irradiation of
Uranium"} {Hahn_Otto_1939xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf} {1921}
3. ^ Hahn, O., and
Strassmann, F., "Über die Entstehung
von Radiumisotopen aus Uran durch
Bestrahlen mit schnellen und
verlangsamten Neutronen", Naturwiss.,
V26, N46, 1938, p755-756.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/j3
4450856612q3h2/ written:
11/08/1938 {On the Origin of radium
isotopes from uranium by irradiation
with fast and slow
neutrons} {Hahn_Otto_1938xxxx.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p672-673,787.
5. ^ "Fritz
Strassmann." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 13 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-stras
smann
6. ^ Hahn, O., and Strassmann, F.,
"Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten
der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans
mittels Neutronen entstehenden
Erdalkalimetalle", Naturwiss., V27, N1,
1939, p11-15
. http://www.springerlink.com/content/t
651037146l4g56w/fulltext.pdf written:
12/22/1938 {"Concerning the Existence
of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from
Neutron Irradiation of
Uranium"} {Hahn_Otto_1939xxxx.pdf}
7. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf} {1921}
8. ^ Hahn, O., and
Strassmann, F., "Über die Entstehung
von Radiumisotopen aus Uran durch
Bestrahlen mit schnellen und
verlangsamten Neutronen", Naturwiss.,
V26, N46, 1938, p755-756.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/j3
4450856612q3h2/ written:
11/08/1938 {On the Origin of radium
isotopes from uranium by irradiation
with fast and slow
neutrons} {Hahn_Otto_1938xxxx.pdf}
9. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf} {1921}
10. ^ "Otto Hahn - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1944/hahn-lecture.html {
Hahn_Otto_19461213.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Hahn, O., and
Strassmann, F., "Über den Nachweis und
das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung
des Urans mittels Neutronen
entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle",
Naturwiss., V27, N1, 1939, p11-15
. http://www.springerlink.com/content/t
651037146l4g56w/fulltext.pdf written:
12/22/1938 {"Concerning the Existence
of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from
Neutron Irradiation of
Uranium"} {Hahn_Otto_1939xxxx.pdf}
13. ^ Hahn, O., and Strassmann, F.,
"Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten
der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans
mittels Neutronen entstehenden
Erdalkalimetalle", Naturwiss., V27, N1,
1939, p11-15
. http://www.springerlink.com/content/t
651037146l4g56w/fulltext.pdf written:
12/22/1938 {"Concerning the Existence
of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from
Neutron Irradiation of
Uranium"} {Hahn_Otto_1939xxxx.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
[11] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670
[12] Otto Hahn,
"Über ein neues radioaktives
Zerfallsprodukt im Uran",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany12  
[1] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg

[2] Fritz Strassmann (1902 -
1980) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B62.jpg
62 YBN
[1938 AD] 3 		4782)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.dhmd.de/neu/index.php?id=1113

2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.dhmd.de/neu/index.php?id=1113
 {1938}
 
[1] ''Christmas Reverie'' Herbert H.
Jasper (1906–1999) 1938 Deutsches
Museum, München, Archives This
greeting card in 'brain writing' was
sent by an American brain researcher,
Herbert H. Jasper, to Hans Berger in
1938. Jasper was very interested in the
EEG and he published the first article
on the subject in America. In the
1920s, Hans Berger, a psychiatrist,
developed a method of measurement known
as electroencephalography (EEG)
sufficiently to allow brain activity to
be recorded for the first time. In
1929, he produced the first ever sleep
EEGs, in which he observed a weakening
of certain brain waves. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dhmd.de/neu/fileadmin
/template/dhmd/images/uploads/sut/presse
fotos/EEG_Grusskarte_Berger_vorschau.jpg

62 YBN
[1938 AD] 4 		4860)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657.
2. ^ "Gilbert N.
Lewis." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
3. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657. {1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[3] "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[5]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[6] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
[7] GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002
[8] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA3  
[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
62 YBN
[1938 AD] 4 		5056)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Paul
Karrer." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 31
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/312666/Paul-Karrer>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718. {1938}
(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland3  
[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg
62 YBN
[1938 AD] 5 		5090)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730.
2. ^ "Seth Barnes
Nicholson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seth-barnes
-nicholson
3. ^ Nicholson, S. B., "The Satellites
of Jupiter", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 51, No. 300,
p.85. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/se
ri/PASP./0051/0000093.000.html
4. ^ "Seth Barnes Nicholson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seth-barnes
-nicholson
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730. {1938}

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholson, S. B., "Discovery,
observations, and orbit of the ninth
satellite of Jupiter", Lick Observatory
bulletin ; no. 271; Lick Observatory
bulletins ; no. 271., Berkeley :
University of California Press, 1915,
p.
147-149. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1915LicOB...8..147N
[2] Pettit, E. & Nicholson, S. B.,
"Stellar radiation measurements.",
Astrophys. J., 68, 279-308
(1928). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1928ApJ....68..279P
[3] Pettit, E. & Nicholson, S. B.,
"Temperature of the Dark Side of the
Moon and of the Moon During Eclipse",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 39, No.
230,
p.227. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1927PASP...39..227P/0000228.000
.html
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA4  
[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1
62 YBN
[1938 AD] 3 		5533)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p477.
2. ^ "Wernher von Braun." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wernher-von
-braun
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p477. {1938}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842
[2] "Wernher von
Braun." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/78018/Wernher-von-Braun>
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p477.
[4]
http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.ht
ml
Peenemünde, Germany2  
[1] Description Wernher von Braun
crop.jpg Dr. von Braun became
Director of the NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center on July 1,
1960. Français : Le Dr. Von Braun,
directeur du centre de vol spatial de
la NASA, mai 1964 Date
1964-05 NOTE: DESCRIPTION
DATES CONTRADICT EACHOTHER Source
NASA More
specifically? Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Wernher_von_Braun_cro
p.jpg

[2] Description Heinz Haber Wernher
von Braun Willy Ley (1954).jpg Dr.
Wernher von Braun (center), then Chief
of the Guided Missile Development
Division at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama,
discusses a ''bottle suit'' model with
Dr. Heinz Haber (left), an expert on
aviation medicine, and Willy Ley, a
science writer on rocketry and space
exploration. Date 1 July
1954(1954-07-01) Source NASA, ID
MSFC-9605274
[http://nix.nasa.gov/info?id=MSFC-960527
4 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Heinz_Haber_Wernher_v
on_Braun_Willy_Ley_%281954%29.jpg
62 YBN
[1938 AD] 4 		6077) "God Bless America", written by
Irving Berlin (CE 1888-1989)1 in 1918
and revised by him in 1938, sung by
Kate Smith is recorded.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Irving Berlin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Berl
in
2. ^ "God Bless America". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Bless_A
merica
3. ^ "God Bless America". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Bless_A
merica
4. ^ "God Bless America". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Bless_A
merica {1938}
New York City, New York, USA3
(guess) 
[1] Description English: Portrait of
Irving Berlin Date 1941 Source
book: ''Irving Berlin's Show
Business'' Author unknown. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/BerlinPortrait1.jpg
62 YBN
[1938 AD] 4 		6102) "Thanks for the Memory" with
music composed by Ralph Rainger and
lyrics by Leo Robin is released. It is
introduced in the 1938 film "The Big
Broadcast of 1938" by Shep Fields and
His Orchestra with vocals by Bob Hope
and Shirley Ross.1

(There may be many analogies to the
secret of remote neuron reading and
writing. "It was fun while it lasted",
"no harm done", "thoughts"2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thanks for the Memory".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanks_for_
the_Memory
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Thanks for the Memory".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanks_for_
the_Memory
4. ^ "Thanks for the Memory".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanks_for_
the_Memory {1938}
Los Angeles, California, USA3
(probably) 		 
61 YBN
[01/06/1939 AD] 5 		5484)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell H. Varian and Sigurd F.
Varian, "A High Frequency Oscillator
and Amplifier", J. Appl. Phys. 10, 321
(1939); doi:10.1063/1.1707311
http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v
10/i5/p321_s1 {Varian_Russell_19390106.
pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Russell H. Varian and
Sigurd F. Varian, "A High Frequency
Oscillator and Amplifier", J. Appl.
Phys. 10, 321 (1939);
doi:10.1063/1.1707311
http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v
10/i5/p321_s1 {Varian_Russell_19390106.
pdf}
4. ^ Russell H. Varian and Sigurd F.
Varian, "A High Frequency Oscillator
and Amplifier", J. Appl. Phys. 10, 321
(1939); doi:10.1063/1.1707311
http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v
10/i5/p321_s1 {Varian_Russell_19390106.
pdf}
5. ^ Russell H. Varian and Sigurd F.
Varian, "A High Frequency Oscillator
and Amplifier", J. Appl. Phys. 10, 321
(1939); doi:10.1063/1.1707311
http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v
10/i5/p321_s1 {Varian_Russell_19390106.
pdf} {01/06/1939}
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA4  		 
61 YBN
[01/16/1939 AD] 23 		4925) Frisch is a science writer on
atomic physics for the public.20
In
1933 when Hitler comes to power, Frisch
moves to England.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v143/n3615/abs/143239a0.html {Fr
isch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_19390116.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670.
4. ^ O. Frisch, Lise
Meitner, “Disintegration of Uranium
by Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v143/n3615/abs/143239a0.html {Fr
isch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_19390116.pdf}
5. ^ Fermi, E., Amaldi, F., d'Agostino,
O., Rasetti, F., and Segré, E. Proc.
Roy. Soc., A, 146, 483 (1934).
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p672-673.
7. ^ Hahn, O., and
Strassmann, F., Naturwiss., 26, 756
(1938).
8. ^ Hahn, O., and Strassmann, F.,
Naturwiss., 27, 11 (1939).
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p672-673.
15. ^ O. Frisch, Lise
Meitner, “Disintegration of Uranium
by Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v143/n3615/abs/143239a0.html {Fr
isch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_19390116.pdf}
16. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v143/n3615/abs/143239a0.html {Fr
isch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_19390116.pdf}
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p802.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p802.
22. ^ O. Frisch,
Lise Meitner, “Disintegration of
Uranium by Neutrons; a New Type of
Nuclear Reaction”, Nature, 143
(1939),
239-240. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v143/n3615/abs/143239a0.html {Fr
isch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_19390116.pdf}
23. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v143/n3615/abs/143239a0.html {Fr
isch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_19390116.pdf}
{01/16/1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
[11] "Hahn, Otto." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
14-17. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901812&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Academy of Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden
(Meitner), (University of Copenhagen),
Copenhagen, Denmark (Frisch)22  
[1] Otto Frisch Los Alamos wartime
badge photo: Otto R. Frisch Source:
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Otto_Frisch_ID_badge.
png

[2] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg
61 YBN
[01/19/1939 AD] 11 12 13 		5658)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p857.
2. ^ A. Prebus and J.
Hillier, Canadian Journal of Research,
A17, p49-63 (1939).
{Hillier_James_19390119.pdf}
3. ^ E. F. Burton, J. Hillier, and A.
Prebus, "A Report on the Development of
the Electron Supermicroscope at
Toronto", Phys. Rev. 56, 1171–1172
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i11/p1171_2 {Hillier_James_193911
13.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca
/edu/ViewLoitDa.do;jsessionid=84BA5078F6
A8C9A34F32798C3BD103EB?method=preview〈
=EN&id=3982
5. ^ "James Hillier." Britannica Book
of the Year, 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1338431/James-Hillier>.
6. ^ Record ID5447. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ A. Prebus and
J. Hillier, Canadian Journal of
Research, A17, p49-63 (1939).
{Hillier_James_19390119.pdf}
11. ^ A. Prebus and J. Hillier,
Canadian Journal of Research, A17,
p49-63 (1939).
{Hillier_James_19390119.pdf}
{01/19/1939}
12. ^ A. Prebus and J. Hillier,
Canadian Journal of Research, A17,
p49-63 (1939).
{Hillier_James_19390119.pdf}
13. ^ E. F. Burton, J. Hillier, and A.
Prebus, "A Report on the Development of
the Electron Supermicroscope at
Toronto", Phys. Rev. 56, 1171–1172
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i11/p1171_2 {Hillier_James_193911
13.pdf}
(University of Toronto) Toronto,
Canada10  
[1] Hillier and Prebus with their
creation. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museevirtuel-virtualm
useum.ca/media/edu/EN/uploads/image/Hill
ierPrebus23127.jpg


source:
61 YBN
[01/30/1939 AD] 9 		5193)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ Frederic Joliot,
“Preuve expérimentale de la rupture
explosive des noyaux d’uranium et de
thorium sous l’action des
neutrons”, Comptes rendus, 208
(1939),
p341. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3160g/f323.image
3. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Liberation of Neutrons in
the Nuclear Explosion of Uranium",
Nature 143, 470-471 (18 March 1939).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3620/abs/143470a0.html {Joliot_Fre
deric_19390318.pdf}
5. ^ H. VON HALBAN, F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Number of Neutrons Liberated
in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium",
Nature 143, 680-680 (22 April 1939)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3625/abs/143680a0.html
{Joliot_Frederic_19390422.pdf}
6. ^ "World War II." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/world-war-i
i
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ H. VON HALBAN , F.
JOLIOT & L. KOWARSKI, "Liberation of
Neutrons in the Nuclear Explosion of
Uranium", Nature 143, 470-471 (18 March
1939).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3620/abs/143470a0.html {Joliot_Fre
deric_19390318.pdf}
9. ^ Frederic Joliot, “Preuve
expérimentale de la rupture explosive
des noyaux d’uranium et de thorium
sous l’action des neutrons”,
Comptes rendus, 208 (1939),
p341. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3160g/f323.image {01/30/1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>
[2] I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Un nouveau
type de radioactivé", Comptes rendus,
V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image
[3] "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Energy of Neutrons liberated
in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium
induced by Thermal Neutrons", Nature
143, 939-939 (03 June
1939). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v143/n3631/abs/143939a0.html
(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire,
College de France) Paris, France8
 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
61 YBN
[02/18/1939 AD] 9 		5493)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p836-837.
2. ^ R. B. Roberts,
R. C. Meyer, and P. Wang, "Further
Observations on the Splitting of
Uranium and Thorium", Phys. Rev. 55,
510–511
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i5/p510_2 {Roberts_Richard_Brooke
_19390218.pdf}
3. ^ R. B. Roberts, L. R. Hafstad, R.
C. Meyer, and P. Wang, "The Delayed
Neutron Emission which Accompanies
Fission of Uranium and Thorium", Phys.
Rev. 55, 664–664
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i7/p664_1 {Roberts_Richard_Brooke
_19390310.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p836-837.
5. ^ R. B. Roberts,
R. C. Meyer, and P. Wang, "Further
Observations on the Splitting of
Uranium and Thorium", Phys. Rev. 55,
510–511
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i5/p510_2 {Roberts_Richard_Brooke
_19390218.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ R. B. Roberts,
R. C. Meyer, and P. Wang, "Further
Observations on the Splitting of
Uranium and Thorium", Phys. Rev. 55,
510–511
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i5/p510_2 {Roberts_Richard_Brooke
_19390218.pdf}
9. ^ R. B. Roberts, R. C. Meyer, and P.
Wang, "Further Observations on the
Splitting of Uranium and Thorium",
Phys. Rev. 55, 510–511
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i5/p510_2 {Roberts_Richard_Brooke
_19390218.pdf} {02/18/1939}
(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C, USA8  
[1] RICHARD BROOKE ROBERTS UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309047
82X/xhtml/images/img00013.jpg
61 YBN
[03/08/1939 AD] 8 		5194)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ H. VON HALBAN ,
F. JOLIOT & L. KOWARSKI, "Liberation
of Neutrons in the Nuclear Explosion of
Uranium", Nature 143, 470-471 (18 March
1939).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3620/abs/143470a0.html {Joliot_Fre
deric_19390318.pdf}
3. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Liberation of Neutrons in
the Nuclear Explosion of Uranium",
Nature 143, 470-471 (18 March 1939).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3620/abs/143470a0.html {Joliot_Fre
deric_19390318.pdf}
6. ^ H. VON HALBAN, F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Number of Neutrons Liberated
in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium",
Nature 143, 680-680 (22 April 1939)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3625/abs/143680a0.html
{Joliot_Frederic_19390422.pdf}
7. ^ H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Liberation of Neutrons in
the Nuclear Explosion of Uranium",
Nature 143, 470-471 (18 March 1939).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3620/abs/143470a0.html {Joliot_Fre
deric_19390318.pdf}
8. ^ H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Liberation of Neutrons in
the Nuclear Explosion of Uranium",
Nature 143, 470-471 (18 March 1939).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3620/abs/143470a0.html {Joliot_Fre
deric_19390318.pdf} {03/08/1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>
[2] I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Un nouveau
type de radioactivé", Comptes rendus,
V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image
[3] "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
[5] Frederic Joliot,
“Preuve expérimentale de la rupture
explosive des noyaux d’uranium et de
thorium sous l’action des
neutrons”, Comptes rendus, 208
(1939),
p341. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3160g/f323.image
[6] H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Energy of Neutrons liberated
in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium
induced by Thermal Neutrons", Nature
143, 939-939 (03 June
1939). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v143/n3631/abs/143939a0.html
(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire,
College de France) Paris, France7
 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
61 YBN
[03/20/1939 AD] 15 		5347)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
2. ^ G. Gamow and G.
Keller, "A Shell Source Model for Red
Giant Stars", Rev. Mod. Phys. 17,
125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1 {Gamow_George_1945xxxx
.pdf}
3. ^ G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Energy
Production in Red Giants", Phys. Rev.
55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1 {Gamow_George_19390320.
pdf}
4. ^ "George Gamow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/225123/George-Gamow>.
5. ^ G. Gamow and G. Keller, "A Shell
Source Model for Red Giant Stars", Rev.
Mod. Phys. 17, 125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1 {Gamow_George_1945xxxx
.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
7. ^ G. Gamow and G.
Keller, "A Shell Source Model for Red
Giant Stars", Rev. Mod. Phys. 17,
125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1 {Gamow_George_1945xxxx
.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ G. Gamow and
E. Teller, "Energy Production in Red
Giants", Phys. Rev. 55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1 {Gamow_George_19390320.
pdf}
15. ^ G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Energy
Production in Red Giants", Phys. Rev.
55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1 {Gamow_George_19390320.
pdf} {03/20/1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gamow." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gamo
w
[2] G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
[3] RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON ,
"Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html
[4] "Gamow, George." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 271-273. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901576&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Selection
Rules for the β-Disintegration", Phys.
Rev. 49, 895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA14  
[1] Figure 8 from: [4] G. Gamow and G.
Keller, ''A Shell Source Model for Red
Giant Stars'', Rev. Mod. Phys. 17,
125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1 {Gamow_George_1945xxxx
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v17/i2-3/p125_1

[2] Figure 1 from: G. Gamow and E.
Teller, ''Energy Production in Red
Giants'', Phys. Rev. 55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1 {Gamow_George_19390320.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v55/
i8/p791_1
61 YBN
[04/07/1939 AD] 6 		5195)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
2. ^ H. VON HALBAN,
F. JOLIOT & L. KOWARSKI, "Number of
Neutrons Liberated in the Nuclear
Fission of Uranium", Nature 143,
680-680 (22 April 1939)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3625/abs/143680a0.html
{Joliot_Frederic_19390422.pdf}
3. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Liberation of Neutrons in
the Nuclear Explosion of Uranium",
Nature 143, 470-471 (18 March 1939).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3620/abs/143470a0.html {Joliot_Fre
deric_19390318.pdf}
5. ^ H. VON HALBAN, F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Number of Neutrons Liberated
in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium",
Nature 143, 680-680 (22 April 1939)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3625/abs/143680a0.html
{Joliot_Frederic_19390422.pdf}
6. ^ H. VON HALBAN, F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Number of Neutrons Liberated
in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium",
Nature 143, 680-680 (22 April 1939)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
143/n3625/abs/143680a0.html
{Joliot_Frederic_19390422.pdf}
{04/07/1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>
[2] I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Un nouveau
type de radioactivé", Comptes rendus,
V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image
[3] "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
[5] Frederic Joliot,
“Preuve expérimentale de la rupture
explosive des noyaux d’uranium et de
thorium sous l’action des
neutrons”, Comptes rendus, 208
(1939),
p341. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3160g/f323.image
[6] H. VON HALBAN , F. JOLIOT & L.
KOWARSKI, "Energy of Neutrons liberated
in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium
induced by Thermal Neutrons", Nature
143, 939-939 (03 June
1939). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v143/n3631/abs/143939a0.html
(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire,
College de France) Paris, France5
 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
61 YBN
[04/14/1939 AD] 6 		5425)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816-817.
2. ^ "Karl August
Folkers." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212279/Karl-August-Folkers>.
3. ^ Stanton A. Harris and Karl
Folkers, "Synthetic Vitamin B6",
Science, New Series, Vol. 89, No. 2311
(Apr. 14, 1939), p.
347. http://www.jstor.org/stable/166402
8 {Folkers_Karl_August_19390414.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Stanton A. Harris and
Karl Folkers, "Synthetic Vitamin B6",
Science, New Series, Vol. 89, No. 2311
(Apr. 14, 1939), p.
347. http://www.jstor.org/stable/166402
8 {Folkers_Karl_August_19390414.pdf}
6. ^ Stanton A. Harris and Karl
Folkers, "Synthetic Vitamin B6",
Science, New Series, Vol. 89, No. 2311
(Apr. 14, 1939), p.
347. http://www.jstor.org/stable/166402
8 {Folkers_Karl_August_19390414.pdf}
{04/14/1939}
(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA5  
[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG
61 YBN
[04/17/1939 AD] 9 10 		5255)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777.
2. ^ "René Jules
Dubos." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dubos-ren-j
ules
3. ^ "René Jules Dubos." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dubos-ren-j
ules
4. ^ Hotchkiss RD and Dubos RJ.
Bactericidal fractions from an aerobic
sporulating bacillus. J Biol Chem,
1940,
136:803-804 http://www.jbc.org/cgi/repr
int/136/3/803
5. ^ Hotchkiss RD and Dubos RJ.
Bactericidal fractions from an aerobic
sporulating bacillus. J Biol Chem,
1940,
136:803-804 http://www.jbc.org/cgi/repr
int/136/3/803
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777.
7. ^ "René Jules
Dubos." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dubos-ren-j
ules
8. ^ Dubos RJ. Studies on a
bactericidal agent extracted from a
soil bacillus: I. Preparation of the
agent. Its activity in vitro. 1939. J
Exp Med, 1939, 70:1-10
http://www.jem.org/cgi/reprint/70/1/1
9. ^ Dubos RJ. Studies on a
bactericidal agent extracted from a
soil bacillus: I. Preparation of the
agent. Its activity in vitro. 1939. J
Exp Med, 1939, 70:1-10
http://www.jem.org/cgi/reprint/70/1/1
{04/17/1939}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777. {1939}

MORE INFO
[1] Dubos RJ. Studies on a
bactericidal agent extracted from a
soil bacillus: II. Protective effect of
the bactericidal agent against
experimental pneumococcus infections in
mice. J Exp Med, 1939,
70:11-17 http://www.jem.org/cgi/reprint
/70/1/11
[2] Dubos RJ and Hotchkiss RD. The
production of bactericidal substances
by aerobic sporulating bacilli. J Exp
Med, 1941,
73:629-640 http://www.jem.org/cgi/repri
nt/73/5/629
(Hospital of The Rockefeller Institute
for Medical Research) New York City,
New York, USA8  
[1] Dubos, René From the Rockefeller
Archive Center UNKNOWN
source: http://centennial.rucares.org/ce
ntennial/assets_public/images/15_photo1.
jpg
61 YBN
[04/30/1939 AD] 15 16 		5835)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
2. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
3. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
4. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
5. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
6. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
7. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
8. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
9. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
10. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
11. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Scott Schaut, Robots of
Westinghouse 1924-today, 2006, p91,185.
14. ^
"Elektro". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektro
15. ^
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-histo
ry/new-york-worlds-fair-opens {around)
04/30/1939 (opening of World's Fair}
16. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm {1939 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuyTRbj8Q
SA&feature=related
[2]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ay225WkU4
Gs&feature=related
[3] Scott Schaut, "Robots of
Westinghouse, 1924-today", Mansfield,
Ohio : Scott Schautt, Mansfield
Memorial Museum, 2006
[4]
http://www.archive.org/details/middleton
_family_worlds_fair_1939
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
Mansfield, Ohio, USA13 14  
[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg

[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg
61 YBN
[06/28/1939 AD] 11 		5006)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p700-702.
3. ^ Niels Bohr,
John Archibald Wheeler, "The Mechanism
of Nuclear Fission", Phys. Rev. 56,
426–450
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i5/p426_1
{Bohr_Niels_19390628.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Niels
Bohr, John Archibald Wheeler, "The
Mechanism of Nuclear Fission", Phys.
Rev. 56, 426–450
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i5/p426_1
{Bohr_Niels_19390628.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Niels Bohr, John
Archibald Wheeler, "The Mechanism of
Nuclear Fission", Phys. Rev. 56,
426–450
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i5/p426_1
{Bohr_Niels_19390628.pdf}
10. ^ "Niels Bohr." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/71670/Niels-Bohr>.
11. ^ "Niels Bohr." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/niels-bohr
{1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bohr, Niels Henrik David."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 239-254. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900505&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Niels Bohr". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr
[3] N. Bohr, "On the constitution of
atoms and molecules", (Parts 1, 2 and
3), Phil. Mag., Series 6, Volume
26 July 1913, p.
1-25. http://www.fizika.unios.hr/~iluka
cevic/dokumenti/materijali_za_studente/q
m1/Bohr_1913.pdf
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p423.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA9 10  
[1] Immediate source:
http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billede:Nie
ls_Bohr.jpg Ultimate source: Niels
Bohr's Nobel Prize biography, from
1922. Status: Public domain in US at
least because of age, probably
elsewhere. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg
61 YBN
[07/15/1939 AD] 10 		5461) The Atomic Energy Commission pays
Dunning $30,000 in lieu of patent
royalties.6
(I wonder if the neuron
reading and writing inventor, since not
publicly recognized, might have earned
much more money from the public if the
public was told about their discovery.7
)
In 1936 Dunning builds Columbia
University's first cyclotron.8
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ A. v. Grosse, E. T. Booth and J.
R. Dunning, "The Fission of
Protactinium (Element 91)", Phys. Rev.
56, 382–382
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p382_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19390
715.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p824-825.
3. ^ A. v. Grosse, E.
T. Booth and J. R. Dunning, "The
Fission of Protactinium (Element 91)",
Phys. Rev. 56, 382–382
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p382_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19390
715.pdf}
4. ^ A. v. Grosse, E. T. Booth and J.
R. Dunning, "The Fission of
Protactinium (Element 91)", Phys. Rev.
56, 382–382
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p382_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19390
715.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p824-825.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p824-825.
9. ^ A. v. Grosse, E.
T. Booth and J. R. Dunning, "The
Fission of Protactinium (Element 91)",
Phys. Rev. 56, 382–382
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p382_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19390
715.pdf}
10. ^ A. v. Grosse, E. T. Booth and J.
R. Dunning, "The Fission of
Protactinium (Element 91)", Phys. Rev.
56, 382–382
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p382_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19390
715.pdf} {07/15/1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dunning, 1st Baron
Ashburton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dunnin
g-1st-baron-ashburton
[2] "John R. Dunning." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173830/John-R-Dunning>.
[3] Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes",
.Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA9  
[1] Description: middle age, three
quarter view, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives Names: Dunning, John
Ray UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
61 YBN
[07/31/1939 AD] 18 		5511) Alvarez works on radar and the
atomic bomb during WW II.5

Alvarez flies with the mission that
drops the first atomic bomb—which is
of the original uranium shotgun
design—on Hiroshima, releasing his
parachute-borne blast detectors from an
accompanying B-29.6

After the first Soviet atomic bomb is
detected in September 1949, Alvarez and
Edward Teller, successfully advocate
the development of a hydrogen bomb,
over the opposition of the General
Advisory Committee (GAC) of the Atomic
Energy Commission, chaired by Robert
Oppenheimer.7 (It seems possible that
the hydrogen bomb, in theory is a
fraud, basically being simply a larger
fission bomb - but only the neuron
transactions at the time, and more
honest science will show the truth. It
seems unlikely that very much more
light particles would be emitted from
hydrogen, which is a very low mass
atom.8 )

In 1964, Alvarez patents a
variable-power spherical lens, which
allows for variable-power spectacles
that can be focused quickly and easily
for near and distant vision.9 (It
seems possible that an artificial
muscle lens could be useful for a
similar purpose, Possibly an electric
motor lens could be helpful too.10 )

In 1968, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded to Luis Alvarez "for his
decisive contributions to elementary
particle physics, in particular the
discovery of a large number of
resonance states, made possible through
his development of the technique of
using hydrogen bubble chamber and data
analysis".11

(Alvarez is notorious for doing
experiments, I think with a ladder and
flour-filled skull, to supposedly prove
that JFK was shot from behind and that
such a skull will fall forward when
shot from behind. Later the
camera-thought net will show that
Alvarez may have taken a large amount
of money or supported the Nazi-like
killers of JFK, the Republicans, and so
therefore worked to sell the lie of
Oswald to the excluded public. This is
a definitely black mark on his career,
and calls into doubt much of his
scientific work.12 )


(I don't think that there has ever been
a more obvious example of corrupted and
dishonest claims published as "science"
than the case of Luis Alvarez. Clearly
all of the work of Alvarez is highly
suspect, since he openly served as an
active accessory to murder in the case
of John Kennedy.13 )

(Then the Nobel prize is again clearly
political - their statement begins with
"For his decisive contributions" which
clearly implies "DC", which at the time
was under the control of the violent
criminals who killed JFK, MLK, and has
just murdered Robert Kennedy a few
months earlier. This shows again, that
the Nobel prize, many times, is the
product of political pressure, and
great wealth, as opposed to actual
science. In particular looking at
Alvarez's sparse and very potentially
non-existant contributions to actual
science.14 )

(Interesting that Alvarez takes out a
number of patents, for radio echo
detection, a stablized zoom binocular,
range finding device for a cart... and
given the neuron secret and doubts of
being the first to develop
technological innovations, in addition
to the limited time of the patent - I
think it shows an element of monetary
greed, intellectual possessiveness - in
particular when so much information is
written to our neurons from external
sources - to claim something as your
own is - somewhat arrogant and unlikely
to be true. There is also the element
of a person playing some gambling game
to strike it rich by having that chip
on the correct number - given the years
of protracted patent trials - the
corrupted neuron court system -
patenting anything is worthless, I
think except perhaps to bring secret
technology to the public in the form of
a public patent.15 )

(Looking at the thought-transactions of
the time involving Alvarez is one way
of determining the validity of his
scientific claims.16 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
2. ^ "Luis W.
Alvarez." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/18131/Luis-W-Alvarez>.
3. ^ Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog,
"He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2 {Alvarez_Luis_19390731.
pdf}
4. ^ Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog,
"He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2 {Alvarez_Luis_19390731.
pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
6. ^ Seidel, Robert
W. "Alvarez, Luis Walter." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 54-59. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905437&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Seidel, Robert W. "Alvarez, Luis
Walter." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 19. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54-59.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20
Mar. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905437&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Luis W. Alvarez et al,
"TWO-ELEMENT VARIABLE-POWER SPHERICAL
LENS", Patent number: 3305294, Filing
date: Dec 3, 1964, Issue date: Feb 21,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT3305294&id=3sRwAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=%22LW+alvarez%22+lens&printsec=
abstract#v=onepage&q=%22LW%20alvarez%22%
20lens&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1968". Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Luis W.
Alvarez and Robert Cornog, "He3 in
Helium", Phys. Rev. 56, 379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2 {Alvarez_Luis_19390731.
pdf}
18. ^ Luis W. Alvarez and Robert
Cornog, "He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2 {Alvarez_Luis_19390731.
pdf} {07/31/1939}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA17  
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

61 YBN
[08/27/1939 AD] 5 		6269)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Frank Whittle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>.
2. ^ "Sir Frank Whittle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p79.
4. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p79.
5. ^ "Sir
Frank Whittle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>.
{08/27/1939}
Marienehe, Germany4  
[1] Español: El Henkel He 178 fue el
primer caza de reacción en entrar en
servicio. Description: Heinkel
He 178 Source: USAF PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Ohain_USAF_He_178_pag
e61.jpg
61 YBN
[10/30/1939 AD] 34 		5387) In 1933 Bloch leaves Germany when
Hitler comes to power.28
In 1934 Bloch
moves to the USA.29
In 1952 the Nobel
Prize in Physics is awarded jointly to
Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell
"for their development of new methods
for nuclear magnetic precision
measurements and discoveries in
connection therewith".30
From 1954-1955
Bloch serves as the first
director-general of CERN, the
multinational laboratory for nuclear
science at Geneva.31 32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p808-809,838-839.
2. ^ "Felix Bloch." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-bloch

3. ^ "Luis W. Alvarez." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/18131/Luis-W-Alvarez>.
4. ^ Luis W. Alvarez and F. Bloch, "A
Quantitative Determination of the
Neutron Moment in Absolute Nuclear
Magnetons", Phys. Rev. 57, 111 (1940).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v57/i
2/p111_1 {Bloch_Felix_19391030.pdf}
5. ^ "Felix Bloch." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-bloch

6. ^ "magnetic moment." WordNet 1.7.1.
Princeton University, 2001. Answers.com
25 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-mo
ment
7. ^ "magneton." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magneton
8. ^ "magneton." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magneton
9. ^ "magnetic moment." A Dictionary of
Biochemistry. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-mo
ment
10. ^ "joule." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joule
11. ^ "tesla." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tesla
12. ^ Gavroglu, Kostas. "Bloch, Felix."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 303-308. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905501&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p808-809.
14. ^ Gavroglu,
Kostas. "Bloch, Felix." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 303-308. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905501&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
15. ^ Record ID3886. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Luis W.
Alvarez and F. Bloch, "A Quantitative
Determination of the Neutron Moment in
Absolute Nuclear Magnetons", Phys. Rev.
57, 111 (1940).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v57/i
2/p111_1 {Bloch_Felix_19391030.pdf}
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p808-809.
29. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p808-809.
30. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1952". Nobelprize.org.
25 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1952/
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p808-809.
32. ^ "Felix Bloch."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/felix-bloch

33. ^ Luis W. Alvarez and F. Bloch, "A
Quantitative Determination of the
Neutron Moment in Absolute Nuclear
Magnetons", Phys. Rev. 57, 111 (1940).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v57/i
2/p111_1 {Bloch_Felix_19391030.pdf}
34. ^ Luis W. Alvarez and F. Bloch, "A
Quantitative Determination of the
Neutron Moment in Absolute Nuclear
Magnetons", Phys. Rev. 57, 111 (1940).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v57/i
2/p111_1 {Bloch_Felix_19391030.pdf}
{07/10/30/1939}

MORE INFO
[1] F. Bloch, "Über die
Quantenmechanik der Elektronen in
Kristallgittern.", Zeitschrift für
Physik 52 (1928): 555–600. (Bloch’s
doctoral dissertation.)
[2] F. Bloch, "On the Magnetic
Scattering of Neutrons.", Physical
Review 50 (1936): 259–260.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v50/i
3/p259_1
[3] F. Bloch, "On the Magnetic
Scattering of Neutrons II.", Physical
Review 51 (1937):
994. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
51/i11/p994_1
[4] "Felix Bloch - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1952/bloch-lecture.html
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA33  
[1] Figure 3 from: Luis W. Alvarez and
F. Bloch, ''A Quantitative
Determination of the Neutron Moment in
Absolute Nuclear Magnetons'', Phys.
Rev. 57, 111 (1940).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v57/i
2/p111_1 {Bloch_Felix_19391030.pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v57/i2/p111_1

[2] Felix Bloch Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1952/bloch.jpg
61 YBN
[1939 AD] 9 		5138)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
2. ^ "Edward Adelbert
Doisy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743.
4. ^ D. W.
MAcCORQUODALE, L. C. CHENEY, S. B.
BINKLEY, W. F. HOLCOMB, R. W. MCKEE,
SIDNEY A. THAYER, AND EDWARD A. DOISY,
"THE CONSTITUTION AND SYNTHESIS OF
VITAMIN K1", November 1, 1939 The
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 131,
357-370.
http://www.jbc.org/content/131/1/357.s
hort
5. ^ R. W. MCKEE, S. B. BINKLEY, SIDNEY
A. THAYER, D. W. MAcCORQUODALE, AND
EDWARD A. DOISY, "THE ISOLATION OF
VITAMIN K2", November 1, 1939 The
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 131,
327-344.
http://www.jbc.org/content/131/1/327.s
hort
6. ^ S. B. Binkley, L. C. Cheney, W. F.
Holcomb, R. W. McKee, S. A. Thayer, D.
W. MacCorquodale, E. A. Doisy, "THE
CONSTITUTION AND SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN
K1", Am. Chem. Soc., 1939, 61 (9), pp
2558–2559. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01878a513
7. ^ S. B. BINKLEY, R. W. MCKEE, SIDNEY
A. THAYER, AND EDWARD A. DOISY, "THE
CONSTITUTION OF VITAMIN K2", May 1,
1940 The Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 133, 721-729.
http://www.jbc.org/content/133/3/721.s
hort
8. ^ "Edward Adelbert Doisy." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/doisy-edwar
d-adelbert
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p742-743. {1939}

MORE INFO
[1] EDWARD A. DOISY, CLEMENT D.
VELER, AND SIDNEY THAYER, "The
preparation of the crystalline ovarian
hormone from the urine of pregnant
women", April 1, 1930 The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, V86, p499-509.
http://www.jbc.org/content/86/2/499.sh
ort
(St. Louis University) St. Louis,
Missouri, USA8  
[1] Description The image of
American Nobel laureate Edward Adelbert
Doisy (1893-1986). Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/859/000128475
/ Date uploaded: 18:39, 23 July
2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/71/Edward_A._Doisy.jpg
61 YBN
[1939 AD] 5 		5175)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p755.
2. ^ "Lyot, Bernard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 581-582. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902718&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Solar prominence." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/solar-promi
nence-2
4. ^ "Lyot, Bernard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 581-582. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902718&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Lyot, Bernard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 581-582. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902718&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1939}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bernard Lyot." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352996/Bernard-Ferdinand-Lyot>.
[2] "coronagraph." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coronagraph

[3] Claridge, George C. (1937).
"Coronium". Journal of the Royal
Astronomical Society of Canada 31:
337–346.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bi
b_query?bibcode=1937JRASC..31..337C&db_k
ey=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=45dc5
ac9f629234.
(Observatory) Meudon, France4  
[1] Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot, French
astronomer, invented the
coronograph. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-lyot.jpg
61 YBN
[1939 AD] 10 		5219) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1948 is awarded to Paul
Müller "for his discovery of the high
efficiency of DDT as a contact poison
against several arthropods".8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p765-766.
2. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1948".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1948/
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p765-766.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p765-766.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1948".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1948/
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1948". Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1948/
10. ^ "Paul Hermann Müller." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-herman
n-m-ller-swiss-chemist {1939}

MORE INFO
[1] MW Goldberg, P Muller,
"Synthetic experiments with a,
fl-diacetylethylene", Helv. Chim. Acta,
1938.
(Laboratory of the J.R. Geigy
Dye-Factory Co.) Basel, Switzerland9
 
[1] Paul Hermann Müller COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/2/23/Hermann_Paul_M%C3%BC
ller.jpg/150px-Hermann_Paul_M%C3%BCller.
jpg
61 YBN
[1939 AD] 13 		5248) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1967 is awarded jointly to
Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline
and George Wald "for their discoveries
concerning the primary physiological
and chemical visual processes in the
eye".10 (Perhaps this was a push to go
public or generate some public research
with neuron reading and writing.11 )
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
2. ^ "Ragnar Granit."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ragnar-gran
it
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
4. ^ "Ragnar Granit."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ragnar-gran
it
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
6. ^ R Granit,
"Colour Receptors of the Frog's
Retina", Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 3, Issue 2, pages
137–151, October 1942.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11
11/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/abstract
{Granit_Ragnar_19410926.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1967". Nobelprize.org. 5 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ R Granit, "Colour
Receptors of the Frog's Retina", Acta
Physiologica Scandinavica, Volume 3,
Issue 2, pages 137–151, October
1942.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11
11/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/abstract
{Granit_Ragnar_19410926.pdf}
13. ^ R Granit, "Principles and
technique of the electrophysiological
analysis of colour reception with the
aid of microelectrodes", Upsala
läkareförenings förhandlingar :
Acta societatis medicorum Upsaliensis.
1 45, 161-177, 1939

MORE INFO
[1] Granit R., "The components of
the retinal action potential in mammals
and their relation to the discharge in
the optic nerve.", J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long
[2] R. Granit, Sensory Mechanisms of
the Retina (1947)
[3] R. Granit, "The Visual
Pathway" (1962)
[4] Colour receptors of the
frog's retina
[5] RAGNAR GRANIT, "The Spectral
Properties of the Visual Receptors of
the Cat", Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 5, Issue 2-3,
pages 219–229, April
1943. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1943.tb02050.x/abs
tract
[6] RAGNAR GRANIT AND P. O. THERMAN.,
"EXCITATION AND INHIBITION IN THE
RETINA AND IN THE OPTIC NERVE.", J
Physiol, 1935, p359
[7] RAGNAR GRANIT, A.
MUNSTERHJELM AND M. ZEWI, "THE RELATION
BETWEEN CONCENTRATION OF VISUAL PURPLE
AND RETINAL SENSITIVITY TO LIGHT DURING
DARK ADAPTATION", J. Physiol. (1939)
96, 31-44
(The Caroline Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden12 (presumably) 
[1] Note image is from 1942 not 1939
paper. Figure 8 from: R Granit,
''Colour Receptors of the Frog's
Retina'', Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 3, Issue 2, pages
137–151, October 1942.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11
11/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/abstract
{Granit_Ragnar_19410926.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/ab
stract

[2] Description Ragnar Arthur
Granit (October 30, 1900 – March 12,
1991), Finnish/Swedish
neuroscientist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/medicine/laureates/1967/granit_post
card.jpg Article Ragnar
Granit Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes Purpose of use
It is only being used to
illustrate the article in
question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/63/Ragnar_Granit.jpg
61 YBN
[1939 AD] 6 		6056)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Glenn Miller." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/glenn-mille
r-bandleader-trombonist-missing-person
2. ^ "In the Mood". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Mood

3. ^ "In the Mood". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Mood

4. ^ "In the Mood". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Mood

5. ^ "RCA Bluebird". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Bluebir
d
6. ^ "Glenn Miller." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/glenn-mille
r-bandleader-trombonist-missing-person
{1939}
New York City, New York, USA4 5
(verify) 
[1] Description This photo from a
US Government website
(http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/afp/afp1
297.htm) shows Maj. Glen Miller during
his service in the US Army Air
Corps. Date 2005-11-01 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from en.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was SeanO at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY-ARMY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Glen_miller.jpg

[2] Description English: Wingy
Manone (13 February 1900 – 9 July
1982) was an American jazz trumpeter,
William P. Gottlieb's office, New York,
N.Y., between 1946 and 1948 (Photograph
by William P. Gottlieb) Date Source
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/l
oc.natlib.gottlieb.06031/enlarge.html?pa
ge=1§ion=ver01&size=1024&from= Author
William P. Gottlieb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Wingy_Manone%2C_Willi
am_P._Gottlieb%27s_office%2C_New_York%2C
_N.Y.%2C_between_1946_and_1948_%28Willia
m_P._Gottlieb_06031%29.jpg
60 YBN
[01/??/1940 AD] 7 		5545)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
2. ^ J. J. Livingood
and G. T. Seaborg, "A Table of Induced
Radioactivities", Rev. Mod. Phys. 12,
30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_194001xx
.pdf}
3. ^ Glenn T. Seaborg, "Table of
Isotopes", Rev. Mod. Phys. 16, 1–32
(1944). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v16/i1/p1_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_194401xx.
pdf}
4. ^ G. T. Seaborg and I. Perlman,
"Table of Isotopes", Rev. Mod. Phys.
20, 585–667
(1948). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v20/i4/p585_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_194810x
x.pdf}
5. ^ J. M. Hollander, I. Perlman, and
G. T. Seaborg, "Table of Isotopes",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 25, 469–651
(1953). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v25/i2/p469_1
6. ^ J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_194001xx
.pdf}
7. ^ J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_194001xx
.pdf} {01/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1951". Nobelprize.org. 25 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[2] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[3] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[4]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA6  
[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg
60 YBN
[02/01/1940 AD] 11 12 		5246)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p775-776.
2. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs
and Kurt Henseleit, "Untersuchungen
über die Harnstoffbildung im
Tierkörper", ("Studies on the
formation of urea in the body"),
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf}
3. ^ "Krebs cycle." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/citric-acid
-cycle
4. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and William
Arthur Johnson, "Metabolism of ketonic
acids in animal tissues", Biochem J.
1937 April; 31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf}
5. ^ "Hans Adolf Krebs." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-adolf-
krebs
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p775-776.
9. ^ Hans Adolf
Krebs and Leonard Victor Eggleston,
"The oxidation of pyruvate in pigeon
breast muscle", Biochem J. 1940 March;
34(3):
442–459. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1265297/ {Krebs_Hans_19
400201.pdf}
10. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and Leonard
Victor Eggleston, "The oxidation of
pyruvate in pigeon breast muscle",
Biochem J. 1940 March; 34(3):
442–459. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1265297/ {Krebs_Hans_19
400201.pdf}
11. ^ Hans Adolf Krebs and Leonard
Victor Eggleston, "The oxidation of
pyruvate in pigeon breast muscle",
Biochem J. 1940 March; 34(3):
442–459. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1265297/ {Krebs_Hans_19
400201.pdf} {02/01/1940}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p775-776. {1940}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1953".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/
(University of Sheffield) Sheffield,
England10  
[1] Chemical equations from: Hans
Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson,
''Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal
tissues'', Biochem J. 1937 April;
31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1266984/

[2] Description The image of
German-British physician Hans Adolf
Krebs (1922-2000) Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/ Date 13:51,
27 November 2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/ba/Hans_Adolf_Krebs.jpg
60 YBN
[02/29/1940 AD] 8 		5579)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samuel Ruben and Martin D. Kamen,
"Radioactive Carbon of Long Half-Life",
Phys. Rev. 57, 549–549
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p549_1 {Kamen_Martin_D_1940022
9.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
3. ^ "Martin David
Kamen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 28
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/martin-davi
d-kamen
4. ^ S. Ruben, W. Z. Hassid, M. D.
Kamen, "Radioactive Carbon in the Study
of Photosynthesis", Journal of the
American Chemical Society 1939 61 (3),
661-663. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10
.1021/ja01872a034 {Kamen_Martin_D_19381
215.pdf}
5. ^ Samuel Ruben and Martin D. Kamen,
"Radioactive Carbon of Long Half-Life",
Phys. Rev. 57, 549–549
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p549_1 {Kamen_Martin_D_1940022
9.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Samuel Ruben and Martin
D. Kamen, "Radioactive Carbon of Long
Half-Life", Phys. Rev. 57, 549–549
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p549_1 {Kamen_Martin_D_1940022
9.pdf}
8. ^ Samuel Ruben and Martin D. Kamen,
"Radioactive Carbon of Long Half-Life",
Phys. Rev. 57, 549–549
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p549_1 {Kamen_Martin_D_1940022
9.pdf} {02/29/1940}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA7  
[1] Dr. Martin Kamen - Scientist who
discovered radioactive carbon-14 which
revolutionized archeology (carbon-14
dating) and laid a foundation for
deciphering the chemical processes in
plants and animals, but who spent many
years ostracized on suspicion that he
was a Russian spy (later exonerated),
died at age 89. UNKNOWN
source: http://lifeinlegacy.com/2002/090
7/KamenMartin.jpg
60 YBN
[03/03/1940 AD] 5 		5462)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p824-825.
2. ^ Alfred O. Nier,
E. T. Booth, J. R. Dunning, and A. V.
Grosse, "Nuclear Fission of Separated
Uranium Isotopes", .Phys. Rev. 57,
546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf}
3. ^ Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes",
.Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf}
4. ^ Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes",
.Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf}
5. ^ Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes",
.Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf} {03/03/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dunning, 1st Baron
Ashburton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dunnin
g-1st-baron-ashburton
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA4  
[1] Description: middle age, three
quarter view, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives Names: Dunning, John
Ray UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
60 YBN
[05/27/1940 AD] 15 16 		5455) In 1951, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded jointly to Edwin
Mattison McMillan and Glenn Theodore
Seaborg "for their discoveries in the
chemistry of the transuranium
elements".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edwin McMillan, Philip Hauge
Abelson, "Radioactive Element 93",
Phys. Rev. 57, 1185–1186
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i12/p1185_2 {McMillan_Edwin_19400
527.pdf}
2. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p822-824.
4. ^ "Glenn T.
Seaborg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
5. ^ Edwin McMillan, Philip Hauge
Abelson, "Radioactive Element 93",
Phys. Rev. 57, 1185–1186
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i12/p1185_2 {McMillan_Edwin_19400
527.pdf}
6. ^ "neptunium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 07 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neptunium
7. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
8. ^ "Edwin M. McMillan - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/mcmillan-lecture.htm
l {McMillan_Edwin_M_19511212.pdf}
9. ^ Record ID5547. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Edwin
McMillan, Philip Hauge Abelson,
"Radioactive Element 93", Phys. Rev.
57, 1185–1186
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i12/p1185_2 {McMillan_Edwin_19400
527.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
14. ^ Edwin McMillan, Philip Hauge
Abelson, "Radioactive Element 93",
Phys. Rev. 57, 1185–1186
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i12/p1185_2 {McMillan_Edwin_19400
527.pdf}
15. ^ Edwin McMillan, Philip Hauge
Abelson, "Radioactive Element 93",
Phys. Rev. 57, 1185–1186
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i12/p1185_2 {McMillan_Edwin_19400
527.pdf} {05/27/1940}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-824. {announce
on:) 06/08/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edwin McMillan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-mcmil
lan
[2] V. Veksler, "Concerning Some New
Methods of Acceleration of Relativistic
Particles", Phys. Rev. 69, 244–244
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i5-6/p244_1
[3] V. Veksler, Comptes Rendus
(Doklady), Acad Sci U.S.S.R., 43, N8,
p444 (1944) (communicated April 25,
1944)
[4] V. Veksler, Comptes Rendus
(Doklady), Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., 44, N9,
p393 (1944) (communicated July 19,
1944)
[5] V. Veksler, J. Phys. (U.S.S.R.) 9,
N3, 153 (1945) (received March 1, 1945)
[6]
E. McMillan, "The Synchrotron—A
Proposed High Energy Particle
Accelerator", Phys. Rev. 68, 143–144
(1945). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v68/i5-6/p143_1
[7] E. McMillan, "Radiation from a
Group of Electrons Moving in a Circular
Orbit", Phys. Rev. 68, 144–145
(1945). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v68/i5-6/p144_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA14  
[1] Description
Neptunium2.jpg English: neptunium 237
sphere (6 kg) Date
2002(2002) Source
http://images-of-elements.com/neptu
nium.php Author Los Alamos
National Laboratory, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Neptunium2.jpg

[2] Edwin McMillan the year he
discovered neptunium UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencematters.berkeley.e
du/archives/volume1/issue7/images/legacy
2.jpg
60 YBN
[05/28/1940 AD] 6 		5285)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
"Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}

2. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
"Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}

3. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
"Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium",
Phys. Rev. 59, 57–62
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i1/p57_1 {Wells_W_H_19400830.pdf}

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E.
Shoupp, W. E. Stephens, and W. H.
Wells, "Photo-Fission of Uranium and
Thorium", Phys. Rev. 59, 57–62
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i1/p57_1 {Wells_W_H_19400830.pdf}

6. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
"Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}
{05/28/1940}
(Westinghouse Research Laboratories)
East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA5
 		 
60 YBN
[05/??/1940 AD] 8 9 		5590)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Proximity fuse". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_f
use
2. ^ Brennen, James W. (September
1968), The Proximity Fuze Whose
Brainchild?, United States Naval
Institute Proceedings.
{Proximity_Fuze_196809xx.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
"Proximity fuse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_f
use
7. ^ Brennen, James W. (September
1968), The Proximity Fuze Whose
Brainchild?, United States Naval
Institute Proceedings.
8. ^ "Proximity fuse".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_f
use {05/1940}
9. ^ Brennen, James W. (September
1968), "The Proximity Fuze Whose
Brainchild?", United States Naval
Institute Proceedings.
{Proximity_Fuze_196809xx.pdf} {05/194
0}
England6 7  
[1] Patent images from: Brennen, James
W. (September 1968), The Proximity Fuze
Whose Brainchild?, United States Naval
Institute Proceedings.
{Proximity_Fuze_196809xx.pdf} PD
source: Proximity_Fuze_196809xx.pdf
60 YBN
[06/14/1940 AD] 9 		5568)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846.
2. ^ Flerov and
Petrjak, "Spontaneous Fission of
Uranium", Phys. Rev. 58, 89–89
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p89_2
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846.
4. ^ A P Aleksandrov
, A M Baldin , I I Gurevich , V P
Dzhelepov , M G Meshcheryakov , Yu Ts
Oganesyan , K A Petrzhak , Yu B
Khariton, "Georgiĭ Nikolaevich Flerov
(Obituary)", Physics-Uspekhi 1991 Vol.
34 No.
3. http://www.turpion.org/php/full/info
FT.phtml?journal_id=pu&paper_id=2358 {F
lerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_199103xx.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846.
6. ^ Flerov and
Petrjak, "Spontaneous Fission of
Uranium", Phys. Rev. 58, 89–89
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p89_2
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Flerov and Petrjak,
"Spontaneous Fission of Uranium",
Phys. Rev. 58, 89–89
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p89_2
9. ^ Flerov and Petrjak, "Spontaneous
Fission of Uranium", Phys. Rev. 58,
89–89
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p89_2 {06/14/1940}
(Physico Technical Institute and Radium
Institute) Leningrad, (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia8  
[1] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
60 YBN
[06/21/1940 AD] 8 		5554)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "High Energy
Carbon Nuclei", Physical Review, July
1940, Volume 58, Issue 2,
p192. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v58/i2/p187_1 {Alvarez_Luis_W_19400621.
pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
3. ^ "Luis W.
Alvarez." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/18131/Luis-W-Alvarez>.
4. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "High Energy
Carbon Nuclei", Physical Review, July
1940, Volume 58, Issue 2,
p192. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v58/i2/p187_1 {Alvarez_Luis_W_19400621.
pdf}
5. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Purnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "High
Energy Carbon Nuclei", Physical Review,
July 1940, Volume 58, Issue 2,
p192. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v58/i2/p187_1 {Alvarez_Luis_W_19400621.
pdf}
8. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "High Energy
Carbon Nuclei", Physical Review, July
1940, Volume 58, Issue 2,
p192. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v58/i2/p187_1 {Alvarez_Luis_W_19400621.
pdf} {06/21/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] Luis W. Alvarez et al,
"TWO-ELEMENT VARIABLE-POWER SPHERICAL
LENS", Patent number: 3305294, Filing
date: Dec 3, 1964, Issue date: Feb 21,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT3305294&id=3sRwAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=%22LW+alvarez%22+lens&printsec=
abstract#v=onepage&q=%22LW%20alvarez%22%
20lens&f=false
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
[3] Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog,
"He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA7  
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

60 YBN
[07/16/1940 AD] 8 		5365)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.;
Segrè, E. "Artificially Radioactive
Element 85". Phys. Rev. 1940, 58:
672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
3. ^ Corson, D. R.;
MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E.
"Artificially Radioactive Element 85".
Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf}
4. ^ Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.;
Segrè, E. "Artificially Radioactive
Element 85". Phys. Rev. 1940, 58:
672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf}
5. ^ "astatine." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/astatine
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie,
K. R.; Segrè, E. "Artificially
Radioactive Element 85". Phys. Rev.
1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf}
8. ^ Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.;
Segrè, E. "Artificially Radioactive
Element 85". Phys. Rev. 1940, 58:
672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf}
{07/16/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
[2] E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209
[3] "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[4] "technetium." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1959".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1959/
[6] Seidel, Robert. "Segrè, Emilio
Gino." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 407-411.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906083&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1
[8] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA7  
[1] Figure 1 from: Corson, D. R.;
MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E.
''Artificially Radioactive Element
85''. Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhys
Rev.58.672

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
60 YBN
[07/19/1940 AD] 8 		5262) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1955
is awarded to Vincent du Vigneaud "for
his work on biochemically important
sulphur compounds, especially for the
first synthesis of a polypeptide
hormone".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779.
2. ^ Du Vigneaud,
Vincent; Melville, Donald B.; Gyorgy,
Paul; Rose, Catharine S., "On the
Identity of Vitamin H with Biotin",
Science, Volume 92, Issue 2377, pp.
62-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1665
931?origin=ads
{Du_Vigneaud_Vincent_19400719.pdf}
3. ^ György P, Melville DB, Burk D, DU
Vigneaud V., "THE POSSIBLE IDENTITY OF
VITAMIN H WITH BIOTIN AND COENZYME R.",
Science. 1940 Mar
8;91(2358):243-5. http://www.jstor.org/
stable/1666738?&Search=yes&searchText=BI
OTIN&searchText=VITAMIN&searchText=POSSI
BLE&searchText=R&searchText=IDENTITY&sea
rchText=COENZYME&searchText=H&list=hide&
searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3Ffi
lter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26Que
ry%3DTHE%2BPOSSIBLE%2BIDENTITY%2BOF%2BVI
TAMIN%2BH%2BWITH%2BBIOTIN%2BAND%2BCOENZY
ME%2BR%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26w
c%3Don&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=16&returnA
rticleService=showFullText
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1955".
Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1955/
7. ^ Du Vigneaud, Vincent; Melville,
Donald B.; Gyorgy, Paul; Rose,
Catharine S., "On the Identity of
Vitamin H with Biotin", Science, Volume
92, Issue 2377, pp.
62-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1665
931?origin=ads
8. ^ Du Vigneaud, Vincent; Melville,
Donald B.; Gyorgy, Paul; Rose,
Catharine S., "On the Identity of
Vitamin H with Biotin", Science, Volume
92, Issue 2377, pp.
62-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1665
931?origin=ads
{Du_Vigneaud_Vincent_19400719.pdf} {0
7/19/1940}
(Cornell University Medical College)
New York City, New York, USA7  
[1] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

60 YBN
[08/24/1940 AD] 19 20 		5217) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1945 is awarded jointly to Sir
Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain
and Sir Howard Walter Florey "for the
discovery of penicillin and its
curative effect in various infectious
diseases".16

In 1960 Florey is president of the
Royal Society.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763-764,813.
2. ^ "Sir Howard
Walter Florey." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/howard-walt
er-florey
3. ^ E Chain, HW Florey, AD Gardner,
NG Heatley, "Penicillin as a
Chemotherapeutic agent", Lancet, 1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763-764.
5. ^ "Ernst Boris
Chain." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-boris
-chain
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763-764.
7. ^ E Chain, HW
Florey, AD Gardner, NG Heatley,
"Penicillin as a Chemotherapeutic
agent", Lancet, 1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763-764.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p763-764.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1945/
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763-764,813.
18. ^ E Chain, HW
Florey, AD Gardner, NG Heatley,
"Penicillin as a Chemotherapeutic
agent", Lancet, 1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf}
19. ^ E Chain, HW Florey, AD Gardner,
NG Heatley, "Penicillin as a
Chemotherapeutic agent", Lancet, 1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf} {08/24/1940}
20. ^ "Sir Howard
Walter Florey." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/howard-walt
er-florey {1939}
(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England18  
[1] Table from: E Chain, HW Florey,
AD Gardner, NG Heatley, ''Penicillin as
a Chemotherapeutic agent'', Lancet,
1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY
-1&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601
087281&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_coverDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=9976338
95&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b
15f2f4b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

[2] Description Howard Florey,
Baron Florey Source
http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laur
eates/1945/florey-bio.html Article
Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Portion used Entire
photo Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To
identify and illustrate Howard Florey
in the article Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Replaceable? No; Howard
Florey died in 1968. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a7/Howard_Florey.png
60 YBN
[08/29/1940 AD] 18 		5438) In 1933 Goldmark moves to the
USA.14
After Goldmark becomes a vice
president of CBS in 1950, he develops
the scanning system that allows the
U.S. Lunar Orbiter spacecraft (launched
in 1966) to relay photographs 238,000
miles (380,000 kilometres) from the
Moon of Earth to the planet Earth.15
In
1971 Goldmark retired from CBS to form
his own company, Goldmark
Communications Corporation.16
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819-820.
2. ^ "Peter
Goldmark." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
3. ^ Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2304081,
Filing date: Sep 7, 1940, Issue date:
Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819-820.
5. ^ Record ID4213.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819-820.
8. ^ Peter C.
Goldmark, "COLOR TELEVISION", Patent
number: 2304081, Filing date: Sep 7,
1940, Issue date: Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
9. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
10. ^ Peter C. Goldmark, "Television",
Patent number: 2329194, Filing date:
Jan 9, 1941, Issue date: Sep 14,
1943 http://www.google.com/patents?id=9
dZuAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
11. ^ Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2304081,
Filing date: Sep 7, 1940, Issue date:
Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p819-820.
15. ^ "Peter Carl
Goldmark." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/237886/Peter-Carl-Goldmark>.
16. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
17. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
18. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl {08/29/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2435962,
Filing date: Nov 20, 1940, Issue date:
Feb 17,
1948. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
D6lLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA17  
[1] Figures from: Peter C. Goldmark,
''COLOR TELEVISION'', Patent number:
2304081, Filing date: Sep 7, 1940,
Issue date: Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=t
ransmit&f=false

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg
60 YBN
[11/13/1940 AD] 20 		5524) Kerst worked at Los Alamos, New
Mexico (CE 1943-45).18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. W. Kerst, "The Acceleration of
Electrons by Magnetic Induction", Phys.
Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf}
2. ^ Donald W. Kerst et al, "MAGNETIC
INDUCTION ACCELERATOR", Patent number:
2297305, Filing date: Nov 13, 1940,
Issue date: Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
3. ^ Record ID5268. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p840.
5. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=dkerst.html
6. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=dkerst.html
7. ^ D. W. Kerst, "The Acceleration of
Electrons by Magnetic Induction", Phys.
Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Donald W. Kerst et al,
"MAGNETIC INDUCTION ACCELERATOR",
Patent number: 2297305, Filing date:
Nov 13, 1940, Issue date: Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
10. ^ "particle accelerator."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445045/particle-accelerator>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=dkerst.html
19. ^ Donald W. Kerst et al, "MAGNETIC
INDUCTION ACCELERATOR", Patent number:
2297305, Filing date: Nov 13, 1940,
Issue date: Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
20. ^ Donald W. Kerst et al, "MAGNETIC
INDUCTION ACCELERATOR", Patent number:
2297305, Filing date: Nov 13, 1940,
Issue date: Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
{11/13/1940}
(General Electric Company) Scotia, New
York, USA19  
[1] Figure 4 from: D. W. Kerst, ''The
Acceleration of Electrons by Magnetic
Induction'', Phys. Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v60/i1/p47_1

[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN

source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg
60 YBN
[12/02/1940 AD] 8 		5439)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819-820.
3. ^ "Peter Carl
Goldmark." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/237886/Peter-Carl-Goldmark>.
4. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Peter
Goldmark." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
8. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl {12/02/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter C. Goldmark,
"Television", Patent number: 2329194,
Filing date: Jan 9, 1941, Issue date:
Sep 14,
1943 http://www.google.com/patents?id=9
dZuAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[2] Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2435962,
Filing date: Nov 20, 1940, Issue date:
Feb 17,
1948. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
D6lLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[3] Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2304081,
Filing date: Sep 7, 1940, Issue date:
Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA7  
[1] CBS-Columbia 12CC2 Field Sequential
Color Receiver (1951) front
view UNKNOWN
source: http://novia.net/~ereitan/images
/CBS-Columbia_set.gif

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg
60 YBN
[12/05/1940 AD] 2 		5416)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. P. ABRAHAM & E. CHAIN, "An
Enzyme from Bacteria able to Destroy
Penicillin", Nature 146, 837-837 (28
December 1940)
doi:10.1038/146837a0 http://www.natur
e.com/nature/journal/v146/n3713/abs/1468
37a0.html {Chain_Ernst_19401205.pdf}
2. ^ E. P. ABRAHAM & E. CHAIN, "An
Enzyme from Bacteria able to Destroy
Penicillin", Nature 146, 837-837 (28
December 1940)
doi:10.1038/146837a0 http://www.natur
e.com/nature/journal/v146/n3713/abs/1468
37a0.html {Chain_Ernst_19401205.pdf}
{12/05/1940}
(Oxford Univerity) Oxford, England1
 		 
60 YBN
[1940 AD] 7 		4953) Karman establishes the theory of
aeronautics.3
Karman is largely
responsible for the California
Institute of Technology's emergence as
a top aeronautical research center.4
Ka
rman is the son of professor of
education who was knighted by Emperor
Francis Joseph I of Austria-Hungary for
his reorganization of Hungarian
education.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), 683.
2. ^ "Theodore von
Kármán." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/312519/Theodore-von-Karman>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), 683.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), 683.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), 683.
6. ^ "Theodor von
Karman." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theodore-vo
n-karman
7. ^ "Theodore von Kármán."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/312519/Theodore-von-Karman>. {1940}
(Guggenheim Aeronautic Laboratory)
Pasadena, California, USA6  
[1] English: Dr. Theodore von Karman,
co-founder of the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) Pasadena, California
was an aeronautical theoretician. His
contributions in the fields of
aerodynamics and aeronautical
engineering are well documented and
well known to every aerospace
engineer. He was the first winner of
the prestigious U.S. Medal of Science
presented to him by President John F.
Kennedy. As well as being co-founder of
JPL, he also was principal founder of a
major rocket propulsion firm
(Aerojet-General Corp.), the top
science advisor to the U.S. Air Force
during its transition to jet propulsion
aircraft and the top science advisor to
NATO. He was, during much of this
time, the fountainhead of aerodynamic
thought as head of the Guggenheim
Aeronautical Laboratory at the
California Institute of Technology
(GALCIT) in Pasadena, California. In
the May 1956 issue of the Journal of
Aeronautical Sciences, it was said of
him that ''No other man has had so
great an impact on the development of
aeronautical science in this country.
Hundreds of young men became his
students and scientific collaborators
and were inspired to greater effort.''
Dr. William H. Pickering, then director
of JPL said in 1960 ''We wouldn't have
an aeronautical science as we know it
today, if it weren't for Dr. Thoedore
von Karman.'' Under his guidance,
Caltech's 10 foot wind tunnel was
designed, built and operated. Industry
firms such as Douglas, Northrop,
Hughes, Lockheed, North American,
Vultee and Consolidated all tested new
aeronautical designs and concepts in
GALCIT's tunnel. Even Boeing's own
high-speed wind tunnel was heavily
influenced by suggestions from von
Karman. The National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) became
so concerned about GALCIT's growing
influence over West coast aviation, it
erected the Ames Laboratory in
Sunnyvale, California in part to deter
an ever widening aeronautical gap that
had formed between NACA and GALCIT.
From 1936 to 1940, Caltech stood alone
as the only university-based rocket
research center. Von Karman gambled his
prestige by supporting Frank Malina and
H.S. Tsien's work on rocketry. Other
institutions of higher learning
dismissed such research as
'fantastical' and left such endeavors
to visionaries like Robert
Goddard. Foundational theoretical
research by Von Karman gave rise to the
first successful solid-fuel rocket
engine firings. This led to federal
funding for studies that lead to a form
of aircraft rocket propulsion called
Jet Assisted Take-Off or (JATO).
Success in this endeavor led to von
Karman establishing two more highly
regarded institutions; both originally
dedicated to rocketry: the Aerojet
Engineering Company and the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory. The last years
of his life were spent in Paris, his
favorite city. His interest in
aeronautical research and contributions
to it never waned. He organized in
Paris the NATO Advisory Group for
Aeronautical Research and Development
(AGARD). Staffed by American and
European scientists eager to serve, its
many committees investigated such
disciplines as propulsion, aerodynamics
and electronics. The legacy of his
personable leadership and 'soft touch'
approach to problem solving was only
equalled by his genius. Date 1
January 1950(1950-01-01) Source
Great Images in NASA
Description PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Theodore_von_Karman_-
_GPN-2000-001500.jpg
60 YBN
[1940 AD] 5 		5423)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816.
2. ^ ALBERT B. SABIN,
M.D., "THE OLFACTORY BULBS IN HUMAN
POLIOMYELITIS", Am J Dis Child.
1940;60(6):1313-1318.
http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/conte
nt/summary/60/6/1313
3. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
4. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
5. ^ ALBERT B. SABIN, M.D., "THE
OLFACTORY BULBS IN HUMAN
POLIOMYELITIS", Am J Dis Child.
1940;60(6):1313-1318.
http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/conte
nt/summary/60/6/1313

MORE INFO
[1] Sabin, "Cultivation of
poliomyelitis virus in vitro in human
embryonic nervous tissue", Proceedings
of the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine, (1936) volume: 31 page:
357.
( University of Cincinnati) Cincinnati,
Ohio, USA4 (presumably) 
[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079
60 YBN
[1940 AD] 9 10 11 		5433)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818-819.
2. ^ "Professor Bengt
Edlen in memoriam", Physica Scripta.
Vol. T51, 5-6,
1994 http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=4&sqi=2&ved=0CCcQFjAD&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2F1402-4896
%2F1994%2FT51%2FE02%2Fpdf%2Fphysscr4_T51
_E02.pdf&rct=j&q=bengt%20edlen&ei=VNJtTa
7rIIv6sAPWgonCCw&usg=AFQjCNFoLXfXjG50OQg
efgT0NmW4K9D-Ew&cad=rja
3. ^ Edlén, B., "The identification of
the coronal lines (George Darwin
Lecture)", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 1945, Vol. 105,
p.323. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
945MNRAS.105..323E
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818-819.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818-819.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Edlén,
B., "The identification of the coronal
lines (George Darwin Lecture)", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 1945, Vol. 105,
p.323. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
945MNRAS.105..323E
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818-819. {1940}
11. ^ "An
attempt to identify the emission lines
in the spectrum of the solar corona",
Arkiv for Matematic, Astronomi och
Fysik, 28B, N1 (1941) {1940}
 
[1] Bengt Edlén (right) with king
Gustaf VI Adolf. Description Bengt
Edlén and king.jpg Svenska: Kung
Gustaf VI Adolf vid invigningen av
Fysiska institutionen 1951 och Bengt
Edlén. Date 1951(1951) Source
http://www.fysik.lu.se/gemensam/bil
ddatabasen/historic/slides/library%20038
.html Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bengt_Edl%C3%A9
n_and_king.jpg/220px-Bengt_Edl%C3%A9n_an
d_king.jpg
60 YBN
[1940 AD] 18 		5463)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p824-825.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p847.
4. ^ "Philip
Abelson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philip-abel
son
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p824-825.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p824-825.
7. ^ "John R.
Dunning." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/173830/John-R-Dunning>.
8. ^ "John Dunning, 1st Baron
Ashburton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dunnin
g-1st-baron-ashburton
9. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
10. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ "Philip Abelson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philip-abel
son
18. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/SmythR
eport/smyth_x.shtml {Fall) 1940}
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA17
 
[1] This image was moved to Wikimedia
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script. All source information is still
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Additionally, there may be errors in
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have been made. Once the review has
been completed, this template should be
removed. For details about this image,
see below. Check now! Afrikaans
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Philip_Hauge_Abelson.
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[2] Alemannisch
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
60 YBN
[1940 AD] 3 		6078) "When You Wish upon a Star",
written by Leigh Harline and Ned
Washington for Walt Disney's 1940
adaptation of Pinocchio, is recorded.
The original version of the song is
sung by Cliff Edwards in the character
of Jiminy Cricket and is heard over the
opening credits and again in the final
scene of the film. The song has since
become the theme song to The Walt
Disney Company.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "When You Wish Upon A Star".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_You_Wi
sh_Upon_A_Star
2. ^ "The Walt Disney Company".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Di
sney_Company
3. ^ "When You Wish Upon A Star".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_You_Wi
sh_Upon_A_Star {1940}
Los Angeles, California, USA2
(presumably) 		 
59 YBN
[01/02/1941 AD] 3 		6058)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boogie_Woog
ie_Bugle_Boy
2. ^ "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boogie_Woog
ie_Bugle_Boy
3. ^ "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boogie_Woog
ie_Bugle_Boy {01/02/1941}
(Decca Studios) Hollywood, California,
USA2  
[1] Description Publicity
photograph taken during World War
II Source
http://www.last.fm/music/The+Andrew
s+Sisters/+images/406714 Article
The Andrews Sisters Portion used
Full Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To
illustrate the article about The
Andrews Sisters Replaceable? No
alternative free use image
available Other information Image
is essential to illustrate the article.
Use of the image in no way violates the
copyright holder's legal
rights. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b3/The-Andrews-Sisters.jpg
59 YBN
[01/15/1941 AD] 10 		5674) In 1936 Woodward gets a Ph.D. at
age 20, and in 1938 is a postdoctoral
fellow on the faculty of Harvard at
21.5
In 1950 Woodward becomes a full
professor at 33.6
In 1964 Woodward
wins the National Medal of Science
Award.7
In 1965 Robert B. Woodward wins
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his
outstanding achievements in the art of
organic synthesis".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering,
"The Total Synthesis of Quinine", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp
860–874. DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19441108.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ "Robert Burns
Woodward." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 15
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
8. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1965".
Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
9. ^ R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066 {Woodward_Robert_
Burns_19410115.pdf}
10. ^ R. B. Woodward, "Structure and
the Absorption Spectra of
α,β-Unsaturated Ketones", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1941, 63 (4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066 {Woodward_Robert_
Burns_19410115.pdf} {01/15/1941}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[2] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA9  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

59 YBN
[01/23/1941 AD] 6 		5580)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samuel Ruben, Merle Randall,
Martin Kamen, James Logan Hyde, "Heavy
Oxygen (O18) as a Tracer in the Study
of Photosynthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1941, 63 (3), pp
877–879. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01848a512 {Kamen_Martin_D_194
10123.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
3. ^ "Martin David
Kamen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 28
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/martin-davi
d-kamen
4. ^ Samuel Ruben, Merle Randall,
Martin Kamen, James Logan Hyde, "Heavy
Oxygen (O18) as a Tracer in the Study
of Photosynthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1941, 63 (3), pp
877–879. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01848a512 {Kamen_Martin_D_194
10123.pdf}
5. ^ Samuel Ruben, Merle Randall,
Martin Kamen, James Logan Hyde, "Heavy
Oxygen (O18) as a Tracer in the Study
of Photosynthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1941, 63 (3), pp
877–879. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01848a512 {Kamen_Martin_D_194
10123.pdf}
6. ^ Samuel Ruben, Merle Randall,
Martin Kamen, James Logan Hyde, "Heavy
Oxygen (O18) as a Tracer in the Study
of Photosynthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1941, 63 (3), pp
877–879. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01848a512 {Kamen_Martin_D_194
10123.pdf} {01/23/1941}

MORE INFO
[1] S. Ruben, W. Z. Hassid, M. D.
Kamen, "Radioactive Carbon in the Study
of Photosynthesis", Journal of the
American Chemical Society 1939 61 (3),
661-663. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10
.1021/ja01872a034
[2] Samuel Ruben and Martin D. Kamen,
"Radioactive Carbon of Long Half-Life",
Phys. Rev. 57, 549–549
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p549_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] Dr. Martin Kamen - Scientist who
discovered radioactive carbon-14 which
revolutionized archeology (carbon-14
dating) and laid a foundation for
deciphering the chemical processes in
plants and animals, but who spent many
years ostracized on suspicion that he
was a Russian spy (later exonerated),
died at age 89. UNKNOWN
source: http://lifeinlegacy.com/2002/090
7/KamenMartin.jpg
59 YBN
[02/15/1941 AD] 3 4 		6052)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Duke Ellington." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
2. ^ "Take
the a train". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_the_a_
train
3. ^ "Take the a train". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_the_a_
train {02/15/1941}
4. ^ "Duke Ellington." The
Reader's Companion to American History,
Eric Foner and John A. Garraty,
Editors, published by. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1991. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2011. {1941}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/duke-elling
ton
New York City, New York, USA2
(verify) 
[1] Duke Ellington band UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kalamu.com/bol/wp-con
tent/content/images/duke%20ellington%202
0.jpg

[2] Description English: Billy
Strayhorn on 14 Aug 1958 Date
Source Library of Congress,
Prints and Photographs Division, Van
Vechten Collection, reproduction number
LC-USZ62-114529 DLC ). Author
[show]Carl Van Vechten (1880–1964)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/BillyStrayhorn1958.jp
g
59 YBN
[02/24/1941 AD] 7 		5283)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ E. Fermi and E.
Segrè , "Fission of Uranium by
Alpha-Particles", Phys. Rev. 59,
680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf}
3. ^ E. Fermi and E. Segrè , "Fission
of Uranium by Alpha-Particles", Phys.
Rev. 59, 680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf}
4. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
"Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}

5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ E. Fermi and E. Segrè ,
"Fission of Uranium by
Alpha-Particles", Phys. Rev. 59,
680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf}
7. ^ E. Fermi and E. Segrè , "Fission
of Uranium by Alpha-Particles", Phys.
Rev. 59, 680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf} {02/24/1941}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p447.
[4] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[6] E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione del
gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren. Lincei,
3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted in:
Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1, p178.
[7] R. O. Haxby,
W. E. Shoupp, W. E. Stephens, and W. H.
Wells, "Photo-Fission of Uranium and
Thorium", Phys. Rev. 59, 57–62
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i1/p57_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA6  
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
59 YBN
[03/07/1941 AD] 22 		5547)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. T. Seaborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
{Seaborg_Glenn_T_19410128.pdf}
2. ^ G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19410
128.pdf}
3. ^ Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_
19410307.pdf}
4. ^ J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
5. ^ "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
7. ^ "Glenn T.
Seaborg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
8. ^ G. T. Seaborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
{Seaborg_Glenn_T_19410128.pdf}
9. ^ G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19410
128.pdf}
10. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
11. ^ Enrico Fermi,
"Possible Production of Elements of
Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature
133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
12. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
13. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
14. ^ "Glenn T.
Seaborg - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html
 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19381212.pdf}
15. ^ "Edwin M. McMillan - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 7 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/mcmillan-lecture.htm
l {McMillan_Edwin_M_19511212.pdf}
16. ^ "plutonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plutonium
17. ^ "plutonium." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 26 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plutonium
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
22. ^ G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19410
128.pdf} {03/07/1941}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1951". Nobelprize.org. 25 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[2] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[3]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA21  
[1] Description
Plutonium3.jpg English:
Plutonium Pictured against an inch and
centimeter rule. Date
1945(1945) Source
http://images-of-elements.com/pluto
nium.php Author U.S. Department
of Energy, Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Plutonium3.jpg

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
59 YBN
[03/22/1941 AD] 8 		5271) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1966 is divided equally
between Peyton Rous "for his discovery
of tumour-inducing viruses" and Charles
Brenton Huggins "for his discoveries
concerning hormonal treatment of
prostatic cancer".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781.
2. ^ "Charles Brenton
Huggins." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/huggins-cha
rles-brenton
3. ^ C Huggins, "Studies on prostatic
cancer. I. The effect of castration, of
estrogen and of androgen injection on
serum phosphatases in metastatic
carcinoma of the prostate", Cancer
Research,
1941. {Huggins_Charles_19410322.pdf}
4. ^ "Charles Brenton Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/huggins-cha
rles-brenton
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1966".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1966/
7. ^ C Huggins, "Studies on prostatic
cancer. I. The effect of castration, of
estrogen and of androgen injection on
serum phosphatases in metastatic
carcinoma of the prostate", Cancer
Research,
1941. {Huggins_Charles_19410322.pdf}
8. ^ C Huggins, "Studies on prostatic
cancer. I. The effect of castration, of
estrogen and of androgen injection on
serum phosphatases in metastatic
carcinoma of the prostate", Cancer
Research,
1941. {Huggins_Charles_19410322.pdf}
{03/22/1941}

MORE INFO
[1] C Huggins, "The effect of
castration on benign hypertrophy of the
prostate in man", J urol, 1940
[2] C
Huggins, "The effect of castration and
of estrogen injection on the normal and
on the hyperplastic prostate glands of
dogs", J. Exp. Med, 1940.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA7  
[1] Charles Brenton
Huggins COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1966/huggin
s_postcard.jpg
59 YBN
[05/07/1941 AD] 3 		6074)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chattanooga Choo Choo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chattanooga
_Choo_Choo
2. ^ "Chattanooga Choo Choo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chattanooga
_Choo_Choo
3. ^ "Chattanooga Choo Choo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chattanooga
_Choo_Choo {05/07/1941}
(RCA Victor's Bluebird) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] Description This photo from a
US Government website
(http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/afp/afp1
297.htm) shows Maj. Glen Miller during
his service in the US Army Air
Corps. Date 2005-11-01 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from en.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was SeanO at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY-ARMY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Glen_miller.jpg
59 YBN
[05/09/1941 AD] 4 		6073) The song "God Bless the Child"
(written by Billie Holiday and Arthur
Herzog, Jr. in 1939) is recorded.1

(Part of me thinks that I should not
include religious songs - because they
are not lyrically advances, and by
promoting religions, in some sense,
moving us back to an out-house era-
which is what many in the in-house
might prefer.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "God Bless the Child (Billie
Holiday song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Bless_t
he_Child_%28Billie_Holiday_song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "God Bless the Child
(Billie Holiday song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Bless_t
he_Child_%28Billie_Holiday_song%29
4. ^ "God Bless the Child (Billie
Holiday song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Bless_t
he_Child_%28Billie_Holiday_song%29
{05/09/1941}
New York City, New York, USA3   
59 YBN
[05/28/1941 AD] 8 9 		5477)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edwin H. Land, "Process For
Forming Light-Polarizing Images",
Patent number: 2315373, Filing date:
May 28, 1941, Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p830.
3. ^ "Edwin H. Land."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-herbe
rt-land
4. ^ Edwin H. Land, "Process For
Forming Light-Polarizing Images",
Patent number: 2315373, Filing date:
May 28, 1941, Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^ "Edwin Herbert Land."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329092/Edwin-Herbert-Land>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Edwin H. Land, "Process
For Forming Light-Polarizing Images",
Patent number: 2315373, Filing date:
May 28, 1941, Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
8. ^ Edwin H. Land, "Process For
Forming Light-Polarizing Images",
Patent number: 2315373, Filing date:
May 28, 1941, Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {05/28/1941}
9. ^ "Edwin Herbert Land."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329092/Edwin-Herbert-Land>. {1941}

MORE INFO
[1] Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, "Polarizing Refracting
Bodies", Patent number: 1918848, Filing
date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date: Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA7  
[1] Figures from: Edwin H. Land,
''Process For Forming Light-Polarizing
Images'', Patent number:
2315373, Filing date: May 28, 1941,
Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin H. Land UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kipnotes.com/land.jpg

59 YBN
[10/08/1941 AD] 11 		5331) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1958 is divided, one half
jointly to George Wells Beadle and
Edward Lawrie Tatum "for their
discovery that genes act by regulating
definite chemical events" and the other
half to Joshua Lederberg "for his
discoveries concerning genetic
recombination and the organization of
the genetic material of bacteria".9
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794-795,831.
2. ^ G. W. BEADLE AND
E. L. TATUM, "GENETIC CONTROL OF
BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN NEUROSPORA",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1941 November
15; 27(11): 499–506.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1078370/ {Beadle_George_19411008.
pdf}
3. ^ "George Wells Beadle." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-well
s-beadle
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794-795.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p794-795.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ G. W. BEADLE AND E. L. TATUM,
"GENETIC CONTROL OF BIOCHEMICAL
REACTIONS IN NEUROSPORA", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1941 November 15;
27(11): 499–506.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1078370/ {Beadle_George_19411008.
pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1958".
Nobelprize.org. 18 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1958/
10. ^ G. W. BEADLE AND E. L. TATUM,
"GENETIC CONTROL OF BIOCHEMICAL
REACTIONS IN NEUROSPORA", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1941 November 15;
27(11): 499–506.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1078370/ {Beadle_George_19411008.
pdf}
11. ^ G. W. BEADLE AND E. L. TATUM,
"GENETIC CONTROL OF BIOCHEMICAL
REACTIONS IN NEUROSPORA", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1941 November 15;
27(11): 499–506.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1078370/ {Beadle_George_19411008.
pdf} {10/08/1941}
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA10  
[1] George Beadle Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/beadle.jpg

[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 4 		5049) In 1952 Waksman wins the Nobel
prize in medicine and physiology and
gives the prize money to a research
foundation at Rutgers.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p716-717.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p716-717.
3. ^ "Selman
Abraham Waksman." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634309/Selman-Abraham-Waksman>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p716-717. {1941}
(Rutgers University) New Brunswick, New
Jersey, USA3  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Selman Waksman
NYWTS.jpg Dr. Selman Waksman,
half-length portrait, facing left at
work in the laboratory / World Telegram
& Sun photo by Roger Higgins. Date
1953(1953) Source Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division. New York World-Telegram and
the Sun Newspaper Photograph
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c19821
Author New York World-Telegram and
the Sun staff photographer: Higgins,
Roger, photographer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Selman_Waksman_NYWTS.
jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 13 		5066) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p723-724.
2. ^ "Sir Harold
Spencer Jones." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/305893/Sir-Harold-Spencer-Jones>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p723-724.
4. ^ HS Jones, "The
Solar Parallax and the Mass of the Moon
from Observations of Eros at the
Opposition of 1931", Royal
Astronomical Society, 1941
5. ^ HS Jones,
"The Solar Parallax: A Coordinated
International Measure of a Fundamental
Constant", Observatory 64, 99-104
(1941). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
941Obs....64...93.&db_key=AST&page_ind=6
&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCRE
EN_GIF
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ HS Jones, "The Solar Parallax: A
Coordinated International Measure of a
Fundamental Constant", Observatory 64,
99-104
(1941). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
941Obs....64...93.&db_key=AST&page_ind=6
&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCRE
EN_GIF
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Sir Harold Spencer
Jones." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/305893/Sir-Harold-Spencer-Jones>.
13. ^ "Sir Harold Spencer Jones."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/305893/Sir-Harold-Spencer-Jones>.
{1941}

MORE INFO
[1] HS Jones, "On the Suitability
of Eros for the Accurate Determination
of the Solar Parallax", Neill and Co.,
1940.
(Royal Observatory in Greenwich)
Greenwich, England12  
[1] Spencer Jones UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/lb/thumb/5/52/Spencer_jones.jpg/30
0px-Spencer_jones.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 12 		5149) In 1935 Minkowski leaves Nazi
Germany for the USA with the help of
Baade.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747-748.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p747-748.
3. ^ Minkowski,
R., "Spectra of Supernovae",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 53, No.
314,
p.224. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1941PASP...53..224M/0000224.000
.html {Minkowski_Rudolph_1941xxxx.pdf}
4. ^ Minkowski, R., "The Spectra of the
Supernovae in IC 4182 and in NGC
1003.", Astrophysical Journal, vol. 89,
p.156. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1939ApJ....89..156M/0000165.000
.html {Minkowski_Rudolph_193810xx.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747-748.
6. ^ Minkowski, R.,
"Spectra of Supernovae", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 53, No. 314,
p.224. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1941PASP...53..224M/0000224.000
.html {Minkowski_Rudolph_1941xxxx.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747-748.
11. ^ Minkowski, R.,
"Spectra of Supernovae", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 53, No. 314,
p.224. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1941PASP...53..224M/0000224.000
.html {Minkowski_Rudolph_1941xxxx.pdf}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747-748. {1941}
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA11  
[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: [12]
Minkowski, R., ''The Spectra of the
Supernovae in IC 4182 and in NGC
1003.'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
89,
p.156. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1939ApJ....89..156M/0000165.000
.html {Minkowski_Rudolph_193810xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1939ApJ....89..156M&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=156&epage=156&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] on Minkowski,Rudolph 1934
London.jpg English: Physicist Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Minkowski%2CRudolph_1
934_London.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 9 10 		5153) In 1956 Cournand shares the Nobel
prize for physiology and medicine with
D. W. Richards, and Forssmann "for
their discoveries concerning heart
catheterization and pathological
changes in the circulatory system".6 7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748.
2. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1956".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1956/
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p750.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
"Cardiac catheterization." The
Patient's Guide to Medical Tests.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.
Answers.com 20 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cardiac-cat
heterization-surgical-term
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1956".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1956/
8. ^ "André Frederic Cournand." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cournand-an
dr-frederic
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748. {1941}
10. ^ "André
Frederic Cournand." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cournand-an
dr-frederic {1941}
(Bellevue Hospital) New York City, New
York, USA8 (Cournand) 
[1] Description Hk coronary big
bionerd.gif cardiac catheterization:
my own heart, visible coronary arteries
(arteria coronaria sinistra) due to
contrast agent Date 18th of
October 2006 Source cath lab at
hospital charite mitte, berlin,
germany Author cath lab (with
permission) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Hk_coronary_big_bione
rd.gif

[2] André Frédéric Cournand (1895 -
1988) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nobel-prize-winners.c
om/cournand/acournand.GIF
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 12 13 		5224)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
2. ^ "Fritz Albert
Lipmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
4. ^ F Lipmann,
"Metabollc generatlon and utlllsatlon
of phosphate bond energy",Advances in
Enzymology, 1941.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
"Fritz Albert Lipmann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
12. ^ F Lipmann, "Metabollc generatlon
and utlllsatlon of phosphate bond
energy",Advances in Enzymology, 1941.
13. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769. {1941}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1953".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/
[2] FRITZ LIPMANN, "Role of Phosphate
in Pyruvic Acid Dehydrogenation",
Nature, 144, 381-382 (26 August
1939). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v144/n3643/pdf/144381b0.pdf
[3] Lipmann, Enzymologia, 4, 65 (1937)
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA11 (presumably) 
[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 5 		5362)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
2. ^ "Gerhard
Herzberg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerhard-her
zberg
3. ^ Douglas, A. E. & Herzberg, G.,
"Note on CH+ in Interstellar Space and
in the Laboratory.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 94,
p.381. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
941ApJ....94..381D
4. ^ Douglas, A. E. & Herzberg, G.,
"Note on CH+ in Interstellar Space and
in the Laboratory.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 94,
p.381. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
941ApJ....94..381D
5. ^ Douglas, A. E. & Herzberg, G.,
"Note on CH+ in Interstellar Space and
in the Laboratory.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 94,
p.381. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
941ApJ....94..381D

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1971". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1971/
[2] Gerhard Herzberg, "Atomic Spectra
and Atomic Structure" (1937)
[3] Gerhard
Herzberg, "Molecular Spectra and
Molecular Structure" (4 vols.
1939–79).
[4] W. Heitler and G. Herzberg,
"Gehorchen die Stickstoffkerne der
Boseschen Statistik?",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
34,
673-674. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j0102q63006p7527/ English: "Do
nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics?"
[5]
Johnston, Sean F. "Herzberg, Gerhard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 298-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905744&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p457.
[7] Herzberg, Gerhard, "Molecular
Spectra and Molecular Structure. I.
Spectra of Diatomic Molecules",
American Journal of Physics, Volume 19,
Issue 6, pp. 390-391
(1951). http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/
ajpias/v19/i6/p390_s2
(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada4  
[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg
58 YBN
[02/16/1942 AD] 16 		5529) In 1934 Bloch leaves Nazi Germany
for Switzerland.12
In 1936 Bloch moves
to the USA.13
In 1964 the Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Konrad Bloch and Feodor
Lynen "for their discoveries concerning
the mechanism and regulation of the
cholesterol and fatty acid
metabolism".14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Konrad Bloch and D. Rittenberg,
"THE BIOLOGICAL FORMATION OF
CHOLESTEROL FROM ACETIC ACID", J. Biol.
Chem. 1942 143: 297-298.
http://www.jbc.org/content/143/1/297.f
ull.pdf+html {Bloch_Konrad_19420216.pdf
}
2. ^ Konrad Bloch and D. Rittenberg,
"On the utilization of acetic acid for
cholesterol formation", Journal of
biological chemistry, (1942) volume:
145 issue: 2 page:
625 http://www.jbc.org/content/145/2/62
5.short {Bloch_Konrad_19420814.pdf}
3. ^ "Konrad Emil Bloch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/konrad-emil
-bloch
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p841.
5. ^ "Konrad E.
Bloch." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/69508/Konrad-E-Bloch>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p841.
7. ^ "Konrad E.
Bloch." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/69508/Konrad-E-Bloch>.
8. ^ Record ID5504. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Record
ID5505. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Konrad Bloch and D.
Rittenberg, "THE BIOLOGICAL FORMATION
OF CHOLESTEROL FROM ACETIC ACID", J.
Biol. Chem. 1942 143: 297-298.
http://www.jbc.org/content/143/1/297.f
ull.pdf+html {Bloch_Konrad_19420216.pdf
}
11. ^ Konrad Bloch and D. Rittenberg,
"On the utilization of acetic acid for
cholesterol formation", Journal of
biological chemistry, (1942) volume:
145 issue: 2 page:
625 http://www.jbc.org/content/145/2/62
5.short {Bloch_Konrad_19420814.pdf}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p841.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p841.
14. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1964".
Nobelprize.org. 22 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1964/
15. ^ Konrad Bloch and D. Rittenberg,
"THE BIOLOGICAL FORMATION OF
CHOLESTEROL FROM ACETIC ACID", J. Biol.
Chem. 1942 143: 297-298.
http://www.jbc.org/content/143/1/297.f
ull.pdf+html {Bloch_Konrad_19420216.pdf
}
16. ^ Konrad Bloch and D. Rittenberg,
"THE BIOLOGICAL FORMATION OF
CHOLESTEROL FROM ACETIC ACID", J. Biol.
Chem. 1942 143: 297-298.
http://www.jbc.org/content/143/1/297.f
ull.pdf+html {Bloch_Konrad_19420216.pdf
} {02/16/1942}
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA15  
[1] Konrad Emil Bloch Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1964/bloch.jpg
58 YBN
[03/12/1942 AD] 11 		5428) In 1969, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Max Delbrück, Alfred D.
Hershey and Salvador E. Luria "for
their discoveries concerning the
replication mechanism and the genetic
structure of viruses".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
}
2. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
}
3. ^ "Salvador Luria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/351772/Salvador-Luria>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1969".
Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1969/
10. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
}
11. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
} {03/12/1942}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
(RCA Research Laboratories) Camden,
New Jersey, USA10  
[1] Plate 1 from: S. E. Luria and
Thomas F. Anderson, ''The
Identification and Characterization of
Bacteriophages with the Electron
Microscope'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 28, No.
4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
} EXPLANATION OF PLATE PLATE I 1.
Electron micrograph of particles from a
high titer suspension of
bacteriophage anti-coli PC. X
38,000. 2. Particles from a high titer
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC. X 84,000. 3. Escherichia coli from
suspension in distilled water. X
17,000. 4. Escherichia coli in
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC for ten minutes. X
17,500. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8764
8

[2] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg
58 YBN
[05/08/1942 AD] 6 		5526)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
2. ^ "Grote Reber."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
3. ^ Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All {Reber_Grote_19420508.pdf}
4. ^ "Grote Reber." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
5. ^ Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All {Reber_Grote_19420508.pdf}
{05/08/1942}
6. ^ Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All {Reber_Grote_19420508.pdf}
{05/08/1942}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_reber.
shtml
[2] G. Reber and E. H. Conklin, "UHF
receivers", Radio, no. 225, pp. 112
1938
[3] G. Reber, "Electric resonance
chambers", Communications , vol. 18,
pp. 5 1938
[4] G. Reber, "Electromagnetic
horns", Communications , vol. 19,
pp. 13 1939
[5] G. Reber, Radio, no. 235,
pp. 17 1939
[6] G. Reber, "Cosmic
static", Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol.
28, pp. 68 1940.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_al
l.jsp?arnumber=1687092&tag=1
[7] G. Reber, "Solar radiation at 480
Mc/sec.", Nature, vol. 158, pp. 945
1946
[8]
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.
jsp?arnumber=1265335
[9]
http://www.nrao.edu/archives/Reber/reber
_publist.shtml
[10] Grote Reber. "Early Radio
Astronomy in Wheaton, Illinois." Proc.
IRE, 46, 15,
1958. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4065216&q
ueryText%3DEarly+Radio+Astronomy+at+Whea
ton%2C+Illinoiss*%26openedRefinements%3D
*%26searchField%3DSearch+All
Wheaton, Illinois, USA5  
[1] Figure 13 from: Grote Reber.
''Cosmic Static.'' Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All {Reber_Grote_19420508.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/searc
h/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&
searchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G.
.QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%
3Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DS
earch+All

[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg
58 YBN
[05/29/1942 AD] 4 		6071) The song "White Christmas"
(written by Irving Berlin, 1940), sung
by Bing Crosby is recorded.1

(It's amazing to me how people can
still feel warm and fuzzy about
Christmas and Christianity in general,
given the history of burning and
torturing people. Then interesting that
this Christian song is written by a
Jewish person who is probably not
Christian- but then Jesus, the founder
of Christianity was Jewish. We don't
for example, see many Christian people
showing enough tolerance to write songs
celebrating the customs of other
religions. Perhaps I should focus away
from the songs based on the following
of Jesus, but perhaps this reminds
people about the reality of the
terrible influence on the lives of
people on earth, with the views that
pleasure is bad, that its ok to lie,
and to believe ridiculously false
claims of supernatural events.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "White Christmas (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Chris
tmas_%28song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Decca Records".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Recor
ds
4. ^ "White Christmas (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Chris
tmas_%28song%29 {05/29/1942}
(Decca Records) New York City, New
York, USA3 (probably) 		 
58 YBN
[07/??/1942 AD] 7 		5363)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
2. ^ "Gerhard
Herzberg." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerhard-her
zberg
3. ^ G. Herzberg, "Evidence for the
Presence of CH2 Molecules in Comets",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 14, 195–197
(1942). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v14/i2-3/p195_1
4. ^ G. Herzberg, "Evidence for the
Presence of CH2 Molecules in Comets",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 14, 195–197
(1942). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v14/i2-3/p195_1
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ G. Herzberg, "Evidence
for the Presence of CH2 Molecules in
Comets", Rev. Mod. Phys. 14, 195–197
(1942). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v14/i2-3/p195_1
7. ^ G. Herzberg, "Evidence for the
Presence of CH2 Molecules in Comets",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 14, 195–197
(1942). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v14/i2-3/p195_1 {07/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1971". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1971/
[2] Gerhard Herzberg, "Atomic Spectra
and Atomic Structure" (1937)
[3] Gerhard
Herzberg, "Molecular Spectra and
Molecular Structure" (4 vols.
1939–79).
[4] W. Heitler and G. Herzberg,
"Gehorchen die Stickstoffkerne der
Boseschen Statistik?",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
34,
673-674. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/j0102q63006p7527/ English: "Do
nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics?"
[5]
Johnston, Sean F. "Herzberg, Gerhard."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 298-302. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905744&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p457.
[7] Herzberg, Gerhard, "Molecular
Spectra and Molecular Structure. I.
Spectra of Diatomic Molecules",
American Journal of Physics, Volume 19,
Issue 6, pp. 390-391
(1951). http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/
ajpias/v19/i6/p390_s2
[8] Douglas, A. E. & Herzberg, G.,
"Note on CH+ in Interstellar Space and
in the Laboratory.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 94,
p.381. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
941ApJ....94..381D
(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada6  
[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg
58 YBN
[07/??/1942 AD] 8 		5378)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p805.
doi:10.1038/134418
a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v134/n3385/abs/134418a0.html {Wildt_Ru
pert_19340805.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/galileo-jupiter_prt.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
doi:10.1038/134418a0 http://ww
w.nature.com/nature/journal/v134/n3385/a
bs/134418a0.html {Wildt_Rupert_19340805
.pdf}
doi:10.1038/134418a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v134/n3385/abs/134418
a0.html {Wildt_Rupert_19340805.pdf}
{07/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rupert Wildt." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rupert-wild
t
[2] R. Wildt, "Methan in den
Atmosphären der großen Planeten",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20, Number
47, 851, DOI:
10.1007/BF01504582 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/j53n955j56271003/ Engli
sh: "Methane in the atmospheres of
giant planets"
[3] R. WILDT, "The Atmospheres of
the Giant Planets", Nature 134, 418-418
(15 September 1934)
[4] Wildt, "The
Geochemistry of the Atmosphere and the
Constitution of the Terrestrial
Planets", Reviews of modern physics,
(1942) volume: 14 issue: 2-3 page:
151. http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v1
4/i2-3/p151_1
[5]
http://www.astronomytoday.com/astronomy/
jupiter.html
[6] Thermal Structure of Jupiter's
Upper Atmosphere Derived from the
Galileo Probe Science 4 April 1997:
102-104.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/276/
5309/102.full
[7]
http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/galileo5.html

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA7  
[1] Rupert Wildt (1905-76) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/images/Wildt.jpg
58 YBN
[10/20/1942 AD] 		5546)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
3. ^ J. J. Livingood
and G. T. Seaborg, "A Table of Induced
Radioactivities", Rev. Mod. Phys. 12,
30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_194001xx
.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1951". Nobelprize.org. 25 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[2] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
[3] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[4]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA3  
[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg
58 YBN
[10/??/1942 AD] 13 		5534)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.ht
ml
2. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.ht
ml
3. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.ht
ml
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
5. ^ Record ID1145.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Wernher von Braun." The Oxford
Companion to Military History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 22 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wernher-von
-braun
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p818,841-842.
9. ^ "Wernher von
Braun." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/78018/Wernher-von-Braun>.
10. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.ht
ml
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Wernher von Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wernher-von
-braun
13. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.ht
ml {10/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p477.
[2]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IN4M1p_tT
KU
Peenemünde, Germany12  
[1] Description Fusée
V2.jpg English: V2-Rocket in the
Peenemünde Museum Deutsch: V2-Rakete
im Peenemünde Museum Français :
Musée de Peenemünde. Date 24
August 2004(2004-08-24) Source
Uploaded as thumbnail on 16:49, 26
Dec 2004 by User:Mschlindwein.
Re-uploaded with original size and
correct name on 13.06.2005 by
User:Avatar. Author AElfwine GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Fus%C3%A9e_V2.jpg

[2] Description Wernher von Braun
crop.jpg Dr. von Braun became
Director of the NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center on July 1,
1960. Français : Le Dr. Von Braun,
directeur du centre de vol spatial de
la NASA, mai 1964 Date
1964-05 NOTE: DESCRIPTION
DATES CONTRADICT EACHOTHER Source
NASA More
specifically? Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Wernher_von_Braun_cro
p.jpg
58 YBN
[11/04/1942 AD] 16 		5289) Kaj Aage Gunnar Strand (CE
1907-2000) working under Peter Van de
Kamp (CE 1901-1995), Dutch-US
astronomer,7 8 9 claim to detect the
first planet of a different star
(exoplanet10 ). Small changes in the
relative movement of the 61 Cygni
system show the existence of a
nonluminous mass eight times the mass
of Jupiter. This planet is detected at
Sproul Observatory under the direction
of Van de Kamp.11

Strand writes in the article "61 Cygni
as a Triple System", in the
"Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific":
"Extensive photographic
observations of high accuracy taken
at the
Potsdam, Lick, and Sproul observatories
have revealed
perturbations in the orbital
motion of 61 Cygni which are
caused by a
third, invisible member revolving
around one of
the two visual components.
The only
solution which will satisfy the
observed motions
gives the remarkably small
mass of 1/60 that of the sun or 16
times
that of jupiter. With a mass
considerably smaller than
the smallest known
stellar mass (Kruger 60 B = 0.14 0),
the
dark companion must have an intrinsic
luminosity so extremely
low that we may consider
it a planet rather than a star. Thus
planetar
y motion has been found outside the
solar system.
An extensive investigation of the
motion in the large orbit
is being carried
out at the Sproul Observatory. Though
not
yet completed, the following dynamical
elements represent
closely the observed arc: P =
720 yrs., c = 0.40, a = 24".554,
T = 1690. These
elements, together with a parallax of
0".294,
give a total mass, Ma + Mb + Mc = 1.12
0.
The relative motion of the perturbed
component with re-
spect to the center of
mass of itself and the invisible
component,
C, has the following dynamical elements
: P = 4.9 yrs., e = 0.7,
a = 0".020 +-
0".003 (m.e.), T = 1942.0.
Since only the
positions of A and B relative to each
other
are known, no decision can be made
regarding which of the two
components C
is attached to. This is, however, of
minor im-
portance for the determination of
the mass of C because A and B
C are
nearly equal in mass. Using the masses
derived below we
obtain in either case, Mc
: 0.016 0, hence C is revolving in
an
orbit with a semi—major axis of
approximately 0".70 or 2.4
astronomical
units. On account of the orbit’s
large eccentricity,
C, at periastron,
is only 0.7 A.U. from its visible
companion.
The two visible components have
visual magnitudes of 5.57
and 6.28 and
spectra of type K6 and M0. With a
parallax of
0".294 and reductions of -0.80
and -1.2 mag. to bolometric
magnitudes we obtain
the absolute bolometric magnitudes of
7.1
and 7.4. From Eddington’s
mass-luminosity curve the
masses are Ma =
0.58 0 and Mb = 0.55 0, hence the
total
mass of the system is 1.15 0,
practically identical with the
value for
the mass derived from the dynamical
elements and
the same parallax.
Since the total
range in the radial velocity of the
visual
components caused by the invisible
companion amounts to
about 1 km/sec,
spectroscopic observations can hardly
be ex-
pected to reveal to which component
C is attached.
The interpretation of the
observed motion in the small orbit
as
the motion of the effective center of
light of two luminous
components with respect to
their common center of gravity has
to be
rejected since the small orbit would
require components
with nearly equal luminosity
(Δm = 0.10 at the most) to give
possible
masses. This, however, would give a
total mass of no
less than 1.50 0 from
Eddington’s curve or 0.38 0 in
excess
of the total mass found from the
dynamical elements.
The photographic
observations used in establishing the
per-
turbation are given below for the
equinox of 2000 and with
corrections for the
perspective effect and proper motion to
the
mean epoch 1930. If no perturbation is
accounted for, the
median mean error as
computed from the residuals is
increased
from 0".006 to 0".010.
A great part of the
preliminary computations for the large
orbit
was done by Miss Virginia Burger who
also made the
second complete set of
measures of the Sproul plates. I am
indebte
d to Dr. H. M. Jeffers for the use of
the photographic
plates taken at the Lick
Observatory in 1942.".12

This claim of a planet orbiting 61
Cygni is rejected in 1978.13

(Make clear that this motion is
detected from the measurement of photos
of the stars that captured visible
light of the entire star, and not from
the observed movement of spectral lines
from Doppler shift.14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Strand, K. A., "61 Cygni as a
Triple System", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 55, No. 322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
3. ^ Strand, K. A.,
"61 Cygni as a Triple System",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
5. ^ Strand, K. A.,
"61 Cygni as a Triple System",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p785.
8. ^ Laurence W.
Fredrick, Peter van de Kamp
(1901-1995), Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
108:556-559, July
1996 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/full/1996PASP..108..556F
9. ^
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history/stra
nd.html
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
12. ^ Strand, K. A.,
"61 Cygni as a Triple System",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
13. ^ Heintz, W. D. (1978).
"Reexamination of suspected unresolved
binaries". The Astrophysical Journal
220: 931–934. doi:10.1086/155982.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978ApJ.
..220..931H. {Heintz_W_D_19770728.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Strand, K. A., "61
Cygni as a Triple System", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 55, No. 322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
16. ^ Strand, K. A., "61 Cygni as a
Triple System", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 55, No. 322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
{11/04/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] http://theperfectsilence.com/
(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA15  
[1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61
Cygni as a Triple System'',
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm
l

[2] Description
KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage
Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31
October 2000) was director of the U.S.
Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He
specialized in astrometry, especially
work on double stars and stellar
distances. Date
2000(2000) Source
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history
/strand.html Author
U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg
58 YBN
[11/04/1942 AD] 13 		5290)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lippincott, S. L., "The Unseen
Companion of the Fourth Nearest Star,
Lalande 21185.", Astronomical Journal,
Vol. 65, p.
350. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/196
0AJ.....65..349L
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
3. ^ "Lalande 21185."
Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley .
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 12
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lalande-211
85.
4. ^ Lippincott, S. L., "The Unseen
Companion of the Fourth Nearest Star,
Lalande 21185.", Astronomical Journal,
Vol. 65, p.
350. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/196
0AJ.....65..349L
5. ^ Gatewood, G., "An astrometric
study of Lalande 21185.", Astron. J.,
Vol. 79, 1974, p. 52 -
53. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/
/full/1974AJ.....79...52G/0000053.000.ht
ml
6. ^ Gatewood, G., "Lalande 21185",
Bulletin - American Astronomical
Society, (1996) volume: 28 page:
885. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996
AAS...188.4011G
7. ^ http://theperfectsilence.com/
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
11. ^ Laurence W.
Fredrick, Peter van de Kamp
(1901-1995), Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
108:556-559, July
1996 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/full/1996PASP..108..556F
12. ^ Strand, K. A., "61 Cygni as a
Triple System", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 55, No. 322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
13. ^ Strand, K. A., "61 Cygni as a
Triple System", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 55, No. 322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
{11/04/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] Heintz, W. D. (1978).
"Reexamination of suspected unresolved
binaries". The Astrophysical Journal
220: 931–934. doi:10.1086/155982.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978ApJ.
..220..931H.
(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA12  
[1] Sarah Lee Lippincott 1975
Swarthmore College faculty
photograph UNKNOWN
source: http://www.swarthmore77.org/eHal
cyon/1977f/Astro-Lippincott.jpg

[2] Peter van de Kamp UNKNOWN
source: http://theperfectsilence.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/01/van_de_Kamp.jpg
58 YBN
[11/20/1942 AD] 4 		5263)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779.
2. ^ V Du Vigneaud,
"The structure of biotin", Science, New
Series, Vol. 96, No. 2499 (Nov. 20,
1942), pp.
455-461. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
71519 {Du_Vigneaud_Vincent_19421120.pdf
}
3. ^ V Du Vigneaud, "The structure of
biotin", Science, New Series, Vol. 96,
No. 2499 (Nov. 20, 1942), pp.
455-461. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
71519 {Du_Vigneaud_Vincent_19421120.pdf
}
4. ^ V Du Vigneaud, "The structure of
biotin", Science, New Series, Vol. 96,
No. 2499 (Nov. 20, 1942), pp.
455-461. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
71519 {Du_Vigneaud_Vincent_19421120.pdf
} {11/20/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1955". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1955/
[2] Du Vigneaud, Vincent; Melville,
Donald B.; Gyorgy, Paul; Rose,
Catharine S., "On the Identity of
Vitamin H with Biotin", Science, Volume
92, Issue 2377, pp.
62-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1665
931?origin=ads
[3] György P, Melville DB, Burk D, DU
Vigneaud V., "THE POSSIBLE IDENTITY OF
VITAMIN H WITH BIOTIN AND COENZYME R.",
Science. 1940 Mar
8;91(2358):243-5. http://www.jstor.org/
stable/1666738?&Search=yes&searchText=BI
OTIN&searchText=VITAMIN&searchText=POSSI
BLE&searchText=R&searchText=IDENTITY&sea
rchText=COENZYME&searchText=H&list=hide&
searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3Ffi
lter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26Que
ry%3DTHE%2BPOSSIBLE%2BIDENTITY%2BOF%2BVI
TAMIN%2BH%2BWITH%2BBIOTIN%2BAND%2BCOENZY
ME%2BR%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26w
c%3Don&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=16&returnA
rticleService=showFullText
(Cornell University Medical College)
New York City, New York, USA3  
[1] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

58 YBN
[12/02/1942 AD] 18 		5277)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Fermi, "Work Carried Out by
the Physics Division", Report CP-387
for month Ending December 15, 1942.
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
2. ^ "Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction", American Journal of Physics,
20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
4. ^ E. Fermi, "Work
Carried Out by the Physics Division",
Report CP-387 for month Ending December
15, 1942. Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
5. ^
"Experimental production of a Divergent
Chain Reaction", American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
7. ^ E. Fermi, "Work
Carried Out by the Physics Division",
Report CP-387 for month Ending December
15, 1942. Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
8. ^
"Experimental production of a Divergent
Chain Reaction", American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
12. ^ E. Fermi, "Work
Carried Out by the Physics Division",
Report CP-387 for month Ending December
15, 1942. Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
13. ^
"Experimental production of a Divergent
Chain Reaction", American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
14. ^ "Experimental production of a
Divergent Chain Reaction", American
Journal of Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
18. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
{12/02/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
[13] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[14] E. Segre (Ed.): "Enrico Fermi:
Collected Papers" (Nore e Memorie),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
(Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
Roma) 1962, Vol. 1 , p. 640
[15] E Fermi,
"Le ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", Societa italiana per il
progresso, 1934
[16] Fermi, Amaldi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 280 (1934);
[17] E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
"Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79
[18] ENRICO FERMI, "Reactions Produced
by Neutrons in Heavy Elements", Nature
146, 640-642 (16 November
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v146/n3707/abs/146640a0.html
[19] E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, "On the
Absorption and the Diffusion of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 899–928
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i10/p899_1
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA17  
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
58 YBN
[1942 AD] 4 		5441)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ BHATIA, B. B. 1942. "On use of
Rauwolfia serpentina in high blood
pressure." J. Indian Med. Assoc. 11:
262-265. http://www.himalayahealthcare.
com/pdf_files/serpina008.pdf {Bhatia_B_
B_1942xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ Robert W. Wilkins, "CLINICAL USAGE
OF RAUWOLFIA ALKALOIDS, INCLUDING
RESERPINE (SERPASIL)", Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, Volume
59, "Reserpine (Serpasil) and Other
Alkaloids of Ruawolfia Serpentina:
Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Clinical
Applications", pages 36–44, April
1954 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1954.tb45916.x/abst
ract
3. ^ BHATIA, B. B. 1942. "On use of
Rauwolfia serpentina in high blood
pressure." J. Indian Med. Assoc. 11:
262-265. http://www.himalayahealthcare.
com/pdf_files/serpina008.pdf {Bhatia_B_
B_1942xxxx.pdf}
4. ^ BHATIA, B. B. 1942. "On use of
Rauwolfia serpentina in high blood
pressure." J. Indian Med. Assoc. 11:
262-265. http://www.himalayahealthcare.
com/pdf_files/serpina008.pdf {Bhatia_B_
B_1942xxxx.pdf}
(K. E. M. Medical College) Lucknow,
India3  		 
58 YBN
[1942 AD] 4 		6038)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aaron Copland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/136632/Aaron-Copland>.
2. ^ "Rodeo (Copland)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodeo_%28Co
pland%29
3. ^ "Aaron Copland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/136632/Aaron-Copland>.
4. ^ "Aaron Copland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/136632/Aaron-Copland>. {1942}
New York City, New York, USA3
(presumably) 
[1] Aaron Copland UNKNOWN
source: http://grantparkmusicfestival.co
m/uploads/images/AaronCoplandYoung483.jp
g
58 YBN
[1942 AD] 3 		6042)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aaron Copland." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aaron-copla
nd
2. ^ "Aaron Copland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/136632/Aaron-Copland>.
3. ^ "Aaron Copland." The Concise Grove
Dictionary of Music. Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1994. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aaron-copla
nd {1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rodeo (Copland)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodeo_%28Co
pland%29
[2] "Aaron Copland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/136632/Aaron-Copland>.
New York City, New York, USA2
(presumably) 
[1] Aaron Copland UNKNOWN
source: http://grantparkmusicfestival.co
m/uploads/images/AaronCoplandYoung483.jp
g
58 YBN
[1942 AD] 3 		6043)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aram Khachaturian."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316019/Aram-Khachaturian>.
2. ^ "Aram Khachaturian." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aram-khacha
turian
3. ^ "Aram Khachaturian." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aram-khacha
turian {1942}
 
[1] Description: Image of deceased
composer Aram Khachaturian . Source:
http://www.schirmer.com/images/comp
oser/khachaturian-a.jpg COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Aram_Khachaturian.jpg
58 YBN
[1942 AD] 5 6 		6054) Dizzy Gillespie (CE 1917-1993)1
composes "A Night In Tunesia".2
(verify)

Gillespie also records "Salt Peanuts"
this year.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Dizzy Gillespie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dizzy-gille
spie
2. ^ "A Night in Tunisia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Night_in_
Tunisia
3. ^ "Salt Peanuts". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_Peanut
s
4. ^ "Dizzy Gillespie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Jun. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dizzy-gille
spie
5. ^ "A Night in Tunisia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Night_in_
Tunisia {1942 (verify}
6. ^ "Salt Peanuts".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_Peanut
s {1942 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jazzstandards.com/composition
s-0/nightintunisia.htm
New York City, New York, USA4
(presumably) 
[1] Description Portrait of Dizzy
Gillespie, John Lewis, Cecil Payne,
Miles Davis, and Ray Brown, Downbeat,
New York, N.Y. Date between 1946
and 1948 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/D._Gillespie%2C_J._Le
wis%2C_C._Payne%2C_M._Davis%2C_R._Brown.
jpg
58 YBN
[1942 AD] 2 		6079) "(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The
White Cliffs of Dover" (written by by
Walter Kent and Nat Burton, sung by
Vera Lynn) is recorded.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "There'll Be Bluebirds Over The
White Cliffs of Dover". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There%27ll_
Be_Bluebirds_Over_The_White_Cliffs_of_Do
ver
2. ^ "There'll Be Bluebirds Over The
White Cliffs of Dover". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There%27ll_
Be_Bluebirds_Over_The_White_Cliffs_of_Do
ver {1942}
  
57 YBN
[01/11/1943 AD] 5 6 		5120)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
2. ^ Baade, W., "Nova
Ophiuchi of 1604 AS a Supernova.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Baade, W., "Nova Ophiuchi
of 1604 AS a Supernova.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html
5. ^ Baade, W., "Nova Ophiuchi of 1604
AS a Supernova.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html {01/11/1943}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739. {1941}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Baade." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
[2] Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
[3] Baade, W., "NGC 147 and NGC 185,
Two New Members of the Local Group of
Galaxies", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.147. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..147B
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA4  
[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
57 YBN
[05/14/1943 AD] 7 8 		5264)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816-817.
2. ^ "Karl August
Folkers." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212279/Karl-August-Folkers>.
3. ^ Stanton A. Harris, Donald E.
Wolf, Ralph Mozingo and Karl Folkers,
"Synthetic Biotin", Science New
Series, Vol. 97, No. 2524 (May 14,
1943), pp.
447-448. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
69437 {Folkers_Karl_19430514.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
Stanton A. Harris, Donald E. Wolf,
Ralph Mozingo and Karl Folkers,
"Synthetic Biotin", Science New
Series, Vol. 97, No. 2524 (May 14,
1943), pp.
447-448. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
69437 {Folkers_Karl_19430514.pdf}
7. ^ Stanton A. Harris, Donald E.
Wolf, Ralph Mozingo and Karl Folkers,
"Synthetic Biotin", Science New
Series, Vol. 97, No. 2524 (May 14,
1943), pp.
447-448. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
69437 {Folkers_Karl_19430514.pdf}
{05/14/1943}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779. {1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1955". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1955/
[2] Du Vigneaud, Vincent; Melville,
Donald B.; Gyorgy, Paul; Rose,
Catharine S., "On the Identity of
Vitamin H with Biotin", Science, Volume
92, Issue 2377, pp.
62-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1665
931?origin=ads
[3] György P, Melville DB, Burk D, DU
Vigneaud V., "THE POSSIBLE IDENTITY OF
VITAMIN H WITH BIOTIN AND COENZYME R.",
Science. 1940 Mar
8;91(2358):243-5. http://www.jstor.org/
stable/1666738?&Search=yes&searchText=BI
OTIN&searchText=VITAMIN&searchText=POSSI
BLE&searchText=R&searchText=IDENTITY&sea
rchText=COENZYME&searchText=H&list=hide&
searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3Ffi
lter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26Que
ry%3DTHE%2BPOSSIBLE%2BIDENTITY%2BOF%2BVI
TAMIN%2BH%2BWITH%2BBIOTIN%2BAND%2BCOENZY
ME%2BR%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26w
c%3Don&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=16&returnA
rticleService=showFullText
[4] V Du Vigneaud, "The structure of
biotin", Science, New Series, Vol. 96,
No. 2499 (Nov. 20, 1942), pp.
455-461. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
71519
(Merck and Company, Inc.) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA6  
[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG

[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

57 YBN
[05/25/1943 AD] 10 		5578)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Britton Chance, "The kinetics of
the enzyme-substrate compound of
peroxidase", Journal of biological
chemistry, (1943) volume: 151 issue:
2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p847-848.
3. ^
http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/190
0s/chance_britton.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p847-848.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Britton Chance,
"The kinetics of the enzyme-substrate
compound of peroxidase", Journal of
biological chemistry, (1943) volume:
151 issue: 2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf}
10. ^ Britton Chance, "The kinetics of
the enzyme-substrate compound of
peroxidase", Journal of biological
chemistry, (1943) volume: 151 issue:
2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf} {05/25/1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "Britton Chance." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/britton-cha
nce
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA9  
[1] Figure 1 from: Britton Chance,
''The kinetics of the enzyme-substrate
compound of peroxidase'', Journal of
biological chemistry, (1943) volume:
151 issue: 2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2
/553.full.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2
e-b594-e33b2c903bf6

[2] Britton Chance
(1913-2010) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/im
g/20060628001bchance200.jpg
57 YBN
[09/??/1943 AD] 10 		5280)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M L Oliphant, J S Gooden and G S
Hide, "The acceleration of charged
particles to very high energies", Proc.
Phys. Soc. 59
666. http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-530
9/59/4/314/ {Oliphant_Marcus_19470321.p
df}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p783-784.
3. ^ "Sir Mark
Oliphant." Britannica Book of the Year,
2001. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/427657/M-L-Oliphant>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p783-784.
5. ^ "Sir Mark
Oliphant." Britannica Book of the Year,
2001. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/427657/M-L-Oliphant>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p783-784.
7. ^ M L Oliphant, J
S Gooden and G S Hide, "The
acceleration of charged particles to
very high energies", Proc. Phys. Soc.
59
666. http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-530
9/59/4/314/ {Oliphant_Marcus_19470321.p
df}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Sir Mark Oliphant."
Britannica Book of the Year, 2001.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/427657/M-L-Oliphant>.
10. ^ M L Oliphant, J S Gooden and G S
Hide, "The acceleration of charged
particles to very high energies", Proc.
Phys. Soc. 59
666. http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-530
9/59/4/314/ {Oliphant_Marcus_19470321.p
df} {09/1943}

MORE INFO
[1] M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck
and Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553
[2] M. L. E. Oliphant, Lord Rutherford,
"Experiments on the Transmutation of
Elements by Protons", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 141, No. 843
(Jul. 3, 1933), pp.
259-281. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
218?&Search=yes&searchText=oliphant&list
=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearc
h%3Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100819
%26Query%3Doliphant%26acc%3Don%26Search.
x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&prevSearc
h=&item=8&ttl=160&returnArticleService=s
howFullText
(University of Birmingham) Birmingham,
England9  
[1] Figure 2 from: M L Oliphant, J S
Gooden and G S Hide, ''The acceleration
of charged particles to very high
energies'', Proc. Phys. Soc. 59
666. http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-530
9/59/4/314/ {Oliphant_Marcus_19470321.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-5
309/59/4/314/

[2] Description Sir Mark
Oliphant.jpg English: Photograph of
Sir Mark Oliphant AC KBE Date
1939(1939) Source
http://www.portrait.gov.au/static/c
oll_741Sir+Mark+Oliphant.php Author
Bassano Ltd Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Sir_Mark_Oliphant.jpg

57 YBN
[11/01/1943 AD] 12 		4916)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
2. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
3. ^ Fred. Griffith, "The Significance
of Pneumococcal Types", The Journal of
Hygiene Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jan., 1928),
pp.
113-159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
26734 {Griffith_Frederick_08261927.pdf}

4. ^ "Oswald Avery." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/45627/Oswald-Avery>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p666-667.
7. ^ "Oswald Avery."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/45627/Oswald-Avery>.
8. ^
http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~rwinning/ge
netics/bactrec.htm
9. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Avery, MacLeod and
McCarty. “Studies on the Chemical
Nature of the Substance Inducing
Transformation of Pneumococcal Types.
Induction of Transformation by
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated
from Pneumococcus Type III”, Journal
of Experimental Medicine, V79, N2, Feb,
1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
12. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf} {11/1/1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oswald Avery." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oswald-aver
y
[2] "Avery, Oswald T." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 342-343. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900196&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Oswald Theodore Avery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Theo
dore_Avery
[4] Maclyn McCarty and Oswald T. Avery,
"STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE
SUBSTANCE INDUCING TRANSFORMATION OF
PNEUMOCOCCAL TYPES: III. AN IMPROVED
METHOD FOR THE ISOLATION OF THE
TRANSFORMING SUBSTANCE AND ITS
APPLICATION TO PNEUMOCOCCUS TYPES II,
III, AND VI J Exp Med 1946 83:97-104.
Published February 1, 1946,
doi:10.1084/jem.83.2.97
http://jem.rupress.org/content/83/2/97
.full.pdf
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA11  
[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf

[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 9 		4949)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682.
2. ^ Akert K.,
"Walter Rudolf Hess (1881-1973) and His
Contribution to Neuroscience", Journal
of the history of the neurosciences
0964-704X. ^ Akert (1999) volume: 8
issue: 3 page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf}
3. ^ "Walter Rudolf Hess." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-rudo
lf-hess
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p682.
5. ^ "Walter Rudolf
Hess." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264128/Walter-Rudolf-Hess>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Walter Rudolf
Hess." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-rudo
lf-hess
9. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf} {1943}

MORE INFO
[1] Hardcastle, Valerie Gray.
"Hess, Walter Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 21. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 302-306. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905745&v=2.1&u=&it=r&p=GVR
L&sw=w
[2] "Walter Rudolf Hess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rudo
lf_Hess
[3] Walter Rudolf Hess, The Biology of
Mind (1964).
[4] Hess WR, Brügger M (1943):
Das subkortikale Zentrum der affektiven
Abwehr. Helv Physiol Pharmakol Acta 1:
33-52.
[5] Hess WR (1942) Biomotorik als
Organisationsproblem. Naturwissenschaft
en 30: 441-448,
537- 541. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r112270005657240/fulltext.pdf
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland8  
[1] From Hess, 1943 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://docserver.ingentaconnect.
com/deliver/connect/tandf/0964704x/v8n3/
s4.pdf?expires=1293515670&id=60427856&ti
tleid=10598&accname=University+of+Califo
rnia&checksum=AD47147550DF109FC08950558A
18A9D3

[2] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 6 		5050)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p716-717.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p716-717.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Selman Abraham Waksman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/634309/Selman-Abraham-Waksman>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p716-717. {1943}
(Rutgers University) New Brunswick, New
Jersey, USA5  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Selman Waksman
NYWTS.jpg Dr. Selman Waksman,
half-length portrait, facing left at
work in the laboratory / World Telegram
& Sun photo by Roger Higgins. Date
1953(1953) Source Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division. New York World-Telegram and
the Sun Newspaper Photograph
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c19821
Author New York World-Telegram and
the Sun staff photographer: Higgins,
Roger, photographer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Selman_Waksman_NYWTS.
jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 12 		5399) In 1965, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Sin-Itiro
Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard
P. Feynman "for their fundamental work
in quantum electrodynamics, with
deep-ploughing consequences for the
physics of elementary particles".9

(I have a lot of doubts about this
"QED" work, in particular am calling
for all thought-screen and relevent eye
images to be released to the public to
determine what the neuron insider story
was.10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. P. Feynman, "Space-Time
Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics",
Phys. Rev. 76, 769 (1949)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i
6/p769_1 {Feynman_Richard_19490509.pdf}

2. ^ Julian Schwinger, "Quantum
Electrodynamics. I. A Covariant
Formulation", Phys. Rev. 74, 1439
(1948)
. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/
i10/p1439_1
{Schwinger_Julian_19480729.pdf}
3. ^ Tomonaga, Bull. I. P. C. R.
(Riken-iho), 22, 1943,
p545. English: S. Tomonaga, "On a
Relativistically Invariant Formulation
of the Quantum Theory of Wave Fields",
Physics Department, Tokyo Bunrika
University, Prog. Theor. Phys. Vol. 1
No. 2 (1946) pp.
27-42. {Tomonaga_Shinichiro_1943xxxx.pd
f}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p810-811,866,867.
5. ^ "Richard
Feynman." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-fey
nman
6. ^ "Julian Seymour Schwinger."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528714/Julian-Seymour-Schwinger>.
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p505-506.
8. ^ "Tomonaga Shin’ichirō."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/599000/Tomonaga-Shinichiro>.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1965".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1965/
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Tomonaga, Bull. I. P.
C. R. (Riken-iho), 22, 1943,
p545. English: S. Tomonaga, "On a
Relativistically Invariant Formulation
of the Quantum Theory of Wave Fields",
Physics Department, Tokyo Bunrika
University, Prog. Theor. Phys. Vol. 1
No. 2 (1946) pp.
27-42. {Tomonaga_Shinichiro_1943xxxx.pd
f}
12. ^ "Tomonaga Shin’ichirō."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/599000/Tomonaga-Shinichiro>. {1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julian Schwinger." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julian-schw
inger
[2] "Richard P. Feynman." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/205700/Richard-P-Feynman>.
(Tokyo Bunrika University) Tokyo,
Japan11  
[1] Description Tomonaga.jpg English:
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga Date
1965(1965) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1965/tomonaga-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Tomonaga.jpg

[2] Description Feynman at Los
Alamos.jpg Richard Feynman (center)
and Robert Oppenheimer (to viewer's
right of Feynman) at Los Alamos
National Laboratory during the
Manhattan Project. Original source from
http://www.lanl.gov/worldview/welcome/hi
story/12_oppie-arrives.html Date
2010-12-02 07:59 (UTC) Source
*
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g Author *
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g: unknown * derivative work:
Materialscientist (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Feynman_at_Los_Alamos
.jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 9 		5488)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834-835.
2. ^ "Jacques-Yves
Cousteau." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 14
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140955/Jacques-Yves-Cousteau>.
3. ^ "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140955/Jacques-Yves-Cousteau>.
4. ^ "aqualung." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aqualung-en
gineering
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834-835.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Emile Gagnon, Jacques Yves
Cousteau, "Compressed Gas Container
With Reducing Valve and Auxillary
Opening Means Therefor", Patent number:
2598248, Filing date: Dec 11, 1946,
Issue date: May 27, 1952. Filing Date
in France
12/15/1945. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepag
e&q&f=false
9. ^ "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140955/Jacques-Yves-Cousteau>. {1943}
Paris, France8  
[1] Image from: Emile Gagnon, Jacques
Yves Cousteau, ''Compressed Gas
Container With Reducing Valve and
Auxillary Opening Means Therefor'',
Patent number: 2598248, Filing date:
Dec 11, 1946, Issue date: May 27, 1952.
Filing Date in France
12/15/1945. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepag
e&q&f=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Jacques-Yves Cousteau UNKNOWN
source: http://www.neo-planete.com/wp-co
ntent/uploads/2009/02/jacques-yves-coust
eau.jpg
56 YBN
[04/25/1944 AD] 29 30 		5454)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ V. Veksler, "Concerning Some New
Methods of Acceleration of Relativistic
Particles", Phys. Rev. 69, 244–244
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i5-6/p244_1 {Veksler_Vladimir_194
60216.pdf}
2. ^ V. Veksler, Comptes Rendus
(Doklady), Acad Sci U.S.S.R., 43, N8,
p444 (1944) (communicated April 25,
1944)
3. ^ V. Veksler, Comptes Rendus
(Doklady), Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., 44, N9,
p393 (1944) (communicated July 19,
1944).
4. ^ V. Veksler, J. Phys. (U.S.S.R.) 9,
N3, 153 (1945) (received March 1,
1945).
5. ^ E. McMillan, "The Synchrotron—A
Proposed High Energy Particle
Accelerator", Phys. Rev. 68, 143–144
(1945). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v68/i5-6/p143_1 {McMillan_Edwin_19450
905.pdf}
6. ^ E. McMillan, "Radiation from a
Group of Electrons Moving in a Circular
Orbit", Phys. Rev. 68, 144–145
(1945). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v68/i5-6/p144_1 {McMillan_Edwin_19450
909.pdf}
7. ^ "Edwin McMillan." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-mcmil
lan
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-824.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p822-824.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-824.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ V.
Veksler, "Concerning Some New Methods
of Acceleration of Relativistic
Particles", Phys. Rev. 69, 244–244
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i5-6/p244_1 {Veksler_Vladimir_194
60216.pdf}
13. ^ E. McMillan, "The Synchrotron—A
Proposed High Energy Particle
Accelerator", Phys. Rev. 68, 143–144
(1945). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v68/i5-6/p143_1 {McMillan_Edwin_19450
905.pdf}
14. ^ E. McMillan, "Radiation from a
Group of Electrons Moving in a Circular
Orbit", Phys. Rev. 68, 144–145
(1945). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v68/i5-6/p144_1 {McMillan_Edwin_19450
909.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ V. Veksler, "Concerning
Some New Methods of Acceleration of
Relativistic Particles", Phys. Rev. 69,
244–244
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i5-6/p244_1 {Veksler_Vladimir_194
60216.pdf}
29. ^ V. Veksler, "Concerning Some New
Methods of Acceleration of Relativistic
Particles", Phys. Rev. 69, 244–244
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i5-6/p244_1 {Veksler_Vladimir_194
60216.pdf} {04/25/1944}
30. ^ V. Veksler, Comptes
Rendus (Doklady), Acad Sci U.S.S.R.,
43, N8, p444 (1944) (communicated April
25, 1944) {04/25/1944}
(Lebedev Institute of Physics) Moscow,
(Soviet Union now) Russia28  
[1] Vladimir Veksler visits Lab, large
group, names given in caption Vladimir
Veksler visits Lab, large group, names
given in caption Image File
97502280 Title Vladimir Veksler
visits Lab, large group, names given in
caption Description At a special
research progress meeting in Berkeley,
Dr. Veksler was the guest speaker. Left
to right: front row-Eugeni V. Piskarev
(engineer and nuclear physicist, USSR),
interpreter; Dr. Veksler and Dr. Edwin
McMillan (Director); second row-Dr.
Hugh Bradner and Dr. Herb Steiner
(physics research) and Dr. Robert
Thornton (Associate Director); third
and fourth rows as heads appear-Dr.
John Poirier, Dr. Selig Kaplan (physics
research). Ensign William Jackson (U.S.
Navy), Dr. Vic Perez-Mendez (physics
research), Ed Edelsack (Office of Naval
Research), Dr. Bob Pyle (phisics
research, Walter Popenuck (plant
engineering), Dr. Roger Wallace (health
physics), and Jack Hart (mechanical
engineering). Date 1959
Citation Caption Magnet, Vol.3,
No12, December 1959, p. 4 TEID Doc
ID XBD9705-02280.TIF PD
source: http://imglib.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COL
LECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/PEOPLE/VISITORS-AN
D-SPECIAL-EVENTS/images/97502280.lowres.
jpeg

[2] Edwin McMillan the year he
discovered neptunium UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencematters.berkeley.e
du/archives/volume1/issue7/images/legacy
2.jpg
56 YBN
[04/27/1944 AD] 14 		5121)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
2. ^ Baade, W., "The
Resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and
the Central Region of the Andromeda
Nebula.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
3. ^ Baade, W., "NGC 147 and NGC 185,
Two New Members of the Local Group of
Galaxies", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.147. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..147B
4. ^ Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
5. ^ Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
14. ^ Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
{04/27/1944}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Baade." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
[2] Baade, W., "Nova Ophiuchi of 1604
AS a Supernova.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA13  
[1] Figure 1 from: Baade, W., ''The
Resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and
the Central Region of the Andromeda
Nebula.'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Baade_Walter_fig1_19440427.jpg

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
56 YBN
[05/08/1944 AD] 5 		5527)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
2. ^ "Grote Reber."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
3. ^ Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Astrophys. J., 100,
1944. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/194
4ApJ...100..279R {Reber_Grote_19440508.
pdf}
4. ^ Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Astrophys. J., 100,
1944. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/194
4ApJ...100..279R {Reber_Grote_19440508.
pdf}
5. ^ Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Astrophys. J., 100,
1944. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/194
4ApJ...100..279R {Reber_Grote_19440508.
pdf} {05/08/1944}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_reber.
shtml
[2] G. Reber and E. H. Conklin, "UHF
receivers", Radio, no. 225, pp. 112
1938 .
[3] G. Reber, "Electric
resonance chambers", Communications ,
vol. 18, pp. 5 1938.
[4] G. Reber,
"Electromagnetic horns",
Communications , vol. 19, pp. 13
1939.
[5] G. Reber, Radio, no. 235, pp.
17 1939.
[6] G. Reber, "Cosmic static",
Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 28, pp.
68 1940.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_al
l.jsp?arnumber=1687092&tag=1
[7] G. Reber, "Solar radiation at 480
Mc/sec.", Nature, vol. 158, pp. 945
1946.
[8]
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.
jsp?arnumber=1265335
[9]
http://www.nrao.edu/archives/Reber/reber
_publist.shtml
[10] Grote Reber. "Early Radio
Astronomy in Wheaton, Illinois." Proc.
IRE, 46, 15,
1958. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4065216&q
ueryText%3DEarly+Radio+Astronomy+at+Whea
ton%2C+Illinoiss*%26openedRefinements%3D
*%26searchField%3DSearch+All
[11] Grote Reber. "Cosmic Static."
Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All
Wheaton, Illinois, USA4  
[1] Figure 4 from: Grote Reber.
''Cosmic Static.'' Astrophys. J., 100,
1944. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/194
4ApJ...100..279R {Reber_Grote_19440508.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
44ApJ...100..279R

[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg
56 YBN
[05/13/1944 AD] 10 		5481) In 1952, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded jointly to Archer
John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence
Millington Synge "for their invention
of partition chromatography".7

(There is a remote possibility that
relating this finding to "wool" is
somehow related to early images from
the electron microscope Ernst Ruska
paper in the early 1930s of burned
cotton fiber - a play on the word
"woll" which may haev been related to
Wollaston and neuron writing - but it's
very speculative from an excluded
perspective.8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. Consden, A. H. Gordon, and A.
J. P. Martin, "Qualitative analysis of
proteins: a partition chromatographic
method using paper", Biochem J. 1944;
38(3): 224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833,853.
3. ^ "A.J.P. Martin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/366875/A-J-P-Martin>.
4. ^ "R.L.M. Synge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/578466/R-L-M-Synge>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833,853.
6. ^ R. Consden, A.
H. Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin,
"Qualitative analysis of proteins: a
partition chromatographic method using
paper", Biochem J. 1944; 38(3):
224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf}
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1952". Nobelprize.org. 13 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1952/
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ R. Consden, A. H. Gordon,
and A. J. P. Martin, "Qualitative
analysis of proteins: a partition
chromatographic method using paper",
Biochem J. 1944; 38(3): 224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf}
10. ^ R. Consden, A. H. Gordon, and A.
J. P. Martin, "Qualitative analysis of
proteins: a partition chromatographic
method using paper", Biochem J. 1944;
38(3): 224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf} {05/13/1944}

MORE INFO
[1] Martin, A. J. P. & Synge, R.
L. M., "A new form of chromatogram
employing two liquid phases",
Biochem J. 1941 December; 35(12):
1358–1368.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1265645/
(Wool Industries Research Association)
Torridon, Headingley, Leeds, UK9  
[1] Plate from: R. Consden, A. H.
Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin,
''Qualitative analysis of proteins: a
partition chromatographic method using
paper'', Biochem J. 1944; 38(3):
224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1258072/

[2] Archer John Porter Martin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1952/marti
n_postcard.jpg
56 YBN
[07/03/1944 AD] 9 		5414) In 1933 Chain sees the inevitable
when Hitler comes to power and leaves
Germany to England.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lyman C. Craig, "IDENTIFICATION
OF SMALL AMOUNTS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
BY DISTRIBUTION STUDIES: II. SEPARATION
BY COUNTER-CURRENT DISTRIBUTION", J.
Biol. Chem. 1944 155: 519-534.
http://www.jbc.org/content/155/2.toc
{Craig_Lyman_19440703.pdf}
2. ^ "Lyman Creighton Craig." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lyman-creig
hton-craig
3. ^ L. C. Craig, Otto Post, "Apparatus
for Countercurrent Distribution", Anal.
Chem., 1949, 21 (4), pp
500–504. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ac60028a013 {Craig_Lyman_194904
xx.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p813.
5. ^ Craig,
"Counter-current distribution.",
Federation proceedings, (1948) volume:
7 issue: 3 page: 469 -73.
6. ^ "Lyman
Creighton Craig." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lyman-creig
hton-craig
7. ^ "Lyman Creighton Craig." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lyman-creig
hton-craig
8. ^ Lyman C. Craig, "IDENTIFICATION OF
SMALL AMOUNTS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY
DISTRIBUTION STUDIES: II. SEPARATION BY
COUNTER-CURRENT DISTRIBUTION", J. Biol.
Chem. 1944 155: 519-534.
http://www.jbc.org/content/155/2.toc
{Craig_Lyman_19440703.pdf}
9. ^ Lyman C. Craig, "IDENTIFICATION OF
SMALL AMOUNTS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY
DISTRIBUTION STUDIES: II. SEPARATION BY
COUNTER-CURRENT DISTRIBUTION", J. Biol.
Chem. 1944 155: 519-534.
http://www.jbc.org/content/155/2.toc
{Craig_Lyman_19440703.pdf} {07/03/1944}

MORE INFO
[1] L. C. Craig, Otto Post,
"Apparatus for Countercurrent
Distribution", Anal. Chem., 1949, 21
(4), pp
500–504. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ac60028a013
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA8
 
[1] Figure 1 from; Lyman C. Craig,
''IDENTIFICATION OF SMALL AMOUNTS OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY DISTRIBUTION
STUDIES: II. SEPARATION BY
COUNTER-CURRENT DISTRIBUTION'', J.
Biol. Chem. 1944 155: 519-534.
http://www.jbc.org/content/155/2.toc
{Craig_Lyman_19440703.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.jbc.org/content/155/2
/519.full.pdf+html

[2] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg
56 YBN
[07/08/1944 AD] 7 		5429) In 1969, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Max Delbrück, Alfred D.
Hershey and Salvador E. Luria "for
their discoveries concerning the
replication mechanism and the genetic
structure of viruses".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luria, "Mutations of bacterial
viruses affecting their host range",
Genetics 0016-6731. ^ Luria (1945)
volume: 30 issue: 1 page:
84. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/30/1/84
{Luria_Salvador_19440708.pdf}
2. ^ A. D. Hershey, "SPONTANEOUS
MUTATIONS IN BACTERIAL VIRUSES", Cold
Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1946.
11:
67-77. http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/11/67.extract
3. ^ "Alfred Hershey." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-hers
hey
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1969". Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1969/
6. ^ Luria, "Mutations of bacterial
viruses affecting their host range",
Genetics 0016-6731. ^ Luria (1945)
volume: 30 issue: 1 page:
84. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/30/1/84
7. ^ Luria, "Mutations of bacterial
viruses affecting their host range",
Genetics 0016-6731. ^ Luria (1945)
volume: 30 issue: 1 page:
84. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/30/1/84 {07/08/1944}

MORE INFO
[1] S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648
[2] "Salvador Luria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/351772/Salvador-Luria>
(Indiana University) Bloomington,
Indiana, USA6  
[1] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg

[2] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg
56 YBN
[07/17/1944 AD] 11 		5186)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://texts.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb238n
b0fs;NAAN=13030&doc.view=frames&chunk.id
=div00088&toc.depth=1&toc.id=&brand=cali
sphere
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p757-758,828.
3. ^ "Ralph Walter
Graystone Wyckoff." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ralph-walte
r-graystone-wyckoff
4. ^ Robley C. Williams and Ralph W. G.
Wyckoff, "The Thickness of Electron
Microscope Objects",
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstrea
m/2027.42/70754/2/JAPIAU-15-10-712-1.pdf
 {Wyckoff_Ralph_19440717.pdf}
5. ^ "Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ralph-walte
r-graystone-wyckoff
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p757-758,828.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Robley C. Williams and
Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, "The Thickness of
Electron Microscope Objects",
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstrea
m/2027.42/70754/2/JAPIAU-15-10-712-1.pdf
 {Wyckoff_Ralph_19440717.pdf}
11. ^ Robley C. Williams and Ralph W.
G. Wyckoff, "The Thickness of Electron
Microscope Objects",
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstrea
m/2027.42/70754/2/JAPIAU-15-10-712-1.pdf
 {Wyckoff_Ralph_19440717.pdf}
{07/17/1944}
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA10  
[1] Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff
UNKNOWN
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/chemistry/1/0
/m/-/1/Ralph_Wyckoff.jpg
56 YBN
[08/21/1944 AD] 13 		5389)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
2. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"Titan: a Satellite with an
Atmosphere.", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html {Kuiper_Gerard_19440821.pdf}
3. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a
Satellite with an Atmosphere.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html {Kuiper_Gerard_19440821.pdf}
4. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "Some results
on planets.", Astronomical Journal,
Vol. 54, p. 191
(1949). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1949AJ.....54..191K
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a
Satellite with an Atmosphere.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html {Kuiper_Gerard_19440821.pdf}
13. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a
Satellite with an Atmosphere.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
{Kuiper_Gerard_19440821.pdf} {08/21/1
944}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er
[2] Kuiper, G. P., "New White Dwarfs,
Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
[3] Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
[4] Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA12  
[1] Plate from: Kuiper, G. P.,
''Titan: a Satellite with an
Atmosphere.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
{Kuiper_Gerard_19440821.pdf} UNKNOWN

source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html

[2] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054
56 YBN
[11/08/1944 AD] 6 		5675)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering,
"The Total Synthesis of Quinine", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp
860–874. DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19441108.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ "Robert Burns
Woodward." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
4. ^ "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
5. ^ R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering,
"The Total Synthesis of Quinine", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp
860–874. DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19441108.pdf}
6. ^ R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering,
"The Total Synthesis of Quinine", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp
860–874. DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19441108.pdf} {11/08/1944}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[2] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

56 YBN
[11/11/1944 AD] 17 		5227) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1974 is awarded jointly to
Albert Claude, Christian de Duve and
George E. Palade "for their discoveries
concerning the structural and
functional organization of the cell".15

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p769.
2. ^ "Albert Claude."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-albe
rt
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p769.
4. ^ KR Porter, A
Claude, Ernest Fullam, "A study of
tissue culture cells by electron
microscopy", The Journal of
Experimental Medicine,
03/01/1945. http://jem.rupress.org/cont
ent/81/3/233.abstract {Claude_Albert_19
441111.pdf}
5. ^ Claude, A., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.
and Med., 1938, 39, 398;
6. ^ Science, 1943,
97, 451.
7. ^ "Albert Claude." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120432/Albert-Claude>.
8. ^ Albert Claude, “Particulate
Components of Normal and Tumor Cells.",
Science, New Series, Vol. 91, No. 2351
(Jan. 19, 1940), pp.
77-78. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1666
004
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p769.
10. ^ KR Porter, A
Claude, Ernest Fullam, "A study of
tissue culture cells by electron
microscopy", The Journal of
Experimental Medicine,
03/01/1945. http://jem.rupress.org/cont
ent/81/3/233.abstract {Claude_Albert_19
441111.pdf}
11. ^ "Albert Claude." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-albe
rt
12. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1974".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1974/
16. ^ KR Porter, A Claude, Ernest
Fullam, "A study of tissue culture
cells by electron microscopy", The
Journal of Experimental Medicine,
03/01/1945. http://jem.rupress.org/cont
ent/81/3/233.abstract {Claude_Albert_19
441111.pdf}
17. ^ KR Porter, A Claude, Ernest
Fullam, "A study of tissue culture
cells by electron microscopy", The
Journal of Experimental Medicine,
03/01/1945. http://jem.rupress.org/cont
ent/81/3/233.abstract {Claude_Albert_19
441111.pdf} {11/11/1944}
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA16  
[1] Figure 2 from: KR Porter, A
Claude, Ernest Fullam, ''A study of
tissue culture cells by electron
microscopy'', The Journal of
Experimental Medicine,
03/01/1945. http://jem.rupress.org/cont
ent/81/3/233.abstract {Claude_Albert_19
441111.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/8
1/3/233.abstract

[2] Albert Claude COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1974/claude.jpg
56 YBN
[12/19/1944 AD] 10 		5209)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p761.
3. ^ Fermi,
Szilard, "NEUTRONIC REACTOR", Patent
number: 2708656 Filing date: Dec 19,
1944 Issue date: May 1955
4. ^ "Leo
Szilard." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 30 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
5. ^ Fermi, Szilard, "NEUTRONIC
REACTOR", Patent number:
2708656 Filing date: Dec 19,
1944 Issue date: May 1955
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Fermi, Szilard, "NEUTRONIC
REACTOR", Patent number:
2708656 Filing date: Dec 19,
1944 Issue date: May 1955
10. ^ Fermi,
Szilard, "NEUTRONIC REACTOR", Patent
number: 2708656 Filing date: Dec 19,
1944 Issue date: May 1955 {12/19/1944}

MORE INFO
[1] L. Szilárd, "Improvements in
or relating to the transmutation of
chemical elements," British patent
number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934;
published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale=
[2] "Leo Szilard." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/le-szil-rd
[3] "Leo Szilard." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/579362/Leo-Szilard>.
[4] LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html
[5] A. BRASCH, F. LANGE, A. WALY, T. E.
BANKS, T. A. CHALMERS, LEO SZILARD, F.
L. HOPWOOD, "Liberation of Neutrons
from Beryllium by X-Rays: Radioactivity
Induced by Means of Electron Tubes",
Nature 134, 880-880 (8 December
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3397/pdf/134880a0.pdf
[6] LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Chemical Separation of the Radioactive
Element from its Bombarded Isotope in
the Fermi Effect", Nature 134, 462-462
(22 September 1934)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
134/n3386/pdf/134462b0.pdf
[7] Leo Szilard, "Method For Unloading
Reactors", Patent number: 2778792,
Filing date: Apr 19, 1946 Issue date:
Jan 22, 1957
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA9  
[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

[2] Leo Szilard, near Oxford, spring
1936. (Copyright U.C. Regents; used by
permission. Contact Mandeville Special
Collections Library, U.C. San Diego,
for information on obtaining Szilard
images.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dannen.com/images/szi
lard1.gif
56 YBN
[1944 AD] 5 		5405)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
2. ^ "Ewing, William
Maurice." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-279.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ WM Ewing, CL Pekeris…,
"Propagation of sound in the ocean",
1948 - Geological Society of America
4. ^
"Ewing, William Maurice." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Ewing, William Maurice." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1940-1944}

MORE INFO
[1] "Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
[2] CL Pekeris, WM Ewing, "Propagation
of sound in the ocean: Explosion sounds
in shallow water...", 1948 - Geological
Society of America
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA4  
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
56 YBN
[1944 AD] 4 		6075) Bing Crosby records the song
"I'll Be Seeing You" (written by Irving
Kahal and Sammy Fain in 1938).1

(Possibly this relates to seeing direct
to brain windows and how people always
watch their mates for most of their
lives.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I'll Be Seeing You (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27ll_Be_S
eeing_You_%28song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "I'll Be Seeing You
(song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27ll_Be_S
eeing_You_%28song%29
4. ^ "I'll Be Seeing You (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27ll_Be_S
eeing_You_%28song%29 {recorded) 1944}
New York City, New York, USA3
(guess) 		 
56 YBN
[1944 AD] 5 		6076) Woody Guthrie (CE 1912-1967)
records his folk song "This Land Is
Your Land" (written in 1940).1

Guthrie tires of the radio overplaying
Irving Berlin's "God Bless America",
the lyrics, which he thinks are
unrealistic and complacent.2 Partly
inspired by his experiences during a
cross-country trip and his distaste for
"God Bless America", Guthrie pens his
most famous song, "This Land Is Your
Land", in February 1940, and subtitles
it "God Blessed America." The melody is
adapted from an old gospel song "Oh My
Loving Brother", best known as "When
The World's On Fire", sung by the
country group The Carter Family.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "This land is your land".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_land_i
s_your_land
2. ^ Klein, Joe (1980). Woody Guthrie:
A Life. Random House, p144. ISBN
0-385-33385-4.
3. ^ Cray, Ed (2004). Ramblin Man: The
Life and Times of Woody Guthrie. W. W.
Norton & Company, p165. ISBN
0393327361.
4. ^ "Woody Guthrie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Guthr
ie
5. ^ "This land is your land".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_land_i
s_your_land {1944}
New York City, New York, USA4
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: Woody
Guthrie, half-length portrait, seated,
facing front, playing a guitar that has
a sticker attached reading: This
Machine Kills Fascists Türkçe: Woody
Guthrie, üzerinde ''Bu makine
faşistleri öldürür'' yazan
gitarıyla birlikte (8 Mart
1943). Date 8 March 1943 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Woody_Guthrie_2.jpg
55 YBN
[04/15/1945 AD] 11 		5303)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. H. Spedding, A. F. Voigt, E.
M. Gladrow, N. R. Sleight, "The
Separation of Rare Earths by Ion
Exchange.1,2 I. Cerium and Yttrium", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1947, 69 (11), pp
2777–2781. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01203a058?prevSearch=%2528Th
e%2BSeparation%2Bof%2BRare%2BEarths%2Bby
%2BIon%2BExchange.%2529%2BNOT%2B%255Baty
pe%253A%2Bad%255D%2BNOT%2B%255Batype%253
A%2Bacs-toc%255D&searchHistoryKey= {Spe
dding_Frank_19450415.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
3. ^ "Frank
Spedding." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-spedd
ing
4. ^ F. H. Spedding, A. F. Voigt, E. M.
Gladrow, N. R. Sleight, "The Separation
of Rare Earths by Ion Exchange.1,2 I.
Cerium and Yttrium", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1947, 69 (11), pp
2777–2781. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01203a058?prevSearch=%2528Th
e%2BSeparation%2Bof%2BRare%2BEarths%2Bby
%2BIon%2BExchange.%2529%2BNOT%2B%255Baty
pe%253A%2Bad%255D%2BNOT%2B%255Batype%253
A%2Bacs-toc%255D&searchHistoryKey= {Spe
dding_Frank_19450415.pdf}
5. ^ F. H. Spedding, A. F. Voigt, E. M.
Gladrow, N. R. Sleight, "The Separation
of Rare Earths by Ion Exchange.1,2 I.
Cerium and Yttrium", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1947, 69 (11), pp
2777–2781. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01203a058?prevSearch=%2528Th
e%2BSeparation%2Bof%2BRare%2BEarths%2Bby
%2BIon%2BExchange.%2529%2BNOT%2B%255Baty
pe%253A%2Bad%255D%2BNOT%2B%255Batype%253
A%2Bacs-toc%255D&searchHistoryKey= {Spe
dding_Frank_19450415.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p790.
8. ^ F. H.
Spedding, J. E. Powell, H. J. Svec, "A
Laboratory Method for Separating
Nitrogen Isotopes by Ion Exchange", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1955, 77 (23), pp
6125–6132. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01628a010
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
10. ^ F. H. Spedding,
A. F. Voigt, E. M. Gladrow, N. R.
Sleight, "The Separation of Rare Earths
by Ion Exchange.1,2 I. Cerium and
Yttrium", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1947, 69
(11), pp
2777–2781. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01203a058?prevSearch=%2528Th
e%2BSeparation%2Bof%2BRare%2BEarths%2Bby
%2BIon%2BExchange.%2529%2BNOT%2B%255Baty
pe%253A%2Bad%255D%2BNOT%2B%255Batype%253
A%2Bacs-toc%255D&searchHistoryKey= {Spe
dding_Frank_19450415.pdf}
11. ^ F. H. Spedding, A. F. Voigt, E.
M. Gladrow, N. R. Sleight, "The
Separation of Rare Earths by Ion
Exchange.1,2 I. Cerium and Yttrium", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1947, 69 (11), pp
2777–2781. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01203a058?prevSearch=%2528Th
e%2BSeparation%2Bof%2BRare%2BEarths%2Bby
%2BIon%2BExchange.%2529%2BNOT%2B%255Baty
pe%253A%2Bad%255D%2BNOT%2B%255Batype%253
A%2Bacs-toc%255D&searchHistoryKey= {Spe
dding_Frank_19450415.pdf} {04/15/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] Frank Spedding, Adrian
Daane,"Chemistry of Rare Earth
Elements.", 1965.
[2] F. H. Spedding, A. H.
Daane and K. W. Herrmann, "The crystal
structures and lattice parameters of
high-purity scandium, yttrium and the
rare earth metals", Acta Cryst. (1956).
9,
559-563. http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bi
n/paper?S0365110X5600156X
(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA10  
[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg
55 YBN
[06/30/1945 AD] 12 		5334)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p796-797.
2. ^ J von Neumann,
"First draft of a report on the EDVAC
Contract No. W-670-ORD-4926, Between
the United States Army Ordnance
Department and the University of
Pennsylvania Moore School of Electrical
Engineering University of
Pennsylvania June 30,
1945". http://qss.stanford.edu/~godfrey
/vonNeumann/vnedvac.pdf {Von_Neumann_Jo
hn_19450630.pdf}
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p489.
4. ^ "First Draft of a Report on the
EDVAC". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Draft
_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "von Neumann machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1252440/von-Neumann-machine>.
7. ^ Arthur W. Burks, Herman H.
Goldstine, John von Neumann,
"Preliminary Discussion of the Logical
Design of an Electronic Computing
Instrument", report to U. S. Army
Ordnance Department, 1946. From A. H.
Taub (ed.), "Collected Works of John
von Neumann," vol. 5, pp. 34-79, The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1963.
Taken from report to U. S. Army
Ordnance Department, 1946. See also
Bibliography Burks, Goldstine and von
Neumann, 1962a, 1962b, 1963; and
Goldstine and von Neumann 1963a, 1963b,
1963c,
1963d. http://www.cs.unc.edu/~adyilie/c
omp265/vonNeumann.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "John
von Neumann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/632750/John-von-Neumann>.
12. ^ J von Neumann, "First draft of a
report on the EDVAC Contract No.
W-670-ORD-4926, Between the United
States Army Ordnance Department and
the University of Pennsylvania Moore
School of Electrical
Engineering University of
Pennsylvania June 30,
1945". http://qss.stanford.edu/~godfrey
/vonNeumann/vnedvac.pdf {Von_Neumann_Jo
hn_19450630.pdf} {06/30/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "John von Neumann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-von-ne
umann
[2] John von Neumann, "Mathematische
Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik.", ("The
Mathematical Foundations of Quantum
Mechanics") (1932,1943,1955,1968)
[3] John von Neumann,
"Mathematische Begruendung der
Quantenmechanik", Goettinger
Nachrichten, Vol. 1, No. 9. (1927), pp.
1-57.
[4] "Von Neumann, Johann (or John)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 88-92. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904522&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA11  
[1] Schematic of the von Neumann
architecture. The Control Unit and
Arithmetic Logic Unit form the main
components of the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Von_Neumann_arc
hitecture.svg/1000px-Von_Neumann_archite
cture.svg.png

[2] John von Neumann & the
EDSAC--1949 The EDSAC (Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer) had
3,000 vacuum tubes and the programs
were input using paper tapes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptc.dcs.edu:16080/Moo
dy/comphistory/Von_Neumann_5.jpeg
55 YBN
[06/??/1945 AD] 20 		5699)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.869-870.
2. ^ "Hendrik
Christoffel van de Hulst."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/275311/Hendrik-Christoffel-van-de-Huls
t>.
3. ^ D. Wayne Orchiston, "The new
astronomy: opening the electromagnetic
window and expanding our view ...",
Springer, 2005,
p94,105. http://books.google.com/books?
id=CNCfito_rfoC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=Ra
diogolven+uit+de+wereldruimte&source=bl&
ots=Tz6UxU9TrQ&sig=Z9ePDcKqdnAmrh7pdIYyD
YnmVVs&hl=en&ei=zomrTeWwKYyasAPessX6DA&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=hulst&f=false
4. ^ "Hendrik Christoffel van de
Hulst." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/275311/Hendrik-Christoffel-van-de-Huls
t>.
5. ^ "Hendrik Christoffel Van de
Hulst." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-chr
istoffel-van-de-hulst
6. ^ Record ID5566. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.869-870.
8. ^ Bakker, CJ,
and van de Hulst, HC, 1945.
"Radiogolven uit de wereldruimte.",
Nederlands Tijdschrift voor
Natuurkunde, 11 ,
201-221. {Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Va
n_de_194506xx.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Bakker, CJ, and van de Hulst, HC,
1945. "Radiogolven uit de
wereldruimte.", Nederlands Tijdschrift
voor Natuurkunde, 11 ,
201-221. {Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Va
n_de_194506xx.pdf}
19. ^ "Hendrik Christoffel Van de
Hulst." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-chr
istoffel-van-de-hulst
20. ^ Bakker, CJ, and van de Hulst, HC,
1945. "Radiogolven uit de
wereldruimte.", Nederlands Tijdschrift
voor Natuurkunde, 11 ,
201-221. {Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Va
n_de_194506xx.pdf} {06/1945}
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands18 19  
[1] Figure 1 from: [13] Bakker, CJ,
and van de Hulst, HC, 1945.
''Radiogolven uit de wereldruimte.'',
Nederlands Tijdschrift voor
Natuurkunde, 11 ,
201-221. {Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Va
n_de_194506xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Van_d
e_194506xx.pdf

[2] Description
Henk-van-de-hulst.jpg English: Dutch
astronomer Henk van de Hulst at the
Nederlandse Astronomenconferentie,
Dalfsen, May 1967. Date
1967-05-00 Source Own
work Author
http://www.astro.uu.nl/~rutten/Rob_s_
astronomer_shots.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Henk-van-de-hulst.jpg

55 YBN
[07/13/1945 AD] 6 		5426)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Karl August Folkers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212279/Karl-August-Folkers>.
2. ^ Frederick A. Kuehl, Robert L.
Peck, Alphonse Walti and Karl Folkers,
"Streptomyces Antibiotics. I.
Crystalline Salts of Streptomycin and
Streptothricin", Science, New Series,
Vol. 102, No. 2637 (Jul. 13, 1945), pp.
34-35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1672
135 {Folkers_Karl_August_19450713.pdf}
3. ^ "Karl August Folkers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212279/Karl-August-Folkers>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816-817.
5. ^ Frederick A.
Kuehl, Robert L. Peck, Alphonse Walti
and Karl Folkers, "Streptomyces
Antibiotics. I. Crystalline Salts of
Streptomycin and Streptothricin",
Science, New Series, Vol. 102, No. 2637
(Jul. 13, 1945), pp.
34-35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1672
135 {Folkers_Karl_August_19450713.pdf}
6. ^ Frederick A. Kuehl, Robert L.
Peck, Alphonse Walti and Karl Folkers,
"Streptomyces Antibiotics. I.
Crystalline Salts of Streptomycin and
Streptothricin", Science, New Series,
Vol. 102, No. 2637 (Jul. 13, 1945), pp.
34-35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1672
135 {Folkers_Karl_August_19450713.pdf}
{07/13/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] Stanton A. Harris and Karl
Folkers, "Synthetic Vitamin B6",
Science, New Series, Vol. 89, No. 2311
(Apr. 14, 1939), p.
347. http://www.jstor.org/stable/166402
8
(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA5  
[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG
55 YBN
[07/16/1945 AD] 10 		5311)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
2. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
3. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
4. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
5. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
6. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/100ton.jpg
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml
10. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml {07/16/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "Manhattan Project." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manhattan-p
roject
[2] "Project Orion (nuclear
propulsion)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Ori
on_(nuclear_propulsion)
(Alamogordo Test Range) Jornada del
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA9  
[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg

[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD

source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg
55 YBN
[08/31/1945 AD] 7 		5692) In 1958, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded to Frederick
Sanger "for his work on the structure
of proteins, especially that of
insulin".4

Sanger wins part of a second Nobel
prize when in 1980, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is divided, one half awarded
to Paul Berg "for his fundamental
studies of the biochemistry of nucleic
acids, with particular regard to
recombinant-DNA",the other half jointly
to Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger
"for their contributions concerning the
determination of base sequences in
nucleic acids".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. Sanger, "The free amino groups
of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.868.
3. ^ F. Sanger, "The
free amino groups of insulin", Biochem
J. 1945; 39(5): 507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1958". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1958/
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1980". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
6. ^ F. Sanger, "The free amino groups
of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
7. ^ F. Sanger, "The free amino groups
of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/ {08/31/1945}
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England6  
[1] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
55 YBN
[10/08/1945 AD] 13 		6272) Microwave oven.4

Dr. Percy Spencer, who had conducted
research on radar vacuum tubes for the
military during World War II,
recognizes the ability of microwave
light to cook food while working for
Raytheon. Spencer finds that, when
confined to a metal enclosure,
high-frequency radio light penetrates
and excites certain type of molecules,
such as those found in food. Microwave
light is strong enough to cook food but
not strong enough to alter its genetic
structure or to make it radioactive.5

Raytheon patents the technology and
soon develops microwave ovens capable
of cooking large quantities of food.
Because manufacturing costs render them
too expensive for most consumers, these
early ovens are used primarily by
hospitals and hotels that can afford
them (initially at $3,000 US). By the
late 1970s, however, many companies
will develop microwave ovens for home
use, and the cost will come down.
Today, microwaves are a standard
household appliance.6

The basic design of a microwave oven is
simple. The oven electronics are
located on the exterior casing, to
which the oven cavity is bolted. A
front panel allows the user to program
the microwave, and the door frame has a
small window to enable the food to be
seen while it is cooking. Near the top
of the steel oven cavity is a
magnetron—an electronic tube that
produces high-frequency microwave
oscillations—which generates the
microwave frequency light particles.
The microwave light particles are
funneled through a metal waveguide and
into a stirrer fan, also positioned
near the top of the cavity. The fan
distributes the microwave light evenly
within the oven. Some manufacturers use
dual stirrer fans located on opposite
walls to direct microwaves to the
cavity, while others use entry ports at
the bottom of the cavity, allowing
microwaves to enter from both the top
and bottom. In addition, many ovens
rotate food on a turntable.7

(read relevant parts of patent.8 )

(It seems likely that this discovery,
that microwave frequencies of light
particles can be used to remotely heat
objects, was known many years earlier,
and was made public at this time for
some reason, perhaps to sell microwave
ovens or because many neuron owners and
consumers want to be able to use
microwave ovens in public. It is
obvious how strong microwave beams can
be used to remotely and invisibly hurt
or even murder a living object.9 )

(It's interesting that some microwave
light must exit through the transparent
part of the glass, but it must be so
small a quantity that it does not have
any heating effect on the human face.10
)

(Describe more how microwave
frequencies of light are produced from
alternating current.11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
2. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
3. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
4. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
5. ^ "microwave oven." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microwave-o
ven
6. ^ "microwave oven." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microwave-o
ven
7. ^ "microwave oven." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microwave-o
ven
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
13. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
{10/08/1945}
(Raytheon Manufacturing Company)
Newton, Massachusetts, USA12  
[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ

[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g
55 YBN
[11/20/1945 AD] 23 		5368)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804.
2. ^ "Ulf von Euler."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ulf-svante-
von-euler
3. ^ U. S. v. EULER, "A Substance with
Sympathin E Properties in Spleen
Extracts", Nature 157, 369-369 (23
March 1946),
doi:10.1038/157369b0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v157/n3986/abs/15736
9b0.html {Euler_Ulf_von_19451120.pdf}
4. ^ Euler, "The presence of a
substance with sympathin E properties
in spleen extracts", Acta physiologica
Scandinavica, (February 1946) volume:
11 issue: 2-3 page:
168. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1946.tb00338.x/abst
 {Euler_Ulf_von_19451127.pdf}
5. ^ "Ulf von Euler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ulf-svante-
von-euler
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804.
7. ^ "Ulf von Euler."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ulf-svante-
von-euler
8. ^ Record ID4783. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ U. S. v.
EULER, "A Substance with Sympathin E
Properties in Spleen Extracts", Nature
157, 369-369 (23 March 1946),
doi:10.1038/157369b0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v157/n3986/abs/15736
9b0.html {Euler_Ulf_von_19451120.pdf}
10. ^ Euler, "The presence of a
substance with sympathin E properties
in spleen extracts", Acta physiologica
Scandinavica, (February 1946) volume:
11 issue: 2-3 page:
168. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1946.tb00338.x/abst
 {Euler_Ulf_von_19451127.pdf}
11. ^ "Ulf von Euler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ulf-svante-
von-euler
12. ^ "sympathetic nervous system." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sympathetic
-nervous-system
13. ^ "sympathetic nervous system."
Mosby's Dental Dictionary. Elsevier,
Inc., 2004. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sympathetic
-nervous-system
14. ^ "sympathetic nervous system." The
Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science .
Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006,
2007. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sympathetic
-nervous-system
15. ^ "norepinephrine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 22
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/norepinephr
ine
16. ^ U. S. v. EULER, "A Substance with
Sympathin E Properties in Spleen
Extracts", Nature 157, 369-369 (23
March 1946),
doi:10.1038/157369b0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v157/n3986/abs/15736
9b0.html {Euler_Ulf_von_19451120.pdf}
17. ^ Euler, "The presence of a
substance with sympathin E properties
in spleen extracts", Acta physiologica
Scandinavica, (February 1946) volume:
11 issue: 2-3 page:
168. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1946.tb00338.x/abst
 {Euler_Ulf_von_19451127.pdf}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ U. S. v. EULER, "A
Substance with Sympathin E Properties
in Spleen Extracts", Nature 157,
369-369 (23 March 1946),
doi:10.1038/157369b0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v157/n3986/abs/15736
9b0.html {Euler_Ulf_von_19451120.pdf}
23. ^ U. S. v. EULER, "A Substance with
Sympathin E Properties in Spleen
Extracts", Nature 157, 369-369 (23
March 1946),
doi:10.1038/157369b0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v157/n3986/abs/15736
9b0.html {Euler_Ulf_von_19451120.pdf}
{11/20/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1970".
Nobelprize.org. 22 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1970/
[2] U. S. v. Euler, "Zur Kenntnis der
pharmakologischen Wirkungen von
Nativsekreten und Extrakten männlicher
accessorischer Geschlechtsdrüsen",
Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of
Pharmacology, Volume 175, Number 1,
78-84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01861161 English: "On the
pharmacologic action of normal
secretions and extracts of male
accessory sexual glands"
[3] Von Euler, "On the
specific vaso-dilating and plain muscle
stimulating substances from accessory
genital glands in man and certain
animals (prostaglandin and
vesiglandin)", Journal of physiology,
(1936) volume: 88 issue: 2 page:
213. http://jp.physoc.org/content/88/2/
213.full.pdf
(Karolinischen Institues) Stockholm,
Sweden22  
[1] Ulf S. von Euler Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/euler_
postcard.jpg

[2] Description Ulf Svante von
Euler (7 February 1905 – 9 March
1983), Swedish physiologist and
pharmacologist Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Ulf
von Euler Portion used
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Ulf_von_Euler.jpg
55 YBN
[11/30/1945 AD] 11 		5549)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
3. ^ Glenn T. Seaborg
and Joseph G. Hamilton, "The Production
of Elements 95 and 96", Science New
Series, Vol. 102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30,
1945), p. 556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
4. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
5. ^ Glenn T.
Seaborg and Joseph G. Hamilton, "The
Production of Elements 95 and 96",
Science New Series, Vol. 102, No. 2657
(Nov. 30, 1945), p. 556. Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
6. ^ "americium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/americium
7. ^ "curium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/curium
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Glenn T.
Seaborg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
11. ^ Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
{11/30/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1951". Nobelprize.org. 25 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[2] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[3]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[5] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[6] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[7] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[8] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[9] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[10] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[11] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA10  
[1] Description Americium
microscope.jpg English: A small disc
of Am-241 under the microscope. Date
2010(2010) Source Own
work Author Bionerd CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Americium_microscope.
jpg

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
55 YBN
[12/24/1945 AD] 15 		5565) In 1952, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Felix
Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell "for
their development of new methods for
nuclear magnetic precision measurements
and discoveries in connection
therewith".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. M. Purcell, H. C. Torrey, and
R. V. Pound, "Resonance Absorption by
Nuclear Magnetic Moments in a Solid",
Phys. Rev. 69, 37
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i1-2/p37_1 {Purcell_Edward_Mills_
19451224.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p845.
3. ^ "E.M. Purcell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/483786/E-M-Purcell>.
4. ^ "Edward Mills Purcell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-mill
s-purcell
5. ^ E. M. Purcell, H. C. Torrey, and
R. V. Pound, "Resonance Absorption by
Nuclear Magnetic Moments in a Solid",
Phys. Rev. 69, 37
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i1-2/p37_1 {Purcell_Edward_Mills_
19451224.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1952". Nobelprize.org. 27 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1952/
14. ^ E. M. Purcell, H. C. Torrey, and
R. V. Pound, "Resonance Absorption by
Nuclear Magnetic Moments in a Solid",
Phys. Rev. 69, 37
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i1-2/p37_1 {Purcell_Edward_Mills_
19451224.pdf}
15. ^ E. M. Purcell, H. C. Torrey, and
R. V. Pound, "Resonance Absorption by
Nuclear Magnetic Moments in a Solid",
Phys. Rev. 69, 37
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i1-2/p37_1 {Purcell_Edward_Mills_
19451224.pdf} {12/24/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "E. M. Purcell - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 27 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1952/purcell-lecture.html
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA14  
[1] Edward Mills Purcell Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1952/purcell
_postcard.jpg
55 YBN
[1945 AD] 11 		5312)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ E. Fermi and W.
H. Zinn, "Reflection of Neutrons on
Mirrors", Physical Society Cambridge
Conference Report, 92, 1947,
Chicago. reprinted in: Enrico Fermi,
"Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers", V2,
p433. {Fermi_Enrico_1946xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Gilbert Lewis,
"Neutron Refraction", Phys. Rev. 51,
issue 12, 1105–1105
(1937) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v51/i12/p1105_2
{Lewis_Gilbert_19370524.pdf}
5. ^ Gilbert Lewis, "Refraction of
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 51, 369–369
(1937) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v51/i5/p369_1 {Lewis_Gilbert_19370301.
pdf}
6. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ C. S. Schneider, "Coherent Nuclear
Scattering Amplitudes of Germanium,
Copper and Oxygen for Thermal
Neutrons", Acta Cryst., A32, 375,
1976. http://journals.iucr.org/a/issues
/1976/03/00/a12902/a12902.pdf {Schneide
r_C_S_19760516.pdf}
8. ^ J. Plompa, J.G. Barkerb, V.O. de
Haana, W.G. Bouwmana and A.A. van
Wella, "Neutron refraction by
cylindrical metal wires", Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics
Research Section A: Accelerators,
Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated
Equipment Volume 574, Issue 2, 1 May
2007, Pages
324-329. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TJM-4N5CX4R
-6&_user=4422&_coverDate=05%2F01%2F2007&
_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=s
earch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_search
StrId=1526138692&_rerunOrigin=scholar.go
ogle&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVer
sion=0&_userid=4422&md5=1345087e5c309549
76a459c73e80d72d&searchtype=a#bib9
{Plomp_20070501.pdf}
9. ^ M. L. Goldberger, "Theory of the
Refraction and the Diffraction of
Neutrons by Crystals", V71, N5,
Physical Review,
03/01/1947. http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR
/v71/i5/p294_1 {Goldberger_M_L_19470301
.pdf}
10. ^ E. Fermi and W. H. Zinn,
"Reflection of Neutrons on Mirrors",
Physical Society Cambridge Conference
Report, 92, 1947, Chicago. reprinted
in: Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V2, p433.
{Fermi_Enrico_1946xxxx.pdf}
11. ^ E. Fermi and W. H. Zinn,
"Reflection of Neutrons on Mirrors",
Physical Society Cambridge Conference
Report, 92, 1947, Chicago. reprinted
in: Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V2, p433.
{Fermi_Enrico_1946xxxx.pdf} {Summer
1945}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p447
[4]
E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode zur
Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften des
Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[6] E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione del
gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren. Lincei,
3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted in:
Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1, p178
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois10  
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
55 YBN
[1945 AD] 5 6 		5410)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p812-813.
2. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bohess.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p812-813.
4. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bohess.html
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p812-813. {1945}
6. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bohess.html {1945}
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA4  
[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
54 YBN
[01/10/1946 AD] 8 9 		5528)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dewitt, J.H., Jr.; Stodola,
E.K.;, "Detection of Radio Signals
Reflected from the Moon", Proceedings
of the IRE, March 1949, Volume: 37
Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf}
2. ^ Dewitt, J.H., Jr.; Stodola, E.K.;,
"Detection of Radio Signals Reflected
from the Moon", Proceedings of the IRE,
March 1949, Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf}
3. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4218/ch1.htm
4. ^ Dewitt, J.H., Jr.; Stodola, E.K.;,
"Detection of Radio Signals Reflected
from the Moon", Proceedings of the IRE,
March 1949, Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4218/ch1.htm
8. ^ Dewitt, J.H., Jr.; Stodola, E.K.;,
"Detection of Radio Signals Reflected
from the Moon", Proceedings of the IRE,
March 1949, Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} {01/10/1946}
9. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4218/ch1.htm
{01/10/1946}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4217/ch2.htm
Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, USA7  
[1] Figure 13 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1

[2] Figure 6 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1
54 YBN
[02/??/1946 AD] 11 12 		5459)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p823,870.
2. ^ "J. Presper
Eckert." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-presper-e
ckert
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p823,870.
4. ^ "J. Presper
Eckert." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-presper-e
ckert
5. ^ "ENIAC." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/183842/ENIAC>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "ENIAC." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/183842/ENIAC>.
11. ^ "ENIAC." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/183842/ENIAC>. {02/1946}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p823,870. {1946}

MORE INFO
[1] "History of computing
hardware". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
computing_hardware
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA10
 
[1] Description Eniac.jpg en:ENIAC
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Glen
Beck (background) and Betty Snyder
(foreground) program the ENIAC in BRL
building 328 Date c. 1947 to
1955 Source U.S. Army
Photo http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/historic-c
omputers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Eniac.jpg

[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN

source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg
54 YBN
[05/27/1946 AD] 6 7 		5411)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p812-813.
2. ^ Harry Hammond
Hess, "Drowned ancient islands of the
Pacific Basin", American Journal of
Science, Vol. 244, November 1946,
P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772 {Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf}

3. ^ Harry Hammond Hess, "Drowned
ancient islands of the Pacific Basin",
American Journal of Science, Vol. 244,
November 1946, P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772
{Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p812-813.
5. ^ Harry Hammond
Hess, "Drowned ancient islands of the
Pacific Basin", American Journal of
Science, Vol. 244, November 1946,
P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772 {Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf}

6. ^ Harry Hammond Hess, "Drowned
ancient islands of the Pacific Basin",
American Journal of Science, Vol. 244,
November 1946, P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772 {Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf}
{05/27/1946}
7. ^ Harry Hammond Hess, "Drowned
ancient islands of the Pacific Basin",
American Journal of Science, Vol. 244,
November 1946, P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772
{Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf} {11
/1946}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bohess.html
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA5  
[1] Figure 2A from: Harry Hammond
Hess, ''Drowned ancient islands of the
Pacific Basin'', American Journal of
Science, Vol. 244, November 1946,
P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772 {Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/con
tent/abstract/244/11/772

[2] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
54 YBN
[06/01/1946 AD] 24 		5472) During the late 1950s, Libby and
physicist Edward Teller, are both
prominent advocates of nuclear weapons
testing, oppose Linus Pauling’s
petition for a ban on nuclear weapons.
Libby builds a fallout shelter at his
house, an event that is widely
publicized.21

In 1960, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
is awarded to Willard F. Libby "for his
method to use carbon-14 for age
determination in archaeology, geology,
geophysics, and other branches of
science".22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p829-830.
2. ^ W. F. Libby,
"Atmospheric Helium Three and
Radiocarbon from Cosmic Radiation",
Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2 {Libby_Willard_Fran
k_19460601.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p829-830.
4. ^ "Willard Frank
Libby." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 09
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338917/Willard-Frank-Libby>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p829-830.
6. ^ C. G. Montgomery
and D. D. Montgomery, "The Intensity of
Neutrons of Thermal Energy in the
Atmosphere at Sea Level", Phys. Rev.
56, 10–12
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i1/p10_1 {Montgomery_C_G_19390515
.pdf}
7. ^ S. A. Korff, "Recent Studies at
High Elevations", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11,
211–219
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v11/i3-4/p211_1 {Korff_S_A_193910xx.pd
f}
8. ^ "Willard Libby." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willard-lib
by
9. ^ E. C. Anderson and W. F. Libby, S.
Weinhouse, A. F. Reid, A. D.
Kirshenbaum, and A. V. Grosse, "Natural
Radiocarbon from Cosmic Radiation",
Phys. Rev. 72, 931–936
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i10/p931_1 {Libby_Willard_Frank_1
9470804.pdf}
10. ^ S. A. Korff, Terr. Mag. 45, 133
(1940).
11. ^ E. C. Anderson and W. F. Libby,
S. Weinhouse, A. F. Reid, A. D.
Kirshenbaum, and A. V. Grosse, "Natural
Radiocarbon from Cosmic Radiation",
Phys. Rev. 72, 931–936
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i10/p931_1 {Libby_Willard_Frank_1
9470804.pdf}
12. ^ GROSSE, A. V. and LIBBY, W. F.,
"Cosmic Radiocarbon and Natural
Radioactivity of Living Matter",
Science, New Series, Vol. 106, No. 2743
(Jul. 25, 1947), pp.
88-89 http://www.jstor.org/stable/16751
11
13. ^ "Nuclear cross section."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 13
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-cro
ss-section
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p829-830.
15. ^ W. F. Libby,
"Atmospheric Helium Three and
Radiocarbon from Cosmic Radiation",
Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2 {Libby_Willard_Fran
k_19460601.pdf}
16. ^ "Nuclear cross section."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 13
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-cro
ss-section
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "Willard Frank Libby."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 09 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338917/Willard-Frank-Libby>.
22. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1960". Nobelprize.org. 10 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1960/
23. ^ W. F. Libby, "Atmospheric Helium
Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic
Radiation", Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2 {Libby_Willard_Fran
k_19460601.pdf}
24. ^ W. F. Libby, "Atmospheric Helium
Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic
Radiation", Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2 {Libby_Willard_Fran
k_19460601.pdf} {06/01/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby,
"Age Determinations by Radiocarbon
Content: Checks with Samples of Known
Age", Science, New Series, Vol. 110,
No. 2869 (Dec. 23, 1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA23  
[1] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg
54 YBN
[06/14/1946 AD] 3 		6072) "The Christmas Song" (commonly
subtitled "Chestnuts Roasting on an
Open Fire") or, as it was originally
subtitled, "Merry Christmas to You"
(written by Mel Tormé and Bob Wells in
1944) is recorded by Nat King Cole.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Christmas Song". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christm
as_Song
2. ^ "The Christmas Song". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christm
as_Song
3. ^ "The Christmas Song". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christm
as_Song {06/14/1946}
(WMCA Radio Studios) New York City, New
York, USA2  		 
54 YBN
[06/24/1946 AD] 13 		5430) Delbrück leaves Germany after
Hitler comes to power.9
In 1937
Delbrück moves to the USA.10

In 1969, the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is awarded jointly to Max
Delbrück, Alfred D. Hershey and
Salvador E. Luria "for their
discoveries concerning the replication
mechanism and the genetic structure of
viruses".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. D. Hershey, "Mutation of
bacteriophage with respect to type of
plaque" Source: Genetics, (1946)
volume: 31 issue: 6 page:
620 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/31/6/620 {Hershey_Alfred_Day_19460624.
pdf}
2. ^ "Alfred Hershey." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-hers
hey
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1969". Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1969/
12. ^ A. D. Hershey, "Mutation of
bacteriophage with respect to type of
plaque" Source: Genetics, (1946)
volume: 31 issue: 6 page:
620 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/31/6/620 {Hershey_Alfred_Day_19460624.
pdf}
13. ^ A. D. Hershey, "Mutation of
bacteriophage with respect to type of
plaque" Source: Genetics, (1946)
volume: 31 issue: 6 page:
620 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/31/6/620 {Hershey_Alfred_Day_19460624.
pdf} {06/24/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648
[2] "Salvador Luria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/351772/Salvador-Luria>.
[3] Luria, "Mutations of bacterial
viruses affecting their host range",
Genetics [0016-6731] Luria (1945)
volume: 30 issue: 1 page:
84. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/30/1/84
[4] A. D. Hershey, "SPONTANEOUS
MUTATIONS IN BACTERIAL VIRUSES", Cold
Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1946.
11:
67-77. http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/11/67.extract
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA12  
[1] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Max Delbrück Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/delbru
ck_postcard.jpg
54 YBN
[07/15/1946 AD] 10 		5373)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. E. Golian, E. H. Krause, and
G. J. Perlow, "Cosmic Radiation Above
40 Miles", Physical review, (1946)
volume: 70 issue: 3-4 page:
223. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
70/i3-4/p223_1 {Golian_Sergei_19460715.
pdf}
2. ^ S. E. Golian, E. H. Krause, and G.
J. Perlow, "Additional Cosmic-Ray
Measurements with the V-2 Rocket",
Phys. Rev. 70, 776–777
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v70/i9-10/p776_1
3. ^ S. E. Golian, E. H. Krause, and G.
J. Perlow, "Cosmic Radiation Above 40
Miles", Physical review, (1946)
volume: 70 issue: 3-4 page:
223. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
70/i3-4/p223_1 {Golian_Sergei_19460715.
pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
7. ^ "Bruno
Rossi." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bruno-rossi

8. ^ Bruno Rossi, "Interpretation of
Cosmic-Ray Phenomena", Rev. Mod. Phys.
20, 537–583
(1948). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v20/i3/p537_1
9. ^ S. E. Golian, E. H. Krause, and G.
J. Perlow, "Cosmic Radiation Above 40
Miles", Physical review, (1946)
volume: 70 issue: 3-4 page:
223. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
70/i3-4/p223_1 {Golian_Sergei_19460715.
pdf}
10. ^ S. E. Golian, E. H. Krause, and
G. J. Perlow, "Cosmic Radiation Above
40 Miles", Physical review, (1946)
volume: 70 issue: 3-4 page:
223. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
70/i3-4/p223_1 {Golian_Sergei_19460715.
pdf} {07/15/1946}
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA9  
[1] Figure 1 from: S. E. Golian, E. H.
Krause, and G. J. Perlow, ''Cosmic
Radiation Above 40 Miles'', Physical
review, (1946) volume: 70 issue: 3-4
page:
223. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
70/i3-4/p223_1 {Golian_Sergei_19460715.
pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v70/i3-4/p223_1
54 YBN
[08/22/1946 AD] 15 		5697) In 1974, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Sir
Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish "for
their pioneering research in radio
astrophysics: Ryle for his observations
and inventions, in particular of the
aperture synthesis technique, and
Hewish for his decisive role in the
discovery of pulsars".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. RYLE & D. D. VONBERG, "Solar
Radiation on 175 Mc./s", Nature 158,
339-340 (07 September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
2. ^ M. Ryle, "A New Radio
Interferometer and Its Application to
the Observation of Weak Radio Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 211, No. 1106
(Mar. 6, 1952), pp.
351-375 http://www.jstor.org/stable/988
50 {Ryle_Martin_19511010.pdf}
3. ^ M. RYLE & D. D. VONBERG, "Solar
Radiation on 175 Mc./s", Nature 158,
339-340 (07 September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
4. ^ M. Ryle, "A New Radio
Interferometer and Its Application to
the Observation of Weak Radio Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 211, No. 1106
(Mar. 6, 1952), pp.
351-375 http://www.jstor.org/stable/988
50 {Ryle_Martin_19511010.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.869.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.869.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.869.
8. ^ M. RYLE & D. D.
VONBERG, "Solar Radiation on 175
Mc./s", Nature 158, 339-340 (07
September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1974". Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1974/
14. ^ M. RYLE & D. D. VONBERG, "Solar
Radiation on 175 Mc./s", Nature 158,
339-340 (07 September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
15. ^ M. RYLE & D. D. VONBERG, "Solar
Radiation on 175 Mc./s", Nature 158,
339-340 (07 September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
{08/22/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Martin Ryle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/514574/Sir-Martin-Ryle>
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England14  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: M. RYLE &
D. D. VONBERG, ''Solar Radiation on 175
Mc./s'', Nature 158, 339-340 (07
September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v158/n4010/abs/158339b0.html

[2] Sir Martin Ryle. Harry Todd—Fox
Photos/Archive Photos/Getty
Images COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/20956-004-D0293979.jpg
54 YBN
[08/??/1946 AD] 5 		5314)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Judith Graham, R. W. Gerard,
"Membrane potentials and excitation of
impaled single muscle fibers", Journal
of Cellular and Comparative Physiology,
Volume 28, Issue 1, pages 99–117,
August
1946 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jcp.1030280106/abstract
{Graham_Judith_194608xx.pdf}
2. ^ J Graham, "Excitation and membrane
potentials of single muscle fibers",
Federation Proceedings, 1942. p1-29.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Judith Graham, R. W. Gerard,
"Membrane potentials and excitation of
impaled single muscle fibers", Journal
of Cellular and Comparative Physiology,
Volume 28, Issue 1, pages 99–117,
August
1946 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jcp.1030280106/abstract
{Graham_Judith_194608xx.pdf}
5. ^ Judith Graham, R. W. Gerard,
"Membrane potentials and excitation of
impaled single muscle fibers", Journal
of Cellular and Comparative Physiology,
Volume 28, Issue 1, pages 99–117,
August
1946 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jcp.1030280106/abstract
{Graham_Judith_194608xx.pdf}
{08/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] KATZ, B. 1939 Electric
excitation of nerve. Oxford University
Press, London.
[2] L. G. BROCK, J. S. COOMBS
AND J. C. ECCLES, "THE RECORDING OF
POTENTIALS FROM MOTONEURONES WITH AN
INTRACELLULAR ELECTRODE", The Journal
of Physiology, 1952
http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/431
.full.pdf
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA4  		 
54 YBN
[09/13/1946 AD] 18 		5349)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
2. ^ G. Gamow,
"Expanding Universe and the Origin of
Elements", Physical Review, Volume 70,
Issue 7-8, pp.
572-573. http://prola.aps.org/toc/PR/v7
0/i7-8 {Gamow_George_19460913.pdf}
3. ^ G. Gamow, "Expanding Universe and
the Origin of Elements", Physical
Review, Volume 70, Issue 7-8, pp.
572-573. http://prola.aps.org/toc/PR/v7
0/i7-8 {Gamow_George_19460913.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
5. ^ G. Gamow,
"Expanding Universe and the Origin of
Elements", Physical Review, Volume 70,
Issue 7-8, pp.
572-573. http://prola.aps.org/toc/PR/v7
0/i7-8 {Gamow_George_19460913.pdf}
6. ^ R. A. Alpher, H. Bethe, G. Gamow,
"The Origin of Chemical Elements",
Phys. Rev. 73, 803–804
(1948) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1 {Gamow_George_19480218.p
df}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ G. Gamow, "Expanding
Universe and the Origin of Elements",
Physical Review, Volume 70, Issue 7-8,
pp.
572-573. http://prola.aps.org/toc/PR/v7
0/i7-8 {Gamow_George_19460913.pdf}
18. ^ G. Gamow, "Expanding Universe and
the Origin of Elements", Physical
Review, Volume 70, Issue 7-8, pp.
572-573. http://prola.aps.org/toc/PR/v7
0/i7-8 {Gamow_George_19460913.pdf}
{09/13/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gamow." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gamo
w
[2] "George Gamow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/225123/George-Gamow>.
[3] G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
[4] RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON ,
"Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html
[5] "Gamow, George." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 271-273. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901576&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Selection
Rules for the β-Disintegration", Phys.
Rev. 49, 895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1
[7] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Energy
Production in Red Giants", Phys. Rev.
55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1
[8] G. Gamow and G. Keller, "A Shell
Source Model for Red Giant Stars", Rev.
Mod. Phys. 17, 125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA17  
[1] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg
54 YBN
[09/17/1946 AD] 16 		5742) In 1958, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is divided, one
half jointly to George Wells Beadle and
Edward Lawrie Tatum "for their
discovery that genes act by regulating
definite chemical events" and the other
half to Joshua Lederberg "for his
discoveries concerning genetic
recombination and the organization of
the genetic material of bacteria".14
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
2. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
3. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.881-882.
5. ^ "Joshua
Lederberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/334486/Joshua-Lederberg>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794-795,831.
7. ^ "conjugation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
8. ^ Record ID177. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^
http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~rwinning/ge
netics/bactrec.htm
14. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1958". Nobelprize.org. 2 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1958/
15. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
16. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf} {09/17/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] Joshua Lederberg, Luigi L.
Cavalli, and Esther M. Lederberg, "Sex
Compatibility in Escherichia Coli",
Genetics. 1952 November; 37(6):
720–730.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1209583/
[2] Joshua Lederberg and E. L. Tatum,
"Sex in Bacteria: Genetic Studies,
1945-1952",Science, New Series, Vol.
118, No. 3059 (Aug. 14, 1953), pp.
169-175. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
80189
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA15  
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1

[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
54 YBN
[10/10/1946 AD] 4 		3848)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
2. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
3. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
4. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
{10/10/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart,
"Why the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe
des Himmels",1999), Princeton
University Press, 2007,
p247-250. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappui
s+ozone&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-P
A250,M1
(White Sands proving area) New Mexico,
USA3  
[1] Solar spectra from the V-2 rocket
flight of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010

[2] Tenatively assumed
temperature-height curves. The short
curve was derived from the V-2 pressure
data of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010
54 YBN
[11/13/1946 AD] 9 10 		5419)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p815.
2. ^ "Vincent
Schaefer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vincent-sch
aefer
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Vincent J. Schaefer, "The
Formation of Ice Crystals in the
Laboratory and the Atmosphere.", Chem.
Rev., 1949, 44 (2), pp
291–320. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60138a004 {Schaefer_Vincent_1
9481018.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p815. {11/13/1946}
10. ^ Vincent
J. Schaefer, "The Formation of Ice
Crystals in the Laboratory and the
Atmosphere.", Chem. Rev., 1949, 44 (2),
pp
291–320. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60138a004 {Schaefer_Vincent_1
9481018.pdf} {11/13/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] Vincent J. Schaefer, "The
Production of Ice Crystals in a Cloud
of Supercooled Water Droplets",
Science, New Series, Vol. 104, No.
2707 (Nov. 15, 1946), pp.
457-459. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75452?&Search=yes&searchText=Ice&searchT
ext=Cloud&searchText=Production&searchTe
xt=Supercooled&searchText=Droplets.&sear
chText=Crystals&searchText=Water&list=hi
de&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3
FQuery%3DThe%2BProduction%2Bof%2BIce%2BC
rystals%2Bin%2Ba%2BCloud%2Bof%2BSupercoo
led%2BWater%2BDroplets.%26wc%3Don&prevSe
arch=&item=3&ttl=64&returnArticleService
=showFullText
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA8  
[1] Figure 5 from: Vincent J.
Schaefer, ''The Formation of Ice
Crystals in the Laboratory and the
Atmosphere.'', Chem. Rev., 1949, 44
(2), pp
291–320. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60138a004 {Schaefer_Vincent_1
9481018.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/cr60138a004

[2] Scientist Vincent J. Schaefer
Conducting Weather Experiments at
General Electric UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.allpostersimages.c
om/p/LRG/37/3797/WDJIF00Z/posters/scient
ist-vincent-j-schaefer-conducting-weathe
r-experiments-at-general-electric.jpg
54 YBN
[12/21/1946 AD] 7 		5537)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Conversi, E. Pancini, and O.
Piccioni, "On the Disintegration of
Negative Mesons", Phys. Rev. 71,
209–210
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i3/p209_1 {Piccioni_O_19461221.pd
f}
2. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
3. ^ M. Conversi, E. Pancini, and O.
Piccioni, "On the Disintegration of
Negative Mesons", Phys. Rev. 71,
209–210
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i3/p209_1 {Piccioni_O_19461221.pd
f}
4. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ M. Conversi, E. Pancini,
and O. Piccioni, "On the Disintegration
of Negative Mesons", Phys. Rev. 71,
209–210
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i3/p209_1 {Piccioni_O_19461221.pd
f}
7. ^ M. Conversi, E. Pancini, and O.
Piccioni, "On the Disintegration of
Negative Mesons", Phys. Rev. 71,
209–210
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i3/p209_1 {Piccioni_O_19461221.pd
f} {12/21/1946}
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy6
 		 
54 YBN
[12/25/1946 AD] 11 		5307)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Arkadiĭ Konstantinovich Kruglov,
"The history of the Soviet atomic
industry",2002,
p24. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
SriY07qvdIC&pg=PA24&dq=December+24+1946+
nuclear+reactor&hl=en&ei=kQZaTeO8GYT4sAP
zg6SRCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=6&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Decem
ber%2024%201946%20nuclear%20reactor&f=fa
lse
2. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/325188/Igor-Vasilyevich-Kurchatov>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p791.
5. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor
Vasilievich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p791.
7. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor
Vasilievich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor
Vasilievich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Arkadiĭ Konstantinovich Kruglov,
"The history of the Soviet atomic
industry",2002,
p24. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
SriY07qvdIC&pg=PA24&dq=December+24+1946+
nuclear+reactor&hl=en&ei=kQZaTeO8GYT4sAP
zg6SRCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=6&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Decem
ber%2024%201946%20nuclear%20reactor&f=fa
lse
11. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/25/1946}
(Now: Kurchatov Institute of Atomic
Energy) Moscow, Russia (Soviet Union)9
10  
[1] Igor Kurchatov UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/kurchatov.jpg

[2] English: Igor Kurchatov in his
twenties. Русский: Игорь
Курчатов в
молодости color levels
adjusted losslessly. Yonatanh 22:14, 5
March 2007 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Young_Igor_Kurchatov.
jpg
54 YBN
[1946 AD] 4 		5018)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705-706.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p705-706.
3. ^ "Sir Robert
Robinson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/505762/Sir-Robert-Robinson>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p705-706. {1946}
(University of Oxford) Oxford, England3
 
[1] Sir Robert Robinson (September 13,
1886 – February 8, 1975), English
organic chemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_
prizes/chemistry/laureates/1947/robinson
_postcard.jpg Article Robert
Robinson (organic chemist) Portion
used UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/93/Robert_Robinson_organic_ch
emist.jpg
54 YBN
[1946 AD] 8 9 		5483)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P. Martin,
"GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY: A Technique
for the Analysis and Identification of
Volatile Materials", Br Med Bull (1954)
10 (3):
170-176. http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/
content/10/3/170.full.pdf+html {Martin_
Archer_195412xx.pdf}
2. ^ Claesson, S., "Studies on
Adsorption and Adsorption Analysis with
Special Reference to Homologous
Series.", Arkiv För Kemi, Mineralogi
Och Geologi, 1946, Band 23, No. 1,
1-133.
3. ^ E. R. Adlard, "50 years of gas
chromatography", Chromatographia,
Volume 57, Supplement 1, S13-S18, DOI:
10.1007/BF02492078 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/n1026752k2p8v36j/
4. ^ "gas chromatography." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 13
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gas-chromat
ography
5. ^ Martin, A. J. P. & Synge, R. L.
M., "A new form of chromatogram
employing two liquid phases",
Biochem J. 1941 December; 35(12):
1358–1368.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1265645/ {Martin_Archer_19411119.
pdf}
6. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P. Martin,
"Gas-liquid partition chromatography:
the separation and micro-estimation of
volatile fatty acids from formic acid
to dodecanoic acid", Biochem J. 1952
March; 50(5): 679–690.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1197726/ {Martin_Archer_19510605.
pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P.
Martin, "GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY: A
Technique for the Analysis and
Identification of Volatile Materials",
Br Med Bull (1954) 10 (3):
170-176. http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/
content/10/3/170.full.pdf+html {Martin_
Archer_195412xx.pdf} {1946}
9. ^ Claesson, S.,
"Studies on Adsorption and Adsorption
Analysis with Special Reference to
Homologous Series.", Arkiv För Kemi,
Mineralogi Och Geologi, 1946, Band 23,
No. 1, 1-133.
  
53 YBN
[01/08/1947 AD] 9 		5340)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. H. PERKINS, "Nuclear
Disintegration by Meson Capture",
Nature 159, 126-127 (25 January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf}
2. ^
http://pi.physik.uni-bonn.de/wpaul/wp_pe
rkins.php
3. ^ C F Powell, G P S Occhialini, D L
Livesey and L V Chilton, "A New
Photographic Emulsion for the Detection
of Fast Charged Particles", Journal of
Scintific Instruments, May 1946, V23
p102 http://iopscience.iop.org/0950-767
1/23/5/304 http://iopscience.iop.org/09
50-7671/23/5/304/pdf/0950-7671_23_5_304.
pdf
4. ^ D. H. PERKINS, "Nuclear
Disintegration by Meson Capture",
Nature 159, 126-127 (25 January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ D. H.
PERKINS, "Nuclear Disintegration by
Meson Capture", Nature 159, 126-127 (25
January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf}
9. ^ D. H. PERKINS, "Nuclear
Disintegration by Meson Capture",
Nature 159, 126-127 (25 January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf} {01/08/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] "Donald H. Perkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_H._P
erkins
[2] E. J. Williams, "Concerning the
Scattering of Fast Electrons and of
Cosmic-Ray Particles", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A March 7, 1939
169:531-572. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/pdfplus/97162.pdf
(Imperial College of Science and
Technology) London, England8  
[1] Figures from: D. H. PERKINS,
''Nuclear Disintegration by Meson
Capture'', Nature 159, 126-127 (25
January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html

[2] Donald H. Perkins UNKNOWN
source: http://pi.physik.uni-bonn.de/wpa
ul/wp_perkins.jpg
53 YBN
[01/09/1947 AD] 23 24 25 		5443) In 1930 Zinn moves to the USA.16

In 1939 Zinn is one of the US
physicists that confirm Meitner's
theory of uranium fission.17
Zinn is
recruited by Enrico Fermi for the
Manhattan Project, and at the
University of Chicago, Zinn is the
person that withdraws a control rod
from the atomic pile, releasing the
earth’s first self-sustaining nuclear
reaction. Zinn later supervises the
dismantling of the pile and its removal
to the Argonne National Laboratory
(near Chicago), of which Zinn is the
director of (1946–56).18

In 1942 Zinn is the person that
withdraws the control rod (a single
rod?19 ) in the first nuclear reactor
and makes it self sustaining.)

Zinn works on the development of the
nuclear bomb.20
Zinn becomes director
of the Argonne National Laboratories in
Chicago.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. H. ZINN, "FAST NEUTRON
REACTION SYSTEM", Patent number:
2975117, Filing date: Jan 9,
1947, Issue date: Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
2. ^ W. H. ZINN, "POWER REACTOR",
Patent number: 2841545, Filing date:
Jun 15, 1954, Issue date: Jul 1,
1958. http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=5n1MAAAAEBAJ&dq=zinn+w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820.
4. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=wzinn.html
5. ^ "Walter Henry Zinn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 04 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/657413/Walter-Henry-Zinn>.
6. ^ "breeder reactor." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breeder-rea
ctor
7. ^ "Walter Henry Zinn." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-henr
y-zinn
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820.
10. ^ Experimental
Breeder Reactor 1 factsheet, Idaho
National
Laboratory http://www.inl.gov/factsheet
s/ebr-1.pdf
11. ^ "Fifty years ago in December:
Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first
electricity", American Nuclear Society
Nuclear news, November
2001. http://www.ans.org/pubs/magazines
/nn/docs/2001-11-2.pdf
12. ^ W. H. ZINN, "FAST NEUTRON
REACTION SYSTEM", Patent number:
2975117, Filing date: Jan 9,
1947, Issue date: Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {01/09/1947}
13. ^ W. H. ZINN, "POWER
REACTOR", Patent number: 2841545,
Filing date: Jun 15, 1954, Issue date:
Jul 1,
1958. http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=5n1MAAAAEBAJ&dq=zinn+w
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p820.
17. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820.
18. ^ "Walter Henry
Zinn." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 04
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/657413/Walter-Henry-Zinn>.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p820.
22. ^ W. H. ZINN,
"FAST NEUTRON REACTION SYSTEM", Patent
number: 2975117, Filing date: Jan 9,
1947, Issue date: Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
23. ^ W. H. ZINN, "FAST NEUTRON
REACTION SYSTEM", Patent number:
2975117, Filing date: Jan 9,
1947, Issue date: Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {01/09/1947}
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820. {1951}
25. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=wzinn.html {1951}

MORE INFO
[1] WH Zinn, "Introduction to
nuclear engineering", American Journal
of Physics, January 1955 Volume 23,
Issue 1, pp.
74. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajpi
as/v23/i1/p74_s1
Chicago, Illinois, USA22  
[1] W. H. ZINN, ''FAST NEUTRON REACTION
SYSTEM'', Patent number: 2975117,
Filing date: Jan 9, 1947, Issue date:
Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Descripción Walter Henry
Zinn.png Fotografía del físico
Walter Henry Zinn. Fecha Fuente
Propio, recorte de
http://www.anl.gov/Science_and_Technolog
y/History/fermizinn.html Autor Este
archivo carece de información acerca
del autor. Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. Otras versiones
Image:Enrico Fermi and Henry Walter
Zinn.gif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Walter_Henry_Zinn.png

53 YBN
[01/10/1947 AD] 6 		5404)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
2. ^ "Bart J. Bok."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/71903/Bart-J-Bok>.
3. ^ Bok, B. J. & Reilly, E. F., "Small
Dark Nebulae.", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 105,
p.255. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947ApJ...105..255B
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Bok, B. J. & Reilly, E.
F., "Small Dark Nebulae.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 105,
p.255. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947ApJ...105..255B
6. ^ Bok, B. J. & Reilly, E. F., "Small
Dark Nebulae.", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 105,
p.255. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947ApJ...105..255B {01/10/1947}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Bok, Bart Jan Bart Jan
Bok UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-bok.jpg
53 YBN
[01/10/1947 AD] 8 9 		5581) In 1951 Lovell supervises the
construction of a 250-foot steerable
radio telescope at Jodrell Bank
Experimental Station. This construction
takes 6 years. The turret rack of a
battleship is used to turn the dish.
This telescope is used to track Sputnik
I using radio reflection (radar).5

Cambridge radio astronomers under
Antony Hewish discover pulsars, but are
limited to observing them only for the
few minutes each day that the pulsars
are on the Cambridge meridian. The
steerable Jodrell Bank telescope can
observe objects for as long as they are
above the horizon. Of the 50 pulsars
discovered in the northern hemisphere
before 1972, 27 are detected at Jodrell
Bank.6

Read more:
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-lov
ell#ixzz1Ht46Okvj
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Prentice, J. P. M., Lovell, A. C.
B., & Banwell, C. J., "Radio echo
observations of meteors", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf}
2. ^ Clegg, J. A., Hughes, V. A., &
Lovell, A. C. B., "The Daylight Meteor
Streams of 1947 May-August", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.369 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
47MNRAS.107..369C
3. ^ Lovell, A. C. B., Banwell, C. J.,
& Clegg, J. A., "Radio echo
observations of the Giacobinids
meteors, 1946", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.164. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1947MNRAS.107..164L/0000164.000
.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p848.
6. ^ "Bernard
Lovell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-lov
ell
7. ^ "Bernard Lovell." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-lov
ell
8. ^ Prentice, J. P. M., Lovell, A. C.
B., & Banwell, C. J., "Radio echo
observations of meteors", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} {01/10/1947}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848. {1946}
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England7  
[1] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P. M.,
Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P

[2] Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg [1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpg
53 YBN
[01/27/1947 AD] 11 		5335)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ E. Fermi, W. J.
Sturm, and R. G. Sachs, "The
Transmission of Slow Neutrons through
Microcrystalline Materials", Phys. Rev.
71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470127.
pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ E. Fermi, W. J. Sturm,
and R. G. Sachs, "The Transmission of
Slow Neutrons through Microcrystalline
Materials", Phys. Rev. 71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470127.
pdf}
5. ^ Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, "Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 486–487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ E. Fermi, W. J. Sturm, and R. G.
Sachs, "The Transmission of Slow
Neutrons through Microcrystalline
Materials", Phys. Rev. 71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470127.
pdf}
11. ^ E. Fermi, W. J. Sturm, and R. G.
Sachs, "The Transmission of Slow
Neutrons through Microcrystalline
Materials", Phys. Rev. 71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470127.
pdf} {01/27/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p447.
[4] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[6] E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione del
gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren. Lincei,
3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted in:
Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1, p178.
[7] O. Halpern,
M. Hamermesh, and M. H. Johnson, "The
Passage of Neutrons Through Crystals
and Polycrystals", Phys. Rev. 59,
981–996
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i12/p981_1
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois,
USA10  
[1] Figure 1 from: E. Fermi, W. J.
Sturm, and R. G. Sachs, ''The
Transmission of Slow Neutrons through
Microcrystalline Materials'', Phys.
Rev. 71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470127.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v71/i9/p589_1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
53 YBN
[02/07/1947 AD] 4 		5337)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
2. ^ E. Fermi and L.
Marshall, "Interference Phenomena of
Slow Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 71,
666–677
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i10/p666_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470207
.pdf}
3. ^ E. Fermi and L. Marshall,
"Interference Phenomena of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 71, 666–677
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i10/p666_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470207
.pdf}
4. ^ E. Fermi and L. Marshall,
"Interference Phenomena of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 71, 666–677
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i10/p666_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470207
.pdf} {02/07/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p447
[4]
E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode zur
Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften des
Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[6] E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione del
gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren. Lincei,
3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted in:
Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1, p178
[7] E. Fermi and
W. H. Zinn, "Reflection of Neutrons on
Mirrors", Physical Society Cambridge
Conference Report, 92, 1947,
Chicago. reprinted in: Enrico Fermi,
"Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers", V2,
p433.
[8] Gilbert Lewis, "Neutron
Refraction", Phys. Rev. 51, issue 12,
1105–1105
(1937) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v51/i12/p1105_2
[9] Gilbert Lewis, "Refraction of
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 51, 369–369
(1937) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v51/i5/p369_1
[10] "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] C. S. Schneider, "Coherent Nuclear
Scattering Amplitudes of Germanium,
Copper and Oxygen for Thermal
Neutrons", Acta Cryst., A32, 375,
1976. http://journals.iucr.org/a/issues
/1976/03/00/a12902/a12902.pdf
[12] J. Plompa, J.G. Barkerb, V.O. de
Haana, W.G. Bouwmana and A.A. van
Wella, "Neutron refraction by
cylindrical metal wires", Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics
Research Section A: Accelerators,
Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated
Equipment Volume 574, Issue 2, 1 May
2007, Pages
324-329. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TJM-4N5CX4R
-6&_user=4422&_coverDate=05%2F01%2F2007&
_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=s
earch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_search
StrId=1526138692&_rerunOrigin=scholar.go
ogle&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVer
sion=0&_userid=4422&md5=1345087e5c309549
76a459c73e80d72d&searchtype=a#bib9
[13] M. L. Goldberger, "Theory of the
Refraction and the Diffraction of
Neutrons by Crystals", V71, N5,
Physical Review,
03/01/1947. http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR
/v71/i5/p294_1
[14] E. Fermi and W. H. Zinn,
"Reflection of Neutrons on Mirrors",
Physical Society Cambridge Conference
Report, 92, 1947, Chicago. reprinted
in: Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V2, p433.
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois3
 
[1] Figure 2 from: [12] E. Fermi and
L. Marshall, ''Interference Phenomena
of Slow Neutrons'', Phys. Rev. 71,
666–677
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i10/p666_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470207
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v71/i10/p666_1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
53 YBN
[02/08/1947 AD] 24 		5338) The 1950 Nobel Prize in Physics
is awarded to Cecil Powell "for his
development of the photographic method
of studying nuclear processes and his
discoveries regarding mesons made with
this method".19

Powell is the founder of the Pugwash
Movement, which supports peace and
scientific cooperation among all
nations.20

(To me, it seems like there can be many
particles of different mass with more
or less photons in them, from the size
of a photon on up (although clearly at
some point, a single collection of
photons is probably not possible and
divides into two orbiting masses.) The
finding of particles with charge is
also a specific thing. Are there
particles of identical mass but one has
a charge and the other does not?
Perhaps charge is the result of a range
of mass for a particle. These charged
particles must not be part of atoms so
how are they produced? Can they be
routinely produced in particle
accelerators? If so, state how. If they
are produced by atoms in collisions
might they be part of atoms? or perhaps
they are arranged at the time of the
collision. If produced from particles,
might they be part of those particles?
or again, made at the time of the
collision? Are there positive and
negative muons and pions? What are the
other characteristics of these
particles, and how are they deduced? If
charged, can they be substituted for
electrons or protons in atoms?21 )
(what
shape might a photon be? a sphere, or a
cube? some other shape? If a sphere,
that has implications: it means that
there will always be empty space
between photons, where a cube allows
the possibility of photons packed
together with no empty space between.22
)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. H. PERKINS, "Nuclear
Disintegration by Meson Capture",
Nature 159, 126-127 (25 January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf}
2. ^ G. P. S. OCCHIALINI & C. F.
POWELL, "NUCLEAR DISINTEGRATIONS
PRODUCED BY SLOW CHARGED PARTICLES OF
SMALL MASS", Nature 159, 186-190 (08
February
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html {Powe
ll_Cecil_19470208.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p797-798
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p797-798
5. ^ G. P. S.
OCCHIALINI & C. F. POWELL, "NUCLEAR
DISINTEGRATIONS PRODUCED BY SLOW
CHARGED PARTICLES OF SMALL MASS",
Nature 159, 186-190 (08 February
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html {Powe
ll_Cecil_19470208.pdf}
6. ^ C. M. G. LATTES , H. MUIRHEAD ,
G. P. S. OCCHIALINI & C. F. POWELL,
"PROCESSES INVOLVING CHARGED MESONS",
Nature 159, 694-697 (24 May
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4047/abs/159694a0.html
{Powell_Cecil_19470524.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1950". Nobelprize.org.
19 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1950/
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p797-798
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ G. P. S. OCCHIALINI & C. F.
POWELL, "NUCLEAR DISINTEGRATIONS
PRODUCED BY SLOW CHARGED PARTICLES OF
SMALL MASS", Nature 159, 186-190 (08
February
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html {Powe
ll_Cecil_19470208.pdf}
24. ^ G. P. S. OCCHIALINI & C. F.
POWELL, "NUCLEAR DISINTEGRATIONS
PRODUCED BY SLOW CHARGED PARTICLES OF
SMALL MASS", Nature 159, 186-190 (08
February
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html {Powe
ll_Cecil_19470208.pdf} {02/08/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] Cecil Powell, Giuseppe
Occhialini, "Nuclear Physics in
Photographs.", Clarendon Press/Oxford,
1947
[2] C. F. Powell, P. H. Fowler, D. H.
Perkins. "The Study of Elementary
Particles by the Photographic Method:
an account of the principal techniques
and discoveries.", 669 pp. Pergamon
Press, Inc., New York, 1959
[3] E. J.
Williams, "Concerning the Scattering of
Fast Electrons and of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A March
7, 1939
169:531-572. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/pdfplus/97162.pdf
[4] C F Powell, G P S Occhialini, D L
Livesey and L V Chilton, "A New
Photographic Emulsion for the Detection
of Fast Charged Particles", Journal of
Scientific Instruments, May 1946, V23
p102 http://iopscience.iop.org/0950-767
1/23/5/304 http://iopscience.iop.org/09
50-7671/23/5/304/pdf/0950-7671_23_5_304.
pdf
(University of Bristol) Bristol,
England23  
[1] Figure 5 from: G. P. S. OCCHIALINI
& C. F. POWELL, ''NUCLEAR
DISINTEGRATIONS PRODUCED BY SLOW
CHARGED PARTICLES OF SMALL MASS'',
Nature 159, 186-190 (08 February
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html {Powe
ll_Cecil_19470208.pdf} [t Look how
apparently the particle collides with a
line on the emulsion and is reflected
with a similar angle to the angle of
incidence.] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html

[2] Cecil Frank Powell Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1950/powell.jpg
53 YBN
[02/17/1947 AD] 11 12 13 		5478)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edwin H. Land, "Film Forming
image Transfer Composition", Patent
number: 2603565, Filing date: Feb 17,
1947, Issue date: Jul 15,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p830.
3. ^ "Edwin H. Land."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-herbe
rt-land
4. ^ "Edwin Herbert Land."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329092/Edwin-Herbert-Land>.
5. ^
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PIpIAAA
AEBAJ&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=samuel+shlafrock
&source=bl&ots=8VAKkxvPMf&sig=AcLlW0XaNx
rCYv_MTXx0PT2-m2Y&hl=en&ei=AyZTTLmkEIScl
gfqu-Ru&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
6. ^ "Instant camera". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_cam
era
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Edwin
H. Land, "Film Forming image Transfer
Composition", Patent number: 2603565,
Filing date: Feb 17, 1947, Issue date:
Jul 15,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
11. ^ Edwin H. Land, "Film Forming
image Transfer Composition", Patent
number: 2603565, Filing date: Feb 17,
1947, Issue date: Jul 15,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {02/17/1947}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p830. {1947}
13. ^ "Edwin
Herbert Land." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/329092/Edwin-Herbert-Land>. {1947}

MORE INFO
[1] Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, "Polarizing Refracting
Bodies", Patent number: 1918848, Filing
date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date: Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[2] Edwin H. Land, "Process For Forming
Light-Polarizing Images", Patent
number: 2315373, Filing date: May 28,
1941, Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[3] Adrian Conwell-Clyne, "Colour
Cinematography", 3rd Edition,
1936,1939,1951
(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA10  
[1] Figures from patent: Edwin H.
Land, ''Film Forming image Transfer
Composition'', Patent number: 2603565,
Filing date: Feb 17, 1947, Issue date:
Jul 15,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] image from Polaroid Land Camera
instructions UNKNOWN
source: http://www.copweb.be/UsersManual
/plcam07.jpg
53 YBN
[03/17/1947 AD] 8 		5588)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vonnegut, B.; , "The Nucleation
of Ice Formation by Silver Iodide,"
Journal of Applied Physics , vol.18,
no.7, pp.593-595, Jul 1947 doi:
10.1063/1.1697813 http://jap.aip.org/re
source/1/japiau/v18/i7/p593_s1 {Vonnegu
t_Bernard_19470317.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850.
3. ^ "Bernard
Vonnegut." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-von
negut
4. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/27/nyregi
on/bernard-vonnegut-82-physicist-who-coa
xed-rain-from-the-sky.html
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
Vonnegut, B.; , "The Nucleation of Ice
Formation by Silver Iodide," Journal of
Applied Physics , vol.18, no.7,
pp.593-595, Jul 1947 doi:
10.1063/1.1697813 http://jap.aip.org/re
source/1/japiau/v18/i7/p593_s1 {Vonnegu
t_Bernard_19470317.pdf}
8. ^ Vonnegut, B.; , "The Nucleation of
Ice Formation by Silver Iodide,"
Journal of Applied Physics , vol.18,
no.7, pp.593-595, Jul 1947 doi:
10.1063/1.1697813 http://jap.aip.org/re
source/1/japiau/v18/i7/p593_s1 {Vonnegu
t_Bernard_19470317.pdf} {03/17/1947}
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA7  
[1] Bernard Vonnegut In 1997
Vonnegut was awarded (posthumously) the
Ig Nobel Prize in Meteorology
for his revealing report, ''Chicken
Plucking as Measure of Tornado Wind
Speed.'' [Published
in ''Weatherwise,'' October 1975, p.
217.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atmos.albany.edu/deas
/bvonn/BV_THphoto.jpg
53 YBN
[06/18/1947 AD] 11 		5402) In 1955, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided equally between
Willis Eugene Lamb "for his discoveries
concerning the fine structure of the
hydrogen spectrum" and Polykarp Kusch
"for his precision determination of the
magnetic moment of the electron".9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Willis E. Lamb, Jr. and Robert C.
Retherford , "Fine Structure of the
Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method",
Phys. Rev. 72, 241–243
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i3/p241_1 {Lamb_Willis_19470618.p
df}
2. ^ "Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/328488/Willis-Eugene-Lamb-Jr>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p501-502.
4. ^ "Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/328488/Willis-Eugene-Lamb-Jr>.
5. ^ Willis E. Lamb, Jr. and Robert C.
Retherford , "Fine Structure of the
Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method",
Phys. Rev. 72, 241–243
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i3/p241_1 {Lamb_Willis_19470618.p
df}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physics 1955".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1955/
10. ^ Willis E. Lamb, Jr. and Robert C.
Retherford , "Fine Structure of the
Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method",
Phys. Rev. 72, 241–243
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i3/p241_1 {Lamb_Willis_19470618.p
df}
11. ^ Willis E. Lamb, Jr. and Robert C.
Retherford , "Fine Structure of the
Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method",
Phys. Rev. 72, 241–243
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i3/p241_1 {Lamb_Willis_19470618.p
df} {06/18/1947}
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA10  
[1] Description Willis Lamb.jpg Willis
Lamb English: Rationale: photographer
died >70yrs ago Source:
http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/physics/lin
ks/lamb.jpg Date 2008-04-19
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
Transfer was stated to be made by
User:Soulkeeper. Author Original
uploader was MessinaRagazza at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License; PD-OLD-70. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Willis_Lamb.jpg

[2] Willis Eugene Lamb jr.
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1955/lamb_po
stcard.jpg
53 YBN
[06/26/1947 AD] 6 		5550)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
2. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ I. Perlman, R.
H. Goeckermann, D. H. Templeton, and J.
J. Howland, "Fission of Bismuth, Lead,
Thallium, Platinum, and Tantalum with
High Energy Particles", Phys. Rev. 72,
352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
6. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} {06/26/1947}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  		 
53 YBN
[08/31/1947 AD] 5 		5582)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
3. ^ "Bernard
Lovell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-lov
ell
4. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
5. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
{08/31/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] Lovell, A. C. B., Banwell, C.
J., & Clegg, J. A., "Radio echo
observations of the Giacobinids
meteors, 1946", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.164. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1947MNRAS.107..164L/0000164.000
.html
[2] Clegg, J. A., Hughes, V. A., &
Lovell, A. C. B., "The Daylight Meteor
Streams of 1947 May-August", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.369 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
47MNRAS.107..369C
[3] Prentice, J. P. M., Lovell, A. C.
B., & Banwell, C. J., "Radio echo
observations of meteors", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England3 4  
[1] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P. M.,
Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P

[2] Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg [1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpg
53 YBN
[08/31/1947 AD] 5 		5583)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. R. ALLEN, H. P. PALMER & B.
ROWSON, "New Limits to the Diameters of
Some Radio Sources", Nature 188, 731 -
732 (26 November 1960);
doi:10.1038/188731a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v188/n4752/abs/188731
a0.html {Allen_L_R_19601126.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Bernard Lovell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-lov
ell
4. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
5. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
{08/31/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
[2] Lovell, A. C. B.,
Banwell, C. J., & Clegg, J. A., "Radio
echo observations of the Giacobinids
meteors, 1946", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.164. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1947MNRAS.107..164L/0000164.000
.html
[3] Clegg, J. A., Hughes, V. A., &
Lovell, A. C. B., "The Daylight Meteor
Streams of 1947 May-August", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.369 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
47MNRAS.107..369C
[4] Prentice, J. P. M., Lovell, A. C.
B., & Banwell, C. J., "Radio echo
observations of meteors", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England3 4  
[1] The Lovell Telescope. Credit:
Anthony Holloway, Jodrell
Bank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jodrellbank.mancheste
r.ac.uk//multimedia/images/library/Lovel
l9_1024x768.jpg
53 YBN
[10/14/1947 AD] 4 		5603)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p895-896.
3. ^ "Chuck
Yeager." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 30
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/652364/Chuck-Yeager>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896. {1014/1947}
(over Rogers Dry Lake) Edwards,
California, USA3  
[1] Description X-1.jpg English:
Under the X1. Date 17:34, 13 July
2010 (UTC) (21 August 2006(2006-08-21)
(first version); 13 July
2010(2010-07-13) (last
version)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Logan using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : I
(350z33 (talk)) created this work
entirely by myself.) Author
350z33 (talk). Original uploader
was LWF at en.wikipedia. Later
version(s) were uploaded by 350z33 at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/X-1.jpg

[2] Description Chuck
Yeager.jpg en:Chuck Yeager with
en:Bell X-1. Date 2004-02-09
(first version); 2005-04-18 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Hephaestos at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Triddle at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7a/Chuck_Yeager.jpg
53 YBN
[10/16/1947 AD] 7 		5589)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
3. ^ J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, "The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, "The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf}
7. ^ J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} {10/16/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
[2]
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA6  
[1] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen and
H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray Counting
Rate of a Single Geiger Counter from
Ground Level to 161 Kilometers
Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i3/p245_1

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg
53 YBN
[12/20/1947 AD] 9 		5543)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ By Dr. G. D. Rochester & Dr. C.
C. Butler, "Evidence for the existence
of new unstable elementary particles",
Nature 160, I177, 855-857
(1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v160/n4077/index.html http://www.
nature.com/physics/looking-back/rocheste
r/index.html#f1 {Butler_C_C_19471220.pd
f}
2. ^ By Dr. G. D. Rochester & Dr. C. C.
Butler, "Evidence for the existence of
new unstable elementary particles",
Nature 160, I177, 855-857
(1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v160/n4077/index.html http://www.
nature.com/physics/looking-back/rocheste
r/index.html#f1 {Butler_C_C_19471220.pd
f}
3. ^ A.J. Seriff, R.B. Leighton, C.
Hsiao, E.D. Cowan and C.D. Anderson,
"Cloud-Chamber Observations of the New
Unstable Cosmic-Ray Particles", Phys.
Rev., 78 (1950)
290. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
78/i3/p290_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_19500306.
pdf}
4. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
5. ^ "Kaon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaon
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ By Dr. G. D.
Rochester & Dr. C. C. Butler, "Evidence
for the existence of new unstable
elementary particles", Nature 160,
I177, 855-857
(1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v160/n4077/index.html http://www.
nature.com/physics/looking-back/rocheste
r/index.html#f1 {Butler_C_C_19471220.pd
f}
9. ^ By Dr. G. D. Rochester & Dr. C. C.
Butler, "Evidence for the existence of
new unstable elementary particles",
Nature 160, I177, 855-857
(1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v160/n4077/index.html http://www.
nature.com/physics/looking-back/rocheste
r/index.html#f1 {Butler_C_C_19471220.pd
f} {12/20/1947}
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England8  
[1] Figure 1 from: By Dr. G. D.
Rochester & Dr. C. C. Butler,
''Evidence for the existence of new
unstable elementary particles'', Nature
160, 855-857
(1947). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/rochester/index.html#f1 {Bu
tler_C_C_19471220.pdf} Stereoscopic
photographs showing an unusual fork (a
b) in the gas. The direction of the
magnetic field is such that a positive
particle coming downwards is deviated
in an anticlockwise
direction. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/physics/lo
oking-back/rochester/fig1.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 9 		5225) Lipmann had discovered the new
coenzyme in 1945.4 5

While working on the role of phosphate
in cell metabolism, Lipmann discovers
that a heat-stable factor is acting as
a carrier of acetyl (CH3CO–) groups.
It can not be replaced by any other
known cofactor. Lipmann eventually
isolates and identifies what he terms
‘cofactor A’, or CoA (the A stands
for acetylation), showing it to contain
pantothenic acid (vitamin B2). Lipmann
also realizes that the two-carbon
compound in the Krebs cycle that joins
with oxaloacetic acid to form citric
acid is in fact acetyl CoA. The
coenzyme will soon be shown to have
wider application than the Krebs cycle,
when in 1950 Feodor Lynen finds that it
plays a key role in the metabolism of
fats.6

Lipmann shows that coenzyme A contains
vitamin B (panthothenic acid) and is
the reason vitamin B is required by a
body to survive because it is needed
for digestion of molecules in food.7
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
2. ^ "Fritz Albert
Lipmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
3. ^ "Fritz Albert Lipmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
4. ^ Lipmann, F., Federation Proc, 4,
97 (1945); J. Biol. Chem., 160, 173
(1945).
5. ^ Lipmann, March 1, 1947 The
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 167,
869-870.
http://www.jbc.org/content/167/3/869.s
hort
6. ^ "Fritz Albert Lipmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
8. ^ "Fritz Albert
Lipmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
9. ^ "Fritz Albert Lipmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann {1947}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1953".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/
[2] FRITZ LIPMANN, "Role of Phosphate
in Pyruvic Acid Dehydrogenation",
Nature, 144, 381-382 (26 August
1939). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v144/n3643/pdf/144381b0.pdf
[3] Lipmann, Enzymologia, 4, 65 (1937).
[4] F
Lipmann, "Metabollc generatlon and
utlllsatlon of phosphate bond
energy",Advances in Enzymology, 1941.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA8  
[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 19 20 		5241) Gabor leaves Germany for England
with the coming to power of Hitler.16
Th
e Nobel Prize in Physics 1971 is
awarded to Dennis Gabor "for his
invention and development of the
holographic method".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p774-775.
2. ^ Dr. D. Gabor, "A
New Microscopic Principle", Nature 161,
777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p774-775.
4. ^ Dr. D. Gabor, "A
New Microscopic Principle", Nature 161,
777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf}
5. ^ Dr. D. Gabor, "A New Microscopic
Principle", Nature 161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf}
6. ^ "Dennis Gabor." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dennis-gabo
r
7. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Reconstructed Wavefronts
and Communication Theory", JOSA, Vol.
52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf}
8. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Wavefront Reconstruction
with Diffused Illumination and
Three-Dimensional Objects", JOSA, Vol.
54, Issue 11, pp.
1295-1301. http://www.opticsinfobase.or
g/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295 {Lei
th_Emmett_19640612.pdf}
9. ^ Denisyuk, Yu. N., "Photographic
Reconstruction of the Optical
Properties of an Object in Its Own
Scattered Radiation Field", Soviet
Physics Doklady, Vol. 7,
p.543. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
62SPhD....7..543D
10. ^ SA Benton, "Hologram
reconstructions with extended light
sources", Journal of the Optical
Society of America. B, Optical physics
0740-3224. ^ Benton (1969) volume:
59 page: 1545
11. ^ SA Benton, "On a method
for reducing the information content of
holograms", Journal of the Optical
Society of America. B, Optical physics
0740-3224. ^ Benton (1969) volume:
59 page: 1545
12. ^ "hologram." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 03 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hologram
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p774-775.
17. ^ "Dennis Gabor -
Autobiography". Nobelprize.org. 3 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1971/gabor-autobio.html
18. ^ Dr. D. Gabor, "A New Microscopic
Principle", Nature 161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf}
19. ^ Dr. D. Gabor, "A New Microscopic
Principle", Nature 161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf} {05/15/1948}
20. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p774-775. {1947}
(Research Laboratory, British
Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd.) Rugby,
England18  
[1] Figure 1 from: Dr. D. Gabor, ''A
New Microscopic Principle'', Nature
161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v161/n4098/pdf/161777a0.pdf

[2] Dennis Gabor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1971/gabor_p
ostcard.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 8 		5360)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407917/Louis-Eugene-Felix-Neel>. ?
2. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p802-803.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p802-803.
4. ^
"Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407917/Louis-Eugene-Felix-Neel>. ?
5. ^
Michel Prévot et David Dunlop, "LOUIS
NEEL: FORTY YEARS OF
MAGNETISM". http://www.google.com/url?s
a=t&source=web&cd=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQFjAA&
url=http%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.f
r%2Fdocs%2F00%2F05%2F39%2F82%2FPDF%2FNee
l40years_English.pdf&rct=j&q=Propri%C3%A
9t%C3%A9s%20magn%C3%A9tiques%20des%20fer
rites%3B%20ferrimagn%C3%A9tisme%20et%20a
ntiferromagn%C3%A9tisme&ei=X0ViTd6bBYqCs
QOrhvnECA&usg=AFQjCNHZfakgO81y8kWEjYyTjW
RhG6JVBw&cad=rja
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Louis-Eugène-Félix
Néel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 21
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407917/Louis-Eugene-Felix-Neel>.
8. ^ "Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407917/Louis-Eugene-Felix-Neel>. ?
{1947}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1970". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1970/
[2] L. Néel (1948a). Propriétés
magnétiques des ferrites.
Ferrimagnétisme et
antiferromagnétisme. Ann. Phys., 3,
137-198.
[3] L. Néel (1936b). Théorie du
paramagnétisme constant; application
au manganèse. C. R. Acad. Sc., 203,
304-306.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
3155r/f304.image
[4] Néel, Louis, "Some theoretical
aspects of rock-magnetism", Advances in
Physics, vol. 4, Issue 14, 04/01/1955,
p.191-243. http://www.informaworld.com/
smpp/content~content=a739296526~db=all
(University of Grenoble) Grenoble,
France7  
[1] Louis-Eugène-Félix
Néel UNKNOWN
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcQGt2LVIvBJx7sasmw50PKhmzJQBJbsi
OSay82m-BrTDDOaoEh5&t=1
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 11 12 13 		5390)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kuiper, Gerard P., "Planetary
Atmospheres and Their Origin, The
atmospheres of the earth and planets";
papers presented at the Fiftieth
Anniversary Symposium of the Yerkes
Observatory, September, 1947. Edited by
Gerard Peter Kuiper. Chicago Chicago
Press, 1949., p.306
2. ^ P Kuiper Gerard,
"Planetary and satellite atmospheres",
1950 Rep. Prog. Phys. V13 p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/ {Kuip
er_Gerard_1950xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ GP Kuiper, "The Atmospheres of the
Earth and Planets", Chicago University
Press, 1949.
4. ^ "Gerard Peter Kuiper."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324484/Gerard-Peter-Kuiper>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p809.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ P Kuiper Gerard,
"Planetary and satellite atmospheres",
1950 Rep. Prog. Phys. V13 p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/ {Kuip
er_Gerard_1950xxxx.pdf}
10. ^ P Kuiper Gerard, "Planetary and
satellite atmospheres", 1950 Rep. Prog.
Phys. V13 p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/ {Kuip
er_Gerard_1950xxxx.pdf}
11. ^ "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er {1947}
12. ^ P Kuiper Gerard, "Planetary
and satellite atmospheres", 1950 Rep.
Prog. Phys. V13 p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/ {Kuip
er_Gerard_1950xxxx.pdf} {1947}
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809. {1948}

MORE INFO
[1] Kuiper, G. P., "New White
Dwarfs, Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
[2] Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
[3] Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
[4] Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a Satellite
with an Atmosphere.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA10  
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: North Polar region of Mars;
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00161 Original Caption Released
with Image: Mars digital-image mosaic
merged with color of the MC-1
quadrangle, Mare Boreum region of Mars.
The central part is covered by a
residual ice cap that is cut by
spiral-patterned troughs exposing
layered terrain. The cap is surrounded
by broad flat plains and large dune
fields. Latitude range 65 to 90,
longitude range -180 to
180. Composed of Viking-1 Orbiter
images JPL Image Policy Credit
line: "Courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech." All NASA pictures
are free of copyright. PD

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Mars_NPArea-PIA00161_
modest.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 4 		5465)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p825.
2. ^ BADDILEY J, TODD
AR., "Nucleotides; muscle adenylic acid
and adenosine diphosphate.", J Chem
Soc. 1947
May:648-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/20253206
3. ^ "Alexander Robertus Todd, Baron
Todd." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/597909/Alexander-Robertus-Todd-Baron-T
odd-of-Trumpington>.
4. ^ BADDILEY J, TODD AR.,
"Nucleotides; muscle adenylic acid and
adenosine diphosphate.", J Chem Soc.
1947
May:648-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/20253206

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Todd." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-t
odd
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1957". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1957/
[3] Thomas Spence Work, Franz Bergel,
and Alexander Robertus Todd, "The
active principles of Cannabis indica
resin. I", Biochem J. 1939 January;
33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/
[4] A. JACOB & A. R. TODD,
"Cannabidiol and Cannabol, Constituents
of Cannabis indica Resin", Nature 145,
350-350 (02 March
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v145/n3670/abs/145350a0.html
[5] AM Michelson, AR Todd,
"Nucleotides, Part II. A. synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate", J. Chem. Soc.
London, 1949.
[6] AR Todd, "Structure and
synthesis of nucleotides.", Symposia of
the Society for Experimental …, 1947.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 3 		5721)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.disneyshorts.org/years/1947/m
ickeysdelayeddate.html
2. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4EZw7CwYQ
4E
3. ^
http://www.disneyshorts.org/years/1947/m
ickeysdelayeddate.html
 
[1] Image of thought-screen from Disney
1947 short animated movie ''Delayed
Date'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4
EZw7CwYQ4E
52 YBN
[01/15/1948 AD] 12 		5500)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. L. Hodgkin, B. Katz, "The
effect of sodium ions on the electrical
activity of the giant axon of the
squid", The Journal of Physiology, Vol.
108, No. 1. (1 March 1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
3. ^ "Sir Bernard
Katz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 14
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/313400/Sir-Bernard-Katz>.
4. ^ A. L. Hodgkin, B. Katz, "The
effect of sodium ions on the electrical
activity of the giant axon of the
squid", The Journal of Physiology, Vol.
108, No. 1. (1 March 1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}

5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ A. L. Hodgkin,
B. Katz, "The effect of sodium ions on
the electrical activity of the giant
axon of the squid", The Journal of
Physiology, Vol. 108, No. 1. (1 March
1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}

12. ^ A. L. Hodgkin, B. Katz, "The
effect of sodium ions on the electrical
activity of the giant axon of the
squid", The Journal of Physiology, Vol.
108, No. 1. (1 March 1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}
{01/15/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1970".
Nobelprize.org. 15 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1970/
[2] Bernhard Katz, "Neuromuscular
Transmission in Crabs", Journal of
Physiology, 1936,
p199 http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3/
199.full.pdf
[3] Bernhard Katz, "Multiple Response
to Constant Current in Frog's
Medullated Nerve", Journal of
Physiology, 1936, p239
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England11  
[1] Image of apparatus and axon
from: A. L. Hodgkin, B. Katz, ''The
effect of sodium ions on the electrical
activity of the giant axon of the
squid'', The Journal of Physiology,
Vol. 108, No. 1. (1 March 1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full

[2] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg
52 YBN
[02/16/1948 AD] 7 		5391)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
2. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"The Fifth Satellite of Uranus",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K {Kuiper_Gerard_19480
216.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
4. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"The Fifth Satellite of Uranus",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K {Kuiper_Gerard_19480
216.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "The Fifth
Satellite of Uranus", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K {Kuiper_Gerard_19480
216.pdf}
7. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "The Fifth
Satellite of Uranus", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K {Kuiper_Gerard_19480
216.pdf} {02/16/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er
[2] Kuiper, G. P., "New White Dwarfs,
Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
[3] Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
[4] Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
[5] Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a Satellite
with an Atmosphere.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
[6] GP Kuiper, "The Atmospheres of the
Earth and Planets", Chicago University
Press, 1949
[7] Kuiper, Gerard P.,
"Planetary Atmospheres and Their
Origin, The atmospheres of the earth
and planets"; papers presented at the
Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium of the
Yerkes Observatory, September, 1947.
Edited by Gerard Peter Kuiper. Chicago
Chicago Press, 1949., p.306
[8] P Kuiper
Gerard, "Planetary and satellite
atmospheres", 1950 Rep. Prog. Phys. V13
p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/
[9] "Gerard Peter Kuiper."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324484/Gerard-Peter-Kuiper>
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA6  
[1] * From de.wiki (NASA image) *
Primary Source: Keele Astrophysics
Group * NASA Secondary Sources:
PIA 01490 (rotate to the right 90
degrees and enhance details), PIA 00042
and PIA 02217 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Miranda.jpg

[2] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054
52 YBN
[02/18/1948 AD] 6 		5350)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
2. ^ G. Gamow,
"Expanding Universe and the Origin of
Elements", Physical Review, Volume 70,
Issue 7-8, pp.
572-573. http://prola.aps.org/toc/PR/v7
0/i7-8 {Gamow_George_19460913.pdf}
3. ^ George Gamow, "The Origin of
Elements and the Separation of
Galaxies", Phys. Rev. 74, 505–506
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i4/p505_2 {Gamow_George_19480621.
pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ R. A. Alpher, H. Bethe,
G. Gamow, "The Origin of Chemical
Elements", Phys. Rev. 73, 803–804
(1948) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1 {Gamow_George_19480218.p
df}
6. ^ R. A. Alpher, H. Bethe, G. Gamow,
"The Origin of Chemical Elements",
Phys. Rev. 73, 803–804
(1948) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1 {Gamow_George_19480218.p
df} {02/18/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gamow." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gamo
w
[2] "George Gamow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/225123/George-Gamow>
[3] G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
[4] RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON ,
"Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html
[5] "Gamow, George." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 271-273. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901576&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Selection
Rules for the β-Disintegration", Phys.
Rev. 49, 895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1
[7] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Energy
Production in Red Giants", Phys. Rev.
55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1
[8] G. Gamow and G. Keller, "A Shell
Source Model for Red Giant Stars", Rev.
Mod. Phys. 17, 125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA5  
[1] Figure 1 from: R. A. Alpher, H.
Bethe, G. Gamow, ''The Origin of
Chemical Elements'', Phys. Rev. 73,
803–804
(1948) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1 {Gamow_George_19480218.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1

[2] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg
52 YBN
[03/10/1948 AD] 10 		3337)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ T. E. Allibone,
"Development of the Spark Discharge",
Volume 161 Number 4103, (19 June 1948),
p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf}
4. ^ B. F. J. Schonland, "The Pilot
Streamer in Lightning and the Long
Spark", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences,
Vol. 220, No. 1140 (Oct. 22, 1953), pp.
25-38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9926
7 {Schonland_B_F_J_speed_of_lightning_9
9267.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ B. F. J. Schonland, "The
Pilot Streamer in Lightning and the
Long Spark", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences,
Vol. 220, No. 1140 (Oct. 22, 1953), pp.
25-38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9926
7 {Schonland_B_F_J_speed_of_lightning_9
9267.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ T. E. Allibone,
"Development of the Spark Discharge",
Volume 161 Number 4103, (19 June 1948),
p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf}
9. ^ "Aldermaston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldermaston

10. ^ T. E. Allibone, "Development of
the Spark Discharge", Volume 161 Number
4103, (19 June 1948), p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf} {03/10/1948}
(Associated Electrical Industries)
Aldermaston, Berkshire, England8 9
 
[1] Photographic paper (lichtenberg
figure) that records the corona at the
negative high voltage point electrode
(-500kV.) and at the grounded point
electrode; the bright streamers from
both electrodes (negative and positive
leader-strokes) are both
evident. COPYRIGHTED NATURE 1948
source: Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161
970a0.pdf
52 YBN
[03/12/1948 AD] 9 		5538)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Eugene Gardner and C. M. G.
Lattes, "Production of Mesons by the
184-Inch Berkeley Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 107, No. 2776 (Mar.
12, 1948), pp.
270-271. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75815
2. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Eugene Gardner and C. M.
G. Lattes, "Production of Mesons by the
184-Inch Berkeley Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 107, No. 2776 (Mar.
12, 1948), pp.
270-271. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75815
5. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
6. ^ Eugene Gardner and C. M. G.
Lattes, "Production of Mesons by the
184-Inch Berkeley Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 107, No. 2776 (Mar.
12, 1948), pp.
270-271. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75815
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Eugene Gardner and C. M.
G. Lattes, "Production of Mesons by the
184-Inch Berkeley Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 107, No. 2776 (Mar.
12, 1948), pp.
270-271. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75815
9. ^ Eugene Gardner and C. M. G.
Lattes, "Production of Mesons by the
184-Inch Berkeley Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 107, No. 2776 (Mar.
12, 1948), pp.
270-271. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75815 {03/12/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] Eugene Gardner, Walter H.
Barkas, F. M. Smith, Hugh Bradner,
"Mesons Produced by the
Cyclotron", Science, New Series, Vol.
111, No. 2878 (Feb. 24, 1950), pp.
191-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77433?&Search=yes&searchText=meson&searc
hText=neutral&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fact
ion%2FdoBasicResults%3Fla%3D%26wc%3Don%2
6acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26Query%3Dmeson%2Bn
eutral%26sbq%3Dmeson%2Bneutral%26filter%
3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26si%3D1%2
6jtxsi%3D1%26jcpsi%3D1%26artsi%3D1%26so%
3Dold%26Go.x%3D10%26Go.y%3D8%26Go%3DGo%2
6hp%3D25&prevSearch=&item=15&ttl=174&ret
urnArticleService=showFullText
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA8  		 
52 YBN
[04/16/1948 AD] 31 32 		5417) In 1930 Goeppert-Mayer moves to
the USA.28

In 1963, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
divided, one half awarded to Eugene
Paul Wigner "for his contributions to
the theory of the atomic nucleus and
the elementary particles, particularly
through the discovery and application
of fundamental symmetry principles",the
other half jointly to Maria
Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen
"for their discoveries concerning
nuclear shell structure".29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells
in Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser.,
74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf}
2. ^ Maria Goeppert Mayer, "On Closed
Shells in Nuclei. II" Physical Review,
75, p1969–1970
(1949) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v75/i12/p1969_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Maria_
19490204.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p813-814,823.
4. ^ "Johannes
Vilhelm Jensen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-vi
lhelm-jensen
5. ^ "Mayer, Maria Goeppert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 605-611. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905246&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Maria Goeppert-Mayer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maria-goepp
ert-mayer
8. ^ Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells
in Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser.,
74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p813-814,823.
10. ^ Maria Goeppert
Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen,
"Elementary theory of nuclear shell
structure", New York, Wiley, 1955.
11. ^
Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells in
Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser., 74
(1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf}
12. ^ Maria Goeppert Mayer, "On Closed
Shells in Nuclei. II" Physical Review,
75, p1969–1970
(1949) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v75/i12/p1969_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Maria_
19490204.pdf}
13. ^ Otto Haxel, J. Hans D. Jensen,
and Hans E. Suess, "On the "Magic
Numbers" in Nuclear Structure", Phys.
Rev. Volume 75, 1766 - 1766 (1949).
Institutional affiliations: Haxel:
Max-Planck Institut für Physik,
Göttingen; Jensen: Institut für
theoretische Physik, Heidelberg; and
Suess: Inst. für physikalische Chemie,
Hamburg. Received 18 April
1949. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v75/i11/p1766_2 {Jensen_J_Hans_D_194904
18.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p813-814,823.
29. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1963". Nobelprize.org.
28 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1963/
30. ^ Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells
in Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser.,
74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf}
31. ^ Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells
in Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser.,
74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf} {04/16/1948}
32. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p813-814,823.
{1948}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id
=1193&search=Mayer,+Maria+
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois30  
[1] Figure 1 from Maria G. Mayer, ''On
Closed Shells in Nuclei.'', Physical
Review, 2nd ser., 74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v74/i3/p235_1

[2] Description Maria
Goeppert-Mayer.gif English: Maria
Goeppert-Mayer, Nobel laureates in
Physics Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.gif Author
This file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-old PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.
gif
52 YBN
[04/16/1948 AD] 14 		5427)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816-817.
2. ^ "Karl August
Folkers." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212279/Karl-August-Folkers>.
3. ^ Edward L. Rickes, Norman G. Brink,
Frank R. Koniuszy, Thomas R. Wood and
Karl Folkers, "Crystalline Vitamin
B12", Science, New Series, Vol. 107,
No. 2781 (Apr. 16, 1948), pp.
396-397. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75608 {Folkers_Karl_August_19480416.pdf
}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816-817.
5. ^ Edward L.
Rickes, Norman G. Brink, Frank R.
Koniuszy, Thomas R. Wood and Karl
Folkers, "Vitamin B12, a Cobalt
Complex", Science, New Series, Vol.
108, No. 2797 (Aug. 6, 1948), p.
134 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1676961
 {Folkers_Karl_August_19480806.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p816-817.
9. ^ "pernicious
anemia." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pernicious-
anemia
10. ^
http://www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=807
11. ^
http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/ever
yvegan
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Edward L. Rickes,
Norman G. Brink, Frank R. Koniuszy,
Thomas R. Wood and Karl Folkers,
"Crystalline Vitamin B12", Science, New
Series, Vol. 107, No. 2781 (Apr. 16,
1948), pp.
396-397. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75608 {Folkers_Karl_August_19480416.pdf
}
14. ^ Edward L. Rickes, Norman G.
Brink, Frank R. Koniuszy, Thomas R.
Wood and Karl Folkers, "Crystalline
Vitamin B12", Science, New Series, Vol.
107, No. 2781 (Apr. 16, 1948), pp.
396-397. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75608 {Folkers_Karl_August_19480416.pdf
} {04/16/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] Stanton A. Harris and Karl
Folkers, "Synthetic Vitamin B6",
Science, New Series, Vol. 89, No. 2311
(Apr. 14, 1939), p.
347. http://www.jstor.org/stable/166402
8
[2] Frederick A. Kuehl, Robert L. Peck,
Alphonse Walti and Karl Folkers,
"Streptomyces Antibiotics. I.
Crystalline Salts of Streptomycin and
Streptothricin", Science, New Series,
Vol. 102, No. 2637 (Jul. 13, 1945), pp.
34-35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1672
135
(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA13  
[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG
52 YBN
[06/17/1948 AD] 36 37 		5295) Brattain works on the magnetic
detection of submarines.19 (more
detail. How can submarines be detected
magnetically? Would that not require a
massive magnet?20 )
Brattain, Bardeen and
Shockley are all employees of Bell
Laboratories (and so must be fully
aware of and receivers of neuron
reading and writing direct-to-brain
windows.21 ).22

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956 was
awarded jointly to William Bradford
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter
Houser Brattain "for their researches
on semiconductors and their discovery
of the transistor effect".23

Bardeen will win a portion of a second
Nobel prize in 1972 with Leon Cooper
and J. Robert Schrieffer for developing
the theory of superconductivity
(1957).24

In the 1970s Shockley implies that
genetic factors in intelligence are the
reason for the innate mental
inferiority of black people, which is
greeted by a storm of disapproval by
many people.25 26 27 28 Shockley
writes in an article "Race and
Heredity": "...If my recommended
research on such students confirms my
estimate of one I.Q. point increase for
each 1 percent increase of Caucasian
ancestry, we must dismally predict that
elimination of prejudice will not
remedy the tragic disadvantages of our
black minority and must search for
other solutions. ...".29 Shockley
writes in "Race and Heredity":
"...Within the last month or so, the
Idaho Legislature passed a
sterilization law for mental defectives
who, after being sterilized, would then
be permitted to leave institutions and
return to public life. Obviously, the
representatives of the
American public are
prepared to take action. I doubt if the
public feels that any
individual has a
right to produce children if the
probability is high that a child will
never
be self-supporting. Although passed by
40 votes to 2 in the Idaho House,
this law
passed by only 18 to 16 in the Senate
and was vetoed by the Governor.
I conjecture that
lack of knowledge of probably
well-established facts on inheritance
of mental
retardation has lead to an unwise
outcome. ...".30 (This is exactly what
the Nazis believed and carried through.
Think of how easy it is to label a
human a "mental defective" - in
particular with all the psychological
labels in use today and the ease of
locking lawful people into psychiatric
hospitals for 72 hour observation and
unconsensual treatments of druggings
and restraints. Notice "outcome" in
near-perfect elitist neuron-speak. Note
the emphasis that the post-steralized
people get to go free - apparently this
time, at least initially, they won't be
euthanized. Perhaps AT&T and Stanford
were not aware of these thoughts and
views of Shockley when they hired and
maintained him for years, but then as
outsiders, unlike insiders, we have no
idea who shares similar views around
us.31 )

In 1980 Shockley contributes some of
his 72 year old sperm cells for the
purpose of freezing them for eventual
use in the insemination of women of
high intelligence.32

(The transistor must have been invented
in the 1800s if not 1700s, for neuron
reading and writing to be invented in
1810. The transistor clearly helped in
the telephone company's efforts to put
at least one microphone and camera (and
of course, telephone line) in every
house. The transistor may have lowered
the size of perhaps the microphone, the
photon capturing devices, the light
particle transmitters and receivers.
Clearly some even smaller technology
was invented that has not been made
public. The main aspect of the
camera-thought net is storage in my
opinion. Because this is tremendous
amounts of data. And for that magnetic
tape was the major product for decades.
What replaced magnetic tape was
probably CDs and DVDs, but even now
magnetic plastic tape is still used.
Perhaps something like flash drives
with no mechanical moving parts are
ultimately the smallest and fastest
storage. The mystery of where the
cameras, microphones, infrared thought
seeing and sending devices are is a
great mystery, and their size too. It
seems likely that these devices are
dust-sized or smaller, many probably
hover and fly, and are completely
wireless, but many are probably
stationary too. Perhaps ultimately they
write there data to the phone wires to
send images and audio data back to the
phone company buildings, but probably
many millions of invisible light
particle streams are the main method of
information movement. Outside of this,
very very little is known by those of
us in the excluded. These devices are
clearly powered by photons and need no
wires. But it seems likely that the
telephone wire is used or was used in
the past. It may be that tiny devices
are necessary to enter into the human
body to precisely pinpoint neurons, but
clearly simply flying micrometer sized
cameras and microphones can provide a
lot of valuable information and could
fly or even drift into and out of
buildings without being detected.
Probably much of this technology of
sending and receiving devices and
information into and from people's
houses with cameras, microphone,
thought seeing and sending was
developed at Bell Labs. These devices
can be used to trigger sadness,
happiness, crying, laughing, beam
images, sounds, smells, feelings (touch
sensation and heat and pain
sensations), muscle movement, directly
and have evolved to an amazing
complexity and all secretly without the
public ever knowing. 33 )
(As an relevent
aside, the touch, heat and pain neurons
and associated sensations all evolved
and contributed to an organism's chance
of survival.34 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain,
"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor
Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
2. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^ "Walter Houser Brattain." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-hous
er-brattain
4. ^ "John Bardeen." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 13 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bardee
n
5. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain,
"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor
Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
6. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
7. ^ Record ID5292. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. Bardeen
and W. H. Brattain, "The Transistor, A
Semi-Conductor Triode", Phys. Rev. 74,
230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
9. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
10. ^ W. Shockley, J. Bardeen, W. H.
Brattain, "The Electronic Theory of the
Transistor" ,The National Academy of
Sciences: Abstracts of Papers Presented
at 1948 Autumn Meeting, Berkeley,
California, Science, New Series, Vol.
108, No. 2816 (Dec. 17, 1948), pp.
676-683
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1677418 {
Shockley_William_19481217.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786-787, 827,
831-832.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786-787, 827,
831-832.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p786-787, 827,
831-832.
23. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1956". Nobelprize.org. 13 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1956/
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786-787, 827,
831-832.
25. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786-787, 827,
831-832.
26. ^ W. Shockley, "A "try simplest
cases" approach to the
heredity-poverty-crime problem.", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1967 June; 57(6):
1767–1774.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC224545/ {Shockley_William_1967042
6.pdf}
27. ^ W. Shockley, "Race and Heredity",
Science News, Vol. 99, No. 23 (Jun. 5,
1971), p.
380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/395596
0?&Search=yes&searchText=shockley&list=h
ide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoAdvancedSear
ch%3Fq0%3Dshockley%26f0%3Dau%26c1%3DAND%
26q1%3D%26f1%3Dall%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don%
26Search%3DSearch%26sd%3D%26ed%3D%26la%3
D%26jo%3Dscience&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=
5&returnArticleService=showFullText
28. ^ Shockley, William B., "Negro IQ
and Heredity." SCHOOL AND SOCIETY,
1968, 96:127-128.
{Shockley_William_19680302.pdf}
29. ^ W. Shockley, "Race and Heredity",
Science News, Vol. 99, No. 23 (Jun. 5,
1971), p.
380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/395596
0?&Search=yes&searchText=shockley&list=h
ide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoAdvancedSear
ch%3Fq0%3Dshockley%26f0%3Dau%26c1%3DAND%
26q1%3D%26f1%3Dall%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don%
26Search%3DSearch%26sd%3D%26ed%3D%26la%3
D%26jo%3Dscience&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=
5&returnArticleService=showFullText
30. ^ W. Shockley, "Race and Heredity",
Science News, Vol. 99, No. 23 (Jun. 5,
1971), p.
380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/395596
0?&Search=yes&searchText=shockley&list=h
ide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoAdvancedSear
ch%3Fq0%3Dshockley%26f0%3Dau%26c1%3DAND%
26q1%3D%26f1%3Dall%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don%
26Search%3DSearch%26sd%3D%26ed%3D%26la%3
D%26jo%3Dscience&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=
5&returnArticleService=showFullText
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786-787, 827,
831-832.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ J. Bardeen
and W. H. Brattain, "The Transistor, A
Semi-Conductor Triode", Phys. Rev. 74,
230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
36. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {06/17/1948}
37. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H.
Brattain, "The Transistor, A
Semi-Conductor Triode", Phys. Rev. 74,
230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf} {06/25/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Shockley." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sho
ckley
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA35  
[1] Figures from: John Bardeen, Walter
H. Brattain, ''Three-Electrode Circuit
Element Utilizing Semiconductive
Materials'', Patent number: 2524035,
Filing date: Jun 17, 1948, Issue date:
Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
Brattain.jpg English: Walter H.
Brattain Date 1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/brattain-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Brattain.jpg
52 YBN
[06/18/1948 AD] 12 		5440)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819-820.
3. ^ "Peter
Goldmark." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
4. ^ Peter C. Goldmark, "PHONOGRAPH
ADAPTOR FOR LONG PLAYING RECORDS",
Patent number: 2610258, Filing date:
Mar 3, 1949, Issue date: Sep 9,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
kvFeAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^ James Trager, "The New York
Chronology: The Ultimate Compendium of
Events, People, and Anecdotes from the
Dutch to the Present", 2004,
p567. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xvGhQoNT27IC&pg=PA567&lpg=PA567&dq=goldm
ark+long-playing+demonstrated&source=bl&
ots=sV-cXPz7QS&sig=hDlCQF3-8fLIwHYRGYwFd
GFMqn8&hl=en&ei=g3ZwTcvjIY2asAOlm6XaCw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ve
d=0CDYQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=goldmark%20l
ong-playing%20demonstrated&f=false
6. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Peter C. Goldmark,
"PHONOGRAPH ADAPTOR FOR LONG PLAYING
RECORDS", Patent number: 2610258,
Filing date: Mar 3, 1949, Issue date:
Sep 9,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
kvFeAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Peter
Goldmark." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
12. ^ James Trager, "The New York
Chronology: The Ultimate Compendium of
Events, People, and Anecdotes from the
Dutch to the Present", 2004,
p567. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xvGhQoNT27IC&pg=PA567&lpg=PA567&dq=goldm
ark+long-playing+demonstrated&source=bl&
ots=sV-cXPz7QS&sig=hDlCQF3-8fLIwHYRGYwFd
GFMqn8&hl=en&ei=g3ZwTcvjIY2asAOlm6XaCw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ve
d=0CDYQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=goldmark%20l
ong-playing%20demonstrated&f=false
{06/18/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter C. Goldmark,
"Television", Patent number: 2329194,
Filing date: Jan 9, 1941, Issue date:
Sep 14,
1943 http://www.google.com/patents?id=9
dZuAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[2] Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2435962,
Filing date: Nov 20, 1940, Issue date:
Feb 17,
1948. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
D6lLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[3] Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2304081,
Filing date: Sep 7, 1940, Issue date:
Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] "Peter Carl Goldmark."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/237886/Peter-Carl-Goldmark>
(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA11  
[1] Description Vinyl record LP
10inch.JPG 10インチのLPレコー
。キングレコード（日本）
テレフンケンレーベル。セン
ター付近の白い線は書き込み
はなく、ラベルのキズがス
ロボで反射している。 Date
6/16 Source Own work
(本人撮影) Author
能無しさん Permission (Reusi
ng this file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Vinyl_record_LP_10inc
h.JPG

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg
52 YBN
[07/13/1948 AD] 14 		5704) Born in Vienna, Gold became a
refugee from the Austrian Anschluss
(the political union of Nazi Germany
and Austria in 193811 ).12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bondi, H. & Gold, "The
Steady-State Theory of the Expanding
Universe", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 108,
p.252. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/MNRAS/0108/0000252.000.html

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871-873.
3. ^ "Thomas Gold."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/237310/Thomas-Gold>.
4. ^ "Sir Hermann Bondi." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/72849/Sir-Hermann-Bondi>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871-873.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.871-873.
7. ^ Record
ID4195. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Anschluss." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anschluss
12. ^ "Thomas Gold." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-gold

13. ^ Bondi, H. & Gold, "The
Steady-State Theory of the Expanding
Universe", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 108,
p.252. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/MNRAS/0108/0000252.000.html

14. ^ Bondi, H. & Gold, "The
Steady-State Theory of the Expanding
Universe", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 108,
p.252. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/MNRAS/0108/0000252.000.html
 {07/13/1948}
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England13  
[1] Professor Sir Hermann Bondi when he
was younger. The Steady State Theory of
the Universe was originated by Fred,
Sir Hermann, and Professor Thomas Gold.
Unfortunately, Tommy Gold was unable to
join us at the conference. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robert-temple.com/ima
ges/general/fredHoyleConference/profSirH
ermannBondiYoung.jpg

[2] THOMAS GOLD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aro.org/announcements
/TGold_1963_-for_ARO.gif
52 YBN
[07/29/1948 AD] 16 		5400) In 1965, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Sin-Itiro
Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard
P. Feynman "for their fundamental work
in quantum electrodynamics, with
deep-ploughing consequences for the
physics of elementary particles".13

(I have a lot of doubts about this
"QED" work, in particular am calling
for all thought-screen and relevent eye
images to be released to the public to
determine what the neuron insider story
was.14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Julian Schwinger, "Quantum
Electrodynamics. I. A Covariant
Formulation", Phys. Rev. 74, 1439
(1948)
. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/
i10/p1439_1
{Schwinger_Julian_19480729.pdf}
2. ^ R. P. Feynman, "Space-Time
Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics",
Phys. Rev. 76, 769 (1949)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i
6/p769_1 {Feynman_Richard_19490509.pdf}

3. ^ Tomonaga, Bull. I. P. C. R.
(Riken-iho), 22, 1943,
p545. English: S. Tomonaga, "On a
Relativistically Invariant Formulation
of the Quantum Theory of Wave Fields",
Physics Department, Tokyo Bunrika
University, Prog. Theor. Phys. Vol. 1
No. 2 (1946) pp.
27-42. {Tomonaga_Shinichiro_1943xxxx.pd
f}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p810-811,866,867.
5. ^ "Richard
Feynman." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-fey
nman
6. ^ "Julian Seymour Schwinger."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528714/Julian-Seymour-Schwinger>.
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p505-506.
8. ^ Record ID5399. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Richard P.
Feynman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 26
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/205700/Richard-P-Feynman>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1965". Nobelprize.org. 27 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1965/
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Julian Schwinger,
"Quantum Electrodynamics. I. A
Covariant Formulation", Phys. Rev. 74,
1439 (1948)
. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/
i10/p1439_1
{Schwinger_Julian_19480729.pdf}
16. ^ Julian Schwinger, "Quantum
Electrodynamics. I. A Covariant
Formulation", Phys. Rev. 74, 1439
(1948)
. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/
i10/p1439_1
{Schwinger_Julian_19480729.pdf}
{07/29/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tomonaga Shin’ichirō."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/599000/Tomonaga-Shinichiro>.
[2] "Julian Schwinger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julian-schw
inger
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA15  
[1] Description Tomonaga.jpg English:
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga Date
1965(1965) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1965/tomonaga-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Tomonaga.jpg

[2] Description Feynman at Los
Alamos.jpg Richard Feynman (center)
and Robert Oppenheimer (to viewer's
right of Feynman) at Los Alamos
National Laboratory during the
Manhattan Project. Original source from
http://www.lanl.gov/worldview/welcome/hi
story/12_oppie-arrives.html Date
2010-12-02 07:59 (UTC) Source
*
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g Author *
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g: unknown * derivative work:
Materialscientist (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Feynman_at_Los_Alamos
.jpg
52 YBN
[08/03/1948 AD] 7 		5647)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hoyle, F., "A New Model for the
Expanding Universe", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
108,
p.372. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
948MNRAS.108..372H
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p855.
3. ^ "Fred Hoyle." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fred-hoyle
4. ^ Hoyle, F., "A New Model for the
Expanding Universe", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
108,
p.372. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
948MNRAS.108..372H
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Hoyle, F., "A New Model
for the Expanding Universe", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 108,
p.372. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
948MNRAS.108..372H
7. ^ Hoyle, F., "A New Model for the
Expanding Universe", Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
108,
p.372. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
948MNRAS.108..372H {08/03/1948}
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England6  
[1] Fred Hoyle UNKNOWN
source: http://hoylehistory.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/2008/06/hoyle_fred.jpg
52 YBN
[09/27/1948 AD] 7 		5644) In 1961, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided equally between
Robert Hofstadter "for his pioneering
studies of electron scattering in
atomic nuclei and for his thereby
achieved discoveries concerning the
structure of the nucleons" and Rudolf
Ludwig Mössbauer "for his researches
concerning the resonance absorption of
gamma radiation and his discovery in
this connection of the effect which
bears his name".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Hofstadter, "The Detection
of Gamma-Rays with Thallium-Activated
Sodium Iodide Crystals", Phys. Rev.
75, 796–810
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v75/i5/p796_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_1948
0927.pdf}
2. ^ "Robert Hofstadter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-hofs
tadter
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p853-854.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physics 1961".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1961/
6. ^ Robert Hofstadter, "The Detection
of Gamma-Rays with Thallium-Activated
Sodium Iodide Crystals", Phys. Rev.
75, 796–810
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v75/i5/p796_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_1948
0927.pdf}
7. ^ Robert Hofstadter, "The Detection
of Gamma-Rays with Thallium-Activated
Sodium Iodide Crystals", Phys. Rev.
75, 796–810
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v75/i5/p796_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_1948
0927.pdf} {09/27/1948}
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA6  
[1] Description Robert
Hofstadter.jpg English: Robert
Hofstadter Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/hofstadter-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Robert_Hofstadter.jpg

52 YBN
[09/27/1948 AD] 27 		5645)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Hofstadter, Robert Herman,
"Electric and Magnetic Structure of the
Proton and Neutron", Phys. Rev. Lett.
6, 293–296
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i6/p293_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_196102
15.pdf}
2. ^ "Robert Hofstadter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-hofs
tadter
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p853-854.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p853-854.
5. ^ Robert
Hofstadter, Robert Herman, "Electric
and Magnetic Structure of the Proton
and Neutron", Phys. Rev. Lett. 6,
293–296
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i6/p293_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_196102
15.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Robert Hofstadter,
Robert Herman, "Electric and Magnetic
Structure of the Proton and Neutron",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 293–296
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i6/p293_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_196102
15.pdf}
27. ^ Robert Hofstadter, Robert Herman,
"Electric and Magnetic Structure of the
Proton and Neutron", Phys. Rev. Lett.
6, 293–296
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i6/p293_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_196102
15.pdf} {02/15/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1961". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1961/
[2] Robert Hofstadter, "The Detection
of Gamma-Rays with Thallium-Activated
Sodium Iodide Crystals", Phys. Rev.
75, 796–810
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v75/i5/p796_1
[3] Robert Hofstadter, "Electron
Scattering and Nuclear Structure",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 28, 214–254
(1956). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v28/i3/p214_1
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA26  
[1] Figure 1 from: Robert Hofstadter,
Robert Herman, ''Electric and Magnetic
Structure of the Proton and Neutron'',
Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 293–296
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i6/p293_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_196102
15.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v6/i6/p293_1

[2] Description Robert
Hofstadter.jpg English: Robert
Hofstadter Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/hofstadter-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Robert_Hofstadter.jpg

52 YBN
[10/02/1948 AD] 8 9 		5326) Leakey is the son of a Christian
missionary person, born and raised in
Kenya, then one of Britain's colonies.4


"Consul" is the name of a popular chimp
in the London zoo at this time.5

(From the work of the Leakeys is much
of the evidence that humans originated
in East Africa.)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ LSB Leakey, "Skull of Proconsul
from Rusinga Island", Nature 162,
688-688 (30 October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
{Leakey_Louis_19381030.pdf}
2. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
3. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
4. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
5. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
6. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
7. ^ LSB Leakey, "Skull of Proconsul
from Rusinga Island", Nature 162,
688-688 (30 October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
{Leakey_Louis_19381030.pdf}
8. ^ LSB Leakey, "Skull of Proconsul
from Rusinga Island", Nature 162,
688-688 (30 October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
{Leakey_Louis_19381030.pdf} {10/02/19
48}
9. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>. {1948}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794
Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya,
Africa6 7  
[1] Figure 1 from: LSB Leakey, ''Skull
of Proconsul from Rusinga Island'',
Nature 162, 688-688 (30 October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
{Leakey_Louis_19381030.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf

[2] Louis Leakey UNKNOWN
source: http://iconicphotos.files.wordpr
ess.com/2009/05/mkafm271.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 6 		4526) The 200-inch reflecting telescope
on Palomar Mountain is completed.1

In 1929 George Ellery Hale (CE
1868-1938), US astronomer2 had
received a grant from the Rockefeller
foundation to build the Palomar
telescope, a 200-inch reflector, named
"the Hale telescope". The Mount Palomar
observatory also has a 48-inch camera
of the kind invented by Schmidt. Hale
does not live to see the telescope
completed in 1948 after 15 years of
work, which WW 2 adds delays to. The
Soviet Union will build a 600
centimeter (236 inch) reflecting
telescope which is larger.3

(Really amazing that so many major
telescopes were all built by the
influence of Hale with the wealthy
business people funding.4 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p622-623.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Hale, George Ellery." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 26-34. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 13 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901819&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p622-623. {1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hale, George Ellery."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 13 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
862>.
[2] "George Ellery Hale." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[3] "George Ellery Hale." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-elle
ry-hale
[4] "George Ellery Hale". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elle
ry_Hale
[5] George E. Hale, "Photography of the
Solar Prominences", Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology. http://dspace.mit.edu/handl
e/1721.1/43574 condensed
version: Hale, G. E., "Note on Solar
Prominence Photography", Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 126,
p.81 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/189
0AN....126...81H
[6] George Ellery Hale, "The new
heavens", 1922
http://books.google.com/books?id=bx0SA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22The+Ne
w+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrCsAP1xL
jaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19395/19
395-h/19395-h.htm
[7] Hale, G. E. "SOLAR VORTICES
(Contributions from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory, No. 26)",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 28, p.100,
09/1908. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1908ApJ.
...28..100H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pap
er=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[8] George E. Hale, "A Test of the
Electromagnetic Theory of the Hydrogen
Vortices Surrounding Sun-Spots",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 11, No. 11.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/84605?seq=5
(Palomar Observatory) Palomar Mountain,
California, USA5  
[1] Description Palomar arp
600pix.jpg English: The 200 inch
telescope on Mount Palomar. CREDIT:
NASA SOURCE:
http://lifesci3.arc.nasa.gov/SpaceSettle
ment/scenarios/images.jpg COPYRIGHT:
“NASA images generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages.” PREPARED BY Adrian Pingstone
in December 2003. Polski: 508cm
teleskop w Obserwatorium na Mount
Palomar. ORYGINALNY OPIS: CREDIT:
NASA SOURCE:
http://lifesci3.arc.nasa.gov/SpaceSettle
ment/scenarios/images.jpg COPYRIGHT:
“NASA images generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages.” PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Palomar_arp_600pix.jp
g

[2] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 6 		4774) Duggar enters the University of
Alabama at age 14.3
Duggar discovers
aureomycin at age 76.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p643.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p643.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p643.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p643.
5. ^
http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-h
istories/American-Cyanamid-Company-Histo
ry.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p643. {1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "Duggar, Benjamin Minge."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 219-221. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901247&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Benjamin Duggar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Du
ggar
(American Cyanamid Company) Ontario,
Canada5 (presumably) 
[1] Standard Rights Managed
(RM) U1093472INP Dr. Benjamin Duggar
Looking at Petri Dish Original
caption: 7/29/1948-Pearl River, NY- A
new drug, which promises to conquer
diseases that cannot be treated with
penicillin or streptomycin, has been
made fr... IMAGE: ©
Bettmann/CORBIS DATE
PHOTOGRAPHED July 29,
1948 LOCATION Pearl River, New York,
USA COLLECTION Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corbisimages.com/imag
es/67/B0818B11-78D1-4798-B734-E63AC84F2D
8F/U1093472INP.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 4 		5015)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>.
2. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>.
3. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>.
4. ^ "Edward Calvin Kendall."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314706/Edward-Calvin-Kendall>. {1948}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p704-705.
(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA3  
[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 10 		5159) The 1950 Nobel Prize in medicine
and physiology is awarded jointly to
Edward Calvin Kendall, Tadeus
Reichstein and Philip Showalter Hench
"for their discoveries relating to the
hormones of the adrenal cortex, their
structure and biological effects".9
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p751.
2. ^ Philip Hench,
"The effect of a hormone of the adrenal
cortex
(17-hydroxy-11-dehydrocorticosterone;
compound E) and of pituitary
adrenocorticotropic hormone on
rheumatoid arthritis.", Mayo Clinic
proceedings, (1949) volume: 24 issue:
8 page: 181 -97
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p751.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1950".
Nobelprize.org. 22 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1950/
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p751. {1948}
 
[1] Philip Showalter Hench from Nobel
prize COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/hench.jpg

[2] Description Philip Showalter
Hench (February 28, 1896 – March 30,
1965), American physician Source
http://yellowfever.lib.virginia.edu/r
eed/images/01-P92030b.jpg Article
Philip Showalter Hench Portion
used Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a9/Philip_Showalter_Hench.jpg

52 YBN
[1948 AD] 9 		5168)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862.
2. ^ EVANS, C. A., and CHAMBERS, V. C.,
"", Proceedings of the Society for
Experimental Biology and Medicine,
1948, 68, 436.
3. ^ WELLER TH, ENDERS JF.,
"Production of hemagglutinin by mumps
and influenza A viruses in suspended
cell tissue cultures.", Proc Soc Exp
Biol Med. 1948 Oct;69(1):124-8.
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1954".
Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862.
6. ^ WELLER TH, ENDERS JF., "Production
of hemagglutinin by mumps and influenza
A viruses in suspended cell tissue
cultures.", Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1948
Oct;69(1):124-8.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862. {1948}
(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA8  
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 4 		6273)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p91.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p91.
3. ^ De Mestral, "Separable
Fastening Device", Patent number:
3009235, Filing date: May 9, 1958,
Issue date: Nov 21,
1961 http://www.google.com/patents?id=m
vJkAAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p91.
{1948}
Nyon, Switzerland3  
[1] Figure from: De Mestral,
''Separable Fastening Device'', Patent
number: 3009235, Filing date: May 9,
1958, Issue date: Nov 21,
1961 http://www.google.com/patents?id=m
vJkAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mvJkAAAAEBAJ

[2] Description English: Velcro
hooks. Deutsch: Klettband
(Haken). Date 7 March
2010 Source Own work Author
Alexander Klink CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Velcro_Hooks.jp
g/1280px-Velcro_Hooks.jpg
51 YBN
[01/28/1949 AD] 9 10 		5169) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1954 is awarded jointly to
John Franklin Enders, Thomas Huckle
Weller and Frederick Chapman Robbins
"for their discovery of the ability of
poliomyelitis viruses to grow in
cultures of various types of tissue".6


(verify original paper, read relevent
parts7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862.
2. ^ WELLER TH, ROBBINS FC, ENDERS JF.,
"Cultivation of poliomyelitis virus in
cultures of human foreskin and
embryonic tissues.", Proc Soc Exp Biol
Med. 1949
Oct;72(1):153-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/15391699
3. ^ John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller,
and Frederick C. Robbins, "Cultivation
of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis
Virus in Cultures of Various Human
Embryonic Tissues", Science 28 January
1949: 85-87.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/109/
2822/85.full.pdf
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1676381
{Enders_John_19490128.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862.
5. ^ John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller,
and Frederick C. Robbins, "Cultivation
of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis
Virus in Cultures of Various Human
Embryonic Tissues", Science 28 January
1949: 85-87.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/109/
2822/85.full.pdf
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1676381
{Enders_John_19490128.pdf}
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1954". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders
9. ^ John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller,
and Frederick C. Robbins, "Cultivation
of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis
Virus in Cultures of Various Human
Embryonic Tissues", Science 28 January
1949: 85-87.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/109/
2822/85.full.pdf
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1676381
{Enders_John_19490128.pdf}
{01/28/1949}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862. {1949}

MORE INFO
[1] WELLER TH, ENDERS JF.,
"Production of hemagglutinin by mumps
and influenza A viruses in suspended
cell tissue cultures.", Proc Soc Exp
Biol Med. 1948 Oct;69(1):124-8.
(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA8  
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
51 YBN
[02/02/1949 AD] 3 		5494)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Irving M. London,David
Shemin,Randolph West,and D. Rittenberg,
"HEME SYNTHESIS AND RED BLOOD CELL
DYNAMICS IN NORMAL HUMANS AND IN
SUBJECTS WITH POLYCYTHEMIA VERA,
SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA, AND PERNICIOUS
ANEMIA", J. Biol. Chem. 1949 179:
463-484.
http://www.jbc.org/content/179/1/463.f
ull.pdf+html
2. ^ Irving M. London,David
Shemin,Randolph West,and D. Rittenberg,
"HEME SYNTHESIS AND RED BLOOD CELL
DYNAMICS IN NORMAL HUMANS AND IN
SUBJECTS WITH POLYCYTHEMIA VERA,
SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA, AND PERNICIOUS
ANEMIA", J. Biol. Chem. 1949 179:
463-484.
http://www.jbc.org/content/179/1/463.f
ull.pdf+html
3. ^ Irving M. London,David
Shemin,Randolph West,and D. Rittenberg,
"HEME SYNTHESIS AND RED BLOOD CELL
DYNAMICS IN NORMAL HUMANS AND IN
SUBJECTS WITH POLYCYTHEMIA VERA,
SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA, AND PERNICIOUS
ANEMIA", J. Biol. Chem. 1949 179:
463-484.
http://www.jbc.org/content/179/1/463.f
ull.pdf+html {02/02/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
[2] Nicole Kresge,
Robert D. Simoni and Robert L. Hill, "A
Pathway for Heme Biosynthesis: the Work
of David Shemin", August 25, 2006 The
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 281,
e28. http://www.jbc.org/content/281/34/
e28.full
[3] Shemin, D., and Rittenberg, D. "THE
UTILIZATION OF GLYCINE FOR THE
SYNTHESIS OF A PORPHYRIN ", (1945) J.
Biol. Chem. 159, 567–568.
http://www.jbc.org/content/159/2/567.f
ull.pdf+html
[4] Shemin, D., London, I. M., and
Rittenberg, D. "THE SYNTHESIS OF
PROTOPORPHYRIN IN VITRO BY RED BLOOD
CELLS OF THE DUCK ", (1950) J. Biol.
Chem. 183, 757–765.
http://www.jbc.org/content/183/2/757.f
ull.pdf+html
[5] Radin, N. S., Rittenberg, D., and
Shemin, D. "THE RÔLE OF ACETIC ACID IN
THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEME", (1950) J.
Biol. Chem. 184,
755–767. http://www.jbc.org/content/1
84/2/755.full.pdf+html
[6] "hemoglobin." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 14 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hemoglobin
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] David Shemin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/281/3
4/e28/F1.large.jpg
51 YBN
[03/??/1949 AD] 7 		5375)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul Kirkpatrick, "The X-Ray
Microscope", Scientific American, March
1949, Volume 180 No 3,pp44 - 47,
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0349-44 h
ttp://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/
journal/v180/n3/index.html
2. ^
http://news.stanford.edu/pr/92/921228Arc
2007.html
3. ^ Paul Kirkpatrick, "The X-Ray
Microscope", Scientific American, March
1949, Volume 180 No 3,pp44 - 47,
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0349-44 h
ttp://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/
journal/v180/n3/index.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ G. Shearer, "The X-ray
Microscope", British Journal of
Radiology, (1936), 9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
{Shearer_Gary_19350516.pdf}
6. ^
http://www.aip.org/history/acap/biograph
ies/bio.jsp?kirkpatrickp
7. ^ Paul Kirkpatrick, "The X-Ray
Microscope", Scientific American, March
1949, Volume 180 No 3,pp44 - 47,
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0349-44 h
ttp://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/
journal/v180/n3/index.html {03/1949}
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA6  
[1] Paul Kirkpatrick Photo Credit: AIP
Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, Physics
Today Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/kirkpatrickp.jpg
51 YBN
[04/??/1949 AD] 12 		5135)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
2. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-szen
t-gy-rgyi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p741-742.
5. ^ A.
Szent-Györgyi, "Free-Energy Relations
and Contraction of Actomyosin",
Biological Bulletin, Vol. 96, No. 2
(Apr., 1949), pp. 140-161.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1538196 {Sz
ent-Gyorgyi_194904xx.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Allchin, Douglas.
"Szent-Györgyi, Albert Imre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 567-573. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 18 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906127&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Albert
Szent-Györgyi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-szen
t-gy-rgyi
11. ^ A. Szent-Györgyi, "Free-Energy
Relations and Contraction of
Actomyosin", Biological Bulletin, Vol.
96, No. 2 (Apr., 1949), pp. 140-161.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1538196 {Sz
ent-Gyorgyi_194904xx.pdf}
12. ^ A. Szent-Györgyi, "Free-Energy
Relations and Contraction of
Actomyosin", Biological Bulletin, Vol.
96, No. 2 (Apr., 1949), pp. 140-161.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1538196 {Sz
ent-Gyorgyi_194904xx.pdf} {04/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] Albert Szent-Györgyi,
"Chemistry of muscular contraction",
Academic Press, 1947, 1951.
[2] "Albert
Szent-Györgyi, Mechanism of
Respiration", Nature 135, 305-305 (23
February 1935)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
135/n3408/abs/135305b0.html
[3] Albert Szent-Györgyi, "Vitamin P:
Flavonols as Vitamins", Nature 138,
27-27 (04 July 1936).
(Muscle Research at the Marine
Biological Station) Woods Hole,
Massachusetts. USA10 11  
[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg
51 YBN
[05/01/1949 AD] 9 		5392)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
2. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"The Second Satellite of Neptune",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
361,
p.175. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/s
eri/PASP./0061/0000175.000.html {Kuiper
_Gerard_19490501.pdf}
3. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "The Second
Satellite of Neptune", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.175. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/s
eri/PASP./0061/0000175.000.html {Kuiper
_Gerard_19490501.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
5. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"The Second Satellite of Neptune",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
361,
p.175. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/s
eri/PASP./0061/0000175.000.html {Kuiper
_Gerard_19490501.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"The Fifth Satellite of Uranus",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K {Kuiper_Gerard_19480
216.pdf}
9. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "The Second
Satellite of Neptune", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.175. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/s
eri/PASP./0061/0000175.000.html {Kuiper
_Gerard_19490501.pdf} {05/01/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er
[2] Kuiper, G. P., "New White Dwarfs,
Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
[3] Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
[4] Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
[5] Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a Satellite
with an Atmosphere.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
[6] GP Kuiper, "The Atmospheres of the
Earth and Planets", Chicago University
Press, 1949
[7] Kuiper, Gerard P.,
"Planetary Atmospheres and Their
Origin, The atmospheres of the earth
and planets"; papers presented at the
Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium of the
Yerkes Observatory, September, 1947.
Edited by Gerard Peter Kuiper. Chicago
Chicago Press, 1949., p.306
[8] P Kuiper
Gerard, "Planetary and satellite
atmospheres", 1950 Rep. Prog. Phys. V13
p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/
[9] "Gerard Peter Kuiper."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324484/Gerard-Peter-Kuiper>
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA8  
[1] Description
Nereid-Voyager2.jpg Nereid, the
last satellite of Neptune to be
discovered before Voyager's recent
discoveries, was first seen by Gerard
Kuiper in 1949. Until this Voyager 2
image was obtained, all that was known
about Nereid was its orbital parameters
and intrinsic brightness. This Voyager
view of Nereid was obtained on Aug. 24,
1989 at a distance of 4.7 million
kilometers (2.9 million miles). With a
resolution of 43 kilometers (26.6
miles) per pixel, this image has
sufficient detail to show the overall
size and albedo. Nereid is about 170
kilometers (105 miles) across and
reflects about 12 percent of the
incident light. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. 日本語:
衛星ネレイド、ボイジャー2号
の撮影 Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Nereid-Voyager2.jpg

[2] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054
51 YBN
[05/09/1949 AD] 14 		5401) In 1965, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Sin-Itiro
Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard
P. Feynman "for their fundamental work
in quantum electrodynamics, with
deep-ploughing consequences for the
physics of elementary particles".11

(When we see all the thought-screen
images and floating micro-meter camera
videos of history - probably our views
of science will be changed in very
large ways - mostly we will see massive
and widespread corruption and
dishonesty.12 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Julian Schwinger, "Quantum
Electrodynamics. I. A Covariant
Formulation", Phys. Rev. 74, 1439
(1948)
. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/
i10/p1439_1
{Schwinger_Julian_19480729.pdf}
2. ^ Tomonaga, Bull. I. P. C. R.
(Riken-iho), 22, 1943,
p545. English: S. Tomonaga, "On a
Relativistically Invariant Formulation
of the Quantum Theory of Wave Fields",
Physics Department, Tokyo Bunrika
University, Prog. Theor. Phys. Vol. 1
No. 2 (1946) pp.
27-42. {Tomonaga_Shinichiro_1943xxxx.pd
f}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p810-811,866,867.
4. ^ "Richard
Feynman." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-fey
nman
5. ^ "Julian Seymour Schwinger."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/528714/Julian-Seymour-Schwinger>.
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p505-506.
7. ^ Record ID5399. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Richard P. Feynman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/205700/Richard-P-Feynman>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1965". Nobelprize.org. 27 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1965/
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ R. P. Feynman,
"Space-Time Approach to Quantum
Electrodynamics", Phys. Rev. 76, 769
(1949)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i
6/p769_1 {Feynman_Richard_19490509.pdf}

14. ^ R. P. Feynman, "Space-Time
Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics",
Phys. Rev. 76, 769 (1949)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i
6/p769_1 {Feynman_Richard_19490509.pdf}
{05/09/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tomonaga Shin’ichirō."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 26 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/599000/Tomonaga-Shinichiro>.
[2] "Julian Schwinger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/julian-schw
inger
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA13  
[1] Figure 1 from: R. P. Feynman,
''Space-Time Approach to Quantum
Electrodynamics'', Phys. Rev. 76, 769
(1949)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i
6/p769_1 {Feynman_Richard_19490509.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v76/i6/p769_1

[2] Description
Tomonaga.jpg English: Sin-Itiro
Tomonaga Date 1965(1965) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1965/tomonaga-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Tomonaga.jpg
51 YBN
[06/26/1949 AD] 8 		5122)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
3. ^ Richardson,
R. S., "A New Asteroid with Smallest
Known Mean Distance", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html {Baade_Walter_19490626.pdf}
4. ^ Richardson, R. S., "A New
Asteroid with Smallest Known Mean
Distance", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html {Baade_Walter_19490626.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
Richardson, R. S., "A New Asteroid with
Smallest Known Mean Distance",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html
8. ^ Richardson, R. S., "A New Asteroid
with Smallest Known Mean Distance",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html {06/26/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Baade." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
[2] Baade, W., "NGC 147 and NGC 185,
Two New Members of the Local Group of
Galaxies", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.147. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..147B
[3] Baade, W., "Nova Ophiuchi of 1604
AS a Supernova.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html
[4] Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA7  
[1] Figure 1: Richardson, R. S., ''A
New Asteroid with Smallest Known Mean
Distance'', Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html
{Baade_Walter_19490626.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1949PASP...61..162R&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=162&epage=162&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
51 YBN
[07/27/1949 AD] 4 		6270)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p79.
2. ^ Green, William and Gordon
Swanborough, eds. "Jet Jubilee (Part
1)". Air International, Vol. 12, No. 3,
March 1977, pp. 124–131 (Part 2); Air
International, Vol. 12, No. 4, April
1977, pp. 171–180.
3. ^ Green, William and
Gordon Swanborough, eds. "Jet Jubilee
(Part 1)". Air International, Vol. 12,
No. 3, March 1977, pp. 124–131 (Part
2); Air International, Vol. 12, No. 4,
April 1977, pp. 171–180.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p79. {07/27/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Frank Whittle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>.
[2] "Frank Whittle." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-whitt
le
[3] "jet engine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 27 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/303238/jet-engine>.
[4] "jet engine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jet-engine
Hatfield, England3  
[1] Description en:De Havilland
Comet, ATP 18376C. Source
Imperial War Museum online
collection Source by Bzuk 26 November
2010. Date 4 October 1949 Author
Photographer: De Havilland
photographer for Ministry of Aircraft
Production Permission (Reusing this
file) British Government Copyright
expired (50 years) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/77/Comet_Prototype_at_Hatfiel
d.jpg

[2] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG
51 YBN
[08/01/1949 AD] 6 		5406)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
2. ^ "Maurice Ewing."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
3. ^ "Ewing, William Maurice." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Ewing, William Maurice."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Ewing, William Maurice." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {08/01/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] WM Ewing, CL Pekeris…,
"Propagation of sound in the ocean",
1948 - Geological Society of America
[2] CL
Pekeris, WM Ewing, "Propagation of
sound in the ocean: Explosion sounds in
shallow water...", 1948 - Geological
Society of America
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA5  
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
51 YBN
[08/06/1949 AD] 15 		5198) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1967
is divided, one half awarded to Manfred
Eigen "for their studies of extremely
fast chemical reactions, effected by
disturbing the equlibrium by means of
very short pulses of energy",the other
half jointly to Ronald George Wreyford
Norrish and George Porter "for their
studies of extremely fast chemical
reactions, effected by disturbing the
equlibrium by means of very short
pulses of energy".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p759-760.
2. ^ "Sir George
Porter, Baron Porter of Luddenham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/471102/Sir-George-Porter-Baron-Porter-
of-Luddenham>.
3. ^ "Ronald George Wreyford Norrish."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/418471/Ronald-George-Wreyford-Norrish>
.
4. ^ R. G. W. NORRISH & G. PORTER,
"Chemical Reactions Produced by Very
High Light Intensities", Nature 164,
p658-658 (15 October 1949)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
164/n4172/abs/164658a0.html {Norrish_Ro
nald_19490806.pdf}
5. ^ "Ronald George Wreyford Norrish."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ronald-geor
ge-wreyford-norrish-1
6. ^ "Ronald George Wreyford Norrish."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/418471/Ronald-George-Wreyford-Norrish>
.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p759-760.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ R. G.
W. NORRISH & G. PORTER, "Chemical
Reactions Produced by Very High Light
Intensities", Nature 164, p658-658 (15
October 1949)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
164/n4172/abs/164658a0.html {Norrish_Ro
nald_19490806.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1967". Nobelprize.org. 29 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1967/
14. ^ R. G. W. NORRISH & G. PORTER,
"Chemical Reactions Produced by Very
High Light Intensities", Nature 164,
p658-658 (15 October 1949)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
164/n4172/abs/164658a0.html {Norrish_Ro
nald_19490806.pdf}
15. ^ R. G. W. NORRISH & G. PORTER,
"Chemical Reactions Produced by Very
High Light Intensities", Nature 164,
p658-658 (15 October 1949)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
164/n4172/abs/164658a0.html {Norrish_Ro
nald_19490806.pdf} {08/06/1949}
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England14  
[1] Ronald George Wreyford Norrish (9
November 1897 – 7 June 1978), British
chemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_
prizes/chemistry/laureates/1967/norrish_
postcard.jpg Article Ronald
George Wreyford Norrish COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/44/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Nor
rish.jpg

[2] George Porter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1967/porter.jpg
51 YBN
[08/29/1949 AD] 6 		5308)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/325188/Igor-Vasilyevich-Kurchatov>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor
Vasilievich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Arkadiĭ Konstantinovich Kruglov,
"The history of the Soviet atomic
industry",2002,
p24. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
SriY07qvdIC&pg=PA24&dq=December+24+1946+
nuclear+reactor&hl=en&ei=kQZaTeO8GYT4sAP
zg6SRCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=6&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Decem
ber%2024%201946%20nuclear%20reactor&f=fa
lse
5. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p3_image.shtml
6. ^ "Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/325188/Igor-Vasilyevich-Kurchatov>.
{08/29/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p791
Semipalatinsk, Russia (Soviet Union)3 4
5  
[1] The fathers of Soviet nuclear
program Dr. Andrei Sakharov (left) with
Dr. Igor Kurchatov (right). Andrei
Sakharov and Igor Kurchatov Kurchatov
died in 1960 PD
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/H35.jpg

[2] ‹ Russia's first nuclear test,
named Joe-1 by the west Yield: 22
kilotons Date: 8/ 29/ 1949 Location:
Semipalatinsk Type: Tower This
device was an exact copy of the Fat Man
design built using the designs stolen
by Klaus Fuchs and others. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Andrei_Sakharov_and_Igor_K
urchatov.jpeg
51 YBN
[10/10/1949 AD] 8 		5539)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. F. Kaplon, B. Peters, and H.
L. Bradt, "Evidence for Multiple Meson
and γ-Ray Production in Cosmic-Ray
Stars", Phys. Rev. 76, 1735–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1735_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf}
2. ^ R. E. Marshak, "Remarks on
Multiple Meson and Gamma-Ray
Production", Phys. Rev. 76, 1736–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1736_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf}
3. ^ Eugene Gardner, Walter H. Barkas,
F. M. Smith, Hugh Bradner, "Mesons
Produced by the Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 111, No. 2878 (Feb.
24, 1950), pp.
191-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77433?&Search=yes&searchText=meson&searc
hText=neutral&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fact
ion%2FdoBasicResults%3Fla%3D%26wc%3Don%2
6acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26Query%3Dmeson%2Bn
eutral%26sbq%3Dmeson%2Bneutral%26filter%
3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26si%3D1%2
6jtxsi%3D1%26jcpsi%3D1%26artsi%3D1%26so%
3Dold%26Go.x%3D10%26Go.y%3D8%26Go%3DGo%2
6hp%3D25&prevSearch=&item=15&ttl=174&ret
urnArticleService=showFullText {Gardner
_Eugene_19500224.pdf}
4. ^ M. F. Kaplon, B. Peters, and H. L.
Bradt, "Evidence for Multiple Meson and
γ-Ray Production in Cosmic-Ray Stars",
Phys. Rev. 76, 1735–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1735_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf}
5. ^ R. E. Marshak, "Remarks on
Multiple Meson and Gamma-Ray
Production", Phys. Rev. 76, 1736–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1736_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf}
6. ^ Eugene Gardner, Walter H. Barkas,
F. M. Smith, Hugh Bradner, "Mesons
Produced by the Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 111, No. 2878 (Feb.
24, 1950), pp.
191-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77433?&Search=yes&searchText=meson&searc
hText=neutral&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fact
ion%2FdoBasicResults%3Fla%3D%26wc%3Don%2
6acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26Query%3Dmeson%2Bn
eutral%26sbq%3Dmeson%2Bneutral%26filter%
3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26si%3D1%2
6jtxsi%3D1%26jcpsi%3D1%26artsi%3D1%26so%
3Dold%26Go.x%3D10%26Go.y%3D8%26Go%3DGo%2
6hp%3D25&prevSearch=&item=15&ttl=174&ret
urnArticleService=showFullText {Gardner
_Eugene_19500224.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ M. F. Kaplon, B. Peters,
and H. L. Bradt, "Evidence for Multiple
Meson and γ-Ray Production in
Cosmic-Ray Stars", Phys. Rev. 76,
1735–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1735_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf} {10/10/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html
[2] Eugene Gardner and C. M. G. Lattes,
"Production of Mesons by the 184-Inch
Berkeley Cyclotron", Science, New
Series, Vol. 107, No. 2776 (Mar. 12,
1948), pp.
270-271. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75815
(University of Rochester) Rochester,
New York, USA 		 
51 YBN
[11/17/1949 AD] 11 		5495)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
2. ^ Nicole Kresge,
Robert D. Simoni and Robert L. Hill, "A
Pathway for Heme Biosynthesis: the Work
of David Shemin", August 25, 2006 The
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 281,
e28. http://www.jbc.org/content/281/34/
e28.full
3. ^ Radin, N. S., Rittenberg, D., and
Shemin, D. "THE RÔLE OF ACETIC ACID IN
THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEME", (1950) J.
Biol. Chem. 184,
755–767. http://www.jbc.org/content/1
84/2/755.full.pdf+html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
5. ^ Irving M.
London,David Shemin,and D. Rittenberg,
"SYNTHESIS OF HEME IN VITRO BY THE
IMMATURE NON-NUCLEATED MAMMALIAN
ERYTHROCYTE", J. Biol. Chem. 1950 183:
749-755.
http://www.jbc.org/content/183/2/749.f
ull.pdf+html {Shemin_David_19491024.pdf
}
6. ^ "hemoglobin." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 14 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hemoglobin
7. ^ Radin, N. S., Rittenberg, D., and
Shemin, D. "THE RÔLE OF ACETIC ACID IN
THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEME", (1950) J.
Biol. Chem. 184,
755–767. http://www.jbc.org/content/1
84/2/755.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Radin, N. S.,
Rittenberg, D., and Shemin, D. "THE
RÔLE OF ACETIC ACID IN THE
BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEME", (1950) J. Biol.
Chem. 184,
755–767. http://www.jbc.org/content/1
84/2/755.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Radin, N. S., Rittenberg, D., and
Shemin, D. "THE RÔLE OF ACETIC ACID IN
THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEME", (1950) J.
Biol. Chem. 184,
755–767. http://www.jbc.org/content/1
84/2/755.full.pdf+html {11/17/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] Shemin, D., and Rittenberg,
D. "THE UTILIZATION OF GLYCINE FOR THE
SYNTHESIS OF A PORPHYRIN ", (1945) J.
Biol. Chem. 159, 567–568.
http://www.jbc.org/content/159/2/567.f
ull.pdf+html
[2] Shemin, D., London, I. M., and
Rittenberg, D. "THE SYNTHESIS OF
PROTOPORPHYRIN IN VITRO BY RED BLOOD
CELLS OF THE DUCK ", (1950) J. Biol.
Chem. 183, 757–765.
http://www.jbc.org/content/183/2/757.f
ull.pdf+html
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA10  
[1] David Shemin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/281/3
4/e28/F1.large.jpg
51 YBN
[11/23/1949 AD] 6 		5434) In 1957 Whipple heads the optical
tracking system of the USA, where
observers trace comets and asteroids.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819.
2. ^ "Fred Lawrence
Whipple." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fred-lawren
ce-whipple-1
3. ^ Whipple, F. L., "A comet model. I.
The acceleration of Comet Encke",
Astrophys. J., vol. 111, p. 375-394
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950ApJ...111..375W7
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819.
5. ^ Whipple, F. L.,
"A comet model. I. The acceleration of
Comet Encke", Astrophys. J., vol. 111,
p. 375-394
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950ApJ...111..375W7
6. ^ Whipple, F. L., "A comet model. I.
The acceleration of Comet Encke",
Astrophys. J., vol. 111, p. 375-394
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950ApJ...111..375W7 {11/23/1949}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Description Fred Whipple
1927.jpg Fred Lawrence Whipple,
1927 Date 1927(1927) Source
UCLA Yearbook Author
UCLA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US Other versions n/a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Fred_Whipple_19
27.jpg/220px-Fred_Whipple_1927.jpg
51 YBN
[11/24/1949 AD] 8 9 		5228) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1960 is awarded jointly to Sir
Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Peter Brian
Medawar "for discovery of acquired
immunological tolerance".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p769-770.
2. ^ "Sir (Frank)
Macfarlane Burnet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-macfa
rlane-burnet
3. ^ F. M. BURNET, JOYCE D. STONE AND
MAEGARET EDNEY, "THE FAILURE OF
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION IN THE CHICK
EMBRYO", Australian Journal of
Experimental Biology and Medical
Science (1950) 28,
291–298. http://www.nature.com/icb/jo
urnal/v28/n3/abs/icb195029a.html {Burne
tt_Frank_19491124.pdf}
4. ^ "Sir Macfarlane Burnet."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/849749/Sir-Macfarlane-Burnet>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1960".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1960/
7. ^ F. M. BURNET, JOYCE D. STONE AND
MAEGARET EDNEY, "THE FAILURE OF
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION IN THE CHICK
EMBRYO", Australian Journal of
Experimental Biology and Medical
Science (1950) 28,
291–298. http://www.nature.com/icb/jo
urnal/v28/n3/abs/icb195029a.html {Burne
tt_Frank_19491124.pdf}
8. ^ F. M. BURNET, JOYCE D. STONE AND
MAEGARET EDNEY, "THE FAILURE OF
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION IN THE CHICK
EMBRYO", Australian Journal of
Experimental Biology and Medical
Science (1950) 28,
291–298. http://www.nature.com/icb/jo
urnal/v28/n3/abs/icb195029a.html {Burne
tt_Frank_19491124.pdf} {11/24/1949}
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p769-770. {1949}

MORE INFO
[1] F. Burnett, "The Clonal
Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity",
(1959)
[2] F. Burnett, "Immunological
Surveillance", (1970)
(Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of
Medical Research) Melbourne, Australia7
 
[1] Description Burnet 2jpg.jpg Sir
Frank Macfarlance Burnet, cropped Date
1945(1945) Source Own work
by uploader, cropped from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Burnet_in_1945.jpg Author
Machocarioca Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Burnet_2jpg.jpg
51 YBN
[11/25/1949 AD] 9 		5258)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
2. ^ "Linus Carl
Pauling." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/linus-carl-
pauling
3. ^ Linus Pauling, Harvey A. Itano, S.
J. Singer and Ibert C. Wells, "Sickle
Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease",
Science, New Series, Vol. 110, No. 2865
(Nov. 25, 1949), pp.
543-548. http://www.jstor.org/pss/16766
35?searchUrl=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3
Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26
Query%3DSickle%2Bcell%2Banemia%252C%2Ba%
2Bmolecular%2Bdisease%26Search.x%3D0%26S
earch.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&Search=yes
4. ^ "Linus Pauling." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/447161/Linus-Pauling>.
5. ^ Linus Pauling, Harvey A. Itano, S.
J. Singer and Ibert C. Wells, "Sickle
Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease",
Science, New Series, Vol. 110, No. 2865
(Nov. 25, 1949), pp.
543-548. http://www.jstor.org/pss/16766
35?searchUrl=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3
Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26
Query%3DSickle%2Bcell%2Banemia%252C%2Ba%
2Bmolecular%2Bdisease%26Search.x%3D0%26S
earch.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&Search=yes
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Linus Pauling,
Harvey A. Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert
C. Wells, "Sickle Cell Anemia, a
Molecular Disease", Science, New
Series, Vol. 110, No. 2865 (Nov. 25,
1949), pp.
543-548. http://www.jstor.org/pss/16766
35?searchUrl=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3
Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26
Query%3DSickle%2Bcell%2Banemia%252C%2Ba%
2Bmolecular%2Bdisease%26Search.x%3D0%26S
earch.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&Search=yes
9. ^ Linus Pauling, Harvey A. Itano, S.
J. Singer and Ibert C. Wells, "Sickle
Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease",
Science, New Series, Vol. 110, No. 2865
(Nov. 25, 1949), pp.
543-548. http://www.jstor.org/pss/16766
35?searchUrl=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3
Ffilter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26
Query%3DSickle%2Bcell%2Banemia%252C%2Ba%
2Bmolecular%2Bdisease%26Search.x%3D0%26S
earch.y%3D0%26wc%3Don&Search=yes
{11/25/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1954". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1954/index.html
[2] Linus Pauling, "The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, and the Structure of
Molecules and Crystals" (1939).
[3] Linus.
Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE CHEMICAL
BOND. APPLICATION OF RESULTS OBTAINED
FROM THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND FROM A
THEORY OF PARAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
TO THE STRUCTURE OF MOLECULES", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (4), pp
1367–1400. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01355a027
[4] Linus Pauling, "The Shared-Electron
Chemical Bond", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/
[5] Linus Pauling, "The Application of
the Quantum Mechanics to the Structure
of the Hydrogen Molecule and Hydrogen
Molecule-Ion and to Related Problems.",
Chem. Rev., 1928, 5 (2), pp
173–213. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60018a003
[6] A. E. Mirsky and Linus Pauling, "On
the Structure of Native, Denatured, and
Coagulated Proteins", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1936 July; 22(7): 439–447.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076802/
[7] Linus Pauling, Robert B. Corey,
"TWO HYDROGEN-BONDED SPIRAL
CONFIGURATIONS OF THE POLYPEPTIDE
CHAIN", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1950, 72
(11), p
5349. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja01167a545 , Nov 1950, p5349
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California8  
[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg
51 YBN
[12/23/1949 AD] 5 		5475)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p829-830.
2. ^ J. R. Arnold and
W. F. Libby, "Age Determinations by
Radiocarbon Content: Checks with
Samples of Known Age", Science, New
Series, Vol. 110, No. 2869 (Dec. 23,
1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049 {Libby_Willard_Frank_19491223.pdf
}
3. ^ J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby, "Age
Determinations by Radiocarbon Content:
Checks with Samples of Known Age",
Science, New Series, Vol. 110, No. 2869
(Dec. 23, 1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049 {Libby_Willard_Frank_19491223.pdf
}
4. ^ J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby, "Age
Determinations by Radiocarbon Content:
Checks with Samples of Known Age",
Science, New Series, Vol. 110, No. 2869
(Dec. 23, 1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049 {Libby_Willard_Frank_19491223.pdf
}
5. ^ J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby, "Age
Determinations by Radiocarbon Content:
Checks with Samples of Known Age",
Science, New Series, Vol. 110, No. 2869
(Dec. 23, 1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049 {Libby_Willard_Frank_19491223.pdf
} {12/23/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1960". Nobelprize.org. 10 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1960/
[2] W. F. Libby, "Atmospheric Helium
Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic
Radiation", Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2
[3] E. C. Anderson and W. F. Libby, S.
Weinhouse, A. F. Reid, A. D.
Kirshenbaum, and A. V. Grosse, "Natural
Radiocarbon from Cosmic Radiation",
Phys. Rev. 72, 931–936
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i10/p931_1
[4] "Willard Frank Libby."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 09 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338917/Willard-Frank-Libby>.
[5] "Willard Libby." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willard-lib
by
[6] C. G. Montgomery and D. D.
Montgomery, "The Intensity of Neutrons
of Thermal Energy in the Atmosphere at
Sea Level", Phys. Rev. 56, 10–12
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i1/p10_1
[7] S. A. Korff, "Recent Studies at
High Elevations", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11,
211–219
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v11/i3-4/p211_1
[8] "Nuclear cross section."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 13
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-cro
ss-section
[9] GROSSE, A. V. and LIBBY, W. F.,
"Cosmic Radiocarbon and Natural
Radioactivity of Living Matter",
Science, New Series, Vol. 106, No. 2743
(Jul. 25, 1947), pp.
88-89 http://www.jstor.org/stable/16751
11
[10] ANDERSON E. C. et al. "Radiocarbon
from Cosmic Radiation", Science, 1947,
105,
576. http://www.jstor.org/stable/167591
2
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA4  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. R. Arnold and W.
F. Libby, ''Age Determinations by
Radiocarbon Content: Checks with
Samples of Known Age'', Science, New
Series, Vol. 110, No. 2869 (Dec. 23,
1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049 {Libby_Willard_Frank_19491223.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1677
049

[2] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg
51 YBN
[1949 AD] 7 		5343)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p798.
2. ^ Hartline, H. K.,
"Inhibition of activity of visual
receptors by illuminating
nearby retinal areas in the LimuMs eye
(abstract)", Fed. Proc., 1949, 8, 69.
3. ^
H K. HARTLINE, HENRY G WAGNER, AND
FLOYD RATLIFF, "INHIBITION IN THE EYE
OF LIMULUS", J Gen Physiol 1956
39:651-673. Published May 20, 1956,
doi:10.1085/jgp.39.5.651
http://jgp.rupress.org/content/39/5/65
1.full.pdf+html {Hartline_Haldan_195510
07.pdf}
4. ^ "Haldan Keffer Hartline."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256177/Haldan-Keffer-Hartline>.
5. ^ "Haldan Keffer Hartline."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256177/Haldan-Keffer-Hartline>.
6. ^ "Haldan Keffer Hartline."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/256177/Haldan-Keffer-Hartline>.
7. ^ H. KEFFER HARTLINE AND C. H.
GRAHAM, "NERVE IMPULSES FROM SINGLE
RECEPTORS IN THE EYE", JOURNAL OF
CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932, p227. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} {03/01/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1967".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA6  
[1] Figure 1 from: H. KEFFER HARTLINE
AND C. H. GRAHAM, ''NERVE IMPULSES FROM
SINGLE RECEPTORS IN THE EYE'', JOURNAL
OF CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/
content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html

[2] Haldan Keffer Hartline Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1967/hartline.jpg
51 YBN
[1949 AD] 10 11 		5458)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bovet, D., Bovet-Nitti, F.,
Guarino, S., Longo, V. G., and Marotta,
M. "Proprieta farmacodinamiche di
alcuni derivati della succinilcolina
dotati di azione curarica.", Rendiconti
dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità .
12:106–137, 1949. "Pharmacodynamical
Property of Certain Derivatives of
Succinylcholine with Curare-like
Action"
2. ^ Foldes, Francis F. et al,
"Succinylcholine: A New Approach to
Muscular Relaxation in Anesthesiology",
New England Journal of Medicine, V247,
I16,
p596-600 http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/1
0.1056/NEJM195210162471603#t=article
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
4. ^ "Daniel Bovet."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bovet-danie
l
5. ^ Foldes, Francis F. et al,
"Succinylcholine: A New Approach to
Muscular Relaxation in Anesthesiology",
New England Journal of Medicine, V247,
I16,
p596-600 http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/1
0.1056/NEJM195210162471603#t=article
6. ^ "Daniel Bovet." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/76026/Daniel-Bovet>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p822-823.
8. ^ "Daniel Bovet."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bovet-danie
l
9. ^
http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/archives/e
_bov0.html
10. ^ Bovet, D., Bovet-Nitti, F.,
Guarino, S., Longo, V. G., and Marotta,
M. "Proprieta farmacodinamiche di
alcuni derivati della succinilcolina
dotati di azione curarica.", Rendiconti
dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità .
12:106–137, 1949. "Pharmacodynamical
Property of Certain Derivatives of
Succinylcholine with Curare-like
Action"
11. ^ Foldes, Francis F. et al,
"Succinylcholine: A New Approach to
Muscular Relaxation in Anesthesiology",
New England Journal of Medicine, V247,
I16,
p596-600 http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/1
0.1056/NEJM195210162471603#t=article
{1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1957".
Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1957/
[2] J. Tréfouël, J. Tréfouël, F.
Nitti and D. Bovet, Activite du
p-aminophenylsulfamide sur les
infections streptococciques, Comptes
Rendus Séances de la Societe de
Biologie, 120 (1935), pp. 756–762.
[3] Bovet
D., Staub A., "Action protectrice des
éthers phénoliques au cours de
l’intoxication histaminique." C. R.
Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. (1936),
124:547–549. English: "Protective
action of phenolic ethers in histamine
poisoning."
[4] "anaphylaxis." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anaphylaxis

[5] S. J. Hill, et al, "International
Union of Pharmacology. XIII.
Classification of Histamine Receptors",
Pharmacological Reviews September 1,
1997 vol. 49 no. 3
253-278. http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.
org/content/49/3/253.full#xref-ref-40-1
(Istituto Superiore di Sanita/Superior
Institute of Health) Rome, Italy8 9
 
[1] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg
51 YBN
[1949 AD] 8 		5466)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p825.
2. ^ BADDILEY J, TODD
AR., "Nucleotides; muscle adenylic acid
and adenosine diphosphate.", J Chem
Soc. 1947
May:648-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/20253206
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p825.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p825.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "nucleoside." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleoside
7. ^ "Alexander Robertus Todd, Baron
Todd." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/597909/Alexander-Robertus-Todd-Baron-T
odd-of-Trumpington>.
8. ^ J. Baddiley, A. M. Michelson and
A. R. Todd, "Nucleotides, Part II. A.
synthesis of adenosine triphosphate",
J. Chem. Soc., 1949,
582-586. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1949/JR/jr9490000582

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Todd." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-t
odd
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1957". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1957/
[3] Thomas Spence Work, Franz Bergel,
and Alexander Robertus Todd, "The
active principles of Cannabis indica
resin. I", Biochem J. 1939 January;
33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/
[4] A. JACOB & A. R. TODD,
"Cannabidiol and Cannabol, Constituents
of Cannabis indica Resin", Nature 145,
350-350 (02 March
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v145/n3670/abs/145350a0.html
[5] AR Todd, "Structure and synthesis
of nucleotides.", Symposia of the
Society for Experimental …, 1947
[6]
"nucleotide." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleotide
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England7  
[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg
51 YBN
[1949 AD] 9 		5467) In 1964 the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded to Dorothy
Crowfoot Hodgkin "for her
determinations by X-ray techniques of
the structures of important biochemical
substances".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ DC Hodgkin, "The X-ray analysis
of the structure of penicillin.", The
Advancement of science, (1949) volume:
6 issue: 22 page: 85
-9. {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xxxx.
pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834.
3. ^ "Dorothy
Hodgkin." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorothy-cro
wfoot-hodgkin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834.
5. ^ DC Hodgkin, "The
X-ray analysis of the structure of
penicillin.", The Advancement of
science, (1949) volume: 6 issue: 22
page: 85
-9. {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xxxx.
pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1964". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1964/
8. ^ "Dorothy Hodgkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorothy-cro
wfoot-hodgkin
9. ^ DC Hodgkin, "The X-ray analysis of
the structure of penicillin.", The
Advancement of science, (1949) volume:
6 issue: 22 page: 85
-9. {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xxxx.
pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Todd." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-t
odd
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1957". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1957/
[3] Thomas Spence Work, Franz Bergel,
and Alexander Robertus Todd, "The
active principles of Cannabis indica
resin. I", Biochem J. 1939 January;
33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/
[4] A. JACOB & A. R. TODD,
"Cannabidiol and Cannabol, Constituents
of Cannabis indica Resin", Nature 145,
350-350 (02 March
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v145/n3670/abs/145350a0.html
[5] BADDILEY J, TODD AR., "Nucleotides;
muscle adenylic acid and adenosine
diphosphate.", J Chem Soc. 1947
May:648-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/20253206
[6] "Alexander Robertus Todd, Baron
Todd." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/597909/Alexander-Robertus-Todd-Baron-T
odd-of-Trumpington>
[7] AM Michelson, AR Todd,
"Nucleotides, Part II. A. synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate", J. Chem. Soc.
London, 1949
[8] AR Todd, "Structure and
synthesis of nucleotides.", Symposia of
the Society for Experimental …, 1947
[9]
R. BONNETT, J. R. CANNON, A. W.
JOHNSON, I. SUTHERLAND, A. R. TODD & E.
LESTER SMITH, " Structure of Vitamin
B12 : The Structure of Vitamin B12 and
its Hexacarboxylic Acid Degradation
Product", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/
[10] DOROTHY CROWFOOT HODGKIN, JENNY
PICKWORTH, JOHN H. ROBERTSON, KENNETH
N. TRUEBLOOD, RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN
G. WHITE, "The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin ", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/
[11] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Jennifer
Kamper, June Lindsey, Maureen MacKay,
Jenny Pickworth, J. H. Robertson, Clara
Brink Shoemaker, J. G. White, R. J.
Prosen and K. N. Trueblood, "The
Structure of Vitamin B12 I. An Outline
of the Crystallographic Investigation
of Vitamin B12", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 242, No. 1229 (Oct. 29,
1957), pp. 228-263
http://www.jstor.org/stable/100311
[12] "Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1964/hodgkin.html
(Oxford University) Oxford, England8
 
[1] Figure 2 from: DC Hodgkin, ''The
X-ray analysis of the structure of
penicillin.'', The Advancement of
science, (1949) volume: 6 issue: 22
page: 85
-9. {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xxxx.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xx
xx.pdf}

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg
50 YBN
[01/13/1950 AD] 9 		5237)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
2. ^ "Jan Oort." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jan-oort
3. ^ Oort, J. H., "The structure of the
cloud of comets surrounding the Solar
System and a hypothesis concerning its
origin", Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth.,
vol. 11, p. 91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p773-774.
5. ^ Oort, J. H.,
"The structure of the cloud of comets
surrounding the Solar System and a
hypothesis concerning its origin",
Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth., vol. 11, p.
91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Oort, J. H.,
"The structure of the cloud of comets
surrounding the Solar System and a
hypothesis concerning its origin",
Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth., vol. 11, p.
91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O
9. ^ Oort, J. H., "The structure of the
cloud of comets surrounding the Solar
System and a hypothesis concerning its
origin", Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth.,
vol. 11, p. 91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O {01/13/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Oort, J. H., "Observational
evidence confirming Lindblad's
hypothesis of a rotation of the
galactic system", Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands, Vol. 3,
p.275. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1927BAN.....3..275O/0000275.000.
html
[2] Oort, J. H., "Investigations
concerning the rotational motion of the
galactic system together with new
determinations of secular parallaxes,
precession and motion of the equinox",
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes
of the Netherlands, Vol. 4,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
27BAN.....4...79O
(Observatory at Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands8  
[1] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg
50 YBN
[01/23/1950 AD] 4 		5551)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and
G. T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195001
23.pdf}
2. ^ S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195001
23.pdf}
3. ^ S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195001
23.pdf}
4. ^ S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195001
23.pdf} {01/23/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA3  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
50 YBN
[03/07/1950 AD] 7 		5127)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
2. ^ H. C UREY, H. A
LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY,
"MEASUREMENT OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND
TEMPERATURES OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF
ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES", BULLETIN OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62.
PP. 399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf}
3. ^ SAMUEL EPSTEIN, RALPH BUCHSBAUM,
HEINZ LOWENSTAM and HAROLD C UREY,
"CARBONATE-WATER ISOTOPIC TEMPERATURE
SCALE", Geological Society of America
Bulletin
1951;62;417-426 http://gsabulletin.gsap
ubs.org/content/62/4/417.abstract {Urey
_Harold_19500308.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ H. C
UREY, H. A LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C.
R McKINNEY, "MEASUREMENT OF
PALEOTEMPERATURES AND TEMPERATURES OF
THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF ENGLAND,
DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED
STATES", BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62. PP.
399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf}
7. ^ H. C UREY, H. A LOWENSTAM, S
EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY, "MEASUREMENT
OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND TEMPERATURES
OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF ENGLAND,
DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED
STATES", BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62. PP.
399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf} {03/07/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] H. C. Urey, “Natural System
of Atomic Nuclei”, Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 53 (1931),
2872
[2] H. C. Urey and Charles A. Bradley.
Jr., “On the Relative Abundances of
Isotopes,” Physical Review, 38
(1931), 718–724
[3] H. C. Urey, C. F. G.
Brickwedde and G. M. Murphy, “A
Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and its
Concentration,” Physical Review, 40
(1932),
1–15. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103
/PhysRev.40.1
[4] "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] HC Urey, "Atoms, molecules and
quanta", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 37
(1931), 506-507.
http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1931-
37-07/S0002-9904-1931-05170-3/home.html
[6] HC Urey, "The separation and
properties of the isotopes of
hydrogen", Science, Volume 78, Issue
2034, pp.
566-571. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
59134?origin=ads
[7] Edward W. Washburn and Harold C.
Urey, "Concentration of the H2 Isotope
of Hydrogen by the Fractional
Electrolysis of Water", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1932 July; 18(7): 496–498.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076263/
[8]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1934/
[9] A. Ruark and Harold Urey, "Atoms,
Molecules, and Quanta", (New York,
1930)
[10] Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde,
and G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html
[11] Harold C. Urey, Lotti J. Greiff,
"Isotopic Exchange Equilibria", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1935, 57 (2), pp
321–327. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01305a026
[12] Thomas Ivan Taylor and Harold C.
Urey, "Fractionation of the Lithium and
Potassium Isotopes by Chemical Exchange
with Zeolites", J. Chem. Phys. 6, 429
(1938). http://jcp.aip.org/resource/1/j
cpsa6/v6/i8/p429_s1
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA6  
[1] Plate 1 from: H. C UREY, H. A
LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY,
''MEASUREMENT OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND
TEMPERATURES OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF
ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES'', BULLETIN OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62.
PP. 399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/62/4/399.full.pdf

[2] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD] 11 		5552)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr.,
A. Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
2. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID5556. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "californium." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/californium

8. ^ A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, K.
Street, Jr., and G. T. Seaborg,
"Californium Isotopes from Bombardment
of Uranium with Carbon Ions", Phys.
Rev. 81, 154–154
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v81/i1/p154_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195011
08.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ S. G. Thompson, K.
Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso, and G. T.
Seaborg, "Element 98", Phys. Rev. 78,
298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
11. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr.,
A. Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf} {03/15/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1951". Nobelprize.org. 25 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[2] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[3] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[4]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[5] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[6] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[7] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[8] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[9] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[10] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[11] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[12] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[13] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[14] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[15] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA10  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD] 11 		5553)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528–528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195006
14.pdf}
2. ^ Record ID5550. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Roger E.
Batzel and Glenn T. Seaborg, "Fission
of Medium Weight Elements", Phys. Rev.
79, 528–528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195006
14.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ S. G. Thompson,
K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso, and G. T.
Seaborg, "Element 98", Phys. Rev. 78,
298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
11. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr.,
A. Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf} {03/15/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA10  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
50 YBN
[03/22/1950 AD] 5 		5393)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
2. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"The Diameter of Pluto", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 62, No. 366,
p.133. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1950PASP...62..133K/0000135.000
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
4. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"The Diameter of Pluto", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 62, No. 366,
p.133. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1950PASP...62..133K/0000135.000
.html
5. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "The Diameter of
Pluto", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 62, No. 366,
p.133. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1950PASP...62..133K/0000135.000
.html {03/22/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er
[2] Kuiper, G. P., "New White Dwarfs,
Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
[3] Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
[4] Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
[5] Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a Satellite
with an Atmosphere.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
[6] GP Kuiper, "The Atmospheres of the
Earth and Planets", Chicago University
Press, 1949.
[7] Kuiper, Gerard P.,
"Planetary Atmospheres and Their
Origin, The atmospheres of the earth
and planets"; papers presented at the
Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium of the
Yerkes Observatory, September, 1947.
Edited by Gerard Peter Kuiper. Chicago
Chicago Press, 1949., p.306
[8] P Kuiper
Gerard, "Planetary and satellite
atmospheres", 1950 Rep. Prog. Phys. V13
p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/
[9] "Gerard Peter Kuiper."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324484/Gerard-Peter-Kuiper>.
[10] Kuiper, G. P., "The Fifth
Satellite of Uranus", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K
[11] Kuiper, G. P., "The Second
Satellite of Neptune", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.175. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/s
eri/PASP./0061/0000175.000.html
(Palomar Observatory) Mount Palomar,
California, USA4  
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg
50 YBN
[04/17/1950 AD] 27 28 		5687) Aage Bohr is the son of Niels
Bohr.24

In 1975, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to Aage Niels Bohr, Ben
Roy Mottelson and Leo James Rainwater
"for the discovery of the connection
between collective motion and particle
motion in atomic nuclei and the
development of the theory of the
structure of the atomic nucleus based
on this connection".25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Rainwater, "Nuclear Energy
Level Argument for a Spheroidal Nuclear
Model", Phys. Rev. 79, 432–434
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p432_1 {Rainwater_Leo_James_19
500417.pdf}
2. ^ Aage Bohr, "On the Quantization of
Angular Momenta in Heavy Nuclei", Phys.
Rev. 81, 134–138
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v81/i1/p134_1
{Bohr_Aage_19500531.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865-866,877,883.
4. ^ "James
Rainwater." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489968/James-Rainwater>.
5. ^ "Aage N. Bohr." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/71665/Aage-N-Bohr>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865-866,877,883.
7. ^ James Rainwater,
"Nuclear Energy Level Argument for a
Spheroidal Nuclear Model", Phys. Rev.
79, 432–434
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p432_1 {Rainwater_Leo_James_19
500417.pdf}
8. ^ Aage Bohr, "On the Quantization of
Angular Momenta in Heavy Nuclei", Phys.
Rev. 81, 134–138
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v81/i1/p134_1
{Bohr_Aage_19500531.pdf}
9. ^ "Aage Bohr." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 16 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aage-niels-
bohr
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865-866,877,883.
11. ^ "Aage N. Bohr."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 16 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/71665/Aage-N-Bohr>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865-866,877,883.
13. ^ "Ben R.
Mottelson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394437/Ben-R-Mottelson>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865-866,877,883.
15. ^ "Ben R.
Mottelson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394437/Ben-R-Mottelson>.
16. ^ "quadrupole moment." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 16 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quadrupole-
moment
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865-866,877,883.
25. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1975". Nobelprize.org.
17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1975/
26. ^ James Rainwater, "Nuclear Energy
Level Argument for a Spheroidal Nuclear
Model", Phys. Rev. 79, 432–434
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p432_1 {Rainwater_Leo_James_19
500417.pdf}
27. ^ James Rainwater, "Nuclear Energy
Level Argument for a Spheroidal Nuclear
Model", Phys. Rev. 79, 432–434
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p432_1 {Rainwater_Leo_James_19
500417.pdf} {04/17/1950}
28. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p.865-866,877,883. {1949}

MORE INFO
[1] Bohr, Aage; Mottelson, Ben
R., "Beta-decay and the shell model,
and the influence of collective motion
on nuclear transitions", Physica, 18,
Issue 12,
p.1066-1078. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1952Phy....18.1066B
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA26  
[1] Leo James Rainwater Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1975/rainwat
er_postcard.jpg

[2] Aage Niels Bohr Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1975/bohr_po
stcard.jpg
50 YBN
[04/21/1950 AD] 4 		5592)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. A. Van Allen and S. F. Singer,
"On the Primary Cosmic-Ray Spectrum",
Phys. Rev. 78, 819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred_
19500421.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
3. ^ J. A. Van Allen
and S. F. Singer, "On the Primary
Cosmic-Ray Spectrum", Phys. Rev. 78,
819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred_
19500421.pdf}
4. ^ J. A. Van Allen and S. F. Singer,
"On the Primary Cosmic-Ray Spectrum",
Phys. Rev. 78, 819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred_
19500421.pdf} {04/21/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
[2]
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
[3] J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1
(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA3  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. A. Van Allen and
S. F. Singer, ''On the Primary
Cosmic-Ray Spectrum'', Phys. Rev. 78,
819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred_
19500421.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg
50 YBN
[04/26/1950 AD] 3 		5542)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, "Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative π
Mesons.", Philosophical Magazine, S7,
V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf}
2. ^ Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, "Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative π
Mesons.", Philosophical Magazine, S7,
V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf}
3. ^ Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, "Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative π
Mesons.", Philosophical Magazine, S7,
V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf}
{04/26/1950}
(University of Bristol) Bristol,
England2  		 
50 YBN
[05/??/1950 AD] 6 		5480)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Walter, "An imitation of life",
Scientific American, (May 1950)
volume: 182 issue: 5 page:
42-45. http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf {Walter_William
_Grey_195005xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p832-833.
3. ^ "William Grey
Walter." Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 13 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-gre
y-walter
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Walter, "An imitation of
life", Scientific American, (May 1950)
volume: 182 issue: 5 page:
42-45. http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf {Walter_William
_Grey_195005xx.pdf}
6. ^ Walter, "An imitation of life",
Scientific American, (May 1950)
volume: 182 issue: 5 page:
42-45. http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf {Walter_William
_Grey_195005xx.pdf} {05/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] W. Grey Walter, "THE LOCATION
OF CEREBRAL TUMOURS BY
ELECTRO-ENCEPHALOGRAPHY", The
Lancet Volume 228, Issue 5893, 8
August 1936, Pages
305-308. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-49MDRHS
-R5&_user=4422&_coverDate=08%2F08%2F1936
&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin
=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acc
t=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_u
serid=4422&md5=04c54a327508d7b86d4751c4a
41f2eeb&searchtype=a
(Burden Neurological Institute)
Bristol, England5  
[1] Walter, ''An imitation of life'',
Scientific American, (May 1950)
volume: 182 issue: 5 page:
42-45. http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf {Walter_William
_Grey_195005xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf

[2] Dr. W. Grey Walter UNKNOWN
source: http://cyberneticzoo.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/09/ELMER-p1-825x1024.jp
g
50 YBN
[08/02/1950 AD] 10 		5773)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people
/obituary-professor-p-b-moon-1443766.htm
l
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig
Mössbauer." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393799/Rudolf-Ludwig-Mossbauer>.
5. ^ "Rudolf Mössbauer - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 9 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1961/mossbauer-lecture.html
 {Mossbauer_Rudolf_Ludwig_19611211.pdf}

6. ^ P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ P B Moon,
"Resonant Nuclear Scattering of
Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments", Proceedings of the
Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf}
10. ^ P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf} {08/02/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
[2] "Philip Burton Moon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Burt
on_Moon
[3] W. Kuhn, Phil. Mag., 8 (1929) 625.
(University of Birmingham) Birmingham,
England9  
[1] Figure 1 from: P B Moon,
''Resonant Nuclear Scattering of
Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments'', Proceedings of the
Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Figure 2 from: P B Moon,
''Resonant Nuclear Scattering of
Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments'', Proceedings of the
Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:
50 YBN
[08/??/1950 AD] 8 		5696) In 1969, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded jointly to Derek
H. R. Barton and Odd Hassel "for their
contributions to the development of the
concept of conformation and its
application in chemistry".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.869.
2. ^ "Derek H. R.
Barton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 17 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/derek-harol
d-richard-barton
3. ^ "Derek H. R. Barton." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/derek-harol
d-richard-barton
4. ^ D. H. R. Barton, "The conformation
of the steroid nucleus", Cellular and
Molecular Life Sciences Volume 6,
Number 8, 316-320, DOI:
10.1007/BF02170915 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k128023336q21173/ {Bart
on_Derek_Harold_Richard_195008xx.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1969". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1969/
7. ^ D. H. R. Barton, "The conformation
of the steroid nucleus", Cellular and
Molecular Life Sciences Volume 6,
Number 8, 316-320, DOI:
10.1007/BF02170915 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k128023336q21173/ {Bart
on_Derek_Harold_Richard_195008xx.pdf}
8. ^ D. H. R. Barton, "The conformation
of the steroid nucleus", Cellular and
Molecular Life Sciences Volume 6,
Number 8, 316-320, DOI:
10.1007/BF02170915 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k128023336q21173/ {Bart
on_Derek_Harold_Richard_195008xx.pdf}
{08/1950}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA7  
[1] Figure 1 from: D. H. R. Barton,
''The conformation of the steroid
nucleus'', Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences Volume 6, Number 8, 316-320,
DOI:
10.1007/BF02170915 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k128023336q21173/ {Bart
on_Derek_Harold_Richard_195008xx.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k128023336q21173/

[2] Derek Harold Richard Barton Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1969/barton.jpg
50 YBN
[09/11/1950 AD] 13 		5555)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
2. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
3. ^ Record ID4755. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
5. ^ "Luis W.
Alvarez." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/18131/Luis-W-Alvarez>.
6. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "High Energy
Carbon Nuclei", Physical Review, July
1940, Volume 58, Issue 2,
p192. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/
v58/i2/p187_1 {Alvarez_Luis_W_19400621.
pdf}
7. ^ A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, K.
Street, Jr., and G. T. Seaborg,
"Californium Isotopes from Bombardment
of Uranium with Carbon Ions", Phys.
Rev. 81, 154–154
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v81/i1/p154_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195011
08.pdf}
8. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
9. ^
http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi
?page=gr&GRid=36673742
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ J. F. Miller,
J. G. Hamilton, T. M. Putnam, H. R.
Haymond, and G. B. Rossi, "Acceleration
of Stripped C12 and C13 Nuclei in the
Cyclotron", Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
13. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} {09/11/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Luis W. Alvarez et al,
"TWO-ELEMENT VARIABLE-POWER SPHERICAL
LENS", Patent number: 3305294, Filing
date: Dec 3, 1964, Issue date: Feb 21,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT3305294&id=3sRwAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=%22LW+alvarez%22+lens&printsec=
abstract#v=onepage&q=%22LW%20alvarez%22%
20lens&f=false
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
[3] Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog,
"He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA12  
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

50 YBN
[10/12/1950 AD] 14 		5395)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gerard P. Kuiper, "On the Origin
of the Solar System", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1951 January; 37(1): 1–14.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063291/ {Kuiper_Gerard_19501012.
pdf}
2. ^ Gerard P. Kuiper, "On the Origin
of the Irregular Satellites", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1951 November; 37(11):
717–721.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063457/ {Kuiper_Gerard_19510925.
pdf}
3. ^ Gerard P. Kuiper, "On the
Evolution of the Protoplanets", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1951 July; 37(7):
383–393.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063382/
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
5. ^ "Gerard Peter
Kuiper." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324484/Gerard-Peter-Kuiper>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Gerard P. Kuiper, "On the
Origin of the Solar System", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1951 January; 37(1):
1–14.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063291/ {Kuiper_Gerard_19501012.
pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Gerard P. Kuiper, "On the
Origin of the Irregular Satellites",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1951
November; 37(11): 717–721.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063457/ {Kuiper_Gerard_19510925.
pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "On the origin of
asteroids", Astronomical Journal, Vol.
55, p. 164
(1950). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=55&
plate_select=NO&page=164&plate=&cover=&j
ournal=AJ...
14. ^ Gerard P. Kuiper, "On the Origin
of the Solar System", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1951 January; 37(1): 1–14.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063291/ {Kuiper_Gerard_19501012.
pdf} {10/12/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er
[2] Kuiper, G. P., "New White Dwarfs,
Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
[3] Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
[4] Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
[5] Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a Satellite
with an Atmosphere.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
[6] GP Kuiper, "The Atmospheres of the
Earth and Planets", Chicago University
Press, 1949.
[7] Kuiper, Gerard P.,
"Planetary Atmospheres and Their
Origin, The atmospheres of the earth
and planets"; papers presented at the
Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium of the
Yerkes Observatory, September, 1947.
Edited by Gerard Peter Kuiper. Chicago
Chicago Press, 1949., p.306
[8] P Kuiper
Gerard, "Planetary and satellite
atmospheres", 1950 Rep. Prog. Phys. V13
p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/
[9] Kuiper, G. P., "The Fifth Satellite
of Uranus", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 61, No. 360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K
[10] Kuiper, G. P., "The Second
Satellite of Neptune", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.175. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/s
eri/PASP./0061/0000175.000.html
[11] Kuiper, G. P., "The Diameter of
Pluto", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 62, No. 366,
p.133. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1950PASP...62..133K/0000135.000
.html
(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA13
 
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg
50 YBN
[10/16/1950 AD] 8 		5259)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
2. ^ "Linus Carl
Pauling." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/linus-carl-
pauling
3. ^ Linus Pauling, Robert B. Corey,
"TWO HYDROGEN-BONDED SPIRAL
CONFIGURATIONS OF THE POLYPEPTIDE
CHAIN", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1950, 72
(11), p
5349. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja01167a545 {Pauling_Linus_19501016.
pdf}, Nov 1950, p5349
4. ^ Linus Pauling,
Robert B. Corey, "TWO HYDROGEN-BONDED
SPIRAL CONFIGURATIONS OF THE
POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1950, 72 (11), p
5349. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja01167a545 {Pauling_Linus_19501016.
pdf}, Nov 1950, p5349
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p777-778.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Linus Pauling, Robert B. Corey,
"TWO HYDROGEN-BONDED SPIRAL
CONFIGURATIONS OF THE POLYPEPTIDE
CHAIN", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1950, 72
(11), p
5349. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja01167a545 {Pauling_Linus_19501016.
pdf}, Nov 1950, p5349
8. ^ Linus Pauling,
Robert B. Corey, "TWO HYDROGEN-BONDED
SPIRAL CONFIGURATIONS OF THE
POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1950, 72 (11), p
5349. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja01167a545 {Pauling_Linus_19501016.
pdf}, Nov 1950, p5349 {10/16/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1954". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1954/index.html
[2] Linus Pauling, "The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, and the Structure of
Molecules and Crystals" (1939)
[3] "Linus
Pauling." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/447161/Linus-Pauling>
[4] Linus. Pauling, "THE NATURE OF THE
CHEMICAL BOND. APPLICATION OF RESULTS
OBTAINED FROM THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND
FROM A THEORY OF PARAMAGNETIC
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE STRUCTURE OF
MOLECULES", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53
(4), pp
1367–1400. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01355a027
[5] Linus Pauling, "The Shared-Electron
Chemical Bond", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A. 1928 April; 14(4):
359–362. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1085493/
[6] Linus Pauling, "The Application of
the Quantum Mechanics to the Structure
of the Hydrogen Molecule and Hydrogen
Molecule-Ion and to Related Problems.",
Chem. Rev., 1928, 5 (2), pp
173–213. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60018a003
[7] A. E. Mirsky and Linus Pauling, "On
the Structure of Native, Denatured, and
Coagulated Proteins", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1936 July; 22(7): 439–447.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076802/
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California7  
[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg
50 YBN
[10/??/1950 AD] 8 		5564)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p843-844.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A. M.
Turing, "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence", Mind, New Series, Vol.
59, No. 236 (Oct., 1950), pp.
433-460. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
51299 {Turing_Alan_Mathison_195010xx.pd
f}
8. ^ A. M. Turing, "Computing Machinery
and Intelligence", Mind, New Series,
Vol. 59, No. 236 (Oct., 1950), pp.
433-460. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
51299 {Turing_Alan_Mathison_195010xx.pd
f} {10/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p473
[2] A. M. Turing, "On computable
numbers", Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society, (1937), volume:
2 issue: 42 page:
230. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=5&sqi=2&ved=0CD8QFjAE&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fplms.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcont
ent%2Fs2-42%2F1%2F230.full.pdf&rct=j&q=o
n%20computable%20numbers%20turing&ei=wMa
OTbxyyIPRAYWZ9bUL&usg=AFQjCNHGHvxE4C_jka
Hozs9BEhh4Pf8JGA&cad=rja
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England7  
[1] Description Alan
Turing Source
http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs
_sscs/sscs/08Spring/KFig6_turing.jpg Ar
ticle Alan Turing Portion used
All Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To show
how he looks like Replaceable? No
free photographic replacement
found COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Alan_Turing_photo.jpg
50 YBN
[11/08/1950 AD] 6 		5556)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, K.
Street, Jr., and G. T. Seaborg,
"Californium Isotopes from Bombardment
of Uranium with Carbon Ions", Phys.
Rev. 81, 154–154
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v81/i1/p154_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195011
08.pdf}
2. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
3. ^ Record ID5555. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, K.
Street, Jr., and G. T. Seaborg,
"Californium Isotopes from Bombardment
of Uranium with Carbon Ions", Phys.
Rev. 81, 154–154
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v81/i1/p154_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195011
08.pdf}
6. ^ A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, K.
Street, Jr., and G. T. Seaborg,
"Californium Isotopes from Bombardment
of Uranium with Carbon Ions", Phys.
Rev. 81, 154–154
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v81/i1/p154_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195011
08.pdf} {11/08/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
[17] Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528–528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1
[18] S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 20 		5297) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1966
is awarded to Alfred Kastler "for the
discovery and development of optical
methods for studying Hertzian
resonances in atoms".18 According to
Asimov, Townes had won in 1964 for his
work on the maser, and there was some
dissatisfaction in France over the
ignoring of Kastler.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p787.
2. ^ "Alfred
Kastler." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-kast
ler-1
3. ^ Alfred Kastler, "Quelques
suggestions concernant la production
optique et la détection optique d'une
inégalité de population des niveaux
de quantifigation spatiale des atomes.
Application à l'expérience de Stern
et Gerlach et à la résonance
magnétique", J. Phys. Radium 11, 6
(1950)
255-265. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.f
r/jpa-00234250/
{Kastler_Alfred_19500530.pdf}
English: "Some Suggestions for the
Optical Production and Optical
Detection of an Inequality of
Population of Levels of Quantification
space of Atoms. Application of The
Experiment of Stern and Gerlach and
Magnetic Resonance."
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1966". Nobelprize.org. 13 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1966/
5. ^ ALFRED KASTLER, "Optical Methods
of Atomic Orientation and of Magnetic
Resonance," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 47,
460-465
(1957) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-47-6-460 {Kastler_A
lfred_19560521.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p787.
7. ^ Alfred Kastler,
"Optical Methods for Studying Hertzian
Resonances", Science, New Series, Vol.
158, No. 3798 (Oct. 13, 1967), pp.
214-221. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
22420 {Kastler_Alfred_19671013.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p787.
9. ^ Alfred Kastler,
"Quelques suggestions concernant la
production optique et la détection
optique d'une inégalité de population
des niveaux de quantifigation spatiale
des atomes. Application à
l'expérience de Stern et Gerlach et à
la résonance magnétique", J. Phys.
Radium 11, 6 (1950)
255-265. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.f
r/jpa-00234250/
{Kastler_Alfred_19500530.pdf}
English: "Some Suggestions for the
Optical Production and Optical
Detection of an Inequality of
Population of Levels of Quantification
space of Atoms. Application of The
Experiment of Stern and Gerlach and
Magnetic Resonance."
10. ^ ALFRED KASTLER, "Optical
Methods of Atomic Orientation and of
Magnetic Resonance," J. Opt. Soc. Am.
47, 460-465
(1957) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-47-6-460 {Kastler_A
lfred_19560521.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Alfred Kastler,
"Optical Methods for Studying Hertzian
Resonances", Science, New Series, Vol.
158, No. 3798 (Oct. 13, 1967), pp.
214-221. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
22420 {Kastler_Alfred_19671013.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1966". Nobelprize.org.
13 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1966/
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p787.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p787. {1950}
(Ecole Normale Superieure) Paris,
France 
[1] Figure 5 from: Alfred Kastler,
''Optical Methods for Studying Hertzian
Resonances'', Science, New Series, Vol.
158, No. 3798 (Oct. 13, 1967), pp.
214-221. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
22420 {Kastler_Alfred_19671013.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/158/3798/214

[2] Description Kastler.jpg English:
Alfred Kastler Date
1966(1966) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1966/kastler-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b6/Kastler.jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 16 		5298) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1965ias awarded jointly to
François Jacob, André Lwoff and
Jacques Monod "for their discoveries
concerning genetic control of enzyme
and virus synthesis".14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p787.
2. ^ "André Michel
Lwoff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andre-micha
el-lwoff
3. ^ LWOFF, A. 1951 "Conditions de
l'efficacité inductrice du rayonnement
ultra-violet chez une bactérie
lysogène." Annales de l'Institut
Pasteur, 81, 370-388.
4. ^ "André Michel
Lwoff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andre-micha
el-lwoff
5. ^ André Lwoff, "Lysogeny",
Bacteriol Rev. 1953 December; 17(4):
269–337. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC180777/
6. ^ "André Michel Lwoff." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andre-micha
el-lwoff
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p787.
8. ^ "André Michel
Lwoff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andre-micha
el-lwoff
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p787.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965".
Nobelprize.org. 14 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1965/
15. ^ LWOFF, A. 1951 "Conditions de
l'efficacité inductrice du rayonnement
ultra-violet chez une bactérie
lysogène." Annales de l'Institut
Pasteur, 81, 370-388.
16. ^ "André Lwoff -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 14 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1965/lwoff-bio.html
{1950}

MORE INFO
[1] LWOFF, A. 1952 "Cycle du
bacteriophage chez une bacterie
lysogone.", Bull. World Health
Organization, 6, 249-263.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2554171/
(Institut Pasteur) Paris, France15
 
[1] André Michel Lwoff Nobel photo
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1965/lwoff.jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 11 12 		5379) In 1933 Chargaff moves to Paris
on the coming of Hitler.8
In 1935
Chargaff moves to the USA.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin Chargaff, "Chemical
specificity of nucleic acids and
mechanism of their enzymatic
degradation", Experientia, 1950, Volume
6, Number 6, 201-209, DOI:
10.1007/BF02173653 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p562475u36101146/ {Char
gaff_Erwin_1950xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ "Erwin Chargaff." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-charg
aff
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805.
4. ^ István
Hargittai, "Chargaff Centennial: Erwin
Chargaff (1905–2002)", Structural
Chemistry, Volume 16, Number 5,
455-456, DOI:
10.1007/s11224-005-6055-z http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/gh54t405882r8043/

5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p805.
10. ^ Erwin
Chargaff, "Chemical specificity of
nucleic acids and mechanism of their
enzymatic degradation", Experientia,
1950, Volume 6, Number 6, 201-209, DOI:
10.1007/BF02173653 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p562475u36101146/ {Char
gaff_Erwin_1950xxxx.pdf}
11. ^ "Erwin Chargaff." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-charg
aff {1950}
12. ^ Erwin Chargaff, "Chemical
specificity of nucleic acids and
mechanism of their enzymatic
degradation", Experientia, 1950, Volume
6, Number 6, 201-209, DOI:
10.1007/BF02173653 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p562475u36101146/ {Char
gaff_Erwin_1950xxxx.pdf}
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA10  
[1] Table from: Erwin Chargaff,
''Chemical specificity of nucleic acids
and mechanism of their enzymatic
degradation'', Experientia, 1950,
Volume 6, Number 6, 201-209, DOI:
10.1007/BF02173653 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p562475u36101146/ {Char
gaff_Erwin_1950xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p562475u36101146/

[2] Photograph of Erwin
Chargaff. Erwin Chargaff. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/
nirenberg/images/photos/03_chargaff_pu2.
jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 4 		5394)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
2. ^ Kuiper, G. P.,
"On the origin of asteroids",
Astronomical Journal, Vol. 55, p. 164
(1950). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=55&
plate_select=NO&page=164&plate=&cover=&j
ournal=AJ...
3. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "On the origin of
asteroids", Astronomical Journal, Vol.
55, p. 164
(1950). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=55&
plate_select=NO&page=164&plate=&cover=&j
ournal=AJ...
4. ^ Kuiper, G. P., "On the origin of
asteroids", Astronomical Journal, Vol.
55, p. 164
(1950). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=55&
plate_select=NO&page=164&plate=&cover=&j
ournal=AJ...

MORE INFO
[1] "Gerard Kuiper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerard-kuip
er
[2] Kuiper, G. P., "New White Dwarfs,
Subdwarfs, and Binary Stars.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 91,
p.269. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
940ApJ....91..269K
[3] Kuiper, G. P., "Two New White
Dwarfs of Large Parallax", Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 46, No. 273,
p.287. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
934PASP...46..287K
[4] Kuiper, G. P., "The White Dwarf A.
C. +70°8247, the Smallest Star Known",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 47, No.
280,
p.307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
935PASP...47..307K
[5] Kuiper, G. P., "Titan: a Satellite
with an Atmosphere.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
[6] GP Kuiper, "The Atmospheres of the
Earth and Planets", Chicago University
Press, 1949.
[7] Kuiper, Gerard P.,
"Planetary Atmospheres and Their
Origin, The atmospheres of the earth
and planets"; papers presented at the
Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium of the
Yerkes Observatory, September, 1947.
Edited by Gerard Peter Kuiper. Chicago
Chicago Press, 1949., p.306
[8] P Kuiper
Gerard, "Planetary and satellite
atmospheres", 1950 Rep. Prog. Phys. V13
p247. doi:
10.1088/0034-4885/13/1/306 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0034-4885/13/1/306/
[9] "Gerard Peter Kuiper."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/324484/Gerard-Peter-Kuiper>.
[10] Kuiper, G. P., "The Fifth
Satellite of Uranus", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 360,
p.129. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
949PASP...61..129K
[11] Kuiper, G. P., "The Second
Satellite of Neptune", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.175. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/s
eri/PASP./0061/0000175.000.html
[12] Kuiper, G. P., "The Diameter of
Pluto", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 62, No. 366,
p.133. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1950PASP...62..133K/0000135.000
.html
(Yerkes Observatory) Williams Bay,
Wisconsin, USA3  
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg
49 YBN
[03/??/1951 AD] 9 		5460)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "UNIVAC." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/618031/UNIVAC>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p823,870.
3. ^ "UNIVAC."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/618031/UNIVAC>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p823,870.
5. ^ "UNIVAC."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/618031/UNIVAC>.
6. ^ "UNIVAC I." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/univac-i
7. ^ Record ID4698. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=14
60710
9. ^ "UNIVAC." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/618031/UNIVAC>. {03/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] "J. Presper Eckert."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-presper-e
ckert
[2] "History of computing hardware".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
computing_hardware
[3] "ENIAC." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/183842/ENIAC>.
[4]
http://inventors.about.com/od/uvstartinv
entions/a/UNIVAC.htm
(Remington Rand) Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA8  
[1] Photo by U. S. Navy Electronics
Supply Office as part of the Report
Department of the Army, Ballistic
Research Laboratories - Maryland, A
third survey of domestic electronic
digital computing systems, Report No
1115, 1961, The UNIVAC
II http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL61
-u4.html#UNIVAC-II PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Univac-I-Navy-Electro
nics-Supply-Office-BRL61-0992.jpg

[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN

source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg
49 YBN
[05/05/1951 AD] 11 		5664)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and
E. T. Byram, "Photon Counter
Measurements of Solar X-Rays and
Extreme Ultraviolet Light", Phys. Rev.
83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1 {Friedman_Herbert_1951
0510.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
3. ^ "Herbert
Friedman." Dictionary of Astronomy,
John Wiley . Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
4. ^ Gursky, H., "Obituary: Herbert
Friedman, 1916-2000", Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, vol. 32,
no. 4, p.
1665-1666. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/2000BAAS...32.1665G
5. ^ Record ID3940. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ H. Friedman,
S. W. Lichtman, and E. T. Byram,
"Photon Counter Measurements of Solar
X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet Light",
Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1 {Friedman_Herbert_1951
0510.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ H.
Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E. T.
Byram, "Photon Counter Measurements of
Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light", Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1 {Friedman_Herbert_1951
0510.pdf}
11. ^ H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and
E. T. Byram, "Photon Counter
Measurements of Solar X-Rays and
Extreme Ultraviolet Light", Phys. Rev.
83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1 {Friedman_Herbert_1951
0510.pdf} {05/05/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] "Herbert Friedman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA10  
[1] H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E.
T. Byram, ''Photon Counter Measurements
of Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light'', Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1 {Friedman_Herbert_1951
0510.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v83/i5/p1025_1

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
49 YBN
[05/08/1951 AD] 6 		5097)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p732.
3. ^ A. H.
Sturtevant, "A map of the fourth
chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster,
based on crossing over in triploid
females", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1951 July; 37(7): 405–407.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063387/ {Sturtevant_Alfred_19510
508.pdf}
4. ^ A. H. Sturtevant, "A map of the
fourth chromosome of Drosophila
melanogaster, based on crossing over in
triploid females", Proc Natl Acad Sci U
S A. 1951 July; 37(7): 405–407.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063387/ {Sturtevant_Alfred_19510
508.pdf}
5. ^ A. H. Sturtevant, "A map of the
fourth chromosome of Drosophila
melanogaster, based on crossing over in
triploid females", Proc Natl Acad Sci U
S A. 1951 July; 37(7): 405–407.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063387/ {Sturtevant_Alfred_19510
508.pdf}
6. ^ A. H. Sturtevant, "A map of the
fourth chromosome of Drosophila
melanogaster, based on crossing over in
triploid females", Proc Natl Acad Sci U
S A. 1951 July; 37(7): 405–407.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1063387/ {Sturtevant_Alfred_19510
508.pdf} {05/08/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] A. H. Sturtevant, "The linear
arrangement of six sex‐linked factors
in Drosophila, as shown by their mode
of association", Journal of
Experimental Zoology, Volume 14, Issue
1, pages 43–59, 20 January 1913
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California5  
[1] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/ima
ges/11abio.gif

[2] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/ng/journal
/v34/n3/images/ng0703-242-I1.jpg
49 YBN
[06/05/1951 AD] 11 		5482)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833,853.
2. ^ "A.J.P. Martin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/366875/A-J-P-Martin>.
3. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P. Martin,
"Gas-liquid partition chromatography:
the separation and micro-estimation of
volatile fatty acids from formic acid
to dodecanoic acid", Biochem J. 1952
March; 50(5): 679–690.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1197726/ {Martin_Archer_19510605.
pdf}
4. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P. Martin,
"GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY: A Technique
for the Analysis and Identification of
Volatile Materials", Br Med Bull (1954)
10 (3):
170-176. http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/
content/10/3/170.full.pdf+html {Martin_
Archer_195412xx.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "gas chromatography." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 13 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gas-chromat
ography
7. ^ Martin, A. J. P. & Synge, R. L.
M., "A new form of chromatogram
employing two liquid phases",
Biochem J. 1941 December; 35(12):
1358–1368.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1265645/ {Martin_Archer_19411119.
pdf}
8. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P. Martin,
"GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY: A Technique
for the Analysis and Identification of
Volatile Materials", Br Med Bull (1954)
10 (3):
170-176. http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/
content/10/3/170.full.pdf+html {Martin_
Archer_195412xx.pdf}
9. ^ "A.J.P. Martin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/366875/A-J-P-Martin>.
10. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P. Martin,
"Gas-liquid partition chromatography:
the separation and micro-estimation of
volatile fatty acids from formic acid
to dodecanoic acid", Biochem J. 1952
March; 50(5): 679–690.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1197726/ {Martin_Archer_19510605.
pdf}
11. ^ A. T. James and A. J. P. Martin,
"Gas-liquid partition chromatography:
the separation and micro-estimation of
volatile fatty acids from formic acid
to dodecanoic acid", Biochem J. 1952
March; 50(5): 679–690.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1197726/ {Martin_Archer_19510605.
pdf} {06/05/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1952". Nobelprize.org. 13 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1952/
[2] "R.L.M. Synge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/578466/R-L-M-Synge>
[3] R. Consden, A. H. Gordon, and A. J.
P. Martin, "Qualitative analysis of
proteins: a partition chromatographic
method using paper", Biochem J. 1944;
38(3): 224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/
(National Institute for Medical
Research) Mill Hill, London, UK10
 
[1] Plate from: R. Consden, A. H.
Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin,
''Qualitative analysis of proteins: a
partition chromatographic method using
paper'', Biochem J. 1944; 38(3):
224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1258072/

[2] Archer John Porter Martin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1952/marti
n_postcard.jpg
49 YBN
[06/14/1951 AD] 9 		5566)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. I. EWEN & E. M. PURCELL,
"Observation of a Line in the Galactic
Radio Spectrum: Radiation from Galactic
Hydrogen at 1,420 Mc./sec.", Nature
168, 356 (01 September 1951);
doi:10.1038/168356a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v168/n4270/abs/16835
6a0.html {Purcell_Edward_Mills_19510614
.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p845.
3. ^ "E.M. Purcell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/483786/E-M-Purcell>.
4. ^ H. I. EWEN & E. M. PURCELL,
"Observation of a Line in the Galactic
Radio Spectrum: Radiation from Galactic
Hydrogen at 1,420 Mc./sec.", Nature
168, 356 (01 September 1951);
doi:10.1038/168356a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v168/n4270/abs/16835
6a0.html {Purcell_Edward_Mills_19510614
.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ H. I.
EWEN & E. M. PURCELL, "Observation of a
Line in the Galactic Radio Spectrum:
Radiation from Galactic Hydrogen at
1,420 Mc./sec.", Nature 168, 356 (01
September 1951);
doi:10.1038/168356a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v168/n4270/abs/16835
6a0.html {Purcell_Edward_Mills_19510614
.pdf}
9. ^ H. I. EWEN & E. M. PURCELL,
"Observation of a Line in the Galactic
Radio Spectrum: Radiation from Galactic
Hydrogen at 1,420 Mc./sec.", Nature
168, 356 (01 September 1951);
doi:10.1038/168356a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v168/n4270/abs/16835
6a0.html {Purcell_Edward_Mills_19510614
.pdf} {06/14/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1952". Nobelprize.org. 27 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1952/
[2] E. M. Purcell, H. C. Torrey, and R.
V. Pound, "Resonance Absorption by
Nuclear Magnetic Moments in a Solid",
Phys. Rev. 69, 37
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i1-2/p37_1
[3] "Edward Mills Purcell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-mill
s-purcell
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA8  
[1] Edward Mills Purcell Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1952/purcell
_postcard.jpg
49 YBN
[07/26/1951 AD] 8 		5504) In 1964, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Konrad Bloch and Feodor
Lynen "for their discoveries concerning
the mechanism and regulation of the
cholesterol and fatty acid
metabolism".6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lynen, F., Reichert, E, and
Rueff, L., "Zum biologischen Abbau der
Essigsäure VI. 'Aktivierte
Essigsäure', ihre Isolierung aus Hefe
und ihre chemische Natur", Annalen der
Chemie, Oct. 1951, V574, I1,
p1-32. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract En
glish: "For the biodegradation of
acetic acid VI. "activated acetic
acid", its isolation from yeast and its
chemical
nature" {Lynen_Feodor_19510726.pdf}
2. ^ F. LYNEN, "Participation of
Coenzyme a in the Oxidation of Fat",
Nature 174, 962 - 965 (20 November
1954);
doi:10.1038/174962a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v174/n4438/abs/17496
2a0.html {Lynen_Feodor_19541120.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
4. ^ Lynen, F.,
Reichert, E, and Rueff, L., "Zum
biologischen Abbau der Essigsäure VI.
'Aktivierte Essigsäure', ihre
Isolierung aus Hefe und ihre chemische
Natur", Annalen der Chemie, Oct. 1951,
V574, I1,
p1-32. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract En
glish: "For the biodegradation of
acetic acid VI. "activated acetic
acid", its isolation from yeast and its
chemical
nature" {Lynen_Feodor_19510726.pdf}
5. ^ "Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/feodor-feli
x-konrad-lynen
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1964". Nobelprize.org. 18 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1964/
7. ^ Lynen, F., Reichert, E, and Rueff,
L., "Zum biologischen Abbau der
Essigsäure VI. 'Aktivierte
Essigsäure', ihre Isolierung aus Hefe
und ihre chemische Natur", Annalen der
Chemie, Oct. 1951, V574, I1,
p1-32. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract En
glish: "For the biodegradation of
acetic acid VI. "activated acetic
acid", its isolation from yeast and its
chemical
nature" {Lynen_Feodor_19510726.pdf}
8. ^ Lynen, F., Reichert, E, and Rueff,
L., "Zum biologischen Abbau der
Essigsäure VI. 'Aktivierte
Essigsäure', ihre Isolierung aus Hefe
und ihre chemische Natur", Annalen der
Chemie, Oct. 1951, V574, I1,
p1-32. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract En
glish: "For the biodegradation of
acetic acid VI. "activated acetic
acid", its isolation from yeast and its
chemical
nature" {Lynen_Feodor_19510726.pdf}
{07/26/1951}
(University of Munich {Munchen})
Munich, Germany7  
[1] Lynen, F., Reichert, E, and Rueff,
L., ''Zum biologischen Abbau der
Essigsäure VI. 'Aktivierte
Essigsäure', ihre Isolierung aus Hefe
und ihre chemische Natur'', Annalen der
Chemie, Oct. 1951, V574, I1,
p1-32. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract En
glish: ''For the biodegradation of
acetic acid VI. ''activated acetic
acid'', its isolation from yeast and
its chemical
nature'' {Lynen_Feodor_19510726.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract

[2] Feodor Lynen Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1964/lynen.jpg
49 YBN
[08/27/1951 AD] 14 		5516)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
2. ^ "Erwin Mueller."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
3. ^ EW Müller, "Das
Feldionenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/ {Mueller_Erwin
_W_19510827.pdf}
4. ^ EW Müller, "Die Sichtbarmachung
einzelner Atome und Moleküle im
Feldelektronenemikroskop", Zeitschrift
Naturforschung Teil A, 1950.
5. ^ "Erwin
Mueller." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
6. ^ EW Müller, "Das
Feldionenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/ {Mueller_Erwin
_W_19510827.pdf}
7. ^ "adsorption." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adsorption
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
9. ^ W H Escovitz, T
R Fox, and R Levi-Setti, "Scanning
transmission ion microscope with a
field ion source", PNAS May 1, 1975
vol. 72 no. 5 1826-1828
http://www.pnas.org/content/72/5/1826
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ EW Müller, "Das
Feldionenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/ {Mueller_Erwin
_W_19510827.pdf}
14. ^ EW Müller, "Das
Feldionenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/ {Mueller_Erwin
_W_19510827.pdf} {08/27/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
[2] "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>
[3] Erwin W. Müller,
"Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract
(Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physical
Chemistry and Electrochemistry)
Berlin-Dahlem, Germany13  
[1] ''Fig 2. Electron image of single
crystalline tungsten tip cap. Tip
radius of 940 A, in the Middle of the
110 surface. Fig 3. Ion image of the
same point with elevated resolving
power'' Figures 2 and 3 from: EW
Müller, ''Das Feldionenmikroskop'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/ {Mueller_Erwin
_W_19510827.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g1047036xth03316/

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
49 YBN
[09/14/1951 AD] 4 5 		5150)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747-748.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://analyzer.depaul.edu/see_project/o
rbits/geographos.htm
4. ^
http://analyzer.depaul.edu/see_project/o
rbits/geographos.htm {09/14/1951}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p747-748. {1951}

MORE INFO
[1] Minkowski, R., "Spectra of
Supernovae", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 53, No. 314,
p.224. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1941PASP...53..224M/0000224.000
.html
(Palomar Observatory) Mount Palomar,
California, USA3  
[1] on Minkowski,Rudolph 1934
London.jpg English: Physicist Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Minkowski%2CRudolph_1
934_London.jpg
49 YBN
[10/??/1951 AD] 8 		5505)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lynen, F., Reichert, E, and
Rueff, L., "Zum biologischen Abbau der
Essigsäure VI. 'Aktivierte
Essigsäure', ihre Isolierung aus Hefe
und ihre chemische Natur", Annalen der
Chemie, Oct. 1951, V574, I1,
p1-32. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract En
glish: "For the biodegradation of
acetic acid VI. "activated acetic
acid", its isolation from yeast and its
chemical
nature" {Lynen_Feodor_19510726.pdf}
2. ^ F. Lynen, "Die biologische
Bedeiclung der Acylmercaptan-Bindung",
Angewandte Chemie, Volume 63, Issue 20,
pages 483–493, 21. Oktober
1951. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/ange.19510632004/abstract {Ly
nen_Feodor_195110xx.pdf}
3. ^ Barker, H. A., in McElroy, W. D.,
and Glass, B., "Phosphorus Metabolism",
Vol. 1, Johns Hopkins Press, 1951,
p204.
4. ^ F. LYNEN, "Participation of
Coenzyme a in the Oxidation of Fat",
Nature 174, 962 - 965 (20 November
1954);
doi:10.1038/174962a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v174/n4438/abs/17496
2a0.html {Lynen_Feodor_19541120.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
6. ^ "Feodor Felix
Konrad Lynen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/feodor-feli
x-konrad-lynen
7. ^ F. LYNEN, "Participation of
Coenzyme a in the Oxidation of Fat",
Nature 174, 962 - 965 (20 November
1954);
doi:10.1038/174962a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v174/n4438/abs/17496
2a0.html {Lynen_Feodor_19541120.pdf}
8. ^ F. Lynen, "Die biologische
Bedeiclung der Acylmercaptan-Bindung",
Angewandte Chemie, Volume 63, Issue 20,
pages 483–493, 21. Oktober
1951. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/ange.19510632004/abstract {Ly
nen_Feodor_195110xx.pdf} {10/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1964".
Nobelprize.org. 18 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1964/
(University of Munich {Munchen})
Munich, Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from (note this is from
1954): F. LYNEN, ''Participation of
Coenzyme a in the Oxidation of Fat'',
Nature 174, 962 - 965 (20 November
1954);
doi:10.1038/174962a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v174/n4438/abs/17496
2a0.html {Lynen_Feodor_19541120.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v174/n4438/abs/174962a0.html

[2] Feodor Lynen Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1964/lynen.jpg
49 YBN
[11/11/1951 AD] 4 		6274)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tape Recording Used by Filmless
'Camera'," New York Times, Nov. 12,
1951, p. 21.
2. ^ Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis
Mee, and Mark H. Clark (eds.), Magnetic
Recording: The First 100 Years, IEEE
Press, 1998, p. 141. ISBN 0-07-041275-8
3. ^
"videotape." How Products are Made. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com 27
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/videotape
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p94.
{1951}
Los Angeles, California, USA[  
49 YBN
[11/29/1951 AD] 7 		5610)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Underground nuclear testing#cite
ref-tecsoc 8-0". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground
_nuclear_testing#cite_ref-tecsoc_8-0
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Underground nuclear
testing#cite ref-tecsoc 8-0".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground
_nuclear_testing#cite_ref-tecsoc_8-0
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Nevada Test
Site". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_Test
_Site
7. ^ "Operation Buster-Jangle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_B
uster-Jangle {11/29/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of underground nuclear
explosive test:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S1f6vbiuU
t0
[2] Buster-Jangle Uncle test video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqS1Qk2GK
BE
[3]
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Nts.html
(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving
Grounds) Nye County, Nevada, USA6
 
[1] This is a photograph of the
Buster-Jangle Uncle nuclear test, in
November 1951. The original image was
taken from this Dod document, and
should thus be public domain. Cropped
and digitally enhanced by
User:Jakew. http://www.dtra.mil/rd/prog
rams/nuclear_personnel/docs%5CT24299.PDF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/44/UncleNuclearTest1951.jpg
49 YBN
[12/13/1951 AD] 14 		5313) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine for 1963 is awarded jointly to
Sir John Carew Eccles, Alan Lloyd
Hodgkin and Andrew Fielding Huxley "for
their discoveries concerning the ionic
mechanisms involved in excitation and
inhibition in the peripheral and
central portions of the nerve cell
membrane".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p791.
2. ^ "John Eccles." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-carew-
eccles
3. ^ L. G. BROCK, J. S. COOMBS AND J.
C. ECCLES, "THE RECORDING OF POTENTIALS
FROM MOTONEURONES WITH AN INTRACELLULAR
ELECTRODE", The Journal of Physiology,
1952
http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/431
.full.pdf {Eccles_John_19511213.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p791.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ L. G.
BROCK, J. S. COOMBS AND J. C. ECCLES,
"THE RECORDING OF POTENTIALS FROM
MOTONEURONES WITH AN INTRACELLULAR
ELECTRODE", The Journal of Physiology,
1952
http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/431
.full.pdf {Eccles_John_19511213.pdf}
7. ^ BERNHARD KATZ, "NEURO-MUSCULAR
TRANSMISSION IN CRABS", The Journal of
Physiology, 1936,
p199. http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3
/199.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19360311.p
df}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
9. ^ Shepherd, Gordon
M. "Eccles, John Carew." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 20. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 329-333. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 15 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905635&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1963".
Nobelprize.org. 16 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1963/
13. ^ L. G. BROCK, J. S. COOMBS AND J.
C. ECCLES, "THE RECORDING OF POTENTIALS
FROM MOTONEURONES WITH AN INTRACELLULAR
ELECTRODE", The Journal of Physiology,
1952
http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/431
.full.pdf {Eccles_John_19511213.pdf}
14. ^ L. G. BROCK, J. S. COOMBS AND J.
C. ECCLES, "THE RECORDING OF POTENTIALS
FROM MOTONEURONES WITH AN INTRACELLULAR
ELECTRODE", The Journal of Physiology,
1952
http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/431
.full.pdf {Eccles_John_19511213.pdf}
{12/13/1951}

MORE INFO
[1] John Carew Eccles, "Reflex
Activity of the Spinal Cord" (1932).
[2] John
Carew Eccles, "The Physiology of Nerve
Cells" (1957)
[3] John Carew Eccles, "The
Inhibitory Pathways of the Central
Nervous System" (1969)
[4] John Carew Eccles,
"The Understanding of the Brain"
(1973).
[5] John Carew Eccles, "The
neurophysiological basis of mind: the
principles of neurophysiology.", Oxford
University Press, 1953.
[6] J. C. Eccles,
"The mechanism of synaptic
transmission." Ergebnisse der
Physiologie, biologischen Chemie und
experimentellen Pharmakologie, V51,
1961, p299-430.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n8
686843kg246236/
(Universities of Otago, Dunedin, and
Australian National University,
Canberra) Canberra, Australia13  
[1] Sir John Carew Eccles Notice,
another photo of a scientist with an
''on-the-phone'' pose. Perhaps it is to
show the enormity of the injustice and
crime done by the secret of neuron
writing. What else could it signify?
Perhaps the shocking and unbelievable
idiocy of it all - the 200 or more year
secret. The idiocy seen by those who do
get to see, must be shocking even to
desensitized observers.[t] UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1963/eccles
_postcard.jpg
49 YBN
[12/20/1951 AD] 8 9 		5444)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Experimental Breeder Reactor 1
factsheet, Idaho National
Laboratory http://www.inl.gov/factsheet
s/ebr-1.pdf
2. ^ "Fifty years ago in December:
Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first
electricity", American Nuclear Society
Nuclear news, November
2001. http://www.ans.org/pubs/magazines
/nn/docs/2001-11-2.pdf
3. ^ Experimental Breeder Reactor 1
factsheet, Idaho National
Laboratory http://www.inl.gov/factsheet
s/ebr-1.pdf
4. ^ "Fifty years ago in December:
Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first
electricity", American Nuclear Society
Nuclear news, November
2001. http://www.ans.org/pubs/magazines
/nn/docs/2001-11-2.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820.
6. ^ "Experimental
Breeder Reactor I#cite
note-factsheet-2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenta
l_Breeder_Reactor_I#cite_note-factsheet-
2
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Experimental Breeder
Reactor 1 factsheet, Idaho National
Laboratory http://www.inl.gov/factsheet
s/ebr-1.pdf {12/20/1951}
9. ^ "Fifty years ago in
December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced
first electricity", American Nuclear
Society Nuclear news, November
2001. http://www.ans.org/pubs/magazines
/nn/docs/2001-11-2.pdf {12/20/1951}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=wzinn.html
[2] "Walter Henry Zinn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 04 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/657413/Walter-Henry-Zinn>
[3] "breeder reactor." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breeder-rea
ctor
[4] "Walter Henry Zinn." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-henr
y-zinn
[5] WH Zinn, "Introduction to nuclear
engineering", American Journal of
Physics, January 1955 Volume 23, Issue
1, pp.
74. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajpi
as/v23/i1/p74_s1
[6] W. H. ZINN, "FAST NEUTRON REACTION
SYSTEM", Patent number: 2975117, Filing
date: Jan 9, 1947, Issue date: Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[7] W. H. ZINN, "POWER REACTOR", Patent
number: 2841545, Filing date: Jun 15,
1954, Issue date: Jul 1,
1958. http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=5n1MAAAAEBAJ&dq=zinn+w
Arco, Idaho6 (verify7 ) 
[1] The first production of usable
nuclear electricity in Idaho National
Laboratory occured in December 20,
1951, when four light bulbs were lit
with electricity generated from the
EBR-1 reactor. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_li
t_bulbs.jpeg

[2] Description
Ebr-1.zdv.jpg Photo of Experimental
Breeder Reactor Number One
(EBR-1). Date Source
http://www.inel.gov/featurestories/
images/ebr-1.jpg Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Ebr-1.zdv.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 8 		3338)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ T. E. Allibone,
"Development of the Spark Discharge",
Volume 161 Number 4103, (19 June 1948),
p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf}
3. ^ Hagenguth J. H., Rohlfs A. F. and
Degnan W. J., 1951, Trans. Amer. Inst.
Elec. Engrs, 71, p455.
{Hagenguth_1952.pdf}
4. ^ T. E. Allibone, "Development of
the Spark Discharge", Volume 161 Number
4103, (19 June 1948), p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf}
5. ^ Hagenguth J. H., Rohlfs A. F. and
Degnan W. J., 1951, Trans. Amer. Inst.
Elec. Engrs, 71, p455.
{Hagenguth_1952.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ T. E. Allibone,
"Development of the Spark Discharge",
Volume 161 Number 4103, (19 June 1948),
p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf} {1951}
 
[1] Figure 10: Streamer or glow
formation between rods spaced 200
inches during negative polarity impulse
test at 3,000-kv. Line electrode
(negative) on left (photographed
through quartz lens) Figure 11: Same
condition as for Figure 10. The glow is
further developed and bridges the whole
gap. Note bright streamer from ground
electrode. COPYRIGHTED
source: Hagenguth_1952.pdf
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 6 		3339)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. E. Allibone, "Development of
the Spark Discharge", Volume 161 Number
4103, (19 June 1948), p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf}
2. ^ H. M. Gaunt & J. D. Craggs,
"Pre-Breakdown Discharges in D.C.
Positive Point to Plane Corona",
Nature, 17 November 1951 Vol 168 No
4281,
p859-861. {Gaunt_Craggs_1951_168859a0.p
df}
3. ^ H. M. Gaunt & J. D. Craggs,
"Pre-Breakdown Discharges in D.C.
Positive Point to Plane Corona",
Nature, 17 November 1951 Vol 168 No
4281,
p859-861. {Gaunt_Craggs_1951_168859a0.p
df}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ H. M. Gaunt & J. D.
Craggs, "Pre-Breakdown Discharges in
D.C. Positive Point to Plane Corona",
Nature, 17 November 1951 Vol 168 No
4281,
p859-861. {Gaunt_Craggs_1951_168859a0.p
df}
6. ^ T. E. Allibone, "Development of
the Spark Discharge", Volume 161 Number
4103, (19 June 1948), p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf} {1951}
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England5  
[1] electric discharge in 1) air 2)
nitrogen 3) argon COPYRIGHTED NATURE
1951
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v168/n4281/pdf/168859a0.pdf
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 5 		5091) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730.
2. ^ Nicholson, S.
B., "An unidentified object near
Jupiter, probably a new
satellite" http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/seri/PASP./0063/0000297.000.html
3. ^ "Seth Barnes Nicholson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seth-barnes
-nicholson
4. ^ "Seth Barnes Nicholson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seth-barnes
-nicholson
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730. {1951}

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholson, S. B., "Discovery,
observations, and orbit of the ninth
satellite of Jupiter", Lick Observatory
bulletin ; no. 271; Lick Observatory
bulletins ; no. 271., Berkeley :
University of California Press, 1915,
p.
147-149. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1915LicOB...8..147N
[2] Pettit, E. & Nicholson, S. B.,
"Stellar radiation measurements.",
Astrophys. J., 68, 279-308
(1928). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1928ApJ....68..279P
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p730.
[4] Pettit, E. &
Nicholson, S. B., "Temperature of the
Dark Side of the Moon and of the Moon
During Eclipse", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 39, No. 230,
p.227. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1927PASP...39..227P/0000228.000
.html
[5] Nicholson, S. B., "The Satellites
of Jupiter", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 51, No. 300,
p.85. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/se
ri/PASP./0051/0000093.000.html
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA4  
[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 7 		5129) After a few months of returning
from Berkeley to Germany Hitler assumes
power and Simon resigns in June 1933
and accepts the invitation of F. A.
Lindemann (later Lord Cherwell) to work
at the Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford,
where a small helium liquefaction plant
has been set up by one of Simon’s
former co-workers. K. Mendelssohn.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p740-741.
2. ^ "William
Giauque." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-fra
ncis-giauque
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Simon, Franz
Eugen (Francis)." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 12.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
437-439. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904029&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Simon, Franz Eugen (Francis)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 437-439. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904029&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Simon, Franz Eugen (Francis)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 437-439. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904029&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1951}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p600
(Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford
University) Oxford, England6  
[1] source:
http://www.jstor.org/view/00804606/ap030
006/03a00200/1?searchUrl=http%3a//www.js
tor.org/search/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26
si%3d1%26Query%3dfranz%2beugen%2bsimon&f
rame=noframe¤tResult=00804606%2bap
030006%2b03a00200%2b0%2cFBFFFF5F03&userI
D=817f1c03@adelaide.edu.au/01cce4405f005
01b551c8&dpi=3&config=jstor Gov
photo prior to 1956 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/22/Sir_Francis_Simon.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 10 11 		5152)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p748.
3. ^ "Tamm, Igor
Evgenievich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 239-242.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904247&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p875.
5. ^ Gorelik,
Gennady. "Sakharov, Andrei
Dmitriyevich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 324-330.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906065&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
Gorelik, Gennady. "Sakharov, Andrei
Dmitriyevich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 324-330.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906065&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ Gorelik, Gennady. "Sakharov,
Andrei Dmitriyevich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 324-330. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906065&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {early 1950s}
11. ^ "Igor
Yevgenyevich Tamm". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Yevgen
yevich_Tamm {1951 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] I Tamm, “Kogerentnoe
izluchenie bystrogo elektrona v
srede” (“Coherent Radiation of Fast
Electrons Passing Through Matter”),
Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR, 14, no. 3
(1937), 107 – 112
[2] I Tamm, I. M. Frank
and P. A. Cherenkov, “Svechenie
chistykh zhidkostey pod deystviem
bystrykh elektronov”
(“Luminenscence of Pure Liquids Under
the Influence of Fast Electrons”),
Izvestiya Akademii nauk SSSR, Seria
fiz. (1938), nos. 1 – 2, 29
[3]
"Cerenkov radiation." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 19 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cerenkov-ra
diation
[4] Kojevnikov, Alexei. "Cherenkov,
Pavel Alekseyevich." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 20. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 106-111. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905575&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1958/
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p748.
Volga region, (Soviet Union) Russia9
 
[1] Photo of Igor Tamm from the
official web site of the Russian
Academy of Sciences:
http://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P=
.id-52317.ln-en COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/50/Tamm.jpg

[2] Andrei Sakharov COPYRIGHTED
source: Sakharov_Andrei.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 7 		5226)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769.
2. ^ "Fritz Albert
Lipmann." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Fritz
Albert Lipmann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fritz-alber
t-lipmann
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p768-769. {1951}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1953".
Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/
[2] FRITZ LIPMANN, "Role of Phosphate
in Pyruvic Acid Dehydrogenation",
Nature, 144, 381-382 (26 August
1939). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v144/n3643/pdf/144381b0.pdf
[3] Lipmann, Enzymologia, 4, 65 (1937).
[4] F
Lipmann, "Metabollc generatlon and
utlllsatlon of phosphate bond
energy",Advances in Enzymology, 1941.
[5]
Lipmann, F., Federation Proc, 4, 97
(1945); J. Biol. Chem., 160, 173
(1945).
[6] Lipmann, March 1, 1947 The Journal
of Biological Chemistry, 167,
869-870.
http://www.jbc.org/content/167/3/869.s
hort
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 9 		5302)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Eckert, Wallace John; Brouwer,
Dirk; Clemence, G. M., "Coordinates of
the five outer planets, 1653-2060",
United States. Nautical Almanac Office.
Astronomical paper ; v.12 (1951),
Washington : U.S. Nautical Almanac
Office, 1951, xxxi 327 p. 29
cm. http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pweb
recon.cgi?v3=1&ti=1,1&SEQ=20110214042320
&CMD=lccn%2251061226%22&CNT=10&PID=ujcNo
uuQ3uVds1L2ZzQs1sch68fkL&SID=1
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
3. ^ Eckert, Wallace
John; Brouwer, Dirk; Clemence, G. M.,
"Coordinates of the five outer planets,
1653-2060", United States. Nautical
Almanac Office. Astronomical paper ;
v.12 (1951), Washington : U.S. Nautical
Almanac Office, 1951, xxxi 327 p. 29
cm. http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pweb
recon.cgi?v3=1&ti=1,1&SEQ=20110214042320
&CMD=lccn%2251061226%22&CNT=10&PID=ujcNo
uuQ3uVds1L2ZzQs1sch68fkL&SID=1
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
5. ^
http://melvyl.worldcat.org/title/coordin
ates-of-the-five-outer-planets-1653-2060
/oclc/606424135&referer=brief_results
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790. {1951}
 
[1] Dirk Brouwer A leader in the
field of celestial mechanics. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nmspacemuseum.org/hal
loffame/images/large/brouwer.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 6 		5876)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION AND
GENIC EXPRESSION", Cold Spring Harb
Symp Quant Biol 1951 16:
13-47; http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/16/13.full.pdf+html
2. ^ "Barbara McClintock." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/barbara-mcc
lintock
3. ^ "CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION AND GENIC
EXPRESSION", Cold Spring Harb Symp
Quant Biol 1951 16:
13-47; http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/16/13.full.pdf+html
4. ^ "Barbara McClintock." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/barbara-mcc
lintock
5. ^ "CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION AND GENIC
EXPRESSION", Cold Spring Harb Symp
Quant Biol 1951 16:
13-47; http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/16/13.full.pdf+html
6. ^ "CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION AND GENIC
EXPRESSION", Cold Spring Harb Symp
Quant Biol 1951 16:
13-47; http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/16/13.full.pdf+html

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1983".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Jun 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1983/
[2] L. F. Randolph and B. McClintock,
"Polyploidy in Zea Mays L.", The
American Naturalist, Vol. 60, No. 666
(Jan. - Feb., 1926), pp.
99-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2456
317
(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold
Spring Harbor, New York, USA5  
[1] McClintock,
Barbara Portrait Born: 1902 AD Died:
1992 AD, at 90 years of age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.s9.com/images/portrai
ts/19876_McClintock-Barbara.jpg
48 YBN
[03/10/1952 AD] 14 		5584) Andrew Huxley is the grandson of
T. H. Huxley.11

In 1963, the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is awarded jointly to Sir
John Carew Eccles, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin
and Andrew Fielding Huxley "for their
discoveries concerning the ionic
mechanisms involved in excitation and
inhibition in the peripheral and
central portions of the nerve cell
membrane".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. L. Hodgkin, A. F. Huxley, "A
quantitative description of membrane
current and its application to
conduction and excitation in nerve",
Journal of physiology, (1952) volume:
117 issue: 4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848-849,865.
3. ^ "Sir Alan
Hodgkin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/268600/Sir-Alan-Hodgkin>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848-849,865.
5. ^ A. L. Hodgkin,
A. F. Huxley, "A quantitative
description of membrane current and its
application to conduction and
excitation in nerve", Journal of
physiology, (1952) volume: 117 issue:
4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df}
6. ^ A. L. Hodgkin, A. F. Huxley, "A
quantitative description of membrane
current and its application to
conduction and excitation in nerve",
Journal of physiology, (1952) volume:
117 issue: 4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848-849,865.
12. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1963".
Nobelprize.org. 28 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1963/
13. ^ A. L. Hodgkin, A. F. Huxley, "A
quantitative description of membrane
current and its application to
conduction and excitation in nerve",
Journal of physiology, (1952) volume:
117 issue: 4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df}
14. ^ A. L. Hodgkin, A. F. Huxley, "A
quantitative description of membrane
current and its application to
conduction and excitation in nerve",
Journal of physiology, (1952) volume:
117 issue: 4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df} {03/10/1952}
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England13  
[1] Figure 1 from: A. L. Hodgkin, A.
F. Huxley, ''A quantitative description
of membrane current and its application
to conduction and excitation in
nerve'', Journal of physiology, (1952)
volume: 117 issue: 4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/117
/4/500.full

[2] Alan Lloyd Hodgkin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1963/hodgki
n_postcard.jpg
48 YBN
[03/15/1952 AD] 11 		5562) In 1979 the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded jointly to Herbert
C. Brown and Georg Wittig "for their
development of the use of boron- and
phosphorus-containing compounds,
respectively, into important reagents
in organic synthesis".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "reducing agent." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reducing-ag
ent
2. ^ H. I. Schlesinger, Herbert C.
Brown, A. E. Finholt, James R.
Gilbreath, Henry R. Hoekstra, Earl K.
Hyde, "Sodium Borohydride, Its
Hydrolysis and its Use as a Reducing
Agent and in the Generation of
Hydrogen", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1953, 75
(1), pp
215–219. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01097a057 {Brown_Herbert_Char
les_19520315.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p843.
4. ^ "Brown, Herbert
Charles." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-bro
wn
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p843.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p843.
7. ^ H. I.
Schlesinger, Herbert C. Brown, A. E.
Finholt, James R. Gilbreath, Henry R.
Hoekstra, Earl K. Hyde, "Sodium
Borohydride, Its Hydrolysis and its Use
as a Reducing Agent and in the
Generation of Hydrogen", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1953, 75 (1), pp
215–219. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01097a057 {Brown_Herbert_Char
les_19520315.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1979". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1979/
10. ^ H. I. Schlesinger, Herbert C.
Brown, A. E. Finholt, James R.
Gilbreath, Henry R. Hoekstra, Earl K.
Hyde, "Sodium Borohydride, Its
Hydrolysis and its Use as a Reducing
Agent and in the Generation of
Hydrogen", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1953, 75
(1), pp
215–219. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01097a057 {Brown_Herbert_Char
les_19520315.pdf}
11. ^ H. I. Schlesinger, Herbert C.
Brown, A. E. Finholt, James R.
Gilbreath, Henry R. Hoekstra, Earl K.
Hyde, "Sodium Borohydride, Its
Hydrolysis and its Use as a Reducing
Agent and in the Generation of
Hydrogen", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1953, 75
(1), pp
215–219. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01097a057 {Brown_Herbert_Char
les_19520315.pdf} {03/15/1952}
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA10  
[1] Herbert C. Brown Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1979/brown
_postcard.jpg
48 YBN
[03/21/1952 AD] 12 		5655)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. R. Haynes and H. B. Briggs,
"Radiation produced in Germanium and
Silicon by Electron-Hole
Recombination.", Physical Review, vol
86, April-June 1952, p647.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v86/i
4/p637_1 {Briggs_H_B_19520321.pdf}
2. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
3. ^ J. I. Pankove and M. Massoulie.
"Recombination Radiation in a Gallium
Arsenide P-N Junction," The
Electrochem. Soc., Electronics Div.
(Abstracts), vol. 11, pp. 71-75, Spring
Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif.; May 6-10,
1962.
4. ^ R. J. Keyes and T.M. Quist,
"Recombination Radiation Emitted by
Gallium Arsenide", Proc. IEEE (Inst.
Electron. Radio Engrs.), 50 (1962)
1822. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066929 {Quist_T_M_
19620525.pdf}
5. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
6. ^ J. R. Haynes and H. B. Briggs,
"Radiation produced in Germanium and
Silicon by Electron-Hole
Recombination.", Physical Review, vol
86, April-June 1952, p647.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v86/i
4/p637_1 {Briggs_H_B_19520321.pdf}
7. ^ William E. Bradley, "Electronic
Cooling Device and Method For the
Fabrication Thereof", Patent number:
2898743, Filing date: Jul 23, 1956,
Issue date: Aug 11,
1959. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
HEcCAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
8. ^ Keyes, R.J.; Quist, T.M.,
"Radiation emitted by gallium arsenide
diodes", Electron Devices, IRE
Transactions, 1962, Volume: 9 , Issue:
6,
503. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/
srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1473258&qu
eryText%3Dkeyes+quist%26openedRefinement
s%3D*%26sortType%3Dasc_Publication+Year%
26searchField%3DSearch+All {Quist_T_M_1
9620711.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ J. R. Haynes
and H. B. Briggs, "Radiation produced
in Germanium and Silicon by
Electron-Hole Recombination.", Physical
Review, vol 86, April-June 1952, p647.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v86/i
4/p637_1 {Briggs_H_B_19520321.pdf}
12. ^ J. R. Haynes and H. B. Briggs,
"Radiation produced in Germanium and
Silicon by Electron-Hole
Recombination.", Physical Review, vol
86, April-June 1952, p647.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v86/i
4/p637_1 {Briggs_H_B_19520321.pdf}
{03/21/1952}
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA11 (presumably in
New Jersey) 
[1] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Herriot, et al.[t] Figure 4
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
48 YBN
[03/22/1952 AD] 6 		5570)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Choh Hao Li, "PREPARATION AND
PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY ACTIVE
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
3. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
5. ^ Choh Hao Li,
"PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY
ACTIVE ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526
6. ^ Choh Hao Li, "PREPARATION AND
PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY ACTIVE
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526 {03/22/1952}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
48 YBN
[03/24/1952 AD] 15 16 		5698) In 1973, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded jointly to Ernst
Otto Fischer and Geoffrey Wilkinson
"for their pioneering work, performed
independently, on the chemistry of the
organometallic, so called sandwich
compounds".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Geoffrey Wilkinson, M. Rosenblum,
M. C. Whiting, R. B. Woodward, "THE
STRUCTURE OF IRON
BIS-CYCLOPENTADIENYL", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1952, 74 (8), pp
2125–2126 DOI:
10.1021/ja01128a527 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01128a527 {Wilkinson
_Geoffrey_19520324.pdf}
2. ^ E. O. Fischer, W. Pfab (1952).
"Zur Kristallstruktur der
Di-Cyclopentadienyl-Verbindungen des
zweiwertigen Eisens, Kobalts und
Nickels". Z. Naturforsch. B 7:
377–379. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/zaac.19532740603/pdf {Fi
scher_Ernst_Otto_19530724.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.869,875.
4. ^ "Ernst Otto
Fischer." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/208403/Ernst-Otto-Fischer>.
5. ^ "Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643851/Sir-Geoffrey-Wilkinson>.
6. ^ "Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643851/Sir-Geoffrey-Wilkinson>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.869,875.
8. ^ Geoffrey
Wilkinson, M. Rosenblum, M. C. Whiting,
R. B. Woodward, "THE STRUCTURE OF IRON
BIS-CYCLOPENTADIENYL", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1952, 74 (8), pp
2125–2126 DOI:
10.1021/ja01128a527 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01128a527 {Wilkinson
_Geoffrey_19520324.pdf}
9. ^ "Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643851/Sir-Geoffrey-Wilkinson>.
10. ^ E. O. Fischer, W. Pfab (1952).
"Zur Kristallstruktur der
Di-Cyclopentadienyl-Verbindungen des
zweiwertigen Eisens, Kobalts und
Nickels". Z. Naturforsch. B 7:
377–379. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/zaac.19532740603/pdf {Fi
scher_Ernst_Otto_19530724.pdf}
11. ^ "Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/643851/Sir-Geoffrey-Wilkinson>.
12. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1973". Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1973/
13. ^ Geoffrey Wilkinson, M. Rosenblum,
M. C. Whiting, R. B. Woodward, "THE
STRUCTURE OF IRON
BIS-CYCLOPENTADIENYL", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1952, 74 (8), pp
2125–2126 DOI:
10.1021/ja01128a527 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01128a527 {Wilkinson
_Geoffrey_19520324.pdf}
14. ^ E. O. Fischer, W. Pfab (1952).
"Zur Kristallstruktur der
Di-Cyclopentadienyl-Verbindungen des
zweiwertigen Eisens, Kobalts und
Nickels". Z. Naturforsch. B 7:
377–379. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/zaac.19532740603/pdf {Fi
scher_Ernst_Otto_19530724.pdf}
15. ^ Geoffrey Wilkinson, M. Rosenblum,
M. C. Whiting, R. B. Woodward, "THE
STRUCTURE OF IRON
BIS-CYCLOPENTADIENYL", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1952, 74 (8), pp
2125–2126 DOI:
10.1021/ja01128a527 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01128a527 {Wilkinson
_Geoffrey_19520324.pdf} {03/24/1952}
16. ^ E. O.
Fischer, W. Pfab (1952). "Zur
Kristallstruktur der
Di-Cyclopentadienyl-Verbindungen des
zweiwertigen Eisens, Kobalts und
Nickels". Z. Naturforsch. B 7:
377–379. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/zaac.19532740603/pdf {Fi
scher_Ernst_Otto_19530724.pdf}
{07/24/1953}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA13 and (Technischen
Hochschde) Munich, Germany14  
[1] Figure from: [6] Geoffrey
Wilkinson, M. Rosenblum, M. C. Whiting,
R. B. Woodward, ''THE STRUCTURE OF IRON
BIS-CYCLOPENTADIENYL'', J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1952, 74 (8), pp
2125–2126 DOI:
10.1021/ja01128a527 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01128a527 {Wilkinson
_Geoffrey_19520324.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01128a527

[2] Geoffrey Wilkinson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1973/wilki
nson_postcard.jpg
48 YBN
[04/02/1952 AD] 8 		5743)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joshua Lederberg, Luigi L.
Cavalli, and Esther M. Lederberg, "Sex
Compatibility in Escherichia Coli",
Genetics. 1952 November; 37(6):
720–730.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1209583/ {Lederberg_Joshua_195204
02.pdf}
2. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
3. ^ "Joshua Lederberg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 2 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1958/lederberg-lecture.htm
l
4. ^ Joshua Lederberg, Luigi L.
Cavalli, and Esther M. Lederberg, "Sex
Compatibility in Escherichia Coli",
Genetics. 1952 November; 37(6):
720–730.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1209583/ {Lederberg_Joshua_195204
02.pdf}
5. ^ Edward A. Adelberg and Sarah N.
Burns, "GENETIC VARIATION IN THE SEX
FACTOR OF ESCHERICHIA COLI", J
Bacteriol. 1960 March; 79(3):
321–330.
http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/citation
/79/3/321 {Burns_Sarah_N_19590723.pdf}
6. ^ Joshua Lederberg, Luigi L.
Cavalli, and Esther M. Lederberg, "Sex
Compatibility in Escherichia Coli",
Genetics. 1952 November; 37(6):
720–730.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1209583/ {Lederberg_Joshua_195204
02.pdf}
7. ^ Joshua Lederberg, Luigi L.
Cavalli, and Esther M. Lederberg, "Sex
Compatibility in Escherichia Coli",
Genetics. 1952 November; 37(6):
720–730.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1209583/ {Lederberg_Joshua_195204
02.pdf}
8. ^ Joshua Lederberg, Luigi L.
Cavalli, and Esther M. Lederberg, "Sex
Compatibility in Escherichia Coli",
Genetics. 1952 November; 37(6):
720–730.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1209583/ {Lederberg_Joshua_195204
02.pdf} {04/02/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.881-882.
[2] "Joshua
Lederberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/334486/Joshua-Lederberg>.
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1958". Nobelprize.org. 2 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1958/
[4] Joshua Lederberg and E. L. Tatum,
"Sex in Bacteria: Genetic Studies,
1945-1952",Science, New Series, Vol.
118, No. 3059 (Aug. 14, 1953), pp.
169-175. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
80189
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794-795,831.
[6] "conjugation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA and (Istituto
Sicroterapico Milanese) Milan, Italy7
 
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1

[2] Two bacterial cells caught in the
act of plasmid-mediated conjugation.
Many plasmids are able to transfer
horizontally from an infected donor
(top) to an uninfected recipient
(bottom) via conjugation. Conjugation
is initiated by contact between donor
and recipient cells via a
plasmid-encoded protein appendage
called a sex pilus. Conjugation results
in the one-way transfer of a copy of
the plasmid genome from donor to
recipient. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yale.edu/turner/graph
ics/Fig4.jpg
48 YBN
[04/04/1952 AD] 8 		5677)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19520404.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
4. ^ R. B.
Woodward, Franz Sondheimer, David Taub,
Karl Heusler, W. M. McLamore, "The
Total Synthesis of Steroids", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1952, 74 (17), pp
4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19520404.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ R. B. Woodward,
Franz Sondheimer, David Taub, Karl
Heusler, W. M. McLamore, "The Total
Synthesis of Steroids", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1952, 74 (17), pp
4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19520404.pdf}
8. ^ R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19520404.pdf} {04/04/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[2] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[3] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[4] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[5] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA7  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

48 YBN
[04/09/1952 AD] 10 		5431)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. D. Hershey and Martha Chase,
"INDEPENDENT FUNCTIONS OF VIRAL PROTEIN
AND NUCLEIC ACID IN GROWTH OF
BACTERIOPHAGE", JGP, vol. 36 no. 1
39-56
http://jgp.rupress.org/content/36/1/39
.abstract {Hershey_Alfred_Day_19520409.
pdf}
2. ^ Hershey, A. D.; Garen, A.; Fraser,
D. K.; Hudis, J. D., "Growth and
inheritance in bacteriophage.",
Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Yearbook No. 53 1953 pp.
210-25. http://www.cabdirect.org/abstra
cts/19561600242.html?freeview=true
3. ^ Inheritance in bacteriophage,
Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, Hershey (1952) volume: 54
issue: 6 page:
960. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1952.tb39971.x/abst
ract
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
5. ^ "Alfred Hershey." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-hers
hey
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A. D. Hershey and Martha
Chase, "INDEPENDENT FUNCTIONS OF VIRAL
PROTEIN AND NUCLEIC ACID IN GROWTH OF
BACTERIOPHAGE", JGP, vol. 36 no. 1
39-56
http://jgp.rupress.org/content/36/1/39
.abstract {Hershey_Alfred_Day_19520409.
pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p817-818, 828-829,
844-845.
9. ^ A. D. Hershey and Martha Chase,
"INDEPENDENT FUNCTIONS OF VIRAL PROTEIN
AND NUCLEIC ACID IN GROWTH OF
BACTERIOPHAGE", JGP, vol. 36 no. 1
39-56
http://jgp.rupress.org/content/36/1/39
.abstract {Hershey_Alfred_Day_19520409.
pdf}
10. ^ A. D. Hershey and Martha Chase,
"INDEPENDENT FUNCTIONS OF VIRAL PROTEIN
AND NUCLEIC ACID IN GROWTH OF
BACTERIOPHAGE", JGP, vol. 36 no. 1
39-56
http://jgp.rupress.org/content/36/1/39
.abstract {Hershey_Alfred_Day_19520409.
pdf} {04/09/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648
[2] "Salvador Luria." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/351772/Salvador-Luria>
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1969". Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1969/
[4] Luria, "Mutations of bacterial
viruses affecting their host range",
Genetics [0016-6731] Luria (1945)
volume: 30 issue: 1 page:
84. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/30/1/84
[5] A. D. Hershey, "SPONTANEOUS
MUTATIONS IN BACTERIAL VIRUSES", Cold
Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1946.
11:
67-77. http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/11/67.extract
[6] A. D. Hershey, "Mutation of
bacteriophage with respect to type of
plaque" Source: Genetics, (1946)
volume: 31 issue: 6 page:
620 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint
/31/6/620
(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold
Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York,
USA9  
[1] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Max Delbrück Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/delbru
ck_postcard.jpg
48 YBN
[04/14/1952 AD] 9 		5541)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. L. Anderson and E. Fermi,
"Scattering and Capture of Pions by
Hydrogen", Phys. Rev. 86, 794–794
(1952). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v86/i5/p794_1 {Fermi_Enrico_second_pa
per_19520414.pdf}
3. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
4. ^ B. Cassen and E. U. Condon, "On
Nuclear Forces", Phys. Rev. 50,
846–849
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i9/p846_1 {Condon_Edward_19360810
.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
{04/14/1952}



MORE INFO
[1] H. L. Anderson, E. Fermi, D.
E. Nagle, and G. B. Yodh, "Angular
Distribution of Pions Scattered by
Hydrogen", Phys. Rev. 86, 793–794
(1952). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v86/i5/p793_2
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA8  		 
48 YBN
[05/19/1952 AD] 14 15 		5218) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1963
is awarded jointly to Karl Ziegler and
Giulio Natta "for their discoveries in
the field of the chemistry and
technology of high polymers".12
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p765.
2. ^ "Karl Ziegler."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ziegle
r
3. ^ Dr. E. h. Karl Ziegler,
"Aluminium-organische Synthese im
Bereich olefinischer
Kohlenwasserstoffe", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 64, Issue 12, pages 323–329,
21. Juni
1952 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19520641202/abstract {Zie
gler_Karl_19520519.pdf}
4. ^ "Karl Ziegler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ziegle
r
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p765.
6. ^ "Karl Ziegler."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ziegle
r
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p765.
8. ^ Dr. E. h. Karl
Ziegler, "Aluminium-organische Synthese
im Bereich olefinischer
Kohlenwasserstoffe", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 64, Issue 12, pages 323–329,
21. Juni
1952 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19520641202/abstract {Zie
gler_Karl_19520519.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1963". Nobelprize.org. 31 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1963/
13. ^ Dr. E. h. Karl Ziegler,
"Aluminium-organische Synthese im
Bereich olefinischer
Kohlenwasserstoffe", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 64, Issue 12, pages 323–329,
21. Juni
1952 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19520641202/abstract {Zie
gler_Karl_19520519.pdf}
14. ^ Dr. E. h. Karl Ziegler,
"Aluminium-organische Synthese im
Bereich olefinischer
Kohlenwasserstoffe", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 64, Issue 12, pages 323–329,
21. Juni
1952 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19520641202/abstract {Zie
gler_Karl_19520519.pdf} {05/19/1952}
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p765. {1953}
(Max-Planck-Institute for Coal
Research), Mulheim-Ruhr, Germany13
 
[1] chemical drawings from: Dr. E. h.
Karl Ziegler, ''Aluminium-organische
Synthese im Bereich olefinischer
Kohlenwasserstoffe'', Angewandte
Chemie, Volume 64, Issue 12, pages
323–329, 21. Juni
1952 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19520641202/abstract {Zie
gler_Karl_19520519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/ange.19520641202/pdf

[2] Karl Ziegler COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1963/ziegler.jpg
48 YBN
[06/12/1952 AD] 19 		5757) In 1960, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded to Donald A. Glaser
"for the invention of the bubble
chamber".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donald A. Glaser, "Some Effects
of Ionizing Radiation on the Formation
of Bubbles in Liquids", Phys. Rev. 87,
665–665 (1952)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v87/i
4/p665_1 {Glaser_Donald_Arthur_19520612
.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.883-884.
3. ^ "Donald A.
Glaser." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyc lopædia Britannica, 2011. Web.
06 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/234832/Donald-A-Glaser>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.883-884.
5. ^ "Donald Arthur
Glaser." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/glaser-dona
ld-arthur
6. ^ Hilding Slatis, On bubble
chambers, Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 5, Issue 1, July 1959,
Pages 1-25, ISSN 0029-554X, DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(59)90057-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-470NYFF-4KJ/2/b768a3c5f6ce02023eb9f405
dbaadf90 {Slatis_Hilding_19590410.pdf}
7. ^ Donald A. Glaser, "Some Effects of
Ionizing Radiation on the Formation of
Bubbles in Liquids", Phys. Rev. 87,
665–665 (1952)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v87/i
4/p665_1 {Glaser_Donald_Arthur_19520612
.pdf}
8. ^ Donald A. Glaser, "Bubble Chamber
Tracks of Penetrating Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Phys. Rev. 91, 762
(1953). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v91/i3/p762_1
{Glaser_Donald_Arthur_19530520.pdf}
9. ^ "Donald A. Glaser - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 7 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1960/glaser-lecture.html {
Glaser_Donald_Arthur_19601212.pdf}
10. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
11. ^ "Georges Charpak." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/107627/Georges-Charpak>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1960". Nobelprize.org.
7 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1960/
18. ^ Donald A. Glaser, "Some Effects
of Ionizing Radiation on the Formation
of Bubbles in Liquids", Phys. Rev. 87,
665–665 (1952)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v87/i
4/p665_1 {Glaser_Donald_Arthur_19520612
.pdf}
19. ^ Donald A. Glaser, "Some Effects
of Ionizing Radiation on the Formation
of Bubbles in Liquids", Phys. Rev. 87,
665–665 (1952)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v87/i
4/p665_1 {Glaser_Donald_Arthur_19520612
.pdf} {06/12/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] D. A. Glaser, "The Bubble
Chamber", Handbuch der Physik, S.
Flügge (Ed.), Springer- Verlag,
Berlin, 1958, Vol. 45, p.
314. {Glaser_Donald_Arthur_1958xxxx.pdf
}
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA18  
[1] Donald Arthur Glaser Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1960/glaser_
postcard.jpg

[2] Donald Arthur Glasser UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencephoto.com/images/d
ownload_wm_image.html/H407214-Donald_Gla
ser,_American_physicist-SPL.jpg?id=72407
0214
48 YBN
[07/16/1952 AD] 15 16 		5693) In 1958, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded to Frederick
Sanger "for his work on the structure
of proteins, especially that of
insulin".11

Sanger wins part of a second Nobel
prize when in 1980, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is divided, one half awarded
to Paul Berg "for his fundamental
studies of the biochemistry of nucleic
acids, with particular regard to
recombinant-DNA",the other half jointly
to Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger
"for their contributions concerning the
determination of base sequences in
nucleic acids".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sanger, F.; Tuppy, H. (1951a),
"The amino-acid sequence in the
phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 1. The
identification of lower peptides from
partial hydrolysates", Biochemical
Journal 49 (4): 463–481, PMC 1197535,
PMID 14886310,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1197535
 .
2. ^ Sanger, F.; Tuppy, H. (1951b),
"The amino-acid sequence in the
phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 2. The
investigation of peptides from enzymic
hydrolysates", Biochemical Journal 49
(4): 481–490, PMC 1197536, PMID
14886311,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1197536
 .
3. ^ F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification
of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198157/ {Sanger_Frederick_195207
16.pdf}
4. ^ F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 2. The investigation
of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3):
366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/ {Sanger_Frederick_2_1952
0716.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.868.
6. ^ "Frederick
Sanger." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 17 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
anger
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.868.
8. ^ "Frederick
Sanger." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 17 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
anger
9. ^ "insulin." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/insulin
10. ^ Markus Leyck Dieken, Matthias
Federwisch, Pierre De Meyts, Axel
Wollmer, "Insulin & related proteins:
structure to function and
pharmacology", Springer, 2002, p2.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ula72
_FSwy8C&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=1964+sanger+sy
nthesis+insulin&source=bl&ots=CtJ5ro2Vk7
&sig=Dd1MzIoeEk4lsytRUubPAZUavy4&hl=en&e
i=-ZqqTfmBC4KssAPWmtn5DA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=1964%20sanger%20synthesis%20
insulin&f=false
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1958". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1958/
12. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1980". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
13. ^ F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification
of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198157/ {Sanger_Frederick_195207
16.pdf}
14. ^ F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 2. The investigation
of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3):
366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/ {Sanger_Frederick_2_1952
0716.pdf}
15. ^ F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification
of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198157/ {Sanger_Frederick_195207
16.pdf} {07/16/1952}
16. ^ F. Sanger and E. O. P.
Thompson, "The amino-acid sequence in
the glycyl chain of insulin. 2. The
investigation of peptides from enzymic
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/ {Sanger_Frederick_2_1952
0716.pdf} {07/16/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] F. Sanger, "The free amino
groups of insulin", Biochem J. 1945;
39(5): 507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
[2] "Frederick Sanger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/522340/Frederick-Sanger>
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England13 14  
[1] Figure 1 from: F. Sanger and E. O.
P. Thompson, ''The amino-acid sequence
in the glycyl chain of insulin. 2. The
investigation of peptides from enzymic
hydrolysates'', Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/ {Sanger_Frederick_2_1952
0716.pdf} {07/16/1952} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1198158/

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
48 YBN
[07/19/1952 AD] 11 		5442) In 1942, B. B. Bhatia had
reported that the roots, leaves and
juice of the Rauwolfia serpentina plant
lowers blood pressure.4

Robert Wallace Wilkins (CE 1906-2003),
US physician,5 6 and others will
confirm that this drug does lower blood
pressure in the 1950s.7 Reserpine is
the first of the tranquilizers. The
tranquilizers have an advantage over
earlier sedatives, like barbiturates in
producing a calming effect without
lowering alertness or causing sleep.8


(This drug will also be used to cure
"neurosis", which is a very abstract
label often applied to perfectly
healthful normal humans. In addition
the non-consensual drugging of people
labeled with neurological disorders is
wrong in my view.9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Muller, J. M., Schlittler, E. and
Bein, "Reserpin, der sedative Wirkstoff
ausRauwolfia serpentina Benth",
Experientia. 1952 Sep 15;8(9):338.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/p4
82kq714254615q/ English: "Reserpin,
the sedative principle from Rauwolfia
serpentina B"
2. ^ A. J. Plummer, W. E.
Barrett and R. Rutledge, "The action of
reserpine on the motility of the
digestive tract", American Journal of
Digestive Diseases, Volume 22, Number
11, 337-342, DOI:
10.1007/BF02886462 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/a7k6v2558556k311/
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Record ID5441. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820.
6. ^
http://www.bumc.bu.edu/academies/namesak
es/wilkins/
7. ^ Robert W. Wilkins, "CLINICAL USAGE
OF RAUWOLFIA ALKALOIDS, INCLUDING
RESERPINE (SERPASIL)", Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, Volume
59, "Reserpine (Serpasil) and Other
Alkaloids of Ruawolfia Serpentina:
Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Clinical
Applications", pages 36–44, April
1954 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1954.tb45916.x/abst
ract
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
Muller, J. M., Schlittler, E. and Bein,
"Reserpin, der sedative Wirkstoff
ausRauwolfia serpentina Benth",
Experientia. 1952 Sep 15;8(9):338.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/p4
82kq714254615q/ English: "Reserpin,
the sedative principle from Rauwolfia
serpentina B"
11. ^ Muller, J. M.,
Schlittler, E. and Bein, "Reserpin, der
sedative Wirkstoff ausRauwolfia
serpentina Benth", Experientia. 1952
Sep 15;8(9):338.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/p4
82kq714254615q/ English: "Reserpin,
the sedative principle from Rauwolfia
serpentina B" {07/19/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] Wilkins, R. W., Judson, W.
E., and Stanton, J. R., "Preliminary
observations on Rauwolfia serpentina in
hypertensive patients", Proceedings of
the New England Cardiovascular Society,
1951-1952, p34.
[2] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D.,
and Walter E. Judson, M.D., "The Use of
Rauwolif serpentina in Hypertensive
Patients", N Engl J Med 1953;
248:48-53. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full
/10.1056/NEJM195301082480202
[3] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D., Walter E.
Judson, M.D., Richard W. Stone, M.D.,
William Hollander, M.D., William E.
Huckabee, M.D., and Irwin H. Friedman,
M.D., "Reserpine in the Treatment of
Hypertension — A Note on the Relative
Dosage and Effects", N Engl J Med 1954;
250:477-478. http://www.nejm.org/doi/fu
ll/10.1056/NEJM195403182501107
(Ciba Aktiengesellschaft) Basel,
Switzerland10  
[1] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D.
(1906-2003) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bu.edu/cms/www.bumc.b
u.edu/academies/files/Images/Wilkins.JPG


[2] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D.
(1906-2003) UNKNOWN
source: http://imgtn1.ask.com/ts?t=59720
67495585107664&pid=23104&ppid=19
48 YBN
[08/13/1952 AD] 3 		6061) The song "Hound Dog" recorded.
"Hound Dog" is written by Jerry Leiber
and Mike Stoller and originally
recorded by Willie Mae "Big Mama"
Thornton.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hound Dog (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hound_Dog_%
28song%29
2. ^ "Hound Dog (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hound_Dog_%
28song%29
3. ^ "Hound Dog (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hound_Dog_%
28song%29 {08/13/1952}
Los Angeles, California, USA2   
48 YBN
[08/??/1952 AD] 7 		5591)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
2. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
6. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
7. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm {08/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
(Coast Guard Cutter ship  
[1] Rockoon Credit: NASA PD
source: http://www.astronautix.com/graph
ics/w/wrockoon.jpg

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg
48 YBN
[11/01/1952 AD] 27 		5470) As a student Teller loses his
right foot in a streetcar accident.16
(Perhaps neuron writing is responsible
for this.17 )
Teller leaves Germany when
Hitler came to power in 1933.18
Teller
works on the uranium fission bomb in
Los Alamos, New Mexico.19

When others, such as Oppenheimer are
not supportive of the development of
the hydrogen-fusion bomb (the H-bomb),
Teller is one that strenuously is in
favor of such development.20

At the U.S. government hearings held in
1954 to determine whether Oppenheimer
is a security risk, Teller testifies
about his former chief: "...his actions
frankly appeared to me confused and
complicated…I would personally feel
more secure if public matters could
rest in other hands.". After the
hearings, Oppenheimer’s security
clearance is revoked. Although Teller's
testimony is not the decisive factor in
the decision to remove Oppenheimer's
security clearance, many prominent US
nuclear physicists never forgive Teller
for what they view as his betrayal of
Oppenheimer.21 22 (It seems somewhat
trivial to me - people should feel free
to give their honest opinions - people
can see and hear thought now - it seems
dishonest say something other than what
you think and believe.23 )

Teller opposes the 1963 Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty, which bans nuclear weapons
testing in the atmosphere.24 (While
testing in the earth atmosphere is
clearly a bad idea, testing of uranium
fission chain reactions far away from
earth to propel ships I see as
inevitable.25 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
2. ^ "Stanislaw Marcin Ulam."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanis-aw-m
arcin-ulam
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p825-826.
4. ^ "Edward Teller."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/586350/Edward-Teller>.
5. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
6. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
7. ^ "thermonuclear." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thermonucle
ar
8. ^ Project Daedalus Study Group: A.
Bond et al., Project Daedalus – The
Final Report on the BIS Starship Study,
JBIS Interstellar Studies, Supplement
1978
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p825-826.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^
"Edward Teller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-tell
er
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p825-826.
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p825-826.
21. ^ "Edward
Teller." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/586350/Edward-Teller>.
22. ^ "Edward Teller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-tell
er
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ "Edward Teller."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/586350/Edward-Teller>.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbo
mb/page_13.shtml
27. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbo
mb/page_13.shtml {11/01/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of
test: http://www.sonicbomb.com/modules.
php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=184
and
http://www.archive.org/details/Operati
onIVY1952
(Elugelab Island in the Enewatak Atoll
of the) Marshall Islands, Pacific
Ocean26  
[1] The MIKE test PD
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/hbomb/images/mike_test_s.jpg

[2] Edward Teller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/teller_edward_s.jpg
48 YBN
[12/01/1952 AD] 16 		5782)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Danysz, J. Pniewski, Delayed
Disintegration of a Heavy Nuclear
Fragment I, Phil. Mag. 44, 348
(1953). {Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf}
2. ^ AK Wróblewski, "HYPERNUCLEI (AND
STRANGE PARTICLES) — HOW IT ALL
BEGAN?", ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA B,
2004 http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=19&ved=0CEgQFjAIOAo&url=http%
3A%2F%2Fwww.fuw.edu.pl%2F~ajduk%2Fhypera
kw.pdf&rct=j&q=%CE%BB0%20particle%201947
&ei=l5XPTeG3GI22sAPK3KnJCw&usg=AFQjCNFxG
hoIfwMRgaUl-owo2-proBicyg&cad=rja {Wrob
lewski_Andrezej_K_20040120.pdf}
3. ^ D.A. Tidman, G. Davis, A.J. Herz,
R.M. Tennent, Delayed Disintegration
of a Heavy Nuclear Fragment II, Phil.
Mag. 44, 350 (1953).
4. ^ "hyperon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/279650/hyperon>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
6. ^ M. Danysz, J.
Pniewski, Delayed Disintegration of a
Heavy Nuclear Fragment I, Phil. Mag.
44, 348
(1953). {Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ M. Danysz, J. Pniewski, Delayed
Disintegration of a Heavy Nuclear
Fragment I, Phil. Mag. 44, 348
(1953). {Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf}
15. ^ AK Wróblewski, "HYPERNUCLEI
(AND STRANGE PARTICLES) — HOW IT ALL
BEGAN?", ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA B,
2004 http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=19&ved=0CEgQFjAIOAo&url=http%
3A%2F%2Fwww.fuw.edu.pl%2F~ajduk%2Fhypera
kw.pdf&rct=j&q=%CE%BB0%20particle%201947
&ei=l5XPTeG3GI22sAPK3KnJCw&usg=AFQjCNFxG
hoIfwMRgaUl-owo2-proBicyg&cad=rja {Wrob
lewski_Andrezej_K_20040120.pdf}
16. ^ M. Danysz, J. Pniewski, Delayed
Disintegration of a Heavy Nuclear
Fragment I, Phil. Mag. 44, 348
(1953). {Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf}
{12/01/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] AK Wróblewski, "HYPERNUCLEI
(AND STRANGE PARTICLES) — HOW IT ALL
BEGAN?", ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA B,
2004 http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sou
rce=web&cd=19&ved=0CEgQFjAIOAo&url=http%
3A%2F%2Fwww.fuw.edu.pl%2F~ajduk%2Fhypera
kw.pdf&rct=j&q=%CE%BB0%20particle%201947
&ei=l5XPTeG3GI22sAPK3KnJCw&usg=AFQjCNFxG
hoIfwMRgaUl-owo2-proBicyg&cad=rja
(University of Warsaw) Warsaw, Poland14
15  
[1] Plate 13 from: M. Danysz, J.
Pniewski, Delayed Disintegration of a
Heavy Nuclear Fragment I, Phil. Mag.
44, 348
(1953). {Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 14 15 		5123)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
3. ^ W Baade, "A
revision of the extra-galactic distance
scale", Transactions of the
International Astronomical Union, 1952,
p397-398. {Baade_Walter_1952xxxx.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Walter Baade."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
7. ^ W Baade, "A
revision of the extra-galactic distance
scale", Transactions of the
International Astronomical Union, 1952.
8. ^
W Baade, "A revision of the
extra-galactic distance scale",
Transactions of the International
Astronomical Union, 1952, p397-398.
{Baade_Walter_1952xxxx.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Richardson, R. S., "A
New Asteroid with Smallest Known Mean
Distance", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html {Baade_Walter_19490626.pdf}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739. {1952}
15. ^ W
Baade, "A revision of the
extra-galactic distance scale",
Transactions of the International
Astronomical Union, 1952,
p397-398. {Baade_Walter_1952xxxx.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] Baade, W., "NGC 147 and NGC
185, Two New Members of the Local Group
of Galaxies", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 100,
p.147. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..147B
[2] Baade, W., "Nova Ophiuchi of 1604
AS a Supernova.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html
[3] Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA13  
[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 8 9 		5128)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
4. ^ The Planets:
Their Origin and Development.
By Harold C. Urey. 245 pp. Yale
University Press, New- Haven,
Connecticut, 1952.
5. ^ Serge A. Korff,
Reviewer, "The Planets: Their Origin
and Development", Physics Today -
August
1952. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000005000008000012000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ H. C UREY, H. A
LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY,
"MEASUREMENT OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND
TEMPERATURES OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF
ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES", BULLETIN OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62.
PP. 399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf}
8. ^ The Planets: Their Origin and
Development. By Harold C. Urey. 245
pp. Yale University Press, New- Haven,
Connecticut, 1952.
9. ^ Serge A. Korff,
Reviewer, "The Planets: Their Origin
and Development", Physics Today -
August
1952. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000005000008000012000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes

MORE INFO
[1] H. C. Urey, “Natural System
of Atomic Nuclei”, Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 53 (1931),
2872
[2] H. C. Urey and Charles A. Bradley.
Jr., “On the Relative Abundances of
Isotopes,” Physical Review, 38
(1931), 718–724
[3] H. C. Urey, C. F. G.
Brickwedde and G. M. Murphy, “A
Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and its
Concentration,” Physical Review, 40
(1932),
1–15. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103
/PhysRev.40.1
[4] "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] HC Urey, "Atoms, molecules and
quanta", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 37
(1931), 506-507.
http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1931-
37-07/S0002-9904-1931-05170-3/home.html
[6] HC Urey, "The separation and
properties of the isotopes of
hydrogen", Science, Volume 78, Issue
2034, pp.
566-571. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
59134?origin=ads
[7] Edward W. Washburn and Harold C.
Urey, "Concentration of the H2 Isotope
of Hydrogen by the Fractional
Electrolysis of Water", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1932 July; 18(7): 496–498.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076263/
[8]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1934/
[9] A. Ruark and Harold Urey, "Atoms,
Molecules, and Quanta", (New York,
1930)
[10] Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde,
and G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html
[11] Harold C. Urey, Lotti J. Greiff,
"Isotopic Exchange Equilibria", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1935, 57 (2), pp
321–327. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01305a026
[12] Thomas Ivan Taylor and Harold C.
Urey, "Fractionation of the Lithium and
Potassium Isotopes by Chemical Exchange
with Zeolites", J. Chem. Phys. 6, 429
(1938). http://jcp.aip.org/resource/1/j
cpsa6/v6/i8/p429_s1
[13] SAMUEL EPSTEIN, RALPH BUCHSBAUM,
HEINZ LOWENSTAM and HAROLD C UREY,
"CARBONATE-WATER ISOTOPIC TEMPERATURE
SCALE", Geological Society of America
Bulletin
1951;62;417-426 http://gsabulletin.gsap
ubs.org/content/62/4/417.abstract
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA7  
[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 4 		5407)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
"Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811. {1952}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ewing, William Maurice."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] WM Ewing, CL Pekeris…,
"Propagation of sound in the ocean",
1948 - Geological Society of America
[3] CL
Pekeris, WM Ewing, "Propagation of
sound in the ocean: Explosion sounds in
shallow water...", 1948 - Geological
Society of America
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA3  
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 12 13 		5670) In 1980 the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Baruj Benacerraf, Jean
Dausset and George D. Snell "for their
discoveries concerning genetically
determined structures on the cell
surface that regulate immunological
reactions".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Dausset." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 12 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152445/Jean-Dausset>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.862.
3. ^ J. DAUSSET & H.
BRECY, "Identical Nature of the
Leucocyte Antigens detectable in
Monozygotic Twins by means of Immune
Iso-Leuco-agglutinins", Nature 180,
1430 (21 December 1957);
doi:10.1038/1801430a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v180/n4599/abs/18014
30a0.html
4. ^ Dausset, Leuco-agglutinins. IV.
Leuco-agglutinins and blood
transfusion, Vox sanguinis, (1954)
volume: 4 page: 190
5. ^ "Jean Dausset." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dausset-jea
n
6. ^ "Jean Dausset." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 12 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152445/Jean-Dausset>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1980". Nobelprize.org. 13 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1980/
11. ^ J. DAUSSET, A. NENNA, and H.
BRECY, "Leukoagglutinins V.
Leukoagglutinins in Chronic Idiopathic
or Symptomatic Pancytopenia and in
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria",
Blood, 9, 7, 696
(1954). http://bloodjournal.hematologyl
ibrary.org/content/9/7/696.abstract {Da
usset_Jean_19530930.pdf}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.862. {1952}
13. ^ "Jean
Dausset." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 13 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dausset-jea
n {1951}

MORE INFO
[1] DAUS5ET, J., DELAFONTAINE,
P., AND FLEURIOT, Y. : "Agglutinsations
et destructions in vitro des plaquettes
normales par le serum d’une malade
atteinte de purpura thrombopenique
aigu. Inhibition par ce serum de Ia
retractions du caillot normal." Sansg
23: 373-384,
1952. English: "Agglutinsations and
destruction of normal platelets in
vitro by serum from a patient with
acute thrombocytopenic purpura.
Inhibition by serum of normal clot
retraction."
[2] "serum." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 13 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/serum
(Centre National de Transfusion
Sanguine) Paris, France.11
(presumably) 
[1] Jean Dausset Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/dausset.jpg


source:
47 YBN
[02/13/1953 AD] 11 		5786)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stanley L. Miller, "A Production
of Amino Acids under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions", Science, New Series,
Vol. 117, No. 3046 (May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.891.
3. ^ "Stanley
Miller." Britannica Book of the Year,
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/382827/Stanley-Lloyd-Miller>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.891.
5. ^ CYRIL
PONNAMPERUMA, CARL SAGAN, RUTH MARINER,
"Synthesis of Adenosine Triphosphate
Under Possible Primitive Earth
Conditions", Nature 199, 222-226 (20
July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f}
6. ^ Record ID5730. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Stanley L.
Miller, "A Production of Amino Acids
under Possible Primitive Earth
Conditions", Science, New Series, Vol.
117, No. 3046 (May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Stanley L.
Miller, "A Production of Amino Acids
under Possible Primitive Earth
Conditions", Science, New Series, Vol.
117, No. 3046 (May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
}
11. ^ Stanley L. Miller, "A Production
of Amino Acids under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions", Science, New Series,
Vol. 117, No. 3046 (May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
} {02/13/1953}
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA10  
[1] Figure 2 from: Stanley L. Miller,
''A Production of Amino Acids under
Possible Primitive Earth Conditions'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 117, No. 3046
(May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cdn.worldfreenews.com/wp-
content/uploads/2011/03/stanley-miller.j
pg

[2] Stanley Llyod Miller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kunskapsfakta.se/bild
evolution/stanley_millers_experiment.jpg

47 YBN
[02/26/1953 AD] 6 		5396)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ WW Morgan, Philip C. Keenan and
Edith Kellman, "An atlas of stellar
spectra", University of Chicago Press,
1943. http://www.ulo.ucl.ac.uk/catalogu
es/mkkatlas/mkkbook/mkkbook.pdf {Morgan
_William_W_1943.pdf} http://www.ulo.ucl
.ac.uk/catalogues/mkkatlas/mkkbook/mkkbo
ok.pdf
2. ^ "William Wilson Morgan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-wil
son-morgan
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Morgan,
W. W., Whitford, A. E., & Code, A. D.,
"Studies in Galactic Structure. I. a
Preliminary Determination of the Space
Distribution of the Blue Giants.",
Astrophysical Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M
6. ^ Morgan, W. W., Whitford, A. E., &
Code, A. D., "Studies in Galactic
Structure. I. a Preliminary
Determination of the Space Distribution
of the Blue Giants.", Astrophysical
Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M {02/26/1953}
(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA5
 
[1] William Wilson Morgan January 3,
1906 — June 21, 1994 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wmorgan.JPG
47 YBN
[02/26/1953 AD] 8 		5397)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Wilson Morgan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-wil
son-morgan
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
3. ^ Morgan, W. W.,
Whitford, A. E., & Code, A. D.,
"Studies in Galactic Structure. I. a
Preliminary Determination of the Space
Distribution of the Blue Giants.",
Astrophysical Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Morgan, W. W., Whitford, A. E., &
Code, A. D., "Studies in Galactic
Structure. I. a Preliminary
Determination of the Space Distribution
of the Blue Giants.", Astrophysical
Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M
8. ^ Morgan, W. W., Whitford, A. E., &
Code, A. D., "Studies in Galactic
Structure. I. a Preliminary
Determination of the Space Distribution
of the Blue Giants.", Astrophysical
Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M {02/26/1953}
(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA7
 
[1] William Wilson Morgan January 3,
1906 — June 21, 1994 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wmorgan.JPG
47 YBN
[03/28/1953 AD] 15 16 17 		5643)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ SALK JE.,"Studies in human
subjects on active immunization against
poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary report
of experiments in progress.", J Am Med
Assoc. 1953 Mar 28;151(13):1081-98.
{Salk_Jonas_Edward_19530328.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p515.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p853.
4. ^ "Jonas Salk." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jonas-salk
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p515.
6. ^ "Jonas Salk." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jonas-salk
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p853.
8. ^ "Jonas Salk." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jonas-salk
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p853.
10. ^ SALK
JE.,"Studies in human subjects on
active immunization against
poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary report
of experiments in progress.", J Am Med
Assoc. 1953 Mar 28;151(13):1081-98.
{Salk_Jonas_Edward_19530328.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Jonas Salk." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jonas-salk
15. ^ SALK JE.,"Studies in human
subjects on active immunization against
poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary report
of experiments in progress.", J Am Med
Assoc. 1953 Mar 28;151(13):1081-98.
{Salk_Jonas_Edward_19530328.pdf}
{reports results:)03/28/1953}
16. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p515. {1952} {develops
vaccine:)1952}
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p853. {1952}
(University of Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA14  
[1] Figure 12 from: [t I don't
understand this chart - because what do
the black circles in the middle
indicate? - that people that have never
had polio somehow have
antibodies?] SALK JE.,''Studies in
human subjects on active immunization
against poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary
report of experiments in progress.'', J
Am Med Assoc. 1953 Mar
28;151(13):1081-98.
{Salk_Jonas_Edward_19530328.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Salk_Jonas_Edward_19530328.pdf}


[2] Wisdom-cover1.jpg English:
Magazine cover photo of Jonas Salk
taken by Yousuf Karsh specifically for
Wisdom Magazine Copyright search
showed that no renewals were filed for
any issues of the magazine. The photo
credits on the inside title page
states: Dr. Jonas E. Salk (left)
and photographer Yousuf Karsh of Ottowa
calm the fears of a youthful volunteer
for the polio inoculation, prior to
taking the cover portrait for
''WISDOM'' in Doctor Salk's laboratory
in Pittsburgh. Date August
1956 Source Wisdom Magazine, Aug.
1956 (Vol 1, No. 8) Author
[show]Yousuf Karsh (1908–2002)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Wisdom-cover1.jpg
47 YBN
[04/02/1953 AD] 54 		5660) Watson entered the University of
Chicago at age 15.41
Wilkins had worked
at the University of California on the
atomic bomb during World War II.42
(Stat
e what war reseach the universities
were involved in during World War 2.43
)
In 1968 Watson publishes "The Double
Helix", an account of his DNA
research.44

Rosalind Franklin dies of cancer age 37
four years before Watson, Crick and
Wilkins are awarded the Nobel Prize.45
(It seems extremely unusual for a woman
of 37 years old to die - perhaps she
was murdered by remote galvanization.46
)

Asimov states that "Her own
contribution to the double-helix
structure of nucleic acids has been
consistently underestimated and some
blame it on the anti-woman prejudices
of the English scientific
establishment.".47 (Excluding and
oppressing women is not smart, in
particular since that is rejecting half
of potential scientific contributors
and allies.48 )

In 1980 Crick advances the idea of the
seeding of life on planets, including
possibly earth from DNA of other star
systems similar to the earlier theory
of Arrhenius.49

In early 2007 Watson’s own genome is
sequenced and made publicly available
on the Internet. Watson is the second
person in history to have a personal
genome sequenced in its entirety. In
October of the same year, Watson sparks
controversy by making a public
statement referring to the idea that
the intelligence of Africans might not
be the same as that of other peoples
and that intellectual differences
between geographically separated
peoples might arise over time as a
result of genetic divergence.
Watson’s remarks are immediately
denounced as racist. Though he denies
this charge, Watson resigns from his
position at Cold Spring Harbor and
announces his retirement less than two
weeks later.50 On October 27, 2007 in
a statement given to The Associated
Press, Dr. Watson states, “I cannot
understand how I could have said what I
am quoted as having said. There is no
scientific basis for such a
belief.”51 (Perhaps it was external
neuron writing - many may wonder when
there is not external neuron writing
involved in our thought processes.52 )
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
3. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
4. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
6. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
7. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
9. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
10. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
12. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
13. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
15. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
16. ^ "DNA." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Apr.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/dna
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
18. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
19. ^ "Maurice Wilkins." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 11 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-wil
kins
20. ^ "Balantidium." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

21. ^ "Balantidium." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

22. ^ M. H. F. WILKINS, A. R. STOKES &
H. R. WILSON , "Molecular Structure of
Nucleic Acids: Molecular Structure of
Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids", Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
738. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171738a0.pdf
Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_1953040
2.pdf}
23. ^ ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN & R. G.
GOSLING, "Molecular Configuration in
Sodium Thymonucleate", Nature, (1953)
volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
740. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171740a0.pdf {Frankli
n_Rosalind_Elsie_19530402.pdf}
24. ^ Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B.,
Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S.
Nat. Acai Sci., 39, 84 (1953).
25. ^ Furberg,
S., Acta Chem. Scand., 3, 634 (1952).
26. ^
Chargaff, E., for references see
Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and
Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys.
Acta, 9,402 (1952).
27. ^ 4. Wyatt, G. R.,J.
Gen. Physiol, 36, 201 (1952).
28. ^ Astbury, W. T.,
Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid,
66 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1947).
29. ^ Wilkins, M. H.
F., and Randall, J. T, Biochim. et
Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953).
30. ^ J. D.
WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, "Molecular
structure of nucleic acids; a structure
for deoxyribose nucleic acid", Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^ Ted
Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted Huntington.
36. ^ Ted
Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted Huntington.
39. ^ Ted
Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
42. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
43. ^ Ted Huntington.
44. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
45. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
46. ^ Ted Huntington.
47. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
48. ^ Ted Huntington.
49. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
50. ^ "James Dewey Watson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637603/James-Dewey-Watson>.
51. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/19/scienc
e/19watson.html
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C.
CRICK, "Molecular structure of nucleic
acids; a structure for deoxyribose
nucleic acid", Nature, (1953) volume:
171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
54. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
{04/02/1953}
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England53  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
47 YBN
[05/29/1953 AD] 9 		5700)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.870-871.
2. ^ "Sir Edmund
Hillary." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.870-871.
4. ^ "Sir Edmund
Hillary." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
5. ^ "Sherpa." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sherpa
6. ^ "Sir Edmund Hillary."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
7. ^ "Mount Everest." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mount-evere
st
8. ^ "Sir Edmund Hillary."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
9. ^ "Sir Edmund Hillary."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
{05/29/1953}
Mount Everest, border between Nepal and
the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.7
8  
[1] Title: Tenzing Norgay on the
summit Date: May 29,
1953 Origin: Edmund
Hillary
Information: Tenzing Norgay
on the summit of Mount Everest at 11.30
am. Tenzing waves his ice-axe on which
are strung the flags of the United
Nations, Britain, India and
Nepal. TenzingonSummit.jpg‎ (300 ×
443 pixels, file size: 116 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Tenzing Norgay
achieves the summit of Mt. Everest, May
29, 1953. Photograph taken by Edmund
Hillary. Copyright Royal Geographic
Society and taken from
http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/
themes/everest/gallery/resource/?id=216
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unlockingthearchives.
rgs.org/resources/images/ten-on-summit-e
nlarged.jpg

[2] Sir Edmund Hillary was a famous
mountain climber from Auckland. After
climbing Mount Everest he helped build
schools in Nepal. UNKNOWN
source: http://ourkiwirolemodels.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/3797.jpg/163780247/379
7.jpg
47 YBN
[06/19/1953 AD] 9 10 		5124)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747-748.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
3. ^ Baade, W.
and Minkowski, R., "On the
Indentification of Radio Sources.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 119,
p.215. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1954ApJ...119..215B/0000215.000
.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p747-748.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Baade, W. and Minkowski,
R., "On the Indentification of Radio
Sources.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
119,
p.215. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1954ApJ...119..215B/0000215.000
.html
9. ^ Baade, W. and Minkowski, R., "On
the Indentification of Radio Sources.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 119,
p.215. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1954ApJ...119..215B/0000215.000
.html {06/19/1953}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739. {1959}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Baade." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-baad
e
[2] Baade, W., "NGC 147 and NGC 185,
Two New Members of the Local Group of
Galaxies", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.147. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..147B
[3] Baade, W., "Nova Ophiuchi of 1604
AS a Supernova.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html
[4] Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
[5] Richardson, R. S., "A New Asteroid
with Smallest Known Mean Distance",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 61, No.
361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html
[6] W Baade, "A revision of the
extra-galactic distance scale",
Transactions of the International
Astronomical Union, 1952
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA8  
[1] Figure 1 from: Baade, W. and
Minkowski, R., ''On the Indentification
of Radio Sources.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 119,
p.215. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1954ApJ...119..215B/0000215.000
.html UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
54ApJ...119..215B&db_key=AST&page_ind=6&
data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=Y
ES

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
47 YBN
[07/09/1953 AD] 28 		5690) In 1995, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded "for pioneering
experimental contributions to lepton
physics" jointly with one half to
Martin L. Perl "for the discovery of
the tau lepton" and with one half to
Frederick Reines "for the detection of
the neutrino".23

A lepton is any particles that
participate in the supposed "weak
nuclear interaction", including the
electron, the muon, and their
associated neutrinos.24

From 1944 to 1959 Reines is a group
leader at the Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, concerned with the physics
and effects of nuclear explosions.25

Cowan is on the faculty of the Catholic
University of America in Washington, DC
from 1958 until his death in 1974.26
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ F. Reines and C. L. Cowan, Jr.,
"Detection of the Free Neutrino", Phys.
Rev. 92, 830
(1953). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v92/i3/p830_1 {Reines_Frederick_19530
709.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866-867,871.
3. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physics 1995". Nobelprize.org. 17
Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1995/
4. ^
http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/clcowan
.htm
5. ^ "Frederick Reines." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/496599/Frederick-Reines>.
6. ^ "Frederick Reines." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-r
eines
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866-867,871.
8. ^ F. Reines and C.
L. Cowan, Jr., "Detection of the Free
Neutrino", Phys. Rev. 92, 830
(1953). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v92/i3/p830_1 {Reines_Frederick_19530
709.pdf}
9. ^ Reines, Cowan, "The neutrino" ,
Nature (1956) volume: 178 issue:
4531 page:
446 http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v178/n4531/abs/178446a0.html {Reines_
Frederick_19560901.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1995". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1995/
24. ^ "lepton." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lepton
25. ^ "Frederick Reines." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-r
eines
26. ^
http://cuamagazine.cua.edu/2009Fall/news
.html
27. ^ F. Reines and C. L. Cowan, Jr.,
"Detection of the Free Neutrino", Phys.
Rev. 92, 830
(1953). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v92/i3/p830_1 {Reines_Frederick_19530
709.pdf}
28. ^ F. Reines and C. L. Cowan, Jr.,
"Detection of the Free Neutrino", Phys.
Rev. 92, 830
(1953). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v92/i3/p830_1 {Reines_Frederick_19530
709.pdf} {07/09/1953}
(Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
University of California) Los Alamos,
New Mexico, USA27  
[1] Fred Reines and Clyde Cowan at the
Control Center of the Hanford
Experiment (1953) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ps.uci.edu/physics/Im
ages/nobel/reinescontrols.jpg

[2] Frederick Reines FNAL photo PD
source: http://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquirin
g/physics/neutrino/discovery/photos/rein
es_large.jpg
47 YBN
[07/12/1953 AD] 11 		5781)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The cosmic ray conference at
Bagneres de Bigorre", 6-12 July 1953.
(Report prepared by J. Reginald
Richardson, scientific liaison
officer) http://catalog.hathitrust.org/
Record/001985264
{Cosmic_Ray_Conference_Bagneres_de_Big
orre_19530712.pdf}
2. ^ D. Lal, Yash Pal and B. Peters,
"The preparation of large nuclear
emulsion detectors and their
application to the study of K-mesons
and hyperons", Proceedings
Mathematical Sciences Volume 38,
Number 4,
277-287 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/e0n012282u7k8350/
3. ^ "Kaon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaon
4. ^ "The cosmic ray conference at
Bagneres de Bigorre", 6-12 July 1953.
(Report prepared by J. Reginald
Richardson, scientific liaison
officer) http://catalog.hathitrust.org/
Record/001985264
{Cosmic_Ray_Conference_Bagneres_de_Big
orre_19530712.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "The cosmic ray conference at
Bagneres de Bigorre", 6-12 July 1953.
(Report prepared by J. Reginald
Richardson, scientific liaison
officer) http://catalog.hathitrust.org/
Record/001985264
{Cosmic_Ray_Conference_Bagneres_de_Big
orre_19530712.pdf}
10. ^
http://www.france-voyage.com/towns/bagne
res-de-bigorre-25726.htm
11. ^ "The cosmic ray conference at
Bagneres de Bigorre", 6-12 July 1953.
(Report prepared by J. Reginald
Richardson, scientific liaison
officer) http://catalog.hathitrust.org/
Record/001985264
{Cosmic_Ray_Conference_Bagneres_de_Big
orre_19530712.pdf} {07/12/1953}
Bagneres de Bigorre, France9 10   
47 YBN
[08/12/1953 AD] 6 		5309)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Record ID5470. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml
6. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {08/12/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p791
[2] Arkadiĭ
Konstantinovich Kruglov, "The history
of the Soviet atomic industry",2002,
p24. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
SriY07qvdIC&pg=PA24&dq=December+24+1946+
nuclear+reactor&hl=en&ei=kQZaTeO8GYT4sAP
zg6SRCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=6&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Decem
ber%2024%201946%20nuclear%20reactor&f=fa
lse
[3] "Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/325188/Igor-Vasilyevich-Kurchatov>
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p875
Semipalatinsk, Russia (Soviet Union)4 5
 
[1] The mushroom cloud from the
Soviet's first hydrogen bomb Yield:
1.6 megatons Date: 11/ 22/
1955 Location: Semipalatinsk Type:
Airdrop UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/H51.jpg

[2] The fathers of Soviet nuclear
program Dr. Andrei Sakharov (left) with
Dr. Igor Kurchatov (right). Andrei
Sakharov and Igor Kurchatov Kurchatov
died in 1960 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Andrei_Sakharov_and_Igor_K
urchatov.jpeg
47 YBN
[08/21/1953 AD] 5 		5758)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roger H. Hildebrand and Darragh
E. Nagle, "Operation of a Glaser Bubble
Chamber with Liquid Hydrogen", Phys.
Rev. 92, 517–518 (1953)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v92/i
2/p517_1 {Nagle_Darragh_E_19530821.pdf}

2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Roger H.
Hildebrand and Darragh E. Nagle,
"Operation of a Glaser Bubble Chamber
with Liquid Hydrogen", Phys. Rev. 92,
517–518 (1953)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v92/i
2/p517_1 {Nagle_Darragh_E_19530821.pdf}

5. ^ Roger H. Hildebrand and Darragh E.
Nagle, "Operation of a Glaser Bubble
Chamber with Liquid Hydrogen", Phys.
Rev. 92, 517–518 (1953)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v92/i
2/p517_1 {Nagle_Darragh_E_19530821.pdf}
{08/21/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] Donald A. Glaser, "Some
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on the
Formation of Bubbles in Liquids", Phys.
Rev. 87, 665–665 (1952)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v87/i
4/p665_1
[2] "Donald A. Glaser - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 7 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1960/glaser-lecture.html
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA4  
[1] Figure 1 from: Roger H. Hildebrand
and Darragh E. Nagle, ''Operation of a
Glaser Bubble Chamber with Liquid
Hydrogen'', Phys. Rev. 92, 517–518
(1953)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v92/i
2/p517_1 {Nagle_Darragh_E_19530821.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v92/i2/p517_1

[2] Description: young, three-quarter
view, suit Date: Unknown Credit:
University of Chicago, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives, Physics
Today Collection Names: Hildebrand,
Roger Henry COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/hildebrand_roger_a3.jpg
47 YBN
[09/28/1953 AD] 8 		5783)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A Pais, "On the
Baryön-meson-photon System", Progress
of theoretical physics, (1953) volume:
10 issue: 4
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTP/10/457/ {
Pais_Abraham_19530928.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p521.
3. ^ A Pais, "On the
Baryön-meson-photon System", Progress
of theoretical physics, (1953) volume:
10 issue: 4
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTP/10/457/ {
Pais_Abraham_19530928.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A Pais, "On the
Baryön-meson-photon System", Progress
of theoretical physics, (1953) volume:
10 issue: 4
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTP/10/457/ {
Pais_Abraham_19530928.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A Pais, "On the
Baryön-meson-photon System", Progress
of theoretical physics, (1953) volume:
10 issue: 4
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTP/10/457/ {
Pais_Abraham_19530928.pdf}
8. ^ A Pais, "On the
Baryön-meson-photon System", Progress
of theoretical physics, (1953) volume:
10 issue: 4
http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTP/10/457/ {
Pais_Abraham_19530928.pdf} {09/28/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Pais, "ON THE PROGRAM OF A
SYSTEMATIZATION OF PARTICLES AND
INTERACTIONS", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A. 1954 June; 40(6):
484–492. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC534076/
(Institute for Advanced Study)
Princeton, New Jersey, USA7  		 
47 YBN
[09/30/1953 AD] 9 		5671)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. DAUSSET, A. NENNA, and H.
BRECY, "Leukoagglutinins V.
Leukoagglutinins in Chronic Idiopathic
or Symptomatic Pancytopenia and in
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria",
Blood, 9, 7, 696
(1954). http://bloodjournal.hematologyl
ibrary.org/content/9/7/696.abstract {Da
usset_Jean_19530930.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.862.
3. ^ "Jean Dausset."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152445/Jean-Dausset>.
4. ^ "Jean Dausset." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 12 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152445/Jean-Dausset>.
5. ^ "Jean Dausset." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dausset-jea
n
6. ^ "serum." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 13 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/serum
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. DAUSSET, A. NENNA, and
H. BRECY, "Leukoagglutinins V.
Leukoagglutinins in Chronic Idiopathic
or Symptomatic Pancytopenia and in
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria",
Blood, 9, 7, 696
(1954). http://bloodjournal.hematologyl
ibrary.org/content/9/7/696.abstract {Da
usset_Jean_19530930.pdf}
9. ^ J. DAUSSET, A. NENNA, and H.
BRECY, "Leukoagglutinins V.
Leukoagglutinins in Chronic Idiopathic
or Symptomatic Pancytopenia and in
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria",
Blood, 9, 7, 696
(1954). http://bloodjournal.hematologyl
ibrary.org/content/9/7/696.abstract {Da
usset_Jean_19530930.pdf} {09/30/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1980".
Nobelprize.org. 13 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1980/
[2] DAUS5ET, J., DELAFONTAINE, P., AND
FLEURIOT, Y. : "Agglutinsations et
destructions in vitro des plaquettes
normales par le serum d’une malade
atteinte de purpura thrombopenique
aigu. Inhibition par ce serum de Ia
retractions du caillot normal." Sansg
23: 373-384,
1952. English: "Agglutinsations and
destruction of normal platelets in
vitro by serum from a patient with
acute thrombocytopenic purpura.
Inhibition by serum of normal clot
retraction."
[3] J. DAUSSET & H. BRECY, "Identical
Nature of the Leucocyte Antigens
detectable in Monozygotic Twins by
means of Immune Iso-Leuco-agglutinins",
Nature 180, 1430 (21 December 1957);
doi:10.1038/1801430a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v180/n4599/abs/18014
30a0.html
(Centre National de Transfusion
Sanguine) Paris, France.8  
[1] Jean Dausset Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/dausset.jpg


source:
47 YBN
[10/03/1953 AD] 9 		5646) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1960 was awarded jointly to
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Peter
Brian Medawar "for discovery of
acquired immunological tolerance".7
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Billingham, R. E.; Brent, L.;
Medawar, P. B., "Actively Acquired
Tolerance' of Foreign Cells", Nature,
Volume 172, Issue 4379, pp. 603-606
(1953). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v172/n4379/abs/172603a0.html {Med
awar_Peter_Brian_19531003.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p854.
3. ^ "Peter Medawar."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peter-medaw
ar
4. ^ Record ID5228. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p854.
6. ^ Billingham,
R. E.; Brent, L.; Medawar, P. B.,
"Actively Acquired Tolerance' of
Foreign Cells", Nature, Volume 172,
Issue 4379, pp. 603-606
(1953). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v172/n4379/abs/172603a0.html {Med
awar_Peter_Brian_19531003.pdf}
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1960". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1960/
8. ^ Billingham, R. E.; Brent, L.;
Medawar, P. B., "Actively Acquired
Tolerance' of Foreign Cells", Nature,
Volume 172, Issue 4379, pp. 603-606
(1953). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v172/n4379/abs/172603a0.html {Med
awar_Peter_Brian_19531003.pdf}
9. ^ Billingham, R. E.; Brent, L.;
Medawar, P. B., "Actively Acquired
Tolerance' of Foreign Cells", Nature,
Volume 172, Issue 4379, pp. 603-606
(1953). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v172/n4379/abs/172603a0.html {Med
awar_Peter_Brian_19531003.pdf}
{10/03/1953}
(University College, University of
London) London, England8  
[1] Peter Brian Medawar Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1960/medawar.jpg
47 YBN
[10/22/1953 AD] 8 		5351)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p799.
2. ^ G. Gamow,
"Possible Relation between
Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Protein
Structures", Nature 173, 318 (13
February
1954). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v173/n4398/abs/173318a0.html {Gamo
w_George_19531022.pdf}
3. ^ GAMOW G, RICH A, YCAS M., "The
problem of information transfer from
the nucleic acids to proteins.", Adv
Biol Med Phys. 1956;4:23-68.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p799.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ G. Gamow, "Possible
Relation between Deoxyribonucleic Acid
and Protein Structures", Nature 173,
318 (13 February
1954). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v173/n4398/abs/173318a0.html {Gamo
w_George_19531022.pdf}
8. ^ G. Gamow, "Possible Relation
between Deoxyribonucleic Acid and
Protein Structures", Nature 173, 318
(13 February
1954). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v173/n4398/abs/173318a0.html {Gamo
w_George_19531022.pdf} {10/22/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Gamow." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-gamo
w
[2] "George Gamow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/225123/George-Gamow>.
[3] G. Gamow, "Zur quantentheorie des
atomkernes", European physical journal.
A, Hadrons and nuclei,(1928) volume:
51 issue: 3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
[4] RONALD W. GURNEY & EDW. U. CONDON ,
"Wave Mechanics and Radioactive
Disintegration", Nature, 09/22/1928,
Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html
[5] "Gamow, George." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 271-273. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901576&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Selection
Rules for the β-Disintegration", Phys.
Rev. 49, 895–899
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v49/i12/p895_1
[7] G. Gamow and E. Teller, "Energy
Production in Red Giants", Phys. Rev.
55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1
[8] G. Gamow and G. Keller, "A Shell
Source Model for Red Giant Stars", Rev.
Mod. Phys. 17, 125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1
[9] R. A. Alpher, H. Bethe, G. Gamow,
"The Origin of Chemical Elements",
Phys. Rev. 73, 803–804
(1948) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1
[10] G. Gamow, "Expanding Universe and
the Origin of Elements", Physical
Review, Volume 70, Issue 7-8, pp.
572-573. http://prola.aps.org/toc/PR/v7
0/i7-8
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA7  
[1] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg
47 YBN
[11/16/1953 AD] 12 		5701) In 1976, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded to William
Lipscomb "for his studies on the
structure of boranes illuminating
problems of chemical bonding".10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871.
2. ^ W. H. Eberhardt,
Bryce Crawford, and William N.
Lipscomb, "The Valence Structure of the
Boron Hydrides", J. Chem. Phys. 22, 989
(1954);
doi:10.1063/1.1740320 http://jcp.aip.or
g/resource/1/jcpsa6/v22/i6/p989_s1 {Lip
scomb_William_Nunn_Jr_19531116.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871.
4. ^ "William
Lipscomb - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1976/lipscomb-lecture.htm
l {Lipscomb_William_Nunn_Jr_19761211.pd
f}
5. ^ Longuet-Higgins. 1949.
“Substances Hydrogenées avec Défaut
d’Electrons.” J. Chim Phys. 46,
268-275.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1976". Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1976/
11. ^ W. H. Eberhardt, Bryce Crawford,
and William N. Lipscomb, "The Valence
Structure of the Boron Hydrides", J.
Chem. Phys. 22, 989 (1954);
doi:10.1063/1.1740320 http://jcp.aip.or
g/resource/1/jcpsa6/v22/i6/p989_s1 {Lip
scomb_William_Nunn_Jr_19531116.pdf}
12. ^ W. H. Eberhardt, Bryce Crawford,
and William N. Lipscomb, "The Valence
Structure of the Boron Hydrides", J.
Chem. Phys. 22, 989 (1954);
doi:10.1063/1.1740320 http://jcp.aip.or
g/resource/1/jcpsa6/v22/i6/p989_s1 {Lip
scomb_William_Nunn_Jr_19531116.pdf}
{11/16/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nobel laureate William
Lipscomb dies at 91", Associated Press,
April 15,
2011. http://www.google.com/hostednews/
ap/article/ALeqM5gX1LNHNm4y7lI4_DRPU1iBs
e_qUg?docId=c79adc9e15a0446e957b31cddef9
d6c6
(University of Minnesota) Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA11  
[1] Figures 15 and 16 from ''William
Lipscomb - Nobel Lecture''.
Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1976/lipscomb-lecture.htm
l {Lipscomb_William_Nunn_Jr_19761211.pd
f}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1976/lipscomb-lec
ture.html

[2] Description William n lipscomb
jr.jpg English: Photo of William N.
Lipscomb, Jr. at his desk. Date
About 1980 Source Own work
[1] Author Jslipscomb James S.
Lipscomb Permission (Reusing this
file) Intended by William N.
Lipscomb, Jr. for publications to
use. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/William_n_lipscomb_jr
.jpg
47 YBN
[1953 AD] 5 6 		5172)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Lee Ligon PhD, "Thomas Huckle
Weller, MD: Nobel Laureate and research
pioneer in poliomyelitis,
varicella-zoster virus,
cytomegalovirus, rubella, and other
infectious diseases", Seminars in
Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Volume
13, Issue 1, January 2002, Pages
55-63. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B75KN-4F74268-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2002&_r
doc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=sea
rch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00
0059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid
=4422&md5=2ee540fc9b5aa7ca38dfc749eb12af
9f&searchtype=a
2. ^ Weller TH: Serial propagation in
vitro of agents producing inclusion
bodies derived from varicella and
herpes zoster. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med
83:340-346,
1953 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed
/13064265
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a1779
.full
5. ^ B. Lee Ligon PhD, "Thomas Huckle
Weller, MD: Nobel Laureate and research
pioneer in poliomyelitis,
varicella-zoster virus,
cytomegalovirus, rubella, and other
infectious diseases", Seminars in
Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Volume
13, Issue 1, January 2002, Pages
55-63. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B75KN-4F74268-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2002&_r
doc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=sea
rch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00
0059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid
=4422&md5=2ee540fc9b5aa7ca38dfc749eb12af
9f&searchtype=a {1953}
6. ^ Weller TH: Serial
propagation in vitro of agents
producing inclusion bodies derived
from varicella and herpes zoster.
Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 83:340-346,
1953 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed
/13064265

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862.
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1954". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/
[3] WELLER TH, ENDERS JF., "Production
of hemagglutinin by mumps and influenza
A viruses in suspended cell tissue
cultures.", Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1948
Oct;69(1):124-8.
[4] "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders
[5] WELLER TH, ROBBINS FC, ENDERS JF.,
"Cultivation of poliomyelitis virus in
cultures of human foreskin and
embryonic tissues.", Proc Soc Exp Biol
Med. 1949
Oct;72(1):153-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/15391699
[6] John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller,
and Frederick C. Robbins, "Cultivation
of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis
Virus in Cultures of Various Human
Embryonic Tissues", Science 28 January
1949: 85-87.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/109/
2822/85.full.pdf
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1676381

[7] ENDERS JF, PEEBLES TC.,
"Propagation in tissue cultures of
cytopathogenic agents from patients
with measles.", Proc Soc Exp Biol Med.
1954 Jun;86(2):277-86.
[8] "Thomas Huckle Weller." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weller-thom
as-huckle
[9] T. Weller, "Rubella Virus.", Br Med
J. 1962 Dec 22;2(5320):1666-1667.
[10] "Thomas H. Weller -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/weller-bio.html
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA4 (presumably) 
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
47 YBN
[1953 AD] 10 11 		5669) Shklovskii is interested in the
search for advanced life of other
stars, as are Sagan and Drake.5

(Apparently Shklovsky suggested that a
moon of Mars may be hollow - determine
what is the origin of this.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Obituary: Iosif Samuilovich
Shklovskii, 1916-1985 Astronomicheskii
Zhurnal, Vol. 62,
p.618 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/198
5AZh....62..618.
2. ^ Shklovsky, I.S., "O prirode
svecheniia Krabovidnoi tumannosti = On
the nature of the radiation from the
Crab Nebula", (1953) Dokl. Akad. nauk
SSSR 90: 983-986.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Iosif
Samuilovich Shklovskii." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley .
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 12
Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/iosif-samui
lovich-shklovskii
8. ^ "Iosif Samuilovich Shklovskii".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iosif_Samui
lovich_Shklovskii
9. ^ http://www.sai.msu.su/
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861. {1953}
11. ^
Shklovsky, I.S., "O prirode svecheniia
Krabovidnoi tumannosti = On the nature
of the radiation from the Crab Nebula",
(1953) Dokl. Akad. nauk SSSR 90:
983-986.
(Moscow University) Moscow, U. S. S. R.
(now Russia)7 8 9 (presumably) 
[1] en:Iosif Samuilovich
Shklovsky from
http://publ.lib.ru/ARCHIVES/SH/SHKLOVSKI
Y_Iosif_Samuilovich/_Shklovskiy_I._S..ht
ml COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/45/Shklovskiy_Iosif.jpg
46 YBN
[01/21/1954 AD] 6 		5230)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839
2. ^
http://www.ussnautilus.org/nautilus/inde
x.shtml
3. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839
4. ^
http://www.subguru.com/nautilus571.htm
5. ^
http://www.ussnautilus.org/nautilus/inde
x.shtml
6. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839 {01/21/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p770-771.
Thames River, Connecticut, USA5  
[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg

[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif
46 YBN
[02/15/1954 AD] 4 		6080) "Shake, Rattle and Roll" (by
Charles E. Calhoun aka Jesse Stone in
1954) is recorded by Big Joe Turner.1

("Rattle" in this song may relate to
telling about direct-to-brain windows.
That a woman should be in the kitchen
is, kind of a backward - woman as a
servant- view. Then to know that Bill
Haley and none other than Elvis more
famously cover this song.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Shake rattle and roll".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shake_rattl
e_and_roll
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Shake rattle and roll".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shake_rattl
e_and_roll
4. ^ "Shake rattle and roll".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shake_rattl
e_and_roll {02/15/1954}
New York City, New York, USA3   
46 YBN
[02/23/1954 AD] 15 		5766) In the last days of WW2 the Nazis
draft children and Eigen is briefly in
an antiaircraft gun crew.10

In 1967 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry is
divided, one half awarded to Manfred
Eigen "for their studies of extremely
fast chemical reactions, effected by
disturbing the equlibrium by means of
very short pulses of energy",the other
half jointly to Ronald George Wreyford
Norrish and George Porter "for their
studies of extremely fast chemical
reactions, effected by disturbing the
equlibrium by means of very short
pulses of energy".11

Eigen is not to be confused with and
not the originator of an Eigenfunction,
Eigenstate, or Eigenvalue of
mathematics and Schroedinger's wave
functions. "Eigen" in German means
"own" and "eigenwert" means
"intrinsically worth".12 (more
details13 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Eigen, "Methods for
investigation of ionic reactions in
aqueous solutions with half-times as
short as 10–9 sec. Application to
neutralization and hydrolysis
reactions", Discussions of the Faraday
Society, 1954, 17, 194-205
DOI:10.1039/DF9541700194
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
html/1954/df/df9541700194 {Eigen_Manfre
d_19540223.pdf}
2. ^ "Manfred Eigen." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 07 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181008/Manfred-Eigen>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.885-886.
4. ^ "Manfred Eigen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 07 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181008/Manfred-Eigen>.
5. ^ M. Eigen, "Methods for
investigation of ionic reactions in
aqueous solutions with half-times as
short as 10–9 sec. Application to
neutralization and hydrolysis
reactions", Discussions of the Faraday
Society, 1954, 17, 194-205
DOI:10.1039/DF9541700194
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
html/1954/df/df9541700194 {Eigen_Manfre
d_19540223.pdf}
6. ^ "Manfred Eigen." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 07 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181008/Manfred-Eigen>.
7. ^ "tautomerism." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tautomerism

8. ^ "isomer." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isomer
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.885-886.
11. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1967".
Nobelprize.org. 8 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1967/
12. ^
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hba
se/quantum/eigen.html
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ M. Eigen, "Methods for
investigation of ionic reactions in
aqueous solutions with half-times as
short as 10–9 sec. Application to
neutralization and hydrolysis
reactions", Discussions of the Faraday
Society, 1954, 17, 194-205
DOI:10.1039/DF9541700194
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
html/1954/df/df9541700194 {Eigen_Manfre
d_19540223.pdf}
15. ^ M. Eigen, "Methods for
investigation of ionic reactions in
aqueous solutions with half-times as
short as 10–9 sec. Application to
neutralization and hydrolysis
reactions", Discussions of the Faraday
Society, 1954, 17, 194-205
DOI:10.1039/DF9541700194
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
html/1954/df/df9541700194 {Eigen_Manfre
d_19540223.pdf} {02/23/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] M. Eigen, G. Kurtze and K.
Tamm, Z. Elektrochem., 57 (1953) 103
[2]
M.Eigen, "Über die Kinetik sehr
schnell verlaufender Ionenreaktionen in
wässriger Lösung", Z.Physik.Chem.
(Frankfurt), 1(1954)176. English: "On
the kinetics of very fast running ion
reactions in aqueous solution"
(Max-Planck-Institut fur physikalische
Chemie) Gottingen, Germany14  
[1] Manfred Eigen Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1967/eigen
_postcard.jpg
46 YBN
[03/05/1954 AD] 11 		5586) In 1936 Perutz leaves Austria for
England.7
Perutz is interned as an
enemy alien during World War II.8
In
1962 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry is
awarded jointly to Max Ferdinand Perutz
and John Cowdery Kendrew "for their
studies of the structures of globular
proteins".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. W. Green, V. M. Ingram and M.
F. Perutz, "The Structure of
Haemoglobin. IV. Sign Determination by
the Isomorphous Replacement Method",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 14 September
1954 vol. 225 no. 1162
287-307. http://www.jstor.org/stable/99
481 and
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/225/1162/287.short {Perutz_Max
_Ferdinand_19540305.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p849.
3. ^ "Max Ferdinand
Perutz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/453302/Max-Ferdinand-Perutz>.
4. ^ "Max Perutz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-perutz
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p849.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p849.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p849.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p849.
9. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1962".
Nobelprize.org. 28 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1962/
10. ^ D. W. Green, V. M. Ingram and M.
F. Perutz, "The Structure of
Haemoglobin. IV. Sign Determination by
the Isomorphous Replacement Method",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 14 September
1954 vol. 225 no. 1162
287-307. http://www.jstor.org/stable/99
481 and
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/225/1162/287.short {Perutz_Max
_Ferdinand_19540305.pdf}
11. ^ D. W. Green, V. M. Ingram and M.
F. Perutz, "The Structure of
Haemoglobin. IV. Sign Determination by
the Isomorphous Replacement Method",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 14 September
1954 vol. 225 no. 1162
287-307. http://www.jstor.org/stable/99
481 and
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/225/1162/287.short {Perutz_Max
_Ferdinand_19540305.pdf} {03/05/1954}
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England10  
[1] Max Ferdinand Perutz Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1962/perutz.jpg
46 YBN
[03/30/1954 AD] 6 		5503)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837.
2. ^ "Sir Bernard
Katz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 14
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/313400/Sir-Bernard-Katz>.
3. ^ del Castillo J, Katz B, "The
membrane change produced by the
neuromuscular transmitter", The Journal
of Physiology, Vol. 125, No. 3. (28
September 1954), pp. 546-565.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/125/3/546
.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19540330.pdf}
4. ^ del Castillo J, Katz B, "The
membrane change produced by the
neuromuscular transmitter", The Journal
of Physiology, Vol. 125, No. 3. (28
September 1954), pp. 546-565.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/125/3/546
.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19540330.pdf}
5. ^ del Castillo J, Katz B, "The
membrane change produced by the
neuromuscular transmitter", The Journal
of Physiology, Vol. 125, No. 3. (28
September 1954), pp. 546-565.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/125/3/546
.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19540330.pdf}
6. ^ del Castillo J, Katz B, "The
membrane change produced by the
neuromuscular transmitter", The Journal
of Physiology, Vol. 125, No. 3. (28
September 1954), pp. 546-565.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/125/3/546
.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19540330.pdf}
{03/30/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1970".
Nobelprize.org. 15 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1970/
[2] Bernhard Katz, "Neuromuscular
Transmission in Crabs", Journal of
Physiology, 1936,
p199 http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3/
199.full.pdf
[3] Bernhard Katz, "Multiple Response
to Constant Current in Frog's
Medullated Nerve", Journal of
Physiology, 1936, p239
[4] A. L. Hodgkin, B.
Katz, "The effect of sodium ions on the
electrical activity of the giant axon
of the squid", The Journal of
Physiology, Vol. 108, No. 1. (1 March
1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full
(University College) London, England5
 
[1] Image of apparatus and axon
from: A. L. Hodgkin, B. Katz, ''The
effect of sodium ions on the electrical
activity of the giant axon of the
squid'', The Journal of Physiology,
Vol. 108, No. 1. (1 March 1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full

[2] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg
46 YBN
[04/12/1954 AD] 3 		6062)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rock Around the Clock".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Around
_the_Clock
2. ^ "Rock Around the Clock".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Around
_the_Clock
3. ^ "Rock Around the Clock".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Around
_the_Clock {1954}
(Pythian Temple studios) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] Description English: Bill Haley
and his Comets during a
TV-appereance. Deutsch: Bill Haley and
his Comets während eines
Fernsehauftrittes. Date ca.
1955 Source This image was
provided with the friendly permission
by Mr. Klau Klettner from Hydra
Records. Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Mr. Klettner provided the
image from the archives of the Bill
Haley museum in Munich, Germany. It is
allowed to use this photo under the
terms of the license showed below. For
questions please contact the uploader
or Klau Klettner from Hydra
Records. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/BillHaley.JPG
46 YBN
[04/28/1954 AD] 12 		5265)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Vincent du Vigneaud." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vincent-du-
vigneaud
2. ^ "Vincent du Vigneaud." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vincent-du-
vigneaud
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779.
4. ^ "Vincent du
Vigneaud." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vincent-du-
vigneaud
5. ^ "Vincent du Vigneaud."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172562/Vincent-du-Vigneaud>.
6. ^ VINCENT DU VIGNEAUD, CHARLOTTE
RESSLER, AND STUART, "THE SEQUENCE OF
AMINO ACIDS IN OXYTOCIN, WITH A
PROPOSAL FOR THE STRUCTURE OF
OXYTOCIN", December 1, 1953 The
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 205,
949-957.
http://www.jbc.org/content/205/2/949.s
hort {Du_Vigneaud_Vincent_19530713.pdf}

7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p779.
8. ^ "hormone."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hormone
9. ^ "Vincent du Vigneaud." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vincent-du-
vigneaud
10. ^ "Natural and Synthetic Oxytocin:
Preliminary report on the use of both
for the induction and stimulation of
labor", Obstetrics & Gynecology,
September 1955 - Volume 6 - Issue 3 -
ppg
254-257 http://journals.lww.com/greenjo
urnal/Citation/1955/09000/Natural_and_Sy
nthetic_Oxytocin__Preliminary_report.2.a
spx
11. ^ Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte
Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W.
Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis, "The
Synthesis of Oxytocin", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp
3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince
nt_19540428.pdf}
12. ^ Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte
Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W.
Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis, "The
Synthesis of Oxytocin", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp
3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince
nt_19540428.pdf} {04/28/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1955". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1955/
[2] Du Vigneaud, Vincent; Melville,
Donald B.; Gyorgy, Paul; Rose,
Catharine S., "On the Identity of
Vitamin H with Biotin", Science, Volume
92, Issue 2377, pp.
62-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1665
931?origin=ads
[3] György P, Melville DB, Burk D, DU
Vigneaud V., "THE POSSIBLE IDENTITY OF
VITAMIN H WITH BIOTIN AND COENZYME R.",
Science. 1940 Mar
8;91(2358):243-5. http://www.jstor.org/
stable/1666738?&Search=yes&searchText=BI
OTIN&searchText=VITAMIN&searchText=POSSI
BLE&searchText=R&searchText=IDENTITY&sea
rchText=COENZYME&searchText=H&list=hide&
searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3Ffi
lter%3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26Que
ry%3DTHE%2BPOSSIBLE%2BIDENTITY%2BOF%2BVI
TAMIN%2BH%2BWITH%2BBIOTIN%2BAND%2BCOENZY
ME%2BR%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26w
c%3Don&prevSearch=&item=1&ttl=16&returnA
rticleService=showFullText
[4] V Du Vigneaud, "The structure of
biotin", Science, New Series, Vol. 96,
No. 2499 (Nov. 20, 1942), pp.
455-461. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
71519
(Cornell University Medical College)
New York City, New York, USA11  
[1] Chemical structure diagram
from: Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte
Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W.
Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis,
''The Synthesis of Oxytocin'', J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp
3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince
nt_19540428.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01641a004

[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

46 YBN
[04/28/1954 AD] 5 		5577)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The National Academy of
Sciences: Abstracts of Papers Presented
at the Annual Meeting, April 26-28,
1954", Science, New Series, Vol. 119,
No. 3096 (Apr. 30, 1954), pp.
576-588. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
82010 {Abelson_Philip_Hauge_19540428.pd
f}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p847.
3. ^ "Philip
Abelson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philip-abel
son
4. ^ "The National Academy of Sciences:
Abstracts of Papers Presented at the
Annual Meeting, April 26-28, 1954",
Science, New Series, Vol. 119, No. 3096
(Apr. 30, 1954), pp.
576-588. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
82010 {Abelson_Philip_Hauge_19540428.pd
f}
5. ^ "The National Academy of Sciences:
Abstracts of Papers Presented at the
Annual Meeting, April 26-28, 1954",
Science, New Series, Vol. 119, No. 3096
(Apr. 30, 1954), pp.
576-588. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
82010 {Abelson_Philip_Hauge_19540428.pd
f} {04/28/1954}
(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C, USA4  
[1] This image was moved to Wikimedia
Commons from en.wikipedia using a bot
script. All source information is still
present. It requires review.
Additionally, there may be errors in
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information on this image should not be
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should not be used until it has been
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have been made. Once the review has
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pedia/commons/e/e5/Philip_Hauge_Abelson.
jpg
46 YBN
[05/05/1954 AD] 83 84 		5649) In 1948 Townes moves from Bell
labs and joins the faculty at Columbia
University.79

In 1964, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
divided, one half awarded to Charles
Hard Townes "for fundamental work in
the field of quantum electronics, which
has led to the construction of
oscillators and amplifiers based on the
maser-laser principle",the other half
jointly to Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov
and Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov
"for fundamental work in the field of
quantum electronics, which has led to
the construction of oscillators and
amplifiers based on the maser-laser
principle".80

(Possibly the maser is not an
invention, as much as it is an
optimization of the phenomenon of
luminescence, or the regular
frequencies that various atoms and
molecules emit absorbed light particles
at.81 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
2. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
3. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
4. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
5. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
6. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
7. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
8. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
9. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
10. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
11. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
12. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
13. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
14. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
15. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
16. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
17. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
18. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
19. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
20. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
21. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
22. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
23. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
24. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
25. ^ "Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/55331/Nikolay-Gennadiyevich-Basov>.
26. ^ "Aleksandr Mikhaylovich
Prokhorov." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/478547/Aleksandr-Mikhaylovich-Prokhoro
v>.
27. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
28. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
29. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p855-857.
30. ^ "Charles Hard
Townes." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
31. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
32. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p855-857.
33. ^ J. P. Gordon,
H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
"Molecular Microwave Oscillator and New
Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave
Spectrum of NH3", Phys. Rev. 95,
282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
34. ^ Record ID5484. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
35. ^ N. G. Basov
and A. M. Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret.
Phys. U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
36. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 27, 431 (1954) English:
37. ^ N. G. Basov and
A. M. Prokhorov, Proc. Acad. of
Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101, 47
(1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
38. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p855-857.
42. ^ Ted
Huntington.
43. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p855-857.
44. ^ A. L. Schawlow
and C. H. Townes, "Infrared and Optical
Masers", Phys. Rev. 112, 1940
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v112/i6/p1940_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19580826.pdf}
45. ^ J. P. Cedarholm, G. F. Bland, B.
L. Havens, and C. H. Townes, "New
Experimental Test of Special
Relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 342
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i9/p342_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_1958
0929.pdf}
46. ^ Ted Huntington.
47. ^ Ted Huntington.
48. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p855-857.
49. ^ 49. ^ N.
Bloembergen, C. K. N. Patel, P.
Avizonis, R. G. Clem, A. Hertzberg, T.
H. Johnson, T. Marshall, R. B. Miller,
W. E. Morrow, E. E. Salpeter, A. M.
Sessler, J. D. Sullivan, J. C. Wyant,
A. Yariv, R. N. Zare, A. J. Glass, L.
C. Hebel, G. E. Pake, M. M. May, W. K.
Panofsky, A. L. Schawlow, C. H. Townes,
and H. York (APS Study Group
Participants, APS Council Review
Committee), "Report to The American
Physical Society of the study group on
science and technology of directed
energy weapons", Rev. Mod. Phys. 59, S1
(1987). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v59/i3/pS1_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_1987
07xx.pdf}
50. ^ Ted Huntington.
51. ^ "Charles H. Townes -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-bio.html
52. ^ Ted Huntington.
53. ^ Ted Huntington.
54. ^ Ted
Huntington.
55. ^ Ted Huntington.
56. ^ Ted Huntington.
57. ^ Ted
Huntington.
58. ^ Ted Huntington.
59. ^ Ted Huntington.
60. ^ Ted
Huntington.
61. ^ Ted Huntington.
62. ^ Ted Huntington.
63. ^ Ted
Huntington.
64. ^ Ted Huntington.
65. ^ Ted Huntington.
66. ^ Ted
Huntington.
67. ^ Ted Huntington.
68. ^ Ted Huntington.
69. ^ Ted
Huntington.
70. ^ Ted Huntington.
71. ^ Ted Huntington.
72. ^ Ted
Huntington.
73. ^ Ted Huntington.
74. ^ Ted Huntington.
75. ^ Ted
Huntington.
76. ^ Ted Huntington.
77. ^ Ted Huntington.
78. ^ Ted
Huntington.
79. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
80. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1964". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/
81. ^ Ted Huntington.
82. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J.
Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "Molecular
Microwave Oscillator and New Hyperfine
Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of
NH3", Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
83. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} {first publication:)
05/05/1954}
84. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
{12/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hard Townes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tow
nes
[2] K. Shimoda, T. C. Wang, and C. H.
Townes, "Further Aspects of the Theory
of the Maser", Phys. Rev. 102, 1308
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1308_1
[3] "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
[4] T. S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murray,
and C. H. Townes, "Test of Special
Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space
by Use of Infrared Masers", Phys. Rev.
133, A1221
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v133/i5A/pA1221_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA82  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
46 YBN
[06/10/1954 AD] 12 		5691) Matthias moves from Germany to
Switzerland when Hitler gains control
of Germany.8
Matthias works at Bell
Labs.9
In 1961 Matthias works at the
University of California.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. T. Matthias, T. H. Geballe, S.
Geller, and E. Corenzwit,
"Superconductivity of Nb3Sn", Phys.
Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.867-868.
3. ^ B. T. Matthias,
T. H. Geballe, S. Geller, and E.
Corenzwit, "Superconductivity of
Nb3Sn", Phys. Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.867-868.
5. ^ B. T. Matthias,
T. H. Geballe, S. Geller, and E.
Corenzwit, "Superconductivity of
Nb3Sn", Phys. Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.867-868.
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.867-868.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.867-868.
11. ^ B. T.
Matthias, T. H. Geballe, S. Geller, and
E. Corenzwit, "Superconductivity of
Nb3Sn", Phys. Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf}
12. ^ B. T. Matthias, T. H. Geballe, S.
Geller, and E. Corenzwit,
"Superconductivity of Nb3Sn", Phys.
Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf} {06/10/1954}
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA11  
[1] Figure 1 from: B. T. Matthias, T.
H. Geballe, S. Geller, and E.
Corenzwit, ''Superconductivity of
Nb3Sn'', Phys. Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i6/p1435_1
46 YBN
[06/27/1954 AD] 7 		5310)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Record ID5444. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p791.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant#cite
note-WNA-0". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obninsk_Nuc
lear_Power_Plant#cite_note-WNA-0
7. ^ "Kurchatov, Igor Vasilievich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 526-527. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902407&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {06/27/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Arkadiĭ Konstantinovich
Kruglov, "The history of the Soviet
atomic industry",2002,
p24. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
SriY07qvdIC&pg=PA24&dq=December+24+1946+
nuclear+reactor&hl=en&ei=kQZaTeO8GYT4sAP
zg6SRCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=6&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Decem
ber%2024%201946%20nuclear%20reactor&f=fa
lse
[2] "Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/325188/Igor-Vasilyevich-Kurchatov>
Obninsk, Russia (Soviet Union)5 6
(verify) 
[1] Modern view inside Obninsk uranium
fission electricity generating
plant UNKNOWN
source: http://media.englishrussia.com/f
irst_nuclear/1_031.jpg

[2] Igor Kurchatov UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/kurchatov.jpg
46 YBN
[07/05/1954 AD] 4 		6081) Elvis Presley records his first
single "That's All Right" (written and
originally performed by blues singer
Arthur Crudup).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "That's All Right". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27s_Al
l_Right
2. ^ "That's All Right". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27s_Al
l_Right
3. ^ "Sun Records". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Records

4. ^ "That's All Right". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27s_Al
l_Right {07/05/1954}
(Sun Records) Memphis, Tennessee, USA2
3  
[1] That's_All_Right, first public
single of Elvis (1954) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f3/That%27s_All_Right.jpg
46 YBN
[07/06/1954 AD] 12 		5520) In 1972, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is divided, one half awarded
to Christian B. Anfinsen "for his work
on ribonuclease, especially concerning
the connection between the amino acid
sequence and the biologically active
conformation",the other half jointly to
Stanford Moore and William H. Stein
"for their contribution to the
understanding of the connection between
chemical structure and catalytic
activity of the active centre of the
ribonuclease molecule".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. H. W. HIRS, WILLIAM H. STEIN,
AND STANFORD MOORE, "The amino acid
composition of ribonuclease", Journal
of biological chemistry, (1954)
volume: 211 issue: 2 page:
941. http://www.jbc.org/content/211/2/9
41.short {Stein_William_Howard_19540706
.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839-840,858.
3. ^ "Stanford
Moore." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanford-mo
ore
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839-840,858.
5. ^ "hydrolysis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrolysis
6. ^ "ribonuclease." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribonucleas
e
7. ^ C. H. W. HIRS, WILLIAM H. STEIN,
AND STANFORD MOORE, "The amino acid
composition of ribonuclease", Journal
of biological chemistry, (1954)
volume: 211 issue: 2 page:
941. http://www.jbc.org/content/211/2/9
41.short {Stein_William_Howard_19540706
.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1972".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1972/
11. ^ C. H. W. HIRS, WILLIAM H. STEIN,
AND STANFORD MOORE, "The amino acid
composition of ribonuclease", Journal
of biological chemistry, (1954)
volume: 211 issue: 2 page:
941. http://www.jbc.org/content/211/2/9
41.short {Stein_William_Howard_19540706
.pdf}
12. ^ C. H. W. HIRS, WILLIAM H. STEIN,
AND STANFORD MOORE, "The amino acid
composition of ribonuclease", Journal
of biological chemistry, (1954)
volume: 211 issue: 2 page:
941. http://www.jbc.org/content/211/2/9
41.short {Stein_William_Howard_19540706
.pdf} {07/06/1954}
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA11  
[1] William Howard Stein Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/stein
_postcard.jpg

[2] Stanford Moore Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/moore
_postcard.jpg
46 YBN
[08/09/1954 AD] 8 		5571)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Anthony L. Levy, Irving I.
Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
"CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN", J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html {Li_Choh_Hao_19540809.pdf}

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
3. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p868.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Anthony L. Levy, Irving I.
Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
"CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN", J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html {Li_Choh_Hao_19540809.pdf}

8. ^ Anthony L. Levy, Irving I.
Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
"CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN", J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html {Li_Choh_Hao_19540809.pdf}
{08/09/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Choh Hao Li, "PREPARATION AND
PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY ACTIVE
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA7  
[1] Figure 1 from: Anthony L. Levy,
Irving I. Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
''CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN'', J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html {Li_Choh_Hao_19540809.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1
/187.full.pdf+html

[2] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
46 YBN
[08/17/1954 AD] 4 		5594)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ L. H.
Meredith, M. B. Gottlieb, and J. A. Van
Allen, "Direct Detection of Soft
Radiation above 50 Kilometers in the
Auroral Zone", Phys. Rev. 97, 201
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v97/i1/p201_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19540817.pdf}
4. ^ L. H. Meredith, M. B. Gottlieb,
and J. A. Van Allen, "Direct Detection
of Soft Radiation above 50 Kilometers
in the Auroral Zone", Phys. Rev. 97,
201
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v97/i1/p201_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19540817.pdf} {08/17/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
[2]
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
[3] J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1
[4] J. A. Van Allen and S. F. Singer,
"On the Primary Cosmic-Ray Spectrum",
Phys. Rev. 78, 819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
(University of Iowa) Iowa City, Iowa,
USA3  
[1] Summary ''Technicians lower
Explorer 1, the first American
satellite, onto the launch vehicle's
fourth stage motor. This photo was
taken in the gantry at Launch Complex
26 at Cape Canaveral, Florida.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Explorer1_preparation
s.jpg

[2] Name of Image: Launch of
Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 MIX #:
0100074 NIX #: MSFC-0100074 Date of
Image: 1958-01-31 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description: Launch
of Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 at Cape
Canaveral, Florida on January 31, 1958.
After the Russian Sputnik 1 was
launched in October 1957, the launching
of an American satellite assumed much
greater importance. After the Vanguard
rocket exploded on the pad in December
1957, the ability to orbit a satellite
became a matter of national prestige.
On January 31, 1958, slightly more than
four weeks after the launch of
Sputnik.The ABMA (Army Ballistic
Missile Agency) in Redstone Arsenal,
Huntsville, Alabama, in cooperation
with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
launched a Jupiter from Cape Canaveral,
Florida. The rocket consisted of a
modified version of the Redstone
rocket's first stage and two upper
stages of clustered Baby Sergeant
rockets developed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory and later designated as Juno
boosters for space launches (MRPO)
MRD/SPD Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO)
Subject Type: n/a Keywords: Launch,
Jupiter-C, Explorer 1 MSFC Negative
Number: 0100074 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a n/a NASA
Copyright
Notification:http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/co
pyright.html source:http://mix.msfc.n
asa.gov/abstracts.php?p=877 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Launch_of_Jupiter_C_w
ith_Explorer_1.jpg
46 YBN
[08/23/1954 AD] 7 		5678)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava,
W. D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker,
K. Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540823.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
4. ^ R. B.
Woodward, Michael P. Cava, W. D. Ollis,
A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker, K. Schenker,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF STRYCHNINE",
Journal of the American Chemical
Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540823.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ R. B. Woodward, Michael
P. Cava, W. D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U.
Daeniker, K. Schenker, "THE TOTAL
SYNTHESIS OF STRYCHNINE", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1954 76
(18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540823.pdf}
7. ^ R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava,
W. D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker,
K. Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540823.pdf} {08/23/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1965". Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[2] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[3] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[4] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[5] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
[6] R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001
[7] "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>
[8] Edmund C. Kornfeld, E. J.
Fornefeld, G. Bruce Kline, Marjorie J.
Mann, Reuben G. Jones, R. B. Woodward,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID
AND ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

46 YBN
[08/23/1954 AD] 7 		5679)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edmund C. Kornfeld, E. J.
Fornefeld, G. Bruce Kline, Marjorie J.
Mann, Reuben G. Jones, R. B. Woodward,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID
AND ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540917.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
4. ^ Edmund C.
Kornfeld, E. J. Fornefeld, G. Bruce
Kline, Marjorie J. Mann, Reuben G.
Jones, R. B. Woodward, "THE TOTAL
SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID AND
ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540917.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ R. B. Woodward, Michael
P. Cava, W. D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U.
Daeniker, K. Schenker, "THE TOTAL
SYNTHESIS OF STRYCHNINE", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1954 76
(18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540823.pdf}
7. ^ R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava,
W. D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker,
K. Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088 {Woodward_Robert_Bu
rns_19540823.pdf} {08/23/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1965". Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[2] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[3] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[4] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[5] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
[6] R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001
[7] "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

46 YBN
[10/21/1954 AD] 14 		5250)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Masao Ito, "Cerebellar circuitry
as a neuronal machine", Progress in
Neurobiology Volume 78, Issues 3-5,
February-April 2006, Pages
272-303. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T0R-4K4PSW1
-1&_user=4422&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2006&
_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=s
earch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_search
StrId=1631385543&_rerunOrigin=google&_ac
ct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_
userid=4422&md5=e4d449bd694356483fb30dfe
0e795a7e&searchtype=a
2. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T. (1955).
"Response of single motoneurons to
direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T.
(1955). "Response of single motoneurons
to direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T.
(1955). "Response of single motoneurons
to direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf}
14. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T. (1955).
"Response of single motoneurons to
direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} {10/21/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Granit R., "The components of
the retinal action potential in mammals
and their relation to the discharge in
the optic nerve.", J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long
[2] R. Granit, Sensory Mechanisms of
the Retina (1947)
[3] R. Granit, "The Visual
Pathway" (1962)
[4] Colour receptors of the
frog's retina
[5] RAGNAR GRANIT, "The Spectral
Properties of the Visual Receptors of
the Cat", Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 5, Issue 2-3,
pages 219–229, April
1943. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1943.tb02050.x/abs
tract
[6] RAGNAR GRANIT AND P. O. THERMAN.,
"EXCITATION AND INHIBITION IN THE
RETINA AND IN THE OPTIC NERVE.", J
Physiol, 1935, p359
[7] RAGNAR GRANIT, A.
MUNSTERHJELM AND M. ZEWI, "THE RELATION
BETWEEN CONCENTRATION OF VISUAL PURPLE
AND RETINAL SENSITIVITY TO LIGHT DURING
DARK ADAPTATION", J. Physiol. (1939)
96, 31-44
[8] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine 1967". Nobelprize.org. 5
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
[9] R Granit, "Principles and technique
of the electrophysiological analysis of
colour reception with the aid of
microelectrodes", Upsala
läkareförenings förhandlingar :
Acta societatis medicorum Upsaliensis.
1 45, 161-177, 1939
[10] ARAKI T, OTANI T,
FURUKAWA T., "The electrical activities
of single motoneurones in toad's spinal
cord, recorded with intracellular
electrodes.", Japan J Physiol. 1953 Dec
15;3(4):254-67.
[11] R. GRANIT, D. KERNELL AND G. K.
SHORTESS, "QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF
REPETITIVE FIRING OF MAMMALIAN
MOTONEURONES, CAUSED BY INJECTED
CURRENTS", J. Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/
(Kyoto University) Kyoto, Japan13
 
[1] Figure 1 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4

[2] Figure 2 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4
46 YBN
[12/10/1954 AD] 13 		5315) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1963
was awarded jointly to Karl Ziegler and
Giulio Natta "for their discoveries in
the field of the chemistry and
technology of high polymers".10 Natta
is the first Italian to be awarded the
Nobel Prize for chemistry.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792.
2. ^ Giulio Natta,
Piero Pino, Paolo Corradini, Ferdinando
Danusso, Enrico Mantica, Giorgio
Mazzanti, Giovanni Moraglio,
"CRYSTALLINE HIGH POLYMERS OF
α-OLEFINS", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1955,
77 (6), pp
1708–1710. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01611a109 {Natta_Giulio_195
41210.pdf}
3. ^ "Giulio Natta." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giulio-natt
a
4. ^ "Giulio Natta." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giulio-natt
a
5. ^ Record ID5218. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Giulio
Natta." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giulio-natt
a
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792.
8. ^ G. Natta, P.
Corradini, "The structure of
crystalline 1,2-polybutadiene and of
other "syndyotactic polymers"", Journal
of Polymer Science, Volume 20, Issue
95, pages 251–266, May
1956 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/abstract {N
atta_Giulio_19560216.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1963". Nobelprize.org. 16 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1963/
11. ^ "Giulio Natta." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/giulio-natt
a
12. ^ Giulio Natta, Piero Pino, Paolo
Corradini, Ferdinando Danusso, Enrico
Mantica, Giorgio Mazzanti, Giovanni
Moraglio, "CRYSTALLINE HIGH POLYMERS OF
α-OLEFINS", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1955,
77 (6), pp
1708–1710. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01611a109 {Natta_Giulio_195
41210.pdf}
13. ^ Giulio Natta, Piero Pino, Paolo
Corradini, Ferdinando Danusso, Enrico
Mantica, Giorgio Mazzanti, Giovanni
Moraglio, "CRYSTALLINE HIGH POLYMERS OF
α-OLEFINS", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1955,
77 (6), pp
1708–1710. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01611a109 {Natta_Giulio_195
41210.pdf} {12/10/1954}
(Polytechnic of Milan) Milan, Italy12
 
[1] Giulio Natta has the singular
honour of being the only Italian up to
date to be awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ultimateitaly.com/ima
ges/peoples/giulio-natta2.jpg
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 8 		4414)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p593-594.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p593-594.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p593-594.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ "Vernadsky, Valdímir Ivanovich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 616-620. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^
http://gnews.wustl.edu/GN125/gn125_art_b
ehrends.pdf {1909 (estimate}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vernadsky, Vladimir
Ivanovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
121>.
[2] "Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Iv
anovich_Vernadsky
(Moscow University) Moscow, Russia7
 
[1] Description Vernadsky.jpg Česky:
Vladimir Ivanovič Vernadskij, ruský
geolog a ekolog. English: Vladimir
Ivanovich Vernadski /Vladimir Ivanovich
Vernadsky, russian geologist and
ecologist, died in
1945. Русский: Владимир
Иванович Вернадский,
русский
естествоиспытатель,
выдающийся
мыслитель, минералог
и кристаллограф,
основоположник
геохимии,
биогеохимии,
радиогеологии и
учения о биосфере,
организатор многих
научных
учреждений. Date Source
en:Image:Vernadsky.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Vernadsky.jpg
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 6 		5170)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders
2. ^ ENDERS JF, PEEBLES TC.,
"Propagation in tissue cultures of
cytopathogenic agents from patients
with measles.", Proc Soc Exp Biol Med.
1954 Jun;86(2):277-86.
3. ^ "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders
6. ^ "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders {1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862.
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1954". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/
[3] WELLER TH, ENDERS JF., "Production
of hemagglutinin by mumps and influenza
A viruses in suspended cell tissue
cultures.", Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1948
Oct;69(1):124-8.
[4] WELLER TH, ROBBINS FC, ENDERS JF.,
"Cultivation of poliomyelitis virus in
cultures of human foreskin and
embryonic tissues.", Proc Soc Exp Biol
Med. 1949
Oct;72(1):153-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/15391699
[5] John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller,
and Frederick C. Robbins, "Cultivation
of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis
Virus in Cultures of Various Human
Embryonic Tissues", Science 28 January
1949: 85-87.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/109/
2822/85.full.pdf
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1676381

(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA5 (presumably) 
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 6 		5322)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
2. ^ "Adolf
Butenandt." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-buten
andt
3. ^ A Butenandt, "Über die Isolierung
eines Metamorphose-hormons der Insekten
in kristallisierter Form", 1954 - Verl.
d. Zeitschr. f.
Naturforschung English: "On the
isolation of a metamorphosis hormone of
insects in crystallized form"
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ P Karlson, and A Butenandt,
"Pheromones (ectohormones) in insects",
Annual Review of Entomology, (1959)
volume: 4 issue: 1 page:
39. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/ab
s/10.1146%2Fannurev.en.04.010159.000351
 {Butenandt_Adolf_195805xx.pdf}
6. ^ A Butenandt, "Über die Isolierung
eines Metamorphose-hormons der Insekten
in kristallisierter Form", 1954 - Verl.
d. Zeitschr. f.
Naturforschung English: "On the
isolation of a metamorphosis hormone of
insects in crystallized form"

MORE INFO
[1] A. Butenandt, "Über
"Progynon" ein krystallisiertes
weibliches Sexualhormon",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 17, Number
45,
879. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/g503613433t28ql3/
[2] "Adolf Butenandt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/86456/Adolf-Friedrich-Johann-Butenandt
>.
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1939". Nobelprize.org. 17 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1939/
[4] "androsterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
[5] "testosterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testosteron
e
[6] "androsterone." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
[7] Dr. A. Butenandt Priv.-Doz., "Über
die chemische Untersuchung der
Sexualhormone", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 44, Issue 46, pages 905–908,
14. November
1931 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19310444602/abstract
[8] A. BUTENANDT, "Chemical
Constitution of the Follicular and
Testicular Hormones", Nature 130,
238-238 (13 August
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v130/n3276/abs/130238a0.html
[9] "progesterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/progesteron
e
[10] Adolf Butenandt, Ulrich Westphal,
"Zur Isolierung und Charakterisierung
des Corpus-luteum-Hormons", Berichte
der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft
(A and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 8,
pages 1440–1442, 8. August
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340670831/abstract E
nglish: "On the isolation and
characterization of the corpus luteum
hormone"
[11] Adolf Butenandt, Josef Schmidt,
"Überführung des Pregnandiols in
Corpus-luteum-Hormon", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (A
and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 11,
pages 1901–1904, 7. November
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340671126/abstract E
nglish: "Transfer of pregnanediol in
corpus luteum hormone".
(Max Planck Institute) Munich, Germany5
 
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 13 		5323)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793.
2. ^ "Ovulation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ovulation-2

3. ^ "Gregory Goodwin Pincus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregory-goo
dwin-pincus
4. ^ "Gregory Goodwin Pincus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregory-goo
dwin-pincus
5. ^ Pincus G, Rock J, Garcia CR,
Rice-Wray E, Paniagua M, Rodgriquez I
(1958). "Fertility control with oral
medication". Am J Obstet Gynecol, June
1958, 75 (6):
1333–46. {Pincus_Gregory_195806xx.pdf
}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p793.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
"Gregory Goodwin Pincus." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregory-goo
dwin-pincus
9. ^ PINCUS G, CHANG MC., "The effects
of progesterone and related compounds
on ovulation and early development in
the rabbit.", Acta physiologica latino
americana,
1953;3(2-3):177-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pubmed/13138262
{Pincus_Gregory_1953xxxx.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ PINCUS G,
CHANG MC., "The effects of progesterone
and related compounds on ovulation and
early development in the rabbit.", Acta
physiologica latino americana,
1953;3(2-3):177-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pubmed/13138262 {Pincus_Gregor
y_1953xxxx.pdf}
13. ^ "Gregory Goodwin Pincus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregory-goo
dwin-pincus {1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Gregory Pincus, "SOME EFFECTS
OF PROGESTERONE AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
UPON REPRODUCTION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT
IN MAMMALS",Acta Endocrinologica, 1956,
Vol 23, 4 Suppl,
S18-S36 http://www.eje-online.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/23/4_Suppl/S18
(Worchester Foundation for Experimental
Biology) Shrewsbury, Massachusetts,
USA12  
[1] Gregory Pincus (1903-1967)
performed studies in animals to confirm
the contraceptive effects of
norethinodrel. His data were used to
justify human research using the same
chemical. He collaborated closely with
the obstetrician John Rock, and was
supported financially and politically
by Katherine Dexter McCormick, Margaret
Sanger and other birth control
activists. [t 1967 seems a very early
death - probably galvanized by violent
antipleasurists.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.br-online.de/bildung/
databrd/ms26.htm/ms26b11.jpg
45 YBN
[02/18/1955 AD] 12 		5686) In 1974, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Electron-microscopists
Albert Claude, Christian de Duve and
George E. Palade "for their discoveries
concerning the structural and
functional organization of the cell".9
10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. de Duve, B. C. Pressman, R.
Gianetto, R. Wattiaux, and F.
Appelmans, "Tissue fractionation
studies. 6. Intracellular distribution
patterns of enzymes in rat-liver
tissue", Biochem J. 1955 August; 60(4):
604–617.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1216159/pdf/biochemj00866-0078.pdf
?tool=pmcentrez
{De_Duve_Christian_Rene_19550218.pdf}
2. ^ Françoise Appelmans, R. Wattiaux,
and C. De Duve, "Tissue fractionation
studies. 5. The association of acid
phosphatase with a special class of
cytoplasmic granules in rat liver",
Biochem J. 1955 March; 59(3):
438–445.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entr
ez {De_Duve_Christian_Rene_19540803.pdf
}
3. ^ "Christian de Duve." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/christian-d
e-duve
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865.
5. ^ "Christian René
de Duve." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/174733/Christian-Rene-de-Duve>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865.
7. ^ "Christian de
Duve." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/christian-d
e-duve
8. ^ C. de Duve, B. C. Pressman, R.
Gianetto, R. Wattiaux, and F.
Appelmans, "Tissue fractionation
studies. 6. Intracellular distribution
patterns of enzymes in rat-liver
tissue", Biochem J. 1955 August; 60(4):
604–617.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1216159/pdf/biochemj00866-0078.pdf
?tool=pmcentrez
{De_Duve_Christian_Rene_19550218.pdf}
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1974". Nobelprize.org. 16 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1974/
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865.
11. ^ C. de Duve, B.
C. Pressman, R. Gianetto, R. Wattiaux,
and F. Appelmans, "Tissue fractionation
studies. 6. Intracellular distribution
patterns of enzymes in rat-liver
tissue", Biochem J. 1955 August; 60(4):
604–617.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1216159/pdf/biochemj00866-0078.pdf
?tool=pmcentrez
{De_Duve_Christian_Rene_19550218.pdf}
12. ^ C. de Duve, B. C. Pressman, R.
Gianetto, R. Wattiaux, and F.
Appelmans, "Tissue fractionation
studies. 6. Intracellular distribution
patterns of enzymes in rat-liver
tissue", Biochem J. 1955 August; 60(4):
604–617.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1216159/pdf/biochemj00866-0078.pdf
?tool=pmcentrez
{De_Duve_Christian_Rene_19550218.pdf}
{02/18/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] C. DE DUVE, "Lysosomes, a new
group of cytoplasmic particles."
Subcellular Particles (T. Hayashi,
ed.), pp. 128-159, Ronald Press, New
York, 1959
[2] Alex B. Novikoff, H. Beaufay,
and C. de Duve, "ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF
LYSOSOME-RICH FRACTIONS FROM RAT
LIVER", J Biophys Biochem Cytol. 1956
July 25; 2(4): 179–184.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2229688/
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium11  
[1] Figure from: Alex B. Novikoff, H.
Beaufay, and C. de Duve, ''ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY OF LYSOSOME-RICH FRACTIONS
FROM RAT LIVER'', J Biophys Biochem
Cytol. 1956 July 25; 2(4): 179–184.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2229688/ {De_Duve_Christian_Rene_
19560725.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2229688/

[2] Christian Rene de Duve Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.belgiumtheplaceto.be/
photos/duve_035.jpg
45 YBN
[02/26/1955 AD] 5 		5661)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN, "Structure
of Tobacco Mosaic Virus", Nature 175,
379 - 381 (26 February 1955);
doi:10.1038/175379a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v175/n4452/abs/175379
a0.html {Franklin_Rosalind_Elsie_195502
26.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), 874.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN, "Structure of
Tobacco Mosaic Virus", Nature 175, 379
- 381 (26 February 1955);
doi:10.1038/175379a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v175/n4452/abs/175379
a0.html {Franklin_Rosalind_Elsie_195502
26.pdf}
5. ^ ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN, "Structure
of Tobacco Mosaic Virus", Nature 175,
379 - 381 (26 February 1955);
doi:10.1038/175379a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v175/n4452/abs/175379
a0.html {Franklin_Rosalind_Elsie_195502
26.pdf} {02/26/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis Harry Compton
Crick." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 10
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
[2] J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf
[3] "Maurice Wilkins." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 11 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-wil
kins
[4] "James Dewey Watson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637603/James-Dewey-Watson>.
[5] "Balantidium." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

[6] "Balantidium." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

[7] M. H. F. WILKINS, A. R. STOKES & H.
R. WILSON , "Molecular Structure of
Nucleic Acids: Molecular Structure of
Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids", Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
738. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171738a0.pdf
[Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_195304
02.pdf}
[8] ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN & R. G.
GOSLING, "Molecular Configuration in
Sodium Thymonucleate", Nature, (1953)
volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
740. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171740a0.pdf
[9] Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B.,
Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S.
Nat. Acai Sci., 39, 84 (1953).
[10] Furberg,
S., Acta Chem. Scand., 3, 634 (1952).
[11]
Chargaff, E., for references see
Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and
Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys.
Acta, 9,402 (1952).
[12] 4. Wyatt, G. R.,J.
Gen. Physiol, 36, 201 (1952).
[13] Astbury, W. T.,
Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid,
66 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1947).
[14] Wilkins, M. H. F.,
and Randall, J. T, Biochim. et
Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953).
(Birkbeck College) London, England4
 
[1] Fig 3 from: ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN,
''Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus'',
Nature 175, 379 - 381 (26 February
1955);
doi:10.1038/175379a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v175/n4452/abs/175379
a0.html {Franklin_Rosalind_Elsie_195502
26.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v175/n4452/abs/175379a0.html

[2] Rosalind Franklin UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencecomm.wikispaces.co
m/file/view/3441067.jpg/96607078/3441067
.jpg
45 YBN
[04/07/1955 AD] 14 		5384) In 1959 the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Severo Ochoa and Arthur
Kornberg "for their discovery of the
mechanisms in the biological synthesis
of ribonucleic acid and
deoxyribonucleic acid".11 It seems
clear that Marianne Grunberg-Manago
should have had an equal share of the
prize with Ochoa.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p806-807.
2. ^ "Marianne
Grunberg-Manago". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marianne_Gr
unberg-Manago
3. ^ Marianne Grunberg-Manago, Severo
Ochoa, "ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS AND
BREAKDOWN OF POLYNUCLEOTIDES;
POLYNUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHORYLASE", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1955, 77 (11), pp
3165–3166. DOI:
10.1021/ja01616a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01616a093
{Ochoa_Severo_19550407.pdf}
4. ^ Singleton Jr., Rivers. "Ochoa,
Severo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 23. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 305-312.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
Feb. 2011. Document URL
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GA
LE%7CCX2830905959&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=r&
p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Singleton Jr., Rivers. "Ochoa,
Severo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 23. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 305-312.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
Feb. 2011. Document URL
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GA
LE%7CCX2830905959&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=r&
p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p806-807.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p806-807.
8. ^ Marianne
Grunberg-Manago, Severo Ochoa,
"ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF
POLYNUCLEOTIDES; POLYNUCLEOTIDE
PHOSPHORYLASE", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1955, 77 (11), pp 3165–3166. DOI:
10.1021/ja01616a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01616a093
{Ochoa_Severo_19550407.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959".
Nobelprize.org. 23 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1959/
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Marianne
Grunberg-Manago, Severo Ochoa,
"ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF
POLYNUCLEOTIDES; POLYNUCLEOTIDE
PHOSPHORYLASE", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1955, 77 (11), pp 3165–3166. DOI:
10.1021/ja01616a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01616a093
{Ochoa_Severo_19550407.pdf}
14. ^ Singleton Jr., Rivers. "Ochoa,
Severo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 23. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 305-312.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
Feb. 2011. Document URL
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GA
LE%7CCX2830905959&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=r&
p=GVRL&sw=w {04/07/1955}
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA13  
[1] Figure 1 from: Marianne
Grunberg-Manago, Severo Ochoa,
''ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF
POLYNUCLEOTIDES; POLYNUCLEOTIDE
PHOSPHORYLASE'', J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1955, 77 (11), pp 3165–3166. DOI:
10.1021/ja01616a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01616a093
{Ochoa_Severo_19550407.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01616a093

[2] Severo Ochoa UNKNOWN
source: http://cienciaaldia.files.wordpr
ess.com/2009/09/ochoa.jpg
45 YBN
[04/15/1955 AD] 12 		5727)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. F. Burke, K. L. Franklin,
"OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE RADIO
SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER", JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL
RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2, PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.878.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.878.
4. ^ B. F. Burke,
K. L. Franklin, "OBSERVATIONS OF A
VARIABLE RADIO SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH
THE PLANET JUPITER", JOURNAL OF
GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2,
PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf}
5. ^ B. F. Burke, K. L. Franklin,
"OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE RADIO
SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER", JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL
RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2, PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ B. F. Burke, K. L.
Franklin, "OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE
RADIO SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER", JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL
RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2, PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf}
12. ^ B. F. Burke, K. L. Franklin,
"OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE RADIO
SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER", JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL
RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2, PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf} {04/15/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] Rao, Joe; Degrasse Tyson,
Neil, "Obituary: Kenneth L. Franklin,
1923-2007", Bulletin of the American
Astronomical Society, v.39, no. 4,
p.1058. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/2007BAAS...39.1058R
(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C., USA11  
[1] Figure 2 from: B. F. Burke, K. L.
Franklin, ''OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE
RADIO SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER'', JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL
RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2, PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/
1955/JZ060i002p00213.shtml

[2] Figure 1 from: Rao, Joe; Degrasse
Tyson, Neil, ''Obituary: Kenneth L.
Franklin, 1923-2007'', Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, v.39,
no. 4,
p.1058. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/2007BAAS...39.1058R
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2007BAAS...39.1058R
45 YBN
[04/18/1955 AD] 6 		5558)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T.
Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf}
2. ^ A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T.
Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf}
3. ^ "mendelevium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mendelevium

4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey,
G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G.
T. Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf}
6. ^ A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T.
Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf} {04/18/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
[17] S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2
[18] Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528–528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1
[19] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Purnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1
[20] A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H.
Higgins, and G. T. Seaborg, M. H.
Studier, P. R. Fields, S. M. Fried, H.
Diamond, J. F. Mech, G. L. Pyle, J. R.
Huizenga, A. Hirsch, and W. M. Manning,
C. I. Browne, H. L. Smith, and R. W.
Spence , "New Elements Einsteinium and
Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100",
Phys. Rev. 99, 1048–1049
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i3/p1048_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
45 YBN
[06/17/1955 AD] 12 		5491) Fraenkel-Conrat leaves Germany
with the rise of Hitler.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p835-836.
2. ^ "Heinz
Fraenkel-Conrat." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 14 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinz-fraen
kel-conrat
3. ^ H. Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley C.
Williams, "RECONSTITUTION OF ACTIVE
TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS FROM ITS INACTIVE
PROTEIN AND NUCLEIC ACID COMPONENTS",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1955 October
15; 41(10): 690–698.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC528165/ {Fraenkel-Conrat_Heinz_19
550617.pdf}
4. ^ "Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinz-fraen
kel-conrat
5. ^ Record ID5431. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ H.
Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley C. Williams,
"RECONSTITUTION OF ACTIVE TOBACCO
MOSAIC VIRUS FROM ITS INACTIVE PROTEIN
AND NUCLEIC ACID COMPONENTS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1955 October 15;
41(10): 690–698.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC528165/ {Fraenkel-Conrat_Heinz_19
550617.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p835-836.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p835-836.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p835-836.
11. ^ H.
Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley C. Williams,
"RECONSTITUTION OF ACTIVE TOBACCO
MOSAIC VIRUS FROM ITS INACTIVE PROTEIN
AND NUCLEIC ACID COMPONENTS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1955 October 15;
41(10): 690–698.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC528165/ {Fraenkel-Conrat_Heinz_19
550617.pdf}
12. ^ H. Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley C.
Williams, "RECONSTITUTION OF ACTIVE
TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS FROM ITS INACTIVE
PROTEIN AND NUCLEIC ACID COMPONENTS",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1955 October
15; 41(10): 690–698.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC528165/ {Fraenkel-Conrat_Heinz_19
550617.pdf} {06/17/1955}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA11  
[1] Description
Fraenkel-Conrat.jpg (en) photograph
of German-American virologist Heinz
Fraenkel-Conrat (de) Fotografie des
deutsch-amerikanischen Virologen Heinz
Fraenkel-Conrat Date
2-7-2006 Source U.S.
National Library of Medicine Author
unknown (uploaded by user
Furfur) Permission (Reusing this
file) The NLM states that
''Government information at NLM Web
sites is in the public domain. Public
domain information may be freely
distributed and copied, but it is
requested that in any subsequent use
the National Library of Medicine (NLM)
be given appropriate acknowledgement
([1]), such as ''Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Fraenkel-Conrat.jpg
45 YBN
[06/20/1955 AD] 11 		5557)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H.
Higgins, and G. T. Seaborg, M. H.
Studier, P. R. Fields, S. M. Fried, H.
Diamond, J. F. Mech, G. L. Pyle, J. R.
Huizenga, A. Hirsch, and W. M. Manning,
C. I. Browne, H. L. Smith, and R. W.
Spence , "New Elements Einsteinium and
Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100",
Phys. Rev. 99, 1048–1049
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i3/p1048_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
620.pdf}
2. ^ A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H.
Higgins, and G. T. Seaborg, M. H.
Studier, P. R. Fields, S. M. Fried, H.
Diamond, J. F. Mech, G. L. Pyle, J. R.
Huizenga, A. Hirsch, and W. M. Manning,
C. I. Browne, H. L. Smith, and R. W.
Spence , "New Elements Einsteinium and
Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100",
Phys. Rev. 99, 1048–1049
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i3/p1048_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
620.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
4. ^ A. Ghiorso, S.
G. Thompson, G. H. Higgins, and G. T.
Seaborg, M. H. Studier, P. R. Fields,
S. M. Fried, H. Diamond, J. F. Mech, G.
L. Pyle, J. R. Huizenga, A. Hirsch, and
W. M. Manning, C. I. Browne, H. L.
Smith, and R. W. Spence , "New Elements
Einsteinium and Fermium, Atomic Numbers
99 and 100", Phys. Rev. 99, 1048–1049
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i3/p1048_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
620.pdf}
5. ^ "einsteinium." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 26 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/einsteinium

6. ^ "fermium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fermium
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ S. G.
Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso,
and G. T. Seaborg, "Element 98", Phys.
Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
11. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr.,
A. Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf} {06/20/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1951". Nobelprize.org. 25 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[2] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[3] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[4]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[5] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[6] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[7] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[8] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[9] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[10] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[11] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[12] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[13] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[14] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[15] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
[16] Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528–528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1
[17] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Purnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA10  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
45 YBN
[06/24/1955 AD] 6 		5304)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
2. ^ "Frank
Spedding." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-spedd
ing
3. ^ F. H. Spedding, J. E. Powell, H.
J. Svec, "A Laboratory Method for
Separating Nitrogen Isotopes by Ion
Exchange", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1955, 77
(23), pp
6125–6132. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01628a010 {Spedding_Frank_1
9550624.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
5. ^ F. H. Spedding,
J. E. Powell, H. J. Svec, "A Laboratory
Method for Separating Nitrogen Isotopes
by Ion Exchange", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1955, 77 (23), pp
6125–6132. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01628a010 {Spedding_Frank_1
9550624.pdf}
6. ^ F. H. Spedding, J. E. Powell, H.
J. Svec, "A Laboratory Method for
Separating Nitrogen Isotopes by Ion
Exchange", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1955, 77
(23), pp
6125–6132. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01628a010 {Spedding_Frank_1
9550624.pdf} {06/24/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] Frank Spedding, Adrian
Daane,"Chemistry of Rare Earth
Elements.", 1965.
[2] F. H. Spedding, A. F.
Voigt, E. M. Gladrow, N. R. Sleight,
"The Separation of Rare Earths by Ion
Exchange.1,2 I. Cerium and Yttrium", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1947, 69 (11), pp
2777–2781. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01203a058?prevSearch=%2528Th
e%2BSeparation%2Bof%2BRare%2BEarths%2Bby
%2BIon%2BExchange.%2529%2BNOT%2B%255Baty
pe%253A%2Bad%255D%2BNOT%2B%255Batype%253
A%2Bacs-toc%255D&searchHistoryKey=
[3] F. H. Spedding, A. H. Daane and K.
W. Herrmann, "The crystal structures
and lattice parameters of high-purity
scandium, yttrium and the rare earth
metals", Acta Cryst. (1956). 9,
559-563. http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bi
n/paper?S0365110X5600156X
(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA5  
[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg
45 YBN
[08/20/1955 AD] 10 11 		5468)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. BONNETT, J. R. CANNON, A. W.
JOHNSON, I. SUTHERLAND, A. R. TODD & E.
LESTER SMITH, " Structure of Vitamin
B12 : The Structure of Vitamin B12 and
its Hexacarboxylic Acid Degradation
Product", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/
2. ^ DOROTHY CROWFOOT HODGKIN, JENNY
PICKWORTH, JOHN H. ROBERTSON, KENNETH
N. TRUEBLOOD, RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN
G. WHITE, "The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin ", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/ {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Cr
owfoot_19550820.pdf}
3. ^ Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Jennifer
Kamper, June Lindsey, Maureen MacKay,
Jenny Pickworth, J. H. Robertson, Clara
Brink Shoemaker, J. G. White, R. J.
Prosen and K. N. Trueblood, "The
Structure of Vitamin B12 I. An Outline
of the Crystallographic Investigation
of Vitamin B12", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 242, No. 1229 (Oct. 29,
1957), pp. 228-263
http://www.jstor.org/stable/100311
4. ^ "Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1964/hodgkin.html
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p834.
7. ^ DOROTHY
CROWFOOT HODGKIN, JENNY PICKWORTH, JOHN
H. ROBERTSON, KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD,
RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN G. WHITE, "The
Crystal Structure of the Hexacarboxylic
Acid derived from B12 and the Molecular
Structure of the Vitamin ", Nature, 20
August 1955 Vol 176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/ {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Cr
owfoot_19550820.pdf}
8. ^ R. BONNETT, J. R. CANNON, A. W.
JOHNSON, I. SUTHERLAND, A. R. TODD & E.
LESTER SMITH, " Structure of Vitamin
B12 : The Structure of Vitamin B12 and
its Hexacarboxylic Acid Degradation
Product", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/
9. ^ DOROTHY CROWFOOT HODGKIN, JENNY
PICKWORTH, JOHN H. ROBERTSON, KENNETH
N. TRUEBLOOD, RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN
G. WHITE, "The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin ", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/ {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Cr
owfoot_19550820.pdf}
10. ^ DOROTHY CROWFOOT HODGKIN, JENNY
PICKWORTH, JOHN H. ROBERTSON, KENNETH
N. TRUEBLOOD, RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN
G. WHITE, "The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin ", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/ {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Cr
owfoot_19550820.pdf} {08/20/1955}
11. ^ "Alexander
Robertus Todd, Baron Todd."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/597909/Alexander-Robertus-Todd-Baron-T
odd-of-Trumpington>. {1955}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Todd." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-t
odd
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1957". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1957/
[3] Thomas Spence Work, Franz Bergel,
and Alexander Robertus Todd, "The
active principles of Cannabis indica
resin. I", Biochem J. 1939 January;
33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/
[4] A. JACOB & A. R. TODD,
"Cannabidiol and Cannabol, Constituents
of Cannabis indica Resin", Nature 145,
350-350 (02 March
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v145/n3670/abs/145350a0.html
[5] BADDILEY J, TODD AR., "Nucleotides;
muscle adenylic acid and adenosine
diphosphate.", J Chem Soc. 1947
May:648-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/20253206
[6] AM Michelson, AR Todd,
"Nucleotides, Part II. A. synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate", J. Chem. Soc.
London, 1949.
[7] AR Todd, "Structure and
synthesis of nucleotides.", Symposia of
the Society for Experimental …, 1947.
(Oxford University) Oxford, England9
 
[1] Figure 1 from: DOROTHY CROWFOOT
HODGKIN, JENNY PICKWORTH, JOHN H.
ROBERTSON, KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD,
RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN G. WHITE,
''The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin '', Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/ {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Cr
owfoot_19550820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v176/n4477/

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg
45 YBN
[08/22/1955 AD] 22 		5710) In 1977, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is divided, one
half jointly to Roger Guillemin and
Andrew V. Schally "for their
discoveries concerning the peptide
hormone production of the brain" and
the other half to Rosalyn Yalow "for
the development of radioimmunoassays of
peptide hormones".20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.875-876.
2. ^ "Rosalyn S.
Yalow." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 23
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/651417/Rosalyn-S-Yalow>.
3. ^
http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/che
mistry-in-history/themes/pharmaceuticals
/diagnosing-diseases/yalow-and-berson.as
px
4. ^ "radioimmunoassay." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radioimmuno
assay
5. ^ Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Arthur Bauman, Marcus A.
Rothschild, Katharina Newerly,
"INSULIN-I" METABOLISM IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS: DEMONSTRATION OF INSULIN
BINDING GLOBULIN IN THE CIRCULATION OF
INSULIN TREATED SUBJECTS", J. Clin.
Invest. 1956;
35(2):170. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/103262/version/1 {Yalow_Rosalyn_Su
ssman_19550822.pdf} {08/22/1955}
6. ^ "Rosalyn S.
Yalow." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 23
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/651417/Rosalyn-S-Yalow>.
7. ^ "Rosalyn Yalow - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
8. ^ "Rosalyn S. Yalow." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 23 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/651417/Rosalyn-S-Yalow>.
9. ^ "Rosalyn Yalow - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
10. ^ Berson, S. A. and R. S. Yalow.
1958. “Isotopic tracers in the study
of diabetes”, Advances in Biological
and Medical Physics. Academic Press.
pp. 349-430.
11. ^ Yalow, R. S. and S. A.
Bet-son. 1959. “Assay of Plasma
Insulin in Human Subjects by
Immunological Methods.” Nature 184,
1648-1649.
12. ^
http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/thinblue
line/explanations.html
13. ^ "Rosalyn Sussman Yalow." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosalyn-sus
sman-yalow
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.875-876.
15. ^ "Rosalyn Yalow
- Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24
Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
16. ^ Record ID5004. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977".
Nobelprize.org. 23 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/
21. ^ Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Arthur Bauman, Marcus A.
Rothschild, Katharina Newerly,
"INSULIN-I131 METABOLISM IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS: DEMONSTRATION OF INSULIN
BINDING GLOBULIN IN THE CIRCULATION OF
INSULIN TREATED SUBJECTS", J. Clin.
Invest. 1956;
35(2):170. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/103262/version/1 {Yalow_Rosalyn_Su
ssman_19550822.pdf}
22. ^ Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Arthur Bauman, Marcus A.
Rothschild, Katharina Newerly,
"INSULIN-I" METABOLISM IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS: DEMONSTRATION OF INSULIN
BINDING GLOBULIN IN THE CIRCULATION OF
INSULIN TREATED SUBJECTS", J. Clin.
Invest. 1956;
35(2):170. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/103262/version/1 {Yalow_Rosalyn_Su
ssman_19550822.pdf} {08/22/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Sidney S. Schreiber, Joseph
Post, "TRACER EXPERIMENTS WITH I131
LABELED HUMAN SERUM ALBUMIN:
DISTRIBUTION AND DEGRADATION STUDIES",
J. Clin. Invest. 1953;
32(8):746. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/102789/citation
(Veterans Administration Hospital)
Bronx, New York, USA21  
[1] Figure 4 from: ''Rosalyn Yalow -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture
.html

[2] Rosalyn Yalow preparing the
''atomic cocktail,'' a radio-iodine
mixture used in thyroid diagnostic
procedures, 1948, source: Radioisotope
Unit, Veterans Administration Hospital,
Bronx, New York. UNKNOWN
source: http://timeline.aps.org/images/p
osters/55_2a.jpg
45 YBN
[09/14/1955 AD] 3 		6082) Little Richard records
"Tutti-Frutti", (written by Little
Richard and Dorothy LaBostrie).1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tutti Frutti (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutti_Frutt
i_%28song%29
2. ^ "Tutti Frutti (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutti_Frutt
i_%28song%29
3. ^ "Tutti Frutti (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutti_Frutt
i_%28song%29 {09/14/1955}
(Cosimo Matassa's studio) New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA2  		 
45 YBN
[10/24/1955 AD] 15 16 		5366) Chamberlain worked on the
Manhattan Project, a U.S. research
project that produced the first atom
bombs.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
2. ^ "Owen Chamberlain." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/104949/Owen-Chamberlain>.
3. ^ Record ID5299. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p803,873-874.
5. ^ Owen
Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde
Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ "Owen Chamberlain." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 19 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/104949/Owen-Chamberlain>.
14. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
15. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} {10/24/1955}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803, 873-874. {1955}

MORE INFO
[1] "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
[2] E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209
[3] "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[4] "technetium." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1959".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1959/
[6] Seidel, Robert. "Segrè, Emilio
Gino." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 407-411.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906083&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1
[8] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal
[9] Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.;
Segrè, E. "Artificially Radioactive
Element 85". Phys. Rev. 1940, 58:
672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672
[10] O. Chamberlain, W. W. Chupp, G.
Goldhaber, E. Segrè, C. Wiegand, E.
Amaldi, G. Baroni, C. Castagnoli, C.
Franzinetti and A. Manfredini, "On the
observation of an antiproton star in
emulsion exposed at the bevatron", Il
Nuovo Cimento (1955-1965), Volume 3,
Number 2, 447-467, DOI:
10.1007/BF02745430. http://www.springer
link.com/content/74740076316k6m36/
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA14  
[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1

[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg
45 YBN
[11/03/1955 AD] 4 		6096) "The Great Pretender" released
(written by Buck Ram, performed by "The
Platters").1

(Notice that this song has a verse and
a bridge but no chorus. Notice too how
"pretending" is characteristic of those
who must pretend that the do not see or
hear thought.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Great Pretender". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_P
retender
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "The Platters".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Platter
s
4. ^ "The Great Pretender". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_P
retender {11/03/1955}
Los Angeles, California, USA3
(guess) 		 
45 YBN
[11/15/1955 AD] 9 		5567) With Soviet forces occupying
Romania after World War 2, Palade
leaves.6
In 1974 the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Albert Claude, Christian de
Duve and George E. Palade "for their
discoveries concerning the structural
and functional organization of the
cell".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. E. Palade and P. Siekevitz,
"AN INTEGRATED MORPHOLOGICAL AND
BIOCHEMICAL STUDY", Journal of
BNiophysical and Biochemical Cytology,
vol. 2 no. 2
171-200. http://jcb.rupress.org/content
/2/2/171.abstract {Palade_George_Emil_1
9551115.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p845-846.
3. ^ "George E.
Palade." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/439045/George-E-Palade>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p845-846.
5. ^ G. E. Palade and
P. Siekevitz, "AN INTEGRATED
MORPHOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STUDY",
Journal of BNiophysical and Biochemical
Cytology, vol. 2 no. 2
171-200. http://jcb.rupress.org/content
/2/2/171.abstract {Palade_George_Emil_1
9551115.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p845-846.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1974".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1974/
8. ^ G. E. Palade and P. Siekevitz, "AN
INTEGRATED MORPHOLOGICAL AND
BIOCHEMICAL STUDY", Journal of
BNiophysical and Biochemical Cytology,
vol. 2 no. 2
171-200. http://jcb.rupress.org/content
/2/2/171.abstract {Palade_George_Emil_1
9551115.pdf}
9. ^ G. E. Palade and P. Siekevitz, "AN
INTEGRATED MORPHOLOGICAL AND
BIOCHEMICAL STUDY", Journal of
BNiophysical and Biochemical Cytology,
vol. 2 no. 2
171-200. http://jcb.rupress.org/content
/2/2/171.abstract {Palade_George_Emil_1
9551115.pdf} {11/15/1955}
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA8
 
[1] Plate 28 from: G. E. Palade and P.
Siekevitz, ''AN INTEGRATED
MORPHOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STUDY'',
Journal of BNiophysical and Biochemical
Cytology, vol. 2 no. 2
171-200. http://jcb.rupress.org/content
/2/2/171.abstract {Palade_George_Emil_1
9551115.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jcb.rupress.org/content/2
/2/171.abstract

[2] George Emil Palade Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1974/palade
_postcard.jpg
44 YBN
[01/04/1956 AD] 5 		5305)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p790.
2. ^ "Frank
Spedding." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-spedd
ing
3. ^ F. H. Spedding, A. H. Daane and K.
W. Herrmann, "The crystal structures
and lattice parameters of high-purity
scandium, yttrium and the rare earth
metals", Acta Cryst. (1956). 9,
559-563. http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bi
n/paper?S0365110X5600156X {Spedding_Fra
nk_19560104.pdf}
4. ^ F. H. Spedding, J. E. Powell, H.
J. Svec, "A Laboratory Method for
Separating Nitrogen Isotopes by Ion
Exchange", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1955, 77
(23), pp
6125–6132. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01628a010 {Spedding_Frank_1
9550624.pdf}
5. ^ F. H. Spedding, A. H. Daane and K.
W. Herrmann, "The crystal structures
and lattice parameters of high-purity
scandium, yttrium and the rare earth
metals", Acta Cryst. (1956). 9,
559-563. http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bi
n/paper?S0365110X5600156X {Spedding_Fra
nk_19560104.pdf} {01/04/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] Frank Spedding, Adrian
Daane,"Chemistry of Rare Earth
Elements.", 1965.
[2] F. H. Spedding, A. F.
Voigt, E. M. Gladrow, N. R. Sleight,
"The Separation of Rare Earths by Ion
Exchange.1,2 I. Cerium and Yttrium", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1947, 69 (11), pp
2777–2781. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01203a058?prevSearch=%2528Th
e%2BSeparation%2Bof%2BRare%2BEarths%2Bby
%2BIon%2BExchange.%2529%2BNOT%2B%255Baty
pe%253A%2Bad%255D%2BNOT%2B%255Batype%253
A%2Bacs-toc%255D&searchHistoryKey=
(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA4  
[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg
44 YBN
[01/16/1956 AD] 7 		5316)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p792.
3. ^ G. Natta, P.
Corradini, "The structure of
crystalline 1,2-polybutadiene and of
other "syndyotactic polymers"", Journal
of Polymer Science, Volume 20, Issue
95, pages 251–266, May
1956 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/abstract {N
atta_Giulio_19560216.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792.
5. ^ G. Natta, P.
Corradini, "The structure of
crystalline 1,2-polybutadiene and of
other "syndyotactic polymers"", Journal
of Polymer Science, Volume 20, Issue
95, pages 251–266, May
1956 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/abstract {N
atta_Giulio_19560216.pdf}
6. ^ G. Natta, P. Corradini, "The
structure of crystalline
1,2-polybutadiene and of other
"syndyotactic polymers"", Journal of
Polymer Science, Volume 20, Issue 95,
pages 251–266, May
1956 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/abstract {N
atta_Giulio_19560216.pdf}
7. ^ G. Natta, P. Corradini, "The
structure of crystalline
1,2-polybutadiene and of other
"syndyotactic polymers"", Journal of
Polymer Science, Volume 20, Issue 95,
pages 251–266, May
1956 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/abstract {N
atta_Giulio_19560216.pdf} {01/16/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1963". Nobelprize.org. 16 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1963/
[2] Giulio Natta, Piero Pino, Paolo
Corradini, Ferdinando Danusso, Enrico
Mantica, Giorgio Mazzanti, Giovanni
Moraglio, "CRYSTALLINE HIGH POLYMERS OF
α-OLEFINS", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1955,
77 (6), pp
1708–1710. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01611a109
(Polytechnic of Milan) Milan, Italy6
 
[1] Figure 5 from: G. Natta, P.
Corradini, ''The structure of
crystalline 1,2-polybutadiene and of
other ''syndyotactic polymers'''',
Journal of Polymer Science, Volume 20,
Issue 95, pages 251–266, May
1956 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/abstract {N
atta_Giulio_19560216.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/pdf

[2] Giulio Natta has the singular
honour of being the only Italian up to
date to be awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ultimateitaly.com/ima
ges/peoples/giulio-natta2.jpg
44 YBN
[01/23/1956 AD] 13 		5762)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. W. Kerst, F. T. Cole, H. R.
Crane, L. W. Jones, L. J. Laslett, T.
Ohkawa, A. M. Sessler††, K. R.
Symon, K. M. Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt
Nilsena, "Attainment of Very High
Energy by Means of Intersecting Beams
of Particles", Phys. Rev. 102,
590–591 (1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f}
2. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=dkerst.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840.
4. ^ D. W. Kerst, F.
T. Cole, H. R. Crane, L. W. Jones, L.
J. Laslett, T. Ohkawa, A. M.
Sessler††, K. R. Symon, K. M.
Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt Nilsena,
"Attainment of Very High Energy by
Means of Intersecting Beams of
Particles", Phys. Rev. 102, 590–591
(1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f}
5. ^ Cline, McIntyre, and Rubbia,
"Producing Massive Neutral Intermediate
Vector Bosons with Existing
Accelerators,"I n Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ D. W. Kerst,
F. T. Cole, H. R. Crane, L. W. Jones,
L. J. Laslett, T. Ohkawa, A. M.
Sessler††, K. R. Symon, K. M.
Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt Nilsena,
"Attainment of Very High Energy by
Means of Intersecting Beams of
Particles", Phys. Rev. 102, 590–591
(1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f}
13. ^ D. W. Kerst, F. T. Cole, H. R.
Crane, L. W. Jones, L. J. Laslett, T.
Ohkawa, A. M. Sessler††, K. R.
Symon, K. M. Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt
Nilsena, "Attainment of Very High
Energy by Means of Intersecting Beams
of Particles", Phys. Rev. 102,
590–591 (1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f} {01/23/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "particle accelerator."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445045/particle-accelerator>.
[2] Donald W. Kerst et al, "MAGNETIC
INDUCTION ACCELERATOR", Patent number:
2297305, Filing date: Nov 13, 1940,
Issue date: Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
(University of Illinois) Champaign,
Illinois, USA12  
[1] Figure 1 from: D. W. Kerst, F. T.
Cole, H. R. Crane, L. W. Jones, L. J.
Laslett, T. Ohkawa, A. M.
Sessler††, K. R. Symon, K. M.
Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt Nilsena,
''Attainment of Very High Energy by
Means of Intersecting Beams of
Particles'', Phys. Rev. 102, 590–591
(1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v102/i2/p590_1

[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN

source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg
44 YBN
[02/18/1956 AD] 10 		5760)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Crick, F.H. C. (1957) Biochemical
Society Symposium, 14,
25-26. {Crick_Francis_19560218.pdf}
2. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Paul C.
Zamecnik, Mary L. Stephenson,
"Intermediate reactions in protein
biosynthesis", Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta, 1957, V24,
p215-216. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/journal/00063002 {01/16/1957}
3. ^ "Francis
Harry Compton Crick." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876.
5. ^ "Mahlon
Hoagland: molecular biologist", The
Times, London, Dec, 1
2009. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/
comment/obituaries/article6937973.ece
6. ^ "transfer RNA (tRNA)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/602542/transfer-RNA>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Crick,
F.H. C. (1957) Biochemical Society
Symposium, 14,
25-26. {Crick_Francis_19560218.pdf}
10. ^ Crick, F.H. C. (1957) Biochemical
Society Symposium, 14,
25-26. {Crick_Francis_19560218.pdf}
{02/18/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887
[2] F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England9  
[1] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
44 YBN
[03/??/1956 AD] 17 18 19 		5688) In 1959, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Severo Ochoa and Arthur
Kornberg "for their discovery of the
mechanisms in the biological synthesis
of ribonucleic acid and
deoxyribonucleic acid".14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN
IR, SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
2. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866.
4. ^ "Arthur
Kornberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/322505/Arthur-Kornberg>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866.
6. ^ BESSMAN MJ,
KORNBERG A, LEHMAN IR, SIMMS ES.,
"Enzymic synthesis of deoxyribonucleic
acid.", Biochim Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
7. ^ Lehman, I. R., M. J. Bessman, E.
S. Simms, and A. Kornberg, "Enzymatic
Synthesis of Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I.
PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL
PURIFICATION OF AN ENZYME FROM
ESCHERICHIA COLI ", J. Biol. Chem.,
233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Arthur_19571010.pdf}
8. ^ "Arthur Kornberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/322505/Arthur-Kornberg>.
9. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
10. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN
IR, SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
11. ^ Lehman, I. R., M. J. Bessman, E.
S. Simms, and A. Kornberg, "Enzymatic
Synthesis of Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I.
PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL
PURIFICATION OF AN ENZYME FROM
ESCHERICHIA COLI ", J. Biol. Chem.,
233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Arthur_19571010.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959".
Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1959/
15. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
16. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN
IR, SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
17. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
{03/1956}
18. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN
IR, SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
{05/02/1956}
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866. {1956}
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA15 16  
[1] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg
44 YBN
[04/10/1956 AD] 7 		5680)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. B. Woodward, F. E. Bader, H.
Bickel, A. J. Frey, R. W. Kierstead,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF RESERPINE", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78 (9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079 {Woodward_Robert_
Burns_19560410.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ R. B. Woodward,
F. E. Bader, H. Bickel, A. J. Frey, R.
W. Kierstead, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
RESERPINE", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78
(9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079 {Woodward_Robert_
Burns_19560410.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ R. B. Woodward,
F. E. Bader, H. Bickel, A. J. Frey, R.
W. Kierstead, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
RESERPINE", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78
(9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079 {Woodward_Robert_
Burns_19560410.pdf}
7. ^ R. B. Woodward, F. E. Bader, H.
Bickel, A. J. Frey, R. W. Kierstead,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF RESERPINE", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78 (9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079 {Woodward_Robert_
Burns_19560410.pdf} {04/10/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[2] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[3] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[4] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[5] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
[6] R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001
[7] "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
[8] Edmund C. Kornfeld, E. J.
Fornefeld, G. Bruce Kline, Marjorie J.
Mann, Reuben G. Jones, R. B. Woodward,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID
AND ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100
[9] R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava, W.
D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker, K.
Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

44 YBN
[04/16/1956 AD] 5 		6083)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Roll Over Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_Over_B
eethoven
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Roll Over Beethoven".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_Over_B
eethoven
4. ^ "Chess Records". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_Recor
ds
5. ^ "Roll Over Beethoven". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_Over_B
eethoven {04/16/1956}
(Chess Records) Chicago, Illinois, USA3
4 (presumably) 		 
44 YBN
[04/23/1956 AD] 15 		5761) In the late 1960s O’Neill
turned his attention to the feasibility
of space colonization. He designs a
kilometre-long sealed cylinder, to be
built primarily of processed lunar
materials and powered by solar energy,
capable of sustaining a human colony
indefinitely at a point in space
between the Earth and the Moon. In his
book The High Frontier (1978) O'Neill
suggests that space colonies might be
the ultimate solution to such
terrestrial problems as pollution,
overpopulation, and the energy
shortage.12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gerard K. O'Neill, "Storage-Ring
Synchrotron: Device for High-Energy
Physics Research", Phys. Rev. 102,
1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.885.
3. ^ "Gerard K.
O’Neill." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429160/Gerard-K-ONeill>.
4. ^ D. W. Kerst, F. T. Cole, H. R.
Crane, L. W. Jones, L. J. Laslett, T.
Ohkawa, A. M. Sessler††, K. R.
Symon, K. M. Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt
Nilsena, "Attainment of Very High
Energy by Means of Intersecting Beams
of Particles", Phys. Rev. 102,
590–591 (1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f}
5. ^ Gerard K. O'Neill, "Storage-Ring
Synchrotron: Device for High-Energy
Physics Research", Phys. Rev. 102,
1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf}
6. ^ "Gerard K. O’Neill."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 07 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429160/Gerard-K-ONeill>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Gerard K. O'Neill,
"Storage-Ring Synchrotron: Device for
High-Energy Physics Research", Phys.
Rev. 102, 1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf}
9. ^ Cline, McIntyre, and Rubbia,
"Producing Massive Neutral Intermediate
Vector Bosons with Existing
Accelerators,"I n Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "Gerard K.
O’Neill." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429160/Gerard-K-ONeill>.
13. ^ Gerard K. O'Neill, "Space
Colonies and Energy Supply to the
Earth", Science, New Series, Vol. 190,
No. 4218 (Dec. 5, 1975), pp.
943-947 http://www.jstor.org/stable/174
1676 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen_19751001.pdf
}
14. ^ Gerard K. O'Neill, "Storage-Ring
Synchrotron: Device for High-Energy
Physics Research", Phys. Rev. 102,
1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf}
15. ^ Gerard K. O'Neill, "Storage-Ring
Synchrotron: Device for High-Energy
Physics Research", Phys. Rev. 102,
1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf} {04/23/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carlo Rubbia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 07 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/511852/Carlo-Rubbia>.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA14  
[1] Figure 1 from: Gerard K. O'Neill,
''Storage-Ring Synchrotron: Device for
High-Energy Physics Research'', Phys.
Rev. 102, 1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v102/i5/p1418_1

[2] Description Gerard Kitchen
ONeill.GIF English: Photo of Gerard K.
O'Neill Date 2007-02-20 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transfered to
Commons by User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. Brand, Stewart. 1977.
Space Colonies. Whole Earth
Catalog NASA Mirror of Space
Colonies Image on NASA site PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Gerard_Kitchen_ONeill
.GIF
44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD] 11 12 		5082)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728-729.
2. ^ ML Humason, NU
Mayall, AR Sandage, "Redshifts and
magnitudes of extragalactic nebulae.",
The Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H {Humason_Milton_1956
04xx.pdf}
3. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p728-729.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ ML Humason, NU
Mayall, AR Sandage, "Redshifts and
magnitudes of extragalactic nebulae.",
The Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H {Humason_Milton_1956
04xx.pdf}
11. ^ ML Humason, NU Mayall, AR
Sandage, "Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.", The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H {Humason_Milton_1956
04xx.pdf} {04/1956}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p728-729. {1956}

MORE INFO
[1] Hubble, E. & Humason, M. L,
"The Velocity-Distance Relation among
Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 74, p.43
[2] Hubble, E. P.,
"The realm of the nebulae", Yale
University Press, 1936, p117.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA10  
[1] The infamous Plate III from: ML
Humason, NU Mayall, AR Sandage,
''Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.'', The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/t2png?bg=%23FFFFFF&/seri/AJ..
./0061/600/0000114P003&db_key=AST&bits=4
&res=100&filetype=.jpg

[2] [t Note that I can't really see
the absorption lines clearly in these
photos. And this paper does not contain
the Cosmos and Internet classic photo
of the calcium line shifting for
various galaxies - the source of which
is still unknown.] Plate IV from: ML
Humason, NU Mayall, AR Sandage,
''Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.'', The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H {Humason_Milton_1956
04xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1956AJ.....61...97H/0000116P004
.html
44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD] 28 		5777) In 1944 Gell-Mann enters Yale on
his 15th birthday.21
Gell-Mann works
under Fermi at the University of
Chicago.22
In 1956 at 26 Gell-Mann is a
full professor at the California
Institute of Technology.23

In 1969, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded to Murray Gell-Mann "for his
contributions and discoveries
concerning the classification of
elementary particles and their
interactions".24 (This is a very
theoretical contribution to be awarded
an entire Nobel prize for.25 ) (Note
that Gell-Mann's Nobel lecture
"Symmetry and Currents in Particle
Physics" is apparently not published
anywhere.26 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Gell-Mann, "The interpretation
of the new particles as displaced
charge multiplets", Il Nuovo Cimento
(1955-1965 (1956), Volume 4, Supplement
2,
848-866. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/2224m376w602t828/
{Gell-Mann_195604xx.pdf}
2. ^ M. Gell-Mann, "Isotopic Spin and
New Unstable Particles", Phys. Rev. 92,
833
(1953) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v92/i3/p833_1
{Gell-Mann_Murray_19530821.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
4. ^ "Murray
Gell-Mann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 11
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227979/Murray-Gell-Mann>.
5. ^ M. Gell-Mann, "Isotopic Spin and
New Unstable Particles", Phys. Rev. 92,
833
(1953) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v92/i3/p833_1
{Gell-Mann_Murray_19530821.pdf}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p515.
7. ^ T. Nakano and K. Nishijima,
"Charge Independence for
V-particles", Progress of Theoretical
Physics, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 581-582
(1953) http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTP/10/5
81/ {Nishijima_Kazuhiko_19531116.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
9. ^ "subatomic
particle." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 15
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570533/subatomic-particle>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
11. ^ "Murray
Gell-Mann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 11
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227979/Murray-Gell-Mann>.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
13. ^ M. Gell-Mann,
"The interpretation of the new
particles as displaced charge
multiplets", Il Nuovo Cimento
(1955-1965 (1956), Volume 4, Supplement
2,
848-866. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/2224m376w602t828/
{Gell-Mann_195604xx.pdf}
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
22. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
23. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
24. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1969". Nobelprize.org.
11 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1969/
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ M. Gell-Mann,
"The interpretation of the new
particles as displaced charge
multiplets", Il Nuovo Cimento
(1955-1965 (1956), Volume 4, Supplement
2,
848-866. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/2224m376w602t828/
{Gell-Mann_195604xx.pdf}
28. ^ M. Gell-Mann, "The interpretation
of the new particles as displaced
charge multiplets", Il Nuovo Cimento
(1955-1965 (1956), Volume 4, Supplement
2,
848-866. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/2224m376w602t828/ {Gell-Mann_1956
04xx.pdf} {04/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] M. GELL-MANN and A. PAIS,
"Theoretical views on the new
particles", Proceedings of the Glasgow
Conference, 1954,
p342-352. {Gell-Mann_Murray_19540717.pd
f}
(Institute for Advanced Study)
Princeton, New Jersey, USA27  
[1] Murray Gell-Mann Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1969/gell-mann.jpg
44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD] 4 		6275)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p94.
2. ^ "videotape." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/videotape
3. ^ "Ampex Corporation." International
Directory of Company Histories. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2006. Answers.com 27
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ampex-corpo
ration
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p94.
{04/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tape Recording Used by
Filmless 'Camera'," New York Times,
Nov. 12, 1951, p. 21.
[2] Eric D. Daniel,
C. Denis Mee, and Mark H. Clark (eds.),
Magnetic Recording: The First 100
Years, IEEE Press, 1998, p. 141. ISBN
0-07-041275-8
San Carlos, California, USA3
(presumably) 
[1] Description First Video
Recorder. Ampex videotape recorder,
type VR1000A, serial number 329, c
1950s. Credit: Science Museum
Inventory No.:
1970-0173_(0001) Date 19 April
2006, 17:21 Source First Video
Recorder. Uploaded by
shoulder-synth Author Karl
Baron from Lund, Sweden CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ampex_VR1000A_%
28serial_329%29.jpg/1280px-Ampex_VR1000A
_%28serial_329%29.jpg

[2] An early type of video recorder.
The text on the sign says:
Videorecorder Ampex VR 1000-B
Ampex Corporation, Redwood City,
Californa, 1961 Photo taken at the
Museum of Communication in
Frankfurt. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ampex_VR_1000-B
.JPG/1280px-Ampex_VR_1000-B.JPG
44 YBN
[06/22/1956 AD] 36 		5723) Yang actively seeks out Fermi for
his graduate work.31
In 1957, the Nobel
Prize in Physics is awarded jointly to
Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao (T.D.) Lee
"for their penetrating investigation of
the so-called parity laws which has led
to important discoveries regarding the
elementary particles".32 This is the
first people of Chinese birth to win a
Nobel prize.33 (Without any intent to
be rude or racist but simply honest, I
have to put this Nobel prize choice up
towards the top of the most abstract,
useless, highly theoretical, corrupt,
and most likely false so-called science
contribution the Nobel Prize committee
has ever recognized. But clearly behind
Egas Moniz's award - there are many
others to chose from. There are many
useful physics applications that help
life on earth constantly being
uncovered - in particular in product
innovations and secret neuron,
transmutation and robot research - to
name a few. But I do support the effort
of the Nobel committee to explore and
award the science contributions of
people of non-European race, in the
interest of racial variety, harmony and
equality.34 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.877,884.
2. ^ "Chen Ning
Yang." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 24
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/651706/Chen-Ning-Yang>.
3. ^ "Tsung-Dao Lee." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/334604/Tsung-Dao-Lee>.
4. ^ "Chen Ning Yang." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/651706/Chen-Ning-Yang>.
5. ^ "Tsung-Dao Lee." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tsung-dao-l
ee
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.877,884.
7. ^ "Chen Ning
Yang." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 24
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/651706/Chen-Ning-Yang>.
8. ^ C. S. Wu, E. Ambler, R. W.
Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P.
Hudson, "Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay", Phys. Rev.
105, 1413–1415 (1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
9. ^ "Tsung-Dao Lee." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tsung-dao-l
ee
10. ^ Record ID5273. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Record ID5452. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ "Tsung-Dao Lee - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1957/lee-lecture.html
{Lee_Tsung_Dao_19571211.pdf}
15. ^ T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang,
Question of Parity Conservation in Weak
Interactions, Phys. Rev. 106, 1371
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v104/i1/p254_1 {Yang_Chen_Ning_195606
22.pdf}
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted
Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted Huntington.
30. ^ Ted
Huntington.
31. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.877,884.
32. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1957". Nobelprize.org.
25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1957/
33. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.877,884.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ T. D.
Lee and C. N. Yang, Question of Parity
Conservation in Weak Interactions,
Phys. Rev. 106, 1371
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v104/i1/p254_1 {Yang_Chen_Ning_195606
22.pdf}
36. ^ T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang,
Question of Parity Conservation in Weak
Interactions, Phys. Rev. 106, 1371
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v104/i1/p254_1 {Yang_Chen_Ning_195606
22.pdf} {06/22/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chen Ning Yang - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1957/yang-lecture.html
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA and (Brookhaven National
Laboratory) Upton, New York, USA35
 
[1] Chen Ning Yang Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/yang_po
stcard.jpg

[2] Tsung-Dao (T.D.) Lee Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/lee_pos
tcard.jpg
44 YBN
[07/02/1956 AD] 3 4 		6105) "Don't Be Cruel" is recorded by
Elvis Presley and written by Otis
Blackwell in 1956.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Don't Be Cruel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Be_
Cruel
2. ^ "Don't Be Cruel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Be_
Cruel
3. ^ "Don't Be Cruel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Be_
Cruel {07/02/1956 (recorded}
4. ^ "Don't Be
Cruel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Be_
Cruel {07/13/1956 (released}
New York City, New York, USA2  
[1] Description This is the cover
art for Don't Be Cruel . The cover art
copyright is believed to belong to the
record label or the graphic
artist. Source The cover art can
or could be obtained from the record
label. Article Don't Be
Cruel COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/ElvisCruelDog.JPG
44 YBN
[07/06/1956 AD] 17 		5702) In 1943 Bloembergen gets his
master's degree at the University of
Utrecht, but in the same year the Nazis
occupy the Netherlands and shut down
the Dutch universities.14

In 1981, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
divided, one half jointly to Nicolaas
Bloembergen and Arthur Leonard Schawlow
"for their contribution to the
development of laser spectroscopy" and
the other half to Kai M. Siegbahn "for
his contribution to the development of
high-resolution electron
spectroscopy".15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ N. Bloembergen, "Proposal for a
New Type Solid State Maser", Phys. Rev.
104, 324 (1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v104/
i2/p324_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas_1956070
6.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871.
3. ^ "Nicolaas
Bloembergen." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/69617/Nicolaas-Bloembergen>.
4. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H.
Seidel, "Operation of a Solid State
Maser", Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf}
5. ^ Alan L. McWhorter and James W.
Meyer, "Solid-State Maser Amplifier",
Phys. Rev. 109, 312–318
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v109/i2/p312_1 {Meyer_James_W_1957081
4.pdf}
6. ^ J. O. Artman, N. Bloembergen, and
S. Shapiro, "Operation of a Three-Level
Solid-State Maser at 21 cm", Phys. Rev.
109, 1392–1393
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v109/i4/p1392_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas
_19571226.pdf}
7. ^ "Nicolaas Bloembergen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nicolaas-bl
oembergen
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ N.
Bloembergen, "Proposal for a New Type
Solid State Maser", Phys. Rev. 104, 324
(1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v104/
i2/p324_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas_1956070
6.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871.
15. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1981". Nobelprize.org.
18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1981/
16. ^ N. Bloembergen, "Proposal for a
New Type Solid State Maser", Phys. Rev.
104, 324 (1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v104/
i2/p324_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas_1956070
6.pdf}
17. ^ N. Bloembergen, "Proposal for a
New Type Solid State Maser", Phys. Rev.
104, 324 (1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v104/
i2/p324_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas_1956070
6.pdf} {07/06/1956}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA16  
[1] Nicolaas Bloembergen Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1981/bloembergen.jp
g
44 YBN
[07/24/1956 AD] 6 		5572)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Irving I. Geschwind, Choh Hao Li,
Livio Barnafi, "ISOLATION AND STRUCTURE
OF MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE FROM
PORCINE PITUITARY GLANDS", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1956 78
(17),
4494-4495. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01598a085 {Li_Choh_Hao_195607
24.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
3. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
5. ^ Irving I.
Geschwind, Choh Hao Li, Livio Barnafi,
"ISOLATION AND STRUCTURE OF
MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE FROM
PORCINE PITUITARY GLANDS", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1956 78
(17),
4494-4495. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01598a085 {Li_Choh_Hao_195607
24.pdf}
6. ^ Irving I. Geschwind, Choh Hao Li,
Livio Barnafi, "ISOLATION AND STRUCTURE
OF MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE FROM
PORCINE PITUITARY GLANDS", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1956 78
(17),
4494-4495. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01598a085 {Li_Choh_Hao_195607
24.pdf} {07/24/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] Choh Hao Li, "PREPARATION AND
PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY ACTIVE
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526
[2] Anthony L. Levy, Irving I.
Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
"CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN", J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p868
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
44 YBN
[10/25/1956 AD] 12 13 		5424)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816.
2. ^ Albert B. Sabin,
M.D., "Present status of attenuated
live-virus poliomyelitis vaccine", J Am
Med Assoc.
1956;162(18):1589-1596. http://jama.ama
-assn.org/content/162/18/1589.abstract
{Sabin_Albert_19561025.pdf}
3. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
4. ^ Sabin, "Properties and behavior of
orally administered attenuated
poliovirus vaccine", Source: JAMA
(Chicago, Ill.), (1957) volume: 164
issue: 11 page:
1216. http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/
164/11/1216.abstract
{Sabin_Albert_19561025.pdf}
5. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p816.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p816.
8. ^ Albert B.
Sabin, M.D., "Present status of
attenuated live-virus poliomyelitis
vaccine", J Am Med Assoc.
1956;162(18):1589-1596. http://jama.ama
-assn.org/content/162/18/1589.abstract
{Sabin_Albert_19561025.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Albert B.
Sabin, M.D., "Present status of
attenuated live-virus poliomyelitis
vaccine", J Am Med Assoc.
1956;162(18):1589-1596. http://jama.ama
-assn.org/content/162/18/1589.abstract
{Sabin_Albert_19561025.pdf}
12. ^ Albert B. Sabin, M.D., "Present
status of attenuated live-virus
poliomyelitis vaccine", J Am Med Assoc.
1956;162(18):1589-1596. http://jama.ama
-assn.org/content/162/18/1589.abstract
{Sabin_Albert_19561025.pdf}
{10/25/1956}
13. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>. {1957}

MORE INFO
[1] Sabin, "Cultivation of
poliomyelitis virus in vitro in human
embryonic nervous tissue", Proceedings
of the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine, (1936) volume: 31 page:
357
[2] ALBERT B. SABIN, M.D., "THE
OLFACTORY BULBS IN HUMAN
POLIOMYELITIS", Am J Dis Child.
1940;60(6):1313-1318.
http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/conte
nt/summary/60/6/1313
( University of Cincinnati) Cincinnati,
Ohio, USA11  
[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079
44 YBN
[11/16/1956 AD] 10 		5573)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ CHOH HAO LI and HAROLD PAPKOFF,
"Preparation and Properties of Growth
Hormone from Human and Monkey Pituitary
Glands", Science, 28 December 1956:
1293-1294. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1752401 {Li_Choh_Hao_19561116.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
3. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
5. ^ Choh Hao Li,
Donald Yamashiro, "Synthesis of a
protein possessing growth-promoting and
lactogenic activities", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1970, 92 (26), pp
7608–7609. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja00729a028 {Li_Choh_Hao_1970
0908.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ CHOH HAO LI and HAROLD PAPKOFF,
"Preparation and Properties of Growth
Hormone from Human and Monkey Pituitary
Glands", Science, 28 December 1956:
1293-1294. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1752401 {Li_Choh_Hao_19561116.pdf}
10. ^ CHOH HAO LI and HAROLD PAPKOFF,
"Preparation and Properties of Growth
Hormone from Human and Monkey Pituitary
Glands", Science, 28 December 1956:
1293-1294. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1752401 {Li_Choh_Hao_19561116.pdf}
{11/16/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] Choh Hao Li, "PREPARATION AND
PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY ACTIVE
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526
[2] Anthony L. Levy, Irving I.
Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
"CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN", J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p868
[4] Irving I.
Geschwind, Choh Hao Li, Livio Barnafi,
"ISOLATION AND STRUCTURE OF
MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE FROM
PORCINE PITUITARY GLANDS", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1956 78
(17),
4494-4495. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01598a085
[5] Timeline:
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
[6] Donald. Yamashiro, Choh Hao. Li,
"Adrenocorticotropins. 44. Total
synthesis of the human hormone by the
solid-phase method.", J. Am. Chem. Soc.
95: 1310-15.
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja
00785a049
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA9  
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
44 YBN
[12/03/1956 AD] 17 		5703)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H.
Seidel, "Operation of a Solid State
Maser", Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf}
2. ^ J. O. Artman, N. Bloembergen, and
S. Shapiro, "Operation of a Three-Level
Solid-State Maser at 21 cm", Phys. Rev.
109, 1392–1393
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v109/i4/p1392_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas
_19571226.pdf}
3. ^ N. Bloembergen, "Proposal for a
New Type Solid State Maser", Phys. Rev.
104, 324 (1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v104/
i2/p324_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas_1956070
6.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871.
5. ^ "Nicolaas
Bloembergen." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/69617/Nicolaas-Bloembergen>.
6. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H.
Seidel, "Operation of a Solid State
Maser", Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf}
7. ^ Alan L. McWhorter and James W.
Meyer, "Solid-State Maser Amplifier",
Phys. Rev. 109, 312–318
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v109/i2/p312_1 {Meyer_James_W_1957081
4.pdf}
8. ^ J. O. Artman, N. Bloembergen, and
S. Shapiro, "Operation of a Three-Level
Solid-State Maser at 21 cm", Phys. Rev.
109, 1392–1393
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v109/i4/p1392_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas
_19571226.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.871.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ H. E.
D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H. Seidel,
"Operation of a Solid State Maser",
Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G.
Feher, and H. Seidel, "Operation of a
Solid State Maser", Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf}
17. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H.
Seidel, "Operation of a Solid State
Maser", Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} {12/03/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1981". Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1981/
[2] "Nicolaas Bloembergen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nicolaas-bl
oembergen
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA16  
[1] Figure 1 from: H. E. D. Scovil, G.
Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of a
Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1

[2] Figure 2 from: H. E. D. Scovil,
G. Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of
a Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 7 		5130)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p740-741.
2. ^ "Simon, Franz
Eugen (Francis)." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 12.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
437-439. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904029&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Simon,
Franz Eugen (Francis)." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 437-439. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904029&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Simon, Franz Eugen (Francis)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 437-439. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904029&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {c1956}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p600.
(Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford
University) Oxford, England6  
[1] source:
http://www.jstor.org/view/00804606/ap030
006/03a00200/1?searchUrl=http%3a//www.js
tor.org/search/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26
si%3d1%26Query%3dfranz%2beugen%2bsimon&f
rame=noframe¤tResult=00804606%2bap
030006%2b03a00200%2b0%2cFBFFFF5F03&userI
D=817f1c03@adelaide.edu.au/01cce4405f005
01b551c8&dpi=3&config=jstor Gov
photo prior to 1956 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/22/Sir_Francis_Simon.jpg
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 11 12 		5261) Calder Hall is build under the
guidance of (Baron) Christopher Hinton
(CE 1901-1983).2 3

The first uranium fission electricity
generating plant is started in 1954 in
Obninsk in the Soviet Union.4

(This structure uses the heat from
uranium fission to heat water and uses
the steam to drive a generator which
creates electric current. How is this
current stored? Describe how electrical
power stations actually work, perhaps
they just create a continuous voltage
difference with end users houses. How
are changing demands met? Are there
temporary holding batteries, or are
more electricity producing devices
turned on when more electricity is in
use?)5 )

In 1954 the first nuclear power plant
was built in the Soviet Union.6

(Show internal diagram of nuclear
plant. Why is the traditional concrete
cylinder shape used? Does it serve a
purpose? Is it necessary? It seems an
unnecessary waste.7 )
(Are there other
designs beside uranium fission that can
produce more heat/free particle motion
than is put in? Clearly burning trash
and containing all waste products in a
closed vessel is one simple method of
producing heat and therefore
electricity.8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Christopher Hinton, Baron
Hinton." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/266526/Christopher-Hinton-Baron-Hinton
-of-Bankside>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p778-779.
3. ^ "Christopher
Hinton, Baron Hinton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/266526/Christopher-Hinton-Baron-Hinton
-of-Bankside>.
4. ^ Record ID5310. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p778-779.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ "Calder Hall reactor."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/89255/Calder-Hall-reactor>.
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/engla
nd/cumbria/7019414.stm
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p778-779. {1956}
12. ^
"Christopher Hinton, Baron Hinton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/266526/Christopher-Hinton-Baron-Hinton
-of-Bankside>. {1956}
(Calder Hall) Sellafield, England9 10
 
[1] Calder Hall unit 1. Obtained
from http://magnox.info/. Image
copyright (C) The British Nuclear Group
Ltd. Full legal information can be
found at [1]. The key paragraph
was: You may browse this site
and reproduce extracts for
non-commercial, informational or
personal use only provided that
whenever you do so, you incorporate in
any such extract a clear written
acknowledgment of the fact that such
extracts are from British Nuclear
Group's web site and that copyright in
such extracts belongs exclusively to
British Nuclear Group Ltd. No
reproduction of any part of this site
may be sold or distributed for
commercial gain nor shall it be
modified or incorporated in any other
work, publication or site. No other
licence is granted. Note that the
large inverted-funnel structure
dominating the photograph is not part
of the reactor proper, but a cooling
tower such as is found at any power
plant where steam turbines are used in
electric power generation; the
billowing vapor often seen coming from
such towers is not smoke but merely
steam, and is neither radioactive nor
polluting. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/4a/Calderhall.jpeg

[2] Christopher Hinton, Baron Hinton
of Bankside by Bassano half-plate
film negative, 2 December
1970 Purchased, 2004 NPG
x171486 UNKNOWN
source: http://images.npg.org.uk/790_500
/0/4/mw89404.jpg
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 7 8 		5317)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William C. Boyd, "Anthropologie
und Blutgruppen", Journal of Molecular
Medicine, Volume 34, Numbers 37-38,
993-999. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w8640566n4757001/ {Boyd_William_C
_19561001.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792.
3. ^ "William Boyd."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-boy
d
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ William
C. Boyd, "Anthropologie und
Blutgruppen", Journal of Molecular
Medicine, Volume 34, Numbers 37-38,
993-999. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w8640566n4757001/ {Boyd_William_C
_19561001.pdf}
7. ^ William C. Boyd, "Anthropologie
und Blutgruppen", Journal of Molecular
Medicine, Volume 34, Numbers 37-38,
993-999. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w8640566n4757001/ {Boyd_William_C
_19561001.pdf} {10/01/1956}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p792. {1956}
(University of Boston) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] William Clouser Boyd
(verify[t]) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dadamo.com/wiki/boyd.
jpg
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 11 		5408)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
2. ^ "Maurice Ewing."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
3. ^ Kendall Hunt,, "BSCS science &
technology: Investigating earth
systems", 2005,
p258 http://books.google.com/books?id=d
nJL9kVhCa8C&pg=PA258-IA2&lpg=PA258-IA2&d
q=first+image+of+mountains+on+ocean+floo
r+Heezen&source=bl&ots=sdkQaLM5Mk&sig=Hh
BQAb9gvoboOT76OEQKJLcNYvI&hl=en&ei=3dC8T
f-fNZS4sAPG1bHZBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepa
ge&q&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Maurice Ewing." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
11. ^ "Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng {1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ewing, William Maurice."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] WM Ewing, CL Pekeris…,
"Propagation of sound in the ocean",
1948 - Geological Society of America
[3] CL
Pekeris, WM Ewing, "Propagation of
sound in the ocean: Explosion sounds in
shallow water...", 1948 - Geological
Society of America
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA10  
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 10 		6248)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Adams SS (April 1992). "The
propionic acids: a personal
perspective". J Clin Pharmacol 32 (4):
317–23. PMID
1569234. http://jcp.sagepub.com/content
/32/4/317.full.pdf+html
2. ^ Adams SS (April 1992). "The
propionic acids: a personal
perspective". J Clin Pharmacol 32 (4):
317–23. PMID
1569234. http://jcp.sagepub.com/content
/32/4/317.full.pdf+html
3. ^ "ibuprofen." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ibuprofen
4. ^ "ibuprofen." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ibuprofen
5. ^ Adams SS (April 1992). "The
propionic acids: a personal
perspective". J Clin Pharmacol 32 (4):
317–23. PMID
1569234. http://jcp.sagepub.com/content
/32/4/317.full.pdf+html
6. ^ "erythema." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erythema
7. ^ Adams SS (April 1992). "The
propionic acids: a personal
perspective". J Clin Pharmacol 32 (4):
317–23. PMID
1569234. http://jcp.sagepub.com/content
/32/4/317.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Adams SS (April 1992). "The
propionic acids: a personal
perspective". J Clin Pharmacol 32 (4):
317–23. PMID
1569234. http://jcp.sagepub.com/content
/32/4/317.full.pdf+html
9. ^ "The Boots Company PLC."
International Directory of Company
Histories. The Gale Group, Inc, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/the-boots-c
ompany-plc
10. ^ Adams SS (April 1992). "The
propionic acids: a personal
perspective". J Clin Pharmacol 32 (4):
317–23. PMID
1569234. http://jcp.sagepub.com/content
/32/4/317.full.pdf+html {around) 1956}
(The Boots Company) England8 9  
[1] Description Deutsch: Struktur
von Ibuprofen English: Structure of
ibuprofen Date 9 July
2008 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ibuprofen2.svg/
1000px-Ibuprofen2.svg.png

[2] Description Coated 200 mg
ibuprofen tablets, CareOne brand,
distributed by American Sales Company
of Lancaster, New York Date 9
February 2008 Source Own
work Author Ragesoss GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/200mg_ibuprofen_table
ts.jpg
43 YBN
[01/13/1957 AD] 5 		6084) Elvis Presley records "All Shook
Up" (written by Otis Blackwell).1

(Possibly some lyrics have to do with
remote neuron writing for example -
"please don't ask me what's on my
mind".2 )

(Notice that this song contains a
"bridge" {'Please don't ask what's on
my mind...'} although no chorus.
Describe the history of the "bridge",
which is usually a "third" part besides
the verse and chorus. I think the
bridge goes back at least to the 1920s
and 1930s pop/show songs- for example
"Swanny" has possibly a bridge. In the
1950s popular music in the USA was
mostly a verse, a solo and maybe a
chorus - with no bridge. But the bridge
becomes a standard part of most of the
progressive - in terms of structure-
pop music by the end of the 1950s I
think- verify.3 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "All Shook Up". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Shook_U
p
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "All Shook Up".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Shook_U
p
5. ^ "All Shook Up". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Shook_U
p {01/12 and 01/13/1957}
(Radio Recorders) Hollywood,
California, USA4  		 
43 YBN
[01/15/1957 AD] 10 		5724)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. S. Wu, E. Ambler, R. W.
Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P.
Hudson, "Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay", Phys. Rev.
105, 1413–1415 (1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
2. ^ "Tsung-Dao Lee." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tsung-dao-l
ee
3. ^ Record ID5723. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ T. D. Lee and
C. N. Yang, Question of Parity
Conservation in Weak Interactions,
Phys. Rev. 106, 1371
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v104/i1/p254_1 {Yang_Chen_Ning_195606
22.pdf}
5. ^ C. S. Wu, E. Ambler, R. W.
Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P.
Hudson, "Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay", Phys. Rev.
105, 1413–1415 (1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ C. S.
Wu, E. Ambler, R. W. Hayward, D. D.
Hoppes, and R. P. Hudson, "Experimental
Test of Parity Conservation in Beta
Decay", Phys. Rev. 105, 1413–1415
(1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
10. ^ C. S. Wu, E. Ambler, R. W.
Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P.
Hudson, "Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay", Phys. Rev.
105, 1413–1415 (1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
{01/15/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chien-Shiung Wu". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chien-Shiun
g_Wu
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA and (National Bureau of
Standards) Washington, D. C., USA9
 
[1] Figure 2 from C. S. Wu, E. Ambler,
R. W. Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P.
Hudson, ''Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay'', Phys.
Rev. 105, 1413–1415 (1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Wu_Chien-Shiung.gif

[2] Description Wu
Chien-Shiung.gif English: a photo of
Wu Chien-Shiung when young Date
Source on many websites Author
a photo
taker Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. PD
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/21456-004-12CC2900.jpg
43 YBN
[01/16/1957 AD] 32 		5711) Surprising that there is no Nobel
Prize for this.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary Louise
Stephenson, Jesse F. Scott, Liselotte
I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnikm "A
SOLUBLE RIBONUCLEIC ACID INTERMEDIATE
IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS", J. Biol. Chem.
1958 231: 241-257.
http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/1 {Ho
agland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf}
2. ^ "transfer RNA (tRNA)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/602542/transfer-RNA>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876.
4. ^ "Mahlon
Hoagland: molecular biologist", The
Times, London, Dec, 1
2009. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/
comment/obituaries/article6937973.ece
5. ^ "transfer RNA (tRNA)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/602542/transfer-RNA>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876.
7. ^ "transfer RNA
(tRNA)." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 23
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/602542/transfer-RNA>.
8. ^ "codon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/codon
9. ^ "transfer RNA (tRNA)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/602542/transfer-RNA>.
10. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ P.
Berg and E. J. Offengand, "An Enzymatic
Mechanism for Linking Amino Acids to
RNA", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1958
February; 44(2): 78–86.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC335368/ {Berg_Paul_195802xx.pdf}
14. ^ "Mahlon Bush Hoagland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mahlon-bush
-hoagland
15. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary Louise
Stephenson, Jesse F. Scott, Liselotte
I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnikm "A
SOLUBLE RIBONUCLEIC ACID INTERMEDIATE
IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS", J. Biol. Chem.
1958 231: 241-257.
http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/1 {Ho
agland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf}
16. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Paul C.
Zamecnik, Mary L. Stephenson,
"Intermediate reactions in protein
biosynthesis", Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta, 1957, V24,
p215-216. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/journal/00063002
17. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary Louise
Stephenson, Jesse F. Scott, Liselotte
I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnikm "A
SOLUBLE RIBONUCLEIC ACID INTERMEDIATE
IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS", J. Biol. Chem.
1958 231: 241-257.
http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/1 {Ho
agland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "Mahlon Bush Hoagland."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mahlon-bush
-hoagland
20. ^ John R. Inglis, Joseph Sambrook,
Jan Anthony Witkowski, "Inspiring
science: Jim Watson and the age of
DNA", 2003, p157.
http://books.google.com/books?id=HH6HvAg
kHK8C&pg=RA1-PA157&dq=crick+%22adapter+h
ypothesis%22+1957&hl=en&ei=8bazTbGzNoP4s
AOX0KjyCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=2&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=cri
ck%20%22adapter%20hypothesis%22%201957&f
=false
21. ^ Herbert Weissbach, Sidney Pestka,
"Molecular mechanisms of protein
biosynthesis", 1977,
p8 http://books.google.com/books?id=ffd
qAAAAMAAJ&q=crick+%22adapter+hypothesis%
22+1955&dq=crick+%22adapter+hypothesis%2
2+1955&hl=en&ei=57SzTYLWFIG-sQP8honuCw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CDkQ6AEwAg
{Crick_Francis_19560218.pdf}
22. ^ Herbert Weissbach, Sidney Pestka,
"Molecular mechanisms of protein
biosynthesis", 1977,
p8 http://books.google.com/books?id=ffd
qAAAAMAAJ&q=crick+%22adapter+hypothesis%
22+1955&dq=crick+%22adapter+hypothesis%2
2+1955&hl=en&ei=57SzTYLWFIG-sQP8honuCw&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CDkQ6AEwAg
{Crick_Francis_19560218.pdf}
23. ^ Crick, F.H. C. (1957) Biochemical
Society Symposium, 14,
25-26. {Crick_Francis_19560218.pdf}
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland,
Paul C. Zamecnik, Mary L. Stephenson,
"Intermediate reactions in protein
biosynthesis", Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta, 1957, V24,
p215-216. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/journal/00063002
32. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Paul C.
Zamecnik, Mary L. Stephenson,
"Intermediate reactions in protein
biosynthesis", Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta, 1957, V24,
p215-216. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/journal/00063002 {01/16/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] M. B. Hoagland, E. B. Keller,
and P. C. Zamecnik, J. Biol. Chem.,
218, 345, 1956
[2] Robert W. Holley, "An
Alanine-dependent,
Ribonuclease-inhibited Conversion of
AMP to ATP, and its Possible
Relationship to Protein Synthesis", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1957, 79 (3), pp
658–662 DOI:
10.1021/ja01560a040 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01560a040
(Harvard University, Massachusetts
General Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA31  
[1] Description Peptide
syn.png English: illustration of tRNA
building peptide chain Date 1
March 2009(2009-03-01) Source Own
work Author
Boumphreyfr Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Mahlon Hoagland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/284/2
5/e7/F1.large.jpg
43 YBN
[04/05/1957 AD] 4 		5517)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract {Mu
eller_Erwin_W_19570405.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
3. ^ Erwin W.
Müller, "Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract {Mu
eller_Erwin_W_19570405.pdf}
4. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract {Mu
eller_Erwin_W_19570405.pdf}
{04/05/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
[2] "Erwin
Mueller." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
[3] "Erwin Wilhelm Müller."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
[4] EW Müller, "Die Sichtbarmachung
einzelner Atome und Moleküle im
Feldelektronenemikroskop", Zeitschrift
Naturforschung Teil A, 1950.
[5] EW Müller,
"Das Feldionenmikroskop", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/
[6] "adsorption." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adsorption
(Pennsylvania State University)
University park, Pennsylvania, USA3
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Erwin W. Müller,
''Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes'',
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract {Mu
eller_Erwin_W_19570405.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
43 YBN
[04/24/1957 AD] 8 		5668) Chubb, Friedman, Kreplin, and
Kupperian report as an abstract:
"A rocket
instrumented to measure Lyman alpha and
X-rays
wasf ired while a smallf lare was in
progresso n June2 0, 1956.T he
rocket
reached peak altitude about ten minutes
after the flare was
first seen visually. An
unusually high X-ray flux was observed
extending
to a short wavelength limit of 3A.
Although the flare
was still visible in Ha,
Lyman alpha was not appreciably
different
from normal.".5

(Solar flares appear to me to be
openings in the crust of the star where
high densities of light particles
escape. In this view, solar flares are
like volcanos, but perhaps molten
liquid volcanos. Pehaps it is similar
to a hot chili or spaghetti sauce where
air bubbles escape.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Chubb, T. A., H. Friedman, R. W.
Kreplin, and J. E. Kupperian Jr.
(1957), LYMAN ALPHA AND X-RAY EMISSIONS
DURING A SMALL SOLAR FLARE, J. Geophys.
Res., 62(3), 389–398,
doi:10.1029/JZ062i003p00389.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1957/J
Z062i003p00389.shtml {Friedman_Herbert_
19570424.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
3. ^ "Herbert
Friedman." Dictionary of Astronomy,
John Wiley . Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
4. ^ Gursky, H., "Obituary: Herbert
Friedman, 1916-2000", Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, vol. 32,
no. 4, p.
1665-1666. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/2000BAAS...32.1665G
5. ^ Chubb, T. A., H. Friedman, R. W.
Kreplin, and J. E. Kupperian Jr.
(1957), LYMAN ALPHA AND X-RAY EMISSIONS
DURING A SMALL SOLAR FLARE, J. Geophys.
Res., 62(3), 389–398,
doi:10.1029/JZ062i003p00389.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1957/J
Z062i003p00389.shtml {Friedman_Herbert_
19570424.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Chubb, T. A., H.
Friedman, R. W. Kreplin, and J. E.
Kupperian Jr. (1957), LYMAN ALPHA AND
X-RAY EMISSIONS DURING A SMALL SOLAR
FLARE, J. Geophys. Res., 62(3),
389–398, doi:10.1029/JZ062i003p00389.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1957/J
Z062i003p00389.shtml {Friedman_Herbert_
19570424.pdf}
8. ^ Chubb, T. A., H. Friedman, R. W.
Kreplin, and J. E. Kupperian Jr.
(1957), LYMAN ALPHA AND X-RAY EMISSIONS
DURING A SMALL SOLAR FLARE, J. Geophys.
Res., 62(3), 389–398,
doi:10.1029/JZ062i003p00389.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1957/J
Z062i003p00389.shtml {Friedman_Herbert_
19570424.pdf} {04/24/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] "Herbert Friedman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
[2] Friedman, H., "Ultraviolet and X
Rays from the Sun", Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html
[3] H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E.
T. Byram, "Photon Counter Measurements
of Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light", Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1
[4] Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA7  
[1] Figure 1 from: Chubb, T. A., H.
Friedman, R. W. Kreplin, and J. E.
Kupperian Jr. (1957), LYMAN ALPHA AND
X-RAY EMISSIONS DURING A SMALL SOLAR
FLARE, J. Geophys. Res., 62(3),
389–398, doi:10.1029/JZ062i003p00389.
{Friedman_Herbert_19570424.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/
1957/JZ062i003p00389.shtml

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
43 YBN
[04/??/1957 AD] 3 		6110) The Kingsmen release their
version of Richard Berry's song "Louie
Louie".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louie louie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louie_louie

2. ^ "Louie louie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louie_louie

3. ^ "Louie louie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louie_louie
 {04/1957}
(Northwestern, Inc., Motion Pictures
and Recording) Portland, Oregon, USA2
 		 
43 YBN
[05/03/1957 AD] 4 5 		6085) "Jailhouse Rock" (written by
Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, sung by
Elvis Presley) is recorded.1

(Note that this song has eletric
guitar. Note also that there are also
lyrics that relate to same-gender
romantic relationships, "Number 47 said
to number 3, you're the cutest
jail-bird I ever did see", which
indicates a progressive view in the US.
Note "Nix" may relate to "Nixon". Note
that the media format is a 45 rpm
plastic record.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jailhouse Rock (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jailhouse_R
ock_%28song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jailhouse Rock (film)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jailhouse_R
ock_%28film%29
4. ^ "Jailhouse Rock (film)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jailhouse_R
ock_%28film%29 {05/03/1957 (recorded}
5. ^
"Jailhouse Rock (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jailhouse_R
ock_%28song%29 {09/24/1957 (released}
(Radio Recorders) Hollywood,
California, USA3 (presumably) 		 
43 YBN
[05/27/1957 AD] 4 		6107) "That'll Be The Day" is released
(written by Buddy Holly, Jerry Allison,
Norman Petty).1

(This could relate to the neuron secret
- "lie" is a keyword, - and after
hundreds of years of the lie, most
people may believe that seeing and
hearing thought may never go public.
Even that might have been enough to
galvanize Holly's plane.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "That'll be the day". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27ll_b
e_the_day
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "That'll be the day".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27ll_b
e_the_day
4. ^ "That'll be the day". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27ll_b
e_the_day {05/27/1957}
Clovis, New Mexico, USA (recorded)3
 
[1] buddy holly - That'll Be the Day -
The Best of Buddy Holly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R
k6YDzmqZ0I
43 YBN
[07/08/1957 AD] 12 		5296) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1972
was awarded jointly to John Bardeen,
Leon Neil Cooper and John Robert
Schrieffer "for their jointly developed
theory of superconductivity, usually
called the BCS-theory".8 This is the
second Nobel Prize Bardeen has won a
part of, the first time for developing
the first semiconductor transistor -
while Lilienfeld, the inventor of the
first solid-state transistor receives
no share of a single prize.9
(The Nobel
prize committee, I think has somewhat
short vision in awarding the same
person a second time, in particular for
something so apparently insignificant,
nonpractical and speculatively
theoretical.10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Bardeen." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-bardee
n
2. ^ J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J.
R. Schrieffer, "Theory of
Superconductivity", Phys. Rev. 108,
1175–1204
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v108/i5/p1175_1 {Bardeen_John_1957120
1.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786-787, 827,
831-832,890-891,893.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p890-891.
5. ^ J. Bardeen, L.
N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer,
"Theory of Superconductivity", Phys.
Rev. 108, 1175–1204
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v108/i5/p1175_1 {Bardeen_John_1957120
1.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physics 1972". Nobelprize.org. 13
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1972/
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ J. Bardeen, L.
N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer,
"Theory of Superconductivity", Phys.
Rev. 108, 1175–1204
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v108/i5/p1175_1 {Bardeen_John_1957120
1.pdf}
12. ^ J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J.
R. Schrieffer, "Theory of
Superconductivity", Phys. Rev. 108,
1175–1204
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v108/i5/p1175_1 {Bardeen_John_1957120
1.pdf} {07/08/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Houser Brattain." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-hous
er-brattain
[2] "William Shockley." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sho
ckley
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956".
Nobelprize.org. 13 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1956/
[4] J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain, "The
Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode",
Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1
[5] John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois, USA11  
[1] Description Bardeen.jpg English:
John Bardeen Date
1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/bardeen-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source
information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Bardeen.jpg

[2] Leon Neil Cooper Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1972/cooper_
postcard.jpg
43 YBN
[09/19/1957 AD] 5 		5611)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Underground nuclear testing#cite
ref-tecsoc 8-0". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground
_nuclear_testing#cite_ref-tecsoc_8-0
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Nevada Test
Site". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_Test
_Site
5. ^ "Underground nuclear testing#cite
ref-tecsoc 8-0". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground
_nuclear_testing#cite_ref-tecsoc_8-0
{09/19/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of underground nuclear
explosive test:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S1f6vbiuU
t0
[2] Buster-Jangle Uncle test video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqS1Qk2GK
BE
[3]
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Nts.html
(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving
Grounds) Nye County, Nevada, USA4
 
[1] Description Plumbbob Rainier
001.jpg PLUMBBOB/RAINIER - September
19, 1957 - NEVADA TEST SITE -- RAINIER
Event - Dust was raised both by a shock
wave traveling to the surface on the
side of the detonation and was also
raised by rolling rocks. Heat-created
air currents raised the dust several
hundred feet into the air. Date
19 September
1957(1957-09-19) Source
http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/Photo
Library/57-106.jpg Author Photo
courtesy of National Nuclear Security
Administration / Nevada Site
Office PD
source: http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/Ph
otoLibrary/57-106.jpg
43 YBN
[10/04/1957 AD] 13 		5486)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
2. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
3. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
4. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
5. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
6. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
8. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
10. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
11. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
12. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
13. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>. {10/04/1957}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam, 370
km southwest of the small town of
Baikonur) Kazakhstan (, Soviet Union)12
 
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
43 YBN
[10/10/1957 AD] 11 		5689)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lehman, I. R., M. J. Bessman, E.
S. Simms, and A. Kornberg, "Enzymatic
Synthesis of Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I.
PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL
PURIFICATION OF AN ENZYME FROM
ESCHERICHIA COLI ", J. Biol. Chem.,
233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Arthur_19571010.pdf}
2. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN IR,
SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
3. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866.
5. ^ "Arthur
Kornberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/322505/Arthur-Kornberg>.
6. ^ Lehman, I. R., M. J. Bessman, E.
S. Simms, and A. Kornberg, "Enzymatic
Synthesis of Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I.
PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL
PURIFICATION OF AN ENZYME FROM
ESCHERICHIA COLI ", J. Biol. Chem.,
233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Arthur_19571010.pdf}
7. ^ Lehman, I. R., M. J. Bessman, E.
S. Simms, and A. Kornberg, "Enzymatic
Synthesis of Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I.
PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL
PURIFICATION OF AN ENZYME FROM
ESCHERICHIA COLI ", J. Biol. Chem.,
233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Arthur_19571010.pdf}
8. ^ "polymerase." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Apr. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Lehman, I.
R., M. J. Bessman, E. S. Simms, and A.
Kornberg, "Enzymatic Synthesis of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I. PREPARATION
OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL PURIFICATION
OF AN ENZYME FROM ESCHERICHIA COLI ",
J. Biol. Chem., 233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Arthur_19571010.pdf}
11. ^ Lehman, I. R., M. J. Bessman, E.
S. Simms, and A. Kornberg, "Enzymatic
Synthesis of Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I.
PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL
PURIFICATION OF AN ENZYME FROM
ESCHERICHIA COLI ", J. Biol. Chem.,
233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Arthur_19571010.pdf}
{10/10/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1959".
Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1959/
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA10  
[1] Figure from: Lehman, I. R., M. J.
Bessman, E. S. Simms, and A. Kornberg,
''Enzymatic Synthesis of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I. PREPARATION
OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL PURIFICATION
OF AN ENZYME FROM ESCHERICHIA COLI '',
J. Biol. Chem., 233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Authur_19571010.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/233/1
.toc

[2] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg
43 YBN
[10/11/1957 AD] 20 		5740) In 1973, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided, one half jointly to
Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever "for their
experimental discoveries regarding
tunneling phenomena in semiconductors
and superconductors, respectively" and
the other half to Brian David Josephson
"for his theoretical predictions of the
properties of a supercurrent through a
tunnel barrier, in particular those
phenomena which are generally known as
the Josephson effects".18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leo Esaki, "New Phenomenon in
Narrow Germanium p-n Junctions", Phys.
Rev. 109, 603–604
(1958) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1 {Esaki_Leo_19571011.pdf
}
2. ^ Leo Esaki, "New Phenomenon in
Narrow Germanium p-n Junctions", Phys.
Rev. 109, 603–604
(1958) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1 {Esaki_Leo_19571011.pdf
}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.881.
4. ^ "Leo Esaki."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/192204/Leo-Esaki>.
5. ^ "Leo Esaki." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leo-esaki
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p541.
7. ^ "Leo Esaki - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 1 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1973/esaki-lecture.html {E
saki_Leo_19731212.pdf}
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1973".
Nobelprize.org. 1 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1973/
9. ^ "Leo Esaki - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 1 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1973/esaki-lecture.html {E
saki_Leo_19731212.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1973". Nobelprize.org.
1 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1973/
19. ^ Leo Esaki, "New Phenomenon in
Narrow Germanium p-n Junctions", Phys.
Rev. 109, 603–604
(1958) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1 {Esaki_Leo_19571011.pdf
}
20. ^ Leo Esaki, "New Phenomenon in
Narrow Germanium p-n Junctions", Phys.
Rev. 109, 603–604
(1958) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1 {Esaki_Leo_19571011.pdf
} {10/11/1957}
(Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, Limited)
Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan19  
[1] Figure 1 from: Leo Esaki, ''New
Phenomenon in Narrow Germanium p-n
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. 109, 603–604
(1958) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1 {Esaki_Leo_19571011.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1

[2] Leo Esaki Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1973/esaki.jpg
43 YBN
[10/23/1957 AD] 7 		5432) In 1944, Leloir, in conflict with
the president, Juan Peron, goes into
exile in the United States.4

In 1970, Luis Leloir is awarded the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his
discovery of sugar nucleotides and
their role in the biosynthesis of
carbohydrates",5 and is the first
Argentinian person to be awarded the
Nobel Prize.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Luis Frederico Leloir." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luis-freder
ico-leloir
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p818.
3. ^ "Luis Frederico
Leloir." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luis-freder
ico-leloir
4. ^ "Luis Frederico Leloir." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luis-freder
ico-leloir
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1970". Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1970/
6. ^ "Luis Frederico Leloir." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luis-freder
ico-leloir
7. ^ L. F. Leloir, C. E. Cardini,
"BIOSYNTHESIS OF GLYCOGEN FROM URIDINE
DIPHOSPHATE GLUCOSE", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1957, 79 (23), pp
6340–6341. DOI:
10.1021/ja01580a061 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01119a546 {}
{10/23/1957}
(INSTITUTIO DE INVESTIGACIONES
BIOQUIMICAS) Buenos Aires, Argentina,
South America 
[1] Image from Leloir's Biography at
the Houssay's page. Mariano 09:37, 8
May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Luis_Federico_Leloir_
-_young.jpg
43 YBN
[10/23/1957 AD] 9 10 		5659)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Earl W. Sutherland and T. W.
Rall, "FRACTIONATION AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF A CYCLIC ADENINE
RIBONUCLEOTIDE FORMED BY TISSUE
PARTICLES", J. Biol. Chem. 1958 232:
1077-1092.
http://www.jbc.org/content/232/2/1077.
full.pdf+html
{Sutherland_Earl_Wilbur_Jr_19571023.pd
f}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p857-858.
3. ^ "Earl Wilbur
Sutherland, Jr.." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 10 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/earl-wilbur
-sutherland-jr
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Earl W. Sutherland and T.
W. Rall, "FRACTIONATION AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF A CYCLIC ADENINE
RIBONUCLEOTIDE FORMED BY TISSUE
PARTICLES", J. Biol. Chem. 1958 232:
1077-1092.
http://www.jbc.org/content/232/2/1077.
full.pdf+html
{Sutherland_Earl_Wilbur_Jr_19571023.pd
f}
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1971". Nobelprize.org. 11 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1971/
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Earl W. Sutherland and T.
W. Rall, "FRACTIONATION AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF A CYCLIC ADENINE
RIBONUCLEOTIDE FORMED BY TISSUE
PARTICLES", J. Biol. Chem. 1958 232:
1077-1092.
http://www.jbc.org/content/232/2/1077.
full.pdf+html
{Sutherland_Earl_Wilbur_Jr_19571023.pd
f}
9. ^ Earl W. Sutherland and T. W. Rall,
"FRACTIONATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF
A CYCLIC ADENINE RIBONUCLEOTIDE FORMED
BY TISSUE PARTICLES", J. Biol. Chem.
1958 232: 1077-1092.
http://www.jbc.org/content/232/2/1077.
full.pdf+html
{Sutherland_Earl_Wilbur_Jr_19571023.pd
f} {10/23/1957}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p857-858. {1956}
(Western Reserve University) Cleveland,
Ohio, USA8  
[1] Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1971/suther
land_postcard.jpg
43 YBN
[11/03/1957 AD] 7 		5487)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A
4. ^ "telemetry." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 14
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/telemetry
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A {11/03/1957}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (, Soviet Union)6  
[1] Sputnik 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/sputnik2_vsm.jpg
43 YBN
[12/??/1957 AD] 3 		4895)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John G. Hubbell, "Honeywell's
House of Magic", Popular Mechanics, Dec
1957,
p100,260. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JuEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA260&lpg=PA260&dq=p
opular+mechanics+transmit+information+to
+the+brain&source=bl&ots=t9avwD6JJ6&sig=
HaRl30ZVL2nqC-AhBZYAD7FQ90M&hl=en&ei=QzI
BTbWZNZTAsAP72MmvCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&
ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA
#v=onepage&q=transmit%20information%20to
%20the%20brain&f=false
2. ^ John G. Hubbell, "Honeywell's
House of Magic", Popular Mechanics, Dec
1957,
p100,260. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JuEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA260&lpg=PA260&dq=p
opular+mechanics+transmit+information+to
+the+brain&source=bl&ots=t9avwD6JJ6&sig=
HaRl30ZVL2nqC-AhBZYAD7FQ90M&hl=en&ei=QzI
BTbWZNZTAsAP72MmvCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&
ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA
#v=onepage&q=transmit%20information%20to
%20the%20brain&f=false
3. ^ John G. Hubbell, "Honeywell's
House of Magic", Popular Mechanics, Dec
1957,
p100,260. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JuEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA260&lpg=PA260&dq=p
opular+mechanics+transmit+information+to
+the+brain&source=bl&ots=t9avwD6JJ6&sig=
HaRl30ZVL2nqC-AhBZYAD7FQ90M&hl=en&ei=QzI
BTbWZNZTAsAP72MmvCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&
ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA
#v=onepage&q=transmit%20information%20to
%20the%20brain&f=false {12/1957}
Chicago, Illinois, USA2   
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 4 		5409)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p811.
2. ^ "Maurice Ewing."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
3. ^ "Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
4. ^ "Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng {1957}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ewing, William Maurice."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] WM Ewing, CL Pekeris…,
"Propagation of sound in the ocean",
1948 - Geological Society of America
[3] CL
Pekeris, WM Ewing, "Propagation of
sound in the ocean: Explosion sounds in
shallow water...", 1948 - Geological
Society of America
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA3  
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 20 21 22 		5506) Calvin spent two years two years
on the Manhattan Project (the atomic
bomb).16

In 1961, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1961 is awarded to Melvin Calvin "for
his research on the carbon dioxide
assimilation in plants".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837-838.
2. ^ "Melvin Calvin."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/melvin-calv
in
3. ^ Bassham and Calvin, "The path of
carbon in photosynthesis", (1957).
4. ^ "Melvin
Calvin." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 18 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/melvin-calv
in
5. ^ Bassham and Calvin, "The path of
carbon in photosynthesis", (1957).
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837-838.
7. ^ Bassham and
Calvin, "The path of carbon in
photosynthesis", (1957).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p837-838.
9. ^ Bassham and
Calvin, "The path of carbon in
photosynthesis", (1957).
10. ^ "Melvin Calvin."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/melvin-calv
in
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837-838.
12. ^ Bassham and
Calvin, "The path of carbon in
photosynthesis", (1957).
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Bassham and Calvin,
"The path of carbon in photosynthesis",
(1957).
17. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1961". Nobelprize.org. 18 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1961/
18. ^ Bassham and Calvin, "The path of
carbon in photosynthesis", (1957).
19. ^
"Melvin Calvin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/melvin-calv
in
20. ^ Bassham and Calvin, "The path of
carbon in photosynthesis", (1957).
21. ^
"Melvin Calvin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/melvin-calv
in {1957}
22. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p837-838. {1957}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA18 19  
[1] Figure 3 from: Bassham and Calvin,
''The path of carbon in
photosynthesis'', (1957). COPYRIGHTED
source: Bassham and Calvin, "The path
of carbon in photosynthesis", (1957).

[2] Courtesy of
http://www.lbl.gov Description Melvin
Calvin.jpg Dr. Melvin Calvin, Nobel
Laureate, professor of physics, and
Director of the Chemical Biodynamics
Laboratory at Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, works in his photosynthesis
laboratory. Dr. Calvin was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1961 for elucidating the
chemistry of the photosynthetic
process. Date 1962 (according to
link ''more_tags'') Source LBL
Collection http://imglib.lbl.gov/ImgLib
/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/PEOPLE/NOBEL-L
AUREATES/index/96703551.html Author
''Photolab'' Permission (Reusing
this file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse PD-icon.svg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Melvin_Calvin.jpg
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 3 		6086) Danny & the Juniors record the
song "At the Hop" (written by Arthur
Singer, John Medora and David White).1


(Three and four-part vocal harmony,
popular in the 1940s and 50s mostly
passes out of popularity by 1960. The
Beatles use two-part vocal harmony in
many songs written during the 1960s.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "At the hop". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At_the_hop
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "At the hop". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At_the_hop
{1957}
  
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 3 		6106) "Wake Up Little Susie" written by
Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, and
performed by "The Everly Brothers" is
published.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wake Up Little Susie".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake_Up_Lit
tle_Susie
2. ^ "Cadence Records". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadence_Rec
ords
3. ^ "Wake Up Little Susie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake_Up_Lit
tle_Susie {1957}
New York City, New York, USA2
(presumably) 		 
42 YBN
[01/06/1958 AD] 3 		6087) Chuck Berry writes and records
"Johnny B. Goode".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johnny B. Goode". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_B._G
oode
2. ^ "Johnny B. Goode". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_B._G
oode
3. ^ "Johnny B. Goode". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_B._G
oode {01/06/1958}
(Chess Studios) Chicago, Illinois, USA2
 		 
42 YBN
[01/09/1958 AD] 18 		5772) In 1961, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided equally between
Robert Hofstadter "for his pioneering
studies of electron scattering in
atomic nuclei and for his thereby
achieved discoveries concerning the
structure of the nucleons" and Rudolf
Ludwig Mössbauer "for his researches
concerning the resonance absorption of
gamma radiation and his discovery in
this connection of the effect which
bears his name".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/ {Mossbauer_Rudol
f_Ludwig_19580109.pdf}
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887-888.
3. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig
Mössbauer." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393799/Rudolf-Ludwig-Mossbauer>.
4. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 09 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-ludw
ig-mossbauer-german-physicist
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A.
Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight of
Photons", Phys. Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
7. ^ Albert Einstein, Ann. Physik, 35,
898 (1911)
8. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393799/Rudolf-Ludwig-Mossbauer>.
9. ^ Kuhn, W, Zeits. f. Phys. xliii. p.
56 (1927). English: Kuhn, W.,
"Scattering of Thorium C" γ-radiation
by Radium G and ordinary lead", Phil.
Mag, s7, v8, (1929),
p625. {Kuhn_Wilhelm_1927xxxx.pdf}
10. ^ "Rudolf Mössbauer - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 9 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1961/mossbauer-lecture.html
 {Mossbauer_Rudolf_Ludwig_19611211.pdf}

11. ^ Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/ {Mossbauer_Rudol
f_Ludwig_19580109.pdf}
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1961". Nobelprize.org. 9 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1961/
17. ^ Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/ {Mossbauer_Rudol
f_Ludwig_19580109.pdf}
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
18. ^ Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/ {Mossbauer_Rudol
f_Ludwig_19580109.pdf}
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191" {01/09/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] Mössbauer, Rudolf L.,
"Kernresonanzabsorption von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191",
Naturwissenschaften, 1958-01-01, V45,
I22,
p538. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/ph36815q8k930060/
[2] Rudolf L. Mössbauer and Werner H.
Wiedemann, "Kernresonanzabsorption
nicht Doppler-verbreiterter
Gammastrahlung in Re187", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei Volume 159, Number 1,
33-48. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p405hj776261p63v/
English: "Nuclear magnetic resonance
absorption without Doppler-broadened
gamma radiation in Re187"
[3] Mössbauer,
"Recoilless resonance absorption of
gamma quanta in solids", Soviet
physics. Uspekhi (1961) volume: 4
issue: 6 page:
866 http://iopscience.iop.org/0038-5670
/3/6/R05/pdf/PHU_3_6_R05.pdf
[4] P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1, p76.
(1950) http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-1
298/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_195008
02.pdf}
(Institut fur Physik im
Max-Planck-Institut fur medizinische
Forschung {Institute of Physics at the
Max Planck Institute for Medical
Research}) Heidelberg, Germany17  
[1] Description
Mossbauer.jpg English: Rudolf
Mössbauer Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/mossbauer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Mossbauer.jpg
42 YBN
[01/31/1958 AD] 5 		5593)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ J. A. Van Allen and S. F. Singer,
"On the Primary Cosmic-Ray Spectrum",
Phys. Rev. 78, 819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred_
19500421.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
{01/31/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
[2]
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
[3] J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1
(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA4  
[1] Summary ''Technicians lower
Explorer 1, the first American
satellite, onto the launch vehicle's
fourth stage motor. This photo was
taken in the gantry at Launch Complex
26 at Cape Canaveral, Florida.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Explorer1_preparation
s.jpg

[2] Name of Image: Launch of
Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 MIX #:
0100074 NIX #: MSFC-0100074 Date of
Image: 1958-01-31 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description: Launch
of Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 at Cape
Canaveral, Florida on January 31, 1958.
After the Russian Sputnik 1 was
launched in October 1957, the launching
of an American satellite assumed much
greater importance. After the Vanguard
rocket exploded on the pad in December
1957, the ability to orbit a satellite
became a matter of national prestige.
On January 31, 1958, slightly more than
four weeks after the launch of
Sputnik.The ABMA (Army Ballistic
Missile Agency) in Redstone Arsenal,
Huntsville, Alabama, in cooperation
with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
launched a Jupiter from Cape Canaveral,
Florida. The rocket consisted of a
modified version of the Redstone
rocket's first stage and two upper
stages of clustered Baby Sergeant
rockets developed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory and later designated as Juno
boosters for space launches (MRPO)
MRD/SPD Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO)
Subject Type: n/a Keywords: Launch,
Jupiter-C, Explorer 1 MSFC Negative
Number: 0100074 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a n/a NASA
Copyright
Notification:http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/co
pyright.html source:http://mix.msfc.n
asa.gov/abstracts.php?p=877 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Launch_of_Jupiter_C_w
ith_Explorer_1.jpg
42 YBN
[03/06/1958 AD] 3 		6088) The Everly Brothers record "All I
Have to Do Is Dream" (written by
husband and wife Felice and Boudleaux
Bryant).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "All I Have to Do Is Dream".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_I_Have_
to_Do_Is_Dream
2. ^
http://www.acousticguitar.com/issues/ag9
2/EverlyBrosB.shtml
3. ^ "All I Have to Do Is Dream".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_I_Have_
to_Do_Is_Dream {03/06/1958}
(RCA Studio) Nashville, Tennessee, USA2
 		 
42 YBN
[04/28/1958 AD] 7 		5607)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
2. ^ Video of Yucca:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I5T05YoVc
Ak
3. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
6. ^
https://marshallislands.llnl.gov/eneweta
k.php
7. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html {04/28/1958}
(85 nm NE of) Enewetak Atoll, Marshall
Islands, Pacific Ocean5 6  
[1] Hardtack Yucca test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I
5T05YoVcAk
42 YBN
[05/01/1958 AD] 11 		5608)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
3. ^ Van Allen, J.
A., paper presented at joint meeting of
National Academy of Sciences and
American Physical Society on May 1,
1958.
4. ^
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story
.php?storyId=128170775
5. ^
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story
.php?storyId=128170775
6. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ JAMES A. VAN
ALLEN, LOUIS A. FRANK, "Radiation
Around the Earth to a Radial Distance
of 107,400 km.", Nature 183, 430-434
(14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
10. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=NMk3adg
qfawC&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=may+1958+joi
nt+meeting+american+physical+society&sou
rce=bl&ots=hT0DTimGKV&sig=NaTG_FyNBx85ny
M23OULhn-l0WA&hl=en&ei=4LySTZmxMYa-sQOjt
7m4Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resn
um=8&sqi=2&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f
=false
11. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
{05/01/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
[2]
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
[3] J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1
[4] J. A. Van Allen and S. F. Singer,
"On the Primary Cosmic-Ray Spectrum",
Phys. Rev. 78, 819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
[5] L. H. Meredith, M. B. Gottlieb, and
J. A. Van Allen, "Direct Detection of
Soft Radiation above 50 Kilometers in
the Auroral Zone", Phys. Rev. 97, 201
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v97/i1/p201_1
[6] Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences, By National Academy of
Sciences (U.S.), National Research
Council (U.S.), National Academy of
Engineering, Institute of Medicine
(U.S.),
1958. http://books.google.com/books?id=
30QrAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA91&dq=%22van+allen
%22&hl=en&ei=41yUTc7pAoPCsAPR-tTMBQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0
CEQQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=%22van%20allen%
22&f=false
(National Academy of Science and
American Physical Society joint
meeting) Washington, D. C., USA9 10
 
[1] Figure 5 from: JAMES A. VAN ALLEN,
LOUIS A. FRANK, ''Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107,400
km.'', Nature 183, 430-434 (14 February
1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430a0.pdf

[2] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
42 YBN
[05/??/1958 AD] 5 		5321)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p792-793.
2. ^ P Karlson, and A
Butenandt, "Pheromones (ectohormones)
in insects", Annual Review of
Entomology, (1959) volume: 4 issue: 1
page:
39. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/ab
s/10.1146%2Fannurev.en.04.010159.000351
 {Butenandt_Adolf_195805xx.pdf}
3. ^ P Karlson, and A Butenandt,
"Pheromones (ectohormones) in insects",
Annual Review of Entomology, (1959)
volume: 4 issue: 1 page:
39. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/ab
s/10.1146%2Fannurev.en.04.010159.000351
 {Butenandt_Adolf_195805xx.pdf}
4. ^ P Karlson, and A Butenandt,
"Pheromones (ectohormones) in insects",
Annual Review of Entomology, (1959)
volume: 4 issue: 1 page:
39. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/ab
s/10.1146%2Fannurev.en.04.010159.000351
 {Butenandt_Adolf_195805xx.pdf}
5. ^ P Karlson, and A Butenandt,
"Pheromones (ectohormones) in insects",
Annual Review of Entomology, (1959)
volume: 4 issue: 1 page:
39. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/ab
s/10.1146%2Fannurev.en.04.010159.000351
 {Butenandt_Adolf_195805xx.pdf}
{05/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "Adolf Butenandt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adolf-buten
andt
[2] A. Butenandt, "Über "Progynon" ein
krystallisiertes weibliches
Sexualhormon", Naturwissenschaften,
Volume 17, Number 45,
879. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/g503613433t28ql3/
[3] "Adolf Butenandt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/86456/Adolf-Friedrich-Johann-Butenandt
>.
[4] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1939". Nobelprize.org. 17 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1939/
[5] "androsterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
[6] "testosterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testosteron
e
[7] "androsterone." Saunders
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd
Edition. D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and
C.C. Gay, Elsevier, 2007. Answers.com
17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/androsteron
e
[8] Dr. A. Butenandt Priv.-Doz., "Über
die chemische Untersuchung der
Sexualhormone", Angewandte Chemie,
Volume 44, Issue 46, pages 905–908,
14. November
1931 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19310444602/abstract
[9] A. BUTENANDT, "Chemical
Constitution of the Follicular and
Testicular Hormones", Nature 130,
238-238 (13 August
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v130/n3276/abs/130238a0.html
[10] "progesterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/progesteron
e
[11] Adolf Butenandt, Ulrich Westphal,
"Zur Isolierung und Charakterisierung
des Corpus-luteum-Hormons", Berichte
der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft
(A and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 8,
pages 1440–1442, 8. August
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340670831/abstract E
nglish: "On the isolation and
characterization of the corpus luteum
hormone"
[12] Adolf Butenandt, Josef Schmidt,
"Überführung des Pregnandiols in
Corpus-luteum-Hormon", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (A
and B Series), Volume 67, Issue 11,
pages 1901–1904, 7. November
1934. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/cber.19340671126/abstract E
nglish: "Transfer of pregnanediol in
corpus luteum hormone".
(Max Planck Institute) Munich, Germany4
 
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
42 YBN
[06/06/1958 AD] 9 		5559)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T.
Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf}
2. ^ A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T.
Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf}
3. ^ A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T.
Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf}
4. ^ "nobelium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nobelium
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ A.
Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland*, J. R. Walton,
and G. T. Seaborg, "Element No. 102",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 18–21
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i1/p18_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19580606.
pdf}
9. ^ A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland*, J. R.
Walton, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element No.
102", Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 18–21
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i1/p18_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19580606.
pdf} {06/06/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
[17] S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2
[18] Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528–528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1
[19] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Purnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1
[20] A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H.
Higgins, and G. T. Seaborg, M. H.
Studier, P. R. Fields, S. M. Fried, H.
Diamond, J. F. Mech, G. L. Pyle, J. R.
Huizenga, A. Hirsch, and W. M. Manning,
C. I. Browne, H. L. Smith, and R. W.
Spence , "New Elements Einsteinium and
Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100",
Phys. Rev. 99, 1048–1049
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i3/p1048_1
[21] "mendelevium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mendelevium

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA8  
[1] Figure 1 from: A. Ghiorso, B. G.
Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson,
and G. T. Seaborg, ''New Element
Mendelevium, Atomic Number 101'', Phys.
Rev. 98, 1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v98/i5/p1518_1

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
42 YBN
[06/06/1958 AD] 8 		5561)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Ghiorso, J. M. Nitschke, J. R.
Alonso, C. T. Alonso, M. Nurmia, and G.
T. Seaborg, E. K. Hulet and R. W.
Lougheed, "Element 106", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 33, 1490–1493
(1974). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v33/i25/p1490_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19740
909.pdf}
2. ^ "seaborgium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seaborgium
3. ^ "seaborgium." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 26 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/seaborgium
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ A. Ghiorso, J. M.
Nitschke, J. R. Alonso, C. T. Alonso,
M. Nurmia, and G. T. Seaborg, E. K.
Hulet and R. W. Lougheed, "Element
106", Phys. Rev. Lett. 33, 1490–1493
(1974). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v33/i25/p1490_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19740
909.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A. Ghiorso, T.
Sikkeland*, J. R. Walton, and G. T.
Seaborg, "Element No. 102", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 1, 18–21
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i1/p18_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19580606.
pdf}
8. ^ A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland*, J. R.
Walton, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element No.
102", Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 18–21
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i1/p18_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19580606.
pdf} {06/06/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>.
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
[17] S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298–299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2
[18] Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528–528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1
[19] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Purnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1
[20] A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H.
Higgins, and G. T. Seaborg, M. H.
Studier, P. R. Fields, S. M. Fried, H.
Diamond, J. F. Mech, G. L. Pyle, J. R.
Huizenga, A. Hirsch, and W. M. Manning,
C. I. Browne, H. L. Smith, and R. W.
Spence , "New Elements Einsteinium and
Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100",
Phys. Rev. 99, 1048–1049
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i3/p1048_1
[21] A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T.
Seaborg, "New Element Mendelevium,
Atomic Number 101", Phys. Rev. 98,
1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1
[22] "mendelevium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mendelevium

[23] "nobelium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nobelium
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA7  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
42 YBN
[07/??/1958 AD] 5 		5521)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. H. Spackman, , W. H. Stein, ,
Stanford Moore, "Automatic Recording
Apparatus for Use in Chromatography of
Amino Acids", Anal. Chem., 1958, 30
(7), pp
1190–1206. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ac60139a006 {Stein_William_Ho
ward_195807xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839-840,848.
3. ^ "Stanford
Moore." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanford-mo
ore
4. ^ D. H. Spackman, , W. H. Stein, ,
Stanford Moore, "Automatic Recording
Apparatus for Use in Chromatography of
Amino Acids", Anal. Chem., 1958, 30
(7), pp
1190–1206. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ac60139a006 {Stein_William_Ho
ward_195807xx.pdf}
5. ^ D. H. Spackman, , W. H. Stein, ,
Stanford Moore, "Automatic Recording
Apparatus for Use in Chromatography of
Amino Acids", Anal. Chem., 1958, 30
(7), pp
1190–1206. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ac60139a006 {Stein_William_Ho
ward_195807xx.pdf} {07/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1972". Nobelprize.org. 21 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1972/
[2] C. H. W. HIRS, WILLIAM H. STEIN,
AND STANFORD MOORE, "The amino acid
composition of ribonuclease", Journal
of biological chemistry, (1954)
volume: 211 issue: 2 page:
941. http://www.jbc.org/content/211/2/9
41.short
[3] "hydrolysis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrolysis
[4] "ribonuclease." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribonucleas
e
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA4
 
[1] Figure 1 from: D. H. Spackman, ,
W. H. Stein, , Stanford Moore,
''Automatic Recording Apparatus for Use
in Chromatography of Amino Acids'',
Anal. Chem., 1958, 30 (7), pp
1190–1206. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ac60139a006 {Stein_William_Ho
ward_195807xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ac60139a006

[2] William Howard Stein Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/stein
_postcard.jpg
42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD] 10 		5450)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
2. ^ M. Knoll, J. Kugler, "Subjective
Light Pattern Spectroscopy in the
Encephalographic Frequency Range",
Nature, V184, N4701, 12/05/1959,
p1823-1824. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v184/n4701/pdf/1841823a0.pdf
{Knoll_Max_19580801.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
4. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

5. ^ Record ID5446. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ M. Knoll, J.
Kugler, "Subjective Light Pattern
Spectroscopy in the Encephalographic
Frequency Range", Nature, V184, N4701,
12/05/1959,
p1823-1824. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v184/n4701/pdf/1841823a0.pdf
{Knoll_Max_19580801.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ M. Knoll, J.
Kugler, "Subjective Light Pattern
Spectroscopy in the Encephalographic
Frequency Range", Nature, V184, N4701,
12/05/1959,
p1823-1824. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v184/n4701/pdf/1841823a0.pdf
{Knoll_Max_19580801.pdf}
10. ^ M. Knoll, J. Kugler, "Subjective
Light Pattern Spectroscopy in the
Encephalographic Frequency Range",
Nature, V184, N4701, 12/05/1959,
p1823-1824. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v184/n4701/pdf/1841823a0.pdf
{Knoll_Max_19580801.pdf} {08/01/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[5] Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475
[6] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[7] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany9  
[1] Max Knoll (1897-1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.knoll1967.gif

[2] 1944 - Knoll und Ruska im
Labor UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.ER_Knoll1944.gif
42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD] 17 		5606)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
2. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
3. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
4. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2F
marshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20apr
il%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq0
85Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
5. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDf
ZQ
6. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Hoerlin, Herman "United
States High-Altitude Test Experiences:
A Review Emphasizing the Impact on the
Environment" Report LA-6405, Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory. October
1976. http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/d
oe/lanl/docs1/00322994.pdf {Hoerlin_Her
man_197610xx.pdf}
9. ^ Record ID5595. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
17. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
{08/01/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hardtack Teak". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardtack_Te
ak
(Johnson Island) Pacific Ocean16  
[1] Hardtack Teak test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
BxpHNCDfZQ
42 YBN
[08/03/1958 AD] 5 		5231)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p770-771.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "USS
Nautilus." The Oxford Essential
Dictionary of the U.S. Military. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2002.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839
5. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839 {08/03/1958}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ussnautilus.org/nautilus/inde
x.shtml
[2]
http://www.subguru.com/nautilus571.htm
North Pole4  
[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg

[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif
42 YBN
[08/26/1958 AD] 10 		5650)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. L. Schawlow and C. H. Townes,
"Infrared and Optical Masers", Phys.
Rev. 112, 1940
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v112/i6/p1940_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19580826.pdf}
2. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p855-857.
4. ^ A. L. Schawlow
and C. H. Townes, "Infrared and Optical
Masers", Phys. Rev. 112, 1940
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v112/i6/p1940_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19580826.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p855-857.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ A. L.
Schawlow and C. H. Townes, "Infrared
and Optical Masers", Phys. Rev. 112,
1940
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v112/i6/p1940_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19580826.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ A. L. Schawlow and C. H.
Townes, "Infrared and Optical Masers",
Phys. Rev. 112, 1940
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v112/i6/p1940_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19580826.pdf}
10. ^ A. L. Schawlow and C. H. Townes,
"Infrared and Optical Masers", Phys.
Rev. 112, 1940
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v112/i6/p1940_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19580826.pdf}
{08/26/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hard Townes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tow
nes
[2] K. Shimoda, T. C. Wang, and C. H.
Townes, "Further Aspects of the Theory
of the Maser", Phys. Rev. 102, 1308
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1308_1
[3] "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html
[4] "Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/55331/Nikolay-Gennadiyevich-Basov>
[5] "Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Prokhorov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/478547/Aleksandr-Mikhaylovich-Prokhoro
v>
[6] "Charles H. Townes - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-bio.html
[7] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/
[8] J. P. Cedarholm, G. F. Bland, B. L.
Havens, and C. H. Townes, "New
Experimental Test of Special
Relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 342
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i9/p342_1
[9] T. S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murray,
and C. H. Townes, "Test of Special
Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space
by Use of Infrared Masers", Phys. Rev.
133, A1221
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v133/i5A/pA1221_1
[10] N. Bloembergen, C. K. N. Patel, P.
Avizonis, R. G. Clem, A. Hertzberg, T.
H. Johnson, T. Marshall, R. B. Miller,
W. E. Morrow, E. E. Salpeter, A. M.
Sessler, J. D. Sullivan, J. C. Wyant,
A. Yariv, R. N. Zare, A. J. Glass, L.
C. Hebel, G. E. Pake, M. M. May, W. K.
Panofsky, A. L. Schawlow, C. H. Townes,
and H. York (APS Study Group
Participants, APS Council Review
Committee), "Report to The American
Physical Society of the study group on
science and technology of directed
energy weapons", Rev. Mod. Phys. 59, S1
(1987). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v59/i3/pS1_1
[11] J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1
[12] "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA9  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: [1] J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
42 YBN
[09/29/1958 AD] 19 		5651)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. P. Cedarholm, G. F. Bland, B.
L. Havens, and C. H. Townes, "New
Experimental Test of Special
Relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 342
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i9/p342_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_1958
0929.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ J. P. CEDARHOLM, C. H.
TOWNES, "A New Experimental Test of
Special Relativity", Nature 184,
1350-1351 (31 October 1959)
doi:10.1038/1841350a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v184/n4696/pdf/18413
50a0.pdf {Townes_Charles_Hard_19591031.
pdf}
4. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ J. P.
Cedarholm, G. F. Bland, B. L. Havens,
and C. H. Townes, "New Experimental
Test of Special Relativity", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 1, 342
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i9/p342_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_1958
0929.pdf}
9. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
10. ^ J. P. CEDARHOLM, C. H. TOWNES, "A
New Experimental Test of Special
Relativity", Nature 184, 1350-1351 (31
October 1959)
doi:10.1038/1841350a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v184/n4696/pdf/18413
50a0.pdf {Townes_Charles_Hard_19591031.
pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ J. P. CEDARHOLM, C. H.
TOWNES, "A New Experimental Test of
Special Relativity", Nature 184,
1350-1351 (31 October 1959)
doi:10.1038/1841350a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v184/n4696/pdf/18413
50a0.pdf {Townes_Charles_Hard_19591031.
pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted
Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ J. P.
Cedarholm, G. F. Bland, B. L. Havens,
and C. H. Townes, "New Experimental
Test of Special Relativity", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 1, 342
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i9/p342_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_1958
0929.pdf}
19. ^ J. P. Cedarholm, G. F. Bland, B.
L. Havens, and C. H. Townes, "New
Experimental Test of Special
Relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 342
(1958). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v1/i9/p342_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_1958
0929.pdf} {09/29/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hard Townes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tow
nes
[2] K. Shimoda, T. C. Wang, and C. H.
Townes, "Further Aspects of the Theory
of the Maser", Phys. Rev. 102, 1308
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1308_1
[3] "Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/55331/Nikolay-Gennadiyevich-Basov>.
[4] "Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Prokhorov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/478547/Aleksandr-Mikhaylovich-Prokhoro
v>.
[5] "Charles H. Townes - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-bio.html
[6] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/
[7] J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1
[8] "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
[9] A. L. Schawlow and C. H. Townes,
"Infrared and Optical Masers", Phys.
Rev. 112, 1940
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v112/i6/p1940_1
[10] T. S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murray,
and C. H. Townes, "Test of Special
Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space
by Use of Infrared Masers", Phys. Rev.
133, A1221
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v133/i5A/pA1221_1
[11] N. Bloembergen, C. K. N. Patel, P.
Avizonis, R. G. Clem, A. Hertzberg, T.
H. Johnson, T. Marshall, R. B. Miller,
W. E. Morrow, E. E. Salpeter, A. M.
Sessler, J. D. Sullivan, J. C. Wyant,
A. Yariv, R. N. Zare, A. J. Glass, L.
C. Hebel, G. E. Pake, M. M. May, W. K.
Panofsky, A. L. Schawlow, C. H. Townes,
and H. York (APS Study Group
Participants, APS Council Review
Committee), "Report to The American
Physical Society of the study group on
science and technology of directed
energy weapons", Rev. Mod. Phys. 59, S1
(1987). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v59/i3/pS1_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA18  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: [1] J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
42 YBN
[10/08/1958 AD] 6 		195) Swedish Doctor Dr. Rune Elmqvist
develops the first fully internal
(fully implantable) pacemaker.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD", Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf
2. ^ "Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD", Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf
3. ^ "Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD", Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf
4. ^ "Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD", Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf
5. ^
http://www.implantable-device.com/catego
ry/aimd-companies/elema-schonander-1959/

6. ^ "Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD", Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf
(Elema-Schnander4 ) Sweden5  
[1] Description English: Rune
Elmqvist made the first pacemaker and
Åke Senning implanted it. Senning
trained under Clarence Crafoord. They
all worked closely together in
Stockholm. From left to right, you can
see Senning, Elmqvist & Crafoord. The
picture was taken in 1954. It was
published in Ann Thorac Surg. 2004
Jun;77(6):2250-8. Date 2 June
2004 Source Professor Marko Turina,
University Hospital, Zurich Author
Professor Marko Turina, University
Hospital, Zurich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Senning%2C_Elmqvist_%
26_Crafoord_1954.jpg

[2] ''Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD'', Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://circ.ahajournals.org/cont
ent/115/22/f109.full.pdf
42 YBN
[11/14/1958 AD] 9 		5535)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842.
2. ^ Alan W.
Schwartz, "Sidney W. Fox, 1912–1998",
Origins of Life and Evolution of
Biospheres, Volume 29, Number 1, 1-3,
DOI:
10.1023/A:1006508001786 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/x8w1355xng12u2m2/
3. ^ Sidney W. Fox and Kaoru Harada,
"Thermal Copolymerization of Amino
Acids to a Product Resembling Protein",
Science, New Series, Vol. 128, No. 3333
(Nov. 14, 1958), p.
1214 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175631
3 {Fox_Sydney_W_19581114.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Sidney W. Fox and Kaoru
Harada, "Thermal Copolymerization of
Amino Acids to a Product Resembling
Protein", Science, New Series, Vol.
128, No. 3333 (Nov. 14, 1958), p.
1214 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175631
3 {Fox_Sydney_W_19581114.pdf}
6. ^ Sidney W. Fox, Kaoru Harada and
Jean Kendrick, "Production of Spherules
from Synthetic Proteinoid and Hot
Water", Science, New Series, Vol. 129,
No. 3357 (May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842.
8. ^ Sidney W. Fox
and Kaoru Harada, "Thermal
Copolymerization of Amino Acids to a
Product Resembling Protein", Science,
New Series, Vol. 128, No. 3333 (Nov.
14, 1958), p.
1214 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175631
3 {Fox_Sydney_W_19581114.pdf}
9. ^ Sidney W. Fox and Kaoru Harada,
"Thermal Copolymerization of Amino
Acids to a Product Resembling Protein",
Science, New Series, Vol. 128, No. 3333
(Nov. 14, 1958), p.
1214 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175631
3
{Fox_Sydney_W_19581114.pdf} {11/14/19
58}

MORE INFO
[1] S. W. Fox, "Evolution of
protein molecules and thermal synthesis
of biochemical substances." American
Scientist 44, 347-362 (1956). 20
[2]
Sidney W. Fox, Stanley L. Miller and
Harold C. Urey, "Origin of Life",
Science, New Series, Vol. 130, No. 3389
(Dec. 11, 1959), pp. 1622+1624 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756636
(Florida State University) Tallahassee,
Florida, USA8  
[1] Description SidneyWFox
.jpg Portrait of Sidney W. Fox, US
Scientist and Chemist, Author of
important experiments on the early
origin of life. Date Source
Kindly provided in a personal
email by Ron Fox, Son of Sidney W.
Fox Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/SidneyWFox_.jpg
42 YBN
[1958 AD] 3 		6044)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leo Arnaud". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Arnaud
2. ^ "Leo Arnaud". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Arnaud
3. ^ "Leo Arnaud". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Arnaud
{1958 (verify}
Hollywood, California, USA2
(verify) 
[1] Description English: Leo Arnaud,
French-American composer of film
scores Date 1940s Source
Wikipedia:Contact us/Photo
submission Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Leo_Arnaud.jpg
42 YBN
[1958 AD] 3 		6068) "He's Got the Whole World in His
Hands", a spiritual song that is
written by Obie Phillis, a Cherokee
Native American person, written while
serving in WWII. The song makes the
popular song charts in a 1958 version
by English singer Laurie London with
the Geoff Love Orchestra.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "He's Got the Whole World in His
Hands". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He%27s_Got_
the_Whole_World_in_His_Hands
2. ^ "Capitol Records". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_Rec
ords
3. ^ "He's Got the Whole World in His
Hands". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He%27s_Got_
the_Whole_World_in_His_Hands {1958}
(Capitol Records) Hollywood, California
,USA2 (possibly, or possibly in
England) 		 
41 YBN
[01/03/1959 AD] 5 		5596)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
2. ^
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A {01/03/1959}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)4  
[1] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg

[2] Luna 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna-1.jpg
41 YBN
[01/27/1959 AD] 9 		5672)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. A. O'Keefe, Ann Eckels, R. K.
Squires, "Vanguard Measurements Give
Pear-Shaped Component of Earth's
Figure", New Series, Vol. 129, No. 3348
(Feb. 27, 1959), pp.
565-566 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175
7833 {O_Keefe_John_Aloysius_19590127.pd
f}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.862.
3. ^ Obituary: John
Aloysius O'Keefe,
1917(sic)-2000 Rubincam, David P.;
Lowman, Paul D. Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, vol. 32,
no. 4, p.
1683-1684 http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/2000BAAS...32.1683R
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.862.
5. ^ "Vanguard 1
Marks 45 Years in
Space" http://www.spacedaily.com/news/s
atellite-tech-03c.html
6. ^ "Vanguard 1 Marks 45 Years in
Space" http://www.spacedaily.com/news/s
atellite-tech-03c.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ J. A. O'Keefe,
Ann Eckels, R. K. Squires, "Vanguard
Measurements Give Pear-Shaped Component
of Earth's Figure", New Series, Vol.
129, No. 3348 (Feb. 27, 1959), pp.
565-566 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175
7833 {O_Keefe_John_Aloysius_19590127.pd
f} {01/27/1959}
 
[1] Vanguard 1 satellite PD
source: http://ecoble.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2008/04/vanguard1_nasm_lg.jpg

[2] O'Keefe John Aloysius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/po
rtraits/candidates/okeefe_john.jpg
41 YBN
[02/14/1959 AD] 6 		5595)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Annual
report - National Academy of Sciences,
By National Academy of Sciences (U.S.),
National Research Council (U.S.),
National Academy of Engineering,
Institute of Medicine (U.S.),
1958. http://books.google.com/books?id=
30QrAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA91&dq=%22van+allen
%22&hl=en&ei=41yUTc7pAoPCsAPR-tTMBQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0
CEQQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=%22van%20allen%
22&f=false
5. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
6. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
{02/14/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
[2]
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
[3] J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1
[4] J. A. Van Allen and S. F. Singer,
"On the Primary Cosmic-Ray Spectrum",
Phys. Rev. 78, 819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
[5] L. H. Meredith, M. B. Gottlieb, and
J. A. Van Allen, "Direct Detection of
Soft Radiation above 50 Kilometers in
the Auroral Zone", Phys. Rev. 97, 201
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v97/i1/p201_1
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=NMk3adg
qfawC&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=may+1958+joi
nt+meeting+american+physical+society&sou
rce=bl&ots=hT0DTimGKV&sig=NaTG_FyNBx85ny
M23OULhn-l0WA&hl=en&ei=4LySTZmxMYa-sQOjt
7m4Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resn
um=8&sqi=2&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[7] JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A. FRANK,
"Radiation Around the Earth to a Radial
Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature 183,
430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
(State University of Iowa) Iowa City,
Iowa, USA5  
[1] Figure 5 from: JAMES A. VAN ALLEN,
LOUIS A. FRANK, ''Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107,400
km.'', Nature 183, 430-434 (14 February
1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430a0.pdf

[2] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
41 YBN
[02/18/1959 AD] 5 		6089) Ray Charles writes and records
"What'd I Say".1

(Is the first popular recording with
amplified (electric) piano?2 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "What'd I Say". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27d_I_
Say
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Atlantic Records".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Re
cords
4. ^ "Ray Charles". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Charles

5. ^ "What'd I Say". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27d_I_
Say {02/18/1959}
New York City, New York, USA3 4
(guess) 		 
41 YBN
[03/03/1959 AD] 12 		5732) From 1949 to 1984 Anderson worked
at Bell Telephone Laboratories in
Murray Hill, New Jersey.7 (So clearly
Anderson must have seen thought-screens
and regularly received direct-to-brain
windows.8 )

In 1977, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to Philip Warren
Anderson, Sir Nevill Francis Mott and
John Hasbrouck van Vleck "for their
fundamental theoretical investigations
of the electronic structure of magnetic
and disordered systems".9
(to me this
seems, overvaluing a theory that may
not be entirely accurate, and is of
limited practical importance
currently.10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.879.
2. ^ "Philip W.
Anderson." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/23639/Philip-W-Anderson>.
3. ^ "Philips Warren Anderson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philip-warr
en-anderson
4. ^ Philips Warren Anderson, "Theory
of dirty superconductors", Journal of
physics and chemistry of solids, (1959)
volume: 11 issue: 1-2 page:
26. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc
e/article/B6TXR-46MF54X-5R/2/160da287756
76118133c2f37dc6cd49d {Anderson_Philip_
Warren_19590303.pdf}
5. ^ Philips Warren Anderson, "Theory
of dirty superconductors", Journal of
physics and chemistry of solids, (1959)
volume: 11 issue: 1-2 page:
26. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc
e/article/B6TXR-46MF54X-5R/2/160da287756
76118133c2f37dc6cd49d {Anderson_Philip_
Warren_19590303.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Philip W. Anderson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/23639/Philip-W-Anderson>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1977". Nobelprize.org. 28 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1977/
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Philips Warren
Anderson, "Theory of dirty
superconductors", Journal of physics
and chemistry of solids, (1959)
volume: 11 issue: 1-2 page:
26. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc
e/article/B6TXR-46MF54X-5R/2/160da287756
76118133c2f37dc6cd49d {Anderson_Philip_
Warren_19590303.pdf}
12. ^ Philips Warren Anderson, "Theory
of dirty superconductors", Journal of
physics and chemistry of solids, (1959)
volume: 11 issue: 1-2 page:
26. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc
e/article/B6TXR-46MF54X-5R/2/160da287756
76118133c2f37dc6cd49d {Anderson_Philip_
Warren_19590303.pdf} {03/03/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] P. W. Anderson, "Theory of
Flux Creep in Hard Superconductors",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 309–311
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i7/p309_1
[2] P. W. Anderson, "Localized Magnetic
States in Metals", Phys. Rev. 124,
41–53
(1961). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v124/i1/p41_1
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA11  
[1] Summary Physics Nobel Laureate
Philip W. Anderson Source: I
obtained this photo via email from
Prof. Anderson himself. Das Bild
stammt von der englischsprachigen
Wikiseite über P.W.
Anderson.--62.206.21.246 03:37, 19 May
2006 (UTC) The copyright holder of
this work allows anyone to use it for
any purpose including unrestricted
redistribution, commercial use, and
modification. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Andersonphoto.jpg
41 YBN
[04/??/1959 AD] 8 		5787)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Frank Drake, "Project Ozma",
Physics today, (1961) volume: 14
issue: 4 page:
40 http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/serv
let/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTOAD0
00014000004000040000001&idtype=cvips&gif
s=yes {Drake_Frank_196104xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Frank Drake." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-drake

3. ^ "Drake equation." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 16 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion
4. ^ Frank Drake, "Intelligent Life In
Space", Macmillan, 1962, p111.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ "Frank Drake." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-drake

7. ^ Frank Drake, "Project Ozma",
Physics today, (1961) volume: 14
issue: 4 page:
40 http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/serv
let/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTOAD0
00014000004000040000001&idtype=cvips&gif
s=yes {Drake_Frank_196104xx.pdf}
8. ^ "Frank Drake." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-drake
 {04/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frank Donald Drake".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Donal
d_Drake
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.892
[3] "Drake equation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 16
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion
[4]
http://www.lifeinuniverse.org/Drakeequat
ion-07-02.html
(National Radio Astronomy Observatory)
Green Bank, West Virginia, USA6 7
 
[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg
41 YBN
[05/01/1959 AD] 8 		5536)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842.
2. ^ Alan W.
Schwartz, "Sidney W. Fox, 1912–1998",
Origins of Life and Evolution of
Biospheres, Volume 29, Number 1, 1-3,
DOI:
10.1023/A:1006508001786 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/x8w1355xng12u2m2/
3. ^ Sidney W. Fox, Kaoru Harada and
Jean Kendrick, "Production of Spherules
from Synthetic Proteinoid and Hot
Water", Science, New Series, Vol. 129,
No. 3357 (May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842.
5. ^ Sidney W. Fox,
Kaoru Harada and Jean Kendrick,
"Production of Spherules from Synthetic
Proteinoid and Hot Water", Science, New
Series, Vol. 129, No. 3357 (May 1,
1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Sidney W. Fox, Kaoru
Harada and Jean Kendrick, "Production
of Spherules from Synthetic Proteinoid
and Hot Water", Science, New Series,
Vol. 129, No. 3357 (May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf}
8. ^ Sidney W. Fox, Kaoru Harada and
Jean Kendrick, "Production of Spherules
from Synthetic Proteinoid and Hot
Water", Science, New Series, Vol. 129,
No. 3357 (May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf}
{05/01/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] Sidney W. Fox and Kaoru
Harada, "Thermal Copolymerization of
Amino Acids to a Product Resembling
Protein", Science, New Series, Vol.
128, No. 3333 (Nov. 14, 1958), p.
1214 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175631
3
[2] S. W. Fox, "Evolution of protein
molecules and thermal synthesis of
biochemical substances." American
Scientist 44, 347-362 (1956). 20.
[3]
Sidney W. Fox, Stanley L. Miller and
Harold C. Urey, "Origin of Life",
Science, New Series, Vol. 130, No. 3389
(Dec. 11, 1959), pp. 1622+1624 Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756636
(Florida State University) Tallahassee,
Florida, USA7  
[1] Figure 1 from: Sidney W. Fox,
Kaoru Harada and Jean Kendrick,
''Production of Spherules from
Synthetic Proteinoid and Hot Water'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 129, No. 3357
(May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756
935

[2] Description SidneyWFox
.jpg Portrait of Sidney W. Fox, US
Scientist and Chemist, Author of
important experiments on the early
origin of life. Date Source
Kindly provided in a personal
email by Ron Fox, Son of Sidney W.
Fox Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/SidneyWFox_.jpg
41 YBN
[07/17/1959 AD] 4 		5327)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Leakey." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-leake
y
2. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
3. ^ Leakey, "A New Fossil Skull From
Olduvai", Nature (1959) volume: 184
issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article {Leakey_Louis_19590815.
pdf}
4. ^ Leakey, "A New Fossil Skull From
Olduvai", Nature (1959) volume: 184
issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article {Leakey_Louis_19590815.
pdf} {07/17/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794
[2] LSB Leakey,
"Skull of Proconsul from Rusinga
Island", Nature 162, 688-688 (30
October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
Olduvai Gorge, Tanganyika Territory,
Africa3  
[1] Figure 1 from: Leakey, ''A New
Fossil Skull From Olduvai'', Nature
(1959) volume: 184 issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article {Leakey_Louis_19590815.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/openurl?vo
lume=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=
4685&genre=article

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey
41 YBN
[07/22/1959 AD] 6 7 		5489)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834-835.
2. ^ "Jacques-Yves
Cousteau." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 14
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140955/Jacques-Yves-Cousteau>.
3. ^ "SELF-PROPELLED SUBMERSIBLE
VESSEL", Patent number: 3103195, Filing
date: Jul 12, 1960, Issue date: Sep 10,
1963. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-yve
s-cousteau
5. ^ "SELF-PROPELLED SUBMERSIBLE
VESSEL", Patent number: 3103195, Filing
date: Jul 12, 1960, Issue date: Sep 10,
1963. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
6. ^ "SELF-PROPELLED SUBMERSIBLE
VESSEL", Patent number: 3103195, Filing
date: Jul 12, 1960, Issue date: Sep 10,
1963. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {07/22/1959}
7. ^ "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-yve
s-cousteau {1959}

MORE INFO
[1] "aqualung." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aqualung-en
gineering
[2] Emile Gagnon, Jacques Yves
Cousteau, "Compressed Gas Container
With Reducing Valve and Auxillary
Opening Means Therefor", Patent number:
2598248, Filing date: Dec 11, 1946,
Issue date: May 27, 1952. Filing Date
in France
12/15/1945. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepag
e&q&f=false
Paris, France5  
[1] Figures from: ''SELF-PROPELLED
SUBMERSIBLE VESSEL'', Patent number:
3103195, Filing date: Jul 12, 1960,
Issue date: Sep 10,
1963. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Jacques-Yves Cousteau UNKNOWN
source: http://www.neo-planete.com/wp-co
ntent/uploads/2009/02/jacques-yves-coust
eau.jpg
41 YBN
[09/14/1959 AD] 11 		5597)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
11. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A {09/14/1959}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)10  
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg

[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
41 YBN
[10/18/1959 AD] 4 		5598)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A {by
10/18/1959}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)3  
[1] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif

[2] Luna 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna_3.jpg
41 YBN
[11/05/1959 AD] 6 		191) A device inside the body
controlled remotely. An artificial
heart pacemaker is remotely controlled
with radio.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
2. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
3. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
4. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
5. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
6. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
(Yale University School of Medicine)
New Haven, New Jersey, USA5  
[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905

[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
41 YBN
[11/??/1959 AD] 6 		5767)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Parker, E. (1959),
Extension of the Solar Corona into
Interplanetary Space, J. Geophys. Res.,
64(11), 1675–1681,
doi:10.1029/JZ064i011p01675.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1959/J
Z064i011p01675.shtml Parker_Eugene_1959
11xx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.886.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Parker,
E. (1959), Extension of the Solar
Corona into Interplanetary Space, J.
Geophys. Res., 64(11), 1675–1681,
doi:10.1029/JZ064i011p01675.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1959/J
Z064i011p01675.shtml Parker_Eugene_1959
11xx.pdf}
6. ^ Parker, E. (1959), Extension of
the Solar Corona into Interplanetary
Space, J. Geophys. Res., 64(11),
1675–1681,
doi:10.1029/JZ064i011p01675.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1959/J
Z064i011p01675.shtml Parker_Eugene_1959
11xx.pdf} {11/1959}
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA5  
[1] Eugene Newman Parker UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iiap.res.in/files/upl
oads/parker.jpg
41 YBN
[12/07/1959 AD] 12 		5372) Bruno Benedetto Rossi (CE
1905-1994) Italian-US physicist, and
Riccardo Giacconi publishes the first
report of an x-ray telescope, 60 years
after x-rays were first made public by
Rontgen in 1895.2 3 4

In 1896 Seneca Egbert had detected
x-rays in sunlight.5 So the Sun, moon,
and bright stars and planets could have
been examined for x-ray light without
any magnification. But it seems
unlikely that reflecting and or
refracting x-ray light is so difficult.
Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn (SEGBoN) (CE
1886-1978), Swedish physicist,
reflected and refracted x-rays with
glass in 1925.6

In October 1962 Rossi et. al, will
report observing x-ray sources from
outside the solar system.7

Giacconi and Rossi report in an article
"A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy" in the "Journal of
Geophysical Research":
"With the development of
artificial satellites
it has become possible to
observe soft X rays
from extraterrestrial
sources. The purpose of
this note is to
describe the design of an X-ray
'telescope'
and to analyze some of its
characteristics.
The instrument consists of one or
several
paraboIic mirrorso n whicht he X rays
impinging
at nearly grazing angles undergo total
reflection.
The possibility of using optics of this
type has
been discussed in the past in
connection with
X-ray microscopy
(Kirkpatrick and Pattee,1 957;
Trurnit,
1946). These discussionhsa ve remained
of purely
theoreticailn terest,o wingt o the
difficulty
of constructinsgu fficientlya ccuratem
irrors
of the extremely small physical
dimensions required.
These difficulties, however,
are greatly
reduced in the construction of
large mirrors.
Let us consider first a narrow
section of a
parabolic mirror whose plane
is at the distance
from the focus of the
paraboloid, F (Fig. 1).
Rays parallel to
the axis are concentratedb y
the mirror
into a point at F. It can be shown
that, on a
first approximation, a parallel beam
of
rays, forming a small angle, a, with
the axis,
are concentratedo n a circle in the
focal plane
whose center is at F and whose
radius is R =
Thus, a detector of radius
R in the focal plane
will record all rays
striking the mirror and forming
with the axis
angles less than R/1.
In the actual design
of the instrument it is
necessary to
consider two limitations: (1) for
each
wavelength, and for each material, the
angle
of the incident rays with the
reflecting
surface must be smaller than a certain
value,
0, so that the reflection coefficient
will be of the
order of unity; (2) in
general, the design of the
satellite will
impose an upper limit to the distance,
l, between
the detector and the outer edge
of the
mirror.
The problem is to obtain the maximum
area
of collection consistent with these
limitations.
Figure 2 illustrates two possible
solutions
...
Table 1 gives numerical values of
these
quantities for silver mirrors and for X
rays of
about 10 A wavelength. The maximum
angle
of incidence, •, has been set equal
to 2 ø, correspondingt
o a minimum coefficiento f
reflection
of 50 per cent. In Figure 3, the
efficiencyo f light
collection for different
wavelengths is plotted.
Utilizing Table 1, we
may estimate the minimum
detectable intensity
of X rays. The main
source of background is
cosmic radiation, whose
omnidirectional
intensity in outer space is of the
ordero f
2 particles/cm2 s ec.W e believe,h
owever,
that it is possible to design a
detector whose
efficiency is 10 • times
higher for X rays than
for cosmic-ray
particles. Then we see that the
minimum
detectable intensity is of the order
of
10 -• quantum/cm • sec for an
angular resolution
of 10 -• radian.
The prime advantages
of the instrument are
the large area of
collection, the high resolution,
and the large
signal-to-noiser atio. Among the
obvious
applications are a detailed analysis
of
the distribution of X-ray sources on
the solar
disk and the solar corona, and a
search for weak
X-ray sourcesf,o r examplei
n the Crab Nebula.
We are at present
consideringt he possibility,
originally suggested y
Wolter (1952) for microscopes,
of using multiple
total reflections to
construct
image-forming X-ray telescopes.".8

(Kind of shocking that x-rays were
identified in 1895 but are supposedly
not used in astronomy until 1960 65
years later. And what technical
difficulty is involved? Simply putting
a metal plate over the photographic
plate in the telescope.9 )

(From the figures and text, it's not
clear what the difference between this
telescope design and a simple
reflecting telescope design is.10 )
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO
ROSSI, "A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
3. ^ "Bruno Rossi." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bruno-rossi

4. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO ROSSI,
"A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf}
5. ^ Record ID3940. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Record
ID5204. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Bruno B. Rossi,
Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, and
Frank R. Paolini, "Evidence for x Rays
From Sources Outside the Solar System",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
8. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO ROSSI,
"A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ RICCARDO
GIACCONI and BRUNO ROSSI, "A
'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray Astronomy",
Journal of Geophysical Research, V65,
N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf}
12. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO
ROSSI, "A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} {12/07/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] Bruno Rossi, "On the Magnetic
Deflection of Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev.
36, 606
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v36/i3/p606_1
[2] Bruno Rossi, "Directional
Measurements on the Cosmic Rays Near
the Geomagnetic Equator", Phys. Rev.
45, 212
(1934). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v45/i3/p212_1
[3] Bruno Rossi, "Absorptionsmessungen
der durchdringenden
Korpuskularstrahlung in einem Meter
Blei", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20,
Number 4, 65, DOI:
10.1007/BF01503771. http://www.springer
link.com/content/qww043l2h7811222/ "Abs
orption measurements of particle
radiation penetrating in a meter of
lead."
[4] Clark, George W. "Rossi, Bruno
Benedetto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 280-285.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906055&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] G. Shearer, "The X-ray Microscope",
British Journal of Radiology, (1936),
9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA11  
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
40 YBN
[01/23/1960 AD] 5 6 		4992)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
2. ^ "Auguste
Piccard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459310/Auguste-Piccard>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
{01/23/1960}
6. ^ "Piccard, Auguste." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 597-598. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903405&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {01/23/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "Auguste Piccard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/auguste-pic
card
Marianas Trench of the Pacific Ocean4
 
[1] Description
AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer.jpg Englis
h: Paul Kipfer and August Piccard
prepare to enter the stratosphere in a
pressurized gondola lifted by a
hydrogen filled balloon on May 27th,
1931. Date May 27th, 1931.
2007-10-24 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Storkk using CommonsHelper. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/AugustePiccardandPaul
Kipfer.jpg

[2] Title: Auguste Piccard People
in the image: * Piccard, Auguste
Prof.: Physiker, Ballonfahrer,
Stratosphären- und Tiefseeforscher,
Schweiz August 1932(1932-08) Source
Deutsches Bundesarchiv (German
Federal Archive), Bild
102-13738 Author Unknown CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102
-13738%2C_Auguste_Piccard.jpg
40 YBN
[02/13/1960 AD] 7 		5587)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. F. PERUTZ, M. G. ROSSMANN, ANN
F. CULLIS, HILARY MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL
& A. C. T. NORTH, "Structure of
Hæmoglobin: A Three-Dimensional
Fourier Synthesis at 5.5-Å.
Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis", Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf}
2. ^ M. F. PERUTZ, M. G. ROSSMANN, ANN
F. CULLIS, HILARY MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL
& A. C. T. NORTH, "Structure of
Hæmoglobin: A Three-Dimensional
Fourier Synthesis at 5.5-Å.
Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis", Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p849.
4. ^ "Max Ferdinand
Perutz." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/453302/Max-Ferdinand-Perutz>.
5. ^ M. F. PERUTZ, M. G. ROSSMANN, ANN
F. CULLIS, HILARY MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL
& A. C. T. NORTH, "Structure of
Hæmoglobin: A Three-Dimensional
Fourier Synthesis at 5.5-Å.
Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis", Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf}
6. ^ M. F. PERUTZ, M. G. ROSSMANN, ANN
F. CULLIS, HILARY MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL
& A. C. T. NORTH, "Structure of
Hæmoglobin: A Three-Dimensional
Fourier Synthesis at 5.5-Å.
Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis", Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf}
7. ^ M. F. PERUTZ, M. G. ROSSMANN, ANN
F. CULLIS, HILARY MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL
& A. C. T. NORTH, "Structure of
Hæmoglobin: A Three-Dimensional
Fourier Synthesis at 5.5-Å.
Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis", Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf} {02/13/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1962". Nobelprize.org. 28 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1962/
[2] D. W. Green, V. M. Ingram and M. F.
Perutz, "The Structure of Haemoglobin.
IV. Sign Determination by the
Isomorphous Replacement Method",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 14 September
1954 vol. 225 no. 1162
287-307. http://www.jstor.org/stable/99
481 and
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/225/1162/287.short
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England6  
[1] Figure 8 from: M. F. PERUTZ, M. G.
ROSSMANN, ANN F. CULLIS, HILARY
MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL & A. C. T. NORTH,
''Structure of Hæmoglobin: A
Three-Dimensional Fourier Synthesis at
5.5-Å. Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis'', Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v185/n4711/abs/185416a0.html

[2] Max Ferdinand Perutz Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1962/perutz.jpg
40 YBN
[03/09/1960 AD] 42 		5774)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P. Schiffer,
and A. B. Whitehead, "Measurement of
the Gravitational Red Shift Using the
Mössbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 4, 163–164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
2. ^ H. J. Hay, J. P. Schiffer*, T. E.
Cranshaw, and P. A. Egelstaff,
"Measurement of the Red Shift in an
Accelerated System Using the Mössbauer
Effect in Fe57", Phys. Rev. Lett. 4,
165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
3. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P.
Schiffer, and A. B. Whitehead,
"Measurement of the Gravitational Red
Shift Using the Mössbauer Effect in
Fe57", Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 163–164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
6. ^ H. J. Hay, J. P. Schiffer, T. E.
Cranshaw, and P. A. Egelstaff,
"Measurement of the Red Shift in an
Accelerated System Using the Mössbauer
Effect in Fe57", Phys. Rev. Lett. 4,
165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
7. ^ "Robert Vivian Pound." Britannica
Book of the Year, 2011. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 09 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/473078/Robert-V-Pound>.
8. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=GfmR0mH
xeZkC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=Glen+Anderson+
Rebka&source=bl&ots=0kRAe226Ji&sig=cYMs9
E1H7YRlJ_UQfGR-QxiuLtM&hl=en&ei=_X3HTcSi
Ho74sAOA_uCZAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=5&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&
q=Glen%20Anderson%20Rebka&f=false
9. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
10. ^ Albert Einstein, Ann. Physik, 35,
898 (1911)
11. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2011. Answers.com 09 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-ludw
ig-mossbauer-german-physicist
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887-888.
13. ^ R. V. Pound and
G. A. Rebka, Jr., "Gravitational
Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 3, 439–441
(1959). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v3/i9/p439_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_1959
1015.pdf}
14. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Resonant Absorption of the 14.4-kev γ
Ray from 0.10-μsec Fe57", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 3, 554–556
(1959), http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v3/i12/p554_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_
19591123.pdf}
15. ^ J. P. Schiffer and W. Marshall,
"Recoilless Resonance Absorption of
Gamma Rays in Fe57", Phys. Rev. Lett.
3, 556–557
(1959) http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v3/i12/p556_1 {Marshall_W_19591123.pdf}

16. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P. Schiffer,
and A. B. Whitehead, "Measurement of
the Gravitational Red Shift Using the
Mössbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 4, 163–164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
17. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
18. ^ Albert Einstein, Ann. Physik, 35,
898 (1911)
19. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka,
Jr., "Apparent Weight of Photons",
Phys. Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
20. ^ A. Einstein, Jahrb. Radioakt. u.
Elektronik 4, 411 (1907).
21. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig
Mössbauer." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393799/Rudolf-Ludwig-Mossbauer>.
22. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A.
Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight of
Photons", Phys. Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A.
Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight of
Photons", Phys. Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ Ted
Huntington.
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ Ted Huntington.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ R. V. Pound
and G. A. Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight
of Photons", Phys. Rev. Letters, 4
(1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
42. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf} {03/09/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
[2] P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311
[3] JASCHA HOFFMAN, "Robert Pound,
Physicist Whose Work Advanced Medicine,
Is Dead at 90", NY TImes, April 19,
2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/20
/us/20pound.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=130491
7624-dPEMK8cOyCU8ikOVg6k5pA
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA41  
[1] [t Note that this is from Hay, et
al, and not from Pound and
Rebka] Figure 1 from: H. J. Hay, J.
P. Schiffer*, T. E. Cranshaw, and P. A.
Egelstaff, ''Measurement of the Red
Shift in an Accelerated System Using
the Mössbauer Effect in Fe57'', Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v4/i4/p165_1

[2] Catalog #: Rebka Glen C1 Rebka,
Glen A. Jr.; Pound, Robert
Vivian Date: circa 1965 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rebka_glen_c1.jpg
40 YBN
[04/14/1960 AD] 3 4 		6142) Sam Cooke releases
"Wonderful_World".1

(This song contains a good and smart
pro-science, pro-education message.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wonderful World (Sam Cooke
song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful_W
orld_%28Sam_Cooke_song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Wonderful World (Sam
Cooke song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful_W
orld_%28Sam_Cooke_song%29 {04/14/1960
(released}
4. ^ "Wonderful World (Sam Cooke
song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful_W
orld_%28Sam_Cooke_song%29 {03/02/1959
(recorded}
  
40 YBN
[04/19/1960 AD] 11 		5665)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml {Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
3. ^ "Herbert
Friedman." Dictionary of Astronomy,
John Wiley . Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
4. ^ Gursky, H., "Obituary: Herbert
Friedman, 1916-2000", Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, vol. 32,
no. 4, p.
1665-1666. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/2000BAAS...32.1665G
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ J L Culhane and L W
Acton, "The Solar X-Ray Spectrum",
Annual Review of Astronomy and
Astrophysics, Vol. 12: 359 -381 (Volume
publication date September 1974)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/1
0.1146/annurev.aa.12.090174.002043
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml {Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf}
11. ^ Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml {Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf}
{04/19/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "Herbert Friedman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
[2] Friedman, H., "Ultraviolet and X
Rays from the Sun", Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html
[3] H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E.
T. Byram, "Photon Counter Measurements
of Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light", Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA10  
[1] Figure 4 from: Blake, R. L.,
Chubb, T. A., Friedman, H., & Unzicker,
A. E., ''Interpretation of X-Ray
Photograph of the Sun.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml
{Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000
.html

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
40 YBN
[04/22/1960 AD] 36 		5768) Theodore Harold Maiman (CE
1927-2007)9 , US physicist invents the
first laser (light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation).
Townes the inventor of the maser had
predicted that the maser principle
could be applied to wavelengths of
light even as short as those of visible
light. Maiman makes use of the
three-level principle worked out by
Bloembergen and designs a ruby cylinder
with its ends carefully polished flat
and parallel and covered with silver
coatings. Light is fed into the ruby
cylinder from a flash lamp and the ruby
emits monochromatic (of a single
wavelength) and coherent (all the beams
in a single direction) light. These
coherent beams of light can travel
thousands of miles without spreading
very far apart, and can be focused into
so small a space as to deliver energy
(or light particle density10 ) with the
temperature equivalent of the surface
of the sun.11

The laser has found numerous practical
uses, ranging from delicate surgery to
measuring the distance between the
Earth and the Moon.12

The first large-scale application for
lasers is the laser scanner for
automated checkout in supermarkets,
which develops in the mid-1970s and
becomes common a few years later.
Compact disc audio players and laser
printers for personal computers soon
follow.13

The first claim of a successful x-ray
laser is by Ilyukhin et al in 1977.14
15

Maimon publishes this first in
"Physical Review Letters" as "Optical
and Microwave-Optical Experiments in
Ruby". He writes:
" Several recent papers have
reported optical and microwave-optical
measurements in ruby (Cr+++ in Al2O3).
We wish to report here some new
experiments concerning the fluorescent
relaxation processes in this crystal.
Reported here also are the first
observations of ground-state population
changes in ruby due to optical
excitation and the detection of optical
absorption between two excited states
in this crystal.
The predominant processes
which ensue in a fluorescent material
when it is irradiated at an appropriate
wavelength are shown in Fig. 1. W13 is
the induced transition probability per
unit time due to an exciting radiation
and the Smn are decay rates which
incclude both radiative and
nonradiative processes. In this crystal
S21 is easily obtained from the decay
rate of the fluorescent level (2E)
after an exciting source is turned off.
The lifetime for this process is about
5 msec. Varsanyu, Wood, and Schawlow
have further demonstrated that this
lifetime is almost entirely due to
spontaneous emission, i.e., S21 is
approximately the Einstein A
coefficient A21.
An approximate value for
the rate S32 was obtained in the
following way. A crystal of ruby was
irradiated with 5600A radiation causing
absorption into the lower band
(4A2-4F2). The sample used was a
one-centimeter cube cut from a boule of
standard pink ruby supplied by the
Linde Company, with a concentration of
approximately 0.05 weight percent of
Cr2O3 to Al2O3. Two components of
radiation re-emitted from the crystal
were observed in a direction
perpendicular to the exciting beam:
that due to re-emission of the incoming
radiation (spontaneous decay from 4F2)
and fluorescence (spontaeous decay from
2E). The intensity of the first
component is proportional to hv31N3A31,
where A31 is the A coefficient for
4F2-4A2 and is calculated from
measurements of absorption coefficient
and line width for this transition (A31
~3x105/sec). Similarly the fluorescent
intensity is proportional to hv21N2A21.
Bby a measurement of the ratio of these
two components and the use of an
auxiliary condition applicable to
steady=state condirions N2S21=N3S32 and
also the use of the approximation
S21=A21, we find S32 ~2x107/sec.
A measurement of
fluorescent quantum efficiency, i.e.,
the number of fluorescent quanta
emitted compared to the number absorbed
by the crystal frmo the exciting beam,
yielded a value near unity. This result
reconfirms the evidence that the life
of level 2 is near radiative and also
implies that S32>>S31. The experiment
was not accurate enough to yield a
precise value byt does indicate that
the nonradiative process (S31-A31)
< 4x106/sec.
Calculations utilizing the previous
results indicated that population
changes in the ground state of ruby due
to optical excitation would be easily
observed. This conclusion was verified
in the following experiments. A ruby
crystal was mounted between parallel
silvered plates to form a microwave
cavity resonant at the ground-state
zero-field splitting (11.3 kMc/sec).
About half the cavity losses were due
to magnetic absorption as evidenced by
an increase in vacity Q when a small
magnet was brough near the ruby. The
reflection coefficient of the cavity
was monitored on an oscilloscope while
a short pulse (200 usec) of light from
a flash tube irradiated the crystal.
The magnitude of the microwave magnetic
absorption was observed to decrease
abruptly and then return to equilibrium
with a time constant of about 5 msec
(see Fig. 2). We attribute this effect
to temporary depletion of this ground
state population with subsequent decay
back from the fluorescent level. The
experiment was performed at room
temperature where the thermal
relaxation times in the ground state of
ruby are the order of a microsecond; in
the time scale of the experiment,
therefore, boltzmann equilibrium in
these levels is maintained.
A repetition of the
above experiment at liquid helium
temperatures is being planned. At this
temperature we would expect to be able
to observe directly any preferential
depopulation of the ground sublevels
due to polarized light and also any
preferential repopulation of these
levels since the thermal relatzations
times would then be 30-100 msec.
To verify
further the depletion of ground-state
population observed in the previous
experiment an independent measurement
was made. A beam of monochromatic light
of wavelength 4100 A was transmitted
through a ruby crystal and partially
absorbed due to the transition 4A2-4F1.
When the intense pulse of radiation at
5600 A was turned on, the 4100A
radiation passing through the crystal
absruptly increased and subsequently
decayed in about 5 msec just as the
microwave signal in the previous
experiment. This result was expected
since the temporary reduction in
ground-state population caused the
crystal to become more transparent to
the 4100A radiation until the
fluorescent level decayed to normal. In
both experiments a population change of
about 3% was estimated.
An unexpected result was
observed when the probe wavelength was
changed from 4100 A to 3600 A. In this
case a decrease in light intensity
emerging from the crystal was observed.
This implies that the crystal became
more absorbing even thought the
ground-state population was decreased.
We can explain this last effect when it
is realized that 3600A radiation can
cause transitions from the fluorescent
level (2E) to a high lying charge
transfer band (not shown in the
figure). Consequently, we conclude that
we were observing transitions between
two excited optical states. The fact
that the abruptly increased 3600A
absorption also decayed with a 5-msec
time constant is consistent with and
strengthens the above conclusion.
...".1
6

In his April 1961 patent application
"Ruby Laser Systems". Maimon writes:
"This
invention relates to the generation,
amplification, and utilization of
electromagnetic waves in the infrared,
visible and. ultraviolet portion of the
spectrum, and more specifically to
lasers and laser systems. A laser, the
term being an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation, is a device capable of
generating or amplifying coherent
light. The principle of operation is
similar to that of a maser and is
therefore also referred to as an
optical maser.

Much effort has been expended in the
fields of electronics and physics in
attempts to generate or amplify
coherent light. Such an achievement, it
was known, would make available a vast
new region of the electromagnetic
spectrum for a multitude of purposes
including communications and metrology
(measurements) applications. Such
coherent light would have the
properties of being monochromatic and
of having its component waves propa
gating in phase with each other. Thus,
as at radio or microwave frequencies, a
great deal of energy could be
concentrated at or extremely near to a
single frequency and be utilized in
methods analogous to those at radio
frequencies.

Ordinary techniques of generating or
amplifying electromagnetic waves,
including microwave maser techniques,
cannot be extended usefully into the
optical frequencies because such
techniques require components, such as
maser cavities, for supporting wave
oscillations which must have physical
dimensions of the order of a
wavelength. Obviously, such components
can neither be manufactured nor
meaningfully utilized at optical
frequencies where the wavelengths are
of the order of atomic dimensions. When
it is attempted to use cavities which
have dimensions corresponding to a
large number of wavelengths, many modes
arc supported, coherence is degraded,
and impracticably large sources of
pumping power arc required.

A laser has been proposed by Schawlow
and Townes, sec United States Patent
No. 2,929,922, issued March 22, 1960,
which suggests using as the negative
temperature medium certain gaseous
state materials such as alkali metal
vapors. Such materials may be shown to
have energy levels in their atomic
systems corresponding to appropriate
optical frequencies for absorbing
optical pump energy to invert the
population from the stable equilibrium
state and thus provide the material
with what is known as a negative
temperature or excited, nonequilibrium
state. Then by stimulation or
spontaneous relaxation the atomic
system falls back to Its normal
equilibrium state by one or more steps
emitting energy of certain optical
frequencies.

Such proposed gaseous state devices are
of great interest as theoretical models
and represent significant academic
advances, however, they have not been
shown to provide a net generation or
amplification of light. In addition,
the structure of gaseous state systems
is complex and requires the maintenance
of critical vapor pressures and
temperatures. Impurities in the gas is
another very serious problem. The
inter-atomic spacing of the gas
severely limits the efficiency of
coupling between the stimulated

emission and a coherent wave
propagating through the medium. In
addition, the frequency of operation of
any given gas laser may be effectively
tuned only by Stark or Zeeman effects
which can provide a tuning range of
only

g approximately 5X1010 cycles per
second. Further, the construction of a
gas cell is extremely critical in that
the end plates must be highly
reflective and perfectly parallel so
that the many reflections required
because of the low density gaseous
material will be accomplished.

j0 It is therefore an object, of the
present invention to provide an
operable, low noise. ;fficient laser.

It is another object to provide a laser
which is mechanically stable and of
noncritical construction.

It is another object to provide a laser
which operates

15 at room temperature or cryogenic
temperatures for additional simplicity
and even greater flexibility in design
parameters.

It is another object to provide a laser
which does not require critical vacuum
or vapor pressure techniques and 20
which operates in a medium of high
dielectric constant.

It is another object to provide a laser
capable of much higher power handling.

It Is another object to provide a laser
which is tunable over aproximately a 5x
1011 cycles per second range. 25 It is
another object to provide an optical
radar system utilizing the advantages
of a laser.

Briefly, these and other objects are
achieved in accordance with the present
invention in a system including a solid
state negative temperature medium. 80
In one example a segment of solid state
active laser material such as a
cylindrical ruby (Ala03 doped with
Cra03) rod with reflecting coating at
each end is coaxially placed in a
helical flash lamp. White light or,
predominantly, the green and blue
components thereof, is absorbed 36 by
the ruby, and red light is emitted
therefrom and coupled out of the system
through a hole in the reflective
coating at one end of the rod. The
reflecting coatings provide a
regeneration related to the coupling
between the reflecting wave, traveling
back and forth many times, and 40 the
emitting atoms. In other words, a
resonating, standing wave is provided
which derives energy from the negative
temperature dielectric. Thus the rod
may be considered as a resonator having
different Q's for different modes of
oscillation. The mode having the
highest Q 46 corresponds to waves
traveling nearly parallel to the rod
axis since it supplies the highest
degree of regeneration. This effect
causes the output to be an extremely
parallel beam so that it propagates
immense distances without spreading.
Inherent in the regeneration process is
the 60 coherent amplification of an
extremely narrow band of frequencies,
thus providing a monochromatic output.
Additional discussion of principles of
operation, of further objects and
advantages, including uses, and of
other examples will be presented below
in connection with a 68 description of
the accompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1 is an energy level diagram for
the atoms of a substance exhibiting
laser properties;

FIQ.2 is a schematic diagram
illustrating optical pumping of
negative temperature laser material;
fl0 FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of
means for optically pumping the laser
material with sunlight energy;

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of one
embodiment of the present invention
which utilizes a helical gas-filled
flash tube for optical pumping of the
laser material;

FIG. 5 is a diagram of an alternative
embodiment utilizing a hollow
gas-filled cylinder for optical pumping
of th; laser material;

FIG. 6 is another embodiment of the
present invention 70 which utilizes a
hollow cylindrical gas-filled optical
pumping means which is radially
separated from the active laser
material by a fluorescent material;
FIG. 7 is an
energy level diagram illustrating the
method of operation of the embodiment
of FIG. 6;

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an
embodiment of the invention in which
the active laser material is a hollow
cylinder surrounding a cylindrical
gas-filled flash tube, the entire
assembly being surrounded by a second
hollow cylinder of coolant of a high
index of refraction;

FIG. 9 is a cut-away view of an
embodiment of the present invention in
which the laser material is
refrigerated;

FIG. 10 is a diagram of a segment of
laser material; FIG. 11 is a diagram of
a coated segment of laser material;

FIG. 12 is a diagram of a segment of
laser material which is surrounded by a
coolant having a high index of
refraction;

FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of a
portion of a laser system illustrating
the use of an interferometer;

FIGS. 14 and 15 are schematic diagrams
illustrating additional types of
interferometers;

FIGS. 16 and 17 are diagrams of a laser
system in which the optical pump
utilizes an exploding wire; and

FIG. 18 is a schematic diagram of a
practical colidar system utilizing a
laser.

The laser to be herein below described
utilizes the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with a
material having an appropriate set of
discrete energy levels. Consider, for
example, a pair of such levels with
energies Ei and E3 where E3 is greater
than Ej. An electromagnetic wave of
frequency

= ——

where h is Planck's constant, coupled
to the system stimulates both
absorption and emission. In other
words, atoms in (he lower level make
transitions to the upper level, each
absorbing energy E=»>ji and similarly
upper level atoms arc stimulated
downwardly, each of these giving up
energy to the wave by radiating a like
quantum of energy. The net absorption
of the radiating wave interacting with
the system is proportional to Ni-Nj
where Ni and N3 arc respectively the
number of atoms in these two levels.
Since in thermal equilibrium Ni is
greater than N3 the indicated
difference is positive and a wave
propagating the length of the material
is attenuated.

In a substance with a third energy
level Ej higher than either of the
other two levels, energy can be
supplied to the system by a radiating
wave of frequency

If other parameters, and, in
particular, relaxation times, in the
material arc suitably related, an
inverted population will be produced
such that N3 is greater than Ht; then
the net interaction with a radiating
wave of frequency 1-3, is emission and
the wave is amplified. Also, by
providing a feedback mechanism
oscillation can be produced.

Visible light covers the
electromagnetic spectrum approximately
4x10'* cycles per second, that is, red
light to approximately 7.5xlOu cycles
per second which is violet light. In
substance as described above with
energy levels such that *n lies in this
frequency range can therefore amplify
or generate visible light.
Referring
specifically to FIG. 1 an energy level
diagram is illustrated for the atoms of
a material such as AljOj which may
exhibit laser action in accordance with
the present invention. Level 1 may be
considered the ground slate
corresponding to Ei and region 3 in the
relatively high energy state
corresponding to E3 which is actually a
broadband of energy levels rather than
a discrete energy level. The atoms, or
ions, as the case may be, are excited
or pumped from the level 1 to the
region 3 by means of an optical pumping
source having the energies or
frequencies i-ji corresponding to the
diffcrenco between the energy of level
1 and those of the levels throughout
region

53,115

4

3. Because of the broadness of region
3, doping atoms, which for exampie may
be the chromium atoms, may accept
pumping energy over a correspondingly
broad band. The atoms thus excited may
then decay from the

5 region 3 back to the ground state or,
alternatively, they may decay to level
2 corresponding to E3 and thence to
level 1. The latter course is
definitely the favored one and the
atoms in decaying to level 2 do not
emit energy. In other words, it is a
radiationless thermal type of transitu
tion which funnels the energy
distributed in the board region 3 into
the very narrow region 2. The energy
level 2 is in fact a single energy
level, or may in the presence of a
magnetic field be a doublet, and the
atoms of this state of excitation will
emit the correspondingly discrete frc

15 quency »31 corresponding to the
difference between level 2 and level 1
that is Er-^-i when they are
appropriately stimulated or triggered
to do so. Further, when an appropriate
stimulation does occur, the atoms in
the particular segment of laser
material will fall together or emit

20 their radiated energy coherently
with each other and with the
stimulating wave. Thus it may be seen
that the mechanism is a funneling of
energy from a broadband incoherent
source into a discrete frequency that
is monochromatic coherent radiation.

25 Referring to FIG. 2, there is shown
a schematic representation of the
mechanism of optically pumping the
atoms such as those of chromium in a
ruby rod 10. A light pump 12 emits a
high intensity "white" light or, in
this example, it may be broadly green,
toward the ruby rod

30 10. The broadband light thus
radiated includes at least some light
in the frequency range *31. This light
is absorbed by the ruby rod and causes
the doping atoms to be excited in the
energy state represented by region 3 of
the diagram of FIG. 1. This excitation
is equivalent

35 to an inversion of the population of
the chromium atoms as discussed above.
The excited atoms then relax by thermal
processes down to the level 2 and may
remain there until stimulated to fall
to the level 1 thereby emitting the
desired monochromatic light of
frequency v2]. This stimu

40 lation may be by an external source
of radiation at frequency yllt or it
may be triggered spontaneously as by
optical noise. When the energy at
frequency »3t is emitted from the
atoms in the ruby rod 10 it causes a
wave to propagate through the rod and
if the wave is parallel

45 to the axis it may reflect
repeatedly from the ends of the rod. If
the rod is of an appropriate length a
standing wave 14 may be set up. In
either event the repeated reflections
through the material stimulate the
emission of substantially all the atoms
from level 2 to their ground

50 state level 1. The emission of the
enrcgy at frequency v2i combines in
phase with the stimulating wave 14 thus
adding coherently with it. This energy
may then be coupled out of the rod as a
beam 16 which is monochromatic at
frequenvy v3I and which is traveling or
prop

55 agating in a direction parallel to
the axis of the ruby rod 10.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example of the
invention in which the light pump 12 of
FIG. 2 is the sun or some other source
of parallel "white" light. The lens 18
focuses the

60 light so that it is of relatively
high intensity in a region 20 where an
element of active laser material 22 is
disposed. An auxiliary mirror 24 may
further intensify the light in the
region of the laser material. The
mirror 24 may be a spherical reflector
which merely sends the un

65 absorbed, pumping light back through
the focal point of the lens 18 and
thence through the laser material 22 a
second time.

Referring to FIG. 4, an embodiment of
the invention is shown in which an
active laser rod 26 is disposed

70 coaxially within a helical
gas-filled flash tube 28. The ends of
the rod 26 may be suitably plated as by
a partial coating of silver in order to
provide the rcptitive reflections of
the monochromatic emitted light. The
system of stimulation is so efficient
that a plating 26 which will provide

75 approximately 10 percent reflection
is adequate. One end
of the rod 30 has
a nonreflective opening 32 in the end
plating to provide unobstructed passage
of the coherent monochromatic beam 34
as shown. A power supply 36 provides
the flashing energy for the tube 28. An
outer enclosing cylinder 38 is provided
which has a very highly 6 reflecting
inner surface for reflecting the
pumping energy repeatedly through the
rod 26 for improved efficiency of the
system as compared with operation when
the light energy of the tube 28 is
permitted to radiate indefinitely in
all directions causing only a fraction
of its energy to 1Q pass through the
rod 26.

Referring to FIG. 5, a rod of active
laser material 40 is shown which again
has reflectively coated ends 42, 44
wilh an opening 46 in the plating 44 to
permit passage of the laser output beam
48. The light pump in this example 15
is a hollow cylinder 50 which is
coaxially disposed about the rod 42
with the radial space therebetween
being filled with a flashing gas 52.
Appropriate electrodes 54 and 56 at
opposite ends of the cylinder 50 are
energized by a power supply 58 to cause
the gas 52 to emit high intensity 20
"while" light when desired. Again, the
inner surface of the cylinder 50 is
highly reflective for added efficiency
of the light pump mechanism.

FIG. 6 illustrates an embodiment of the
invention in which a rod 60 of active
laser material similar to rods 26 25
and 42 is disposed coaxially within a
hollow flash tube 62. The radial space
between the rod 60 and the flash tube
62 is filled with a fluorescent
material 64, such as fluorescein. The
fluorescent material efficiently
absorbs the "white" light emitted by
the flash tube 62 and re-emits predomi-
30 nantly green light which is more
efficiently absorbed by the laser rod
60. Thus, as illustrated in FIG. 7, the
broadband "while" light 66 is directed
into the fluorescein which re-emits
incoherent green light predominantly in
the region 3 of ihe material discussed
in cpnneclion with 3a tlie description
of FIG. 1. Thus the fluorescein
effectively funnels ihe "white" light
into green light which energy is
further funneled and subsequently
emitted as a single frequency or
monochromatic light by the laser
material, as indicated by the heavy
vector 68 between lever 2 and 40 level
1 of FIG. 7. Again in FIG. 6 the inner
surface of the cylinder surrounding the
tube 62 may be highly polished for even
greater efficiency of pumping.

Referring to FIG. 8 there is
illustrated an example of the invention
in which the active laser material is
in the 45 form of a hollow cylinder 70
within which is coaxially disposed a
cylindrical flash tube 72, Thus when
the flash tube is energized,
substantially all of its pumping
radiation is emitted in a radial
direction and must therefore pass
through the laser material. The laser
material 70 is 50 in turn coaxially
surrounded by a cylinder 74 filled with
a coolant 76. The coolant 76 may be
chosen to have a high index of
refraction for the advantages and
purposes discussed below. Cylinder 74
may have a highly polished internal
surface for reflecting energy of the
flash tube 72 55 back through the laser
material 70.

Referring to FIG. 9, an embodiment of
the invention is shown in which the
laser material is refrigerated to
liquid nitrogen temperatures for the
purpose of making its output beam even
more purely monochromatic be- 60 cause
the line width of the laser transition
(frequency v3l) is much sharper in most
solids at low temperature. A rod 78 of
active laser material has plated ends
80 and 82 with a coupling hole 84 in
the upper end for emitting the laser
beam 86. The opposite end of the rod Is
mounted on a 65 thermally conductive
rod 88 which may be of copper or
sapphire. The major portion of the rod
88 is immersed in liquid nitrogen 90
within a Dewar flask 92. A hollow
cylindrical flash tube 94 is disposed
coaxially about the »0 laser rod 78
and is energized from a power supply 96
through a set of annular electrodes 98
disposed at opposite ends of the gas
tube 94. A further hollow cylinder is
disposed coaxially about the flash tube
94 and is filled with a coolant 102 to
cool the flash tube 94. 75

FIG. 10 illustrates schematically a
segment of laser material 104 for
purposes of illustrating internal
reflections of the stimulating wave
when the segment is not coated but is
merely surrounded by material of a low
index of refraction, such as air. A ray
of energy 106 is shown as propagating
parallel with the axis of the rod and
therefore never reflects against the
side of the segment 104. A ray 108,
however, has a radial component of
direction and reflects, as shown, off
the side boundaiy of the segment 104.
Such reflections cause two deleterious
effects. One is that the effective
length of the resonating segment is
greater than that for an axially
traveling ray such as 106. Thus the ray
108 may represent a component of energy
at a frequency slightly different from
the desired or designed frequency of
operation. Secondly, the ray 108, if it
finds its way out of the coupling hole
HO of the segment 104, will cause a
spreading of the beam thereby
detracting from the otherwise extremely
narrow beam of the laser and
contributing to its noncoherence. A ray
112 propagating in a direction even
further removed from that of the axis
of the segment may obviously
reverberate substantially endlessly
through the segment causing by its
interference with the desired energy a
decrease in the coherence and
narrowness of bandwidth of the laser
output.
....
FIG. 13 illustrates a system in
accordance with the present invention
which utilizes an interferometer for
providing even greater coherence and
narrow bandwidth. In this embodiment a
rod 136 of active laser material does
not have coated ends but rather has
prisms 138 and 140 coupled to each end
of the rod 136. An additional pair of
mirrors or prisms 142 and 144 are
disposed so that a ray of light 146
which is axially directed through the
rod 136 may propagate along the closed
path determined by the reflecting
surfaces of the 4 mirrors. Disposed
between the mirrors 142 and 144 is an
interferometer 148 which may be a
Fabry-Perot interferometer. The
interferometer comprises a pair of
parallel plates 150 and 152, the
distance between which may be adjusted
to "tunc" the regenerative circuit for
the ray 146. Thus a ray of the proper
wavelength will resonate between the
parallel plates 150, 152 while waves of
other frequencies will be dissipated
and lost in the interferometer.
...
FIG. 14 illustrates another type of
interferometer in which the active
laser segment 160 does not have
reflective ends. Instead, mutually
parallel plates 162 and 164 arc
disposed perpendicularly to the axis of
the segment 160 which is the desired
direction of propagation. The plates
may be disposed at some distance from
the laser material; the greater the
distance and the smaller their size the
more the system discriminates against
nonparallel light rays 166 and 168.
Again the desired energy may be coupled
out of the system through a small
opening in the reflective plate 164 to
provide a laser output beam 170.

FIG. 15 illustrates the use of an
interferometer similar in some respects
to the device of FIG. 14. In this
example one of the reflective plates
172 may be placed directly on the
active laser segment 174 while the
other reflective plate 176 may be
axially disposed at some distance from
the segment 174. As shown, the
nonparallel ray 178 will not be
re-reflected between the two reflective
plates 172 and 176 thereby minimizing
its deleterious effects on the
monochromatic output beam 180.

FIGS. 16 and 17 illustrate methods of
optically pumping the active laser
segment 182 by a source 184 of
broadband light which is disposed some
distance from the laser segment. In
each case the output beam 186 of the
laser is directed out of the rod-shaped
laser segment in a direction parallel
to the axis of the rod. In FIG. 16 two
parab
olic reflectors 189 and 190 are
directed toward each other so that the
light source 184 at the focal point of
reflector 189 emits a substantially
parallel beam of pumping light 188
which is collected by the parabolic
reflec

5 tor 190 and focused to pass through
the laser segment 182. The parabolic
surfaces 189 and 190 may be parabolic
cylindrical surfaces as shown or they
may be paraboloidal surfaces of
revolution symmetrically disposed about
the line joining their respective
foci.

10 FIG. 17 illustrates an elliptical
system for reflecting the energy from
the light source 184 to the laser
segment 182 wherein the source 184 is
disposed at one focus of an ellipse
while the laser segment 182 is disposed
at the opposite focus; hence, the
elliptical surface 192 reflects

15 substantially all of the energy
radiating from the source 184 and
refocuses it through the laser segment
182. The elliptical surface 192 may be
an elliptical cylindrical surface or it
may be an ellipsoid.

The light source 184 in either of the
above examples

20 may make use of exploding wire
phenomenon in which an extremely high
current at low voltage is sent through
a wire thereby exploding and vaporizing
it. The light energy emitted by this
phenomena may be extremely intense
"white" light. Alternatively, the
source 184 may

25 be other conventional light sources
such as gas-filled flash tubes, or
carbon arc lamps. An advantage of the
systems depicted in FIGS. 16 and 17 is
that the light source and the active
laser material may be independently
handled and cooled due to their spacing
from each other.

30 Referring to FIG. 18, there is
illustrated a practical application of
a laser in a colidar optica! radar
system. "Colidar" is an acronym for
coherent light ranging. A laser unit
200 is the colidar transmitter and
includes an active laser segment 202.
Surrounding the segment 202

35 is a gas-filled flash tube 204 which
is pulsed from a pump power supply 206.
A synchronizer 208 triggers the pump
power supply which in turn fires the
flash tube 204 and the laser 200
transmits a beam 210 of monochromatic
coherent light toward a target 212, the
range to which

40 is to be determined. The
synchronizer trigger also triggers the
horizontal sweeps of a pair of
oscillographs 214 and 216. A sample of
the laser output is determined by a
photoelectric cell 218 which is coupled
to the oscillograph 214 and presented
on the face thereof as a "transmitter"

45 pulse 220 to indicate the time at
which the laser output pulse was
transmitted. The laser beam 210 is
reflected off a target 212 and a minute
portion thereof is received as a
parallel beam 210' by the colidar
receiver 222. The received beam 210
impinges upon a parabolic reflector

50 224 and is focused into a
photoelectric cell 226. The electrical
cell of the protoelectric cell 226 is
coupled to the receiver oscillograph
216 where it is presented on the face
thereof as a "receiver" pulse 228. The
time difference between the pulses 220
and 228 on the two oscillographs

85 is, of course, a direct indication
of the range from the colidar system to
the target 212. The two oscillographs
214 and 216 may alternatively be a dual
trace, single oscillograph tube or, as
in conventional radar "B-scope"
presentation, be displayed with a
single horizontal trace.

00 The advantages of such a ranging
system which may obviously be extended
to other forms of radar, such as plan
position indicator types, include the
fact that the transmitted beam Is
extremely narrow and may be sent over
great distances with very little beam
spreading. Also

65 the wavelength is so small that
extremely high resolution is obtained.
It may also be seen that it is
substantially impossible to jam a laser
radar system because the jamming
equipment would have to be placed
precisely in

^Q line with the transmitter and the
target would have to be directed at the
receiver and would have to be at
precisely the proper optical frequency
in order to interfere with the laser
receiver. For further improvements in
this regard optical filters 230 may be
placed in the receiver 222 to 75
discriminate not only against
deliberate jamming but also

against the minute amount of optical
noise at the operating frequency.

There has thus been disclosed a laser
system in which the active laser
substance is solid state and which
provides coherent monochromatic
amplification and generation of
electromagnetic wave energy in the
optical or visible spectrum. The
invention is effectively an efficient
device which is mechanically stable and
which may be operated at room
temperature without complex vacuum or
vapor pressure techniques. The
invention as disclosed also is capable
of tuning over a 5X1011 cycles per
second range and may handle high powers
for practical optical radar and
communications utilization. In
addition, because it provides light
which can be focused extremely
precisely, the laser opens new
possibilities in the investigation of
basic properties of mater, as well as
in medicine where objects or very
minute portions thereof can bo
selectively sterilized or vaporized.

What is claimed is:

1. A three energy level laser
comprising: a ruby having atoms
exhibiting a first energy level
corresponding to a ground atomic state,
a substantially discrete second energy
level above said ground stale and third
energy- levels defining a relatively
broadband absorption third region
extending above said second level; a
pumping source of broadband light
energy optically coupled to said ruby
for illuminating it and exciting atoms
thereof to exhibit excitation at said
third energy levels from whence they
decay without substantial radiation
loss to said discrete second energy
level so as to establish a population
inversion between said discrete second
energy level and said ground state;

interferometer means optically coupled
to said ruby and tuned to the frequency
corresponding to that of the energy
difference between said second energy
level and said first energy level for
reflecting light energy of said
frequency repeatedly through portions
of said ruby to generate a coherent
light beam;

and coupling means for extracting the
monochromatic

coherent light beam from said ruby.
2. A
three energy level ruby laser system,
comprising:
a ruby having atoms exhibiting a first
energy level cor-
responding to a ground
atomic state, a substantially
discrete second energy
level above said ground state
and third
energy levels defining a relatively
broad-
band absorption third region extending
above said
second level;

broadband optical pumping means
directly coupled to
said ruby for exciting
atoms of said ruby from said
first energy
level to said third energy levels from
which
radiationless energy transition of said
atoms
takes place to said second energy level
to establish
a population inversion between said
second energy
level and said ground state;
and
light-resonating means coupled to and
forming a re-
generative optical path
through said ruby to stimulate
radiant energy
transitions of said atoms from said
second
energy level toward said ground state
to pro-
duce a coherent monochromatic light
beam having a
frequency substantially
corresponding to the energy
difference between
said ground state and said second
energy
level.".17 (read entire patent?18 )

(more detail: is one side
half-silvered? what is entered into the
ruby? what is a flash lamp and how does
it work? What are the wavelengths of
the flash lamp? Are there other
materials that emit single wavelengths
of photons? Who invents the CO2
maser/laser? what other lasers exist?
What can lasers/masers cut through? How
small can these dangerous lasers be?
Ultimately the photons in electricity
are converted/distributed into densely
packed beams so an initial number of
photons needs to be high. Explain more
detail about how lasers work. Show
schematics. The maser was clearly a
major invention, and the adaption of
laser also important, as this is a new
kind of device with many valuable uses.
In addition, this creates the fastest
and most deadly hand-held weapon ever
built of earth (surpassing the
metal-bullet gun as a light particle is
faster than a lead projectile).19 )

(Might the regularly of the frequency
and direction have anything to do with
the regular atomic structure of
crystals? Bragg's law shows that light
particles clearly reflect off of atomic
crystal planes.20 )

(Describe how the laser principle is
different from fluorescence, and from
an LED.21 )

(Describe how lasers and masers are
made dense enough to cut through
materials - is frequency of laser/maser
important or is density/intensity more
important? Is size of device important?
Can there be hand-held, and dust-sized
lasers and masers?22 )

(Note that the Encyclopedia Britannica
mention of lasers for "delicate
surgery" conjures also the "gross and
undelicate murder".23 )

(Many scientists that publish fall into
two groups - those with numerous
publications and those with sparse
publications. Maimon is one with sparse
publicatinos. Many times, but not
always, those with numerous
publications are mathematical
theoreticians who publish a lot of
abstract theories - many if not all of
which are false and inaccurate. These
many-hundreds-of-published-papers
people many times are the "darlings" of
wealthy propagandists who pay them to
mislead the public - Gamow being one
that comes to mind. Alternatively, for
example there are those in chemistry
and biology who publish many new small
findings, which are valid and honest
science. Because of the neuron secret,
most astronomy and physics in
particular is mostly fraud or describes
inventions actually realized many
decades before.24 )

(It seems unlikely, as is the case for
Townes and the maser, that Maimon is
not the actual first inventor of the
laser. Was this published with AT&T's
approval or against AT&T's wishes?25 )

(Notice "ensue" - like perhaps there
was some law suit involved or
threatened lawsuit?26 )

(Perhaps there is some relationship
between the rate light particles can be
absorbed by atoms in the crystal and
the rate they can be emitted, or
perhaps this is a rate of reflection
phenomenon where many light particles
arrive at different frequencies but are
converted to regular frequencies by
reflection.27 )

(Notice "decayed" - perhaps echoing a
word in the thought-audio of JFK or a
hope for a science-dominated decade -
that was sadly cut short only 3 years
later - and eventually the traditional
antiscience secrecy, superstition and
violence returned.28 )

(Determine if these rubys are grown and
how they are manufactured.29 )

(Note that one design uses a
fluorescent gas light to stimulate the
ruby light.30 )

(Describe the different known lasers
and their inventors and uses.31 )

(Is the CO2 laser the most destructive
laser known? Is it a maser since it is
mostly infrared light?32 )

(So can it be said that the laser
frequency is one of a fluorescent
emission frequency of light?33 )

(State how the ruby's red appearance in
white light is a result of this
absorption of various frequencies and
reflection and/or emission of red
frequency light.34 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
2. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
3. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
4. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
5. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
6. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
7. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
8. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
9. ^ "Theodore H. Maiman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/358533/Theodore-H-Maiman>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.886.
12. ^ "Theodore H.
Maiman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/358533/Theodore-H-Maiman>.
13. ^ "laser." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/330874/laser>.
14. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A., Peregudov, G.
V., Ragozin, E. N., Sobslman, 1.1, and
Chirkov, V. A., "Concerning the
problem of lasers for the far
ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A", 1977, JETP
Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf}
15. ^ Hagelstein, P.L., "Review of
short wavelength lasers", Conference:
9. international conference on atomic
physics, Seattle, WA, USA, 23 Jul
1984 http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5780959 {H
agelstein_Peter_L_198407xx.pdf}
16. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
17. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Ted
Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Ted
Huntington.
30. ^ Ted Huntington.
31. ^ Ted Huntington.
32. ^ Ted
Huntington.
33. ^ Ted Huntington.
34. ^ Ted Huntington.
35. ^ T. H. Maiman,
"Optical and Microwave-Optical
Experiments in Ruby", Phys. Rev. Lett.
4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
36. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf} {04/22/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Martin (May 11,
2007). "Theodore Maiman, who built the
first laser, dies at 79". The New York
Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/13/world/
americas/13iht-obits.1.5685872.html
[2] T. H. MAIMAN, "Stimulated Optical
Radiation in Ruby", Nature 187, 493 -
494 (06 August 1960);
doi:10.1038/187493a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v187/n4736/abs/187493
a0.html
[3] T. H. Maiman, "Stimulated Optical
Emission in Fluorescent Solids. I.
Theoretical Considerations", Phys. Rev.
123, 1145–1150 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1145_1
[4] T. H. Maiman, R. H. Hoskins, I. J.
D'Haenens, C. K. Asawa, and V. Evtuhov,
"Stimulated Optical Emission in
Fluorescent Solids. II. Spectroscopy
and Stimulated Emission in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. 123, 1151–1157 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1151_1
[5] "List of laser types". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_las
er_types
(Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu,
California35  
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
40 YBN
[04/??/1960 AD] 9 		5073)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Herbert Dingle" (obituary), Q.
Jl R. astr. Soc. V21, 1980,
p333-338. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1980QJR
AS..21..333W&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pa
per=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf {Din
gle_Herbert_obituary_1980xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ H. Dingle, "Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal", Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 Di
ngle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
3. ^ H. Dingle "Special Theory of
Relativity", Nature 195, 985 - 986 (08
September
1962) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v195/n4845/abs/195985a0.html {Dingl
e_Herbert_19620908.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ H. Dingle,
"Relativity and Electromagnetism: An
Epistemological Appraisal", Philosophy
of Science, 27, p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 Di
ngle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ H. Dingle, "Relativity
and Electromagnetism: An
Epistemological Appraisal", Philosophy
of Science, 27, p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 Di
ngle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
9. ^ H. Dingle, "Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal", Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 Di
ngle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} {04/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] H Dingle, "Science at the
Crossroads", 1972
[2] Bok, B. J., "Education
in and History of Modern Astronomy",
Journal for the History of Astronomy,
Vol. 4,
p.208. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/JHA../0004//0000208.000.htm
l
[3] "Herbert Dingle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Din
gle
(University of London) London, England8
 
[1] Herbert Dingle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.relativ-kritisch.net/
forum/images/wiki/4/41/HerbertDingle.jpg

40 YBN
[06/29/1960 AD] 6 		5681)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. B. Woodward, W. A. Ayer, J. M.
Beaton, F. Bickelhaupt, R. Bonnett, P.
Buchschacher, G. L. Closs, H. Dutler,
J. Hannah, F. P. Hauck, S. Itô, A.
Langemann, E. Le Goff, W. Leimgruber,
W. Lwowski, J. Sauer, Z. Valenta, H.
Volz, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1960,
82 (14), pp 3800–3802 DOI:
10.1021/ja01499a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01499a093 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19600629.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
4. ^ R. B.
Woodward, W. A. Ayer, J. M. Beaton, F.
Bickelhaupt, R. Bonnett, P.
Buchschacher, G. L. Closs, H. Dutler,
J. Hannah, F. P. Hauck, S. Itô, A.
Langemann, E. Le Goff, W. Leimgruber,
W. Lwowski, J. Sauer, Z. Valenta, H.
Volz, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1960,
82 (14), pp 3800–3802 DOI:
10.1021/ja01499a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01499a093 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19600629.pdf}
5. ^ R. B. Woodward, W. A. Ayer, J. M.
Beaton, F. Bickelhaupt, R. Bonnett, P.
Buchschacher, G. L. Closs, H. Dutler,
J. Hannah, F. P. Hauck, S. Itô, A.
Langemann, E. Le Goff, W. Leimgruber,
W. Lwowski, J. Sauer, Z. Valenta, H.
Volz, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1960,
82 (14), pp 3800–3802 DOI:
10.1021/ja01499a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01499a093 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19600629.pdf}
6. ^ R. B. Woodward, W. A. Ayer, J. M.
Beaton, F. Bickelhaupt, R. Bonnett, P.
Buchschacher, G. L. Closs, H. Dutler,
J. Hannah, F. P. Hauck, S. Itô, A.
Langemann, E. Le Goff, W. Leimgruber,
W. Lwowski, J. Sauer, Z. Valenta, H.
Volz, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1960,
82 (14), pp 3800–3802 DOI:
10.1021/ja01499a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01499a093 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19600629.pdf} {06/29/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[2] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[3] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[4] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[5] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
[6] R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001
[7] "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
[8] Edmund C. Kornfeld, E. J.
Fornefeld, G. Bruce Kline, Marjorie J.
Mann, Reuben G. Jones, R. B. Woodward,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID
AND ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100
[9] R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava, W.
D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker, K.
Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088
[10] R. B. Woodward, F. E. Bader, H.
Bickel, A. J. Frey, R. W. Kierstead,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF RESERPINE", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78 (9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

40 YBN
[07/05/1960 AD] 9 		5775) In 1973, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided, one half jointly to
Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever "for their
experimental discoveries regarding
tunneling phenomena in semiconductors
and superconductors, respectively" and
the other half to Brian David Josephson
"for his theoretical predictions of the
properties of a supercurrent through a
tunnel barrier, in particular those
phenomena which are generally known as
the Josephson effects".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ivar Giaever, "Energy Gap in
Superconductors Measured by Electron
Tunneling", Phys. Rev. Lett. 5,
147–148 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v5/i4/
p147_1 {Giaever_Ivar_19600705.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.888.
3. ^ "Ivar Giaever."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 09 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/232900/Ivar-Giaever>.
4. ^ Ivar Giaever, "Energy Gap in
Superconductors Measured by Electron
Tunneling", Phys. Rev. Lett. 5,
147–148 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v5/i4/
p147_1 {Giaever_Ivar_19600705.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physics 1973". Nobelprize.org. 9 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1973/
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.888.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.888.
{07/05/1960}
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA8  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: Ivar
Giaever, ''Energy Gap in
Superconductors Measured by Electron
Tunneling'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 5,
147–148 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v5/i4/
p147_1 {Giaever_Ivar_19600705.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v5/i4/p147_1

[2] Ivar Giaever Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1973/giaever
_postcard.jpg
40 YBN
[08/12/1960 AD] 34 		5485) At Bell Telephone Laboratories,
Pierce develops a klystron-oscillator,
which is used in US radar receivers.23
24 25 The klystron-oscillator was
first publicly described by Russell and
Sigurd Varian in 1939.26 27

Pierce writes science fiction under the
pseudonym J. J. Coupling.28

In 1948 Arthur C. Clarke is the first
to propose the concept of satellites
orbiting the earth and acting as
reflectors for radio waves. Such
satellites make world-wide
communications as simple as a telephone
call.29

In 1948 Pierce coins the term
"transistor" to describe the new
solid-state device invented at Bell
Laboratories.30

(Clearly, being at AT&T Bell Labs,
Pierce must have been involved in the
development of flying dust-sized neuron
reader and writer devices. In one paper
Pierce states in the introduction that
he can't talk about most technology
because it is classified as government
secret information31 .32 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p533.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
3. ^ "John Robinson
Pierce." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459821/John-Robinson-Pierce>.
4. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegall
ery/image_feature_1738.html
5. ^ "Sputnik." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sputnik
6. ^ "Sputnik." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 14 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sputnik
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
8. ^ "John Robinson
Pierce." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459821/John-Robinson-Pierce>.
9. ^
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/
Dictionary/Echo/DI55.htm
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
11. ^ "John Robinson
Pierce." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459821/John-Robinson-Pierce>.
12. ^ "John Robinson Pierce."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459821/John-Robinson-Pierce>.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4308/ch6.htm
15. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1960-009A
16. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegall
ery/image_feature_1738.html
17. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4308/ch6.htm
18. ^ Pierce, J.R., Kompfner, R.,
"Transoceanic Communication by Means of
Satellites", Proceedings of the IRE,
March 1959, V47 Issue:3,
p372-380. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xp
ls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4065686&tag=1 {
Pierce_John_Robinson_19581120.pdf}
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted
Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Pierce , "Some recent
advances in microwave tubes",
Proceedings of the IRE, (1954) volume:
42 issue: 12 page:
1735. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4051596 {Pierce_Joh
n_Robinson_19540930.pdf}
24. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
25. ^ "John Robinson
Pierce." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459821/John-Robinson-Pierce>.
26. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
27. ^ Record ID5484.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
28. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
29. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
30. ^ "John
Robinson Pierce." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459821/John-Robinson-Pierce>.
31. ^ Pierce , "Some recent advances in
microwave tubes", Proceedings of the
IRE, (1954) volume: 42 issue: 12
page:
1735. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4051596 {Pierce_Joh
n_Robinson_19540930.pdf}
32. ^ Ted Huntington.
33. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4308/ch6.htm
34. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
{08/12/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Russell H. Varian and Sigurd
F. Varian, "A High Frequency Oscillator
and Amplifier", J. Appl. Phys. 10, 321
(1939); doi:10.1063/1.1707311
http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v
10/i5/p321_s1
[2] Video news reel of Echo
1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NO2Lkm
BDle4
(Launchpad 17) Cape Canaveral, Florida,
USA33  
[1] The Echo I satellite. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Echo/DI55G1.jpg

[2] Description John Robinson
Pierce.jpg English: John Robinson
Pierce, the former director of research
at AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Born in Des Moines, Iowa in 1910,
Pierce was the first to evaluate the
various technical options in satellite
communications and assess the financial
prospects. In 1952, he published an
article in Astounding Science Fiction
in which he discussed the potential
benefits of satellite communications.
Coined the term ''transistor'',
instrumental in the development of
Telstar 1, and wrote science fiction
under the nom de plume J.J. Coupling. A
few years later, Pierce greatly
assisted in the creation of the first
artificial communication satellite,
ECHO. Pierce died from pneumonia
complications on April 2, 2002 at the
age of 92. Date Unknown Source
Great Images in NASA
Description Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/John_Robinson_Pierce.
jpg
40 YBN
[09/01/1960 AD] 17 		5512) (It seems possible that around
the 1950s, there arose a clearly new
direction in science which I would
describe as a kind of "lose the public"
philosophy, and "who can create the
most complex and abstract paper?" -
like a transistion from the more
conservative philosophy where all
doubts must be thoroughly explored, and
all possible explanations examined - as
was the tradition for Rutherford, and
other scientists, for the most part -
this new view is more of - like an
"artistic" science, where scientists
are like Picasso - creating abstract
art which is labeled priceless purely
by the association of the creator to
the art, with no regard for accuracy,
or honesty. This is characteristic of
the radical and unlikely claims of
relativity which rose in the 1920s but
Einstein's large-scale US popularity
occured in the 1950s. I think you can
see a clear transition from careful and
conservative statements which must pass
the scrutiny of all other scientists,
to a kind of massive-funded
steam-engine thundering off into some
useless direction full of petrified
passangers too scared to tell the truth
to the conductor or owners, and this
smoke-screen serves as some kind of
aether-cloud to fool the public and
remove any element of logic from the
people of earth. Alvarez, et al papers,
I think, mark a clear begining of this
ultra-abstract, very hard to follow
paper. Clearly, there is an unending
string of inaccurate abstract
mathematical theoretical papers - those
of Clausius, Gibbs, Maxwell, etc., but
always the experimentalists tend to
stay on the conservative line, staying
close to the observed physical
phenomena. It may be that the neuron
network took on a different form after
WW2 - one of a more "rendered fake news
stories" fascism - like Stalin's
erasing the photos of Trotsky, and Life
publishing the altered Oswald photo.
It's like humans have reached this
stage where - even the journal
publishers themselves are corrupting
science and delaying truth from
reaching the public - and simply
producing loads of - what is mostly
garbage - all because of
direct-to-brain windows and the loss of
traditional controls on information -
except for the slave-like excluded who
fund their lives and journals - the
journals would otherwise be viewed as
videos direct-to-brain and would not be
so full of lies.15 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
2. ^ "Luis W.
Alvarez." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/18131/Luis-W-Alvarez>.
3. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
4. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
5. ^ "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html {Alvarez
_Luis_Nobel_Prize_Lecture_19681211.pdf}
6. ^ "resonance." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/499398/resonance>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
8. ^ Mauro Dardo,
"Nobel laureates and twentieth-century
physics",
p308-309. http://books.google.com/books
?id=UQ3_ZwdrUUwC&pg=PA308&dq=alvarez+res
onance&hl=en&ei=2riKTZXWIpOgsQOKlN2eCg&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ve
d=0CFQQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=alvarez%20reso
nance&f=false
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Margaret Alston, Luis
W. Alvarez, Philippe Eberhard, Myron L.
Good, William Graziano, Harold K.
Ticho, and Stanley G. Wojcicki, "K-
Interactions at 1.15 BeV/c in the 15
Inch Hydrogen Bubble Chamber",
Proceedings of the 1960 annual
International Conference on High Energy
Physics at Rochester. The University of
Rochester, Rochester, N.Y, University
of Rochester; distributed by
Interscience Publishers/Rochester N.Y..
^, 1960, p445-451.
{Alvarez_Luis_19600901.pdf}
17. ^ Margaret Alston, Luis W.
Alvarez, Philippe Eberhard, Myron L.
Good, William Graziano, Harold K.
Ticho, and Stanley G. Wojcicki, "K-
Interactions at 1.15 BeV/c in the 15
Inch Hydrogen Bubble Chamber",
Proceedings of the 1960 annual
International Conference on High Energy
Physics at Rochester. The University of
Rochester, Rochester, N.Y, University
of Rochester; distributed by
Interscience Publishers/Rochester N.Y..
^, 1960, p445-451.
{Alvarez_Luis_19600901.pdf}
{08/25/1960-09/01/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1968". Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
[2] Margaret Alston, Luis W. Alvarez,
Philippe Eberhard, Myron L. Good,
William Graziano, Harold K. Ticho, and
Stanley G. Wojcicki, "Resonance in the
Λπ System", Phys. Rev. Lett. 7, 472
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v5/i11/p520_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA16  
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

40 YBN
[09/09/1960 AD] 13 		5747) Glashow and Weinberg are
classmates at the Bronx high School of
Science and as undergraduates at
Cornell university.10

In 1979, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to Sheldon Lee Glashow,
Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg "for
their contributions to the theory of
the unified weak and electromagnetic
interaction between elementary
particles, including, inter alia, the
prediction of the weak neutral
current".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sheldon L. Glashow,
"Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f}
2. ^ "Sheldon Lee Glashow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/234857/Sheldon-Lee-Glashow>.
3. ^ Steven Weinberg, "A Model of
Leptons", Phys. Rev. Lett. 19,
1264–1266
(1967). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v19/i21/p1264_1 {Weinberg_Steven_19671
017.pdf}
4. ^ "Steven Weinberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639054/Steven-Weinberg>.
5. ^ A. Salam, J.C. Ward,
Electromagnetic and weak interactions,
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 2, 15
November 1964, Pages 168-171, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c) {Salam_Abdus_19640924.pdf}
6. ^ "Abdus Salam." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/518872/Abdus-Salam>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882,894-895.
8. ^ Sheldon L.
Glashow, "Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882,894-895.
11. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1979". Nobelprize.org.
2 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1979/
12. ^ Sheldon L. Glashow,
"Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f}
13. ^ Sheldon L. Glashow,
"Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f} {09/09/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "boson>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"boson." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 01 May. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
oson>
[2] Abdus Salam and J. C. Ward, "Gauge
Theory of Elementary Interactions",
Phys. Rev. 136, B763–B768
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v136/i3B/pB763_1
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark12  
[1] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg

[2] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg
40 YBN
[09/09/1960 AD] 19 		5748)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Steven Weinberg, "A Model of
Leptons", Phys. Rev. Lett. 19,
1264–1266
(1967). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v19/i21/p1264_1 {Weinberg_Steven_19671
017.pdf}
2. ^ "Steven Weinberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639054/Steven-Weinberg>.
3. ^ Sheldon L. Glashow,
"Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f}
4. ^ "Sheldon Lee Glashow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/234857/Sheldon-Lee-Glashow>.
5. ^ A. Salam, J.C. Ward,
Electromagnetic and weak interactions,
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 2, 15
November 1964, Pages 168-171, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c) {Salam_Abdus_19640924.pdf}
6. ^ "Abdus Salam." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/518872/Abdus-Salam>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882,894-895.
8. ^ Sheldon L.
Glashow, "Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f}
9. ^ "leptons>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"leptons." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 01 May. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eptons>.
10. ^ "hadrons>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"hadrons." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 01 May. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
adrons>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.882,894-895.
17. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1979". Nobelprize.org.
2 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1979/
18. ^ Sheldon L. Glashow,
"Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f}
19. ^ Sheldon L. Glashow,
"Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19600909.pd
f} {09/09/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "boson>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"boson." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 01 May. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
oson>.
[2] Abdus Salam and J. C. Ward, "Gauge
Theory of Elementary Interactions",
Phys. Rev. 136, B763–B768
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v136/i3B/pB763_1
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark18  
[1] Steven Weinberg Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/weinber
g_postcard.jpg

[2] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg
40 YBN
[09/15/1960 AD] 8 		5798)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Carl Sagan, "The Planet Venus",
Science, New Series, Vol. 133, No. 3456
(Mar. 24, 1961), pp.
849-858. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
06530 {Sagan_Carl_19610324.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.896-897.
3. ^ "Carl Sagan."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-sagan
4. ^ Carl Sagan, 'The Radiation Balance
of Venus", Technical Report No. 32-34C.
Calif. Inst. Technol. Jet Propulsion
Lab.
(09/15/1960). https://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.
gov/docushare/dsweb/Services/Document-16
71
and http://www.archive.org/details/nasa
_techdoc_19630039653 {Sagan_Carl_196009
15.pdf}
5. ^ Carl Sagan, "The Planet Venus",
Science, New Series, Vol. 133, No. 3456
(Mar. 24, 1961), pp.
849-858. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
06530 {Sagan_Carl_19610324.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Carl Sagan, 'The
Radiation Balance of Venus", Technical
Report No. 32-34C. Calif. Inst.
Technol. Jet Propulsion Lab.
(09/15/1960). https://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.
gov/docushare/dsweb/Services/Document-16
71
and http://www.archive.org/details/nasa
_techdoc_19630039653 {Sagan_Carl_196009
15.pdf}
8. ^ Carl Sagan, 'The Radiation Balance
of Venus", Technical Report No. 32-34C.
Calif. Inst. Technol. Jet Propulsion
Lab.
(09/15/1960). https://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.
gov/docushare/dsweb/Services/Document-16
71
and http://www.archive.org/details/nasa
_techdoc_19630039653 {Sagan_Carl_196009
15.pdf}
(Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology) Pasadena,
California7  
[1] Carl Sagan Description Carl Sagan
Planetary Society.JPG Part of
Image:Planetary society.jpg Original
caption: ''Founding of the Planetary
Society Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray and
Louis Friedman, the founders of The
Planetary Society at the time of
signing the papers formally
incorporating the organization. The
fourth person is Harry Ashmore, an
advisor, who greatly helped in the
founding of the Society. Ashmore was a
Pulitizer Prize winning journalist and
leader in the Civil Rights movement in
the 1960s and 70s.'' Date Source
Image:Planetary society.jpg
*
http://technology.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/i
ndex.cfm?page=imageDetail&ItemID=43&catI
d=9 *
http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/imag
es_videos/iv_pages/P22626ac.html also
here Author
NASA/JPL Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Carl_Sagan_Planetary_
Society.JPG

[2] Carl Sagan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.u
k/~garret/personal/carl.jpg
40 YBN
[09/16/1960 AD] 3 		5652)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. M. Goldenberg, D. Kleppner,
and N. F. Ramsey, "Atomic Hydrogen
Maser", Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 361 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v5/i8/
p361_1 {Ramsey_N_F_fig1_19600916.jpg}
2. ^ H. M. Goldenberg, D. Kleppner, and
N. F. Ramsey, "Atomic Hydrogen Maser",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 361 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v5/i8/
p361_1 {Ramsey_N_F_fig1_19600916.jpg}
3. ^ H. M. Goldenberg, D. Kleppner, and
N. F. Ramsey, "Atomic Hydrogen Maser",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 361 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v5/i8/
p361_1 {Ramsey_N_F_fig1_19600916.jpg}
{09/16/1960}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA2  		 
40 YBN
[09/??/1960 AD] 12 13 14 		5707) In 1978, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is awarded to Peter Mitchell
"for his contribution to the
understanding of biological energy
transfer through the formulation of the
chemiosmotic theory".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mitchell, P, in Biological
Structure and Function, First IUB/IUBS
Joint Symp., Stockholm, September 1960,
Biochem. J., 79, 23 P
(1961). http://www.biochemj.org/bj/079/
3/default.htm?S=0
2. ^ Peter Mitchell, "Coupling of
phosphorylation to electron and
hydrogen transfer by a chemi-osmotic
type of mechanism", Nature, (1961)
volume: 191 issue: 4784 page:
144. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v191/n4784/abs/191144a0.html {Mitche
ll_Peter_Dennis_19610708.pdf}
3. ^ "Peter Mitchell - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1978/mitchell-lecture.htm
l
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.874.
5. ^ "Peter Dennis
Mitchell." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/385967/Peter-Dennis-Mitchell>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.874.
7. ^ Mitchell, P, in
Biological Structure and Function,
First IUB/IUBS Joint Symp., Stockholm,
September 1960, Biochem. J., 79, 23 P
(1961). http://www.biochemj.org/bj/079/
3/default.htm?S=0
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1978".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1978/
11. ^ Mitchell, P, in Biological
Structure and Function, First IUB/IUBS
Joint Symp., Stockholm, September 1960,
Biochem. J., 79, 23 P
(1961). http://www.biochemj.org/bj/079/
3/default.htm?S=0
12. ^ Mitchell, P, in Biological
Structure and Function, First IUB/IUBS
Joint Symp., Stockholm, September 1960,
Biochem. J., 79, 23 P
(1961). http://www.biochemj.org/bj/079/
3/default.htm?S=0 {09/1960}
13. ^ Peter Mitchell,
"Coupling of phosphorylation to
electron and hydrogen transfer by a
chemi-osmotic type of mechanism",
Nature, (1961) volume: 191 issue:
4784 page:
144. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v191/n4784/abs/191144a0.html {Mitche
ll_Peter_Dennis_19610708.pdf} {09/1960}
14. ^
"Peter Mitchell - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1978/mitchell-lecture.htm
l {09/1960}
(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland, U.K.11  
[1] Description Peter Dennis
Mitchell (29 September 1920–10 April
1992), British biochemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/chemistry/laureates/1978/mitchell_p
ostcard.jpg Article Peter D.
Mitchell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cd/Peter_Dennis_Mitchell.jpg
40 YBN
[10/15/1960 AD] 4 		6090) The Miracles song "Shop Around"
(written by Smokey Robinson and Berry
Gordy) is released.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Shop Around". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shop_Around

2. ^ "Shop Around". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shop_Around

3. ^ "Hitsville USA". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitsville_U
SA
4. ^ "Shop Around". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shop_Around
 {released) 09/27/1960}
(Hitsville USA) Detroit, Michigan, USA2
3  		 
40 YBN
[10/24/1960 AD] 7 8 		5415)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Howard Rasmussen, Lyman C. Craig,
and With the technical assistance of
Gerty Hochster, "Isolation of a
Parathyroid Polypeptide from Acetic
Acid Extracts of Bovine Parathyroid
Glands", J. Biol. Chem. 1961 236:
1083-1086.
http://www.jbc.org/content/236/4/1083.
full.pdf+html?sid=92c6f70e-4102-4282-a63
c-826d6edfbc30
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p813.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ L. C. Craig, Otto Post,
"Apparatus for Countercurrent
Distribution", Anal. Chem., 1949, 21
(4), pp
500–504. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ac60028a013 {Craig_Lyman_194904
xx.pdf}
7. ^ Howard Rasmussen, Lyman C. Craig,
and With the technical assistance of
Gerty Hochster, "Isolation of a
Parathyroid Polypeptide from Acetic
Acid Extracts of Bovine Parathyroid
Glands", J. Biol. Chem. 1961 236:
1083-1086.
http://www.jbc.org/content/236/4/1083.
full.pdf+html?sid=92c6f70e-4102-4282-a63
c-826d6edfbc30 {10/24/1960}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p813. {1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lyman Creighton Craig." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lyman-creig
hton-craig
[2] Craig, "Counter-current
distribution.", Federation proceedings,
(1948) volume: 7 issue: 3 page: 469
-73.
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA6
 
[1] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg
40 YBN
[12/28/1960 AD] 22 		5705) Jacob is badly wounded serving
with the Free French forces in WW II,
and receives a 90% disability
pension.17

In 1965, the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is awarded jointly to
François Jacob, André Lwoff and
Jacques Monod "for their discoveries
concerning genetic control of enzyme
and virus synthesis".18

In 1970 Monod publishes "Chance and
Necessity" in which he insists that
chance is the architext of all
things.19 (Monod is probably atheist
then.20 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz,
C. & Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de
gènes à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
2. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
3. ^ "François Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
4. ^ "operon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429974/operon>.
5. ^ Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz,
C. & Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de
gènes à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
6. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.831,873.
8. ^ "François
Jacob." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
9. ^
http://www.nature.com/milestones/geneexp
ression/milestones/articles/milegene02.h
tml
10. ^ "operon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429974/operon>.
11. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic
regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis
of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356
(1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.831,873.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^
"François Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
15. ^ Molecular Cell Biology. 4th
edition. Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky
SL, et al. New York: W. H. Freeman;
2000. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books
/NBK21683/
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.831,873.
18. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965".
Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1965/
19. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.831,873.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^
Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic
regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis
of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356
(1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
22. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic
regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis
of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356
(1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} {12/28/1960
(verify - could be earlier in French
paper}
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France21
 
[1] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg

[2] Jacques Monod, b. 1910 d.
1976 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Monod.jpg
40 YBN
[12/30/1960 AD] 7 		5654)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett, Jr., and
D. R. Herriott, "Population Inversion
and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i3/p106_1 {Herriot_D_R_19601230.pdf
}
2. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
3. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett, Jr., and
D. R. Herriott, "Population Inversion
and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i3/p106_1 {Herriot_D_R_19601230.pdf
}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ A. Javan, W. R.
Bennett, Jr., and D. R. Herriott,
"Population Inversion and Continuous
Optical Maser Oscillation in a Gas
Discharge Containing a He-Ne Mixture",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 106
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i3/p106_1 {Herriot_D_R_19601230.pdf
}
7. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett, Jr., and
D. R. Herriott, "Population Inversion
and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i3/p106_1 {Herriot_D_R_19601230.pdf
} {12/30/1960}
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA6  
[1] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Herriot, et al.[t] Figure 4
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
40 YBN
[12/30/1960 AD] 7 		5769)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett, Jr., and
D. R. Herriott, "Population Inversion
and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106–110 (1961)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i3/
p106_1 {Herriott_D_R_19601230.pdf}
2. ^ William R. Bennett jr, Ali
Javan, "GAS OPTICAL MASER", Patent
number: 3149290, Filing date: Dec 28,
1960, Issue date: Sep 15,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=r
2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett, Jr., and
D. R. Herriott, "Population Inversion
and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106–110 (1961)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i3/
p106_1 {Herriott_D_R_19601230.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ A. Javan,
W. R. Bennett, Jr., and D. R. Herriott,
"Population Inversion and Continuous
Optical Maser Oscillation in a Gas
Discharge Containing a He-Ne Mixture",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 106–110 (1961)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i3/
p106_1 {Herriott_D_R_19601230.pdf}
7. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett,
Jr., and D. R. Herriott, "Population
Inversion and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106–110 (1961)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i3/
p106_1 {Herriott_D_R_19601230.pdf}
{12/30/1960}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/07/scienc
e/07bennett.html
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA6  
[1] Figure 1 from: William R. Bennett
jr, Ali Javan, ''GAS OPTICAL MASER'',
Patent number: 3149290, Filing date:
Dec 28, 1960, Issue date: Sep 15,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=r
2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=r2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] William R. Bennett jr
(verify) UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_IoU3bE
FUwWc/SHH6tjvzGpI/AAAAAAAACWs/MjwSujRgKG
w/s400/William%2BR.%2BBennett.jpeg
40 YBN
[12/??/1960 AD] 9 10 11 		5412)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p812-813.
2. ^ H.N. Hess,
History of ocean basins, Petrologic
Studies: A Volume to Honor A. F.
Buddington, Geol. Soc. Amer.
(1962). http://en.scientificcommons.org
/34150114
3. ^ "Hess, Harry Hammond." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 415-420. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905159&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p812-813.
5. ^ Dietz,
"Continent and ocean basin evolution by
spreading of the sea floor", Nature,
(1961) volume: 190 issue: 4779 page:
854. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v190/n4779/abs/190854a0.html
6. ^ H.N. Hess, History of ocean
basins, Petrologic Studies: A Volume to
Honor A. F. Buddington, Geol. Soc.
Amer.
(1962). http://en.scientificcommons.org
/34150114
7. ^ "Hess, Harry Hammond." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 415-420. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905159&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bohess.html
9. ^ "Hess, Harry Hammond." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 415-420. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905159&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/1960}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p812-813. {1962}
11. ^
H.N. Hess, History of ocean basins,
Petrologic Studies: A Volume to Honor
A. F. Buddington, Geol. Soc. Amer.
(1962). http://en.scientificcommons.org
/34150114

MORE INFO
[1] Harry Hammond Hess, "Drowned
ancient islands of the Pacific Basin",
American Journal of Science, Vol. 244,
November 1946, P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA8  
[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
40 YBN
[1960 AD] 9 		5685) In 1975, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is divided equally between
John Warcup Cornforth "for his work on
the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed
reactions" and Vladimir Prelog "for his
research into the stereochemistry of
organic molecules and reactions".7
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865.
2. ^ "John
Cornforth." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cornfo
rth
3. ^ "John Cornforth." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cornfo
rth
4. ^ POPJAK, G.; CORNFORTH, J. W.,
"The biosynthesis of cholesterol.",
Advances in Enzymology 1960 Vol. 22
pp.
281-335. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/book/10.1002/9780470122679
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.865.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1975".
Nobelprize.org. 16 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1975/index.html
8. ^ "Sir John Cornforth."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 16 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/138017/Sir-John-Warcup-Cornforth>.
9. ^ POPJAK, G.; CORNFORTH, J. W.,
"The biosynthesis of cholesterol.",
Advances in Enzymology 1960 Vol. 22
pp.
281-335. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/book/10.1002/9780470122679
{1960} {Cornforth_John_Warcup_1960xxxx.
pdf} {1960 (verify}
(National Institute for Medical
Research) Mill Hill, London, UK8  
[1] John Warcup Cornforth Nobel Prize
photo PD
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/cornf
orth_postcard.jpg
39 YBN
[02/13/1961 AD] 29 		5741)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Y. Ne'eman, "Derivation of strong
interactions from a gauge invariance",
Nuclear Physics, Volume 26, Issue 2,
August 1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf}
2. ^ Murray Gell-Mann, "The Eight-Fold
Way: A Theory of Strong Interaction
Symmetry", DOE Technical Report, March
15, 1961, CTSL-20;
TID-12608. http://www.osti.gov/energyci
tations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=40082
39 {Gell-Mann_Murray_19610120.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.881.
4. ^ "Yuval
Ne’eman." Britannica Book of the
Year, 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/407927/Yuval-Neeman>.
5. ^ "Murray Gell-Mann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 11 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227979/Murray-Gell-Mann>.
6. ^ M Gell-Mann, Y Ne'eman, "The
eightfold way", New York, NY :
Benjamin, 1964. - 328 p.
7. ^ "Murray
Gell-Mann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 11
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227979/Murray-Gell-Mann>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.881.
10. ^ "Baryons".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
aryons
11. ^ "Boson". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
oson
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "fermion".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
ermion
14. ^ Y. Ne'eman, "Derivation of strong
interactions from a gauge invariance",
Nuclear Physics, Volume 26, Issue 2,
August 1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Murray Gell-Mann, "The
Eight-Fold Way: A Theory of Strong
Interaction Symmetry", DOE Technical
Report, March 15, 1961, CTSL-20;
TID-12608. http://www.osti.gov/energyci
tations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=40082
39 {Gell-Mann_Murray_19610120.pdf}
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted
Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ Ted
Huntington.
26. ^ Ted Huntington.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Y. Ne'eman,
"Derivation of strong interactions from
a gauge invariance", Nuclear Physics,
Volume 26, Issue 2, August 1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf}
29. ^ Y. Ne'eman, "Derivation of strong
interactions from a gauge invariance",
Nuclear Physics, Volume 26, Issue 2,
August 1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf} {02/13/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "Yuval Neeman." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yuval-neema
n
(Imperial College) London, England28
and (California Institute of
Technology) Pasadena, California,
USA 
[1] Equations from: Y. Ne'eman,
''Derivation of strong interactions
from a gauge invariance'', Nuclear
Physics, Volume 26, Issue 2, August
1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc786
7581f4f1677804d7bb750951

[2] Description Yuval
Ne'eman Source
http://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/Sh
owPic_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=515 Da
te 17.09.2009 Author Israeli
Kneeset Permission (Reusing this
file) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/17/Neman_yuval.jpg
39 YBN
[04/12/1961 AD] 9 		5601)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
8. ^ "Google Maps - Vostok 1 Landing
Site - Monument".
http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s
_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=51.270682+N,+45.9972
7+E&sll=51.270689,45.997599&sspn=0.00329
6,0.00868&ie=UTF8&ll=51.270716,45.997385
&spn=0.003296,0.00868&t=k&z=17.
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A {04/12/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "Yury Alekseyevich Gagarin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223437/Yury-Alekseyevich-Gagarin>
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896
Saratovskaya oblast, Russia (was
U.S.S.R.)8  
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg


[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
39 YBN
[04/13/1961 AD] 5 		5560)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn
Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh, and Robert
M. Latimer, "New Element, Lawrencium,
Atomic Number 103", Phys. Rev. Lett. 6,
473–475 (1961).
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i9/
p473_1
2. ^ Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn
Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh, and Robert
M. Latimer, "New Element, Lawrencium,
Atomic Number 103", Phys. Rev. Lett. 6,
473–475 (1961).
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i9/
p473_1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843.
4. ^ Albert Ghiorso,
Torbjørn Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh,
and Robert M. Latimer, "New Element,
Lawrencium, Atomic Number 103", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 6, 473–475 (1961).
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i9/
p473_1
5. ^ Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn
Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh, and Robert
M. Latimer, "New Element, Lawrencium,
Atomic Number 103", Phys. Rev. Lett. 6,
473–475 (1961).
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i9/
p473_1 {04/13/1961}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA4  
[1] Lawrencium on the periodic
table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law
rencium
39 YBN
[05/19/1961 AD] 5 		5612)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-003A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-003A
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-003A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-003A {05/19/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] http://vsm.host.ru/
[2]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/chr
onology_venus.html
Planet Venus4  
[1] Venera 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/venera1_vsm.jpg

[2] Venera 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_1.jpg
39 YBN
[05/20/1961 AD] 19 		5673) In 1958 Kendrew founds the
"Journal of Molecular Biology".16

In 1962, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
is awarded jointly to Max Ferdinand
Perutz and John Cowdery Kendrew "for
their studies of the structures of
globular proteins".17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. C. KENDREW, H. C. WATSON, B.
E. STRANDBERG, R. E. DICKERSON, D. C.
PHILLIPS & V. C. SHORE, "A Partial
Determination by X-ray Methods, and its
Correlation with Chemical Data",
Nature, 20 May 1961 Vol 190 No 4777,
p666. doi:10.1038/190666a0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4777/ind
ex.html {Kendrew_John_Cowdery_19610520.
pdf}
2. ^ DRS. J. C. KENDREW, G. BODO, H. M.
DINTZIS, R. G. PARRISH and H. WYCKOFF,
"A three-dimensional model of the
myoglobin molecule obtained by x-ray
analysis", Nature 181, 662–666
(1958) http://www.nature.com/physics/lo
oking-back/kendrew/index.html {Kendrew_
John_Cowdery_19580308.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.863-864.
4. ^ Bernal, J. D. &
Crowfoot, D. Nature 133, 794–795
(1934).
5. ^
http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-ba
ck/kendrew/index.html
6. ^ Record ID5586. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-ba
ck/kendrew/index.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.863-864.
9. ^ "Sir John
Cowdery Kendrew." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314727/Sir-John-Cowdery-Kendrew>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.863-864.
11. ^ "hemoglobin",
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry.
Oxford University Press, 1997, 2000,
2006. Answers.com
http://www.answers.com/topic/hemoglobin
12. ^ DRS. J. C. KENDREW, G. BODO, H.
M. DINTZIS, R. G. PARRISH and H.
WYCKOFF, "A three-dimensional model of
the myoglobin molecule obtained by
x-ray analysis", Nature 181, 662–666
(1958) http://www.nature.com/physics/lo
oking-back/kendrew/index.html {Kendrew_
John_Cowdery_19580308.pdf}
13. ^ "John Kendrew." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-kendre
w
14. ^ J. C. KENDREW, H. C. WATSON, B.
E. STRANDBERG, R. E. DICKERSON, D. C.
PHILLIPS & V. C. SHORE, "A Partial
Determination by X-ray Methods, and its
Correlation with Chemical Data",
Nature, 20 May 1961 Vol 190 No 4777,
p666. doi:10.1038/190666a0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4777/ind
ex.html {Kendrew_John_Cowdery_19610520.
pdf}
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ K. C. Holmes,
"Obituary: John Cowdery Kendrew
(1917-97)", Nature 389, 340 (25
September 1997)
doi:10.1038/38633. http://www.nature.co
m/nature/journal/v389/n6649/full/389340a
0.html
17. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1962". Nobelprize.org. 14 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1962/
18. ^ J. C. KENDREW, H. C. WATSON, B.
E. STRANDBERG, R. E. DICKERSON, D. C.
PHILLIPS & V. C. SHORE, "A Partial
Determination by X-ray Methods, and its
Correlation with Chemical Data",
Nature, 20 May 1961 Vol 190 No 4777,
p666. doi:10.1038/190666a0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4777/ind
ex.html {Kendrew_John_Cowdery_19610520.
pdf}
19. ^ J. C. KENDREW, H. C. WATSON, B.
E. STRANDBERG, R. E. DICKERSON, D. C.
PHILLIPS & V. C. SHORE, "A Partial
Determination by X-ray Methods, and its
Correlation with Chemical Data",
Nature, 20 May 1961 Vol 190 No 4777,
p666. doi:10.1038/190666a0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4777/ind
ex.html {Kendrew_John_Cowdery_19610520.
pdf} {05/20/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] G. Bodo, H. M. Dintzis, J. C.
Kendrew and H. W. Wyckoff, "The Crystal
Structure of Myoglobin. V. A
Low-Resolution Three-Dimensional
Fourier Synthesis of Sperm-Whale
Myoglobin Crystals", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 253, No. 1272 (Nov. 17,
1959), pp.
70-102. http://www.jstor.org/stable/100
908
[2] John C. Kendrew, "The
Three-Dimensional Structure of a
Protein Molecule", Scientific American
205, 96 - 110 (1961),
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1261-96 h
ttp://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/
journal/v205/n6/pdf/scientificamerican12
61-96.pdf
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England (and the
Royal Instutition, London)18  
[1] Figure 2 from'': J. C. KENDREW, H.
C. WATSON, B. E. STRANDBERG, R. E.
DICKERSON, D. C. PHILLIPS & V. C.
SHORE, ''A Partial Determination by
X-ray Methods, and its Correlation with
Chemical Data'', Nature, 20 May 1961
Vol 190 No 4777,
p666. doi:10.1038/190666a0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4777/ind
ex.html {Kendrew_John_Cowdery_19610520.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v190/n4777/index.html

[2] John Cowdery Kendrew Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1962/kendr
ew_postcard.jpg
39 YBN
[07/??/1961 AD] 2 		6092) The song "Tossin' and Turnin"'
(written by Ritchie Adams and Malou
Rene, sung by Bobby Lewis) is
released.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tossin' and Turnin"'. Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tossin%27_a
nd_Turnin%27
2. ^ "1961 (released}". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tossin%27_a
nd_Turnin%27 {07/1961 (released}
  
39 YBN
[08/03/1961 AD] 12 		5765) In 1968 the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind
Khorana and Marshall W. Nirenberg "for
their interpretation of the genetic
code and its function in protein
synthesis".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf}
2. ^ Samuel H. Barondes and Marshal W.
Nirenberg, "Fate of a Synthetic
Polynucleotide Directing Cell-Free
Protein Synthesis I. Characteristics of
Degradation", Science, New Series, Vol.
138, No. 3542 (Nov. 16, 1962), pp.
810-813. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
09375 {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_19621116.pd
f}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.885.
4. ^ "Marshall Warren
Nirenberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/415902/Marshall-Warren-Nirenberg>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.885.
6. ^ Samuel H.
Barondes and Marshal W. Nirenberg,
"Fate of a Synthetic Polynucleotide
Directing Cell-Free Protein Synthesis
I. Characteristics of Degradation",
Science, New Series, Vol. 138, No. 3542
(Nov. 16, 1962), pp.
810-813. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
09375 {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_19621116.pd
f}
7. ^ Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 8 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
11. ^ Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf}
12. ^ Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf} {08/03/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] Matthaei, J. H., and M. W.
Nirenberg, "The dependence of cell-free
protein synthesis in image upon RNA
prepared from ribosomes", Biochemical
and Biophysical Research
Communications, 4, 404 (1961).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/B6WBK-4DXKBG4-BY/2/d38f90b32dc95a
88bda87758f55e7cdf
[2] Matthaei, J. H., and M. WV.
Nirenberg, Fed. Proc., 20, 391 (1961).
(National Institutes of Health)
Bethesda, Maryland, USA11  
[1] Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, ''The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides'', Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC223178/

[2] Marshall Warren Nirenberg Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/nirenberg.jpg

39 YBN
[09/??/1961 AD] 4 		6091) "Hit the Road Jack" (written by
Percy Mayfield) sung by Ray Charles.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hit the road jack". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_the_roa
d_jack
2. ^ "Hit the road jack". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_the_roa
d_jack
3. ^ "ABC Records". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_Records

4. ^ "Hit the road jack". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_the_roa
d_jack {09/1961}
New York City, New York, USA2 3
(guess) 		 
39 YBN
[10/16/1961 AD] 13 		5242)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hologram." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hologram
2. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Reconstructed Wavefronts
and Communication Theory", JOSA, Vol.
52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf}
3. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Wavefront Reconstruction
with Diffused Illumination and
Three-Dimensional Objects", JOSA, Vol.
54, Issue 11, pp.
1295-1301. http://www.opticsinfobase.or
g/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295 {Lei
th_Emmett_19640612.pdf}
4. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Reconstructed Wavefronts
and Communication Theory", JOSA, Vol.
52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf}
5. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Wavefront Reconstruction
with Diffused Illumination and
Three-Dimensional Objects", JOSA, Vol.
54, Issue 11, pp.
1295-1301. http://www.opticsinfobase.or
g/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295 {Lei
th_Emmett_19640612.pdf}
6. ^ "hologram." How Products are Made.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2002. Answers.com
03 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hologram
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Denisyuk, Yu. N.,
"Photographic Reconstruction of the
Optical Properties of an Object in Its
Own Scattered Radiation Field", Soviet
Physics Doklady, Vol. 7,
p.543. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
62SPhD....7..543D
9. ^ SA Benton, "Hologram
reconstructions with extended light
sources", Journal of the Optical
Society of America. B, Optical physics
0740-3224. ^ Benton (1969) volume:
59 page: 1545
10. ^ SA Benton, "On a method
for reducing the information content of
holograms", Journal of the Optical
Society of America. B, Optical physics
0740-3224. ^ Benton (1969) volume:
59 page: 1545
11. ^ "hologram." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 03 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hologram
12. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Reconstructed Wavefronts
and Communication Theory", JOSA, Vol.
52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf}
13. ^ EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Reconstructed Wavefronts
and Communication Theory", JOSA, Vol.
52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf} {10/16/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p774-775
[2] "Dennis Gabor -
Autobiography". Nobelprize.org. 3 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1971/gabor-autobio.html
[3] Dr. D. Gabor, "A New Microscopic
Principle", Nature 161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2
[4] "Dennis Gabor." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dennis-gabo
r
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA12  
[1] Figure 4 from: EMMETT N. LEITH and
JURIS UPATNIEKS, ''Reconstructed
Wavefronts and Communication Theory'',
JOSA, Vol. 52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123

[2] Figure 1 from: EMMETT N. LEITH
and JURIS UPATNIEKS, ''Wavefront
Reconstruction with Diffused
Illumination and Three-Dimensional
Objects'', JOSA, Vol. 54, Issue 11, pp.
1295-1301. http://www.opticsinfobase.or
g/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295 {Lei
th_Emmett_19640612.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295
39 YBN
[10/16/1961 AD] 2 		5718) In 1968, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind
Khorana and Marshall W. Nirenberg "for
their interpretation of the genetic
code and its function in protein
synthesis".
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jean Apgar, Robert W. Holley, and
Susan H. Merrill, "Purification of the
Alanine-, Valine-, Histidine-, and
Tyrosine-acceptor Ribonucleic Acids
from Yeast", March 1, 1962 The Journal
of Biological Chemistry, 237,
796-802.
http://www.jbc.org/content/237/3/796.f
ull.pdf+html {Holley_Robert_William_196
11016.pdf}
2. ^ Jean Apgar, Robert W. Holley, and
Susan H. Merrill, "Purification of the
Alanine-, Valine-, Histidine-, and
Tyrosine-acceptor Ribonucleic Acids
from Yeast", March 1, 1962 The Journal
of Biological Chemistry, 237,
796-802.
http://www.jbc.org/content/237/3/796.f
ull.pdf+html {Holley_Robert_William_196
11016.pdf} {10/16/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA1  
[1] ARS scientist Robert Holley won the
Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg
39 YBN
[12/30/1961 AD] 6 		5663)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT,
S. BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN,
"General Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
2. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
3. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE
BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, "General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins", Nature 192,
1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
6. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} {12/30/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England5  
[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
39 YBN
[1961 AD] 5 		3340)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Streamer Mechanism in
Filamentary Spark Breakdown in Argon by
Fast Photomultiplier Techniques", Phys.
Rev. 123, 43 - 50
(1961). {http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v1
23/i1/p43_1}
2. ^ R. T. Waters and R. E. Jones, "The
Impulse Breakdown Voltage and Time-Lag
Characteristics of Long Gaps in Air. I.
The Positive Discharge", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 256, No. 1069
(Apr. 9, 1964), pp.
185-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
319?seq=2 {Waters_Jones_Spark_Discharge
_73319.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Streamer Mechanism in
Filamentary Spark Breakdown in Argon by
Fast Photomultiplier Techniques", Phys.
Rev. 123, 43 - 50
(1961). {http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v1
23/i1/p43_1}
5. ^ "Streamer Mechanism in Filamentary
Spark Breakdown in Argon by Fast
Photomultiplier Techniques", Phys. Rev.
123, 43 - 50
(1961). {http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v1
23/i1/p43_1}

MORE INFO
[1] T. E. Allibone, "Development
of the Spark Discharge", Volume 161
Number 4103, (19 June 1948), p970.
{Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161970a0
.pdf}
(University of California, Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA4  		 
39 YBN
[1961 AD] 9 10 		5706)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JACOB, F.; WOLLMAN, E. L.,
"Sexuality and the genetics of
bacteria.", 1961 pp. xv + 374 pp.
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/196
21605699.html?freeview=true
{Wollman_Elie_L_1961xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ François Jacob, Nadine Peyrieras,
Michel Morange, "Travaux scientifiques
de François Jacob", Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.831,873.
4. ^ "François
Jacob." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
5. ^ JACOB, F.; WOLLMAN, E. L.,
"Sexuality and the genetics of
bacteria.", 1961 pp. xv + 374 pp.
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/196
21605699.html?freeview=true
{Wollman_Elie_L_1961xxxx.pdf}
6. ^ François Jacob, Nadine Peyrieras,
Michel Morange, "Travaux scientifiques
de François Jacob", Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ JACOB, F.; WOLLMAN, E.
L., "Sexuality and the genetics of
bacteria.", 1961 pp. xv + 374 pp.
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/196
21605699.html?freeview=true
{Wollman_Elie_L_1961xxxx.pdf}
9. ^ François Jacob, Nadine Peyrieras,
Michel Morange, "Travaux scientifiques
de François Jacob", Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e {1961}
10. ^ JACOB, F.; WOLLMAN, E. L.,
"Sexuality and the genetics of
bacteria.", 1961 pp. xv + 374 pp.
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/196
21605699.html?freeview=true {Wollman_El
ie_L_1961xxxx.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1965".
Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1965/
[2] Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz, C.
& Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de gènes
à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
[3] Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
[4]
http://www.nature.com/milestones/geneexp
ression/milestones/articles/milegene02.h
tml
[5] Molecular Cell Biology. 4th
edition. Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky
SL, et al. New York: W. H. Freeman;
2000. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books
/NBK21683/
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France8
 
[1] Figure 1 from: François Jacob,
Nadine Peyrieras, Michel Morange,
''Travaux scientifiques de François
Jacob'', Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se

[2] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg
39 YBN
[1961 AD] 6 		5788)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Drake equation." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 16 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.892.
3. ^
http://www.lifeinuniverse.org/Drakeequat
ion-07-02.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Drake equation."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 16 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion
6. ^ "Drake equation." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 16 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion {1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frank Drake." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-drake

[2] "Frank Donald Drake". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Donal
d_Drake
[3] "Drake equation." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 16 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion
(SETI conference) Green Bank, West
Virginia, USA5  
[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg
38 YBN
[01/05/1962 AD] 8 9 		5792)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. F. A. P. Miller, "Effect of
Neonatal Thymectomy on the
Immunological Responsiveness of the
Mouse", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 156, No. 964, A
Symposium on Biochemistry and Nutrition
(Sep. 18, 1962), pp.
415-428. http://www.jstor.org/stable/90
354
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.893.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.893.
4. ^ "Jacques
Miller." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 20 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-mil
ler
5. ^ J. F. A. P. Miller, "Effect of
Neonatal Thymectomy on the
Immunological Responsiveness of the
Mouse", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 156, No. 964, A
Symposium on Biochemistry and Nutrition
(Sep. 18, 1962), pp.
415-428. http://www.jstor.org/stable/90
354
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ J. F. A. P. Miller,
"Effect of Neonatal Thymectomy on the
Immunological Responsiveness of the
Mouse", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 156, No. 964, A
Symposium on Biochemistry and Nutrition
(Sep. 18, 1962), pp.
415-428. http://www.jstor.org/stable/90
354
8. ^ J. F. A. P. Miller, "Effect of
Neonatal Thymectomy on the
Immunological Responsiveness of the
Mouse", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 156, No. 964, A
Symposium on Biochemistry and Nutrition
(Sep. 18, 1962), pp.
415-428. http://www.jstor.org/stable/90
354 {01/05/1962}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.893. {1962}
(Chester Beatty Research Institute,
Institute of Cancer Research: Royal
Cancer Hospital) London, England7
 
[1] Thymus
gland http://training.seer.cancer.gov/m
odule_anatomy/unit8_2_lymph_compo4_thymu
s.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Illu_thymus.jpg

[2] Jacques Francis Albert Pierre
Miller 1966 (source) Born 2 Apr
1931 French-Australian physician who,
in 1962, demonstrated the importance of
the thymus gland in organizing the
immunity of animals. land is prominent
in young animals, but withers away in
adults. If the thymus gland is removed
at a sufficiently early stage, a young
animal is unable to develop antibody
resistance to foreign moelcules. Thus,
the thymus, located high in the chest,
is essential for the immune response.
This is because the thymus makes T
lymphocytes or T cells (T = thymus)
from the stem cells which migrate into
the organ from bone marrow. The thymus
could be regarded as the university of
the immune system - it is here that the
T cells learn to recognise foreign
antigens and to ignore the myriad
''self'' antigens present in the body's
own tissues. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill
er_Jacques/MillerJacquesThm.jpg
38 YBN
[01/??/1962 AD] 16 17 		5657)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. I. Pankove and M. Massoulie,
"Injection luminescence from GaAs."
Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., vol 7, p. 88;
January 1962.
{Massoulie_M_J_196201xx.pdf}
2. ^ J. I. Pankove, J. E. Berkeyheiser,
"A light source modulated at microwave
frequencies", Proc IRE, vol 50, pp.
1976-1977,
1962. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953 {Berkeyheis
er_J_E_19620602.pdf}
3. ^ Dupuis, R.; , "An introduction to
the development of the semiconductor
laser," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.23, no.6, pp. 651-
657, Jun 1987 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1987.1073450 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1073450&isnumber=23107
{Dupuis_Russell_198706xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
5. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ R. J. Keyes and T.M.
Quist, "Recombination Radiation Emitted
by Gallium Arsenide", Proc. IEEE (Inst.
Electron. Radio Engrs.), 50 (1962)
1822. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066929 {Quist_T_M_
19620525.pdf}
8. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
9. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
10. ^ J. I. Pankove and M. Massoulie,
"Injection luminescence from GaAs."
Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., vol 7, p. 88;
January 1962.
{Massoulie_M_J_196201xx.pdf}
11. ^ J. I. Pankove and M. Massoulie,
"Injection luminescence from GaAs."
Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., vol 7, p. 88;
January 1962.
{Massoulie_M_J_196201xx.pdf}
12. ^ J. I. Pankove, J. E.
Berkeyheiser, "A light source modulated
at microwave frequencies", Proc IRE,
vol 50, pp. 1976-1977,
1962. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953 {Berkeyheis
er_J_E_19620602.pdf}
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ J. I.
Pankove, J. E. Berkeyheiser, "A light
source modulated at microwave
frequencies", Proc IRE, vol 50, pp.
1976-1977,
1962. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953 {Berkeyheis
er_J_E_19620602.pdf}
16. ^ J. I. Pankove and M. Massoulie,
"Injection luminescence from GaAs."
Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., vol 7, p. 88;
January 1962.
{Massoulie_M_J_196201xx.pdf} {01/1962
}
17. ^ J. I. Pankove, J. E.
Berkeyheiser, "A light source modulated
at microwave frequencies", Proc IRE,
vol 50, pp. 1976-1977,
1962. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953 {Berkeyheis
er_J_E_19620602.pdf} {01/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] J. I. Pankove and M.
Massoulie. "Recombination Radiation in
a Gallium Arsenide P-N Junction," The
Electrochem. Soc., Electronics Div.
(Abstracts), vol. 11, pp. 71-75, Spring
Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif.; May 6-10,
1962
[2] J. R. Haynes and H. B. Briggs,
"Radiation produced in Germanium and
Silicon by Electron-Hole
Recombination.", Physical Review, vol
86, April-June 1952, p647.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v86/i
4/p637_1
[3] William E. Bradley, "Electronic
Cooling Device and Method For the
Fabrication Thereof", Patent number:
2898743, Filing date: Jul 23, 1956,
Issue date: Aug 11,
1959. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
HEcCAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Keyes, R.J.; Quist, T.M.,
"Radiation emitted by gallium arsenide
diodes", Electron Devices, IRE
Transactions, 1962, Volume: 9 , Issue:
6,
503. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/
srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1473258&qu
eryText%3Dkeyes+quist%26openedRefinement
s%3D*%26sortType%3Dasc_Publication+Year%
26searchField%3DSearch+All
(RCA Laboratories) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA15  
[1] Figures 1-3 from: [10] J. I.
Pankove, J. E. Berkeyheiser, ''A light
source modulated at microwave
frequencies'', Proc IRE, vol 50, pp.
1976-1977,
1962. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953 {Berkeyheis
er_J_E_19620602.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953

[2] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Hall, et al.[t] Figure 5
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
38 YBN
[03/27/1962 AD] 4 		6094) "Return to sender" (written by
Winfield Scott and Otis Blackwell, and
sung by Elvis Presley) is recorded.1

(The phrase "return to sender" also may
very smartly be resonate with the
meaning of "fire back the neuron
writing to the sender".2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Return to Sender (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_to_S
ender_%28song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Return to Sender
(song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_to_S
ender_%28song%29
4. ^ "Return to Sender (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_to_S
ender_%28song%29 {03/27/1962}
(Radio Recorders) Hollywood,
California, USA3  		 
38 YBN
[05/04/1962 AD] 12 13 		5796)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bartlett, N. (June 1962). "Xenon
hexafluoroplatinate (V) Xe+PtF6. ^−".
Proceedings of the Chemical Society
(London: Chemical Society) (6): 218.
doi:10.1039/PS9620000197. http://pubs.r
sc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1962/PS
/ps9620000197 {Bartlett_Neil_19620504.p
df}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.894..
3. ^ Bartlett, N.
(June 1962). "Xenon hexafluoroplatinate
(V) Xe+PtF6. ^−". Proceedings of the
Chemical Society (London: Chemical
Society) (6): 218.
doi:10.1039/PS9620000197. http://pubs.r
sc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1962/PS
/ps9620000197 {Bartlett_Neil_19620504.p
df}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.894..
5. ^
http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/
2008/08/12_bartlett.shtml
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.894..
7. ^ Bartlett, N.
(June 1962). "Xenon hexafluoroplatinate
(V) Xe+PtF6. ^−". Proceedings of the
Chemical Society (London: Chemical
Society) (6): 218.
doi:10.1039/PS9620000197. http://pubs.r
sc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1962/PS
/ps9620000197 {Bartlett_Neil_19620504.p
df}
8. ^ "Clathrate compound." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 21 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/clathrate-c
ompound
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Bartlett, N.
(June 1962). "Xenon hexafluoroplatinate
(V) Xe+PtF6. ^−". Proceedings of the
Chemical Society (London: Chemical
Society) (6): 218.
doi:10.1039/PS9620000197. http://pubs.r
sc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1962/PS
/ps9620000197 {Bartlett_Neil_19620504.p
df}
12. ^ Bartlett, N. (June 1962). "Xenon
hexafluoroplatinate (V) Xe+PtF6. ^−".
Proceedings of the Chemical Society
(London: Chemical Society) (6): 218.
doi:10.1039/PS9620000197. http://pubs.r
sc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1962/PS
/ps9620000197 {Bartlett_Neil_19620504.p
df} {05/04/1962}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.894.. {1962}
(University of British Columbia)
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada11
 
[1] Neil Bartlett UNKNOWN
source: http://berkeley.edu/news/media/r
eleases/2008/08/images/bartlett-neil.jpg

38 YBN
[06/08/1962 AD] 16 		5802) In 1973, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided, one half jointly to
Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever "for their
experimental discoveries regarding
tunneling phenomena in semiconductors
and superconductors, respectively" and
the other half to Brian David Josephson
"for his theoretical predictions of the
properties of a supercurrent through a
tunnel barrier, in particular those
phenomena which are generally known as
the Josephson effects".13

(I have a lot of doubts, but perhaps
this superposition of oscillating
currents is a real phenomenon. If based
on the Cooper electron-pairs theory, I
have doubts. The work seems highly
mathematical and theoretical - which is
usually too generalized and therefore
different from the many more particle
actual phenomena.14 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Brian David Josephson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brian-david
-josephson
2. ^ Josephson, B. D., "Possible new
effects in superconductive tunnelling",
Physics Letters, vol. 1, Issue 7,
pp.251-253. http://www.sciencedirect.co
m/science/article/pii/0031916362913690
{Josephson_Brian_David_19620608.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.898.
4. ^ "Brian David
Josephson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brian-david
-josephson
5. ^ "Brian David Josephson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brian-david
-josephson
6. ^ "Brian D. Josephson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/306448/Brian-D-Josephson>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.898.
8. ^ "Brian David
Josephson." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brian-david
-josephson
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1973". Nobelprize.org. 22 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1973/
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Josephson, B. D.,
"Possible new effects in
superconductive tunnelling", Physics
Letters, vol. 1, Issue 7,
pp.251-253. http://www.sciencedirect.co
m/science/article/pii/0031916362913690
{Josephson_Brian_David_19620608.pdf}
16. ^ Josephson, B. D., "Possible new
effects in superconductive tunnelling",
Physics Letters, vol. 1, Issue 7,
pp.251-253. http://www.sciencedirect.co
m/science/article/pii/0031916362913690
{Josephson_Brian_David_19620608.pdf}
{06/08/1962}
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England15  
[1] Brian David Josephson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1973/josephs
on_postcard.jpg
38 YBN
[06/16/1962 AD] 11 		5662)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf}
2. ^ "Maurice Wilkins - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 11 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1962/wilkins-lecture.html
 {Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_1962121
1.pdf}
3. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf}
4. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
5. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf}
6. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf}
7. ^ Record ID5519. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER,
M. H. F. WILKINS & G. L. BROWN,
"Determination of the Helical
Configuration of Ribonucleic Acid
Molecules by X-Ray Diffraction Study of
Crystalline Amino-Acid–transfer
Ribonucleic Acid", Nature 194, 1014 -
1020 (16 June 1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf}
11. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf} {06/16/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] "Maurice Wilkins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-wil
kins
[2] "Balantidium." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

[3] "Balantidium." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

[4] M. H. F. WILKINS, A. R. STOKES & H.
R. WILSON , "Molecular Structure of
Nucleic Acids: Molecular Structure of
Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids", Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
738. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171738a0.pdf
[Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_195304
02.pdf}
[5] ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN & R. G.
GOSLING, "Molecular Configuration in
Sodium Thymonucleate", Nature, (1953)
volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
740. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171740a0.pdf
[6] Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B.,
Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S.
Nat. Acai Sci., 39, 84 (1953).
[7] Furberg,
S., Acta Chem. Scand., 3, 634 (1952).
[8]
Chargaff, E., for references see
Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and
Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys.
Acta, 9,402 (1952).
[9] 4. Wyatt, G. R.,J. Gen.
Physiol, 36, 201 (1952).
[10] Astbury, W. T., Symp.
Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid, 66
(Camb. Univ. Press, 1947).
[11] Wilkins, M. H. F.,
and Randall, J. T, Biochim. et
Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953).
[12] "James
Dewey Watson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637603/James-Dewey-Watson>.
[13] J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf
[14]
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/19/scienc
e/19watson.html
(King's College) London, England10
 
[1] figure 7 from: M. SPENCER, W.
FULLER, M. H. F. WILKINS & G. L. BROWN,
''Determination of the Helical
Configuration of Ribonucleic Acid
Molecules by X-Ray Diffraction Study of
Crystalline Amino-Acid–transfer
Ribonucleic Acid'', Nature 194, 1014 -
1020 (16 June 1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v194/n4833/abs/1941014a0.html

[2] Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/wilkin
s_postcard.jpg
38 YBN
[06/30/1962 AD] 6 		5682)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. H. Conover, K. Butler, J. D.
Johnston, J. J. Korst, R. B. Woodward,
"The Total Synthesis of
6-Demethyl-6-Deoxytetracycline", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1962, 84 (16), pp
3222–3224 DOI:
10.1021/ja00875a063 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00875a063 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19620630.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
3. ^ L. H. Conover,
K. Butler, J. D. Johnston, J. J. Korst,
R. B. Woodward, "The Total Synthesis of
6-Demethyl-6-Deoxytetracycline", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1962, 84 (16), pp
3222–3224 DOI:
10.1021/ja00875a063 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00875a063 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19620630.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ L. H. Conover, K. Butler,
J. D. Johnston, J. J. Korst, R. B.
Woodward, "The Total Synthesis of
6-Demethyl-6-Deoxytetracycline", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1962, 84 (16), pp
3222–3224 DOI:
10.1021/ja00875a063 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00875a063 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19620630.pdf}
6. ^ L. H. Conover, K. Butler, J. D.
Johnston, J. J. Korst, R. B. Woodward,
"The Total Synthesis of
6-Demethyl-6-Deoxytetracycline", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1962, 84 (16), pp
3222–3224 DOI:
10.1021/ja00875a063 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00875a063 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19620630.pdf} {06/30/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. 15 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[2] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[3] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[4] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[5] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
[6] R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001
[7] "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
[8] Edmund C. Kornfeld, E. J.
Fornefeld, G. Bruce Kline, Marjorie J.
Mann, Reuben G. Jones, R. B. Woodward,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID
AND ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100
[9] R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava, W.
D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker, K.
Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088
[10] R. B. Woodward, F. E. Bader, H.
Bickel, A. J. Frey, R. W. Kierstead,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF RESERPINE", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78 (9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079
[11] R. B. Woodward, W. A. Ayer, J. M.
Beaton, F. Bickelhaupt, R. Bonnett, P.
Buchschacher, G. L. Closs, H. Dutler,
J. Hannah, F. P. Hauck, S. Itô, A.
Langemann, E. Le Goff, W. Leimgruber,
W. Lwowski, J. Sauer, Z. Valenta, H.
Volz, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1960,
82 (14), pp 3800–3802 DOI:
10.1021/ja01499a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01499a093
[12] William Moffitt, R. B. Woodward,
A. Moscowitz, W. Klyne, Carl Djerassi,
"Structure and the Optical Rotatory
Dispersion of Saturated Ketones", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1961, 83 (19), pp
4013–4018 DOI:
10.1021/ja01480a015 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01483a054
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and CHAS. PFIZER
AND CO., INC, Groton, Connecticut,
USA)5  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

38 YBN
[09/24/1962 AD] 14 		5656)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys
and Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission
From GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev.
Letters, 9 (1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
2. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
3. ^ Dupuis, R.; , "An introduction to
the development of the semiconductor
laser," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.23, no.6, pp. 651-
657, Jun 1987 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1987.1073450 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1073450&isnumber=23107
{Dupuis_Russell_198706xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
5. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
6. ^ R. J. Keyes and T.M. Quist,
"Recombination Radiation Emitted by
Gallium Arsenide", Proc. IEEE (Inst.
Electron. Radio Engrs.), 50 (1962)
1822. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066929 {Quist_T_M_
19620525.pdf}
7. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
8. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
9. ^ Record ID5655. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Hall, Fenner,
Kingsley, Soltys and Carlson, "Coherent
Light Emission From GaAs Junctions",
Phys. Rev. Letters, 9 (1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
14. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys
and Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission
From GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev.
Letters, 9 (1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
{09/24/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] J. I. Pankove and M.
Massoulie. "Recombination Radiation in
a Gallium Arsenide P-N Junction," The
Electrochem. Soc., Electronics Div.
(Abstracts), vol. 11, pp. 71-75, Spring
Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif.; May 6-10,
1962.
[2] J. R. Haynes and H. B. Briggs,
"Radiation produced in Germanium and
Silicon by Electron-Hole
Recombination.", Physical Review, vol
86, April-June 1952, p647.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v86/i
4/p637_1
[3] William E. Bradley, "Electronic
Cooling Device and Method For the
Fabrication Thereof", Patent number:
2898743, Filing date: Jul 23, 1956,
Issue date: Aug 11,
1959. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
HEcCAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Keyes, R.J.; Quist, T.M.,
"Radiation emitted by gallium arsenide
diodes", Electron Devices, IRE
Transactions, 1962, Volume: 9 , Issue:
6,
503. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/
srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1473258&qu
eryText%3Dkeyes+quist%26openedRefinement
s%3D*%26sortType%3Dasc_Publication+Year%
26searchField%3DSearch+All
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA13  
[1] Figure 2 from: Hall, Fenner,
Kingsley, Soltys and Carlson,
''Coherent Light Emission From GaAs
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v9/i9/p366_1

[2] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Hall, et al.[t] Figure 5
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
38 YBN
[09/??/1962 AD] 4 		6093) "Green Onions" is written and
recorded by Booker T. & the M.G.s.1

(Since this song is simply 1-4-5 blues,
the thrill is probably the new sounding
hammond electric organ and the new
sounding electric guitar - in
particular with a more
distorted/rougher sounded.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Green Onions". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Onion
s
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Green Onions".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Onion
s
4. ^ "Green Onions". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Onion
s {09/1962 (released}
Memphis, Tennessee, USA3   
38 YBN
[10/12/1962 AD] 12 		5376) Bruno Benedetto Rossi (CE
1905-1994) Italian-US physicist, at MIT
and Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky
and Frank Paolini from the American
Science and Engineering in Cambridge,
Massachusetts publish the first report
of x-ray sources from outside the solar
system, 67 years after x-rays were
first made public by Rontgen in 1895.2
3 4

Less than 3 years earlier, Rossi and
Giacconi had published a report about
the first publicly known x-ray
telescope, but this x-ray astronomy is
done using a rocket and Geiger
detectors.5 6

In a letter "Evidence for X Rays from
Sources Outside the Solar System", in
the journal "Physical Review", Rossi et
al write:
" Data from an Aerobee rocket
carrying a payload consisting of three
large area Geiger counters have
revealed a considerable flux of
radiation in the night sky that has
been identified as consisting of soft c
rays.
The entrance aperture of each Geiger
counter consisted of seven individual
mica windows comprising 20 cm2 of area
placed into one face of the counter.
Two of the counters had windows of
about 0.2-mil mica, and one counter had
windows of 1.0-mil mica. The
sensitivity of these detectors for x
rays was etween 2 and 8 A, falling
sharply at the extremes due to the
transmission of the filling gas and the
opacity of the windows, respectively.
The mica was coated with lamp-black to
prevent ultraviolet light transmission.
The three detectors were disposed
symmetrically around the longitudinal
axis of the rocket, the normal to each
detector making an angle of 55° to
that axis. Thus, during flight, the
normal to the detectors swept through
the sky, at a rate determined by the
rotation of the rocket, forming a cone
of 55° with respect to the
longitudinal axis. no mechanical
collimation was used to limit the field
of view of the detectors. Also included
in the payload was an optical aspect
system similar to the one developed by
Kupperian and Kreplin. The axes of the
optical sensors were normal to the
longitudinal axis of the rocket. Each
Geiger counter was placed in a well
formed by an anticoincidence
scintillation counter designed to
reduce the cosmic-ray background. The
experiment was intended to study
fluorescence x rays produced on the
lunar surface by x rays from the sun
and to explore the night sky for other
possible sources. On the basis of the
known flux of solar x rays, we had
estimated a flux from the moon of about
0.1 to 1 photon cm-2sec-1 in the region
of sensitivity of the counter.
The
rocket launching took place at the
White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico,
at 2359 MST on June 18, 1962. The moon
was one day past full and was in the
sky about 20° east of south and 35°
above the horizon. The rocket reached a
maximum altitude of 225 km and was
above 80 km for a total of 350 seconds.
The vehicle traveled almost due north
for a distance of 120 km. Two of the
Geiger counters functioned properly
during the flight; the third counter
apparently arced sporadically and was
disregarded in the analysis. The
optical aspect system functioned
correctly. The rocket was spinning at
2.0 rps around the longitudinal axis.
From the optical sensor data it is
known that the spin axis of the rocket
did not deviate from the vertical by
more than 3°; for purposes of
analysis, the spin axis is taken as
pointing to zenith. The angle of
rotation of the rocket corresponds with
the azimuth ...
...
From Fig. 2 we see
that the main apparent source is in the
vicinity of the galactic center at the
G. T. azimuthal angle of about 195°.
We also see that the trace of the G.T.
axis lies close to the galactic equator
for a value of the azimuthal angle neat
40°, which is the region where the
background radiation is recorded with
greater intensity. This apparent
maximum of the background radiation is
the general region of the sky where two
peculiar objects-Cassiopeia A and
Cygnus A- are located. It is perhaps
significant that both the center of the
galaxy where the main apparent source
of x rays lies, and the region of
Cassiopeia A and Cygnus A where there
appears to be a secondary x-ray source,
are also regions of strong radio
emission. ...
With this one experiment it
is impossible to complete define the
nature and origin of the radiation we
have observed. Even though the
statistical precision of the
measurement is high, the numerical
values for the derived quantities and
angle are subject to large variation
depending on the choice of
assumptions., However, we believe that
the data can best be explained by
indentifying the bulk of the radiation
as soft x rays from sources outside the
solar system. Syncrotron radiation by
cosmic electrons is a possible
mechanism for the production of these
x-rays. Ordinary stellar sources could
also contribute a considerable fraction
of the observed radiation.
...".7

(Determine if the moon reflects x-ray
light from the Sun. Perhaps some is
absorbed by atoms on the moon, but it
seems likely that, like visible light,
much is reflected.8 )

(Note that the paper is received in
October.9 )

(Note that a rocket is used to detect
x-rays but not the x-ray telescope
proposed by Rossi 2 years earlier.10 )
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo
Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, and Frank R.
Paolini, "Evidence for x Rays From
Sources Outside the Solar System",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p804-805.
3. ^ "Bruno Rossi." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bruno-rossi

4. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo Giacconi,
Herbert Gursky, and Frank R. Paolini,
"Evidence for x Rays From Sources
Outside the Solar System", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
5. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO ROSSI,
"A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf}
6. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo Giacconi,
Herbert Gursky, and Frank R. Paolini,
"Evidence for x Rays From Sources
Outside the Solar System", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
7. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo Giacconi,
Herbert Gursky, and Frank R. Paolini,
"Evidence for x Rays From Sources
Outside the Solar System", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Bruno
B. Rossi, Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert
Gursky, and Frank R. Paolini, "Evidence
for x Rays From Sources Outside the
Solar System", Phys. Rev. Lett. 9,
439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
12. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo
Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, and Frank R.
Paolini, "Evidence for x Rays From
Sources Outside the Solar System",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f} {10/12/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] Bruno Rossi, "On the Magnetic
Deflection of Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev.
36, 606
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v36/i3/p606_1
[2] Bruno Rossi, "Directional
Measurements on the Cosmic Rays Near
the Geomagnetic Equator", Phys. Rev.
45, 212
(1934). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v45/i3/p212_1
[3] Bruno Rossi, "Absorptionsmessungen
der durchdringenden
Korpuskularstrahlung in einem Meter
Blei", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20,
Number 4, 65, DOI:
10.1007/BF01503771. http://www.springer
link.com/content/qww043l2h7811222/ "Abs
orption measurements of particle
radiation penetrating in a meter of
lead."
[4] Clark, George W. "Rossi, Bruno
Benedetto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 280-285.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906055&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] G. Shearer, "The X-ray Microscope",
British Journal of Radiology, (1936),
9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA11  
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
38 YBN
[10/26/1962 AD] 9 		6201) Laser writing and reading of
data. Data is written and read from
plastic film.6 Reading data with light
particles is better than reading data
mechanically, like using the arm of a
phonograph player, because only light
particles touch the recorded surface.7

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
2. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
9. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ {10/26/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] Carl H. Becker, "LASER
RECORDER WITH VAPORIZABLE FILM", Patent
number: 3314073, Filing date: Oct 20,
1964, Issue date: Apr 11,
1967. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT3314073
[2] Joseph T. Mcnaney, "SYSTEM FOR
EFFECTING TRANSFER OF CATHODE RAY TUBE
DISPLAYS ONTO A RECORD MEDIUM", Patent
number: 2898176, Filing date: Aug 26,
1957, Issue date: Aug 4,
1959 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
DsCAAAAEBAJ
[3] David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
[4] Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
[5] Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical Disk
Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No.
4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
862-868. Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
(Winston Research Corporation) Los
Angeles, California, USA8  
[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
38 YBN
[10/26/1962 AD] 2 		6212) Elvis Presley records "Riding the
Rainbow".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.secondhandsongs.com/performan
ce/176837
2. ^
http://www.secondhandsongs.com/performan
ce/176837 {10/26/1962}
  
38 YBN
[11/??/1962 AD] 7 		5666)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Friedman, H., "Ultraviolet and X
Rays from the Sun", Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html {Friedman_Herbert_196211xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
3. ^ "Herbert
Friedman." Dictionary of Astronomy,
John Wiley . Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
4. ^ Gursky, H., "Obituary: Herbert
Friedman, 1916-2000", Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, vol. 32,
no. 4, p.
1665-1666. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/2000BAAS...32.1665G
5. ^ Friedman, H., "Ultraviolet and X
Rays from the Sun", Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html {Friedman_Herbert_196211xx.pdf}
6. ^ Friedman, H., "Ultraviolet and X
Rays from the Sun", Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html {Friedman_Herbert_196211xx.pdf}
7. ^ Friedman, H., "Ultraviolet and X
Rays from the Sun", Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html {Friedman_Herbert_196211xx.pdf}
{11/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] "Herbert Friedman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
[2] H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E.
T. Byram, "Photon Counter Measurements
of Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light", Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1
[3] Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA6  
[1] Figure 2 from: Friedman, H.,
''Ultraviolet and X Rays from the
Sun'', Annual Review of Astronomy and
Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html {Friedman_Herbert_196211xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.0
00.html

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 6 		3981)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^ Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf}
2. ^ R. Williams, "Electro-Optical
Elements Utilizing an Organic Nematic
Compound,” U.S. Patent 3 322 485,
filed Nov. 9, 1962, issued May 30, 1967
3. ^
R. Williams, “Domains in liquid
crystals,” J. Phys. Chem., vol. 39,
pp. 382–388, July 1963.
4. ^ George H.
Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An
experiment in interdisciplinary
research that worked", vol 23, Num 7,
July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
5. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/RC
A_Laboratories_at_Princeton,_New_Jersey
6. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^ Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf} {1962}
RCA Labs4 , Princeton, New Jersey, USA5
 
[1] William domains in p-azoxyanisole
liquid crystal. from J. Phys Chem,
July 1963 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE [0018-9219] Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf}

[2] Richard Williams COPYRIGHTED
INTERNET
source: http://www.cedmagic.com/mem/whos
-who/williams-richard.jpg
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 7 8 9 		5171)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Huckle Weller." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weller-thom
as-huckle
2. ^ T. Weller, "Rubella Virus.", Br
Med J. 1962 Dec 22;2(5320):1666-1667.
3. ^ "Thomas H. Weller
- Biography". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/weller-bio.html
4. ^
http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a1779
.full
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a1779
.full
7. ^ T. Weller, "Rubella Virus.", Br
Med J. 1962 Dec 22;2(5320):1666-1667.
8. ^ "Thomas H. Weller
- Biography". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/weller-bio.html
{1962}
9. ^ "Thomas Huckle Weller." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weller-thom
as-huckle {1948}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p754-755,854-855,
861-862.
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1954". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1954/
[3] WELLER TH, ENDERS JF., "Production
of hemagglutinin by mumps and influenza
A viruses in suspended cell tissue
cultures.", Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1948
Oct;69(1):124-8.
[4] "John Franklin Enders." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-frankl
in-enders
[5] WELLER TH, ROBBINS FC, ENDERS JF.,
"Cultivation of poliomyelitis virus in
cultures of human foreskin and
embryonic tissues.", Proc Soc Exp Biol
Med. 1949
Oct;72(1):153-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/15391699
[6] John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller,
and Frederick C. Robbins, "Cultivation
of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis
Virus in Cultures of Various Human
Embryonic Tissues", Science 28 January
1949: 85-87.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/109/
2822/85.full.pdf
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1676381

[7] ENDERS JF, PEEBLES TC.,
"Propagation in tissue cultures of
cytopathogenic agents from patients
with measles.", Proc Soc Exp Biol Med.
1954 Jun;86(2):277-86.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 5 6 		5328)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis S.B. Leakey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
2. ^ LSB Leakey, "A new lower Pliocene
fossil primate from Kenya", Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist, 1962.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ LSB Leakey, "A
new lower Pliocene fossil primate from
Kenya", Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, 1962.
5. ^
"Louis S.B. Leakey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>. {1962}
6. ^ LSB
Leakey, "A new lower Pliocene fossil
primate from Kenya", Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist, 1962.

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794
[2] LSB Leakey,
"Skull of Proconsul from Rusinga
Island", Nature 162, 688-688 (30
October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
[3] "Louis Leakey." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-leake
y
[4] Leakey, "A New Fossil Skull From
Olduvai", Nature (1959) volume: 184
issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article
Fort Ternan, Kenya, Africa4  
[1] Figure 1 from: Leakey, ''A New
Fossil Skull From Olduvai'', Nature
(1959) volume: 184 issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article {Leakey_Louis_19590815.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/openurl?vo
lume=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=
4685&genre=article

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 9 		5490)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cousteau.org/technology/consh
elf
2. ^ "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140955/Jacques-Yves-Cousteau>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834-835.
4. ^ "Jacques-Yves
Cousteau." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 14
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140955/Jacques-Yves-Cousteau>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834-835.
6. ^
http://www.cousteau.org/technology/consh
elf
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
http://www.cousteau.org/technology/consh
elf
9. ^
http://www.cousteau.org/technology/consh
elf {1962}

MORE INFO
[1] "aqualung." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aqualung-en
gineering
[2] Emile Gagnon, Jacques Yves
Cousteau, "Compressed Gas Container
With Reducing Valve and Auxillary
Opening Means Therefor", Patent number:
2598248, Filing date: Dec 11, 1946,
Issue date: May 27, 1952. Filing Date
in France
12/15/1945. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepag
e&q&f=false
[3] "SELF-PROPELLED SUBMERSIBLE
VESSEL", Patent number: 3103195, Filing
date: Jul 12, 1960, Issue date: Sep 10,
1963. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-yve
s-cousteau
[5] "Continental Shelf Station Two".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental
_Shelf_Station_Two
(off coast of) Marseilles, France8
 
[1] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://blog.sellsiusrealestate.c
om/wp-content/conshelf2.jpg

[2] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
556/3470838604_a4cfb0e0eb.jpg
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 9 10 		5794)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. Bachvaroff, M. Yomtov, T. K.
Nikolov, Ann. Repts. Res. Inst.
Epidemiol. Microbiol., Sofia, Bulgaria
(1962).
2. ^ Radoslav Bachvaroff and Philip R.
B. McMaster, "Separation of Microsomal
RNA into Five Bands during Agar
Electrophoresis", Science, New Series,
Vol. 143, No. 3611 (Mar. 13, 1964), pp.
1177-1179 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
712683 {Bachvaroff_Radoslav_19640114.pd
f}
3. ^ Radoslav Bachvaroff and Philip R.
B. McMaster, "Separation of Microsomal
RNA into Five Bands during Agar
Electrophoresis", Science, New Series,
Vol. 143, No. 3611 (Mar. 13, 1964), pp.
1177-1179 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
712683 {Bachvaroff_Radoslav_19640114.pd
f}
4. ^ U. E. Loening, "The fractionation
of high-molecular-weight ribonucleic
acid by polyacrylamide-gel
electrophoresis", Biochem J. 1967
January; 102(1): 251–257.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1270235/
5. ^ Andrew C. Peacock, C. Wesley
Dingman, "Resolution of Multiple
Ribonucleic Acid Species by
Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis",
Biochemistry, 1967, 6 (6), pp
1818–1827 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/bi00858a033
6. ^ J. M. ADAMS, P. G. N. JEPPESEN, F.
SANGER & B. G. BARRELL, "Nucleotide
Sequence from the Coat Protein Cistron
of R17 Bacteriophage RNA", Nature 223,
1009 - 1014 (06 September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ R. Bachvaroff, M. Yomtov,
T. K. Nikolov, Ann. Repts. Res. Inst.
Epidemiol. Microbiol., Sofia, Bulgaria
(1962).
9. ^ R. Bachvaroff, M. Yomtov, T. K.
Nikolov, Ann. Repts. Res. Inst.
Epidemiol. Microbiol., Sofia, Bulgaria
(1962).
10. ^ Radoslav Bachvaroff and Philip R.
B. McMaster, "Separation of Microsomal
RNA into Five Bands during Agar
Electrophoresis", Science, New Series,
Vol. 143, No. 3611 (Mar. 13, 1964), pp.
1177-1179 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
712683 {Bachvaroff_Radoslav_19640114.pd
f} {1962}

MORE INFO
[1] R. Tsanev, "Direct
spectrophotometric analysis of
ribonucleic acid fractionation by
agar-gel electrophoresis", Biochimica
et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Nucleic
Acids and Protein Synthesis Volume
103, Issue 3, 15 July 1965, Pages
374-382
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/B73G8-47T82YF-DG/2/eed4f6fcd72833
158f23e7ec1f40d9c5
(Biochemical Research Laboratory,
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) Sofia,
Bulgaria8 (verify) 
[1] NOTE: this is not from 1962 paper
but from 1964 paper.[t] Figure 1
from; Radoslav Bachvaroff and Philip
R. B. McMaster, ''Separation of
Microsomal RNA into Five Bands during
Agar Electrophoresis'', Science, New
Series, Vol. 143, No. 3611 (Mar. 13,
1964), pp.
1177-1179 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
712683 {Bachvaroff_Radoslav_19640114.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1712
683
37 YBN
[02/25/1963 AD] 8 		5249)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p776.
2. ^ "Ragnar Granit."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ragnar-gran
it
3. ^ R. GRANIT, D. KERNELL AND G. K.
SHORTESS, "QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF
REPETITIVE FIRING OF MAMMALIAN
MOTONEURONES, CAUSED BY INJECTED
CURRENTS", J. Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/ {Granit_Ragnar_1
9630225.pdf}
4. ^ R. GRANIT, D. KERNELL AND G. K.
SHORTESS, "QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF
REPETITIVE FIRING OF MAMMALIAN
MOTONEURONES, CAUSED BY INJECTED
CURRENTS", J. Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/ {Granit_Ragnar_1
9630225.pdf}
5. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T. (1955).
"Response of single motoneurons to
direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ R. GRANIT, D. KERNELL AND
G. K. SHORTESS, "QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS
OF REPETITIVE FIRING OF MAMMALIAN
MOTONEURONES, CAUSED BY INJECTED
CURRENTS", J. Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/ {Granit_Ragnar_1
9630225.pdf}
8. ^ R. GRANIT, D. KERNELL AND G. K.
SHORTESS, "QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF
REPETITIVE FIRING OF MAMMALIAN
MOTONEURONES, CAUSED BY INJECTED
CURRENTS", J. Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/ {Granit_Ragnar_1
9630225.pdf} {02/25/1963}

MORE INFO
[1] Granit R., "The components of
the retinal action potential in mammals
and their relation to the discharge in
the optic nerve.", J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long
[2] R. Granit, Sensory Mechanisms of
the Retina (1947)
[3] R. Granit, "The Visual
Pathway" (1962)
[4] Colour receptors of the
frog's retina
[5] RAGNAR GRANIT, "The Spectral
Properties of the Visual Receptors of
the Cat", Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 5, Issue 2-3,
pages 219–229, April
1943. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1943.tb02050.x/abs
tract
[6] RAGNAR GRANIT AND P. O. THERMAN.,
"EXCITATION AND INHIBITION IN THE
RETINA AND IN THE OPTIC NERVE.", J
Physiol, 1935, p359
[7] RAGNAR GRANIT, A.
MUNSTERHJELM AND M. ZEWI, "THE RELATION
BETWEEN CONCENTRATION OF VISUAL PURPLE
AND RETINAL SENSITIVITY TO LIGHT DURING
DARK ADAPTATION", J. Physiol. (1939)
96, 31-44
[8] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine 1967". Nobelprize.org. 5
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
[9] R Granit, "Principles and technique
of the electrophysiological analysis of
colour reception with the aid of
microelectrodes", Upsala
läkareförenings förhandlingar :
Acta societatis medicorum Upsaliensis.
1 45, 161-177, 1939
[10] ARAKI T, OTANI T,
FURUKAWA T., "The electrical activities
of single motoneurones in toad's spinal
cord, recorded with intracellular
electrodes.", Japan J Physiol. 1953 Dec
15;3(4):254-67.
(The Caroline Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden7  
[1] Figure 1 from: R. GRANIT, D.
KERNELL AND G. K. SHORTESS,
''QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF REPETITIVE
FIRING OF MAMMALIAN MOTONEURONES,
CAUSED BY INJECTED CURRENTS'', J.
Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/ {Granit_Ragnar_1
9630225.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1359475/

[2] Description Ragnar Arthur
Granit (October 30, 1900 – March 12,
1991), Finnish/Swedish
neuroscientist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/medicine/laureates/1967/granit_post
card.jpg Article Ragnar
Granit Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes Purpose of use
It is only being used to
illustrate the article in
question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/63/Ragnar_Granit.jpg
37 YBN
[03/04/1963 AD] 21 		5750)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Matthews, T. A. & Sandage, A. R.,
"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c
196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf}
2. ^ "Allan Rex Sandage." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/522020/Allan-Rex-Sandage>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882.
4. ^ "Allan Rex
Sandage." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 02
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/522020/Allan-Rex-Sandage>.
5. ^ Burbidge, E. M., "Quasi-Stellar
Objects", Annual Review of Astronomy
and Astrophysics, vol. 5, p.399,
1967ARA&A...5..399B http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1967ARA&A...5..399B
6. ^ "quasar." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 May.
2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/q
uasar>.
7. ^ "quasar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/486494/quasar>.
8. ^ Reynolds, "Extra-galactic nebulæ
(Council report on the progress of
astronomy)", Monthly notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, (1938)
volume: 98 page: 334
9. ^ "In Science
Fields", The Science News-Letter, Vol.
85, No. 19 (May 9, 1964), pp.
296-297. Published by: Society for
Science & the
Public http://www.jstor.org/stable/3947
095 {Gold_Louis_Quasars_19640509.pdf}
10. ^ Matthews, T. A. & Sandage, A. R.,
"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c
196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ Matthews, T. A. & Sandage, A. R.,
"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c
196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf}
21. ^ Matthews, T. A. & Sandage, A. R.,
"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c
196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf} {03/04/1963}

MORE INFO
[1] "Allan Rex Sandage." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/allan-rex-s
andage
(Wilson and Palomar Observatories,
Carnegie institute of Washington and
California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA20  
[1] Figure 2 from: Matthews, T. A. &
Sandage, A. R., ''Optical
Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c
286 with Stellar Objects.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
963ApJ...138...30M

[2] Allan Rex Sandage UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/sandage/sandage.jpg
37 YBN
[03/16/1963 AD] 14 		5785)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schmidt, "3C 273: a star-like
object with large red-shift", Nature,
(1963) volume: 197 issue: 1040 page:
1900 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v197/n4872/index.html and
http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-
back/schmidt/index.html
{Schmidt_Maarten_19630316.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.890-891.
3. ^ "Maarten
Schmidt." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 15
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527780/Maarten-Schmidt>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.890-891.
5. ^ Schmidt, "3C
273: a star-like object with large
red-shift", Nature, (1963) volume: 197
issue: 1040 page:
1900 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v197/n4872/index.html and
http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-
back/schmidt/index.html
{Schmidt_Maarten_19630316.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Schmidt, "3C 273: a star-like
object with large red-shift", Nature,
(1963) volume: 197 issue: 1040 page:
1900 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v197/n4872/index.html and
http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-
back/schmidt/index.html
{Schmidt_Maarten_19630316.pdf}
14. ^ Schmidt, "3C 273: a star-like
object with large red-shift", Nature,
(1963) volume: 197 issue: 1040 page:
1900 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v197/n4872/index.html and
http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-
back/schmidt/index.html
{Schmidt_Maarten_19630316.pdf}
{03/16/1963}

MORE INFO
[1] Greenstein, J. L. & Schmidt,
M., "The Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources 3c
48 and 3c 273.", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 140,
p.1 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/
/full/1964ApJ...140....1G/0000004I001.ht
ml
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California13  
[1] Figure 1 from: Greenstein, J. L. &
Schmidt, M., ''The Quasi-Stellar Radio
Sources 3c 48 and 3c 273.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 140,
p.1 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/
/full/1964ApJ...140....1G/0000004I001.ht
ml {Schmidt_Maarten_19640701.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1964ApJ...140....1G/0000004I001
.html

[2] Maarten Schmidt by TIME Magazine.
Size 8.00 X 10.00 Art Poster
Print UNKNOWN
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/61DF8Ecn3UL._SL500_AA300_.jpg
37 YBN
[04/26/1963 AD] 23 		5736) In 1979, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Allan M. Cormack and Godfrey
N. Hounsfield "for the development of
computer assisted tomography".21
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "positron emission tomography
(PET)." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 29
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/471932/positron-emission-tomography>.
2. ^ A. M. Cormack, "Representation of
a Function by Its Line Integrals, with
Some Radiological Applications", J.
Appl. Phys. 34, 2722 (1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.880.
4. ^ "Allan MacLeod
Cormack." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 29
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/137722/Allan-MacLeod-Cormack>.
5. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated Flying
Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
6. ^ "computed tomography (CT)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 29 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/130695/computed-tomography>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.880.
8. ^ A. M. Cormack,
"Representation of a Function by Its
Line Integrals, with Some Radiological
Applications", J. Appl. Phys. 34, 2722
(1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Allan MacLeod Cormack."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/allan-mcleo
d-cormack
11. ^ A. M. Cormack, "Representation of
a Function by Its Line Integrals, with
Some Radiological Applications", J.
Appl. Phys. 34, 2722 (1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1979". Nobelprize.org. 30 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1979/
22. ^ A. M. Cormack, "Representation of
a Function by Its Line Integrals, with
Some Radiological Applications", J.
Appl. Phys. 34, 2722 (1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
23. ^ A. M. Cormack, "Representation of
a Function by Its Line Integrals, with
Some Radiological Applications", J.
Appl. Phys. 34, 2722 (1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
{04/26/1963}

MORE INFO
[1] A. M. Cormack,
"Representation of a Function by Its
Line Integrals, with Some Radiological
Applications. II", J. Appl. Phys. 35,
2908 (1964);
doi:10.1063/1.1713127. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v35/i10/p2908_s1
[2] A M Cormack "Reconstruction of
densities from their projections, with
applications in radiological physics",
Phys. Med. Biol. 18 195 (1973) doi:
10.1088/0031-9155/18/2/003 http://iopsc
ience.iop.org/0031-9155/18/2/003
(Tufts University) Medford,
Massachusetts, USA22  
[1] Figure 1 from: A. M. Cormack,
''Representation of a Function by Its
Line Integrals, with Some Radiological
Applications'', J. Appl. Phys. 34, 2722
(1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/ja
piau/v34/i9/p2722_s1

[2] Allan MacLeod Cormack UNKNOWN
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/41N9IM6vX7L.jpg
37 YBN
[06/16/1963 AD] 4 		5602)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Article?anchor=toc9071753".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/587896/Valentina-Tereshkova/587896main
/Article?anchor=toc9071753
2. ^ "Article?anchor=toc9071753".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/587896/Valentina-Tereshkova/587896main
/Article?anchor=toc9071753
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1963-023A
4. ^ "Article?anchor=toc9071753".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/587896/Valentina-Tereshkova/587896main
/Article?anchor=toc9071753 {06/16/1963}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)3  
[1] English: 1963 Soviet Union 10
kopeks stamp. Valentina
Tereshkova. Русский:
Марка, Советский
Союз, 10 копеек, 1963.
Валентина
Терешкова. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Soviet_Union-1963-Sta
mp-0.10._Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg
37 YBN
[07/01/1963 AD] 3 		6109) The Beatles record "She Loves
You".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "She Loves You". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She_Loves_Y
ou
2. ^ "She Loves You". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She_Loves_Y
ou
3. ^ "She Loves You". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She_Loves_Y
ou {07/01/1963}
(EMI Studios) London, England2   
37 YBN
[07/20/1963 AD] 17 		5730)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ CYRIL PONNAMPERUMA, CARL SAGAN,
RUTH MARINER, "Synthesis of Adenosine
Triphosphate Under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions", Nature 199, 222-226
(20 July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.879.
3. ^ WALTER SULLIVAN,
"Cyril Ponnamperuma, Scholar Of Life's
Origins, Is Dead at 71", New York
Times, December 24,
1994. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/12/24
/obituaries/cyril-ponnamperuma-scholar-o
f-life-s-origins-is-dead-at-71.html
4. ^ "Carl Sagan." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-sagan
5. ^ Stanley L. Miller, "A Production
of Amino Acids under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions", Science, New Series,
Vol. 117, No. 3046 (May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
}
6. ^ Record ID5789. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.879.
8. ^ CYRIL
PONNAMPERUMA, CARL SAGAN, RUTH MARINER,
"Synthesis of Adenosine Triphosphate
Under Possible Primitive Earth
Conditions", Nature 199, 222-226 (20
July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ CYRIL PONNAMPERUMA,
CARL SAGAN, RUTH MARINER, "Synthesis of
Adenosine Triphosphate Under Possible
Primitive Earth Conditions", Nature
199, 222-226 (20 July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f}
17. ^ CYRIL PONNAMPERUMA, CARL SAGAN,
RUTH MARINER, "Synthesis of Adenosine
Triphosphate Under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions", Nature 199, 222-226
(20 July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f} {11/20/1963} {07/20/1963}
(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett
Field, California, USA and (Stanford
University) Palo Alto, California,
USA16  
[1] CYRIL PONNAMPERUMA, CARL SAGAN,
RUTH MARINER, ''Synthesis of Adenosine
Triphosphate Under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions'', Nature 199,
222-226 (20 July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v199/n4890/pdf/199222a0.pdf

[2] Description Cyril Ponnamperuma
analyzing a moon sample.jpg Dr.
Cyril Ponnamperuma analyzing a moon
sample - Principal investigator for the
chemical studies is Dr. Cyril
Ponnamperuma, Chief of the Ames
Chemical Evolution Branch at
NASA. Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/im
ages/content/76422main_A-42526-79F.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cyril_Ponnamperuma_an
alyzing_a_moon_sample.jpg
37 YBN
[08/05/1963 AD] 6 		5609)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nuclear Test Ban Treaty." West's
Encyclopedia of American Law. The Gale
Group, Inc, 1998. Answers.com 02 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-tes
t-ban-treaty
2. ^
http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-His
tory/Nuclear-Test-Ban-Treaty.aspx
3. ^
http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/tre
aties/ltbt1.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-His
tory/Nuclear-Test-Ban-Treaty.aspx
6. ^
http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-His
tory/Nuclear-Test-Ban-Treaty.aspx
{08/05/1963}
Moscow, (Soviet Union) Russia5  
[1] KN-C30095 07 October 1963 President
Kennedy signs the Limited Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty. L-R: William Hopkins, Sen.
Mike Mansfield, John J. McCloy, Adrian
S. Fisher, Sen. John Pastore, W.
Averell Harriman, Sen. George Smathers,
Sen. J.W. Fulbright, Sec. of State Dean
Rusk, Sen. George Aiken, President
Kennedy, Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey, Sen.
Everett Dirksen, William C. Foster,
Sen. Howard W. Cannon, Sen. Leverett
Saltonstall, Sen. Thomas H. Kuchel,
Vice President Johnson. White House,
Treaty Room. Photograph by Robert
Knudsen, White House, in the John F.
Kennedy Presidential Library and
Museum, Boston. Date: October 07,
1963 Creator: Photograph by Robert
Knudsen, White House, in the John F.
Kennedy Presidential Library and
Museum, Boston. Copyright: Public
Domain PD
source: http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/medi
a/assets/Education%20and%20Public%20Prog
rams/Education/For%20Teachers%20Manual%2
0Upload/JFKSignsTestBanTreaty.jpg
37 YBN
[10/17/1963 AD] 3 		6108) The Beatles record "I Want to
Hold Your Hand".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I Want To Hold Your Hand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_To_H
old_Your_Hand
2. ^ "I Want To Hold Your Hand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_To_H
old_Your_Hand
3. ^ "I Want To Hold Your Hand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_To_H
old_Your_Hand {10/17/1963}
(EMI Studios) London, England2   
37 YBN
[12/??/1963 AD] 8 9 10 		5694)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H Klostermeyer, D Brandenburg, T
Okuda, H Zahn "Synthese der
Insulinketten und ihre Kombination zu
insulinaktiven Präparaten", Zeitung
Naturforschung,
1963. English: "Synthesis of insulin
chains and their combination with
insulin-active preparations"
2. ^ Katsoyannis,
"Synthesis of Insulin", Science 23
December 1966:
1509-1514.DOI:10.1126/science.154.3756.1
509
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/154/
3756/1509.citation
3. ^ Markus Leyck Dieken, Matthias
Federwisch, Pierre De Meyts, Axel
Wollmer, "Insulin & related proteins:
structure to function and
pharmacology", Springer, 2002, p2.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ula72
_FSwy8C&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=1964+sanger+sy
nthesis+insulin&source=bl&ots=CtJ5ro2Vk7
&sig=Dd1MzIoeEk4lsytRUubPAZUavy4&hl=en&e
i=-ZqqTfmBC4KssAPWmtn5DA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=1964%20sanger%20synthesis%20
insulin&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Markus Leyck
Dieken, Matthias Federwisch, Pierre De
Meyts, Axel Wollmer, "Insulin & related
proteins: structure to function and
pharmacology", Springer,
2002 http://books.google.com/books?id=U
la72_FSwy8C&pg=PR9&lpg=PR9&dq=helmut+zah
n+aachen+insulin&source=bl&ots=CtJ5ro4Wm
a&sig=WheTiATFH3OQpfotDhuNduxkROc&hl=en&
ei=Q6OqTZStJJS-sAOQ9-T5DA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCcQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=helmut%20zahn%20aache
n%20insulin&f=false
7. ^ Goro, Fritz (1964-05-08). "First
Man-made Protein in History". Life (New
York, NY: Time, Inc.) 56 (19): 47. May
8,
1964. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lkEEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA47&vq=insulin&pg=PA47
#v=onepage&q=insulin&f=false.
8. ^"Synthese von Insulin",
http://www.deutsches-museum.de/fileadmin
/Content/Bonn/PDFs/Prismentexte/Synthese
_von_Insulin.pdf {12/1963}
9. ^ H Klostermeyer, D
Brandenburg, T Okuda, H Zahn "Synthese
der Insulinketten und ihre Kombination
zu insulinaktiven Präparaten", Zeitung
Naturforschung,
1963. English: "Synthesis of insulin
chains and their combination with
insulin-active preparations"
10. ^ Markus Leyck
Dieken, Matthias Federwisch, Pierre De
Meyts, Axel Wollmer, "Insulin & related
proteins: structure to function and
pharmacology", Springer, 2002, p2.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ula72
_FSwy8C&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=1964+sanger+sy
nthesis+insulin&source=bl&ots=CtJ5ro2Vk7
&sig=Dd1MzIoeEk4lsytRUubPAZUavy4&hl=en&e
i=-ZqqTfmBC4KssAPWmtn5DA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=1964%20sanger%20synthesis%20
insulin&f=false {1963}
(Deutsches Wollforschungsinstitut -
German Wool Research Institute) Aachen,
Germany6 and (University of
Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
USA7  
[1] Image from: ''First Man-made
Protein in History'', Life, May 8,
1964. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lkEEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA47&vq=insulin&pg=PA47
&hl=en#v=onepage&q=insulin&f=false COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lkEEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA47&vq=insulin&pg=PA4
7&hl=en#v=onepage&q=insulin&f=false
36 YBN
[01/04/1964 AD] 10 		5780)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Gell-Mann, "A Schematic model
of baryons and mesons", Phys. Lett. 8,
214
(1964) http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6X44-4DN98GM-1
4&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F1964&_
rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=g
ateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=
C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_use
rid=4422&md5=3b6e77b3826f6d8c9beb921a587
4d7d6&searchtype=a {Gell-Mann_Murray_19
640104.pdf}
2. ^ "Murray Gell-Mann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 11 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227979/Murray-Gell-Mann>.
3. ^ Frithjof Karsch, Werner Vogelsang,
"Strong Interaction", "Encyclopedia of
Applied Physics",
2009 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/3527600434.eap478.pub2/abstract
 {Vogelsang_Werner_200909xx.pdf}
4. ^ Frithjof Karsch, Werner Vogelsang,
"Strong Interaction", "Encyclopedia of
Applied Physics",
2009 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/3527600434.eap478.pub2/abstract
 {Vogelsang_Werner_200909xx.pdf}
5. ^ M. Gell-Mann, "A Schematic model
of baryons and mesons", Phys. Lett. 8,
214
(1964) http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6X44-4DN98GM-1
4&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F1964&_
rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=g
ateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=
C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_use
rid=4422&md5=3b6e77b3826f6d8c9beb921a587
4d7d6&searchtype=a {Gell-Mann_Murray_19
640104.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ M.
Gell-Mann, "A Schematic model of
baryons and mesons", Phys. Lett. 8, 214
(1964) http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6X44-4DN98GM-1
4&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F1964&_
rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=g
ateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=
C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_use
rid=4422&md5=3b6e77b3826f6d8c9beb921a587
4d7d6&searchtype=a {Gell-Mann_Murray_19
640104.pdf}
10. ^ M. Gell-Mann, "A Schematic model
of baryons and mesons", Phys. Lett. 8,
214
(1964) http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6X44-4DN98GM-1
4&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F1964&_
rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=g
ateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=
C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_use
rid=4422&md5=3b6e77b3826f6d8c9beb921a587
4d7d6&searchtype=a {Gell-Mann_Murray_19
640104.pdf} {01/04/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889-890.
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Physics 1969". Nobelprize.org. 11
May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1969/
[3] M. Gell-Mann, "Isotopic Spin and
New Unstable Particles", Phys. Rev. 92,
833
(1953) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v92/i3/p833_1
[4] M. Gell-Mann, "Symmetry and
Currents in Particle Physics", Nobel
Lecture 1969.
[5] H. Fritzsch, M. Gell-Mann
and H. Leutwyler, "Advantages of the
color octet gluon picture", Phys.
Lett. B 47, 365
(1973). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TVN-46YSK10-
29&_user=4422&_coverDate=11%2F26%2F1973&
_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=
gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct
=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_us
erid=4422&md5=277e217dab755a3add2baf785d
7c3d61&searchtype=a
[6] Murray Gell-Mann, "Quarks", Acta
Phys. Austriaca, Suppl. 9 (1972)
pp.733-761 11th Internationale
Universitatswochen fur Kernphysik,
Schladming, Austria, 21 Feb - 4 Mar
1972,
pp.733-61 http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/
388694/
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California9  
[1] Murray Gell-Mann Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1969/gell-mann.jpg
36 YBN
[02/11/1964 AD] 7 		5784)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ V. E. Barnes et al., "Observation
of a Hyperon with Strangeness Minus
Three", Phys. Rev. Lett. 12, 204–206
(1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v12/i8
/p204_1 {V_E_Barnes_19640211.pdf}
2. ^ Y. Ne'eman, "Derivation of strong
interactions from a gauge invariance",
Nuclear Physics, Volume 26, Issue 2,
August 1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf}
3. ^ Murray Gell-Mann, "The Eight-Fold
Way: A Theory of Strong Interaction
Symmetry", DOE Technical Report, March
15, 1961, CTSL-20;
TID-12608. http://www.osti.gov/energyci
tations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=40082
39 {Gell-Mann_Murray_19610120.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p545.
5. ^ Record ID5741. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ V. E. Barnes
et al., "Observation of a Hyperon with
Strangeness Minus Three", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 12, 204–206 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v12/i8
/p204_1 {V_E_Barnes_19640211.pdf}
7. ^ V. E. Barnes et al., "Observation
of a Hyperon with Strangeness Minus
Three", Phys. Rev. Lett. 12, 204–206
(1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v12/i8
/p204_1 {V_E_Barnes_19640211.pdf}
{02/11/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] P. M. Dauber, W. E. Slater,
L. T. Smith, D. H. Stork, and H. K.
Ticho, 'Properties of the 960-MeV
Boson", Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 449–454
(1964). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v13/i14/p449_1
(Brookhaven National Laboratory) Upton,
New York, USA6  
[1] V. E. Barnes et al., ''Observation
of a Hyperon with Strangeness Minus
Three'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 12,
204–206 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v12/i8
/p204_1 {V_E_Barnes_19640211.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v12/i8/p204_1
36 YBN
[02/26/1964 AD] 6 		5437)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul K. Brown and George Wald,
"Visual Pigments in Single Rods and
Cones of the Human Retina", Science,
New Series, Vol. 144, No. 3614 (Apr. 3,
1964), pp.
45-46+51-52. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1713534 {Wald_George_19640226.pdf}
2. ^ Kenney, Diana E. "Wald, George."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 25. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 211-216. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906189&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p819.
4. ^ Paul K. Brown
and George Wald, "Visual Pigments in
Single Rods and Cones of the Human
Retina", Science, New Series, Vol. 144,
No. 3614 (Apr. 3, 1964), pp.
45-46+51-52. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1713534 {Wald_George_19640226.pdf}
5. ^ Paul K. Brown and George Wald,
"Visual Pigments in Single Rods and
Cones of the Human Retina", Science,
New Series, Vol. 144, No. 3614 (Apr. 3,
1964), pp.
45-46+51-52. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1713534 {Wald_George_19640226.pdf}
6. ^ Paul K. Brown and George Wald,
"Visual Pigments in Single Rods and
Cones of the Human Retina", Science,
New Series, Vol. 144, No. 3614 (Apr. 3,
1964), pp.
45-46+51-52. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1713534 {Wald_George_19640226.pdf}
{02/26/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1967".
Nobelprize.org. 2 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
[2] GEORGE WALD , "Vitamin A in the
Retina", Nature 132, 316-317 (26 August
1933)
doi:10.1038/132316a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v132/n3330/abs/132316
a0.html
[3] "George Wald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-wald

[4] G. Wald, "Carotenoids and the
visual cycle", The Journal of general
physiology, (1935) volume: 19 issue:
2 page:
351. http://jgp.rupress.org/content/19/
2/351.full
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Paul K. Brown and George Wald,
''Visual Pigments in Single Rods and
Cones of the Human Retina'', Science,
New Series, Vol. 144, No. 3614 (Apr. 3,
1964), pp.
45-46+51-52. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1713534 {Wald_George_19640226.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1713
534

[2] George Wald Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laskerfoundation.org/
awards/images/1953_basic_wald.jpg
36 YBN
[04/04/1964 AD] 6 7 		5330)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leakey, "A new species of the
genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge", Nature,
(1964), v202, issue:4927
p7. http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=202&issn=0028-0836&spage=7&issue=4927&
genre=article {Leaky_Louis_19640404.pdf
}
2. ^ L. S. B. LEAKEY & M. D. LEAKEY ,
"Recent Discoveries of Fossil Hominids
in Tanganyika : At Olduvai and Near
Lake Natron", Nature, (1964), v202,
issue:4927
p5. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v202/n4927/index.html {Leaky_Louis_p5
_19640404.pdf}
3. ^ L. S. B. LEAKEY & M. D. LEAKEY ,
"Recent Discoveries of Fossil Hominids
in Tanganyika : At Olduvai and Near
Lake Natron", Nature, (1964), v202,
issue:4927
p5. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v202/n4927/index.html {Leaky_Louis_p5
_19640404.pdf}
4. ^ Leakey, "A new species of the
genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge", Nature,
(1964), v202, issue:4927
p7. http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=202&issn=0028-0836&spage=7&issue=4927&
genre=article {Leaky_Louis_19640404.pdf
}
5. ^ L. S. B. LEAKEY & M. D. LEAKEY ,
"Recent Discoveries of Fossil Hominids
in Tanganyika : At Olduvai and Near
Lake Natron", Nature, (1964), v202,
issue:4927
p5. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v202/n4927/index.html {Leaky_Louis_p5
_19640404.pdf}
6. ^ Leakey, "A new species of the
genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge", Nature,
(1964), v202, issue:4927
p7. http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=202&issn=0028-0836&spage=7&issue=4927&
genre=article {Leaky_Louis_19640404.pdf
} {04/04/1964}
7. ^ L. S. B. LEAKEY & M. D. LEAKEY ,
"Recent Discoveries of Fossil Hominids
in Tanganyika : At Olduvai and Near
Lake Natron", Nature, (1964), v202,
issue:4927
p5. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v202/n4927/index.html {Leaky_Louis_p5
_19640404.pdf} {04/04/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794.
[2] "Louis S.B.
Leakey." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
[3] LSB Leakey, "Skull of Proconsul
from Rusinga Island", Nature 162,
688-688 (30 October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
[4] "Louis Leakey." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-leake
y
[5] Leakey, "A New Fossil Skull From
Olduvai", Nature (1959) volume: 184
issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article
[6] LSB Leakey, "A new lower Pliocene
fossil primate from Kenya", Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist, 1962.
[7] M. D. Leakey, R. L. Hay,
"Pliocene footprints in the Laetolil
Beds at Laetoli, northern Tanzania",
Nature 278, 317-323 (22 March
1979). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v278/n5702/pdf/278317a0.pdf
Olduvai Gorge, Africa4 5  
[1] Figures from: L. S. B. LEAKEY & M.
D. LEAKEY , ''Recent Discoveries of
Fossil Hominids in Tanganyika : At
Olduvai and Near Lake Natron'',
Nature, (1964), v202, issue:4927
p5. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v202/n4927/index.html {Leaky_Louis_p5
_19640404.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v202/n4927/pdf/202005a0.pdf

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey
36 YBN
[05/11/1964 AD] 4 		6113) The Beach Boys release "I Get
Around".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I Get Around". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Get_Aroun
d
2. ^ "I Get Around". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Get_Aroun
d
3. ^ "United Western Recorders".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_West
ern_Recorders
4. ^ "I Get Around". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Get_Aroun
d {05/11/1964}
(Western Studios2 ) Hollywood,
California, USA3  		 
36 YBN
[06/19/1964 AD] 6 		5749)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B.J. Bjorken, S.L. Glashow,
"Elementary particles and SU(4)",
Physics Letters, Volume 11, Issue 3, 1
August 1964, Pages 255-257, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a7339d4254bde3770
bbe15dcd) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19640619.p
df}
2. ^ "Sheldon Lee Glashow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/234857/Sheldon-Lee-Glashow>.
3. ^ B.J. Bjorken, S.L. Glashow,
"Elementary particles and SU(4)",
Physics Letters, Volume 11, Issue 3, 1
August 1964, Pages 255-257, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a7339d4254bde3770
bbe15dcd) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19640619.p
df}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ B.J. Bjorken, S.L.
Glashow, "Elementary particles and
SU(4)", Physics Letters, Volume 11,
Issue 3, 1 August 1964, Pages 255-257,
ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a7339d4254bde3770
bbe15dcd) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19640619.p
df}
6. ^ B.J. Bjorken, S.L. Glashow,
"Elementary particles and SU(4)",
Physics Letters, Volume 11, Issue 3, 1
August 1964, Pages 255-257, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a7339d4254bde3770
bbe15dcd) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19640619.p
df} {06/19/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] "boson>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"boson." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 01 May. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
oson>
[2] Abdus Salam and J. C. Ward, "Gauge
Theory of Elementary Interactions",
Phys. Rev. 136, B763–B768
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v136/i3B/pB763_1
[3] Steven Weinberg, "A Model of
Leptons", Phys. Rev. Lett. 19,
1264–1266
(1967). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v19/i21/p1264_1
[4] "Steven Weinberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639054/Steven-Weinberg>.
[5] A. Salam, J.C. Ward,
Electromagnetic and weak interactions,
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 2, 15
November 1964, Pages 168-171, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c)
[6] "Abdus Salam." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/518872/Abdus-Salam>.
[7] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979".
Nobelprize.org. 2 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1979/
[8] Sheldon L. Glashow,
"Partial-symmetries of weak
interactions", Nuclear Physics, Volume
22, Issue 4, February 1961, Pages
579-588, ISSN 0029-5582, DOI:
10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73
DR-470FCCY-3/2/73adaafe245cc26ee7aa3aa72
15f18e1)
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark5  
[1] Table 1 from: B.J. Bjorken, S.L.
Glashow, ''Elementary particles and
SU(4)'', Physics Letters, Volume 11,
Issue 3, 1 August 1964, Pages 255-257,
ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a7339d4254bde3770
bbe15dcd) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19640619.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a
7339d4254bde3770bbe15dcd

[2] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg
36 YBN
[07/10/1964 AD] 22 		5726) In the mid-1940s while Fitch is a
member of the U.S. Army, he is sent to
Los Alamos, N.M., to work on the
Manhattan Project.16 (To me this
clearly implies very likely
governmental dishonesty and corruption
of science. Probably Fitch was called
upon by people in government and neuron
owners to feed false information to the
public in the constant effort to remove
the public's belief that they can
understand science and that the
universe is logical and consistent.17
)

In 1980, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to James Watson Cronin
and Val Logsdon Fitch "for the
discovery of violations of fundamental
symmetry principles in the decay of
neutral K-mesons".18 (This award
choice to me seems highly fraudulent.
In addition, this is just after the
election of the Republicans in the USA
and the murder of John Lennon - clearly
a rise and peak of evil on earth.19 )

(This is a theory, and I think more
caution should be shown for theories,
and more reward for experimental finds
or useful instrument creations. Very
few people criticize complex math, most
are intimidated by it, and cannot spend
the time necessary to try and
understand it. But I think the burden
of explaining clearly is on the
theorist, and should be presumed as
theory until you are convinced of it's
accuracy. In addition, all major
skepticism and rejections of a theory
should be heard.20 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. H. Christenson, J. W. Cronin,
V. L. Fitch, and R. Turlay, "Evidence
for the 2π Decay of the K20 Meson",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 138–140 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v13/i4
/p138_1 {Fitch_Val_Logsdon_19640710.pdf
}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.878, 893-894.
3. ^ "Val
Logsdon Fitch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/208851/Val-Logsdon-Fitch>.
4. ^ "James Watson Cronin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/143915/James-Watson-Cronin>.
5. ^ "Val Logsdon Fitch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/208851/Val-Logsdon-Fitch>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.878, 893-894.
7. ^ "CP
violation." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/141428/CP-violation>.
8. ^ J. H. Christenson, J. W. Cronin,
V. L. Fitch, and R. Turlay, "Evidence
for the 2π Decay of the K20 Meson",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 138–140 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v13/i4
/p138_1 {Fitch_Val_Logsdon_19640710.pdf
}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1980". Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1980/
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1980". Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1980/
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ J. H.
Christenson, J. W. Cronin, V. L. Fitch,
and R. Turlay, "Evidence for the 2π
Decay of the K20 Meson", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 13, 138–140 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v13/i4
/p138_1 {Fitch_Val_Logsdon_19640710.pdf
}
22. ^ J. H. Christenson, J. W. Cronin,
V. L. Fitch, and R. Turlay, "Evidence
for the 2π Decay of the K20 Meson",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 138–140 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v13/i4
/p138_1 {Fitch_Val_Logsdon_19640710.pdf
} {07/10/1964}
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA21  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. H. Christenson,
J. W. Cronin, V. L. Fitch, and R.
Turlay, ''Evidence for the 2π Decay of
the K20 Meson'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 13,
138–140 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v13/i4
/p138_1 {Fitch_Val_Logsdon_19640710.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED}
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v13/i4/p138_1

[2] Val Logsdon Fitch Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1980/fitch_p
ostcard.jpg
36 YBN
[07/15/1964 AD] 8 		5770) Patel publishes this in "Physical
Review" as "Continuous-Wave Laser
Action on Vibrational-Rotational
Transitions of CO2". For an abstract
Patel writes: "We have obtained cw
laser action on a number of rotational
transitions of the Σu+-Σg+
vibrational band of CO2 around 10.4 and
9.4μ. The laser wavelengths are
identified as the P-branch rotational
transitions from P(12) to P(38) for the
00°1-10°0 band and from P(22) to
P(34) for the 00°1-02°0 band.
Strongest laser transition occurs at
10.6324μ (vacuum). A cw power output
of about 1 mW has been measured. All
these laser transitions can also be
made to oscillate under pulsed
discharge conditions with a small
increase in the peak laser power
output. No R-branch transitions have
been seen to oscillate either under cw
or pulsed discharge conditions. The
wavelength measurements are in
reasonable agreement with earlier
measurement of the bands in absorption,
but there are slight differences. These
are ascribed to possible
pressure-dependent frequency shift
effects. A study has been made of the
time dependence of the laser output
under pulsed excitation, and some
conclusions about possible excitation
processes are given. Theoretical
interpretation given earlier for laser
action on vibrational-rotational
transitions is discussed in a
generalized form. The theory is
applicable to both the linear
polyatomic molecules and the diatomic
molecules.". Patel describes the
apparatus by writing: " The
experimental setup used in the CO2
laser experiments consisted of a
far-infrared optical maser similar to
the one described in Ref. 6. The quartz
discharge tube (see Fig. 1 of Ref. 6)
was 25.4 mm i.d. and 5 m long. The
optical resonator cavity was formed
with a pair of near-confocal silicon
mirrors, which were coated with
vacuum-deposited aluminum for high
reflectivity in the infrared. Coupling
of energy out from the cavity was
obtained by either (a) making the
aluminum coating on one of the mirrors
partially transparent or (b) leaving a
small (1.0 mm diam) area uncoated at
the center of the output mirror. (The
relative advantages of the two
techniques have been discussed in Ref.
7). It was found that the second method
was generally more satisfactory, and
the results reported in this paper were
obtained with that method. As such
there was no additional
wavelength-discriminating device (such
as dielectric mirror coatings capable
of giving high reflectivity in a narrow
region of wavelengths) intentionally
introduced in the optical cavity.
...Discharge in CO2 was produced by
using dc excitation. (In a limited
number of cases, high current pulses of
1-usec duration were also used for
investigation of the CO2 optical
maser.).
...".3

The carbon dioxide (CO2) molecular
laser has become the laser of choice
for many industrial applications, such
as cutting and welding.4

The carbon-dioxide laser, which can
generate kilowatts of continuous power,
is the most powerful commercial gas
laser.5

(Determine if the CO2 laser is the most
potentially destructive laser ever made
public.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Patel, C. K. N. (1964).
"Continuous-Wave Laser Action on
Vibrational-Rotational Transitions of
CO2". Physical Review 136 (5A):
A1187–A1193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1187. http://p
rola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v136/i5A/pA1187
_1
2. ^ "laser." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/330874/laser>.
3. ^ Patel, C. K. N. (1964).
"Continuous-Wave Laser Action on
Vibrational-Rotational Transitions of
CO2". Physical Review 136 (5A):
A1187–A1193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1187. http://p
rola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v136/i5A/pA1187
_1
4. ^ "laser." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/laser-appli
cations
5. ^ "laser." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/330874/laser>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Patel, C. K. N. (1964).
"Continuous-Wave Laser Action on
Vibrational-Rotational Transitions of
CO2". Physical Review 136 (5A):
A1187–A1193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1187. http://p
rola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v136/i5A/pA1187
_1
8. ^ Patel, C. K. N. (1964).
"Continuous-Wave Laser Action on
Vibrational-Rotational Transitions of
CO2". Physical Review 136 (5A):
A1187–A1193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1187. http://p
rola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v136/i5A/pA1187
_1 {07/15/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] C. K. N. Patel, W. R.
Bennett, Jr., W. L. Faust, and R. A.
McFarlane, "Infrared Spectroscopy Using
Stimulated Emission Techniques", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 9, 102
(1962) http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v9/i3/p102_1
[2] W. L. Faust, R. A. McFarlane, C. K.
N. Patel, and C. G. B. Garrett, "Noble
Gas Optical Maser Lines at Wavelengths
between 2 and 35 μ", Phys. Rev. 133,
A1476
(1964) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA7  
[1] Fig 1 from: W. L. Faust, R. A.
McFarlane, C. K. N. Patel, and C. G. B.
Garrett, ''Noble Gas Optical Maser
Lines at Wavelengths between 2 and 35
μ'', Phys. Rev. 133, A1476
(1964) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1 {Patel_C_Kumar_N_196
30820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1

[2] C Kumar N Patel UNKNOWN
source: http://www.research.ucla.edu/web
icons/patel.gif
36 YBN
[07/24/1964 AD] 5 		6112) British pop band The Zombies
release "She's Not There".1

One of the song's most distinctive
features is Argent's electric piano
sound; the instrument used was a Hohner
Pianet.2

(This could be interpreted as being
about remote neuron writing done to
excluded by an AT&T computer that
mimics a female voice, and perhaps
sends images of females to excluded and
how excluded chase after the pretend
woman- who they can't possibly ever
meet. In addition, it could be an
actual female that is coerced or for
some sex-based reason sends audio and
images from herself via AT&T's wireless
neuron writing network to excluded - as
a "tease", in particular to arouse the
insider neuron consumer and owner
males.3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "She's Not There". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_Not
_There
2. ^ "She's Not There". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_Not
_There
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "She's Not There".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_Not
_There
5. ^ "She's Not There". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_Not
_There {07/24/1964}
England4   
36 YBN
[08/??/1964 AD] 3 		6111) Roy Orbison releases the song
"Oh, Pretty Woman".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Oh, Pretty Woman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh,_Pretty_
Woman
2. ^ "Oh, Pretty Woman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh,_Pretty_
Woman
3. ^ "Oh, Pretty Woman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh,_Pretty_
Woman {08/1964}
(Monument Records) Nashville,
Tennessee, USA2  		 
36 YBN
[09/24/1964 AD] 23 		5746) In 1979, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Sheldon
Lee Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven
Weinberg "for their contributions to
the theory of the unified weak and
electromagnetic interaction between
elementary particles, including, inter
alia, the prediction of the weak
neutral current".19 Salam is the first
Pakistani and the first Muslim
scientist to win a Nobel Prize.20
(This seems highly theoretical, in
particular given the view that all
matter is simply made of light
particles. In particular imagining what
corruption may exist given many decades
of secret remote neuron reading and
writing. The experimental side of
physics appears to take second place to
the theoretical side with the Nobel
prize.21 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Salam, J.C. Ward,
Electromagnetic and weak interactions,
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 2, 15
November 1964, Pages 168-171, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c) {Salam_Abdus_19640924.pdf}
2. ^ "Abdus Salam." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/518872/Abdus-Salam>.
3. ^ A. Salam, J.C. Ward,
Electromagnetic and weak interactions,
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 2, 15
November 1964, Pages 168-171, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c) {Salam_Abdus_19640924.pdf}
4. ^ "Abdus Salam." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/518872/Abdus-Salam>.
5. ^ "Sheldon Lee Glashow."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/234857/Sheldon-Lee-Glashow>.
6. ^ "Steven Weinberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639054/Steven-Weinberg>.
7. ^ "Steven Weinberg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639054/Steven-Weinberg>.
8. ^ "boson>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"boson." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 01 May. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
oson>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882,894-895.
10. ^ A. Salam, J.C.
Ward, Electromagnetic and weak
interactions, Physics Letters, Volume
13, Issue 2, 15 November 1964, Pages
168-171, ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c) {Salam_Abdus_19640924.pdf}
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted
Huntington.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1979". Nobelprize.org.
2 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1979/
20. ^ "Abdus Salam." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/518872/Abdus-Salam>.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ A. Salam, J.C. Ward,
Electromagnetic and weak interactions,
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 2, 15
November 1964, Pages 168-171, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c) {Salam_Abdus_19640924.pdf}
23. ^ A. Salam, J.C. Ward,
Electromagnetic and weak interactions,
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 2, 15
November 1964, Pages 168-171, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46WWKCF-1H/2/136cded64929fb60240a06a7
5f99f18c) {Salam_Abdus_19640924.pdf}
{09/24/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] Abdus Salam and J. C. Ward,
"Gauge Theory of Elementary
Interactions", Phys. Rev. 136,
B763–B768
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v136/i3B/pB763_1
(Imperial College) London, England22
 
[1] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg

[2] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg
36 YBN
[10/08/1964 AD] 12 		5569) Flerov announces the formation of
an isotope of element 104, the most
massive element formed to this date,
and suggests the name "kurchatovium" in
honor of Kurchatov, but in 1969, Albert
Ghiorso and a group at Berkeley will
report not being able to confirm the
Dubna experiments and claim a positive
identification of element 104 using a
separate method and suggest the name
"rutherfordium".8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts. Oganesyan,
Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I. Kuznetsov, V.A.
Druin, V.P. Perelygin, K.A. Gavrilov,
S.P. Tretiakova, V.M. Plotko,
"Synthesis and physical identification
of the isotope of element 104 with mass
number 260", Physics Letters, Volume
13, Issue 1, 1 November 1964, Pages
73-75, ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf}
2. ^ G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts. Oganesyan,
Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I. Kuznetsov, V.A.
Druin, V.P. Perelygin, K.A. Gavrilov,
S.P. Tretiakova, V.M. Plotko,
"Synthesis and physical identification
of the isotope of element 104 with mass
number 260", Physics Letters, Volume
13, Issue 1, 1 November 1964, Pages
73-75, ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846.
4. ^ A P Aleksandrov
, A M Baldin , I I Gurevich , V P
Dzhelepov , M G Meshcheryakov , Yu Ts
Oganesyan , K A Petrzhak , Yu B
Khariton, "Georgiĭ Nikolaevich Flerov
(Obituary)", Physics-Uspekhi 1991 Vol.
34 No.
3. http://www.turpion.org/php/full/info
FT.phtml?journal_id=pu&paper_id=2358 {F
lerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_199103xx.pdf}
5. ^ "Georgii Nikolaevich Flerov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/georgii-nik
olaevich-flerov
6. ^ G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts. Oganesyan,
Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I. Kuznetsov, V.A.
Druin, V.P. Perelygin, K.A. Gavrilov,
S.P. Tretiakova, V.M. Plotko,
"Synthesis and physical identification
of the isotope of element 104 with mass
number 260", Physics Letters, Volume
13, Issue 1, 1 November 1964, Pages
73-75, ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts.
Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I.
Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin,
K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M.
Plotko, "Synthesis and physical
identification of the isotope of
element 104 with mass number 260",
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1
November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf}
9. ^ A. Ghiorso, M. Nurmia, J. Harris,
K. Eskola, and P. Eskola, "Positive
Identification of Two
Alpha-Particle-Emitting Isotopes of
Element 104", Phys. Rev. Lett. 22,
1317–1320
(1969). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v22/i24/p1317_1 {Ghiorso_Albert_196906
16.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846.
11. ^ G.N. Flerov,
Yu.Ts. Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I.
Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin,
K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M.
Plotko, "Synthesis and physical
identification of the isotope of
element 104 with mass number 260",
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1
November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf}
12. ^ G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts. Oganesyan,
Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I. Kuznetsov, V.A.
Druin, V.P. Perelygin, K.A. Gavrilov,
S.P. Tretiakova, V.M. Plotko,
"Synthesis and physical identification
of the isotope of element 104 with mass
number 260", Physics Letters, Volume
13, Issue 1, 1 November 1964, Pages
73-75, ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf} {10/08/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] Flerov and Petrjak,
"Spontaneous Fission of Uranium",
Phys. Rev. 58, 89–89
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p89_2
(Joint Institute for Nuclear Research,
Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions)
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia11  
[1] Figure 1 from: G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts.
Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I.
Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin,
K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M.
Plotko, ''Synthesis and physical
identification of the isotope of
element 104 with mass number 260'',
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1
November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63
b0ce878c4dcd550b2f8d8d22

[2] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
UNKNOWN
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
36 YBN
[12/17/1964 AD] 10 		5585) In 1975, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to David Baltimore, Renato
Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin "for
their discoveries concerning the
interaction between tumour viruses and
the genetic material of the cell".8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ R. Dulbecco, L. H. Hartwell, and
M. Vogt, "INDUCTION OF CELLULAR DNA
SYNTHESIS BY POLYOMA VIRUS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1965 February; 53(2):
403–410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC219527/
{Dulbecco_Renato_19641217.pdf}
2. ^ Lionel Crawford, Renato Dulbecco,
Mike Fried, Luc Montagnier, and Michael
Stoker, "CELL TRANSFORMATION BY
DIFFERENT FORMS OF POLYOMA VIRUS DNA",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1964 July;
52(1): 148–152.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC300587/ {Dulbecco_Renato_19640511
.pdf}
3. ^ "Renato Dulbecco." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/renato-dulb
ecco
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p849.
5. ^ "Renato
Dulbecco." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/renato-dulb
ecco
6. ^ "Renato Dulbecco." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/renato-dulb
ecco
7. ^ R. Dulbecco, L. H. Hartwell, and
M. Vogt, "INDUCTION OF CELLULAR DNA
SYNTHESIS BY POLYOMA VIRUS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1965 February; 53(2):
403–410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC219527/
{Dulbecco_Renato_19641217.pdf}
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1975". Nobelprize.org. 28 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1975/
9. ^ R. Dulbecco, L. H. Hartwell, and
M. Vogt, "INDUCTION OF CELLULAR DNA
SYNTHESIS BY POLYOMA VIRUS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1965 February; 53(2):
403–410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC219527/
{Dulbecco_Renato_19641217.pdf}
10. ^ R. Dulbecco, L. H. Hartwell, and
M. Vogt, "INDUCTION OF CELLULAR DNA
SYNTHESIS BY POLYOMA VIRUS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1965 February; 53(2):
403–410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC219527/
{Dulbecco_Renato_19641217.pdf}
{12/17/1964}
(The Salk Institute For Biological
Studies) San Diego, California, USA9
 
[1] Renato Dulbecco Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/dulbecco.jpg
36 YBN
[12/??/1964 AD] 6 		5497)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Remond, A. and Lesevre, N.
Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
2. ^ Gary P. Jacobson, Amy S.
Grayson, "The Normal Scalp Topography
of the Middle Latency Auditory Evoked
Potential Pa Component following
Monaural Click Stimulation", Brain
Topography, Volume I, Number 1, 1988,
p29. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/g477017484362321/ {Jacobson_Gary_1988
xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Remond, A. and
Lesevre, N. Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
6. ^ Remond, A. and Lesevre, N.
Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
{12/1964}
(La Salpetriere), Paris, France5  
[1] Figure 4 from: Remond, A. and
Lesevre, N. Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Remond_196512xx.pdf

[2] Figure 5 from: Remond, A. and
Lesevre, N. Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Remond_196512xx.pdf
36 YBN
[1964 AD] 11 		3980) Liquid Crystal Display.4

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) uses
much less electricity, weighs much
less, and can be much thinner than a
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display.5

George Heilmeier (CE 1936-) in RCA
Labs, uses a DC voltage of several
volts to change the color of a liquid
crystal cell. This is the first
publicly known liquid crystal display
device.6 7

This device is based on the "William
domain" effect published by Richard
William of RCA in 1962, in which an
electric field applied to a liquid
crystal cell causes regular patterns of
lines which he calls "domains".8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
2. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ George H. Heilmeier,
"Liquid crystal displays: An experiment
in interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
5. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
6. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
7. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^ Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf}
8. ^ H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE 0018-9219. ^ Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf}
9. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
10. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/RC
A_Laboratories_at_Princeton,_New_Jersey
11. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf} {1964}
RCA Labs9 , Princeton, New Jersey,
USA10  
[1] George Heilmeier with
LCD 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.wired.com/images_blog
s/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.
jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219]
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf} and George H. Heilmeier,
"Liquid crystal displays: An experiment
in interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}

[2] George Heilmeier COPYRIGHTED ON
INTERNET
source: http://www.invent.org/2009induct
ion/images/George_Heilmeier.jpg
36 YBN
[1964 AD] 6 		5803)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1964, 1972, 1976, 1982),
p.900.
2. ^ "Isaac Asimov." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/38699/Isaac-Asimov>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Isaac Asimov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/38699/Isaac-Asimov>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1964, 1972, 1976, 1982),
p.900.
(Boston University) Bostom,
Massachusetts, USA5 (presumably) 
[1] Isaac Asimov UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quotesup.com/_Images/
Thumbnails/Isaac%20Asimov.jpg
35 YBN
[01/08/1965 AD] 8 		5719)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
2. ^ "Robert William Holley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/269391/Robert-William-Holley>.
3. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.877.
5. ^ "Robert William
Holley." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 24
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/269391/Robert-William-Holley>.
6. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
7. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
8. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
{01/08/1965}

MORE INFO
[1] Jean Apgar, Robert W. Holley,
and Susan H. Merrill, "Purification of
the Alanine-, Valine-, Histidine-, and
Tyrosine-acceptor Ribonucleic Acids
from Yeast", March 1, 1962 The Journal
of Biological Chemistry, 237,
796-802.
http://www.jbc.org/content/237/3/796.f
ull.pdf+html
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
[3] "Robert W. Holley." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holley-robe
rt-william
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA7  
[1] Figure 2 from: Robert W. Holley,
Jean Apgar, George A. Everett, James T.
Madison, Mark Marquisee, Susan H.
Merrill, John Robert Penswick and Ada
Zamir, ''Structure of a Ribonucleic
Acid'', Science, New Series, Vol. 147,
No. 3664 (Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1715
055

[2] ARS scientist Robert Holley won
the Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg
35 YBN
[02/15/1965 AD] 15 16 		5744) In 1976, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Baruch S. Blumberg and D.
Carleton Gajdusek "for their
discoveries concerning new mechanisms
for the origin and dissemination of
infectious diseases".13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Baruch S. Blumberg, MD, Harvey J.
Alter, MD, "A "New" Antigen in Leukemia
Sera", JAMA. 1965;191(7):541-546. doi:
10.1001/jama.1965.03080070025007 http:/
/jama.ama-assn.org/content/191/7/541.sho
rt {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19630215.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882.
3. ^ "Baruch S.
Blumberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/70555/Baruch-S-Blumberg>.
4. ^ Caroline Richmond, "Baruch
Blumberg obituary, Biochemist whose
work on hepatitis B won him a Nobel
prize", guardian.co.uk, Thursday 7
April 2011 18.13
BST. http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/
2011/apr/07/baruch-blumberg-obituary
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882.
6. ^ MANFRED E.
BAYER, BARUCH S. BLUMBERG & BARBARA
WERNER, "Particles associated with
Australia Antigen in the Sera of
Patients with Leukaemia, Down's
Syndrome and Hepatitis", Nature 218,
1057 - 1059 (15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df}
7. ^ "Baruch S. Blumberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/70555/Baruch-S-Blumberg>.
8. ^ Baruch S. Blumberg, MD, Harvey J.
Alter, MD, "A "New" Antigen in Leukemia
Sera", JAMA. 1965;191(7):541-546. doi:
10.1001/jama.1965.03080070025007 http:/
/jama.ama-assn.org/content/191/7/541.sho
rt
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1976".
Nobelprize.org. 2 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1976/
14. ^ Baruch S. Blumberg, MD, Harvey J.
Alter, MD, "A "New" Antigen in Leukemia
Sera", JAMA. 1965;191(7):541-546. doi:
10.1001/jama.1965.03080070025007 http:/
/jama.ama-assn.org/content/191/7/541.sho
rt {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19630215.pdf}
15. ^ Baruch S. Blumberg, MD, Harvey
J. Alter, MD, "A "New" Antigen in
Leukemia Sera", JAMA.
1965;191(7):541-546. doi:
10.1001/jama.1965.03080070025007 http:/
/jama.ama-assn.org/content/191/7/541.sho
rt {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19630215.pdf}
{02/15/1965}
16. ^ "Baruch S. Blumberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/70555/Baruch-S-Blumberg>. {1963}

MORE INFO
[1] Baruch S. Blumberg,
"Hepatitis B: The Hunt for a Killer
Virus", Princeton university Press,
2003. http://press.princeton.edu/titles
/7248.html
(Institute for Cancer Research)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA and
(U.S. National Institutes for Health)
Maryland, USA14  
[1] Baruch S. Blumberg Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/blumberg.jpg

[2] Baruch Blumberg in 1976. He
studied genetic influences in diseases
such as sickle-cell anaemia.
Photograph: Eddie Adams/AP UNKNOWN
source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-ima
ges/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2011/4/7/13021
96368374/Baruch-Blumberg-007.jpg
35 YBN
[03/29/1965 AD] 10 		5731)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cyril Ponnamperuma and Ruth Mack,
"Nucleotide Synthesis under Possible
Primitive Earth Conditions", Science,
New Series, Vol. 148, No. 3674 (May 28,
1965), pp.
1221-1223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1716205 {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19650329.pd
f} {03/29/1965}
2. ^ WALTER SULLIVAN, "Cyril
Ponnamperuma, Scholar Of Life's
Origins, Is Dead at 71", New York
Times, December 24,
1994. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/12/24
/obituaries/cyril-ponnamperuma-scholar-o
f-life-s-origins-is-dead-at-71.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.879.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.879.
5. ^ Cyril
Ponnamperuma and Ruth Mack, "Nucleotide
Synthesis under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions", Science, New Series,
Vol. 148, No. 3674 (May 28, 1965), pp.
1221-1223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1716205 {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19650329.pd
f} {03/29/1965}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Cyril Ponnamperuma and Ruth Mack,
"Nucleotide Synthesis under Possible
Primitive Earth Conditions", Science,
New Series, Vol. 148, No. 3674 (May 28,
1965), pp.
1221-1223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1716205 {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19650329.pd
f}
10. ^ Cyril Ponnamperuma and Ruth Mack,
"Nucleotide Synthesis under Possible
Primitive Earth Conditions", Science,
New Series, Vol. 148, No. 3674 (May 28,
1965), pp.
1221-1223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1716205 {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19650329.pd
f} {03/29/1965}

MORE INFO
[1] CYRIL PONNAMPERUMA, CARL
SAGAN, RUTH MARINER, "Synthesis of
Adenosine Triphosphate Under Possible
Primitive Earth Conditions", Nature
199, 222-226 (20 July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf
(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett
Field, California, USA9  
[1] Description Cyril Ponnamperuma
analyzing a moon sample.jpg Dr.
Cyril Ponnamperuma analyzing a moon
sample - Principal investigator for the
chemical studies is Dr. Cyril
Ponnamperuma, Chief of the Ames
Chemical Evolution Branch at
NASA. Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/im
ages/content/76422main_A-42526-79F.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cyril_Ponnamperuma_an
alyzing_a_moon_sample.jpg

[2] Description Nucleotides
1.svg English: The major
nucleotides Date November 04,
2005 (UTC) Source
en:Image:Nucleotides.png Author
Boris (PNG), SVG by
Sjef Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nucleotides_1.s
vg/1000px-Nucleotides_1.svg.png
35 YBN
[05/13/1965 AD] 22 		5797) Penzias' family, being Jewish,
leaves Germany 10 weeks after Hitler
takes control.18

In 1978, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
divided, one half awarded to Pyotr
Leonidovich Kapitsa "for his basic
inventions and discoveries in the area
of low-temperature physics",the other
half jointly to Arno Allan Penzias and
Robert Woodrow Wilson "for their
discovery of cosmic microwave
background radiation".19

In 2006, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to John C. Mather and
George F. Smoot "for their discovery of
the blackbody form and anisotropy of
the cosmic microwave background
radiation" using the COBE satellite.20

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Penzias, A. A. & Wilson, R. W.,
"A Measurement of Excess Antenna
Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.419-421. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..419P {Penzia
s_Arno_19650513.pdf}
2. ^ Dicke, R. H., Peebles, P. J. E.,
Roll, P. G., & Wilkinson, D. T.,
"Cosmic Black-Body Radiation.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.895, 897.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.895, 897.
5. ^ "Arno
Penzias." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 21
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/450516/Arno-Penzias>.
6. ^ "Robert Woodrow Wilson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/644743/Robert-Woodrow-Wilson>.
7. ^ Penzias, A. A. & Wilson, R. W., "A
Measurement of Excess Antenna
Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.419-421. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..419P {Penzia
s_Arno_19650513.pdf}
8. ^ Dicke, R. H., Peebles, P. J. E.,
Roll, P. G., & Wilkinson, D. T.,
"Cosmic Black-Body Radiation.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Ted
Huntington.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.895, 897.
19. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physics 1978".
Nobelprize.org. 21 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1978/
20. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics
2006". Nobelprize.org. 22 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2006/
21. ^ Penzias, A. A. & Wilson, R. W.,
"A Measurement of Excess Antenna
Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.419-421. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..419P {Penzia
s_Arno_19650513.pdf}
22. ^ Penzias, A. A. & Wilson, R. W.,
"A Measurement of Excess Antenna
Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.419-421. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..419P {Penzia
s_Arno_19650513.pdf} {05/13/1965}
(Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.)
Crawford Hill, Holmdel, New Jersey,
USA21  
[1] [t Note that this is from the
Dicke, et al, paper and not from the
Penzias and Wilson paper which contains
no figures.] Figure 1 from: Dicke, R.
H., Peebles, P. J. E., Roll, P. G., &
Wilkinson, D. T., ''Cosmic Black-Body
Radiation.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newgenevacenter.org/0
9_Biography/penzias-wilson.jpg

[2] Arno Penzias 1933- /Robert Wilson
1936- UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/rdicke.JPG
35 YBN
[06/05/1965 AD] 7 8 		5714)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Garen_Alan_1
9650605.pdf}
2. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf}
3. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN
GAREN, "Base Composition of Nonsense
Condons in E. coli: Evidence from
Amino-Acid Substitutions at a
Tryptophan Site in Alkaline
Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June 1965 Vol
206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Garen_Alan_1
9650605.pdf}
6. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf}
7. ^ MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Garen_Alan_1
9650605.pdf} {06/05/1965}
8. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W.
STRETTON & S. KAPLAN, "Genetic Code:
The 'Nonsense' Triplets for Chain
Termination and their Suppression",
Nature, 5 June 1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf} {06/05/1965}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=UzYiLVv
aNwYC&pg=PA298&lpg=PA298&dq=sydney+brenn
er+kaplan+dna&source=bl&ots=79OjKisgG8&s
ig=44I6pHU-WqY7dyJKuMfTMpAPu8g&hl=en&ei=
M9SzTei3KI66sQPa1M3wCw&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=6&sqi=2&ved=0CEkQ6AE
wBQ
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA5 and (Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England6  		 
35 YBN
[07/14/1965 AD] 8 		5615) The first ship from Earth to
reach planet Mars, and to return images
of the surface, Mariner 4.5

These represent the first images of
another planet ever returned from deep
space.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A {07/14/1965}
Planet Mars7  
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
35 YBN
[08/12/1965 AD] 8 		5420) In 1941 Prelog escapes from
Yugoslavia to Switzerland when the Nazi
army invades Yugoslavia.5

In 1975, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
is divided equally between John Warcup
Cornforth "for his work on the
stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed
reactions" and Vladimir Prelog "for his
research into the stereochemistry of
organic molecules and reactions".6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p815-816.
2. ^ "Vladimir
Prelog." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474844/Vladimir-Prelog>.
3. ^ R. S. Cahn, C. K. Ingold and V.
Prelog, "The specification of
asymmetric configuration in organic
chemistry", Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences, Volume 12, Number 3, 81-94,
DOI:
10.1007/BF02157171 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/t32p7771322xpm77/ {Prel
og_Vladimir_19650812.pdf}
4. ^ "Vladimir Prelog." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474844/Vladimir-Prelog>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p815-816.
6. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1975". Nobelprize.org. 28
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1975/
7. ^ R. S. Cahn, C. K. Ingold and V.
Prelog, "The specification of
asymmetric configuration in organic
chemistry", Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences, Volume 12, Number 3, 81-94,
DOI:
10.1007/BF02157171 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/t32p7771322xpm77/ {Prel
og_Vladimir_19650812.pdf}
8. ^ R. S. Cahn, C. K. Ingold and V.
Prelog, "The specification of
asymmetric configuration in organic
chemistry", Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences, Volume 12, Number 3, 81-94,
DOI:
10.1007/BF02157171 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/t32p7771322xpm77/ {Prel
og_Vladimir_19650812.pdf} {08/12/1965}

MORE INFO
[1] J. D. Dunitz, D. M. Hawley,
D. Mikloš, D. N. J. White, Yu. Berlin,
R. Marušić, V. Prelog, "Structure of
boromycin", Helvetica chimica acta,
(1971) volume: 54 issue: 6 page:
1709. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract
(Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule)
Zurich, Switzerland7  
[1] Vladimir Prelog [t Notice no neck
tie, may indicate progressive
view.] Nobel photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/prelo
g_postcard.jpg
35 YBN
[09/02/1965 AD] 6 		5713)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876-877.
2. ^ R. Lohrmann, D.
Söll, H. Hayatsu, E. Ohtsuka, H. G.
Khorana, "Studies on Polynucleotides.
LI. Syntheses of the 64 Possible
Ribotrinucleotides Derived from the
Four Major Ribomononucleotides",
Khorand, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_196
50902.pdf}
3. ^ H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_1966
1212.pdf}
4. ^ "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
5. ^ R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_196
50902.pdf}
6. ^ R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_196
50902.pdf} {09/02/1965}

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>
[2] "Har Gobind Khorana." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA5  
[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
35 YBN
[09/25/1965 AD] 5 6 		6115) The Rolling Stones release "Get
Off of My Cloud".1

The song has a similar structure as
"Louie Louie": 1-4-5-4, in this case E
A B A.2
(Possibly there is a play on
the remote neuron writing - for example
- 'stop writing to our heads.'3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Get off of my cloud". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_off_of_
my_cloud
2. ^ "Get off of my cloud". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_off_of_
my_cloud
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Get off of my cloud".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_off_of_
my_cloud
5. ^ "Get off of my cloud". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_off_of_
my_cloud {09/25/1965 (released}
6. ^ "Get off of
my cloud". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_off_of_
my_cloud {09/06/1965-09/07/1965
(recorded}
(RCA Studios) Hollywood, California,
USA4  		 
35 YBN
[10/20/1965 AD] 4 		6117) The Beatles record the song "We
Can Work Out".1

(There may be a play on the idea of a
direct-to-brain windows female dating
or having a relationship with an
excluded male which must be very rare.
It's rare also to see a statement
against fighting or indirectly
violence.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "We can work it out". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_can_work
_it_out
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "We can work it out".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_can_work
_it_out
4. ^ "We can work it out". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_can_work
_it_out {10/20/1965}
(EMI Studios) London, England3   
35 YBN
[10/??/1965 AD] 3 		6114) James Brown releases "I Got You
(I Feel Good)".1

FOOTNOTES
{10/1965}


(Criteria Recording Studios) Miami,
Florida, USA2  		 
35 YBN
[1965 AD] 6 		5712) In 1968, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind
Khorana and Marshall W. Nirenberg "for
their interpretation of the genetic
code and its function in protein
synthesis".4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876-877.
2. ^ H. G. Khorana,
Federation Proc., 24, 1473 (1965).
3. ^
H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_1966
1212.pdf}
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
5. ^ H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc.,
24, 1473 (1965).
6. ^ H. G. Khorana, Federation
Proc., 24, 1473 (1965).

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>
[2] "Har Gobind Khorana." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA5 (verify) 
[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
35 YBN
[1965 AD] 7 		6276)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS99/Notes/
Class6/Class6.html
2. ^
http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS99/Notes/
Class6/Class6.html
3. ^ Sturman, D.J., Zeltzer, D.
(January 1994). "A survey of
glove-based input". IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
4. ^
http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS99/Notes/
Class6/Class6.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS99/Notes/
Class6/Class6.html {1965}
 
[1] Sutherland's head-mounted display
earned the nickname the sword of
Damocles due to the mass of hardware
that was supported from the ceiling
above the user's head. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS9
9/Notes/Class6/SutherlandHMD2.jpeg

[2] Description Ivan Sutherland,
at the celebration of his 70th birthday
at the Computer History Museum Date
22 May 2008 Source personal
camera Author Dick
Lyon Permission (Reusing this file)
sa-by-sa-3.0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Ivan_Sutherland_at_CH
M.jpg
34 YBN
[01/27/1966 AD] 7 		5648)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Elso S. Barghoorn and J. William
Schopf, "Microorganisms Three Billion
Years Old from the Precambrian of South
Africa", Science, New Series, Vol. 152,
No. 3723 (May 6, 1966), pp.
758-763. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
18104 {Barghoorn_Elso_19660127.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p855.
3. ^ Andrew H. Knoll,
"Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn, Jr. (June
15, 1915-January 22, 1984)",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 135, No. 1
(Mar., 1991), pp.
86-90. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9871
52 {Barghoorn_Elso_199103xx.pdf}
4. ^ Elso S. Barghoorn and J. William
Schopf, "Microorganisms Three Billion
Years Old from the Precambrian of South
Africa", Science, New Series, Vol. 152,
No. 3723 (May 6, 1966), pp.
758-763. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
18104 {Barghoorn_Elso_19660127.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Elso S. Barghoorn
and J. William Schopf, "Microorganisms
Three Billion Years Old from the
Precambrian of South Africa", Science,
New Series, Vol. 152, No. 3723 (May 6,
1966), pp.
758-763. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
18104 {Barghoorn_Elso_19660127.pdf}
7. ^ Elso S. Barghoorn and J.
William Schopf, "Microorganisms Three
Billion Years Old from the Precambrian
of South Africa", Science, New Series,
Vol. 152, No. 3723 (May 6, 1966), pp.
758-763. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
18104 {Barghoorn_Elso_19660127.pdf}
{01/27/1966}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Figures 1-9: Negative prints of
electron micrographs of platinum-carbon
surface replicas of chert from the Fig
Tree Series showing Eobacterium
islatum, n. gen., n. sp., [reserved
both organically and as imprints in the
rock surface; line in each figure
represents one micron. Figures 1-9
from: Elso S. Barghoorn and J. William
Schopf, ''Microorganisms Three Billion
Years Old from the Precambrian of South
Africa'', Science, New Series, Vol.
152, No. 3723 (May 6, 1966), pp.
758-763. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
18104
{Barghoorn_Elso_19660127.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1718
104

[2] Image from: Andrew H. Knoll,
''Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn, Jr. (June
15, 1915-January 22, 1984)'',
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 135, No. 1
(Mar., 1991), pp.
86-90. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9871
52 {Barghoorn_Elso_199103xx.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9871
52
34 YBN
[02/03/1966 AD] 5 		5616)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A {02/03/1966}
Moon of Earth4  
[1] Apparently panorama from Luna 9 PD

source: http://www.zarya.info/images/Lun
a9pan.jpg

[2] Luna 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna-9.jpg
34 YBN
[02/19/1966 AD] 14 		5728) In 1976, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Baruch S. Blumberg and D.
Carleton Gajdusek "for their
discoveries concerning new mechanisms
for the origin and dissemination of
infectious diseases".10

Over his years working amongst the
tribes of the South Seas, he adopted 57
kids, bringing them to a new life in
Washington DC.11 In 1997 Gajdusek
pleaded guilty to child abuse involving
the sexual molestation of a teenaged
boy and served one year in prison.12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ D. C. GAJDUSEK, C. J. GIBBS jun.
& M. ALPERS, "Experimental Transmission
of a Kuru-like Syndrome to
Chimpanzees", Nature 209, 794 - 796 (19
February 1966);
doi:10.1038/209794a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v209/n5025/abs/209794
a0.html {Gajdusek_Daniel_Carleton_19660
219.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.878-879.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.878-879.
4. ^ "D. Carleton
Gajdusek." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223611/D-Carleton-Gajdusek>.
5. ^ "D. Carleton Gajdusek."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223611/D-Carleton-Gajdusek>.
6. ^
http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/l
a-me-gajdusek18-2008dec18,0,4256516.stor
y
7. ^ D. C. GAJDUSEK, C. J. GIBBS jun. &
M. ALPERS, "Experimental Transmission
of a Kuru-like Syndrome to
Chimpanzees", Nature 209, 794 - 796 (19
February 1966);
doi:10.1038/209794a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v209/n5025/abs/209794
a0.html {Gajdusek_Daniel_Carleton_19660
219.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1976".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1976/
11. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ktrc0
and: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qk
H0e1VJR8
12. ^ "D. Carleton Gajdusek."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223611/D-Carleton-Gajdusek>.
13. ^ D. C. GAJDUSEK, C. J. GIBBS jun.
& M. ALPERS, "Experimental Transmission
of a Kuru-like Syndrome to
Chimpanzees", Nature 209, 794 - 796 (19
February 1966);
doi:10.1038/209794a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v209/n5025/abs/209794
a0.html {Gajdusek_Daniel_Carleton_19660
219.pdf}
14. ^ D. C. GAJDUSEK, C. J. GIBBS jun.
& M. ALPERS, "Experimental Transmission
of a Kuru-like Syndrome to
Chimpanzees", Nature 209, 794 - 796 (19
February 1966);
doi:10.1038/209794a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v209/n5025/abs/209794
a0.html {Gajdusek_Daniel_Carleton_19660
219.pdf} {02/19/1966}
(National Institute of Health)
Bethesda, Maryland, USA13  
[1] Daniel Carleton Gajdusek Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/gajdusek.jpg
34 YBN
[03/01/1966 AD] 7 		5613) The first ship from Earth to
impact a different planet, "Venera 3"
impacts the surface of Venus.5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A {03/01/1966}
Planet Venus6  
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
34 YBN
[04/04/1966 AD] 5 		5599)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A {04/04/1966}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
[5]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)4  
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
34 YBN
[10/10/1966 AD] 4 		6116) The Beach Boys release "Good
Vibrations".1

(It's somewhat rare to hear a cello in
a pop song. Violins were in many pop
songs of the late 1950s and since, but
cello is not introduced as a major
component until the Beatles "Strawberry
Fields" and "I am the Walrus". State
where violins enter into mainstream pop
of the USA. This song also features the
"electro-theremin" instrument.2 )
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Good vibrations". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_vibrat
ions
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Brian Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Wilso
n
4. ^ "Good vibrations". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_vibrat
ions {10/10/1966}
Los Angeles, California, USA3
(presumably) 		 
34 YBN
[10/24/1966 AD] 13 		5793) In 1980, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry is divided, one half awarded
to Paul Berg "for his fundamental
studies of the biochemistry of nucleic
acids, with particular regard to
recombinant-DNA",the other half jointly
to Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger
"for their contributions concerning the
determination of base sequences in
nucleic acids".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.894.
2. ^ "Walter Gilbert
- Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 21
May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.html
 {Gilbert_Walter_19801208.pdf}
3. ^ Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz,
C. & Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de
gènes à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
4. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
5. ^ Record ID5705. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1980".
Nobelprize.org. 21 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
7. ^ Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam,
"The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac
Operator", PNAS December 1, 1973
vol. 70 no. 12 3581-3584
http://www.pnas.org/content/70/12/3581
.short {Gilbert_Walter_19730809.pdf}
8. ^ "Walter Gilbert - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 21 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.html
 {Gilbert_Walter_19801208.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.894.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1980".
Nobelprize.org. 21 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1980". Nobelprize.org. 21 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
12. ^ Gilbert, Walter and Müller-Hill,
Benno "Isolation of the Lac Repressor"
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.556,
1891-1898 (1966).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC220206/
{Gilbert_Walter_19661024.pdf}
13. ^ Gilbert, Walter and Müller-Hill,
Benno "Isolation of the Lac Repressor"
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.556,
1891-1898 (1966).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC220206/
{Gilbert_Walter_19661024.pdf}
{10/24/1966}

MORE INFO
[1] Gilbert, Walter and
Müller-Hill, Benno "The Lac Operator
is DNA" Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 58,
2415-2421
(1967). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC223851/
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA12  
[1] Walter Gilbert, source:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/med
ia/gallery/vi_a_209.jpg from
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/gal
leries/technologies/dna_image_9.html PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/WalterGilbert2.jpg
34 YBN
[11/03/1966 AD] 4 5 		6121) Jefferson Airplane records
"Somebody to Love".1

(One thing that is clear is that
wealthy violent and dishonest people
use their wealth and neuron writing to
influence popular music. For an
excluded, it's hard to know where this
happened. One typical example may be
John Lennon's "Out the Blue" which
contains a possible homicidal
suggestion "...you came to me...and
blew away life's misery..."- probably
neuron written onto Lennon's brain by
wealthy conservatives. The popularity
of "Hey Joe" and "I Shot the Sheriff"-
probably conservatives who prefer and
insist on associating black people with
violence against women and police.
"Down By The River (I shot my lady)"
onto the brain of the anti-Nixon Neil
Young. Mostly the writing is meant to
mislead the public who repeatedly hear
popular songs many times in their life.
Many of us know the feeling of humming
a song, having no idea how the song got
into our head, that we suddenly realize
has lyrics that are clearly not to our
advantage. Very fast computers analyze
and can easily spin human thought into
their desired directions - mostly which
is to protect their direct-to-neuron
secret empire, to protect the murderers
(Frank Fiorini, Thane Cesar, the 9/11
killers being easily recognized
examples) of many thousands of
non-violent lawful people. For people
who understand about neuron writing,
which are few among excluded, you can
protect yourself to a certain extent by
realizing that the sounds or feeling in
your mind is sent there by violent
criminals trying to mislead the many
fine people who may watch your eyes and
hear your thought-audio, and so to
counter it with a positive and more
helpful message. The neuron writing is
many times very subtle and difficult to
detect, othertimes it seems somewhat
obvious. Because so many people listen
to mass-marketed pop music, wealthy
people buy ads in the music - and many
times the ads are bought from AT&T
neuron services to be neuron written
onto an artist- not bought from or paid
to the actual artist - who may be
excluded and completely unaware of
direct-to-brain windows. Think of more
likely examples of direct to brain
writing. For myself there are some
clear examples - two being "Is It
Dead?", "How Will They Take Me?"-
clearly the desired impression is
anything relating to suicide and
homicide - but after becoming aware of
this - I changed the theme of many of
my songs to "stop violence, teach
science", "lock up the violent, free
the nonviolent", "brain imaging
machine", etc. So the majority of my
early works, in particular, those after
I attained some popularity, are heavily
neuron writing influenced in mostly a
negative way. It may even be that many
of the songs that we think are original
are neuron written there. many of us
constantly feel our muscles moved
remotely and so you have to add up the
possibilities of what the view of those
on the other side is. I could place
this comment on any song - I don't know
if the lyrics of this song were
influenced by neuron writing - but it
wouldn't surprise me - for some violent
JFK killers to see some young talented
kids in the Bay area - become worried
about the love, science/education and
truth movement- and try to influence it
in a variety of ways - by making them
appear to be drug addicts,
perverted/sex crazed, for hippies to be
associated with violence, with
depression, sadness, despair - not
confidence, not sobriety, not
anti-violence, etc. So - many times the
original message is a positive and good
message - the violent neuron writers
taking only half of a song or a word
here or there. The first lyric in this
song is nice "When the truth is found
to be lies" - which applies to all the
thousands of lies - the red shift,
expanding universe, 19 hijackers, the
JFK, RFK murders, that people are far
from figuring out seeing and hearing
thought, etc....just thousands of lies
passed off as the truth to the majority
of the planet...or religious
claims...because eventually people have
to find out the truth.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Somebody to Love (Jefferson
Airplane song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somebody_to
_Love_%28Jefferson_Airplane_song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Somebody to Love
(Jefferson Airplane song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somebody_to
_Love_%28Jefferson_Airplane_song%29
4. ^ "Somebody to Love (Jefferson
Airplane song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somebody_to
_Love_%28Jefferson_Airplane_song%29
{11/03/1966 (recorded}
5. ^ "Somebody to Love
(Jefferson Airplane song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somebody_to
_Love_%28Jefferson_Airplane_song%29
{04/01/1967 (released}
San Francisco, California, USA3
(presumably) 		 
34 YBN
[12/19/1966 AD] 6 		5799)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. E. SAGAN, E. R. LIPPINCOTT, M.
O. DAYHOFF & R. V. ECK, "Organic
Molecules and the Coloration of
Jupiter", Nature 213, 273 - 274 (21
January 1967); doi:10.1038/213273a0
{Sagan_Carl_19661219.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.896-897.
3. ^ "Carl Sagan."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-sagan
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ C. E. SAGAN, E. R.
LIPPINCOTT, M. O. DAYHOFF & R. V. ECK,
"Organic Molecules and the Coloration
of Jupiter", Nature 213, 273 - 274 (21
January 1967); doi:10.1038/213273a0
{Sagan_Carl_19661219.pdf}
6. ^ C. E. SAGAN, E. R. LIPPINCOTT, M.
O. DAYHOFF & R. V. ECK, "Organic
Molecules and the Coloration of
Jupiter", Nature 213, 273 - 274 (21
January 1967); doi:10.1038/213273a0
{Sagan_Carl_19661219.pdf}
{12/19/1966}

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, 'The Radiation
Balance of Venus", Technical Report No.
32-34C. Calif. Inst. Technol. Jet
Propulsion Lab.
(09/15/1960). https://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.
gov/docushare/dsweb/Services/Document-16
71
and http://www.archive.org/details/nasa
_techdoc_19630039653
[2] Carl Sagan, "The Planet Venus",
Science, New Series, Vol. 133, No. 3456
(Mar. 24, 1961), pp.
849-858. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
06530
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (University of
Maryland) College Park, Maryland, USA
and (National Biomedical Research
Foundation) Silver Springs, Maryland,
USA5  
[1] Carl Sagan Description Carl Sagan
Planetary Society.JPG Part of
Image:Planetary society.jpg Original
caption: ''Founding of the Planetary
Society Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray and
Louis Friedman, the founders of The
Planetary Society at the time of
signing the papers formally
incorporating the organization. The
fourth person is Harry Ashmore, an
advisor, who greatly helped in the
founding of the Society. Ashmore was a
Pulitizer Prize winning journalist and
leader in the Civil Rights movement in
the 1960s and 70s.'' Date Source
Image:Planetary society.jpg
*
http://technology.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/i
ndex.cfm?page=imageDetail&ItemID=43&catI
d=9 *
http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/imag
es_videos/iv_pages/P22626ac.html also
here Author
NASA/JPL Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Carl_Sagan_Planetary_
Society.JPG

[2] Carl Sagan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.u
k/~garret/personal/carl.jpg
34 YBN
[12/19/1966 AD] 12 		5800)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cosmos", KCET, British
Broadcasting Corporation, 1980
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.896-897.
3. ^ "Carl Sagan."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 26 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-sagan
4. ^ "Cosmos", KCET, British
Broadcasting Corporation, 1980
5. ^
http://linguaspectrum.com/quotations/by_
author_english.php?quoteoftheday_author=
Carl%20Sagan
6. ^ "Cosmos", KCET, British
Broadcasting Corporation, 1980
7. ^
http://linguaspectrum.com/quotations/by_
author_english.php?quoteoftheday_author=
Carl%20Sagan
8. ^ "Cosmos", KCET, British
Broadcasting Corporation, 1980
9. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=10g31srD5
I8
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ C. E. SAGAN, E. R.
LIPPINCOTT, M. O. DAYHOFF & R. V. ECK,
"Organic Molecules and the Coloration
of Jupiter", Nature 213, 273 - 274 (21
January 1967); doi:10.1038/213273a0
{Sagan_Carl_19661219.pdf}
12. ^ C. E. SAGAN, E. R. LIPPINCOTT, M.
O. DAYHOFF & R. V. ECK, "Organic
Molecules and the Coloration of
Jupiter", Nature 213, 273 - 274 (21
January 1967); doi:10.1038/213273a0
{Sagan_Carl_19661219.pdf}
{12/19/1966}

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, 'The Radiation
Balance of Venus", Technical Report No.
32-34C. Calif. Inst. Technol. Jet
Propulsion Lab.
(09/15/1960). https://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.
gov/docushare/dsweb/Services/Document-16
71
and http://www.archive.org/details/nasa
_techdoc_19630039653
[2] Carl Sagan, "The Planet Venus",
Science, New Series, Vol. 133, No. 3456
(Mar. 24, 1961), pp.
849-858. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
06530
[3]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6pMA24hPw
4g
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA11  
[1] Carl Sagan Description Carl Sagan
Planetary Society.JPG Part of
Image:Planetary society.jpg Original
caption: ''Founding of the Planetary
Society Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray and
Louis Friedman, the founders of The
Planetary Society at the time of
signing the papers formally
incorporating the organization. The
fourth person is Harry Ashmore, an
advisor, who greatly helped in the
founding of the Society. Ashmore was a
Pulitizer Prize winning journalist and
leader in the Civil Rights movement in
the 1960s and 70s.'' Date Source
Image:Planetary society.jpg
*
http://technology.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/i
ndex.cfm?page=imageDetail&ItemID=43&catI
d=9 *
http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/imag
es_videos/iv_pages/P22626ac.html also
here Author
NASA/JPL Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Carl_Sagan_Planetary_
Society.JPG

[2] Carl Sagan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.u
k/~garret/personal/carl.jpg
33 YBN
[01/01/1967 AD] 5 6 		6120) The Doors release "Break on
Through (to the Other Side)".1

The song also appears as track one on
the band's debut album. Elektra
Records' censors objected to the drug
use implied by the line "she gets
high", which is repeated in the middle
section of the song (after the line
"everybody loves my baby"). The
original album version and all reissues
until the 1990s have the word "high"
deleted, with Morrison singing "she
gets" four times before a final wail.
Live versions and more recent,
remastered releases have the full line
portion restored.2

(I wonder if the idea of breaking
through to the other side relates to
those who do receive direct-to-brain
windows and those who do not. For
example did Morrison and the other
Doors get direct-to-brain windows? If
yes, then what they saw and wrote about
must be influenced by what they saw in
their eyes. The keyboard sounds is very
nice and fuzzy - or perhaps that is a
guitar - determine what kind of
keyboard.3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Break on Through (To the Other
Side)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Break_on_Th
rough_%28To_the_Other_Side%29
2. ^ "Break on Through (To the Other
Side)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Break_on_Th
rough_%28To_the_Other_Side%29
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Break on Through (To the
Other Side)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Break_on_Th
rough_%28To_the_Other_Side%29
5. ^ "Break on Through (To the Other
Side)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Break_on_Th
rough_%28To_the_Other_Side%29
{01/01/1967 (released}
6. ^ "Break on Through (To
the Other Side)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Break_on_Th
rough_%28To_the_Other_Side%29 {08/1966
(recorded}
Sunset Sound Studios, Los Angeles,
California, USA4  		 
33 YBN
[01/13/1967 AD] 3 		6125) The Rolling Stones release "Let's
Spend the Night Together".1

(There may be a hint about remote
neuron writing with "don't worry what's
on your mind."2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Let's Spend the Night Together".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s_Spe
nd_the_Night_Together
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Let's Spend the Night
Together". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s_Spe
nd_the_Night_Together {01/13/1967
(released}
  
33 YBN
[02/03/1967 AD] 4 		6119) Jimi Hendrix records "Purple
Haze".1

(This may mark the beginning of
distorted guitar and the dominate role
of the distorted guitar in pop and rock
music. This may be viewed as the
beginning of rock or hard rock music.
Jimi Hendrix was one of the many
people, like Elvis, John Lennon, JFK,
MLK, RFK, indirectly or directly
murdered at a young age by remote
neuron writer owners and consumers. The
intro is somewhat unusual and creative.
Hendrix's voice sounds a lot like a
saxophone. 1967 was a very prolific
year for music.2 )

FOOTNOTES
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
{01/11/1967 and 02/03/1967}


(De Lane Lea and Olympic Studios)
London, England3  		 
33 YBN
[02/13/1967 AD] 4 		6123) The Beatles release "Strawberry
Fields Forever".1

(This song, All you need is love, I am
the walrus, all represent a change from
strictly traditional pop music with few
instruments to a more orchestral type
composition. This year 1967 may
represent some kind of planetary high
point - which apparently somewhat
collapsed - perhaps with the murder of
MLK and RFK in 1968. Because science
has been a minority next to religions,
it seems like evil {violence and
dishonesty} will have the upper hand
for many centuries more probably.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Strawberry Fields Forever".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry_
Fields_Forever
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Strawberry Fields
Forever". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry_
Fields_Forever
4. ^ "Strawberry Fields Forever".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry_
Fields_Forever {02/13/1967}
(EMI Studios) London, England3   
33 YBN
[02/24/1967 AD] 8 		5715)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876-877.
2. ^ H. Kössel, A.
R. Morgan and H. G. Khorana, "Studies
on polynucleotides: LXXIII. Synthesis
in vitro of polypeptides containing
repeating tetrapeptide sequences
dependent upon DNA-like polymers
containing repeating tetranucleotide
sequences: Direction of reading of
messenger RNA", Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3, 28 June
1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19670224.pdf}
3. ^ H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_1966
1212.pdf}
4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
5. ^ MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Garen_Alan_1
9650605.pdf}
6. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf}
7. ^ H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan and H. G.
Khorana, "Studies on polynucleotides:
LXXIII. Synthesis in vitro of
polypeptides containing repeating
tetrapeptide sequences dependent upon
DNA-like polymers containing repeating
tetranucleotide sequences: Direction of
reading of messenger RNA", Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3,
28 June 1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19670224.pdf}
8. ^ H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan and H. G.
Khorana, "Studies on polynucleotides:
LXXIII. Synthesis in vitro of
polypeptides containing repeating
tetrapeptide sequences dependent upon
DNA-like polymers containing repeating
tetranucleotide sequences: Direction of
reading of messenger RNA", Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3,
28 June 1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
 {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19670224.pdf}
{02/24/1967}

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>
[2] "Har Gobind Khorana." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039
[5] H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc.,
24, 1473 (1965)
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA7  
[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
33 YBN
[04/03/1967 AD] 16 		6202)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Record ID6201. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ David Paul
Gregg, "TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC",
Patent number: 3430966, Filing date:
Apr 3, 1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
6. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
7. ^ Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
8. ^ Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical
Disk Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No.
4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
862-868. Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
9. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Efrem Sigel, Mark
Schubin, Paul F. Merrill, "Video
Discs", 1980,
p27. {Sigel_Video_Discs_1980.pdf}
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ David Paul
Gregg, "TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC",
Patent number: 3430966, Filing date:
Apr 3, 1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
15. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
16. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ {04/03/1967}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://inventors.about.com/od/ofamousinv
entions/a/Optical_Disk.htm
[2] Bricot, C.; Lehureau, J.C.; Puech,
C.; Le Carvennec, F.; , "Optical
Readout of Videodisc," Consumer
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.CE-22, no.4, pp.304-308, Nov.
1976 doi:
10.1109/TCE.1976.266827 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4042892&isnumber=4042879

[3] Lou, D.; Zernike, F.; Kenney, G.;
Chan, A.; Janssen, P.; McFarlane, R.;
Wagner, J.; , "A prototype optical disk
recorder," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.13, no.9, pp. 827, Sep
1977 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1977.1069481 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1069481&isnumber=22976
[4] W Barrett, "Developments in optical
disc technology and the implications
for information storage and retrieval",
The British Library Research &
Development Reports #5623,
1981 {Barrett_198106xx.pdf}
(Gauss Electrophysics, Inc), Santa
Monica, California, USA15  
[1] Figure from: David Paul Gregg,
''TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC'', Patent
number: 3430966, Filing date: Apr 3,
1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H6JnAAAAEBAJ
33 YBN
[06/01/1967 AD] 3 		6150) The Beatles release "Sgt.
Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club
Band (song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgt._Pepper
%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band_%28song%29
2. ^ "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club
Band (song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgt._Pepper
%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band_%28song%29
3. ^ "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club
Band (song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgt._Pepper
%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band_%28song%29
{06/01/1967 (released}
(EMI Studios) London, England2   
33 YBN
[06/25/1967 AD] 4 		6122) The Beatles record "All You Need
Is Love".1

(This period of song writing and
recording by the Beatles introduces are
larger focus on the traditional
orchestral string instruments which
adds a much fuller, richer and more
professional, sophisticated sound. This
is like a mixing of old-world classical
with new age guitar-based vocal pop.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "All you need is love".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_you_nee
d_is_love
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "All you need is love".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_you_nee
d_is_love
4. ^ "All you need is love". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_you_nee
d_is_love {06/14/1967 and 06/25/1967
(recorded}
(Olympic and EMI studios) London,
England3  		 
33 YBN
[07/03/1967 AD] 8 		5683)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roald Hoffmann, Robert B.
Woodward, "Conservation of orbital
symmetry", Acc. Chem. Res., 1968, 1
(1), pp 17–22. DOI:
10.1021/ar50001a003 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ar50001a003 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19670703.pdf}
2. ^ "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
(I)
4. ^ Roald Hoffmann, Robert B.
Woodward, "Conservation of orbital
symmetry", Acc. Chem. Res., 1968, 1
(1), pp 17–22. DOI:
10.1021/ar50001a003 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ar50001a003 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19670703.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ L. H. Conover,
K. Butler, J. D. Johnston, J. J. Korst,
R. B. Woodward, "The Total Synthesis of
6-Demethyl-6-Deoxytetracycline", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1962, 84 (16), pp
3222–3224 DOI:
10.1021/ja00875a063 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00875a063 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19620630.pdf}
8. ^ Roald Hoffmann, Robert B.
Woodward, "Conservation of orbital
symmetry", Acc. Chem. Res., 1968, 1
(1), pp 17–22. DOI:
10.1021/ar50001a003 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ar50001a003 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19670703.pdf} {07/03/1967}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. 15
Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[3] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[4] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[5] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[6] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
[7] R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001
[8] Edmund C. Kornfeld, E. J.
Fornefeld, G. Bruce Kline, Marjorie J.
Mann, Reuben G. Jones, R. B. Woodward,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID
AND ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100
[9] R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava, W.
D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker, K.
Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088
[10] R. B. Woodward, F. E. Bader, H.
Bickel, A. J. Frey, R. W. Kierstead,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF RESERPINE", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78 (9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079
[11] R. B. Woodward, W. A. Ayer, J. M.
Beaton, F. Bickelhaupt, R. Bonnett, P.
Buchschacher, G. L. Closs, H. Dutler,
J. Hannah, F. P. Hauck, S. Itô, A.
Langemann, E. Le Goff, W. Leimgruber,
W. Lwowski, J. Sauer, Z. Valenta, H.
Volz, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1960,
82 (14), pp 3800–3802 DOI:
10.1021/ja01499a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01499a093
[12] William Moffitt, R. B. Woodward,
A. Moscowitz, W. Klyne, Carl Djerassi,
"Structure and the Optical Rotatory
Dispersion of Saturated Ketones", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1961, 83 (19), pp
4013–4018 DOI:
10.1021/ja01480a015 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01483a054
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York, USA)7
 
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

33 YBN
[11/24/1967 AD] 4 		6124) The Beatles release "I am the
Walrus".1

(Probably there is neuron writing in
this song - for example trying to
associate police with pigs, and what
might be misinterpreted as an
anti-police message - the goal being to
try and turn the large unified police
group away from enjoying or having a
positive view of the Beatles. From the
violent people perspective - they
probably felt and feel that they need
to somehow lower the popularity of the
Beatles and they did this by trying to
make them say things that play on
popular mistaken beliefs about them or
their views. The snare drum sounds nice
- perhaps recorded twice or some kind
of electronic effect? Determine what
effect was used.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I Am The Walrus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_The_Wa
lrus
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "I Am The Walrus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_The_Wa
lrus
4. ^ "I Am The Walrus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_The_Wa
lrus {11/24/1967}
(EMI Studios) London, England3   
33 YBN
[12/03/1967 AD] 6 7 		5725)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barnard, "A human cardiac
transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town",
SAMJ. South African medical journal,
(1967) volume: 41 page:
1271 http://archive.samj.org.za/index.p
hp?path=/1967%20VOL%20XLI%20Jul-Dec/Arti
cles/12%20December {Barnard_Christiaan_
Neethling.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.877-878.
3. ^ "Christiaan
Barnard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 24
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53606/Christiaan-Barnard>.
4. ^ Barnard, "A human cardiac
transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town",
SAMJ. South African medical journal,
(1967) volume: 41 page:
1271 http://archive.samj.org.za/index.p
hp?path=/1967%20VOL%20XLI%20Jul-Dec/Arti
cles/12%20December {Barnard_Christiaan_
Neethling.pdf}
5. ^ Barnard, "A human cardiac
transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town",
SAMJ. South African medical journal,
(1967) volume: 41 page:
1271 http://archive.samj.org.za/index.p
hp?path=/1967%20VOL%20XLI%20Jul-Dec/Arti
cles/12%20December {Barnard_Christiaan_
Neethling.pdf}
6. ^ Barnard, "A human cardiac
transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town",
SAMJ. South African medical journal,
(1967) volume: 41 page:
1271 http://archive.samj.org.za/index.p
hp?path=/1967%20VOL%20XLI%20Jul-Dec/Arti
cles/12%20December {Barnard_Christiaan_
Neethling.pdf} {12/03/1967}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.877-878.
{12/03/1967}
(University of Cape Town and Groote
Schuur Hospital) Cape Town, South
Africa5  
[1] Description: Image of
Christiaan Barnard . Source:
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=295
13&rendTypeId=4 Rationale for use on
wikipedia: 1.No free equivalent
exists that would effectively identify
the article's subject - no free images
have been allocated for this
person. 2.The image does not in any
way limit the ability of the copyright
owners to market or sell their
product. 3.The image is only used once
and is rendered in low resolution to
avoid piracy. 4.The image has been
published outside Wikipedia; see source
above. 5.The image meets general
Wikipedia content requirements and is
encyclopedic. 6.The image meets
Wikipedia's media-specific
policy. 7.The image is used in the
article wiki-linked in the section
title. 8.No free images have been
allocated for this person 9.The image
is needed to identify the person for
educational purposes in an encyclopedia
entry and significantly improves the
quality of the article. 10.The image
has a brief description that identifies
the image, notes the source, and
provides attribution to the copyright
holder. 11.A replaceable free image
for this person is impossible as he/she
is deceased COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1d/Christiaan_Barnard.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 		3982)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
2. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/RC
A_Laboratories_at_Princeton,_New_Jersey

MORE INFO
[1] H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE [0018-9219] Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
[2] R. Williams, "Electro-Optical
Elements Utilizing an Organic Nematic
Compound,” U.S. Patent 3 322 485,
filed Nov. 9, 1962, issued May 30, 1967
[3]
R. Williams, “Domains in liquid
crystals,” J. Phys. Chem., vol. 39,
pp. 382–388, July 1963.
RCA Labs2 , Princeton, New Jersey, USA3
 
[1] The first all-electronic digital
clock with liquid crystal read-out
(1967). COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}

[2] An early liquid crystal numeric
display 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 3 		4558)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp/booklet
/kato_3.html
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp/booklet
/kato_3.html {1967}
unknown 
[1] Before Injection of Compressed Air
(1968) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/RubberArtificialMuscle1-1
968.jpg

[2] After Injection of Compressed Air
(1968) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/RubberArtificialMuscle2-1
968.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 14 		5341) In 1980 the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1980 is awarded
jointly to Baruj Benacerraf, Jean
Dausset and George D. Snell "for their
discoveries concerning genetically
determined structures on the cell
surface that regulate immunological
reactions".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p798.
2. ^ "George Davis
Snell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 20 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-davi
s-snell
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p557.
4. ^ "George Davis Snell." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-davi
s-snell
5. ^ "George Davis Snell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 19 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/550434/George-Davis-Snell>.
6. ^ "George Davis Snell." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-davi
s-snell
7. ^ "histology." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 20 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/histology
8. ^ Snell, "Histocompatibility genes
of mice VII. H-13, a new
histocompatibility locus in the fifth
linkage group", Transplantation,
(1967), volume: 5 issue: 3 page:
492. http://journals.lww.com/transplant
journal/abstract/1967/05000/histocompati
bility_genes_of_mice_vii__h_13,_a_new.11
.aspx {Snell_George_D_19661114.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1980". Nobelprize.org. 20 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1980/
13. ^ Snell, "Histocompatibility genes
of mice VII. H-13, a new
histocompatibility locus in the fifth
linkage group", Transplantation,
(1967), volume: 5 issue: 3 page:
492. http://journals.lww.com/transplant
journal/abstract/1967/05000/histocompati
bility_genes_of_mice_vii__h_13,_a_new.11
.aspx {Snell_George_D_19661114.pdf}
14. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p557. {1967}

MORE INFO
[1] Snell, "The H-2 locus of the
mouse: observations and speculations
concerning its comparative genetics and
its polymorphism.", Folia biologica,
(1968) volume: 14 issue: 5 page: 335
-58.
(Oak Ridge national Laboratory) Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, USA13  
[1] George Davis Snell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/snell.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 5 6 		5845)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://education.ti.com/educationportal/
sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_re
lease_news37.html
2. ^
http://education.ti.com/educationportal/
sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_re
lease_news37.html
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p99.
4. ^
"Texas Instruments." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/texas-instr
uments
5. ^
http://education.ti.com/educationportal/
sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_re
lease_news37.html {1967}
6. ^ "Texas
Instruments." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/texas-instr
uments {1967}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p567
(Texas Instruments) Dallas, Texas, USA4
 
[1] TI-2500 ''Datamath'', 1st.
version. The first version of the
Datamath can be distinguished by the
combined CE/D key, which is used to
Clear the last Entry and to refresh the
Display, which extinguishes, except for
the first digit, after the calculator
has not been used for about 15
seconds. This version is also the
only one which has 6 AA rechargeable
cells, see photograph below. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vintagecalculators.co
m/assets/images/TI25001_1.JPG
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 2 		6118) Aretha Franklin records a version
of Otis Redding's song "Respect".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Respect (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect_%28
song%29
2. ^ "Respect (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect_%28
song%29 {1967}
  
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 2 		6344)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Theodore Flicker, "The
President's Analyst", Paramount
Pictures,
1967. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uU
a3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
2. ^ Theodore Flicker, "The President's
Analyst", Paramount Pictures,
1967. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uU
a3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
 
[1] ''The Cerebrum Communicator''
from:
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u
Ua3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
32 YBN
[01/25/1968 AD] 9 		5755) In 1978, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans
and Hamilton O. Smith "for the
discovery of restriction enzymes and
their application to problems of
molecular genetics".7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Werner Arber." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/32302/Werner-Arber>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.888-889.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.888-889.
4. ^ "Werner
Arber." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/32302/Werner-Arber>.
5. ^ S Linn and W Arber, "Host
specificity of DNA produced by
Escherichia coli, X. In vitro
restriction of phage fd replicative
form.", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1968
April; 59(4): 1300–1306.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC224867/ {Arber_Werner_19680125.pd
f}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1978".
Nobelprize.org. 5 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1978/
8. ^ S Linn and W Arber, "Host
specificity of DNA produced by
Escherichia coli, X. In vitro
restriction of phage fd replicative
form.", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1968
April; 59(4): 1300–1306.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC224867/ {Arber_Werner_19680125.pd
f}
9. ^ S Linn and W Arber, "Host
specificity of DNA produced by
Escherichia coli, X. In vitro
restriction of phage fd replicative
form.", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1968
April; 59(4): 1300–1306.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC224867/ {Arber_Werner_19680125.pd
f} {01/25/1968}

MORE INFO
[1] Kühnlein U, Linn S, Arber
W., "Host specificity of DNA produced
by Escherichia coli. XI. In vitro
modification of phage fd replicative
form.", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1969
Jun;63(2):556-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/pubmed/4895540
(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland8  
[1] Werner Arber Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/arber_
postcard.jpg
32 YBN
[02/09/1968 AD] 18 		5739) In 1974, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Sir
Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish "for
their pioneering research in radio
astrophysics: Ryle for his observations
and inventions, in particular of the
aperture synthesis technique, and
Hewish for his decisive role in the
discovery of pulsars".16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
2. ^ "Jocelyn Bell Burnell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/59610/Jocelyn-Bell-Burnell>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.880-881.
4. ^ "Antony Hewish."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264514/Antony-Hewish>.
5. ^ "Jocelyn Bell Burnell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/59610/Jocelyn-Bell-Burnell>.
6. ^ "pulsar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/483227/pulsar>.
7. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1974". Nobelprize.org. 1 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1974/
17. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
18. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
{02/09/1968}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pulsar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England17  
[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html

[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg
32 YBN
[02/27/1968 AD] 10 		5759) Charpak’s family moves from
Poland to Paris when he is seven years
old. During World War II Charpak serves
in the resistance and is imprisoned by
Vichy authorities in 1943. In 1944 he
is deported to the Nazi concentration
camp at Dachau, where he remains until
the camp is liberated in 1945.7

In 1992, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded to Georges Charpak "for his
invention and development of particle
detectors, in particular the multiwire
proportional chamber".8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
2. ^ "Georges Charpak." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/107627/Georges-Charpak>.
3. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
4. ^ "Georges Charpak." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/107627/Georges-Charpak>.
5. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Georges Charpak."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/107627/Georges-Charpak>.
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1992".
Nobelprize.org. 7 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1992/
9. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
10. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
{02/27/1968}
(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland9  
[1] Georges Charpak Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1992/charpak
_postcard.jpg
32 YBN
[03/11/1968 AD] 7 		5754)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan,
"DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli",
Nature, (1968) volume: 217 issue:
5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html {Mese
lson_Matthew_19680311.pdf}
2. ^ Stanley N. Cohen, Annie C. Y.
Chang, Herbert W. Boyer, and Robert B.
Helling, "Construction of Biologically
Functional Bacterial Plasmids In
Vitro", PNAS November 1, 1973 vol.
70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
3. ^ Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan,
"DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli",
Nature, (1968) volume: 217 issue:
5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html {Mese
lson_Matthew_19680311.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~rwinning/ge
netics/bactrec.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Matthew Meselson and
Robert Yuan, "DNA restriction enzyme
from E. coli", Nature, (1968) volume:
217 issue: 5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html {Mese
lson_Matthew_19680311.pdf}
7. ^ Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan,
"DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli",
Nature, (1968) volume: 217 issue:
5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html {Mese
lson_Matthew_19680311.pdf} {03/11/1968}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA6  		 
32 YBN
[04/16/1968 AD] 9 		5745)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ MANFRED E. BAYER, BARUCH S.
BLUMBERG & BARBARA WERNER, "Particles
associated with Australia Antigen in
the Sera of Patients with Leukaemia,
Down's Syndrome and Hepatitis", Nature
218, 1057 - 1059 (15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df}
2. ^ Baruch S. Blumberg, MD, Harvey J.
Alter, MD, "A "New" Antigen in Leukemia
Sera", JAMA. 1965;191(7):541-546. doi:
10.1001/jama.1965.03080070025007 http:/
/jama.ama-assn.org/content/191/7/541.sho
rt
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882.
4. ^ "Baruch S.
Blumberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/70555/Baruch-S-Blumberg>.
5. ^ Caroline Richmond, "Baruch
Blumberg obituary, Biochemist whose
work on hepatitis B won him a Nobel
prize", guardian.co.uk, Thursday 7
April 2011 18.13
BST. http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/
2011/apr/07/baruch-blumberg-obituary
6. ^ "Baruch S. Blumberg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/70555/Baruch-S-Blumberg>.
7. ^ MANFRED E. BAYER, BARUCH S.
BLUMBERG & BARBARA WERNER, "Particles
associated with Australia Antigen in
the Sera of Patients with Leukaemia,
Down's Syndrome and Hepatitis", Nature
218, 1057 - 1059 (15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df}
8. ^ MANFRED E. BAYER, BARUCH S.
BLUMBERG & BARBARA WERNER, "Particles
associated with Australia Antigen in
the Sera of Patients with Leukaemia,
Down's Syndrome and Hepatitis", Nature
218, 1057 - 1059 (15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df}
9. ^ MANFRED E. BAYER, BARUCH S.
BLUMBERG & BARBARA WERNER, "Particles
associated with Australia Antigen in
the Sera of Patients with Leukaemia,
Down's Syndrome and Hepatitis", Nature
218, 1057 - 1059 (15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df} {04/16/1968}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1976".
Nobelprize.org. 2 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1976/
[2] Baruch S. Blumberg, "Hepatitis B:
The Hunt for a Killer Virus", Princeton
university Press,
2003. http://press.princeton.edu/titles
/7248.html
(The Institute for Cancer Research)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA8  
[1] Figure 2 from: MANFRED E. BAYER,
BARUCH S. BLUMBERG & BARBARA WERNER,
''Particles associated with Australia
Antigen in the Sera of Patients with
Leukaemia, Down's Syndrome and
Hepatitis'', Nature 218, 1057 - 1059
(15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v218/n5146/abs/2181057a0.html

[2] Baruch S. Blumberg Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/blumberg.jpg
32 YBN
[11/16/1968 AD] 4 		5808)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert H. Mazur, James M.
Schlatter, Arthur H. Goldkamp,
"Structure-taste relationships of some
dipeptides", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1969 91 (10),
2684-2691 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01038a046 {Schlatter_James_M_1
9681116.pdf}
2. ^ Robert H. Mazur, James M.
Schlatter, Arthur H. Goldkamp,
"Structure-taste relationships of some
dipeptides", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1969 91 (10),
2684-2691 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01038a046 {Schlatter_James_M_1
9681116.pdf}
3. ^ Robert H. Mazur, James M.
Schlatter, Arthur H. Goldkamp,
"Structure-taste relationships of some
dipeptides", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1969 91 (10),
2684-2691 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01038a046 {Schlatter_James_M_1
9681116.pdf}
4. ^ Robert H. Mazur, James M.
Schlatter, Arthur H. Goldkamp,
"Structure-taste relationships of some
dipeptides", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1969 91 (10),
2684-2691 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01038a046 {Schlatter_James_M_1
9681116.pdf} {11/16/1968}
(G. D. Searle and Co.) Skokie,
Illinois, USA3  		 
32 YBN
[11/21/1968 AD] 3 		6126) Jimi Hendrix releases "Crosstown
Traffic".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Crosstown Traffic (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstown_T
raffic_%28song%29
2. ^ "Crosstown Traffic (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstown_T
raffic_%28song%29
3. ^ "Crosstown Traffic (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstown_T
raffic_%28song%29 {11/21/1968
(released}
(Record Plant Studios) New York City,
New York, USA2  		 
32 YBN
[12/24/1968 AD] 5 		5604)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A {12/24/1968}
Moon of Earth4   
32 YBN
[1968 AD] 5 		5243)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ SA Benton, "Hologram
reconstructions with extended light
sources", Journal of the Optical
Society of America. B, Optical physics
0740-3224. ^ Benton (1969) volume:
59 page: 1545
2. ^ SA Benton, "On a method
for reducing the information content of
holograms", Journal of the Optical
Society of America. B, Optical physics
0740-3224. ^ Benton (1969) volume:
59 page: 1545
3. ^ "hologram." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hologram
4. ^ http://web.media.mit.edu/~sab/
5. ^ "hologram." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 03 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hologram
{1968}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p774-775.
[2] "Dennis Gabor -
Autobiography". Nobelprize.org. 3 Feb
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1971/gabor-autobio.html
[3] Dr. D. Gabor, "A New Microscopic
Principle", Nature 161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2
[4] "Dennis Gabor." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dennis-gabo
r
[5] EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Reconstructed Wavefronts
and Communication Theory", JOSA, Vol.
52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123
[6] EMMETT N. LEITH and JURIS
UPATNIEKS, "Wavefront Reconstruction
with Diffused Illumination and
Three-Dimensional Objects", JOSA, Vol.
54, Issue 11, pp.
1295-1301. http://www.opticsinfobase.or
g/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295
[7] Denisyuk, Yu. N., "Photographic
Reconstruction of the Optical
Properties of an Object in Its Own
Scattered Radiation Field", Soviet
Physics Doklady, Vol. 7,
p.543. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
62SPhD....7..543D
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA4
(presumably) 
[1] Stephen A. Benton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.media.mit.edu/~sab/ph
otos/SABenton.GIF

[2] Figure 1 from: Dr. D. Gabor, ''A
New Microscopic Principle'', Nature
161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v161/n4098/pdf/161777a0.pdf
31 YBN
[03/07/1969 AD] 2 		6129) The Who record "I'm Free".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I'm Free (The Who song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_Free_
%28The_Who_song%29
2. ^ "I'm Free (The Who song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_Free_
%28The_Who_song%29 {03/07/1969 (end
recording}
  
31 YBN
[03/21/1969 AD] 12 		5776) In 1972, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Gerald M. Edelman and Rodney
R. Porter "for their discoveries
concerning the chemical structure of
antibodies".8

Edelman writes "Neural Darwinism"
(1987), which may have information
about the neuron owner unnatural
selection of who gets direct-to-brain
windows and who doesn't, which results
in an unnecessary genocide of those who
the owners of AT&T view as troublesome
- which usually implies that they are
very ethical and honest, non-racist,
fair-minded, etc.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gerald M. Edelman, Bruce A.
Cunningham, W. Einar Gall, Paul D.
Gottlieb, Urs Rutishauser, and Myron J.
Waxdal, "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN
ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE",
PNAS May 1, 1969 vol. 63 no. 1
78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889.
3. ^ "Gerald Maurice
Edelman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 09
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178959/Gerald-Maurice-Edelman>.
4. ^ "Gerald Edelman." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-edel
man
5. ^ Gerald M. Edelman, Bruce A.
Cunningham, W. Einar Gall, Paul D.
Gottlieb, Urs Rutishauser, and Myron J.
Waxdal, "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN
ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE",
PNAS May 1, 1969 vol. 63 no. 1
78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1972".
Nobelprize.org. 9 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1972/
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Gerald M. Edelman, Bruce
A. Cunningham, W. Einar Gall, Paul D.
Gottlieb, Urs Rutishauser, and Myron J.
Waxdal, "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN
ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE",
PNAS May 1, 1969 vol. 63 no. 1
78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf}
11. ^ "Gerald Maurice Edelman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 09 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178959/Gerald-Maurice-Edelman>.
12. ^ Gerald M. Edelman, Bruce A.
Cunningham, W. Einar Gall, Paul D.
Gottlieb, Urs Rutishauser, and Myron J.
Waxdal, "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN
ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE",
PNAS May 1, 1969 vol. 63 no. 1
78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf} {03/21/1969}
(The Rockefeller University) New York
City, New York, USA10 11  
[1] Figure 1 from: [4] Gerald M.
Edelman, Bruce A. Cunningham, W. Einar
Gall, Paul D. Gottlieb, Urs
Rutishauser, and Myron J. Waxdal, ''THE
COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN ENTIRE γG
IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE'', PNAS May 1,
1969 vol. 63 no. 1 78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1
/78.short

[2] Gerald Maurice Edelman Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1972/edelman.jpg
31 YBN
[04/??/1969 AD] 9 		5576)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Vaughan, "The
Relationship of Brain Activity to Scalp
Recordings of Event-Related Potentials"
in the book Emmanuel Donchin, "Average
Evoked Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA, 1969,
p45. {evoked002.pdf}
2. ^ Emmanuel Donchin, "Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA,
1969. {evoked001.pdf}
3. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
4. ^ Emmanuel Donchin, "Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA,
1969. {evoked001.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Herbert
Vaughan, "The Relationship of Brain
Activity to Scalp Recordings of
Event-Related Potentials" in the book
Emmanuel Donchin, "Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA, 1969,
p45. {evoked002.pdf}
9. ^ Herbert Vaughan, "The Relationship
of Brain Activity to Scalp Recordings
of Event-Related Potentials" in the
book Emmanuel Donchin, "Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA, 1969,
p45. {evoked002.pdf} {04/1969}
(Albert Einstein College of Medicine)
Bronx, New York, USA8  
[1] Herbert Vaughan, ''The Relationship
of Brain Activity to Scalp Recordings
of Event-Related Potentials'' in the
book Emmanuel Donchin, ''Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations'', NASA, 1969,
p45. {evoked002.pdf} PD
source: evoked002.pdf

[2] Herbert Vaughan, ''The
Relationship of Brain Activity to Scalp
Recordings of Event-Related
Potentials'' in the book Emmanuel
Donchin, ''Average Evoked Potentials
Methods, Results and Evaluations'',
NASA, 1969, p45. {evoked002.pdf} PD
source: evoked002.pdf
31 YBN
[07/11/1969 AD] 3 4 		6161) David Bowie releases "Space
Oddity".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Space Oddity (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Oddit
y_%28song%29
2. ^ "Space Oddity (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Oddit
y_%28song%29
3. ^ "Space Oddity (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Oddit
y_%28song%29 {07/11/1969 (released}
4. ^ "Space
Oddity (song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Oddit
y_%28song%29 {06/20/1969 (recorded}
(Trident Studios) London, England2
 		 
31 YBN
[07/21/1969 AD] 11 		655)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.892.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
11. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C {07/21/1969}
{Armstrong walks on Moon on:)
07/21/1969}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMINSD7Mm
T4
Moon of Earth10  
[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg

[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg
31 YBN
[07/28/1969 AD] 21 		5795)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. M. ADAMS, P. G. N. JEPPESEN,
F. SANGER & B. G. BARRELL, "Nucleotide
Sequence from the Coat Protein Cistron
of R17 Bacteriophage RNA", Nature 223,
1009 - 1014 (06 September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f}
2. ^ "Frederick Sanger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/522340/Frederick-Sanger>.
3. ^ J. M. ADAMS, P. G. N. JEPPESEN, F.
SANGER & B. G. BARRELL, "Nucleotide
Sequence from the Coat Protein Cistron
of R17 Bacteriophage RNA", Nature 223,
1009 - 1014 (06 September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f}
4. ^ "Frederick Sanger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/522340/Frederick-Sanger>.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Radoslav Bachvaroff and
Philip R. B. McMaster, "Separation of
Microsomal RNA into Five Bands during
Agar Electrophoresis", Science, New
Series, Vol. 143, No. 3611 (Mar. 13,
1964), pp.
1177-1179 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
712683 {Bachvaroff_Radoslav_19640114.pd
f}
7. ^ R. Bachvaroff, M. Yomtov, T. K.
Nikolov, Ann. Repts. Res. Inst.
Epidemiol. Microbiol., Sofia, Bulgaria
(1962).
8. ^ Record ID5794. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Robert W.
Holley, Jean Apgar, George A. Everett,
James T. Madison, Mark Marquisee, Susan
H. Merrill, John Robert Penswick and
Ada Zamir, "Structure of a Ribonucleic
Acid", Science, New Series, Vol. 147,
No. 3664 (Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
10. ^ Record ID5719. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ J. M. ADAMS,
P. G. N. JEPPESEN, F. SANGER & B. G.
BARRELL, "Nucleotide Sequence from the
Coat Protein Cistron of R17
Bacteriophage RNA", Nature 223, 1009 -
1014 (06 September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f}
12. ^ "transcription." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transcripti
on
13. ^ "translation." Genetics. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 21 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/translation

14. ^ "Walter Gilbert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/233548/Walter-Gilbert>.
15. ^ "Walter Gilbert." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-gilb
ert
16. ^ Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam,
"The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac
Operator", PNAS December 1, 1973
vol. 70 no. 12 3581-3584
http://www.pnas.org/content/70/12/3581
.short {Gilbert_Walter_19730809.pdf}
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted
Huntington.
20. ^ J. M. ADAMS, P. G. N. JEPPESEN,
F. SANGER & B. G. BARRELL, "Nucleotide
Sequence from the Coat Protein Cistron
of R17 Bacteriophage RNA", Nature 223,
1009 - 1014 (06 September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f}
21. ^ J. M. ADAMS, P. G. N. JEPPESEN,
F. SANGER & B. G. BARRELL, "Nucleotide
Sequence from the Coat Protein Cistron
of R17 Bacteriophage RNA", Nature 223,
1009 - 1014 (06 September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f} {07/28/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1958". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1958/
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1980". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
[3] F. Sanger, "The free amino groups
of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
[4] "Frederick Sanger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
anger
[5] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification
of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198157/
[6] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 2. The investigation
of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3):
366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/
[7] "insulin." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/insulin
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.868.
[9] Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England20  
[1] Figure 8 from: J. M. ADAMS, P. G.
N. JEPPESEN, F. SANGER & B. G. BARRELL,
''Nucleotide Sequence from the Coat
Protein Cistron of R17 Bacteriophage
RNA'', Nature 223, 1009 - 1014 (06
September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v223/n5210/abs/2231009a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
31 YBN
[09/15/1969 AD] 13 		5753) In 1978, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans
and Hamilton O. Smith "for the
discovery of restriction enzymes and
their application to problems of
molecular genetics".11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Smith, H. 0. & Wilcox, K. W.
(1969). Fed.Proc. 28, 465.
2. ^ Hamilton O.
Smith, K. W. Welcox, A Restriction
enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae : I.
Purification and general properties,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
379-391, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
3. ^ Thomas J. Kelly Jr., Hamilton O.
Smith, A restriction enzyme from
Hemophilus influenzae : II. Base
sequence of the recognition site,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
393-409, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90150-6. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4C/2/e72b69d6b9adac3ce561df0c
581747e3) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19700218.pd
f}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887,893.
5. ^ "Hamilton
Othanel Smith." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/549744/Hamilton-Othanel-Smith>.
6. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A
Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
7. ^ Kathleen Danna and Daniel Nathans,
"Specific Cleavage of Simian Virus 40
DNA by Restriction Endonuclease of
Hemophilus Influenzae", PNAS December
1, 1971 vol. 68 no. 12 2913-2917
http://www.pnas.org/content/68/12/2913
.short {Nathans_Daniel_19710922.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887,893.
9. ^ "Daniel
Nathans." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/404195/Daniel-Nathans>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1978".
Nobelprize.org. 5 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1978/
12. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox,
A Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
13. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox,
A Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} {09/15/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] W Arber, and S Linn, "DNA
Modification and Restriction", Annual
Review of Biochemistry, Vol. 38:
467-500 (Volume publication date July
1969), DOI:
10.1146/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343 htt
p://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.114
6/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343
[2] Werner Arber, "Host-controlled
modification of bacteriophage", Annual
review of microbiology, (1965) volume:
19 issue: 1 page:
365. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/a
bs/10.1146/annurev.mi.19.100165.002053
[3] Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan,
"DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli",
Nature, (1968) volume: 217 issue:
5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html
(Johns Hopkins University, School of
Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland, USA12
 
[1] Hamilton O. Smith Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/smith_
postcard.jpg

[2] Daniel Nathans Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/nathan
s_postcard.jpg
31 YBN
[09/26/1969 AD] 3 		6128) The Beatles release "Here Comes
The Sun".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Here comes the sun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here_comes_
the_sun
2. ^ "Abbey Road". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Road
3. ^ "Here comes the sun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here_comes_
the_sun {09/26/1969 (released}
(EMI, Olympic and/or Trident Studios)
London, England2  		 
31 YBN
[10/10/1969 AD] 4 		5469)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. J. ADAMS, T. L. BLUNDELL, E.
J. DODSON, G. G. DODSON, M. VIJAYAN, E.
N. BAKER, M. M. HARDING, D. C. HODGKIN,
B. RIMMER & S. SHEAT, "Structure of
Rhombohedral 2 Zinc Insulin Crystals",
Nature 224, 491 - 495 (01 November
1969);
doi:10.1038/224491a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v224/n5218/abs/22449
1a0.html {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1969
1010.pdf}
2. ^ "Dorothy Hodgkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorothy-cro
wfoot-hodgkin
3. ^ "Dorothy Hodgkin." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorothy-cro
wfoot-hodgkin
4. ^ M. J. ADAMS, T. L. BLUNDELL, E. J.
DODSON, G. G. DODSON, M. VIJAYAN, E. N.
BAKER, M. M. HARDING, D. C. HODGKIN, B.
RIMMER & S. SHEAT, "Structure of
Rhombohedral 2 Zinc Insulin Crystals",
Nature 224, 491 - 495 (01 November
1969);
doi:10.1038/224491a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v224/n5218/abs/22449
1a0.html {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1969
1010.pdf} {10/10/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p834.
[2] "Alexander Todd."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-t
odd
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1957". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1957/
[4] Thomas Spence Work, Franz Bergel,
and Alexander Robertus Todd, "The
active principles of Cannabis indica
resin. I", Biochem J. 1939 January;
33(1): 123–127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1264344/
[5] A. JACOB & A. R. TODD,
"Cannabidiol and Cannabol, Constituents
of Cannabis indica Resin", Nature 145,
350-350 (02 March
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v145/n3670/abs/145350a0.html
[6] BADDILEY J, TODD AR., "Nucleotides;
muscle adenylic acid and adenosine
diphosphate.", J Chem Soc. 1947
May:648-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/20253206
[7] "Alexander Robertus Todd, Baron
Todd." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/597909/Alexander-Robertus-Todd-Baron-T
odd-of-Trumpington>.
[8] AM Michelson, AR Todd,
"Nucleotides, Part II. A. synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate", J. Chem. Soc.
London, 1949.
[9] AR Todd, "Structure and
synthesis of nucleotides.", Symposia of
the Society for Experimental …, 1947.
[10]
R. BONNETT, J. R. CANNON, A. W.
JOHNSON, I. SUTHERLAND, A. R. TODD & E.
LESTER SMITH, " Structure of Vitamin
B12 : The Structure of Vitamin B12 and
its Hexacarboxylic Acid Degradation
Product", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/
[11] DOROTHY CROWFOOT HODGKIN, JENNY
PICKWORTH, JOHN H. ROBERTSON, KENNETH
N. TRUEBLOOD, RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN
G. WHITE, "The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin ", Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/
[12] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Jennifer
Kamper, June Lindsey, Maureen MacKay,
Jenny Pickworth, J. H. Robertson, Clara
Brink Shoemaker, J. G. White, R. J.
Prosen and K. N. Trueblood, "The
Structure of Vitamin B12 I. An Outline
of the Crystallographic Investigation
of Vitamin B12", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 242, No. 1229 (Oct. 29,
1957), pp. 228-263
http://www.jstor.org/stable/100311
[13] "Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1964/hodgkin.html
[14] DC Hodgkin, "The X-ray analysis of
the structure of penicillin.", The
Advancement of science, (1949) volume:
6 issue: 22 page: 85 -9.
[15] "The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1964".
Nobelprize.org. 8 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1964/
(Oxford University) Oxford, England3
 
[1] Figure 2 from: M. J. ADAMS, T. L.
BLUNDELL, E. J. DODSON, G. G. DODSON,
M. VIJAYAN, E. N. BAKER, M. M. HARDING,
D. C. HODGKIN, B. RIMMER & S. SHEAT,
''Structure of Rhombohedral 2 Zinc
Insulin Crystals'', Nature 224, 491 -
495 (01 November 1969);
doi:10.1038/224491a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v224/n5218/abs/22449
1a0.html {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1969
1010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v224/n5218/abs/224491a0.html

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg
31 YBN
[10/29/1969 AD] 16 		5733) In 1939 Guillemin with his family
fleas Poland with the Nazi invasion.13


In 1977, the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is divided, one half
jointly to Roger Guillemin and Andrew
V. Schally "for their discoveries
concerning the peptide hormone
production of the brain" and the other
half to Rosalyn Yalow "for the
development of radioimmunoassays of
peptide hormones".14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/
article/002380.htm
2. ^ R. Burgus, T. F. Dunn, D.
Desiderio, R. Guillemin, "Structure
moleculaire du facteur hypothalamique
hypophysiotrope TRF d'origine ovine:
mise en evidence par spectrometrie de
masse de la sequence PCA-His-Pro-NH2.
", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l'Académie des sciences.
D, Sciences naturelles, Paris 269, 1870
(1969).
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
480284m/f2125.image {Guillemin_Roger_19
691029.pdf} English: "molecular
structure of the hypothalamic
hypophysiotropic TRF factor of ovine
origin: evidence from mass spectrometry
sequence of PCA-His-Pro-NH2."
3. ^ C. Y. Bowers, A. V.
Schally, F. Enzmann, J. Boler, K.
Folkers, Endocrinology 86,
1143 (1970).
4. ^ Paul Brazeau, Wylie Vale, Roger
Burgus, Nicholas Ling, Madalyn Butcher,
Jean Rivier and Roger Guillemin,
"Hypothalamic Polypeptide That Inhibits
the Secretion of Immunoreactive
Pituitary Growth Hormone", Science 5
January 1973: Vol. 179 no. 4068 pp.
77-79. DOI:
10.1126/science.179.4068.77
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/179/
4068/77.short
or http://www.jstor.org/stable/1734954
{Guillemin_Roger_19721020.pdf}
5. ^ "Roger Charles Louis Guillemin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248741/Roger-Charles-Louis-Guillemin>.

6. ^
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/
article/002380.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "thyroid gland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/594629/thyroid-gland>.
9. ^ R. Burgus, T. F. Dunn, D.
Desiderio, R. Guillemin, "Structure
moleculaire du facteur hypothalamique
hypophysiotrope TRF d'origine ovine:
mise en evidence par spectrometrie de
masse de la sequence PCA-His-Pro-NH2.
", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l'Académie des sciences.
D, Sciences naturelles, Paris 269, 1870
(1969).
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
480284m/f2125.image {Guillemin_Roger_19
691029.pdf} English: "molecular
structure of the hypothalamic
hypophysiotropic TRF factor of ovine
origin: evidence from mass spectrometry
sequence of PCA-His-Pro-NH2."
10. ^ "ovine".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
vine
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.879-880,885.
14. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/
15. ^ R. Burgus, T. F. Dunn, D.
Desiderio, R. Guillemin, "Structure
moleculaire du facteur hypothalamique
hypophysiotrope TRF d'origine ovine:
mise en evidence par spectrometrie de
masse de la sequence PCA-His-Pro-NH2.
", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l'Académie des sciences.
D, Sciences naturelles, Paris 269, 1870
(1969).
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
480284m/f2125.image {Guillemin_Roger_19
691029.pdf} English: "molecular
structure of the hypothalamic
hypophysiotropic TRF factor of ovine
origin: evidence from mass spectrometry
sequence of PCA-His-Pro-NH2."
16. ^ R. Burgus, T. F.
Dunn, D. Desiderio, R. Guillemin,
"Structure moleculaire du facteur
hypothalamique hypophysiotrope TRF
d'origine ovine: mise en evidence par
spectrometrie de masse de la sequence
PCA-His-Pro-NH2. ", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences. D, Sciences
naturelles, Paris 269, 1870 (1969).
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
480284m/f2125.image {Guillemin_Roger_19
691029.pdf} English: "molecular
structure of the hypothalamic
hypophysiotropic TRF factor of ovine
origin: evidence from mass spectrometry
sequence of PCA-His-Pro-NH2."
{10/29/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] "Andrew V. Schally."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527031/Andrew-V-Schally>
[2] H. Matsuo, Y. Baba, R. M. G. Nair,
A. Arimura, A. V. Schally, Biochem.
Biaphys. Res. Commun. 43, 1344 (1971);
R. Burgus, M. Butcher, N. Ling, M.
Monahan, J. Rivier, R. Fellows, M.
Amoss, R. Blackwell, W. Vale, R.
Guillemin, C.R. Hebd. Seances Acad.
Sci. Ser. D Sci. Natur. (Parts) 273,
1611 (1971); R. Burgus, M. Butcher,
M. Amoss, N. Ling, M. Monahan, J.
Rivier, R. Fellows, R. Blackwell, W.
Vale, R. Guillemin, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69, 278 (1972)
(Baylor University) Houston, Texas,
USA15  
[1] Location of Hypothalamus Found in
the url :
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/p
athphys/endocrine/hypopit/anatomy.html
It is one of the books written by
Professors in Colorado State
University. It is free public domain
image. Is based on an image taken
from a project of the NIH to create
public domain anatomy images. PD
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/guille
min_postcard.jpg

[2] Roger Guillemin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Illu_diencephalon_.jp
g
31 YBN
[11/07/1969 AD] 3 4 		6127) Led Zeppelin releases "Whole
Lotta Love".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Whole Lotta Love". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_Lotta
_Love
2. ^ "Whole Lotta Love". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_Lotta
_Love
3. ^ "Whole Lotta Love". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_Lotta
_Love {11/07/1969 (released}
4. ^ "Whole Lotta
Love". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_Lotta
_Love {05/1969 (recorded}
(Olympic Studios) London, England2
 		 
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 3 		5840)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp/booklet
/kato_4.html
2. ^
http://www.waseda.jp/eng/campus/map.html

3. ^
http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp/booklet
/kato_4.html {1969}
(Waseda Univerity) Tokyo, Japan2  
[1] Introduction of Artificial Muscle
Made of Rubber: WAP-1 (1969) The
anthropomorphic pneumatically-activated
pedipulator WAP-1 was developed. In it,
artificial muscles made of rubber were
attached as actuators. Planar biped
locomotion was realized by
teaching-playback control of its
artificial muscles. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/WAP-1-1969.jpg
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 2 		5841)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p563.
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p563. {1969}
  
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 12 		5851) The ARPAnet (Advanced Research
Projects Agency NETwork), the research
network funded by the U.S. Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) is
started in 1969. The software is
developed by Bolt, Beranek and Newman
(BBN), and Honeywell 516 minicomputers
are the first hardware devices used as
packet switches. ARPAnet starts with
four sites including two University of
California campuses (Santa Barbara and
Los Angeles), the Stanford Research
Institute and the University of Utah.
In late 1972, the ARPAnet is
demonstrated at the International
Conference on Computers in Washington,
DC. This is the first public
demonstration of packet switching. Over
the next decade, ARPAnet grows, and in
1983 with more than 300 computers
connected, the cmomunication protocol
is changed to TCP/IP. In that same
year, the unclassified military Milnet
network is split off from ARPAnet. As
TCP/IP and gateway technologies mature,
the ARPAnet becomes known as "the
Internet" and "the Net." Starting in
1987, the National Science Foundation
begins developing a high-speed backbone
between its supercomputer centers.
Intermediate networks of regional
ARPAnet sites are formed to connect to
the backbone, and commercial as well as
non-profit network service providers
are formed to handle the operations. In
1995, commercial Internet service
providers take control of the major
backbones, and the Internet grows
exponentially.9

(Clearly the direct-to-brain windows
network has been operating for at least
200 years - how much of this network
makes use of the phone company wires,
if at all, is unknown to we who are
excluded, and no doubt to many
direct-to-brain consumers.10 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "Internet." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
12. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
{1969}
(University of California at Los
Angeles) Los Angeles, California, USA
and (Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California Santa
Barbara) Santa Barbara, California,
USA, and (University of Utah) Salt Lake
City, Utah, USA11  		 
30 YBN
[01/29/1970 AD] 26 		5836) A CCD is an electronic memory
that can be charged by light. CCDs can
hold a charge corresponding to variable
shades of light, which makes them
useful as imaging devices for cameras,
scanners, and fax machines.13

Willard S. Boyle (CE 1924-2011)14 15
and George E Smith (CE 1930- )16 , at
Bell labs, invent the first Charge
Coupled Device (CCD). They report this
in the journal "Bell System Technical
Journal" as "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". As an abstract
they write:
" In this paper we describe a new
semiconductor device concept.
Basically, it consists of storing
charge in potential wells created at
the surface of a semiconductor and
moving the charge (representing
information) over the surface by moving
the potential minima. We discuss
schemes for creating, transferring, and
detecting the presence or absence of
the charge.
In particular, we consider
minority carrier charge storage at the
Si-SiO2 interface of a MOS capacitor.
This charge may be transferred to a
closely adjacent capacitor on the same
substrate by appropriate manipulation
of electrode potentials. Examples of
possible applications are as a shift
register, as an imaging device, as a
display device, and in performing
logic.".17 A second paper is published
by Amelio, Tompsett, and Smith
immediately following the first paper,
and is titled "Experimental
Verification of the Charge Coupled
Device Concept". As an abstract they
write:
" Structures have been fabricated
consisting of closely spaced MOS
capacitors on an n-type silicon
substrate. By forming a depletion
region under one of the electrodes,
minority carriers (holes) may be stored
in the resulting potential well. This
charge may then be transferred to an
adjacent electrode by proper
manipulation of electrode potentials.
The assumptikno that this transfer will
take place in reasonable times with a
small fractional loss of charge is the
basis of the charge coupled devices
described in the preceding paper. To
test this assumption, devices were
fabricated and measurements made.
Charge transfer efficiencies greater
than 98 percent for transfer times less
than 100 nsec were observed.".18

Before
the CCD, AT&T released the
"Picturephone" which was a videophone
system, built in 1956. The Picturephone
could transmit an image once every two
seconds. By 1964 AT&T released the "Mod
1", a videophone which was shown at the
New York World's fair, and the public
was invited to place video calls
between special exhibits at Disneyland
and the New York World's Fair.19

Smith describes the process that lead
to the CCD in his 2009 Nobel Prize
lecture. He states:
"...First, the
semiconductor analogy of the magnetic
bubble is needed. The electric
dual is a packet
of charge. The next problem is how to
store this charge
in a confined region. The
structure which came to mind, of
course, was the
simple MOS capacitor shown
in Figure 3. Charge can be introduced
into this
depletion region with the amount
of charge stored being the magnitude
of
the signal. To understand this better,
a plot of electron energy vs. distance
into
the structure is shown in Figure 4. As
charge is introduced into the
depletion
region, the potential at the surface
rises until the maximum allowable
charge is
reached. Any further charge added will
flow into the substrate.
The last problem was to
shift the charge from one site to
another, thereby
allowing manipulation of the
information. This is solved by simply
placing
the MOS capacitors very close together
as shown in Figure 5, one with charge
and the
second empty. In order to pass the
charge from one to the next, one
simply
applies a more attractive voltage to
the second, causing its depletion
region to
overlap the first and the charge to
flow along the surface to the
silicon-silico
n dioxide interface of the second
capacitor.
The original structure using this
mechanism to make a shift register is
shown
in Figure 6. Many MOS capacitors are
placed closely together in a row and
connect
ed to a three phase voltage source. The
top figure shows the storage
phase with Va
applied to one set of electrodes and a
smaller rest voltage Vb
applied to the
other two. One site has charge and the
other has none. The
second figure shows the
transfer phase where a larger voltage,
Vp, is applied
to the adjacent plates to
transfer charge from one to the next.
The last two
show resetting the voltages to
the initial state with the charge
information
shifted by one site. This is continued
to an output device at the end of the
row
in order to read the stored
information. Many other storage and
transfer
schemes are possible. The charge can be
injected into the device electrically
at the
beginning of the row making a shift
register or supplied by light incident
on a
structure with empty cells. Then the
amount of charge which accumulates
by the
absorption of photons is determined by
the intensity of the
light, and the
resulting charge pattern can then be
read out in shift register
fashion after a
suitable integration time.
This completed the
basic invention. It should be stressed
that the basic unit
of information in the
device was a discrete packet of charge
and not the voltages
and currents of circuit
based devices. The CCD is indeed a
functional
device and not a collection of
individual devices connected by wires.
Finally,
it was decided to go ahead and
fabricate a device to show
experimental
feasibility. In less than a week, masks
were made and devices were
fabricated and
tested. This first simple structure is
shown in Figure 7. Charge
was introduced in
the first MOS capacitor by thermal
generation and then
transferred to the
output by applying voltages to the
plates where it was detected
by pushing the
charge into the substrate and measuring
the substrate
current.
The first device was very crude but
charge transfer was successfully
demonstrated
and this was followed by the first
integrated structure, which is shown
in
Figure 8. This device had a three-phase
metallization and diffused input
and output
successfully demonstrating that it
could be operated as a serial
memory, the
first driving force of the invention.
It is no surprise that we tried
to use the
eight bit CCD as a linear scanning
imaging device and the first
rather crude
image is shown in Figure 9.
Following the
initial experiments, it was evident
that the main problem with
the device was
charge transfer inefficiency, the
inability to transfer all of the
charge
from one element to the next. The main
reason for this was the trapping
of charge in
traps at the silicon-silicon dioxide
interface, see Figure 10.
The trapped
electrons would emit at a later time
causing smearing of the image.
So Bill and I
got together again and invented the
buried channel CCD,
which placed the stored
charge in the interior of the
semiconductor where
there was relatively
little trapping. The structure is shown
in Figure 11 where
a lightly doped n layer
has been added to the original
structure. Once the
layer has been depleted
by transferring the electrons to the
output diode,
the resulting potential is
shown. Electrons in the channel region
will now
accumulate in the valley created
in the interior of the silicon and kept
away
from the surface traps.
A period of rapid
development followed both at Bell Labs
and other companies.
One major activity was to
make an area imaging device for video
applicat
ions. Many different schemes were
devised. The one we chose for
the
Picturephone application is shown
schematically in Figure 12. Linear
CCDs are
formed side by side and split into an
imaging and storage area.
During a frame
time, the image is taken in the upper
region and then transferred
rapidly to the lower
where it is read out a line at a time
by the serial
readout while the next frame is
being taken. The chip that we made for
the
Picturephone is shown in Figure 13
along with a self-contained
experimental
camera. Successful testing of the
device is shown in Figure 14.
...".20

(Part of the importance of the CCD is
not that it is a variably charged
capacitor, but that there are many
capacitors in a small area, which
allows many dots - that is many light
beams - of an image to be captured and
permanently recorded.21 )

(It seems interesting that nobody ever
talks about, simply measuring the
differences in resistance caused by
varying amounts of light - basically
the photoelectric effect - where there
is light the resistance is less.
Probaly this is to mislead the public
from the simplicity of these devices.22
)

(The CCD and electronic images will
allow cameras to become very small - in
particular if no image is needed to be
stored but instead if the image can
simply be transmitted wirelessly to a
stationary receiver that stores all the
transmitted images.23 )

(It is interesting that the video phone
as a device which connects to a phone
port may never actually be realized -
because programs like Skype have made
video phone calling over the wired
computer and wireless cell phone the
apparent path to video communications
until direct-to-brain windows is made
public and available to all people.24 )
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
2. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
4. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
5. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
7. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
8. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
10. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
11. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
12. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
13. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinve
ntions/a/CCD.htm
14. ^ "Willard S. Boyle -
Biographical". Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/boyle.html
15. ^ "Nobel laureate dies Saturday".
Amherst Daily News.
http://www.cumberlandnewsnow.com/News/
Local/2011-05-08/article-2489707/Nobel-l
aureate-dies-Saturday/1
16. ^ "George E. Smith -
Biographical". Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith.html
17. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
18. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
19. ^
http://www.corp.att.com/attlabs/reputati
on/timeline/70picture.html
20. ^ "George E. Smith - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 29 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html
{Smith_George_E_20091208.pdf}
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted
Huntington.
24. ^ Ted Huntington.
25. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E.
Smith (April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
26. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf} {01/29/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willard S. Boyle - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 29 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/boyle-lecture.html
{Boyle_Willard_S_20091208.pdf
[2] Jeffrey, Davene. "Willard Boyle,
Nova Scotian Nobel Prize winner, dies
at 86". The Chronicle Herald.ca.
http://thechronicleherald.ca/Front/12424
28.html. Retrieved 9 May 2011
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA25  
[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html

[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg
30 YBN
[02/02/1970 AD] 7 		5518)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "The atom-probe
field ion microscope",
Naturwissenschaften, 1970, Volume 57,
Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
3. ^ "Erwin Mueller."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
4. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "The atom-probe
field ion microscope",
Naturwissenschaften, 1970, Volume 57,
Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "The
atom-probe field ion microscope",
Naturwissenschaften, 1970, Volume 57,
Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf}
7. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "The atom-probe
field ion microscope",
Naturwissenschaften, 1970, Volume 57,
Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf} {02/02/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
[2] "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
[3] EW Müller, "Die Sichtbarmachung
einzelner Atome und Moleküle im
Feldelektronenemikroskop", Zeitschrift
Naturforschung Teil A, 1950.
[4] EW Müller,
"Das Feldionenmikroskop", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/
[5] "adsorption." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adsorption
[6] Erwin W. Müller,
"Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract
(Pennsylvania State University)
University Park, Pennsylvania, USA6
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Erwin W. Müller,
''The atom-probe field ion
microscope'', Naturwissenschaften,
1970, Volume 57, Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h341686765366r77/

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
30 YBN
[05/??/1970 AD] 3 		6131) Three Dog Night release their
version of Randy Newman's "Mama Told Me
Not To Come".1

The keyboard used in this song is a
Wurlitzer electric piano.2

FOOTNOTES
{05/1970 (released}


  
30 YBN
[06/02/1970 AD] 14 15 		5801) In 1975, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded
jointly to David Baltimore, Renato
Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin "for
their discoveries concerning the
interaction between tumour viruses and
the genetic material of the cell".11
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ David Baltimore, "Viral
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase:
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions
of RNA Tumour Viruses", Nature, v226,
n5252,
p1209. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html
2. ^ Howard M. Temin and Satoshi
Mizutani, "Viral RNA-dependent DNA
Polymerase: RNA-dependent DNA
Polymerase in Virions of RNA Tumour
Viruses", Nature, v226, n5252,
p1211. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.897-898.
4. ^ "Howard Martin
Temin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/586474/Howard-Martin-Temin>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.897-898.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.897-898.
7. ^ "Howard
Martin Temin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/586474/Howard-Martin-Temin>.
8. ^ David Baltimore, "Viral
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase:
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions
of RNA Tumour Viruses", Nature, v226,
n5252,
p1209. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html
9. ^ Howard M. Temin and Satoshi
Mizutani, "Viral RNA-dependent DNA
Polymerase: RNA-dependent DNA
Polymerase in Virions of RNA Tumour
Viruses", Nature, v226, n5252,
p1211. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html
10. ^ "virion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 22 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/virion
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1975". Nobelprize.org. 22 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1975/
12. ^ David Baltimore, "Viral
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase:
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions
of RNA Tumour Viruses", Nature, v226,
n5252,
p1209. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html
13. ^ Howard M. Temin and Satoshi
Mizutani, "Viral RNA-dependent DNA
Polymerase: RNA-dependent DNA
Polymerase in Virions of RNA Tumour
Viruses", Nature, v226, n5252,
p1211. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html
14. ^ David Baltimore, "Viral
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase:
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions
of RNA Tumour Viruses", Nature, v226,
n5252,
p1209. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html {06/02/1970}
15. ^ Howard
M. Temin and Satoshi Mizutani, "Viral
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase:
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions
of RNA Tumour Viruses", Nature, v226,
n5252,
p1211. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v226/n5252/index.html {06/15/1970}
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA12 and
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA13  
[1] Howard Martin Temin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/temin.jpg

[2] David Baltimore Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1975/baltim
ore_postcard.jpg
30 YBN
[06/10/1970 AD] 3 		6151) Edwin Starr releases the song
"War".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "War (Edwin Starr song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_%28Edwi
n_Starr_song%29
2. ^ "War (Edwin Starr song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_%28Edwi
n_Starr_song%29
3. ^ "War (Edwin Starr song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_%28Edwi
n_Starr_song%29 {06/10/1970}
(Hitsville USA - Studio A) Detroit,
Michigan, USA2  		 
30 YBN
[06/16/1970 AD] 14 		5716) Har Gobind Khorana (CE 1922-),
Indian-US chemist, and team synthesize
the first artificial gene, a yeast
gene.8 9 10

Khorana and team publish this in
"Nature" as "Total Synthesis of the
Gene for an Alanine Transfer
Ribonucleic Acid from Yeast". They
write as an abstract: "by exploiting
the natural ability of polynucleotides
to align by base pairing and using
polynucleotide kinase and ligase,
chemically synthesized segments have
been combined into a double stranded
DNA corresponding to the gene for the
earliest characterized tRNA.". They
conclude by writing:
" The priciples used in
present work are such that they allow
"welding" of bihelical DNAs to one
another. We hope that these principles
will permit studies of the punctuation
marks on DNA by addition of appropriate
deoxypolynucleotide sequences at either
end of the synthetic gene. The same
principle could be used eventually to
add the synthetic gene to other genomes
such as those of the transducing
phages. While all these possibilities
belong to the future, the present
results nevertheless seem to give an
encouraging start. ...".11

Later on August 31, 1970 Khorana, et al
will publish details on how a
polynucleotide ligase to join two DNA
molecules together. Khorana et al
publish this in the "Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences" as
"Studies on Polynucleotides, C. A Novel
Joining Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase". For an
abstract they write:
"Abstract. The
polynucleotide ligase isolated from
T4-infected Escherichia coli
was previously
shown to bring about repair of breaks
in the single strands of bihelical
DNA. The
present work shows that the enzyme can
also catalyze the
joining of DNA duplexes
at their base-paired ends. This novel
reaction occurs
-hen the deoxynucleoside at a
5'-end carries a phosphate group and
the complementary
deoxynucleoside opposite to it
carries a 3'-hydroxyl group. The
consequence
is the lengthening of the original
duplex to form dimers or oligomers
depending upon
whether one or both ends are
base-paired.".12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
2. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
3. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
4. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
5. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de Sande,
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining
Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase", PNAS
November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3
1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.
short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

6. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
7. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
8. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
9. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876-877.
11. ^ K. L. AGARWAL,
H. BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA,
H. G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , "Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
12. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de
Sande, and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining
Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase", PNAS
November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3
1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.
short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

13. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
14. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} {06/16/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039
[5] H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031
[6] H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc.,
24, 1473 (1965)
[7] H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
polynucleotides: LXXIII. Synthesis in
vitro of polypeptides containing
repeating tetrapeptide sequences
dependent upon DNA-like polymers
containing repeating tetranucleotide
sequences: Direction of reading of
messenger RNA", Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3, 28 June
1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
[8] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[9] MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA13  
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
30 YBN
[09/08/1970 AD] 6 		5574)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Choh Hao Li, Donald Yamashiro,
"Synthesis of a protein possessing
growth-promoting and lactogenic
activities", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1970,
92 (26), pp
7608–7609. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja00729a028 {Li_Choh_Hao_1970
0908.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
3. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Choh Hao Li, Donald
Yamashiro, "Synthesis of a protein
possessing growth-promoting and
lactogenic activities", J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1970, 92 (26), pp
7608–7609. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja00729a028 {Li_Choh_Hao_1970
0908.pdf}
6. ^ Choh Hao Li, Donald Yamashiro,
"Synthesis of a protein possessing
growth-promoting and lactogenic
activities", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1970,
92 (26), pp
7608–7609. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja00729a028 {Li_Choh_Hao_1970
0908.pdf} {09/08/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] Choh Hao Li, "PREPARATION AND
PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY ACTIVE
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526
[2] Anthony L. Levy, Irving I.
Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
"CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN", J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p868.
[4] Irving I.
Geschwind, Choh Hao Li, Livio Barnafi,
"ISOLATION AND STRUCTURE OF
MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE FROM
PORCINE PITUITARY GLANDS", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1956 78
(17),
4494-4495. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01598a085
[5] Timeline:
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
[6] CHOH HAO LI and HAROLD PAPKOFF,
"Preparation and Properties of Growth
Hormone from Human and Monkey Pituitary
Glands", Science, 28 December 1956:
1293-1294. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1752401
[7] Donald. Yamashiro, Choh Hao. Li,
"Adrenocorticotropins. 44. Total
synthesis of the human hormone by the
solid-phase method.", J. Am. Chem. Soc.
95: 1310-15.
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja
00785a049
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA5  
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
30 YBN
[09/13/1970 AD] 3 		6345) The Santa Ana, California,
"Register" prints a photo of a thought
screen.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A City Is Born Irvine,
California", The Register, 09/13/1970.
2. ^ "A City
Is Born Irvine, California", The
Register, 09/13/1970.
3. ^ "A City Is Born Irvine,
California", The Register, 09/13/1970.
Santa Ana, California, USA2  
[1] From a display at the UC Irvine
Langson Library ''A City Is Born
Irvine, California'', The Register,
09/13/1970. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
30 YBN
[09/24/1970 AD] 3 		5600)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-072A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-072A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-072A {04/04/1966}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
[5]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
[6]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
(80 km SE of the city of) Dzhezkazgan,
Kazakhstan (was U.S.S.R.)2  
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
30 YBN
[12/15/1970 AD] 5 		5617)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-060A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-060A
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-060A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-060A {12/15/1970}
Planet Venus4  
[1] Venera 7
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_7_capsule.jpg
30 YBN
[12/??/1970 AD] 3 		6134) Gordon Lightfoot releases "If You
Could Read My Mind" which strongly
hints about remote neuron reading.1

(Perhaps there is a play on -if you
could read my mind 'what a tail' - for
example you would see many buttocks' on
people's thought-screens. Did Lightfoot
receive direct-to-brain windows? If no,
then he perhaps accidentally hinted
about a massive secret industry, but if
yes, then he may have been labeled a
"rat" for his care and concern for the
human species. "Wishing well" may
relate to "William Wollaston" - but
neuron reading may go back much longer
- perhaps even to the 1300s.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "If You Could Read My Mind".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_You_Coul
d_Read_My_Mind
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "If You Could Read My
Mind". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_You_Coul
d_Read_My_Mind {12/1970}
  
30 YBN
[1970 AD] 3 		5842)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p5655.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5655. {1970}
  
30 YBN
[1970 AD] 2 		6130) Crosby, stills, Nash and Young
release their version of Joni
Mitchell's song "Woodstock".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Woodstock (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodstock_%
28song%29
2. ^ "Woodstock (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodstock_%
28song%29 {1970}
  
30 YBN
[1970 AD] 3 		6149) Black Sabbath release
"Paranoid".1

(This song represents the beginning of
heavy metal music.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paranoid (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoid_%2
8song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Paranoid (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoid_%2
8song%29 {1970}
  
29 YBN
[01/01/1971 AD] 9 		5519)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mueller, E.W., "Field ion shadow
projection microscope and other FIM
techniques for viewing
biomolecules(Utilizing atomic
resolution capability of field ion
microscope...)." http://www.osti.gov/en
ergycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id
=4038729
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p839.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Mueller, E.W., "Field ion shadow
projection microscope and other FIM
techniques for viewing
biomolecules(Utilizing atomic
resolution capability of field ion
microscope...)." http://www.osti.gov/en
ergycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id
=4038729
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Mueller, E.W.,
"Field ion shadow projection microscope
and other FIM techniques for viewing
biomolecules(Utilizing atomic
resolution capability of field ion
microscope...)." http://www.osti.gov/en
ergycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id
=4038729
9. ^ Mueller, E.W., "Field ion shadow
projection microscope and other FIM
techniques for viewing
biomolecules(Utilizing atomic
resolution capability of field ion
microscope...)." http://www.osti.gov/en
ergycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id
=4038729 {01/01/1971}

MORE INFO
[1] Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
[2] "Erwin
Mueller." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
[3] "Erwin Wilhelm Müller."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>
[4] EW Müller, "Die Sichtbarmachung
einzelner Atome und Moleküle im
Feldelektronenemikroskop", Zeitschrift
Naturforschung Teil A, 1950
[5] EW Müller,
"Das Feldionenmikroskop", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/
[6] "adsorption." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adsorption
[7] Erwin W. Müller,
"Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract
[8] Erwin W. Müller, "The atom-probe
field ion microscope",
Naturwissenschaften, 1970, Volume 57,
Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/
(Pennsylvania State University)
University Park, Pennsylvania, USA8
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Erwin W. Müller,
''The atom-probe field ion
microscope'', Naturwissenschaften,
1970, Volume 57, Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h341686765366r77/

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
29 YBN
[01/15/1971 AD] 5 		1133) Lithium iodine battery. Inventor
Wilson Greatbatch will adapt this
battery by 1972 for use in pacemakers.
The lithium iodine batter has a long
lifetime of 10 years and is used in
pacemakers.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James R. Moser, Alan A.
Schneider, "PRIMARY CELLS AND IODINE
CONTAINING CATHODES THEREFOR" Patent
number: 3674562 Filing date: Jan 15,
1971 Issue date: Jul 4,
1972 http://www.google.com/patents/US36
74562
2. ^ Alan A. Schneider, "Lithium-iodine
cells and method for making
same" Patent number: 4049890 Filing
date: Jul 26, 1976 Issue date: Sep 20,
1977 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
Fk6AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ BARNABY FEDER, "Wilson Greatbatch,
Inventor of Implantable Pacemaker, Dies
at 92", September 28,
2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/28
/business/wilson-greatbatch-pacemaker-in
ventor-dies-at-92.html?pagewanted=all
4. ^ James R. Moser, Alan A. Schneider,
"PRIMARY CELLS AND IODINE CONTAINING
CATHODES THEREFOR" Patent number:
3674562 Filing date: Jan 15,
1971 Issue date: Jul 4,
1972 http://www.google.com/patents/US36
74562
5. ^ James R. Moser, Alan A. Schneider,
"PRIMARY CELLS AND IODINE CONTAINING
CATHODES THEREFOR" Patent number:
3674562 Filing date: Jan 15,
1971 Issue date: Jul 4,
1972 http://www.google.com/patents/US36
74562
(Catalyst Research Corporation)
Baltimore, Maryland, USA4  
[1] Figure 2 from: James R. Moser,
Alan A. Schneider, ''PRIMARY CELLS AND
IODINE CONTAINING CATHODES
THEREFOR'' Patent number:
3674562 Filing date: Jan 15,
1971 Issue date: Jul 4,
1972 http://www.google.com/patents/US36
74562 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/US
3674562

[2] Figure 1 and 3
from: Lithium-iodine cells and method
for making same Alan A.
Schneider Patent number:
4049890 Filing date: Jul 26,
1976 Issue date: Sep 20,
1977 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
Fk6AAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=PFk6AAAAEBAJ
29 YBN
[01/??/1971 AD] 13 		5523) Wheeler, is the son of
librarians, and first becomes
interested in science as a boy reading
scientific articles.10
Wheeler helps
develop the hydrogen bomb at Los
Alamos, New mexico (CE 1949–51).11
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Remo Ruffini and John A. Wheeler,
"Introducing the black hole", Physics
Today, Jan,
1971. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes&ref=no {Wheeler_John_Archibald
_197101xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840.
3. ^ "John Archibald
Wheeler." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 21
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/641682/John-Archibald-Wheeler>.
4. ^ Remo Ruffini and John A. Wheeler,
"Introducing the black hole", Physics
Today, Jan,
1971. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes&ref=no {Wheeler_John_Archibald
_197101xx.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "John Archibald
Wheeler." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 21
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/641682/John-Archibald-Wheeler>.
11. ^ "John Archibald Wheeler."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/641682/John-Archibald-Wheeler>.
12. ^ Remo Ruffini and John A. Wheeler,
"Introducing the black hole", Physics
Today, Jan,
1971. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes&ref=no {Wheeler_John_Archibald
_197101xx.pdf}
13. ^ Remo Ruffini and John A. Wheeler,
"Introducing the black hole", Physics
Today, Jan,
1971. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes&ref=no {Wheeler_John_Archibald
_197101xx.pdf} {01/1971}
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA12  
[1] Remo Ruffini and John A. Wheeler,
''Introducing the black hole'',
Physics Today, Jan,
1971. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes&ref=no {Wheeler_John_Archibald
_197101xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED John
Archibald Wheeler, 1911-2008 UNKNOWN
source: http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/
servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHT
OAD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips
&gifs=yes&ref=no


source: http://planetarium.lambuth.edu/w
p-content/uploads/2008/04/wheeler.jpg
29 YBN
[04/19/1971 AD] 4 		5667)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Salyut program." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/salyut-2
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/spacestati
on/salyut1.html
4. ^ "space station." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 11 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/557473/space-station>. {04/19/1971}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)3
(verify) 
[1] Description An extremely rare
view of the world's first space
station, the Soviet Salyut 1, as seen
from the departing Soyuz 11. Source
http://www.astronautix.com/graphics
/s/sal1foto.jpg Date 30 June
1971 Author Viktor
Patsayev COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cc/Salyut_1.jpg

[2] Description A view of the
Soviet space station Salyut 1, shown
with a docked Soyuz 7KT-OK
spacecraft. Source
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/saly
ut1.jpg (http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro
/Part2_26g.html) Date 19 April
1971 Author TsKBEM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/d5/Salyut1_with_docked_Soyuz_
spacecraft.jpg
29 YBN
[05/06/1971 AD] 8 		5734)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Matsuo, Y. Baba, R. M. G.
Nair, A. Arimura, A. V. Schally,
"STRUCTURE OF THE PORCINE LN- AND
FSH-RELEASING HORMONE, I. THE PROPOSED
AMINO ACID SEQUENCE", Biochemical and
Biophysical Research Communications 43,
1334-1339 (1971); R. Burgus, M.
Butcher, N. Ling, M. Monahan, J.
Rivier, R. Fellows, M. Amoss, R.
Blackwell, W. Vale, R. Guillemin, C.R.
Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. Ser. D Sci.
Natur. (Parts) 273, 1611 (1971); R.
Burgus, M. Butcher, M. Amoss, N.
Ling, M. Monahan, J. Rivier, R.
Fellows, R. Blackwell, W. Vale, R.
Guillemin, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A. 69, 278 (1972).
2. ^ "Andrew V.
Schally." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527031/Andrew-V-Schally>.
3. ^ "Roger Charles Louis Guillemin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248741/Roger-Charles-Louis-Guillemin>.

4. ^ H. Matsuo, Y. Baba, R. M. G. Nair,
A. Arimura, A. V. Schally, "STRUCTURE
OF THE PORCINE LN- AND FSH-RELEASING
HORMONE, I. THE PROPOSED AMINO ACID
SEQUENCE", Biochemical and Biophysical
Research Communications 43, 1334-1339
(1971); R. Burgus, M. Butcher, N.
Ling, M. Monahan, J. Rivier, R.
Fellows, M. Amoss, R. Blackwell, W.
Vale, R. Guillemin, C.R. Hebd. Seances
Acad. Sci. Ser. D Sci. Natur. (Parts)
273, 1611 (1971); R. Burgus, M.
Butcher, M. Amoss, N. Ling, M.
Monahan, J. Rivier, R. Fellows, R.
Blackwell, W. Vale, R. Guillemin,
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69, 278
(1972).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ H. Matsuo, Y.
Baba, R. M. G. Nair, A. Arimura, A. V.
Schally, "STRUCTURE OF THE PORCINE LN-
AND FSH-RELEASING HORMONE, I. THE
PROPOSED AMINO ACID SEQUENCE",
Biochemical and Biophysical Research
Communications 43, 1334-1339 (1971); R.
Burgus, M. Butcher, N. Ling, M.
Monahan, J. Rivier, R. Fellows, M.
Amoss, R. Blackwell, W. Vale, R.
Guillemin, C.R. Hebd. Seances Acad.
Sci. Ser. D Sci. Natur. (Parts) 273,
1611 (1971); R. Burgus, M. Butcher,
M. Amoss, N. Ling, M. Monahan, J.
Rivier, R. Fellows, R. Blackwell, W.
Vale, R. Guillemin, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69, 278 (1972).
8. ^ H.
Matsuo, Y. Baba, R. M. G. Nair, A.
Arimura, A. V. Schally, "STRUCTURE OF
THE PORCINE LN- AND FSH-RELEASING
HORMONE, I. THE PROPOSED AMINO ACID
SEQUENCE", Biochemical and Biophysical
Research Communications 43, 1334-1339
(1971); R. Burgus, M. Butcher, N.
Ling, M. Monahan, J. Rivier, R.
Fellows, M. Amoss, R. Blackwell, W.
Vale, R. Guillemin, C.R. Hebd. Seances
Acad. Sci. Ser. D Sci. Natur. (Parts)
273, 1611 (1971); R. Burgus, M.
Butcher, M. Amoss, N. Ling, M.
Monahan, J. Rivier, R. Fellows, R.
Blackwell, W. Vale, R. Guillemin,
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69, 278
(1972). {05/06/1971}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.879-880,885.
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine 1977".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/
[3] Paul Brazeau, Wylie Vale, Roger
Burgus, Nicholas Ling, Madalyn Butcher,
Jean Rivier and Roger Guillemin,
"Hypothalamic Polypeptide That Inhibits
the Secretion of Immunoreactive
Pituitary Growth Hormone", Science 5
January 1973: Vol. 179 no. 4068 pp.
77-79. DOI:
10.1126/science.179.4068.77
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/179/
4068/77.short
or http://www.jstor.org/stable/1734954
[4] R. Burgus, T. F. Dunn, D.
Desiderio, R. Guillemin, "Structure
moleculaire du facteur hypothalamique
hypophysiotrope TRF d'origine ovine:
mise en evidence par spectrometrie de
masse de la sequence PCA-His-Pro-NH2.
", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l'Académie des sciences.
D, Sciences naturelles, Paris 269, 1870
(1969).
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
480284m/f2125.image
English: "molecular structure of the
hypothalamic hypophysiotropic TRF
factor of ovine origin: evidence from
mass spectrometry sequence of
PCA-His-Pro-NH2."
[5] C. Y. Bowers, A. V. Schally, F.
Enzmann, J. Boler, K. Folkers,
Endocrinology 86, 1143 (1970).
[6]
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/
article/002380.htm
[7] "thyroid gland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/594629/thyroid-gland>.
(V.A. Hospital and Tulane University
School of Medicine) New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA7  
[1] Andrew Victor Schally Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/schall
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Location of Hypothalamus Found in
the url :
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/p
athphys/endocrine/hypopit/anatomy.html
It is one of the books written by
Professors in Colorado State
University. It is free public domain
image. Is based on an image taken
from a project of the NIH to create
public domain anatomy images. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Illu_diencephalon_.jp
g
29 YBN
[05/06/1971 AD] 10 		5735)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul Brazeau, Wylie Vale, Roger
Burgus, Nicholas Ling, Madalyn Butcher,
Jean Rivier and Roger Guillemin,
"Hypothalamic Polypeptide That Inhibits
the Secretion of Immunoreactive
Pituitary Growth Hormone", Science 5
January 1973: Vol. 179 no. 4068 pp.
77-79. DOI:
10.1126/science.179.4068.77
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/179/
4068/77.short
or http://www.jstor.org/stable/1734954
{Guillemin_Roger_19721020.pdf}
2. ^ "Roger Charles Louis Guillemin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248741/Roger-Charles-Louis-Guillemin>.

3. ^ "Roger Charles Louis Guillemin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248741/Roger-Charles-Louis-Guillemin>.

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.879-880,885.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Paul
Brazeau, Wylie Vale, Roger Burgus,
Nicholas Ling, Madalyn Butcher, Jean
Rivier and Roger Guillemin,
"Hypothalamic Polypeptide That Inhibits
the Secretion of Immunoreactive
Pituitary Growth Hormone", Science 5
January 1973: Vol. 179 no. 4068 pp.
77-79. DOI:
10.1126/science.179.4068.77
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/179/
4068/77.short
or http://www.jstor.org/stable/1734954
{Guillemin_Roger_19721020.pdf}
7. ^ "hormone." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 29 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/271826/hormone>.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ H. Matsuo, Y. Baba, R. M.
G. Nair, A. Arimura, A. V. Schally,
"STRUCTURE OF THE PORCINE LN- AND
FSH-RELEASING HORMONE, I. THE PROPOSED
AMINO ACID SEQUENCE", Biochemical and
Biophysical Research Communications 43,
1334-1339 (1971); R. Burgus, M.
Butcher, N. Ling, M. Monahan, J.
Rivier, R. Fellows, M. Amoss, R.
Blackwell, W. Vale, R. Guillemin, C.R.
Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. Ser. D Sci.
Natur. (Parts) 273, 1611 (1971); R.
Burgus, M. Butcher, M. Amoss, N.
Ling, M. Monahan, J. Rivier, R.
Fellows, R. Blackwell, W. Vale, R.
Guillemin, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A. 69, 278 (1972).
10. ^ H. Matsuo, Y.
Baba, R. M. G. Nair, A. Arimura, A. V.
Schally, "STRUCTURE OF THE PORCINE LN-
AND FSH-RELEASING HORMONE, I. THE
PROPOSED AMINO ACID SEQUENCE",
Biochemical and Biophysical Research
Communications 43, 1334-1339 (1971); R.
Burgus, M. Butcher, N. Ling, M.
Monahan, J. Rivier, R. Fellows, M.
Amoss, R. Blackwell, W. Vale, R.
Guillemin, C.R. Hebd. Seances Acad.
Sci. Ser. D Sci. Natur. (Parts) 273,
1611 (1971); R. Burgus, M. Butcher,
M. Amoss, N. Ling, M. Monahan, J.
Rivier, R. Fellows, R. Blackwell, W.
Vale, R. Guillemin, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69, 278 (1972).
{05/06/1971}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1977".
Nobelprize.org. 29 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/
[2] "Andrew V. Schally." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/527031/Andrew-V-Schally>.
[3] R. Burgus, T. F. Dunn, D.
Desiderio, R. Guillemin, "Structure
moleculaire du facteur hypothalamique
hypophysiotrope TRF d'origine ovine:
mise en evidence par spectrometrie de
masse de la sequence PCA-His-Pro-NH2.
", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l'Académie des sciences.
D, Sciences naturelles, Paris 269, 1870
(1969).
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
480284m/f2125.image
English: "molecular structure of the
hypothalamic hypophysiotropic TRF
factor of ovine origin: evidence from
mass spectrometry sequence of
PCA-His-Pro-NH2."
[4] C. Y. Bowers, A. V. Schally, F.
Enzmann, J. Boler, K. Folkers,
Endocrinology 86, 1143 (1970).
[5]
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/
article/002380.htm
[6] "thyroid gland." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/594629/thyroid-gland>.
(V.A. Hospital and Tulane University
School of Medicine) New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA9  
[1] Roger Guillemin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/guille
min_postcard.jpg

[2] Andrew Victor Schally Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/schall
y_postcard.jpg
29 YBN
[05/28/1971 AD] 4 5 		6132) John Lennon records the song
"Imagine" which is released October 11,
1971.1

In June Elvis will record "There is no
God But God".2

(This song helps for people to learn
the truth about the mistaken beliefs of
the religions. 1971 must have been a
year in which goodness made a comeback
from 1967-68 when MLK and RFK were
successfully murdered. But in 1977
Elvis dies most likely as a result of
particle murder, and John Lennon will
be murdered by an excluded {presumably}
who is remotely neuron written on in
1980. These deaths may have been some
kind of retaliation by wealthy people
invested in organized religions, or
perhaps just some anti-popular,
anti-democracy, anti-truth violent
wealthy people.3 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Imagine (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_%28
song%29
2. ^
http://www.sergent.com.au/elvis/1972.htm
l
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.beatlesbible.com/people/john-
lennon/songs/gimme-some-truth/
{05/28/1971}
5. ^ "Imagine (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_%28
song%29 {10/11/1971 (released}
  
29 YBN
[06/09/1971 AD] 5 		6133) Elvis records "There is no God
but God".1

Months earlier John Lennon had recorded
the song "Imagine".2

(Notice the play on the phrase "there
is no god" and then as if this was
spoken by a "butt(ocks) god". It is
really an interesting phenomenon.
Because Elvis must have been somewhat
worldly, wealthy, well-informed -
probably received direct-to-brain
windows. But realized that most people
are excluded, and very strong believers
in Christianity. So, as has the case
for many of the earth's best song
writers, there was a double-meaning
which pleases conservatives and also
has an underlying joke that pleases
educated liberal minded people. William
Byrd even clearly does this as early as
the 1500s.3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sergent.com.au/elvis/1972.htm
l
2. ^
http://www.beatlesbible.com/people/john-
lennon/songs/gimme-some-truth/
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.sergent.com.au/elvis/1972.htm
l
5. ^
http://www.sergent.com.au/elvis/1972.htm
l {06/09/1971}
(RCA Studio B) Nashville, Tennessee,
USA4  		 
29 YBN
[07/15/1971 AD] 6 		5421)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p815-816.
2. ^ "Vladimir
Prelog." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 28
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/474844/Vladimir-Prelog>.
3. ^ J. D. Dunitz, D. M. Hawley, D.
Mikloš, D. N. J. White, Yu. Berlin, R.
Marušić, V. Prelog, "Structure of
boromycin", Helvetica chimica acta,
(1971) volume: 54 issue: 6 page:
1709. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract {Pr
elog_Vladimir_19710715.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p815-816.
5. ^ J. D. Dunitz, D.
M. Hawley, D. Mikloš, D. N. J. White,
Yu. Berlin, R. Marušić, V. Prelog,
"Structure of boromycin", Helvetica
chimica acta, (1971) volume: 54
issue: 6 page:
1709. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract {Pr
elog_Vladimir_19710715.pdf}
6. ^ J. D. Dunitz, D. M. Hawley, D.
Mikloš, D. N. J. White, Yu. Berlin, R.
Marušić, V. Prelog, "Structure of
boromycin", Helvetica chimica acta,
(1971) volume: 54 issue: 6 page:
1709. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract {Pr
elog_Vladimir_19710715.pdf}
{07/15/1971}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1975". Nobelprize.org. 28 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1975/
[2] R. S. Cahn, C. K. Ingold and V.
Prelog, "The specification of
asymmetric configuration in organic
chemistry", Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences, Volume 12, Number 3, 81-94,
DOI:
10.1007/BF02157171 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/t32p7771322xpm77/
(Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule)
Zurich, Switzerland5  
[1] Figure of boromycin from: J. D.
Dunitz, D. M. Hawley, D. Mikloš, D. N.
J. White, Yu. Berlin, R. Marušić, V.
Prelog, ''Structure of boromycin'',
Helvetica chimica acta, (1971) volume:
54 issue: 6 page:
1709. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract {Pr
elog_Vladimir_19710715.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract

[2] Vladimir Prelog [t Notice no neck
tie, may indicate progressive
view.] Nobel photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/prelo
g_postcard.jpg
29 YBN
[11/09/1971 AD] 20 		5838)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stone, J.; , "Optical
transmission loss in liquid-core hollow
fibers," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.8, no.3, pp. 386- 388,
Mar 1972 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1972.1076966 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1076966&isnumber=23229
2. ^ J. Stone, “Optical transmission
in liquid-core quartz fibers,” Appl.
Phys. Lett. 20, 239–240 (1972).
http://link.aip.org/link/?APPLAB/20/23
9/1 {Stone_J_19711213.pdf}
3. ^ W. A. Gambling, D. N. Payne, and
H. Matsumura, "Gigahertz bandwidths in
multimode, liquid-core, optical fibre
waveguide", Opt. Commun. 6, 317–322
(1972).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0030401872901459
4. ^ G. J. Ogilvie, R. J. Esdaile, and
G. P. Kidd, "Transmission loss of
tetrachloroethylene-filled
liquid-core-fibre light guide",
Electron. Lett. 8, 533–534 (1972).
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_al
l.jsp?arnumber=4235852&tag=1
5. ^ R. Altkorn, I. Koev, R. P. Van
Duyne, and M. Litorja, "Low-loss
liquid-core optical fiber for
low-refractive-index liquids:
fabrication, characterization, and
application in Raman spectroscopy",
Applied Optics, Vol. 36, Issue 34, pp.
8992-8998 (1997)
doi:10.1364/AO.36.008992 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?&id=67764
6. ^ Daniel Colladon, "Sur les
réflexions d'un rayon de lumière à
l'intérieur d'une veine liquide
parabolique", Comptes Rendus, 15,
p800-802,
(1842). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k2974q/f800.image {Colladon_Danie
l_18420704.pdf} English: "On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream"
7. ^ Record ID5837.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
8. ^ A. G. Bell, "Selenium and the
Photophone," The Electrician 5, 214
(1880).
9. ^ Record ID4038. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "fibre
optics." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 29
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/205837/fibre-optics>.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/alsj/MSC-SESD-28
-105.pdf {Lunar_Television_Camera_Fiber
_Optics_19680312.pdf}
13. ^ W. A. Gambling, D. N. Payne, and
H. Matsumura, "Gigahertz bandwidths in
multimode, liquid-core, optical fibre
waveguide", Opt. Commun. 6, 317–322
(1972).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0030401872901459
14. ^ Stone, J.; , "Optical
transmission loss in liquid-core hollow
fibers," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.8, no.3, pp. 386- 388,
Mar 1972 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1972.1076966 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1076966&isnumber=23229
15. ^ W. A. Gambling, D. N. Payne, and
H. Matsumura, "Gigahertz bandwidths in
multimode, liquid-core, optical fibre
waveguide", Opt. Commun. 6, 317–322
(1972).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0030401872901459
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal
/!ut/p/kcxml/04_Sj9SPykssy0xPLMnMz0vM0Y_
QjzKLt4z3DADJmMU7xhu5mupHIgsZxDvCBXw98nN
T9YOAEpHmQLWm7t76IfqRLvre-gEgk2Bi4UWpeSm
pRfoFuaER5X5pHrmOiooATM-m0Q!!/delta/base
64xml/L0lNN3VhQ1NXWUEhIS9JTmhBQ0lpRWlBaU
13cUFBd0FxZ0FNQUEvNExFNVJPZ3JnSUEhLzdfQV
81R0s!?decade=1970s&innovation=History%2
FTimeline%2FTimeline_Innovation_000042.j
sp#7_A_5GK
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Stone, J.; , "Optical
transmission loss in liquid-core hollow
fibers," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.8, no.3, pp. 386- 388,
Mar 1972 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1972.1076966 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1076966&isnumber=23229
20. ^ Stone, J.; , "Optical
transmission loss in liquid-core hollow
fibers," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.8, no.3, pp. 386- 388,
Mar 1972 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1972.1076966 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1076966&isnumber=23229
{11/09/1971}
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Holmdel,
New Jersey, USA19  		 
29 YBN
[11/14/1971 AD] 8 		5618) U.S. "Mariner 9" is the first
ship from earth to orbit another planet
(Mars).5

The Mariner 9 mission results in a
global mapping of the surface of Mars,
including the first detailed views of
the martian volcanoes, Valles
Marineris, the polar caps, and the
satellites Phobos and Deimos. It also
provides information on global dust
storms, the triaxial figure of Mars,
and the variable gravity field.6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A {11/14/1971}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.astronomy.csdb.cn/ceps/rpif/m
ariner9/mariner9_archive.htm
Planet Mars7  
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg

[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
29 YBN
[11/27/1971 AD] 9 		5619) Ship impacts Mars (Soviet "Mars
2").5

The Soviet Mars 2 and 3 orbiters send
back a large volume of data covering
the period from December 1971 to March
1972, although transmissions continue
through August. It is announced that
Mars 2 and 3 have completed their
missions by 22 August 1972, after 362
orbits completed by Mars 2 and 20
orbits by Mars 3. The probes send back
a total of 60 pictures. The images and
data reveal mountains as high as 22 km,
atomic hydrogen and oxygen in the upper
atmosphere, surface temperatures
ranging from -110 C to +13 C, surface
pressures of 5.5 to 6 mb, water vapor
concentrations 5000 times less than in
Earth's atmosphere, the base of the
ionosphere starting at 80 to 110 km
altitude, and grains from dust storms
as high as 7 km in the atmosphere. The
data enables creation of surface relief
maps, and gives information on the
martian gravity and magnetic fields.6

The descent module is separated from
the orbiter on November 27, 1971 about
4.5 hours before reaching Mars. After
entering the atmosphere at
approximately 6 km/sec, the descent
system on the module malfunctions,
possibly because the angle of entry is
too steep. The descent sequence does
not operate as planned and the
parachute does not deploy. The lander
impacts Mars at high velocity. Mars 2
is the first human-made object to reach
the surface of Mars.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045D
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045D {11/27/1971}
Planet Mars8  
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg

[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
29 YBN
[11/??/1971 AD] 7 8 		5844)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p567.
2. ^ "microprocessor."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microproces
sor
3. ^ "microprocessor." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microproces
sor
4. ^ "microprocessor." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microproces
sor
5. ^ Faggin, Federico; Hoff, Marcian
E., Jr.; Mazor, Stanley; Shima,
Masatoshi (December 1996). "The History
of the 4004". IEEE Micro 16 (6):
10–20.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_a
ll.jsp?arnumber=546561.
6. ^ Faggin, Federico; Hoff, Marcian
E., Jr.; Mazor, Stanley; Shima,
Masatoshi (December 1996). "The History
of the 4004". IEEE Micro 16 (6):
10–20.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_a
ll.jsp?arnumber=546561.
7. ^ Faggin, Federico; Hoff, Marcian
E., Jr.; Mazor, Stanley; Shima,
Masatoshi (December 1996). "The History
of the 4004". IEEE Micro 16 (6):
10–20.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_a
ll.jsp?arnumber=546561. {11/1971}
8. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p567. {1971}
(Intel Corporation) Santa Clara,
California, USA6  
[1] Description Intel
4004.jpg Italiano: Primo
microprocessore Intel, l'it:Intel
4004. Date 2005-12-07 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was LucaDetomi at
it.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Intel_4004.jpg

[2] Description
C4004.JPG.jpg Intel 4004 Date
11/06/2006 (upload
commons) Source
en.wikipedia.org Author
Photo by John Pilge. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/C4004.JPG.jpg
29 YBN
[12/02/1971 AD] 9 		5620)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
6. ^ "reef." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reef-1
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F {12/02/1971}
Planet Mars8  
[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg

[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
29 YBN
[1971 AD] 2 		5843)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p567.
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p567. {1971}
  
29 YBN
[1971 AD] 5 		5852)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ Record ID2658. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Record
ID2659. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Internet."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1971}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
  
28 YBN
[01/21/1972 AD] 12 		5708) Benacerraf, is born in the
Venezuelan capital of Caracas, is
brought up in France and moves to the
USA in 1940.9

In 1980 the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is awarded jointly to Baruj
Benacerraf, Jean Dausset and George D.
Snell "for their discoveries concerning
genetically determined structures on
the cell surface that regulate
immunological reactions".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.874-875.
2. ^ "Baruj
Benacerraf." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/60347/Baruj-Benacerraf>.
3. ^ Baruj Benacerraf and Hugh O.
McDevitt, "Histocompatibility-Linked
Immune Response Genes", Science, New
Series, Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21,
1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
4. ^ "Baruj Benacerraf." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/benacerraf-
baruj
5. ^ "Baruj Benacerraf." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/benacerraf-
baruj
6. ^ Baruj Benacerraf and Hugh O.
McDevitt, "Histocompatibility-Linked
Immune Response Genes", Science, New
Series, Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21,
1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "Baruj
Benacerraf." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/benacerraf-
baruj
10. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1980". Nobelprize.org. 21 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1980/
11. ^ "Baruj Benacerraf." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/benacerraf-
baruj
12. ^ Baruj Benacerraf and Hugh O.
McDevitt, "Histocompatibility-Linked
Immune Response Genes", Science, New
Series, Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21,
1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
{01/21/1972}
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA11  
[1] Table 1 from: Baruj Benacerraf and
Hugh O. McDevitt,
''Histocompatibility-Linked Immune
Response Genes'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21, 1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED Baruj Benacerraf Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1733
481

[2] Figure 1 from: Baruj Benacerraf
and Hugh O. McDevitt,
''Histocompatibility-Linked Immune
Response Genes'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21, 1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1980/benace
rraf_postcard.jpg
28 YBN
[04/17/1972 AD] 2 		6160) Elton John releases "Rocket
Man".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rocket Man (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_Man_
%28song%29
2. ^ "Rocket Man (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_Man_
%28song%29 {04/17/1972}
  
28 YBN
[04/??/1972 AD] 3 		6136) Billy Preston relases the song
"Outa-Space".1

(1972 introduces the funky sound of the
Hohner clavinet electric piano to the
majority of the public.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Outa-Space". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outa-Space
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Outa-Space". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outa-Space
{04/1972 (released}
  
28 YBN
[07/15/1972 AD] 9 		5621)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
2. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
9. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html {07/15/1972}
Planet Mars8  
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
28 YBN
[07/31/1972 AD] 26 		5751) Proteins are synthesized by
adding DNA to bacteria.7 8

US biochemist, Paul Berg (CE 1926- ),
creates a technique to recombine DNA
fragments.9 10 11

In 1970, Har Gobind Khorana (CE 1922- )
and team had used a polynucleotide
ligase to join two DNA molecules.12 13


Berg uses the techniques of Nathans and
Hamilton Smith to cut nucleic acid
molecules at specific places14 and
then developed methods for attaching
segments of the molecule to the DNA of
a virus or plasmid, which can then
enter bacterial or animal cells. The
foreign DNA is incorporated into the
host and causes the synthesis of
proteins that are not ordinarily found
there. One of the earliest practical
results of recombinant technology is
the development of a strain of bacteria
containing the gene for producing the
mammalian hormone insulin.15

This allows the creation of a bacteria
that can produce useful molecules such
as insulin by simply sewing in the DNA
code that produces the insulin protein
into a bacteria, allowing the bacteria
to multiply exponentially and then
isolate all the insulin produced. This
technology may lead to microorganisms
that can clean oil spills, or
concentrate certain minerals from the
sea. Ultimately this technology of
genetic modification may lead to
species, including humans that do not
age and can grow replacement body
parts. One dangerous aspect is that new
viruses, bacteria and protists might be
created for which the human immune
system has no natural defense for and
so some of this research is regulated
and certain aspects of genetic
modification, for example in food
sources, is opposed by many humans.
Since this time, the dangers have been
found to be exaggerated and some
relaxation of controls has taken
place.16

Paul Berg, David A. Jackson, and Robert
H. Symons publish this in "Proccedings
of the National Academy of Sciences" as
"Biochemical Method for Inserting New
Genetic Information into DNA of
Simian
Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli".
For an abstract they write:
"We have
developed methods for covalently
joining duplex
DNA molecules to one another and have
used
these techniques to construct circular
dimers of
SV40 DNA and to insert a DNA
segment containing lambda
phage genes and the
galactose operon of E. coli into SV40
DNA.
The method involves: (a) converting
circular
SV40 DNA to a linear form, (b) adding
single-stranded
homodeoxypolymeric extensions of
defined composition
and length to the 3' ends of
one of the DNA strands with
the enzyme
terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase
(c)
adding complementary homodeoxypolymeric
extensions
to the other DNA strand, (d) annealing
the two DNA molecules
to form a circular duplex
structure, and (e) filling
the gaps and sealing
nicks in this structure with E. coli
DNA
polymerase and DNA ligase to form a
covalently
closed-circular DNA molecule.". In
their paper they write:
"Our goal is to
develop a method by which new,
functionally
defined segments of genetic information
can be introduced into
mammalian cells. It
is known that the DNA of the
transforming
virus SV40 can enter into a stable,
heritable, and
presumably covalent
association with the genomes of
various
mammalian cells (1, 2). Since purified
SV40 DNA can also
transform cells (although
with reduced efficiency), it seemed
possible
that SV40 DNA molecules, into which a
segment of
functionally defined, nonviral
DNA had been covalently
integrated, could serve as
vectors to transport and stabilize
these nonviral
DNA sequences in the cell genome.
Accordingly,
we have developed biochemical
techniques that are
generally applicable
for joining covalently any two DNA
molecules
. Using these techniques, we have
constructed
circular dimers of SV40 DNA; moreover,
a DNA segment
containing X phage genes and the
galactose operon of Escherichia
coli has been
covalently integrated into the
circular
SV40 DNA molecule. Such hybrid DNA
molecules and others
like them can be tested
for their capacity to transduce
foreign
DNA sequences into mammalian cells, and
can be used to
determine whether these new
nonviral genes can be expressed
in a novel
environment. ...
DISCUSSION
The methods described in this report
for the covalent joining
of two SV40 molecules
and for the insertion of a segment
of DNA
containing the galactose operon of E.
coli into SV40
are general and offer an
approach for covalently joining any
two DNA
molecules together. With the exception
of the fortuitous
property of the RI endonuclease,
which creates convenient
linear DNA precursors,
none of the techniques used
depends upon any
unique property of SV40 and/or the
Xdvgal
DNA. By the use of known enzymes and
only minor modifications
of the methods described
here, it should be possible
to join DNA
molecules even if they have the wrong
combination
of hydroxyl and phosphoryl groups at
their termini. By
judicious use of
generally available enzymes, even DNA
duplex
es with protruding 5'- or 3'-ends can
be modified to
become suitable substrates
for the joining reaction.
One important feature
of this method, which is different
from some
other techniques that can be used to
join unrelated
DNA molecules to one another (16,
19), is that here the joining
is directed by
the homopolymeric tails on the DNA. In
our
protocol, molecule A and molecule B can
only be joined
to each other; all AA and BB
intermolecular joinings and all
A and B
intramolecular joinings
(circularizations) are prevented.
The yield of the
desired product is thus increased,
and subsequent
purification problems are greatly
reduced.
For some purposes, however, it may be
desirable to insert
Xdvgal or other DNA
molecules at other specific, or even
random,
locations in the SV40 genome. Other
specific placements
could be accomplished if other
endonucleases could be found
that cleave the
SV40 circular DNA specifically. Since
pancreatic
DNase in the presence of Mn2+ produces
randomly
located, double-strand scissions (17)
of SV40 circular DNA
(Jackson and Berg, in
preparation), it should be possible to
inse
rt a DNA segment at a large number of
positions in the
SV40 genome.
...".17

A year later, in July 1973, Stanley N.
Cohen, Annie C. Y. Chang, Herbert W.
Boyer, and Robert B. Helling publish a
method of constructing biologically
functional bacterial plasmids in vitro
which are inserted into E. coli by
transformation (conjugation18 ).19

In Science (July 26, 1974) Paul Berg
and others publish a letter describing
the dangers of the uncontrolled
practice of recombinant DNA
experiments. Berg consequently proposea
an absolute voluntary moratorium on
certain types of experiment and strict
control on a large number of others. An
international conference is held in
Asilomar, California, followed by the
publication of strict guidelines by the
National Institutes of Health in
1976.20 Berg writes:
"Recent advances in
techniques for
the isolation and rejoining
of segments
of DNA now permit construction of
biolog
ically active recombinant DNA
molecules in
vitro. For example, DNA
restriction
endonucleases, which generate
DNA fragments
containing cohesive
ends especially suitable for
rejoining,
have been used to create new
types of
biologically functional bacterial
plasmids
carrying antibiotic resistance
markers (1) and to
link
Xenopus laevis ribosomal DNA to
DNA from a
bacterial plasmid. This
latter recombinant
plasmid has been
shown to replicate stably
in Escherichia
coli where it synthesizes RNA that
is
complementary to X. laevis ribsomal
DNA (2).
Similarly, segments of
Drosophila
chromosomal DNA have
been incorporated into
both plasmid
and bacteriophage DNA's to yield
hybrid
molecules that can infect and
replicate in
E. coli (3).
Several groups of scientists
are now
planning to use this technology to
crea
te recombinant DNA's from a
variety of
other viral, animal, and
bacterial sources.
Although such experiments
are likely to facilitate
the solution
of important theoretical and
practical
biological problems, they would
also result
in the creation of novel
types of infectious
DNA elements
whose biological properties cannot
be
completely predicted in advance.
There is
serious concern that some of
these
artificial recombinant DNA molecules
could prove
biologically hazardous.
One potential hazard in
current
experiments derives from the need to
use a
bacterium like E. coli to clone
the
recombinant DNA molecules and
to amplify
their number. Strains of
E. coli commonly
reside in the human
intestinal tract, and
they are capable
of exchanging genetic
information with
other types of bacteria,
some of which
are pathogenic to man. Thus,
new
DNA elements introduced into E. coli
might
possibly become widely disseminated
among human,
bacterial,
plant, or animal populations with
unpredictable
effects.
Concern for these emerging
capabilities
was raised by scientists attending
the 1973
Gordon Research Conference
on Nucleic Acids (4),
who requested
that the National Academy of
Sciences
give consideration to these
matters. The
undersigned members of
a committee, acting
on behalf of and
with the endorsement of
the Assembly
of Life Sciences of the National
Research
Council on this matter, propose
the following
recommendations.
First, and most important, that until
the
potential hazards of such recombinant
DNA molecules
have been better
evaluated or until adequate
methods
are developed for preventing their
spread,
scientists throughout the world
join with the
members of this committee
in voluntarily
deferring the following
types of experiments.
- Type 1:
Construction of new,
autonomously
replicating bacterial plasmids
that might result
in the introduction
of genetic determinants for
antibiotic
resistance or bacterial toxin
formation into
bacterial strains that do
not at present
carry such determinants;
or construction of new
bacterial plasmids
containing combinations of
resistance
to clinically useful antibiotics
unless plasmids
containing such combinations
of antibiotic
resistance determinants
already exist in nature.
i Type 2:
Linkage of all or segments
of the DNA's from
oncogenic or
other animal viruses to
autonomously
replicating DNA elements such as
bacterial
plasmids or other viral DNA's.
Such
recombinant DNA molecules
might be more easily
disseminated to
bacterial populations in
humans and
other species, and thus possibly
increase
the incidence of cancer or other
diseases.
Second, plans to link fragments of
animal
DNA's to bacterial plasmid
DNA or bacteriophage
DNA should be
carefully weighed in light
of the fact
that many types of animal cell
DNA's
contain sequences common to RNA
tumor
viruses. Since joining of any
foreign DNA
to a DNA replication
system creates new recombinant
DNA
molecules whose biological properties
cannot be
predicted with certainty,
such experiments should
not be undertaken
lightly.
Third, the director of the National
Institutes
of Health is requested to give
immediate
consideration to establishing
an advisory committee
charged with
(i) overseeing an experimental
program
to evaluate the potential biological
and
ecological hazards of the above
types of
recombinant DNA molecules;
(ii) developing
procedures which will
minimize the spread of
such molecules
within human and other
populations;
and (iii) devising guidelines to be
followe
d by investigators working with
potentially
hazardous recombinant
DNA molecules.
Fourth, an international
meeting of
involved scientis,ts from all
over the
world should be convened early in
the
coming year to review scientific
progress
in this area and to further discuss
appropriate
ways to deal with the
potential biohazards
of recombinant
DNA molecules.
...".21


(In the view that some unknown virus
may be created - it seems clear that
micro and nanotechnology has reached a
startling state of development,
although secretly, and that the
possibility may exist if not already
that humans may destroy viruses using
microscopic or nano-meter sized
remotely or self moved devices.22 )

(My own feeling is generally of less
fear of genetic modification, but I
think the main concern should be
securing life on the moon and mars, and
after that probably we will see much
more open and experimental genetic
experimentation. The nature of the
current modification is similar to
natural selection, and in particular a
bacteria simply producing a new known
harmless protein seems to me of little
if any risk. For example, I view GMO
rice as not risky, but I think there is
a very tiny risk involved in eating all
GMO organisms, just like there is for
GMO from natural selection.23 )

(Could people not simply produce
proteins directly from DNA with the
correct M-RNA, T-RNA, ribosomes, amino
acids, etc. without the need for
bacteria cells?24 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
2. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
3. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
4. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
5. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
6. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
7. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
8. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
9. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882-883.
11. ^ "Paul Berg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
12. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de
Sande, and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining
Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase", PNAS
November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3
1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.
short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

13. ^ Record ID5752. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882-883.
15. ^ "Paul Berg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.882-883.
17. ^ David A.
Jackson, Robert H. Symons, and Paul
Berg, "Biochemical Method for Inserting
New Genetic Information into DNA of
Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA
Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes
and the Galactose Operon of Escherichia
coli", PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69
no. 10 2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Stanley N. Cohen, Annie
C. Y. Chang, Herbert W. Boyer, and
Robert B. Helling, "Construction of
Biologically Functional Bacterial
Plasmids In Vitro", PNAS November 1,
1973 vol. 70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
20. ^ "Paul Berg." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-berg
21. ^ Paul Berg, David Baltimore,
Herbert W. Boyer, Stanley N. Cohen,
Ronald W. Davis, David S. Hogness,
Daniel Nathans, Richard Roblin, James
D. Watson, Sherman Weissman and Norton
D. Zinder , "Potential Biohazards of
Recombinant DNA Molecules", Science,
New Series, Vol. 185, No. 4148 (Jul.
26, 1974), p.
303. http://www.jstor.org/stable/173867
3 {Berg_Paul_19740726.pdf}
22. ^ Ted Huntington.
23. ^ Ted Huntington.
24. ^ Ted
Huntington.
25. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
26. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
{07/31/1972}
(Stanford University Medical Center)
Stanford, California, USA25  
[1] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg

28 YBN
[10/02/1972 AD] 6 		5522)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ta-Hsiu Liao, Johann Salnikow,
Stanford Moore and William H. Stein,
"Bovine Pancreatic Deoxyribonuclease A
ISOLATION OF CYANOGEN BROMIDE PEPTIDES;
COMPLETE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF THE
POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN", The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 248,
1489-1495.
http://www.jbc.org/content/248/4/1489.
short {Stein_William_H_19721002.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839-840,848.
3. ^ "Stanford
Moore." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stanford-mo
ore
4. ^ "William H. Stein." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564967/William-H-Stein>.
5. ^ Ta-Hsiu Liao, Johann Salnikow,
Stanford Moore and William H. Stein,
"Bovine Pancreatic Deoxyribonuclease A
ISOLATION OF CYANOGEN BROMIDE PEPTIDES;
COMPLETE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF THE
POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN", The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 248,
1489-1495.
http://www.jbc.org/content/248/4/1489.
short {Stein_William_H_19721002.pdf}
6. ^ Ta-Hsiu Liao, Johann Salnikow,
Stanford Moore and William H. Stein,
"Bovine Pancreatic Deoxyribonuclease A
ISOLATION OF CYANOGEN BROMIDE PEPTIDES;
COMPLETE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF THE
POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN", The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 248,
1489-1495.
http://www.jbc.org/content/248/4/1489.
short {Stein_William_H_19721002.pdf}
{10/02/1972}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1972". Nobelprize.org. 21 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1972/
[2] C. H. W. HIRS, WILLIAM H. STEIN,
AND STANFORD MOORE, "The amino acid
composition of ribonuclease", Journal
of biological chemistry, (1954)
volume: 211 issue: 2 page:
941. http://www.jbc.org/content/211/2/9
41.short
[3] "hydrolysis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrolysis
[4] "ribonuclease." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribonucleas
e
[5] D. H. Spackman, , W. H. Stein, ,
Stanford Moore, "Automatic Recording
Apparatus for Use in Chromatography of
Amino Acids", Anal. Chem., 1958, 30
(7), pp
1190–1206. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ac60139a006
(Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA5  
[1] Ta-Hsiu Liao, Johann Salnikow,
Stanford Moore and William H. Stein,
''Bovine Pancreatic Deoxyribonuclease A
ISOLATION OF CYANOGEN BROMIDE PEPTIDES;
COMPLETE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF THE
POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN'', The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 248,
1489-1495.
http://www.jbc.org/content/248/4/1489.
short {Stein_William_H_19721002.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/248/4
/1489.short

[2] William Howard Stein Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/stein
_postcard.jpg
28 YBN
[11/??/1972 AD] 4 		6135) Stevie Wonder releases the song
"Superstition".1

(This introduces the public to the
famous sound of the "clavinet" electric
piano made by Hohner. Billy Preston
will use the clavinet on many of his
songs, and the clavinet is typically
used on many funk recordings.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Superstition (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstitio
n_%28song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Superstition (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstitio
n_%28song%29
4. ^ "Superstition (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstitio
n_%28song%29 {11/1972}
New York City, New York, USA3   
28 YBN
[12/??/1972 AD] 2 		6138) The O'Jays release "Love Train".1


FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Love Train". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Train
2. ^ "Love Train". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Train
{12/1972 (released}
  
28 YBN
[1972 AD] 7 		5074)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Herbert Dingle" (obituary), Q.
Jl R. astr. Soc. V21, 1980,
p333-338. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1980QJR
AS..21..333W&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_pa
per=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf {Din
gle_Herbert_obituary_1980xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ H Dingle, "Science at the
Crossroads", 1972
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ H Dingle, "Science at the
Crossroads", 1972
6. ^ H Dingle, "Science
at the Crossroads", 1972
7. ^ H Dingle,
"Science at the Crossroads", 1972

MORE INFO
[1] H. Dingle, "Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal", Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 [D
ingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
[2] H. Dingle "Special Theory of
Relativity", Nature 195, 985 - 986 (08
September
1962) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v195/n4845/abs/195985a0.html
[3] "Herbert Dingle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Din
gle
[4] Bok, B. J., "Education in and
History of Modern Astronomy", Journal
for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 4,
p.208. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/JHA../0004//0000208.000.htm
l
[5] Dingle, H. (October 14 1967). "The
Case against Special Relativity".
Nature:
119. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v216/n5111/index.html
(University of London) London, England6
 (presumably) 
[1] Herbert Dingle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.relativ-kritisch.net/
forum/images/wiki/4/41/HerbertDingle.jpg

28 YBN
[1972 AD] 13 		5790) In 1976, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Burton
Richter and Samuel Chao Chung Ting "for
their pioneering work in the discovery
of a heavy elementary particle of a new
kind".10 (It seems like there is an
misplaced focus on particle collision
experiments - that really probably
should be on other more useful and
practical science contributions - like
neuron reading and writing, artificial
muscle robots, moving life to other
planets, teaching the public the
history of science, useful bulk
transmutations which will help humans
adapt to life on other planets and
moons, etc.11 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.slac.stanford.edu/gen/grad/Gr
adHandbook/slac.html
2. ^
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865
3. ^
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.892-893.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The
Nobel Prize in Physics 1976".
Nobelprize.org. 16 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1976/
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865
13. ^
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865 {1972}

MORE INFO
[1] "Burton Richter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 16 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/502853/Burton-Richter>.
[2]
http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/AboutSLAC.
aspx
(Stanford University Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford,
California, USA12  
[1] SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory is home to a two-mile linear
accelerator—the longest in the world.
Originally a particle physics research
center, SLAC is now a multipurpose
laboratory for astrophysics, photon
science, accelerator and particle
physics research. Six scientists have
been awarded the Nobel Prize for work
carried out at SLAC and the future of
the laboratory promises to be just as
extraordinary. UNKNOWN
source: http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/we
bimages/slac-aerial.jpg

[2] Burton Richter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/richter
_postcard.jpg
27 YBN
[03/28/1973 AD] 2 		6153) Led Zeppelin releases "The
Ocean".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Ocean (Led Zeppelin song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_%
28Led_Zeppelin_song%29
2. ^ "The Ocean (Led Zeppelin song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_%
28Led_Zeppelin_song%29 {03/28/1973}
  
27 YBN
[03/??/1973 AD] 2 		6137) Stevie Wonder releases "You Are
the Sunshine of My Life".1

FOOTNOTES
{03/1973}

  
27 YBN
[04/??/1973 AD] 3 		6170) The Wailers record the Bob Marley
and Peter Tosh song "Get Up, Stand
Up".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Get Up Stand Up". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Up_Stan
d_Up
2. ^ "Get Up Stand Up". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Up_Stan
d_Up
3. ^ "Get Up Stand Up". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Up_Stan
d_Up {04/1973}
(Harry J. Studios) Kingston, Jamaica2
 		 
27 YBN
[07/18/1973 AD] 11 		5752)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stanley N. Cohen, Annie C. Y.
Chang, Herbert W. Boyer, and Robert B.
Helling, "Construction of Biologically
Functional Bacterial Plasmids In
Vitro", PNAS November 1, 1973 vol.
70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p572.
3. ^ Thomas J. Kelly Jr., Hamilton O.
Smith, A restriction enzyme from
Hemophilus influenzae : II. Base
sequence of the recognition site,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
393-409, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90150-6. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4C/2/e72b69d6b9adac3ce561df0c
581747e3) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19700218.pd
f}
4. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de Sande,
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining
Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase", PNAS
November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3
1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.
short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

5. ^ Record ID5752. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Stanley N.
Cohen, Annie C. Y. Chang, Herbert W.
Boyer, and Robert B. Helling,
"Construction of Biologically
Functional Bacterial Plasmids In
Vitro", PNAS November 1, 1973 vol.
70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
Stanley N. Cohen, Annie C. Y. Chang,
Herbert W. Boyer, and Robert B.
Helling, "Construction of Biologically
Functional Bacterial Plasmids In
Vitro", PNAS November 1, 1973 vol.
70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
11. ^ Stanley N. Cohen, Annie C. Y.
Chang, Herbert W. Boyer, and Robert B.
Helling, "Construction of Biologically
Functional Bacterial Plasmids In
Vitro", PNAS November 1, 1973 vol.
70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf} {07/18/1973}
(Stanford University School of
Medicine) Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA10  
[1] Figure 7 from: Stanley N. Cohen,
Annie C. Y. Chang, Herbert W. Boyer,
and Robert B. Helling, ''Construction
of Biologically Functional Bacterial
Plasmids In Vitro'', PNAS November 1,
1973 vol. 70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/70/1
1/3240.short

[2] [t Verify this is the correct
Stanley N Cohen at Stanford] Stanley
N. Cohen, M.D. UNKNOWN
source: http://sncohenlab.stanford.edu/i
mages/stan_cohen.jpg
27 YBN
[10/??/1973 AD] 4 5 		6157) The O'Jays release "For the Love
of Money".1

(Give the history of the phaser and wah
pedal, both included in this song.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "For the Love of Money".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_Lov
e_of_Money
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "For the Love of Money".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_Lov
e_of_Money
4. ^ "For the Love of Money".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_Lov
e_of_Money {10/1973(recorded}
5. ^ "For the Love of
Money". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_Lov
e_of_Money {1973}
(Sigma Sound Studios) Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA3  		 
27 YBN
[12/03/1973 AD] 16 		5622)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
5. ^ "Timeline of space exploration".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_space_exploration
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html
8. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html
9. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html
10. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
16. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html {12/03/1973}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/pioneer10.
html
Planet Jupiter15  
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
27 YBN
[1973 AD] 7 8 		5684) Vitamin B-12 is synthesized by a
sequence of more than 100 reactions.3

(Determine chronology better.4 )
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ R. B. Woodward, "The total
synthesis of vitamin B12", Pure Appl.
Chem., 1973, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp.
145-178
doi:10.1351/pac197333010145 http://www.
iupac.org/publications/pac/33/1/0145/
2. ^ "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
3. ^ "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ L. H. Conover, K. Butler,
J. D. Johnston, J. J. Korst, R. B.
Woodward, "The Total Synthesis of
6-Demethyl-6-Deoxytetracycline", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1962, 84 (16), pp
3222–3224 DOI:
10.1021/ja00875a063 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00875a063 {Woodward_
Robert_Burns_19620630.pdf}
6. ^ "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>.
7. ^ R. B. Woodward, "The total
synthesis of vitamin B12", Pure Appl.
Chem., 1973, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp.
145-178
doi:10.1351/pac197333010145 http://www.
iupac.org/publications/pac/33/1/0145/
8. ^ "Robert Burns Woodward."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/647698/Robert-Burns-Woodward>. {1971}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.864-865.
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. 15
Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1965/
[3] R. B. Woodward, W. E. Doering, "The
Total Synthesis of Quinine", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1945, 67 (5), pp 860–874.
DOI:
10.1021/ja01221a051 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01221a051
[4] "Robert Burns Woodward." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wood
ward
[5] "quinine." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quinine
[6] R. B. Woodward, "Structure and the
Absorption Spectra of α,β-Unsaturated
Ketones", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1941, 63
(4), pp
1123–1126. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01849a066
[7] R. B. Woodward, Franz Sondheimer,
David Taub, Karl Heusler, W. M.
McLamore, "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1952, 74
(17), pp 4223–4251 DOI:
10.1021/ja01137a001
[8] Edmund C. Kornfeld, E. J.
Fornefeld, G. Bruce Kline, Marjorie J.
Mann, Reuben G. Jones, R. B. Woodward,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF LYSERGIC ACID
AND ENGROVINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (20),
5256-5257. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01649a100
[9] R. B. Woodward, Michael P. Cava, W.
D. Ollis, A. Hunger, H. U. Daeniker, K.
Schenker, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1954 76 (18),
4749-4751. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01647a088
[10] R. B. Woodward, F. E. Bader, H.
Bickel, A. J. Frey, R. W. Kierstead,
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF RESERPINE", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78 (9), pp
2023–2025. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01590a079
[11] R. B. Woodward, W. A. Ayer, J. M.
Beaton, F. Bickelhaupt, R. Bonnett, P.
Buchschacher, G. L. Closs, H. Dutler,
J. Hannah, F. P. Hauck, S. Itô, A.
Langemann, E. Le Goff, W. Leimgruber,
W. Lwowski, J. Sauer, Z. Valenta, H.
Volz, "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1960,
82 (14), pp 3800–3802 DOI:
10.1021/ja01499a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01499a093
[12] William Moffitt, R. B. Woodward,
A. Moscowitz, W. Klyne, Carl Djerassi,
"Structure and the Optical Rotatory
Dispersion of Saturated Ketones", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1961, 83 (19), pp
4013–4018 DOI:
10.1021/ja01480a015 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01483a054
[13] Roald Hoffmann, Robert B.
Woodward, "Conservation of orbital
symmetry", Acc. Chem. Res., 1968, 1
(1), pp 17–22. DOI:
10.1021/ar50001a003 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ar50001a003
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and Federal
Institute of Technology in Zürich,
Switzerland)5 6  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

26 YBN
[03/29/1974 AD] 5 		5614)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1973-085A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1973-085A
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1973-085A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1973-085A {03/29/1974}
Planet Mercury4  
[1] This mosaic of Mercury was taken by
the Mariner 10 spacecraft during its
approach on 29 March 1974. The mosaic
consists of 18 images taken at 42 s
intervals during a 13 minute period
when the spacecraft was 200,000 km
(about 6 hours prior to closest
approach) from the planet. source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-mercury.html,
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/mercury/mercuryglobe1.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Mercuryglobe1.jpg

[2] Artist impression of the Mariner
10 mission. Gravitational slingshot -
Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to
make use of a ''gravitational
slingshot'' maneuver, using Venus to
bend its flight path and bring its
perihelion down to the level of
Mercury's orbit. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Mariner_10_gravitational_s
lingshot.jpg
26 YBN
[07/??/1974 AD] 2 		6139) The Average White Band releases
"Pick Up the Pieces".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pick Up the Pieces (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pick_Up_the
_Pieces_%28song%29
2. ^ "Pick Up the Pieces (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pick_Up_the
_Pieces_%28song%29 {07/1974}
  
26 YBN
[11/12/1974 AD] 19 		5791) In 1976, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to Burton
Richter and Samuel Chao Chung Ting "for
their pioneering work in the discovery
of a heavy elementary particle of a new
kind".15 (It seems like there is an
misplaced focus on particle collision
experiments - that really probably
should be on other more useful and
practical science contributions - like
neuron reading and writing, artificial
muscle robots, moving life to other
planets, teaching the public the
history of science, useful bulk
transmutations which will help humans
adapt to life on other planets and
moons, etc.16 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. -E. Augustin*, A. M.
Boyarski, M. Breidenbach, F. Bulos, J.
T. Dakin, G. J. Feldman, G. E. Fischer,
D. Fryberger, G. Hanson, B.
Jean-Marie*, R. R. Larsen, V. Lüth, H.
L. Lynch, D. Lyon, C. C. Morehouse, J.
M. Paterson, M. L. Perl, B. Richter, P.
Rapidis, R. F. Schwitters, W. M.
Tanenbaum, and F. Vannucci, G. S.
Abrams, D. Briggs, W. Chinowsky, C. E.
Friedberg, G. Goldhaber, R. J.
Hollebeek, J. A. Kadyk, B. Lulu, F.
Pierre‡, G. H. Trilling, J. S.
Whitaker, J. Wiss, and J. E. Zipse,
"Discovery of a Narrow Resonance in
e+e- Annihilation", Phys. Rev. Lett.
33, 1406–1408 (1974)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v33/i2
3/p1406_1 {Richter_Burton_19741113.pdf}

2. ^ J. J. Aubert, U. Becker, P. J.
Biggs, J. Burger, M. Chen, G. Everhart,
P. Goldhagen, J. Leong, T. McCorriston,
T. G. Rhoades, M. Rohde, Samuel C. C.
Ting, and Sau Lan Wu, Y. Y. Lee,
"Experimental Observation of a Heavy
Particle J", Phys. Rev. Lett. 33,
1404–1406
(1974). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v33/i23/p1404_1 {Ting_Samuel_Chao_Chun
g.pdf}
3. ^ "Samuel C.C. Ting." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596572/Samuel-C-C-Ting>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.892-893, 897-898.
5. ^
"Samuel C.C. Ting." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 16 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596572/Samuel-C-C-Ting>.
6. ^ "hadron." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadron
7. ^ "Burton Richter." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burton-rich
ter
8. ^ J. -E. Augustin*, A. M. Boyarski,
M. Breidenbach, F. Bulos, J. T. Dakin,
G. J. Feldman, G. E. Fischer, D.
Fryberger, G. Hanson, B. Jean-Marie*,
R. R. Larsen, V. Lüth, H. L. Lynch, D.
Lyon, C. C. Morehouse, J. M. Paterson,
M. L. Perl, B. Richter, P. Rapidis, R.
F. Schwitters, W. M. Tanenbaum, and F.
Vannucci, G. S. Abrams, D. Briggs, W.
Chinowsky, C. E. Friedberg, G.
Goldhaber, R. J. Hollebeek, J. A.
Kadyk, B. Lulu, F. Pierre‡, G. H.
Trilling, J. S. Whitaker, J. Wiss, and
J. E. Zipse, "Discovery of a Narrow
Resonance in e+e- Annihilation", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 33, 1406–1408 (1974)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v33/i2
3/p1406_1 {Richter_Burton_19741113.pdf}

9. ^ J. J. Aubert, U. Becker, P. J.
Biggs, J. Burger, M. Chen, G. Everhart,
P. Goldhagen, J. Leong, T. McCorriston,
T. G. Rhoades, M. Rohde, Samuel C. C.
Ting, and Sau Lan Wu, Y. Y. Lee,
"Experimental Observation of a Heavy
Particle J", Phys. Rev. Lett. 33,
1404–1406
(1974). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v33/i23/p1404_1 {Ting_Samuel_Chao_Chun
g.pdf}
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1976". Nobelprize.org.
16 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1976/
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ J. -E. Augustin*, A.
M. Boyarski, M. Breidenbach, F. Bulos,
J. T. Dakin, G. J. Feldman, G. E.
Fischer, D. Fryberger, G. Hanson, B.
Jean-Marie*, R. R. Larsen, V. Lüth, H.
L. Lynch, D. Lyon, C. C. Morehouse, J.
M. Paterson, M. L. Perl, B. Richter, P.
Rapidis, R. F. Schwitters, W. M.
Tanenbaum, and F. Vannucci, G. S.
Abrams, D. Briggs, W. Chinowsky, C. E.
Friedberg, G. Goldhaber, R. J.
Hollebeek, J. A. Kadyk, B. Lulu, F.
Pierre‡, G. H. Trilling, J. S.
Whitaker, J. Wiss, and J. E. Zipse,
"Discovery of a Narrow Resonance in
e+e- Annihilation", Phys. Rev. Lett.
33, 1406–1408 (1974)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v33/i2
3/p1406_1 {Richter_Burton_19741113.pdf}

18. ^ J. J. Aubert, U. Becker, P. J.
Biggs, J. Burger, M. Chen, G. Everhart,
P. Goldhagen, J. Leong, T. McCorriston,
T. G. Rhoades, M. Rohde, Samuel C. C.
Ting, and Sau Lan Wu, Y. Y. Lee,
"Experimental Observation of a Heavy
Particle J", Phys. Rev. Lett. 33,
1404–1406
(1974). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v33/i23/p1404_1 {Ting_Samuel_Chao_Chun
g.pdf}
19. ^ J. J. Aubert, U. Becker, P. J.
Biggs, J. Burger, M. Chen, G. Everhart,
P. Goldhagen, J. Leong, T. McCorriston,
T. G. Rhoades, M. Rohde, Samuel C. C.
Ting, and Sau Lan Wu, Y. Y. Lee,
"Experimental Observation of a Heavy
Particle J", Phys. Rev. Lett. 33,
1404–1406
(1974). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v33/i23/p1404_1 {Ting_Samuel_Chao_Chun
g.pdf} {11/12/1974}

MORE INFO
[1] "Burton Richter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 16 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/502853/Burton-Richter>.
[2]
http://www.slac.stanford.edu/gen/grad/Gr
adHandbook/slac.html
[3]
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865
[4]
http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/AboutSLAC.
aspx
(Stanford University Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford,
California, USA17 and (Massachusetts
Institute of Technology) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (Brookhaven
National Laboratory) Upton, New York,
USA18  
[1] SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory is home to a two-mile linear
accelerator—the longest in the world.
Originally a particle physics research
center, SLAC is now a multipurpose
laboratory for astrophysics, photon
science, accelerator and particle
physics research. Six scientists have
been awarded the Nobel Prize for work
carried out at SLAC and the future of
the laboratory promises to be just as
extraordinary. UNKNOWN
source: http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/we
bimages/slac-aerial.jpg

[2] Burton Richter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/richter
_postcard.jpg
26 YBN
[12/??/1974 AD] 3 		6140) Labelle releases "Lady
Marmalade".1

(This song makes use of a cowbell.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lady marmalade". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_marmal
ade
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Lady marmalade".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_marmal
ade {12/1974}
  
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 17 18 		5846) Personal computer.9 10
The Altair
8800, is a microcomputer kit introduced
in late 1974 from Micro Instrumentation
and Telemetry Systems (MITS). It sold
for $400 and used an 8080
microprocessor. In 1975, it was
packaged with the Microsoft MBASIC
interpreter written by Paul Allen and
Bill Gates. Although computer kits were
advertised earlier by others, an
estimated 10,000 Altairs were sold,
making it the first commercially
successful microcomputer.11

The Altair 8800 has 256 bytes of
memory.12 (ROM or RAM?13 )

(Clearly soon, we should see low cost
walking robots - the rest of the
computer body.14 )

Read more:
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair#ixzz
1NoJknHXS
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577.
2. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577.
4. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577.
6. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577.
8. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577.
10. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
11. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^
"Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
16. ^ "Micro Instrumentation and
Telemetry Systems". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Instr
umentation_and_Telemetry_Systems
17. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
{1974}
18. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577. {1975}
(Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA15
16 (verify) 
[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 5 		5896)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/
05/gui.ars/3
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/
05/gui.ars/3
5. ^
http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/
05/gui.ars/3 {1974}
(Xerox Palo Alto Research Center) Palo
Alto, California, USA4  
[1] SmallTalk software UNKNOWN
source: http://media.arstechnica.com/ima
ges/gui/7-AltoST.jpg
25 YBN
[02/11/1975 AD] 2 		6143) KC and the Sunshine Band release
"Get Down Tonight".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Get Down Tonight". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Down_To
night
2. ^ "Get Down Tonight". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Down_To
night {02/11/1975}
  
25 YBN
[03/19/1975 AD] 10 		5717)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Khorana, H. G., Agarwal, K. L.,
Besmer, P., Büchi, H., Caruthers, M.
H., Cashion, P. J., Fridkin, M., Jay,
E., Kleppe, K., Kleppe, R., Kumar, A.,
Loewen, P. C., Miller, R. C., Minamoto,
K., Panet, A., RajBhandary, U. L.,
Ramamoorthy, B., Sekiya, T., Takeya,
T., and van de Sande, J. H. (1976)
Total synthesis of the structural gene
for the precursor of a tyrosine
suppressor transfer RNA from
Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
2. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
3. ^ Khorana, H. G., Agarwal, K. L.,
Besmer, P., Büchi, H., Caruthers, M.
H., Cashion, P. J., Fridkin, M., Jay,
E., Kleppe, K., Kleppe, R., Kumar, A.,
Loewen, P. C., Miller, R. C., Minamoto,
K., Panet, A., RajBhandary, U. L.,
Ramamoorthy, B., Sekiya, T., Takeya,
T., and van de Sande, J. H. (1976)
Total synthesis of the structural gene
for the precursor of a tyrosine
suppressor transfer RNA from
Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
4. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.876-877.
6. ^ Khorana, H. G.,
Agarwal, K. L., Besmer, P., Büchi, H.,
Caruthers, M. H., Cashion, P. J.,
Fridkin, M., Jay, E., Kleppe, K.,
Kleppe, R., Kumar, A., Loewen, P. C.,
Miller, R. C., Minamoto, K., Panet, A.,
RajBhandary, U. L., Ramamoorthy, B.,
Sekiya, T., Takeya, T., and van de
Sande, J. H. (1976) Total synthesis of
the structural gene for the precursor
of a tyrosine suppressor transfer RNA
from Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
7. ^ Khorana, H. G., Agarwal, K. L.,
Besmer, P., Büchi, H., Caruthers, M.
H., Cashion, P. J., Fridkin, M., Jay,
E., Kleppe, K., Kleppe, R., Kumar, A.,
Loewen, P. C., Miller, R. C., Minamoto,
K., Panet, A., RajBhandary, U. L.,
Ramamoorthy, B., Sekiya, T., Takeya,
T., and van de Sande, J. H. (1976)
Total synthesis of the structural gene
for the precursor of a tyrosine
suppressor transfer RNA from
Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Khorana, H. G., Agarwal,
K. L., Besmer, P., Büchi, H.,
Caruthers, M. H., Cashion, P. J.,
Fridkin, M., Jay, E., Kleppe, K.,
Kleppe, R., Kumar, A., Loewen, P. C.,
Miller, R. C., Minamoto, K., Panet, A.,
RajBhandary, U. L., Ramamoorthy, B.,
Sekiya, T., Takeya, T., and van de
Sande, J. H. (1976) Total synthesis of
the structural gene for the precursor
of a tyrosine suppressor transfer RNA
from Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
10. ^ Khorana, H. G., Agarwal, K. L.,
Besmer, P., Büchi, H., Caruthers, M.
H., Cashion, P. J., Fridkin, M., Jay,
E., Kleppe, K., Kleppe, R., Kumar, A.,
Loewen, P. C., Miller, R. C., Minamoto,
K., Panet, A., RajBhandary, U. L.,
Ramamoorthy, B., Sekiya, T., Takeya,
T., and van de Sande, J. H. (1976)
Total synthesis of the structural gene
for the precursor of a tyrosine
suppressor transfer RNA from
Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
{03/19/1975}

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039
[5] H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031
[6] H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc.,
24, 1473 (1965).
[7] H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
polynucleotides: LXXIII. Synthesis in
vitro of polypeptides containing
repeating tetrapeptide sequences
dependent upon DNA-like polymers
containing repeating tetranucleotide
sequences: Direction of reading of
messenger RNA", Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3, 28 June
1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
[8] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[9] MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[10] K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html
[11] Nicole Kresge, Robert D. Simoni,
and Robert L. Hill, "Total Synthesis of
a Tyrosine Suppressor tRNA: the Work of
H. Gobind Khorana", J Biol Chem. 2009
May 29; 284(22): e5.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2685647/
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, MAssachusetts, USA and
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA9  
[1] Figure 1 from: Khorana, H. G.,
Agarwal, K. L., Besmer, P., Büchi, H.,
Caruthers, M. H., Cashion, P. J.,
Fridkin, M., Jay, E., Kleppe, K.,
Kleppe, R., Kumar, A., Loewen, P. C.,
Miller, R. C., Minamoto, K., Panet, A.,
RajBhandary, U. L., Ramamoorthy, B.,
Sekiya, T., Takeya, T., and van de
Sande, J. H. (1976) Total synthesis of
the structural gene for the precursor
of a tyrosine suppressor transfer RNA
from Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3
/565.long

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
25 YBN
[04/??/1975 AD] 3 		6141) Chicago releases "Old Days".1

(By the 1970s, much of professional
popular music contains added layers of
strings - in particular violins, which
give songs a more professional
sophisticated sound and more subtle
depth. This song makes nice use of
violin accents. The more variety a song
has, the longer a person can listen to
it before being bored with it- because
they start to recognize more subtle
parts of the recording the more times
they listen to it. For a song with only
4 instruments, it does not take a lot
of time until everything has been heard
and recognized.2 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Old Days". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Days
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Old Days". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Days
{04/1975}
  
25 YBN
[10/20/1975 AD] 13 		5623) The first ship to orbit and land
on Venus, and transmit the first image
from the surface of another planet
(Soviet "Venera 9").9 10

The orbiter fulfills its communications
mission while photographing the
planet's atmosphere in UV light and
conducting other investigations. The
lander transmits data from Venus'
surface for 53 minutes, including
taking a 180° panorama of the rocky
Venusian surface. Illumination at the
surface was said to be as bright as
Moscow on a cloudy day in June. Gamma
ray measurements indicate that the
probe landed on a basaltic surface.
Temperature at the surface is found to
be 460°C (860°F); atmospheric
pressure was 90 times that of Earth.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
6. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
8. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
10. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
11. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
12. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
13. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A {10/20/1975}
Planet Venus12  
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif

[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
25 YBN
[1975 AD] 5 		6371) External object moved by
thought.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Incredible Human Machine",
National Geographic (1975)
2. ^ "The
Incredible Human Machine", National
Geographic (1975)
3. ^ "The Incredible Human
Machine", National Geographic (1975)
4. ^ "The
Incredible Human Machine", National
Geographic (1975)
5. ^ "The Incredible Human
Machine", National Geographic (1975)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/paralyzed-woman-us
es-her-mind-control-robot-arm-181141007-
-finance.html
[2]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/439638
7.stm
 
[1] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg
24 YBN
[01/26/1976 AD] 5 		5513)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
2. ^ "Luis W.
Alvarez." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/18131/Luis-W-Alvarez>.
3. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "A physicist
examines the Kennedy assassination
film", American Journal of Physics --
September 1976 -- Volume 44, Issue 9,
pp.
813. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajp
ias/v44/i9/p813_s1 {Alvarez_Luis_197601
26.pdf}
4. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "A physicist
examines the Kennedy assassination
film", American Journal of Physics --
September 1976 -- Volume 44, Issue 9,
pp.
813. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajp
ias/v44/i9/p813_s1 {Alvarez_Luis_197601
26.pdf}
5. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, "A physicist
examines the Kennedy assassination
film", American Journal of Physics --
September 1976 -- Volume 44, Issue 9,
pp.
813. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajp
ias/v44/i9/p813_s1 {Alvarez_Luis_197601
26.pdf} {01/26/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] Luis W. Alvarez and Robert
Cornog, "He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
[3] Sudarshan, E., Proceedings of the
1960 annual International Conference on
High Energy Physics at Rochester. The
University of Rochester, Rochester,
N.Y, University of Rochester;
distributed by Interscience
Publishers/[Rochester N.Y.], 1960
[4]
"resonance." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/499398/resonance>.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA4  
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

24 YBN
[03/10/1976 AD] 6 		1122) Lithium ion battery.2
M. S.
Whittingham publishes this in the
journal "Science" as "Electrical Energy
Storage and Intercalation Chemistry".
As an abstract he writes:
"The electrochemical
reaction of layered titanium disulfide
with lithium
giving the intercalation compound
lithium titanium disulfide is the basis
of a new battery
system. This reaction occurs
very rapidly and in a highly reversible
manner at
ambient temperatures as a result
of structural retention. Titanium
disulfide is one of
a new generation of
solid cathode materials.".3

Intercalation of molecules is the
insertion of additional material
between the parts of an existing
series.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M Stanley Whittingham,
"Electrical Energy Storage and
Intercalation Chemistry", Science, New
Series, Vol. 192, No. 4244 (Jun. 11,
1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
2. ^ M Stanley Whittingham, "Electrical
Energy Storage and Intercalation
Chemistry", Science, New Series, Vol.
192, No. 4244 (Jun. 11, 1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
3. ^ M Stanley Whittingham, "Electrical
Energy Storage and Intercalation
Chemistry", Science, New Series, Vol.
192, No. 4244 (Jun. 11, 1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
4. ^ "Intercalation", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry. Oxford University
Press.
5. ^ M Stanley Whittingham, "Electrical
Energy Storage and Intercalation
Chemistry", Science, New Series, Vol.
192, No. 4244 (Jun. 11, 1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
6. ^ M Stanley Whittingham, "Electrical
Energy Storage and Intercalation
Chemistry", Science, New Series, Vol.
192, No. 4244 (Jun. 11, 1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
(Exxon Research and Engineering
Company) Linden, New Jersey, USA5
 
[1] Chemical equation from: M Stanley
Whittingham, ''Electrical Energy
Storage and Intercalation Chemistry'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 192, No. 4244
(Jun. 11, 1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742
909

[2] Description Deutsch:
Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator von Varta,
Museum Autovision, Altlußheim,
Deutschland English: Lithium ion
battery by Varta (Museum Autovision
Altlußheim, Germany) Date January
2008 Source Own work Author Claus
Ableiter GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Lithium-Ionen-A
ccumulator.jpg/1024px-Lithium-Ionen-Accu
mulator.jpg
24 YBN
[03/19/1976 AD] 3 		6144) The Doobie Brothers release
"Takin' To The Streets".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Takin' It to the Streets (The
Doobie Brothers album)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takin%27_It
_to_the_Streets_%28The_Doobie_Brothers_a
lbum%29
2. ^ "Takin' It to the Streets (The
Doobie Brothers album)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takin%27_It
_to_the_Streets_%28The_Doobie_Brothers_a
lbum%29
3. ^ "Takin' It to the Streets (The
Doobie Brothers album)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takin%27_It
_to_the_Streets_%28The_Doobie_Brothers_a
lbum%29 {03/19/1976}
(Warner Brothers Studios) North
Hollywood, California, USA2  		 
24 YBN
[03/??/1976 AD] 10 		5763) Rubbia, McIntyre and Cline
describe this in "Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference" as
"Producing Massive Neutral Intermediate
Vector
Bosons with Existing Accelerators".
They write as an abstract:
"We outline a scheme
of searching for the massive
weak boson (M = 50
- 200 Gev/c2 ). An antiproton source
is added
either to the Fermilab or the CERN SPS
machines
to transform a conventional 400 GeV
accelerator into a
pp colliding beam
facility with 800 GeV in the center of
mass
(Eeq = 320,000 GeV). Reliable
estimates of production
cross sections along with
a high luminosity make
the scheme
feasible.". In their paper they write:
"The
past ten years have seen remarkable
progress in the understanding
of weak interactions.
First there is the experimental
discovery
of 6S = 0 weak neutral currents,l which
when contrasted with
the previous limits on
~S = 1 neutral current decay
processes2
leads to the suggestion of additional
hadronic quantum numbers in
nature. 3
Strong evidence now exists for new
hadronic quantum numbers
that are manifested
either directly4,5 or indirectly.6 The
experimental
discoveries are complemented by the
theoretical progress of
unified gauge
theories. 7 ,8 These developments lead
to the expectation
that very massive intermediate
vector bosons (50 - 100 Gev/c2 )
may
exist in nature. 7 ,8 The search for
these massive bosons require
three separate
elements to be successful: a reliable
physical
mechanism for production, very high
center of mass energies, and an
unambiguous
experimental signature to observe
them. In this note
we outline a scheme which
satisfies these requirements and that
could
be carried out with a relatively moqest
program at existing proton
accelerators.
We first turn to the production
process. We concentrate on
neutral bosons
because of the extremely simple
experimental signature
and because production is
largely dominated by a single
production
resonant pole in the
particle-antiparticle cross section.
The best
production reaction would of course
be:
...
where a sharp resonance peak is
expected for 2Ee + = 2Ee - = M. In the
Breit
-Wigner approximation near its maximum
we get:
(2 )
where f + - i , f are the partial
width to the initial e e state and the
total
width, respectively. The decay widths
into e+e- (and ~+~-)
pairs can be calculated
in the first order of the semi-weak
coupling
constant: f e+e ± =ru+~- = 1.5 x 10-7
~ (GeV). For M = 100 GeV,
r e+e - ~ 150 MeV,
which is surprisingly large. The total
width is
related to the above quantity by
the branching ratio Be+e - = fe+e-/f
which is
unknown. Crude guesses based on quark
models suggest
Be+e - ~ 1/10, giving r = 1.5
GeV or f/2E = 1.5% for M = 100 Gev/c2
•
At the peak of the resonance, a(e+e - +
W0 , 2E = M) = 3n*2 B. ~
~
2.10- 31 cm2 • Neutrino experiments9
have found that ~ > 20 Gev/c2 •
Therefore,
if ~ - ~, the neutral intermediate
boson is out of
reach of existing e+e -
storage r~. ngs.
A more realistic production
process is the one initiated by
proton-anti
proton collisions:
p + p + we + (hadrons)
which, according to
the quark (parton) picture, proceeds by
a reaction
analog to (1), except that now
incoming e+ and e- are replaced with
q and
q. Strong support to the idea that Wls
are directly coupled to
spin 1/2
point-like constituents comes from
neutrino experimentslO
and from semi-leptonic hadron
decays.ll Furthermore neutrino
experiments
provide the necessary structure
functions and have set limits9
(~ 20 GeV) on
any nonlocality in the parton form
factor. The main
difference with respect to
e+e - ~.s that now the kinematics is
largely
smeared out by the internal motion of
q's and q's.
...
We note that calculations of W-
production in proton-proton collisions
are very
uncertain in contrast to the present
one due to the apparent
small antiparton {ULSF:
typo?} content in the nucleon and the
unknown distributions
of this component.
...
We now briefly outline the scheme of
transforming an existing
proton accelerator into
high luminosity pp colliding beamsl7
using
standard vacuum (p ~ 10-7 Torr) and the
separate function magnet
system. The main
elements are (1) an extracted proton
beam to produce
an intense source of
antiprotons at 3.5 GeV/c, and (2) a
small ring
of magnets and quadrupoles that
guides and accumulates the p beam,
(3) a
suitable mechanism for damping the
transverse and longitudinal
phase spaces of the p
beam (either electron cooling18 or
stochastic
cooling19 ), (4) an R.F. system that
bunches the protons in the main
ring and in
the cooling ring, (5) transport of the
"cooled" R.F.
bunched p beam back to the
main ring for injection and
acceleration.
A long straight section of the main
ring is used as pp interaction
region. A schematic
drawing of these elements for the FNAL
accelerator
is presented in Fig. 1. The main
parameters of the scheme are
summarized in
Table I.
The luminosity for two bunches
colliding head-on is estimated
using the
relation
L = NpNp- $/a
where Np and Np are the
number of protons and antiprotons
circulating
in the machine, respectively, ~ is the
revolution frequency and ~ 15
the
effective area of interaction of the
two beams. Np is taken as
1012 protons in
one R.F. bunch. The value of N is
limited by the
p
maximum allowed beam-beam tune shift
(Np = 1012 for ~v = 0.01). We
have
verified the longitudinal stability of
the bunch, the phase area
growth due to R.F.
noise, the transverse wall instability,
the headtail
effect and non-linear resonances,
including those arising from
beam-beam
interactions. None of these effects
appears to be important.
...
The production of antiprotons at 3.5
GeV is done with protons
from the same
accelerator and with an overall
efficiency -pip ~ 4 x 10-6 .
In order to
reach Np = 3 x 1010 we need 750 pulses
with 10 l3ppp.
About 10 seconds must elapse
between puls~s in order to clear away
the
freshly injected antiprotons. 2l
Therefore the formation of piS
would take
of the order of few hours.
..."2

At CERN, protons are accelerated in a
linear accelerator, booster, and proton
synchroton (PS) up to 27 GeV. These
protons hit a heavy target (Be). At the
target many particle-antiparticle pairs
are released. Some of the antiprotons
are caught in the antiproton cooler
(AC) and stored in the antiproton
accumulator (AA). From there they are
transferred to the low energy
antiproton ring (LEAR) where
experiments take place.3

(Describe also how antiprotons are
produced. Determine what the proton
target that creates antiprotons is - is
it beryllium? Determine how thick the
Be is. State if reflected or
transmitted particles are captured.4 )
Ru
bbia's father was an electrical
engineer at the local telephone company
in Gorizia, Italy5 , so most likely
Rubbia receives direct-to-brain
windows.6

In 1984, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to Carlo Rubbia and
Simon van der Meer "for their decisive
contributions to the large project,
which led to the discovery of the field
particles W and Z, communicators of
weak interaction".7 (The existence of
a W and Z particle, as being a unifying
particle of fundamental forces seems
doubtful to me - I can accept that
particles of such masses exist, but
doubt that they have anything to do
with particle decay. Knowing that all
matter is probably made of light
particles, and that neuron reading and
writing has been kept secret for more
than 200 years adds a lot of doubt to
most modern physics claims.8 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cline, McIntyre, and Rubbia,
"Producing Massive Neutral Intermediate
Vector Bosons with Existing
Accelerators", Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf}
2. ^ Cline, McIntyre, and Rubbia,
"Producing Massive Neutral Intermediate
Vector Bosons with Existing
Accelerators", Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf}
3. ^
http://ikpe1101.ikp.kfa-juelich.de/ps210
/AH_pbar_productionE.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Carlo Rubbia -
Autobiography". Nobelprize.org. 8 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1984/rubbia.html
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1984". Nobelprize.org. 8 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1984/
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Cline, McIntyre, and
Rubbia, "Producing Massive Neutral
Intermediate Vector Bosons with
Existing Accelerators", Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf}
10. ^ Cline, McIntyre, and Rubbia,
"Producing Massive Neutral Intermediate
Vector Bosons with Existing
Accelerators", Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf}
{03/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carlo Rubbia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 07 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/511852/Carlo-Rubbia>.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (University of
Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA9
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Cline, McIntyre,
and Rubbia, ''Producing Massive Neutral
Intermediate Vector Bosons with
Existing Accelerators,''In Proceedings
of International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C7803
272/p175.pdf {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf
} PD
source: http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C780327
2/p175.pdf

[2] Carlo Rubbia Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1984/rubbia_
postcard.jpg
24 YBN
[05/??/1976 AD] 2 		6147) Steve Miller releases the song
"Fly Like An Eagle".1

FOOTNOTES
{05/1976}

  
24 YBN
[07/20/1976 AD] 4 		5624)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/vik
ing.html
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C {07/20/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of Mars rotating:
http://www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/d
etail/NSVS~3~3~9446~109446:Mars-Rotate--
True-Color-
Planet Mars3  
[1] First Mars Surface Photo Viking 1
first image Collection: NASA Great
Images in Nasa
Collection Title: First Mars Surface
Photo Full Description: The image
above is the first photograph ever
taken from the surface of Mars. It was
taken by the Viking 1 lander shortly
after it touched down on Mars on July
20, 1976. Part of footpad #2 can be
seen in the lower right corner, with
sand and dust in the center of it,
probably deposited during landing. The
next day, color photographs were also
taken on the Martian surface. The
primary objectives of the Viking
missions, which was composed of two
spacecraft, were to obtain
high-resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life on Mars. Date: 07/20/1976 NASA
Center: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Subject
Category: Planet-Mars Subject
Category: Viking-Pathfinder-So
journer Keywords: Laboratory Keywords
: Jet Keywords: Propulsion Keywords:
Viking Keywords: Mars Keywords: P-
17053 Audience: General
Public facet_what: Mars facet_what:
Viking facet_what: Viking 1
Lander facet_where: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory facet_where: Mars facet_wh
ere: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) facet_when: July 20,
1976 facet_when: 07-20-1976 facet_whe
n_year: 1976 Image
#: MarsSurface original_url: http://g
rin.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2003-
00 061 Center: JPL Center
Number: MarsSurface GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2003-00061 Creator-Photogr
apher: NASA Original
Source: NASA Image
ID: 127274 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2003-00061.jp2 Width: 2973
Height: 1228 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~23140~127274&file
=GPN-2003-00061.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm0
4.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%3
Fmediafile%3D%2FSize3%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
5256%2FGPN-2003-00061.jpg

[2] Description Mars Viking
11d128.png Original Caption Released
with NASA image: The Viking 1 Lander
sampling arm created a number of deep
trenches as part of the surface
composition and biology experiments on
Mars. The digging tool on the sampling
arm (at lower center) could scoop up
samples of material and deposit them
into the appropriate experiment. Some
holes were dug deeper to study soil
which was not affected by solar
radiation and weathering. The trenches
in this ESE looking image are in the
''Sandy Flats'' area of the landing
site at Chryse Planitia. The boom
holding the meteorology sensors is at
left. More information can be found at
Viking Lander Image 11D128.BLU, Viking
Lander Image 11D128.GRN and Viking
Lander Image 11D128.RED. Date
2009-01-26; original photos were
taken 1977-05-26. Source Own work
based on images in the NASA Viking
image archive Author ''Roel van
der Hoorn (Van der
Hoorn)'' Permission (Reusing this
file) I used the original 11d128.blu,
11d128.grn and 11d128.red images from
the NASA Viking image archive,
converted them to .png, manually
removed the noise and finally merged
them into one image (almost matching
true color; see here for the channel
mixing process). Except for the
conversion, this was all done in Adobe
Photoshop CS2. The original files by
NASA are in the public domain, and so
is this new one. Other versions I
created this image as a replacement for
the image Viking1mars.jpg (see also:
here) It was created by NASA, but the
quality is not very high. Using the
original pictures from the lander
archive resulted in a higher quality
image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Mars_Viking_11d128.pn
g
24 YBN
[11/30/1976 AD] 7 		5695)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
2. ^ "Frederick Sanger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/522340/Frederick-Sanger>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.868.
4. ^ Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M.,
Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson,
A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III,
C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M.,
1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
7. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
{11/30/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1958". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1958/
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1980". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
[3] F. Sanger, "The free amino groups
of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
[4] "Frederick Sanger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
anger
[5] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification
of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198157/
[6] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 2. The investigation
of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3):
366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/
[7] "insulin." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/insulin
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England6  
[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
24 YBN
[12/??/1976 AD] 3 		6145) Heatwave release the song "Boogie
Nights".1

(Describe the effects used in this
recording.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Boogie Nights (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boogie_Nigh
ts_%28song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Boogie Nights (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boogie_Nigh
ts_%28song%29 {12/1976}
  
24 YBN
[1976 AD] 6 		5329)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Leakey." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-leake
y
2. ^ LSB Leakey, "A new lower Pliocene
fossil primate from Kenya", Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist, 1962.
3. ^ LSB Leakey, "A new
lower Pliocene fossil primate from
Kenya", Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, 1962.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ M. D. Leakey, R. L. Hay, "Pliocene
footprints in the Laetolil Beds at
Laetoli, northern Tanzania", Nature
278, 317-323 (22 March
1979). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v278/n5702/pdf/278317a0.pdf {Leake
y_Mary_19780928.pdf}
6. ^ M. D. Leakey, R. L. Hay, "Pliocene
footprints in the Laetolil Beds at
Laetoli, northern Tanzania", Nature
278, 317-323 (22 March
1979). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v278/n5702/pdf/278317a0.pdf {Leake
y_Mary_19780928.pdf} {1976}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p794.
[2] "Louis S.B.
Leakey." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17
Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/333880/Louis-S-B-Leakey>.
[3] LSB Leakey, "Skull of Proconsul
from Rusinga Island", Nature 162,
688-688 (30 October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
[4] Leakey, "A New Fossil Skull From
Olduvai", Nature (1959) volume: 184
issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article
Laetoli, Tanzania, Africa5  
[1] Figures from: M. D. Leakey, R. L.
Hay, ''Pliocene footprints in the
Laetolil Beds at Laetoli, northern
Tanzania'', Nature 278, 317-323 (22
March
1979). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v278/n5702/pdf/278317a0.pdf {Leake
y_Mary_19780928.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/openurl?vo
lume=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=
4685&genre=article

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey
23 YBN
[01/??/1977 AD] 5 		5847)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.commodore.ca/products/pet/com
modore_pet.htm
2. ^
http://www.commodore.ca/products/pet/com
modore_pet.htm
3. ^
http://www.commodore.ca/products/pet/com
modore_pet.htm
4. ^ "Commodore International".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_I
nternational
5. ^ "Personal computer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_co
mputer {01/1977}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577
[2] "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
[3] "Micro Instrumentation and
Telemetry Systems". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Instr
umentation_and_Telemetry_Systems
(Commodore International) West Chester,
Pennsylvania, USA4 (verify) 
[1] Description Commodore
PET2001.jpg English: Commodore PET
2001 Series Personal Computer
(1977) Date 4 August
2009(2009-08-04) Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/tomisl
avmedak/3803230853/ Author
Photographer: Tomislav Medak from
Flickr / Editing: Bill Bertram
(Pixel8) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Commodore_PET2001.jpg

23 YBN
[01/??/1977 AD] 3 		6152) Heart releases the song
"Barracuda".1

The song is an aggressive hard rock
number notable for a galloping guitar
riff which has often been compared to
that of Led Zeppelin's "Achilles Last
Stand" and is noted for its use of
natural harmonics, particularly in the
intro where the harmonics are bent
using the tremolo arm of the guitar.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Barracuda (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barracuda_%
28song%29
2. ^ "Barracuda (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barracuda_%
28song%29
3. ^ "Barracuda (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barracuda_%
28song%29 {01/1977 (released}
  
23 YBN
[05/03/1977 AD] 3 		6148) The Eagles release "Life In the
Fast Lane".1

(Determine if this is the first use of
phaser. It's interesting that this
guitar riff is similar to the famous
riff of "Walk This Way", but distinctly
different, and both are released in the
same year.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Life In The Fast Lane".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_In_The
_Fast_Lane
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Life In The Fast Lane".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_In_The
_Fast_Lane {05/03/1977}
  
23 YBN
[05/19/1977 AD] 9 		5771)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A., Peregudov, G.
V., Ragozin, E. N., Sobslman, 1.1, and
Chirkov, V. A., "Concerning the
problem of lasers for the far
ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A", 1977,
Journal of Experimental and Theoretical
Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf}
2. ^ Hagelstein, P.L., "Review of short
wavelength lasers", Conference: 9.
international conference on atomic
physics, Seattle, WA, USA, 23 Jul
1984 http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5780959 {H
agelstein_Peter_L_198407xx.pdf}
3. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A., Peregudov, G. V.,
Ragozin, E. N., Sobslman, 1.1, and
Chirkov, V. A., "Concerning the
problem of lasers for the far
ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A", 1977,
Journal of Experimental and Theoretical
Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf}
4. ^ Hagelstein, P.L., "Review of short
wavelength lasers", Conference: 9.
international conference on atomic
physics, Seattle, WA, USA, 23 Jul
1984 http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5780959 {H
agelstein_Peter_L_198407xx.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A.,
Peregudov, G. V., Ragozin, E. N.,
Sobslman, 1.1, and Chirkov, V. A.,
"Concerning the problem of lasers for
the far ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A",
1977, Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf}
8. ^ http://www.lebedev.ru/en/
9. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A., Peregudov,
G. V., Ragozin, E. N., Sobslman, 1.1,
and Chirkov, V. A., "Concerning the
problem of lasers for the far
ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A", 1977,
Journal of Experimental and Theoretical
Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf} {05/19/1977}
(P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute, USSR
Academy of Sciences) Moscow, USSR (now
Russia)7 8  
[1] Figure 4 from: Ilyukhin, A. A.,
Peregudov, G. V., Ragozin, E. N.,
Sobslman, 1.1, and Chirkov, V. A.,
''Concerning the problem of lasers for
the far ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A'',
1977, Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/
1416/article_21489.shtml
23 YBN
[12/13/1977 AD] 4 		6146) The Bee-Gees release "Stayin'
Alive".1

(Disco, to some extent marks the
beginning of the use of synthesized
drums as opposed to the standard drum
set. In addition, violin accenting,
which become popular starting in the
1970s is a nice edition to this song.2
)

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stayin Alive". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stayin_Aliv
e
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Stayin Alive".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stayin_Aliv
e
4. ^ "Stayin Alive". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stayin_Aliv
e {12/13/1977}
(Château d'Hérouville,)Hérouville,
France3  		 
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 6 		5738)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bruce C Heezen; Marie Tharp;
Heinrich C Berann; Heinz Vielkind;
United States. Navy., "World Ocean
Floor", US Navy, 1977.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Jwu8S
gAACAAJ&dq=%22World+ocean+floor%22&hl=en
&ei=oti8TZDIL4S-sQPIsrDBBQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CGYQ6AEwA
g
2. ^
http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/eoc/teachers/
t_tectonics/p_midoceanridges.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.880.
4. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/26/obitua
ries/26tharp.html
5. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/26/obitua
ries/26tharp.html
6. ^
http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/eoc/teachers/
t_tectonics/p_midoceanridges.html
{1977}

MORE INFO
[1] Kendall Hunt,, "BSCS science
& technology: Investigating earth
systems", 2005,
p258 http://books.google.com/books?id=d
nJL9kVhCa8C&pg=PA258-IA2&lpg=PA258-IA2&d
q=first+image+of+mountains+on+ocean+floo
r+Heezen&source=bl&ots=sdkQaLM5Mk&sig=Hh
BQAb9gvoboOT76OEQKJLcNYvI&hl=en&ei=3dC8T
f-fNZS4sAPG1bHZBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepa
ge&q&f=false
 
[1] [t Interesting that this map is not
public domain by a US government
source] Map of the ocean floor From
''World Ocean Floor Panorama'', Authors
Marie Tharp and Bruce C. Heezen, 1977.
Copyright by Marie Tharp 1977/2003.
Reproduced by permission of Marie Tharp
Maps, LLC , 8 Edward Street, Sparkill,
New York 10976. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/eoc/t
eachers/t_tectonics/images/HeezenTharp_7
00.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of
Marie Tharp & Bruce Heezen, no
date Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/mariet
harpmaps/537480113/ Article Marie
Tharp Portion used all Low
resolution? yes Purpose of use
illustrates an educational article
about the deceased person that the
photograph represents. Replaceable?
As the subject is deceased, the
photograph is not replaceable with an
uncopyrighted or freely copyrighted
image of comparable educational
value. Other information
Copyright Marie Tharp Maps,
http://marietharp.com/ COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Tharp_%26_Heezen.jpg
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 4 		6045)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.johnwilliams.org/reference/bi
bliography2.html
2. ^ "John williams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_willia
ms
3. ^ "John williams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_willia
ms
4. ^
http://www.johnwilliams.org/reference/bi
bliography2.html {1977}
Los Angeles, California, USA3
(verify) 
[1] John Williams UNKNOWN
source: http://images37.concordmusicgrou
p.com/artists/fullsize/John_Williams_cmg
_260.jpg

[2] Description w:George
Lucas Date 31 May 2007,
09:12 Source Taken from Flickr:
link to original description
page Author Joi Ito from
Inbamura, Japan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/George_Lucas.jpg
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 5 		6277)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sturman, D.J., Zeltzer, D.
(January 1994). "A survey of
glove-based input". IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Sturman, D.J., Zeltzer,
D. (January 1994). "A survey of
glove-based input". IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}
4. ^ T.A. DeFanti and D.J. Sandin.
“Final Report to the National
Endowment of the Arts,” US NEA
R60-34- 163, University of Illinois at
Chicago Circle. Chicago. Ill., 1977.
5. ^
T.A. DeFanti and D.J. Sandin. “Final
Report to the National Endowment of
the Arts,” US NEA R60-34- 163,
University of Illinois at Chicago
Circle. Chicago. Ill., 1977.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS99/Notes/
Class6/Class6.html
(University of Illinois at Chicago)
Chicago, Illinois, USA3 4  
[1] Sayre Glove From: Sturman, D.J.,
Zeltzer, D. (January 1994). ''A survey
of glove-based input''. IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}

[2] CyberGlove From: Sturman, D.J.,
Zeltzer, D. (January 1994). ''A survey
of glove-based input''. IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 25 		6312) Self-driving car.16 17 18 19 20
21

The first common road driving
autonomous car is the Intelligent
Vehicle of the Tsukuba Mechanical
Engineering Laboratory which tests a
car in 1977 that can follow roads for
up to 50 meters at speeds up to 30
km/h.22 23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
2. ^ Tsugawa, S.; , "Vision-based
vehicles in Japan: machine vision
systems and driving control systems,"
Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.41, no.4,
pp.398-405, Aug 1994 doi:
10.1109/41.303790 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=303790&isnumber=7476
3. ^
http://www.markelic.de/professional/mile
stonesDrivingTable.html
4. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology 4Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
5. ^ S. Tsugawa, et al.: An Automobile
with Artificial
Intelligence, Proceedings of the 6th
International Joint Conference on
Artificial Intelligence, pp.893-895
(1979).
6. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
7. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
8. ^ Tsugawa, S.; , "Vision-based
vehicles in Japan: machine vision
systems and driving control systems,"
Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.41, no.4,
pp.398-405, Aug 1994 doi:
10.1109/41.303790 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=303790&isnumber=7476
9. ^
http://www.markelic.de/professional/mile
stonesDrivingTable.html
10. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology 4Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
11. ^ S. Tsugawa, et al.: An Automobile
with Artificial
Intelligence, Proceedings of the 6th
International Joint Conference on
Artificial Intelligence, pp.893-895
(1979).
12. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
13. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
14. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
15. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
16. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
17. ^ Tsugawa, S.; , "Vision-based
vehicles in Japan: machine vision
systems and driving control systems,"
Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.41, no.4,
pp.398-405, Aug 1994 doi:
10.1109/41.303790 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=303790&isnumber=7476
18. ^
http://www.markelic.de/professional/mile
stonesDrivingTable.html
19. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology 4Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
20. ^ S. Tsugawa, et al.: An Automobile
with Artificial
Intelligence, Proceedings of the 6th
International Joint Conference on
Artificial Intelligence, pp.893-895
(1979).
21. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
22. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology Lurches Forwardb", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
23. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
24. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
25. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
(Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab)
Japan 
[1] Fig. 2. The vision-based automated
vehicle during 1970’s (left) and the
image processing: a road scene (right
top) and the guard rail detected in
the field of view (right
bottom). Figure 2 from: Sadayuki
Tsugawa, ''A History of Automated
Highway Systems in Japan and Future
Issues'', Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety Columbus, OH,
USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
22 YBN
[05/15/1978 AD] 4 		5831)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sidney Strickland and Vijak
Mahdavi, "The induction of
differentiation in teratocarcinoma stem
cells by retinoic acid", Cell, Volume
15, Issue 2, October 1978, Pages
393-403. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/0092867478900089 {Ma
hdavi_Vijak_19780515.pdf}
2. ^ Sidney Strickland and Vijak
Mahdavi, "The induction of
differentiation in teratocarcinoma stem
cells by retinoic acid", Cell, Volume
15, Issue 2, October 1978, Pages
393-403. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/0092867478900089 {Ma
hdavi_Vijak_19780515.pdf}
3. ^ Sidney Strickland and Vijak
Mahdavi, "The induction of
differentiation in teratocarcinoma stem
cells by retinoic acid", Cell, Volume
15, Issue 2, October 1978, Pages
393-403. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/0092867478900089 {Ma
hdavi_Vijak_19780515.pdf}
4. ^ Sidney Strickland and Vijak
Mahdavi, "The induction of
differentiation in teratocarcinoma stem
cells by retinoic acid", Cell, Volume
15, Issue 2, October 1978, Pages
393-403. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/0092867478900089 {Ma
hdavi_Vijak_19780515.pdf} {05/15/1978}
(The Rockefeller University) New York
City, New York, USA3  
[1] Figure 1 from: Sidney Strickland
and Vijak Mahdavi, ''The induction of
differentiation in teratocarcinoma stem
cells by retinoic acid'', Cell, Volume
15, Issue 2, October 1978, Pages
393-403. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/0092867478900089 {Ma
hdavi_Vijak_19780515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0092867478900089
22 YBN
[07/25/1978 AD] 4 		5810)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
"BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO", The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf}
2. ^ P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
"BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO", The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf}
3. ^ P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
"BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO", The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf}
4. ^ P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
"BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO", The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf} {07/25/1978}
(General Hostpial) Oldham, UK3   
22 YBN
[10/27/1978 AD] 2 		6154) Gloria Gaynor releases "I Will
Survive".1

FOOTNOTES
{10/27/1978}

  
21 YBN
[01/15/1979 AD] 8 		6203) (This method of laser burning
makes lasers that can burn widely
available, although using them as a
weapon is beyond the skills of the
average person. The publication of the
maser also opened the possibility of
people in the public developing maser
weapons, but probably the
nanotechnology is so advanced that the
biggest danger is still, as has been
for many centuries, violent people who
already have access to the
nanotechnology, who apparently cannot
be even shown to the public and
certainly not stopped, 9/11, the
Kennedy murders, and so many other
millions of murders being obvious
examples.6 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
2. ^ Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical
Disk Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No.
4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
862-868. Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
3. ^ Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
4. ^ Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical
Disk Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No.
4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
862-868. Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
5. ^ Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Jan van der Veen et al,
"Optical recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
8. ^ Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false {01/15/1979}

MORE INFO
[1] Bricot, C.; Lehureau, J.C.;
Puech, C.; Le Carvennec, F.; , "Optical
Readout of Videodisc," Consumer
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.CE-22, no.4, pp.304-308, Nov.
1976 doi:
10.1109/TCE.1976.266827 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4042892&isnumber=4042879

[2] Lou, D.; Zernike, F.; Kenney, G.;
Chan, A.; Janssen, P.; McFarlane, R.;
Wagner, J.; , "A prototype optical disk
recorder," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.13, no.9, pp. 827, Sep
1977 doi: 10.1109/JQE.1977.1069481 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1069481&isnumber=22976
[3] Bulthuis, et al, “Ten billion
bits on a disk,” IEEE Spectrum,vol.26
(Aug.
1979). www.ieee.be/files/1979-August-IE
EE-Spectrum.pdf
[4] W Barrett, "Developments in optical
disc technology and the implications
for information storage and retrieval",
The British Library Research &
Development Reports #5623,
1981 {Barrett_198106xx.pdf}
Eindhoven, Netherlands7  
[1] From: Bulthuis, et al, “Ten
billion bits on a disk,” IEEE
Spectrum,vol.26 (Aug.
1979). www.ieee.be/files/1979-August-IE
EE-Spectrum.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: Bulthuis_IEEE-Spectrum_197908xx.
pdf

[2] Figures from: Jan van der Veen et
al, ''Optical recording medium and
method of optically recording
information thereon'', Patent number:
4298975, Filing date: Mar 19, 1979,
Issue date: Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&print
sec=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recordi
ng%20philips&f=false
21 YBN
[03/05/1979 AD] 5 		5630)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A {03/05/1979}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 1". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
Planet Jupiter4  
[1] Original Caption Released with
Image: VOLCANIC EXPLOSION ON IO:
Voyager 1 acquired this image of Io on
March 4 at 5:30 p.m. (PST) about 11
hours before closest approach to the
Jupiter moon. The distance to Io was
about 490,000 kilometers (304,000
miles). An enormous volcanic explosion
can be seen silhouetted against dark
space over Io's bright limb. The
brightness of the plume has been
increased by the computer as it is
normally extremely faint, whereas the
relative color of the plume (greenish
white) has been preserved. At this time
solid material had been thrown up to an
altitude of about 100 miles. This
requires an ejection velocity from the
volcanic vent of about 1200 miles per
hour, material reaching the crest of
the fountain in several minutes. The
vent area is a complex circular
structure consisting of a bright ring
about 300 kilometers in diameter and a
central region of irregular dark and
light patterns. Volcanic explosions
similar to this occur on the Earth when
magmatic gases expand explosively as
material is vented. On Earth water is
the major gas driving the explosion.
Because Io is thought to be extremely
dry, scientists are searching for other
gases to explain the explosion. JPL
manages and controls the Voyager
Project for NASA's Office of Space
Science. source:http://photojournal.j
pl.nasa.gov/catalog/?IDNumber=PIA01971
TIFF
verion:http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/
tiff/PIA01971.tif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/Vulcanic_Explosion_on
_Io.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
21 YBN
[07/09/1979 AD] 3 		5633)
FOOTNOTES
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {07/09/1979}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Jupiter2  
[1] Callisto - PIA00457.jpg English:
This false color picture of Callisto
was taken by Voyager 2 on July 7, 1979
at a range of 1,094,666 kilometers
(677,000 miles) and is centered on 11
degrees N and 171 degrees W. This
rendition uses an ultraviolet image for
the blue component. Because the surface
displays regional contrast in UV,
variations in surface materials are
apparent. Notice in particular the dark
blue haloes which surround bright
craters in the eastern hemisphere. The
surface of Callisto is the most heavily
cratered of the Galilean satellites and
resembles ancient heavily cratered
terrains on the moon, Mercury and Mars.
The bright areas are ejecta thrown out
by relatively young impact craters. A
large ringed structure, probably an
impact basin, is shown in the upper
left part of the picture. The color
version of this picture was constructed
by compositing black and white images
taken through the ultraviolet, clear
and orange filters. Date 7 July
1979(1979-07-07) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA00457 Author
NASA/JPL PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Callisto_-_PIA00457.j
pg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
21 YBN
[08/??/1979 AD] 5 		6155) "The Sugarhill Gang" release
"Rapper's Delight" which uses the bass
and guitar melody from Chic's "Good
Times".1

(This song marks the beginning of
modern rap music. Describe rap more -
basically the vocal is mostly monotone
and not singing.2 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rapper's delight". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapper%27s_
delight
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Rapper's delight".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapper%27s_
delight
4. ^ "Sugar Hill Records (rap)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_Hill_
Records_%28rap%29
5. ^ "Rapper's delight". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapper%27s_
delight {08/1979}
(Sugar Hill Studios) Englewood, New
Jersey, USA3 4  		 
21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD] 9 		388) Ship from Earth, the U.S. "Pioneer
11", passes and sends close images of
planet Saturn.6

Pioneer 11 flies to within 13,000 miles
of Saturn and takes the first close-up
pictures of the Saturn. Instruments
locate two previously undiscovered
small moons and an additional ring,
chart Saturn's magnetosphere and
magnetic field and determine that its
planet-size moon, Titan, is too cold
for life. Flying underneath the ring
plane, Pioneer 11 sends back images of
Saturn's rings. The rings, which
normally appear bright when observed
from Earth, appeared dark in the
Pioneer pictures, and the dark gaps in
the rings seen from Earth appear as
bright rings.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
2. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
3. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
4. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
5. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
6. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
7. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
8. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
9. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html {09/01/1979}
Planet Saturn8  
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg


source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD] 4 		5625)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1973-019A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1973-019A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1973-019A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1973-019A {09/01/1979}
Planet Saturn3  
[1] NASA Great Images in Nasa
Collection Title: Pioneer 11 Image of
Saturn and its Moon Titan Full
Description: NASA's Pioneer 11 image
of Saturn and its moon Titan at the
upper left. The irregularities in ring
silhouette and shadow are due to
technical anomalies in the preliminary
data later corrected. Looking at the
rings from left to right, the ring area
begins with the outer A ring; the Encke
Division; the inner A Ring; Cassini
Division; the B Ring; the C Ring; and
the innermost area where the D Ring
would be. The image was made by Pioneer
Saturn on Wednesday, August 26, 1979,
and received on Earth at 3:19 pm PDT.
Pioneer was, at that time, 2,846,000
kilometers (1,768,422 miles) from
Saturn. The image was produced by
computer at the University of Arizona
and managed by NASA's Ames Research
Center. Date: 08/31/1979 NASA
Center: Ames Research Center Subject
Category: Space Probes Subject
Category: Planetary Astronomy Subject
Category: Saturns Moons Subject
Category: Planet-Saturn Keywords: Pio
neer Keywords: 11 Keywords: Division
Keywords: Saturn Keywords: Rings K
eywords: Cassini Keywords: Encke Key
words: Titan Audience: General
Public facet_what: Earth facet_what:
Moon facet_what: Saturn facet_what:
Titan facet_what: Pioneer
11 facet_what: Cassini facet_where:
Saturn facet_where: Arizona facet_whe
re: Ames Research Center
(ARC) facet_when: August 26,
1979 facet_when: 08-31-1979 facet_whe
n_year: 1979 Image
#: 79-H-432 original_url: http://grin
.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2002-00
0060 Center: AMES Center
Number: 79-H-432 GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2002-000060 Creator-Photog
rapher: NASA Original
Source: DIGITAL Image
ID: 125766 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2002-000060.jp2 Width: 3000
Height: 2044 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~20769~125766&file
=GPN-2002-000060.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm
04.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%
3Fmediafile%3D%2FJP2K%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
4191%2FGPN-2002-000060.jp2%26x%3D0%26y%3
D0%26height%3D2044%26width%3D3000%26leve
l%3D0

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
21 YBN
[09/07/1979 AD] 2 		6158) Buggles releases "Video Killed
The Radio Star".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Video Killed the Radio Star".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Kille
d_the_Radio_Star
2. ^ "Video Killed the Radio Star".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Kille
d_the_Radio_Star {09/07/1979}
  
21 YBN
[1979 AD] 2 		6156) Chic releases "Good Times".1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Good Times (Chic song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Times_
%28Chic_song%29
2. ^ "Good Times (Chic song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Times_
%28Chic_song%29 {1979}
  
21 YBN
[1979 AD] 4 		6159) The Talking Heads release "Life
During Wartime".1

Written about life in New York City
during the late nineteen seventies,
this song describes life in an
impoverished metropolis. Byrne
describes life in New York as a
metaphor for WWII-era civilians and
argues against the concept that life
there is bohemian by saying, 'This
ain't no party. This ain't no disco.
This ain't no foolin' around.' The
wartime imagery is taken further by
images of having to stand away from
windows for fear of being shot and
people living on the street long beyond
the thought of having food to eat.2

(The line "this ain't no disco" has a
comedic sense of truth when applied to
this dim era of the direct-to-brain
secret, expanding universe, mass secret
neuron murders, although perhaps that
was not the original intent.3 )

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Life During Wartime (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_During
_Wartime_%28song%29
2. ^ "Life During Wartime (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_During
_Wartime_%28song%29
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Life During Wartime
(song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_During
_Wartime_%28song%29 {1979}
  
20 YBN
[06/06/1980 AD] 10 		5514)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
2. ^ "Luis W.
Alvarez." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/18131/Luis-W-Alvarez>.
3. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, Walter Alvarez,
Frank Asaro and Helen V. Michel,
"Extraterrestrial Cause for the
Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction",
Science, New Series, Vol. 208, No. 4448
(Jun. 6, 1980), pp.
1095-1108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1683699 {Alvarez_Luis_19800606.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p838-839.
5. ^ Luis W. Alvarez,
Walter Alvarez, Frank Asaro and Helen
V. Michel, "Extraterrestrial Cause for
the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction",
Science, New Series, Vol. 208, No. 4448
(Jun. 6, 1980), pp.
1095-1108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1683699 {Alvarez_Luis_19800606.pdf}
6. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, Walter Alvarez,
Frank Asaro and Helen V. Michel,
"Extraterrestrial Cause for the
Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction",
Science, New Series, Vol. 208, No. 4448
(Jun. 6, 1980), pp.
1095-1108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1683699 {Alvarez_Luis_19800606.pdf}
7. ^ Seidel, Robert W. "Alvarez, Luis
Walter." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 19. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 54-59.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20
Mar. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905437&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, Walter
Alvarez, Frank Asaro and Helen V.
Michel, "Extraterrestrial Cause for the
Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction",
Science, New Series, Vol. 208, No. 4448
(Jun. 6, 1980), pp.
1095-1108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1683699 {Alvarez_Luis_19800606.pdf}
10. ^ Luis W. Alvarez, Walter Alvarez,
Frank Asaro and Helen V. Michel,
"Extraterrestrial Cause for the
Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction",
Science, New Series, Vol. 208, No. 4448
(Jun. 6, 1980), pp.
1095-1108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1683699 {Alvarez_Luis_19800606.pdf}
{06/06/1980}

MORE INFO
[1] Luis W. Alvarez and Robert
Cornog, "He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
[3] Sudarshan, E., Proceedings of the
1960 annual International Conference on
High Energy Physics at Rochester. The
University of Rochester, Rochester,
N.Y, University of Rochester;
distributed by Interscience
Publishers/[Rochester N.Y.], 1960
[4]
"resonance." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/499398/resonance>.
[5] Luis W. Alvarez, "A physicist
examines the Kennedy assassination
film", American Journal of Physics --
September 1976 -- Volume 44, Issue 9,
pp.
813. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajp
ias/v44/i9/p813_s1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA9  
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

20 YBN
[09/12/1980 AD] 15 		6189) FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer,
"Scanning tunneling microscope", Patent
number: 4343993, Filing date: Sep 12,
1980, Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
2. ^ Heinrich Rohrer - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Aug 2011
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/p
hysics/laureates/1986/rohrer-lecture.htm
l
3. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
4. ^ Heinrich Rohrer - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Aug 2011
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/p
hysics/laureates/1986/rohrer-lecture.htm
l
5. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
6. ^ Driscoll, Robert J., Michael G.
Youngquist, and John D. Baldeschwieler.
“Atomic-scale imaging of DNA using
scanning tunnelling microscopy.”
Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Record ID5446.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Record ID5451. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Record
ID5515. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Record ID5516.
Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted
Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer,
Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Tunneling
through a controllable vacuum gap",
Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
15. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 {09/12/1980}

MORE INFO
[1] Gerd Binnig & Heinrich
Rohrer, "The Scanning Tunneling
Microscope", Scientific American 253,
50 - 56
(1985) doi:10.1038/scientificamerican08
85-50
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland14
(presumably) 
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, ''Scanning
tunneling microscope'', Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GzgwAAAAEBAJ

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
20 YBN
[11/12/1980 AD] 5 		5631)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A {11/12/1980}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 1". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
Planet Saturn4  
[1] Description Voyager 1 - view of
Saturn's moon Mimas.jpg English:
Original Caption Released with Image:
The cratered surface Saturn's moon
Mimas is seen in this image taken by
Voyager 1 on Nov. 12, 1980 from a range
of 425,000 kilometers (264,000 miles).
Impact craters made by the infall of
cosmic debris are shown; the largest is
more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) in
diameter and displays a prominent
central peak. The smaller craters are
abundant and indicate an ancient age
for Mimas's surface. The Voyager
Project is managed for NASA by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif. Date 12 November
1980(1980-11-12) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01968 Author
NASA/JPL PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Voyager_1_-_view_of_S
aturn%27s_moon_Mimas.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
19 YBN
[05/11/1981 AD] 2 		6162) George Harrison releases "All
Those Years Ago".1

FOOTNOTES
{05/11/1981}

  
19 YBN
[08/05/1981 AD] 4 		5634)
FOOTNOTES
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {08/05/1981}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Saturn3  
[1] * Iapetus by Voyager 2 spacecraft,
August 22, 1981 * original image
caption: Saturn's outermost large moon,
Iapetus, has a bright, heavily cratered
icy terrain and a dark terrain, as
shown in this Voyager 2 image taken on
August 22, 1981. Amazingly, the dark
material covers precisely the side of
Iapetus that leads in the direction of
orbital motion around Saturn (except
for the poles), whereas the bright
material occurs on the trailing
hemisphere and at the poles. The bright
terrain is made of dirty ice, and the
dark terrain is surfaced by
carbonaceous molecules, according to
measurements made with Earth-based
telescopes. Iapetus' dark hemisphere
has been likened to tar or asphalt and
is so dark that no details within this
terrain were visible to Voyager 2. The
bright icy hemisphere, likened to dirty
snow, shows many large impact craters.
The closest approach by Voyager 2 to
Iapetus was a relatively distant
600,000 miles, so that our best images,
such as this, have a resolution of
about 12 miles. The dark material is
made of organic substances, probably
including poisonous cyano compounds
such as frozen hydrogen cyanide
polymers. Though we know a little about
the dark terrain's chemical nature, we
do not understand its origin. Two
theories have been developed, but
neither is fully satisfactory--(1) the
dark material may be organic dust
knocked off the small neighboring
satellite Phoebe and ''painted'' onto
the leading side of Iapetus as the dust
spirals toward Saturn and Iapetus
hurtles through the tenuous dust cloud,
or (2) the dark material may be made of
icy-cold carbonaceous ''cryovolcanic''
lavas that were erupted from Iapetus'
interior and then blackened by solar
radiation, charged particles, and
cosmic rays. A determination of the
actual cause, as well as discovery of
any other geologic features smaller
than 12 miles across, awaits the
Cassini Saturn orbiter to arrive in
2004 * image source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00348 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Iapetus_by_Voyager_2.
jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
19 YBN
[08/12/1981 AD] 3 		5848)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p587.
2. ^ "IBM Personal Computer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Persona
l_Computer
3. ^ "IBM Personal Computer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Persona
l_Computer {08/12/1981 (verify}
(International Business Machines) Boca
Raton, Florida, USA2  
[1] IBM PC 5150 with keyboard and green
monochrome monitor (5151), running
MS-DOS 5.0 I, Boffy b took this photo
of my IBM PC, and release it under the
GFDL and CC-BY-SA. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/IBM_PC_5150.jpg
19 YBN
[11/12/1981 AD] 5 		5805)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p588.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p105.
3. ^
http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/F
-5D/HTML/index.html
4. ^
http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasaf
act/pads.htm
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p588. {11/12/1981}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/miss
ions/sts-2/mission-sts-2.html
[2]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDQpSFasz
pY
(Launch Pad 39A) Merritt Island,
Florida, USA4  
[1] NASA Photo ID: S81-39548
File Name: 10060481.jpg Film Type:
70mm Date Taken:
11/15/81 Title: Space Shuttle Columbia
OV (101) launching from pad 39A
begining STS-2 Description: View of
the Space Shuttle Orbiter Columbia from
across the water lifting off from
Launch Pad 39A to begin STS-2 (39548);
Framed by Florida vegtation, the
Columbia lifts off from its launch pad
(39549). PD
source: http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/
images/images/pao/STS2/10060481.jpg

[2] Description English: Deepcold
dyna final 240, author: Dan Roam,
source: http://www.deepcold.com Date
12 August 2006 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Djroam at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Deepcold_dyna_final_2
40.jpg
18 YBN
[03/01/1982 AD] 8 		5626)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Timeline of space exploration".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_space_exploration
2. ^
http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Venera1
1.htm
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1981-106D
4. ^ "gabbro." Dictionary of Astronomy,
John Wiley . Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabbro
5. ^ "gabbro." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 03 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gabbro
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1981-106D
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1981-106D {03/01/1982}
Planet Venus7  
[1] Venera 13 Lander image of the
surface of Venus at 7.5 S, 303. E, east
of Phoebe Regio. Venera 13 survived on
the surface for 2 hours, 7 minutes,
long enough to obtain 14 images on 1
March, 1982. This color 170 degree
panorama was produced using dark blue,
green and red filters and has a
resolution of 4 to 5 min. Part of the
spacecraft is at the bottom of the
image. Flat rock slabs and soil are
visible. The true color is difficult to
judge because the Venerian atmosphere
filters out blue light. The surface
composition is similar to terrestrial
basalt. On the ground in foreground is
a camera lens cover. (Venera 13 Lander,
VG00261,262) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v13_vg261_262.gif

[2] * Venera 13 / 14 lander *
image source:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/Mast
erCatalog?sc=1981-106D PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Venera_13_lander.gif
18 YBN
[04/09/1982 AD] 12 		5729) In 1997, the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine is awarded to
Stanley B. Prusiner "for his discovery
of Prions - a new biological principle
of infection".10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stanley B. Prusiner, "Novel
Proteinaceous Infectious Particles
Cause Scrapie", Science, New Series,
Vol. 216, No. 4542 (Apr. 9, 1982), pp.
136-144. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
87927 {Prusiner_Stanley_B_19820409.pdf}

2. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1997". Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1997/
3. ^ "Stanley B. Prusiner."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/480887/Stanley-B-Prusiner>.
4. ^ Record ID5728. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Stanley B.
Prusiner." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/480887/Stanley-B-Prusiner>.
6. ^ Stanley B. Prusiner, "Novel
Proteinaceous Infectious Particles
Cause Scrapie", Science, New Series,
Vol. 216, No. 4542 (Apr. 9, 1982), pp.
136-144. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
87927 {Prusiner_Stanley_B_19820409.pdf}

7. ^ Prusiner SB (November 1998).
"Prions". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 95 (23): 13363–83.
doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13363. PMC
33918. PMID 9811807.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=
long&pmid=9811807.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1997/
11. ^ Stanley B. Prusiner, "Novel
Proteinaceous Infectious Particles
Cause Scrapie", Science, New Series,
Vol. 216, No. 4542 (Apr. 9, 1982), pp.
136-144. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
87927 {Prusiner_Stanley_B_19820409.pdf}

12. ^ Stanley B. Prusiner, "Novel
Proteinaceous Infectious Particles
Cause Scrapie", Science, New Series,
Vol. 216, No. 4542 (Apr. 9, 1982), pp.
136-144. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
87927 {Prusiner_Stanley_B_19820409.pdf}
{04/09/1982}

MORE INFO
[1] "Stanley B. Prusiner - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1997/prusiner-lecture.html

(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA11  
[1] Figure 3 from: ''Stanley B.
Prusiner - Nobel Lecture''.
Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1997/prusiner-lecture.html
{Prusiner_Stanley_B_19971208.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1997/prusiner-lect
ure.html

[2] Stanley B. Prusiner Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/prusin
er.jpg
18 YBN
[04/30/1982 AD] 15 		6188)
In 1986 , the Nobel Prize in
Physics is divided, one half awarded to
Ernst Ruska "for his fundamental work
in electron optics, and for the design
of the first electron microscope",the
other half jointly to Gerd Binnig and
Heinrich Rohrer "for their design of
the scanning tunneling microscope".13
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
2. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
3. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
4. ^ Record
ID5155. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer,
Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Surface
Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy", Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
6. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
7. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
8. ^ Driscoll, Robert J., Michael G.
Youngquist, and John D. Baldeschwieler.
“Atomic-scale imaging of DNA using
scanning tunnelling microscopy.”
Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 27 Aug
2011
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/p
hysics/laureates/1986/
14. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
15. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
{04/30/1982}

MORE INFO
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer,
"Scanning tunneling microscope", Patent
number: 4343993, Filing date: Sep 12,
1980, Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland14
 
[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1

[2] Figure 1 from: G. Binnig, H.
Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
18 YBN
[10/01/1982 AD] 4 		5806)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p589.
2. ^
http://www.cedmagic.com/history/sony-cdp
-101.html
3. ^
http://news.sel.sony.com/en/corporate_in
formation/sony_brand
4. ^
http://www.cedmagic.com/history/sony-cdp
-101.html {10/01/1982}
(Sony Corporation) Japan3
(presumably) 		 
18 YBN
[10/08/1982 AD] 4 		5807)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster, F.
P. Heßberger, S. Hofmann, K.
Poppensieker, W. Reisdorf, J. H. R.
Schneider, W. F. W. Schneider, K. -H.
Schmidt and C. -C. Sahm, et al.,
"Observation of one correlatedα-decay
in the reaction58Fe on209Bi→267109 ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei Volume 309, Number 1, 89-90,
DOI:
10.1007/BF01420157 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/q4p6m31747740541/
{Munzenberg_G_19821008.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p589.
3. ^ G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster, F.
P. Heßberger, S. Hofmann, K.
Poppensieker, W. Reisdorf, J. H. R.
Schneider, W. F. W. Schneider, K. -H.
Schmidt and C. -C. Sahm, et al.,
"Observation of one correlatedα-decay
in the reaction58Fe on209Bi→267109 ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei Volume 309, Number 1, 89-90,
DOI:
10.1007/BF01420157 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/q4p6m31747740541/
{Munzenberg_G_19821008.pdf}
4. ^ G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster, F.
P. Heßberger, S. Hofmann, K.
Poppensieker, W. Reisdorf, J. H. R.
Schneider, W. F. W. Schneider, K. -H.
Schmidt and C. -C. Sahm, et al.,
"Observation of one correlatedα-decay
in the reaction58Fe on209Bi→267109 ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei Volume 309, Number 1, 89-90,
DOI:
10.1007/BF01420157 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/q4p6m31747740541/
{Munzenberg_G_19821008.pdf}
{10/08/1982}
(Institut fur Kernphysik, Technische
Hochschule Darmstadt) Darmstadt,
Federal Republic of Germany (now
Germany)3  
[1] Figure 1 from: G. Münzenberg, P.
Armbruster, F. P. Heßberger, S.
Hofmann, K. Poppensieker, W. Reisdorf,
J. H. R. Schneider, W. F. W. Schneider,
K. -H. Schmidt and C. -C. Sahm, et al.,
''Observation of one correlatedα-decay
in the reaction58Fe on209Bi→267109
'', Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons
and Nuclei Volume 309, Number 1,
89-90, DOI:
10.1007/BF01420157 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/q4p6m31747740541/
{Munzenberg_G_19821008.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/q4p6m31747740541/
18 YBN
[1982 AD] 2 		5853)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1982}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
  
18 YBN
[1982 AD] 2 		6164) Thomas Dolby releases "She
Blinded Me with Science".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Blinded me with science".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_me_
with_science
2. ^ "Blinded me with science".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_me_
with_science {1982}
  
18 YBN
[1982 AD] 3 		6166) Alan Parsons Project releases
"Eye in the Sky"1 which hints about
the secret of remote neuron reading2 .

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Eye in the Sky (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_in_the_
Sky_%28song%29
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Eye in the Sky (song)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_in_the_
Sky_%28song%29 {1982}
  
17 YBN
[02/14/1983 AD] 2 		6163) Michael Jackson releases "Beat
It".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Beat it". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_it
2. ^ "Beat it". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_it
{02/14/1983}
  
17 YBN
[06/13/1983 AD] 3 		5627)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_10&Display=ReadMo
re
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_10&Display=ReadMo
re
3. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_10&Display=ReadMo
re {06/13/1983}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/pioneer10.
html
[2]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
[3] "Timeline of space exploration".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_space_exploration
Planet Neptune2  
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
17 YBN
[10/25/1983 AD] 5 		5811)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Charles G. Sibley and Jon E.
Ahlquist, " The phylogeny of the
hominoid primates, as indicated by
DNA-DNA hybridization", Journal of
Molecular Evolution, Volume 20, Number
1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p592.
3. ^ Charles G. Sibley and Jon E.
Ahlquist, " The phylogeny of the
hominoid primates, as indicated by
DNA-DNA hybridization", Journal of
Molecular Evolution, Volume 20, Number
1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf}
4. ^ Charles G. Sibley and Jon E.
Ahlquist, " The phylogeny of the
hominoid primates, as indicated by
DNA-DNA hybridization", Journal of
Molecular Evolution, Volume 20, Number
1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf}
5. ^ Charles G. Sibley and Jon E.
Ahlquist, " The phylogeny of the
hominoid primates, as indicated by
DNA-DNA hybridization", Journal of
Molecular Evolution, Volume 20, Number
1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf} {10/25/1983}
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA4  
[1] Figure 6 from: [1] Charles G.
Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, '' The
phylogeny of the hominoid primates, as
indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization'',
Journal of Molecular Evolution, Volume
20, Number 1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g3020651ml536640/
17 YBN
[1983 AD] 12 		5764)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carlo Rubbia - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 8 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1984/rubbia-lecture.html {
Rubbia_Carlo_19841208.pdf}
2. ^ UA1 Collaboration CERN, Geneva,
Switzerland, G. Arnison, A. Astbury, B.
Aubert, C. Bacci, G. Bauer, A.
Bezaguet, R. Bock, T. J. V. Bowcock, M.
Calvetti, T. Carroll, P. Catz, P.
Cennini, S. Centro, F. Ceradini, S.
Cittolin, D. Cline, C. Cochet, J.
Colas, M. Corden, D. Dallman, M.
DeBeer, M. Della Negra, M. Demoulin, D.
Denegri, A. Di Ciaccio, D. DiBitonto,
L. Dobrzynski, J. D. Dowell, M.
Edwards, K. Eggert, E. Eisenhandler, N.
Ellis, P. Erhard, H. Faissner, G.
Fontaine, R. Frey, R. Fruhwirth, J.
Garvey, S. Geer, C. Ghesquiere, P.
Ghez, K. L. Giboni, W. R. Gibson, Y.
Giraud-Heraud, A. Givernaud, A.
Gonidec, G. Grayer, P. Gutierrez, T.
Hansl-Kozanecka, W. J. Haynes, L. O.
Hertzberger, C. Hodges, D. Hoffmann, H.
Hoffmann, D. J. Holthuizen, R. J.
Homer, A. Honma, W. Jank, G. Jorat, P.
I. P. Kalmus, V. Karimaki, R. Keeler,
I. Kenyon, A. Kernan, R. Kinnunen, H.
Kowalski, W. Kozanecki, D. Kryn, F.
Lacava, J. -P. Laugier, J. -P. Lees, H.
Lehmann, K. Leuchs, A. Leveque, E.
Linglin, E. Locci, M. Loret, J. -J.
Malosse, T. Markiewicz, G. Maurin, T.
McMahon, J. -P. Mendiburu, M. -N.
Minard, M. Moricca, H. Muirhead, F.
Muller, A. K. Nandi, L. Naumann, A.
Norton, A. Orkin-Lecourtois, L.
Paoluzi, G. Petrucci, G. Piano Mortari,
M. Pimia, A. Placci, E. Radermacher, J.
Ransdell, H. Reithler, J. -P. Revol, J.
Rich, M. Rijssenbeek, C. Roberts, J.
Rohlf, P. Rossi, C. Rubbia, B.
Sadoulet, G. Sajot, G. Salvi, J.
Salvini, J. Sass, A. Saudraix, A.
Savoy-Navarro, D. Schinzel, W. Scott,
T. P. Shah, M. Spiro, J. Strauss, K.
Sumorok, F. Szoncso, D. Smith, C. Tao,
G. Thompson, J. Timmer, E. Tscheslog,
J. Tuominiemi, S. Van der Meer, J. -P.
Vialle, J. Vrana, V. Vuillemin, H. D.
Wahl, P. Watkins, J. Wilson, Y. G. Xie,
M. Yvert, E. Zurfluh, Experimental
observation of isolated large
transverse energy electrons with
associated missing energy at , Physics
Letters B, Volume 122, Issue 1, 24
February 1983, Pages 103-116, ISSN
0370-2693, DOI:
10.1016/0370-2693(83)91177-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T
VN-47GDP3P-6N/2/6ea909b64f35a17972423a8e
93ba39ce) {Rubbia_Carlo_19830123.pdf}
3. ^ UA1 Collaboration CERN,
Geneva, Switzerland, G. Arnison, A.
Astbury, B. Aubert, C. Bacci, G. Bauer,
A. Bezaguet, R. Bock, T. J. V. Bowcock,
M. Calvetti, T. Carroll, P. Catz, P.
Cennini, S. Centro, F. Ceradini, S.
Cittolin, D. Cline, C. Cochet, J.
Colas, M. Corden, D. Dallman, M.
DeBeer, M. Della Negra, M. Demoulin, D.
Denegri, A. Di Ciaccio, D. DiBitonto,
L. Dobrzynski, J. D. Dowell, M.
Edwards, K. Eggert, E. Eisenhandler, N.
Ellis, P. Erhard, H. Faissner, G.
Fontaine, R. Frey, R. Fruhwirth, J.
Garvey, S. Geer, C. Ghesquiere, P.
Ghez, K. L. Giboni, W. R. Gibson, Y.
Giraud-Heraud, A. Givernaud, A.
Gonidec, G. Grayer, P. Gutierrez, T.
Hansl-Kozanecka, W. J. Haynes, L. O.
Hertzberger, C. Hodges, D. Hoffmann, H.
Hoffmann, D. J. Holthuizen, R. J.
Homer, A. Honma, W. Jank, G. Jorat, P.
I. P. Kalmus, V. Karimaki, R. Keeler,
I. Kenyon, A. Kernan, R. Kinnunen, H.
Kowalski, W. Kozanecki, D. Kryn, F.
Lacava, J. -P. Laugier, J. -P. Lees, H.
Lehmann, K. Leuchs, A. Leveque, E.
Linglin, E. Locci, M. Loret, J. -J.
Malosse, T. Markiewicz, G. Maurin, T.
McMahon, J. -P. Mendiburu, M. -N.
Minard, M. Moricca, H. Muirhead, F.
Muller, A. K. Nandi, L. Naumann, A.
Norton, A. Orkin-Lecourtois, L.
Paoluzi, G. Petrucci, G. Piano Mortari,
M. Pimia, A. Placci, E. Radermacher, J.
Ransdell, H. Reithler, J. -P. Revol, J.
Rich, M. Rijssenbeek, C. Roberts, J.
Rohlf, P. Rossi, C. Rubbia, B.
Sadoulet, G. Sajot, G. Salvi, J.
Salvini, J. Sass, A. Saudraix, A.
Savoy-Navarro, D. Schinzel, W. Scott,
T. P. Shah, M. Spiro, J. Strauss, K.
Sumorok, F. Szoncso, D. Smith, C. Tao,
G. Thompson, J. Timmer, E. Tscheslog,
J. Tuominiemi, S. Van der Meer, J. -P.
Vialle, J. Vrana, V. Vuillemin, H. D.
Wahl, P. Watkins, J. Wilson, Y. G. Xie,
M. Yvert, E. Zurfluh, "Experimental
observation of isolated large
transverse energy electrons with
associated missing energy at √s=540
GeV", Physics Letters B, Volume 122,
Issue 1, 24 February 1983, Pages
103-116, ISSN 0370-2693, DOI:
10.1016/0370-2693(83)91177-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T
VN-47GDP3P-6N/2/6ea909b64f35a17972423a8e
93ba39ce) {Rubbia_Carlo_19830123.pdf}
4. ^ "Carlo Rubbia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 07 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/511852/Carlo-Rubbia>.
5. ^ "Carlo Rubbia - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 8 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1984/rubbia-lecture.html {
Rubbia_Carlo_19841208.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p591.
12. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon
and Schuster, 1991, p591. {1983}

MORE INFO
[1] Cline, McIntyre, and Rubbia,
"Producing Massive Neutral Intermediate
Vector Bosons with Existing
Accelerators", Proceedings of
International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp. 683-687
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Physics 1984". Nobelprize.org. 8 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1984/
[3] "Carlo Rubbia - Autobiography".
Nobelprize.org. 8 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1984/rubbia.html
[4]
http://ikpe1101.ikp.kfa-juelich.de/ps210
/AH_pbar_productionE.html
[5] D Haidt 1974 Contribution to the
American Physical Society Conference at
Washington, April 1974
[6] "The discovery of
the weak neutral currents", CERN
Courier, Oct 4,
2004 http://cerncourier.com/cws/article
/cern/29168
(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland11  
[1] Figure 7 from: UA1 Collaboration
CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, G. Arnison,
A. Astbury, B. Aubert, C. Bacci, G.
Bauer, A. Bezaguet, R. Bock, T. J. V.
Bowcock, M. Calvetti, T. Carroll, P.
Catz, P. Cennini, S. Centro, F.
Ceradini, S. Cittolin, D. Cline, C.
Cochet, J. Colas, M. Corden, D.
Dallman, M. DeBeer, M. Della Negra, M.
Demoulin, D. Denegri, A. Di Ciaccio, D.
DiBitonto, L. Dobrzynski, J. D. Dowell,
M. Edwards, K. Eggert, E. Eisenhandler,
N. Ellis, P. Erhard, H. Faissner, G.
Fontaine, R. Frey, R. Fruhwirth, J.
Garvey, S. Geer, C. Ghesquiere, P.
Ghez, K. L. Giboni, W. R. Gibson, Y.
Giraud-Heraud, A. Givernaud, A.
Gonidec, G. Grayer, P. Gutierrez, T.
Hansl-Kozanecka, W. J. Haynes, L. O.
Hertzberger, C. Hodges, D. Hoffmann, H.
Hoffmann, D. J. Holthuizen, R. J.
Homer, A. Honma, W. Jank, G. Jorat, P.
I. P. Kalmus, V. Karimaki, R. Keeler,
I. Kenyon, A. Kernan, R. Kinnunen, H.
Kowalski, W. Kozanecki, D. Kryn, F.
Lacava, J. -P. Laugier, J. -P. Lees, H.
Lehmann, K. Leuchs, A. Leveque, E.
Linglin, E. Locci, M. Loret, J. -J.
Malosse, T. Markiewicz, G. Maurin, T.
McMahon, J. -P. Mendiburu, M. -N.
Minard, M. Moricca, H. Muirhead, F.
Muller, A. K. Nandi, L. Naumann, A.
Norton, A. Orkin-Lecourtois, L.
Paoluzi, G. Petrucci, G. Piano Mortari,
M. Pimia, A. Placci, E. Radermacher, J.
Ransdell, H. Reithler, J. -P. Revol, J.
Rich, M. Rijssenbeek, C. Roberts, J.
Rohlf, P. Rossi, C. Rubbia, B.
Sadoulet, G. Sajot, G. Salvi, J.
Salvini, J. Sass, A. Saudraix, A.
Savoy-Navarro, D. Schinzel, W. Scott,
T. P. Shah, M. Spiro, J. Strauss, K.
Sumorok, F. Szoncso, D. Smith, C. Tao,
G. Thompson, J. Timmer, E. Tscheslog,
J. Tuominiemi, S. Van der Meer, J. -P.
Vialle, J. Vrana, V. Vuillemin, H. D.
Wahl, P. Watkins, J. Wilson, Y. G. Xie,
M. Yvert, E. Zurfluh, Experimental
observation of isolated large
transverse energy electrons with
associated missing energy at , Physics
Letters B, Volume 122, Issue 1, 24
February 1983, Pages 103-116, ISSN
0370-2693, DOI:
10.1016/0370-2693(83)91177-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T
VN-47GDP3P-6N/2/6ea909b64f35a17972423a8e
93ba39ce) {Rubbia_Carlo_19830123.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C780327
2/p175.pdf

[2] Carlo Rubbia Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1984/rubbia_
postcard.jpg
16 YBN
[01/12/1984 AD] 13 14 		5809)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McGinnis W; Levine MS, Hafen E,
Kuroiwa A, Gehring WJ (1984). "A
conserved DNA sequence in homoeotic
genes of the Drosophila Antennapedia
and bithorax complexes". Nature 308
(5958): 428–33. doi:10.1038/308428a0.
PMID
6323992. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v308/n5958/abs/308428a0.html {Ge
hring_Walter_Jakob_19840112.pdf}
2. ^ Scott MP; Weiner AJ (1984).
"Structural relationships among genes
that control development: sequence
homology between the Antennapedia,
Ultrabithorax, and fushi tarazu loci of
Drosophila". PNAS 81 (13): 4115–9.
doi:10.1073/pnas.81.13.4115. PMC
345379. PMID 6330741.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=345379.
 {Weiner_Amy_J_19840312.pdf}
3. ^ "homeotic gene." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1032797/homeotic-gene>.
4. ^ "Homeobox", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/homeobox
5. ^ McGinnis W; Levine MS, Hafen E,
Kuroiwa A, Gehring WJ (1984). "A
conserved DNA sequence in homoeotic
genes of the Drosophila Antennapedia
and bithorax complexes". Nature 308
(5958): 428–33. doi:10.1038/308428a0.
PMID
6323992. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v308/n5958/abs/308428a0.html {Ge
hring_Walter_Jakob_19840112.pdf}
6. ^ Scott MP; Weiner AJ (1984).
"Structural relationships among genes
that control development: sequence
homology between the Antennapedia,
Ultrabithorax, and fushi tarazu loci of
Drosophila". PNAS 81 (13): 4115–9.
doi:10.1073/pnas.81.13.4115. PMC
345379. PMID 6330741.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=345379.
 {Weiner_Amy_J_19840312.pdf}
7. ^ "Edward B. Lewis - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 23 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1995/lewis-lecture.html
8. ^ "homeotic gene." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1032797/homeotic-gene>.
9. ^ McGinnis W; Levine MS, Hafen E,
Kuroiwa A, Gehring WJ (1984). "A
conserved DNA sequence in homoeotic
genes of the Drosophila Antennapedia
and bithorax complexes". Nature 308
(5958): 428–33. doi:10.1038/308428a0.
PMID
6323992. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v308/n5958/abs/308428a0.html {Ge
hring_Walter_Jakob_19840112.pdf}
10. ^ Scott MP; Weiner AJ (1984).
"Structural relationships among genes
that control development: sequence
homology between the Antennapedia,
Ultrabithorax, and fushi tarazu loci of
Drosophila". PNAS 81 (13): 4115–9.
doi:10.1073/pnas.81.13.4115. PMC
345379. PMID 6330741.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=345379.
 {Weiner_Amy_J_19840312.pdf}
11. ^ McGinnis W; Levine MS, Hafen E,
Kuroiwa A, Gehring WJ (1984). "A
conserved DNA sequence in homoeotic
genes of the Drosophila Antennapedia
and bithorax complexes". Nature 308
(5958): 428–33. doi:10.1038/308428a0.
PMID
6323992. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v308/n5958/abs/308428a0.html {Ge
hring_Walter_Jakob_19840112.pdf}
12. ^ Scott MP; Weiner AJ (1984).
"Structural relationships among genes
that control development: sequence
homology between the Antennapedia,
Ultrabithorax, and fushi tarazu loci of
Drosophila". PNAS 81 (13): 4115–9.
doi:10.1073/pnas.81.13.4115. PMC
345379. PMID 6330741.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=345379.
 {Weiner_Amy_J_19840312.pdf}
13. ^ McGinnis W; Levine MS, Hafen E,
Kuroiwa A, Gehring WJ (1984). "A
conserved DNA sequence in homoeotic
genes of the Drosophila Antennapedia
and bithorax complexes". Nature 308
(5958): 428–33. doi:10.1038/308428a0.
PMID
6323992. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v308/n5958/abs/308428a0.html {Ge
hring_Walter_Jakob_19840112.pdf}
{01/12/1984}
14. ^ Scott MP; Weiner AJ (1984).
"Structural relationships among genes
that control development: sequence
homology between the Antennapedia,
Ultrabithorax, and fushi tarazu loci of
Drosophila". PNAS 81 (13): 4115–9.
doi:10.1073/pnas.81.13.4115. PMC
345379. PMID 6330741.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=345379.
 {Weiner_Amy_J_19840312.pdf}
{03/12/1984}
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland11 and (Indiana University)
Bloomington, Indiana, USA12  		 
16 YBN
[03/10/1984 AD] 11 		5814) In 1996 Ian Wilmut, Keith
Campbell and team at Scotland's Roslin
Institute will clone a sheep (Dolly)
from a nucleus of an adult somatic
cell.7 8

Steen Malte Willadsen and Robert A.
Godke publish this in the journal
"Veterinary Record" as "A simple
procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins". For an abstract
they write:
"Eggs were collected surgically on
day 6, 7 or 8 from 18 Jacob ewes mated
to a Welsh mountain ram. Thirty one (86
per cent) of the 36 eggs ovulated were
recovered and of these 27 (87 per cent)
had developed normally. All ovulated
eggs were collected from 14 of the
ewes. One (or more) normally developing
morula or blastocyst was collected from
16 of the ewes. While the ewes remained
under general anaesthesia each embryo
was divided into two 'half' embryos
with a thin glass needle. One
monozygotic pair of 'half' embryos was
retransferred to the embryo donor. The
two ewes from which no normal embryos
had been recovered were used as
recipients for surplus bisected embryos
from two other donors. Two of the 18
ewes returned to oestrus. The remaining
16 went to term producing, in all,
eight pairs of identical twins, one
pair of non-identical twins and seven
single lambs.".9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
3. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
5. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
7. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
8. ^ "Dolly the Sheep." History
Answers. Visible Ink Press., 2005.
Answers.com 26 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dolly-the-s
heep
9. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
10. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984}
11. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984} {03/10/1984}
(AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology)
Cambridge, UK10  
[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}

16 YBN
[06/25/1984 AD] 6 		5815)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell Higuchi, Barbara Bowman,
Mary Freiberger, Oliver A. Ryder &
Allan C. Wilson, "DNA sequences from
the quagga, an extinct member of the
horse family", Nature, 312, 282 - 284
(15 November 1984);
doi:10.1038/312282a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v312/n5991/abs/312282
a0.html {Higuchi_Russell_19840625.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
3. ^ Russell Higuchi, Barbara Bowman,
Mary Freiberger, Oliver A. Ryder &
Allan C. Wilson, "DNA sequences from
the quagga, an extinct member of the
horse family", Nature, 312, 282 - 284
(15 November 1984);
doi:10.1038/312282a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v312/n5991/abs/312282
a0.html {Higuchi_Russell_19840625.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Russell Higuchi, Barbara
Bowman, Mary Freiberger, Oliver A.
Ryder & Allan C. Wilson, "DNA sequences
from the quagga, an extinct member of
the horse family", Nature, 312, 282 -
284 (15 November 1984);
doi:10.1038/312282a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v312/n5991/abs/312282
a0.html {Higuchi_Russell_19840625.pdf}
6. ^ Russell Higuchi, Barbara Bowman,
Mary Freiberger, Oliver A. Ryder &
Allan C. Wilson, "DNA sequences from
the quagga, an extinct member of the
horse family", Nature, 312, 282 - 284
(15 November 1984);
doi:10.1038/312282a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v312/n5991/abs/312282
a0.html {Higuchi_Russell_19840625.pdf}
{06/25/1984}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  		 
16 YBN
[08/31/1984 AD] 8 9 		6190)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Binnig and H. Rohrer,
"Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy" in
Janta, J. Trends In Physics, 1984 ::
Proceedings of the 6th General
Conference of the European Physical
Society : 27-31 August 1984, Prague,
Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union of
Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
2. ^ Arscott, P.G., and V.A.
Bloomfield. “Scanning tunnelling
microscopy of nucleic acids and
polynucleotides.” Ultramicroscopy
33.2 (1990) :
127-131. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/030439919090015E
3. ^ G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, "Scanning
Tunnelling Microscopy" in Janta, J.
Trends In Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings
of the 6th General Conference of the
European Physical Society : 27-31
August 1984, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Prague: Union of Czechoslovak
Mathematicians and Physicists, 1984,
p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
4. ^ Arscott, P.G., and V.A.
Bloomfield. “Scanning tunnelling
microscopy of nucleic acids and
polynucleotides.” Ultramicroscopy
33.2 (1990) :
127-131. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/030439919090015E
5. ^ G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, "Scanning
Tunnelling Microscopy" in Janta, J.
Trends In Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings
of the 6th General Conference of the
European Physical Society : 27-31
August 1984, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Prague: Union of Czechoslovak
Mathematicians and Physicists, 1984,
p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
6. ^ Driscoll, Robert J., Michael G.
Youngquist, and John D. Baldeschwieler.
“Atomic-scale imaging of DNA using
scanning tunnelling microscopy.”
Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
{07/19/1990} {other image)07/19/1990}
7. ^ G. Binnig and
H. Rohrer, "Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopy" in Janta, J. Trends In
Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings of the 6th
General Conference of the European
Physical Society : 27-31 August 1984,
Prague, Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union
of Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
8. ^ G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, "Scanning
Tunnelling Microscopy" in Janta, J.
Trends In Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings
of the 6th General Conference of the
European Physical Society : 27-31
August 1984, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Prague: Union of Czechoslovak
Mathematicians and Physicists, 1984,
p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home {08/27/1984-08/31/1984}
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
9. ^ Driscoll, Robert J., Michael G.
Youngquist, and John D. Baldeschwieler.
“Atomic-scale imaging of DNA using
scanning tunnelling microscopy.”
Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
{07/19/1990} {other image)07/19/1990}
{other later more detailed
image)07/19/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch.
Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Tunneling
through a controllable vacuum gap",
Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
[2] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory,
Switzerland, presented in) Prague,
Czechoslovakia7  
[1] Figure 7 from: G. Binnig and H.
Rohrer, ''Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopy'' in Janta, J. Trends In
Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings of the 6th
General Conference of the European
Physical Society : 27-31 August 1984,
Prague, Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union
of Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: {Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}

[2] Note these images are from
1990[t] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. “Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy.” Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
16 YBN
[10/04/1984 AD] 5 		5812)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bradford A. Smith and Richard J.
Terrile, "A Circumstellar Disk around
β Pictoris", Science, New Series, Vol.
226, No. 4681 (Dec. 21, 1984), pp.
1421-1424 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
693911 {Terrile_Richard_J_19841004.pdf}

2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
3. ^ Bradford A. Smith and Richard J.
Terrile, "A Circumstellar Disk around
β Pictoris", Science, New Series, Vol.
226, No. 4681 (Dec. 21, 1984), pp.
1421-1424 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
693911 {Terrile_Richard_J_19841004.pdf}

4. ^ Bradford A. Smith and Richard J.
Terrile, "A Circumstellar Disk around
β Pictoris", Science, New Series, Vol.
226, No. 4681 (Dec. 21, 1984), pp.
1421-1424 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
693911 {Terrile_Richard_J_19841004.pdf}

5. ^ Bradford A. Smith and Richard J.
Terrile, "A Circumstellar Disk around
β Pictoris", Science, New Series, Vol.
226, No. 4681 (Dec. 21, 1984), pp.
1421-1424 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
693911 {Terrile_Richard_J_19841004.pdf}
{10/04/1984}
(University of Arizona) Tuscon,
Arizona, USA and (Jet Propulsion
Laboratory) Pasadena, California, USA4
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Bradford A. Smith
and Richard J. Terrile, ''A
Circumstellar Disk around β
Pictoris'', Science, New Series, Vol.
226, No. 4681 (Dec. 21, 1984), pp.
1421-1424 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
693911 {Terrile_Richard_J_19841004.pdf}

source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1693
911
16 YBN
[11/16/1984 AD] 8 		5813)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson
& Swee Lay Thein, "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA",
Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07 March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
2. ^ A. J. Jeffreys, V. Wilson & S. L.
Thein, "Individual-specific
'fingerprints' of human DNA", Nature
316, 76 - 79 (04 July 1985);
doi:10.1038/316076a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v316/n6023/abs/316076
a0.html
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
4. ^ "Alec Jeffreys." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alec-jeffre
ys
5. ^ Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson
& Swee Lay Thein, "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA",
Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07 March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
6. ^ "DNA fingerprint." Encyclopedia of
Espionage, Intelligence, and Security.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com
23 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/genetic-fin
gerprinting
7. ^ Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson
& Swee Lay Thein, "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA",
Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07 March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
8. ^ Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson
& Swee Lay Thein, "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA",
Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07 March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
{11/16/1984}
(University of Leicester) Leicester,
UK7  
[1] Figure 5 from: Alec J. Jeffreys,
Victoria Wilson & Swee Lay Thein,
''Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions
in human DNA'', Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07
March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v314/n6006/abs/314067a0.html

[2] Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys at the
University of Leicester. UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments
/emfpu/genetics/explained/images/AlecJef
frey.jpg
16 YBN
[1984 AD] 2 		5854)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1984}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
  
15 YBN
[01/28/1985 AD] 6 		5825)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ GILBERT SCHAISON, MARTINE GEORGE,
NELLY LESTRAT, ALAIN REINBERG and
ETIENNE EMILE BAULIEU, "Effects of the
Antiprogesterone Steroid RU 486 during
Midluteal Phase in Normal Women", The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &
Metabolism September 1, 1985 vol. 61
no. 3 484-489
http://jcem.endojournals.org/content/6
1/3/484.abstract
2. ^ Etienne-Emile Baulieu,
"Contragestion and other Clinical
Applications of RU 486, an
Antiprogesterone at the Receptor",
Science, New Series, Vol. 245, No. 4924
(Sep. 22, 1989), pp.
1351-1357 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
704267 {Baulieu_Etienne_Emile_19890922.
pdf}
3. ^ GILBERT SCHAISON, MARTINE GEORGE,
NELLY LESTRAT, ALAIN REINBERG and
ETIENNE EMILE BAULIEU, "Effects of the
Antiprogesterone Steroid RU 486 during
Midluteal Phase in Normal Women", The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &
Metabolism September 1, 1985 vol. 61
no. 3 484-489
http://jcem.endojournals.org/content/6
1/3/484.abstract
4. ^ Etienne-Emile Baulieu,
"Contragestion and other Clinical
Applications of RU 486, an
Antiprogesterone at the Receptor",
Science, New Series, Vol. 245, No. 4924
(Sep. 22, 1989), pp.
1351-1357 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
704267 {Baulieu_Etienne_Emile_19890922.
pdf}
5. ^ GILBERT SCHAISON, MARTINE GEORGE,
NELLY LESTRAT, ALAIN REINBERG and
ETIENNE EMILE BAULIEU, "Effects of the
Antiprogesterone Steroid RU 486 during
Midluteal Phase in Normal Women", The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &
Metabolism September 1, 1985 vol. 61
no. 3 484-489
http://jcem.endojournals.org/content/6
1/3/484.abstract
6. ^ GILBERT SCHAISON, MARTINE GEORGE,
NELLY LESTRAT, ALAIN REINBERG and
ETIENNE EMILE BAULIEU, "Effects of the
Antiprogesterone Steroid RU 486 during
Midluteal Phase in Normal Women", The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &
Metabolism September 1, 1985 vol. 61
no. 3 484-489
http://jcem.endojournals.org/content/6
1/3/484.abstract {01/28/1985}
(Service d'Endocrinologie et des
Maladies de la Reproductio)
Bicetre,France and (INSERM U 3 Hôpital
de Bicêtre) Bicêtre, France and (CNRS
105), Paris , France5  
[1] Etienne-Emile Baulieu
biography UNKNOWN
source: http://img1.browsebiography.com/
images/gal/1261_Etienne_Emile_Baulieu_ph
oto.jpg
15 YBN
[02/18/1985 AD] 5 		5821)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. Herrmann, K. -A. Steinhauser,
R. Gähler, and A. Steyerl, W. Mampe,
"Neutron Microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett.
54, 1969–1972 (1985)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v54/i1
8/p1969_1 {Mampe_W_19850218.pdf}
2. ^ P. Herrmann, K. -A. Steinhauser,
R. Gähler, and A. Steyerl, W. Mampe,
"Neutron Microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett.
54, 1969–1972 (1985)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v54/i1
8/p1969_1 {Mampe_W_19850218.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ P. Herrmann, K. -A.
Steinhauser, R. Gähler, and A.
Steyerl, W. Mampe, "Neutron
Microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett. 54,
1969–1972 (1985)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v54/i1
8/p1969_1 {Mampe_W_19850218.pdf}
5. ^ P. Herrmann, K. -A. Steinhauser,
R. Gähler, and A. Steyerl, W. Mampe,
"Neutron Microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett.
54, 1969–1972 (1985)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v54/i1
8/p1969_1 {Mampe_W_19850218.pdf}
{02/18/1985}
(Technische Universitat Munchen)
Garching, Germany and (Institut
Laue-Langevin) Grenoble, France4  
[1] Figure 1 from: P. Herrmann, K. -A.
Steinhauser, R. Gähler, and A.
Steyerl, W. Mampe, ''Neutron
Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 54,
1969–1972 (1985)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v54/i1
8/p1969_1 {Mampe_W_19850218.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v54/i18/p1969_1
15 YBN
[09/20/1985 AD] 12 		5804) The first stage of the process is
to heat DNA containing the required
genetic segment in order to unravel the
helix. Primers can then be added to
mark out the target sequence. If, then,
the enzyme DNA polymerase together with
a number of free bases are added, two
copies of the target sequence will be
produced. These two copies can then be
heated, separated, and once more
produce two further copies each. The
cycle, lasting no more than a few
minutes, can be repeated as long as
supplies last, doubling the target
sequence each time. With geometric
growth of this kind, more than 100
billion copies can be made in a few
hours.6
Mullis patents this process as
"Process for amplifying nucleic acid
sequences." in 1985.7

Mullis and Faloona describe this
process in a 1987 paper in the journal
"Methods in Enzymology" as "Specific
synthesis of DNA in vitro via a
polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction".
They write:
"We have devised a method whereby
a nucleic acid sequence can be
exponentiall
y amplified in vitro. The same method
can be used to alter the
amplified sequence
or to append new sequence information
to it. It is
necessary that the ends of
the sequence be known in sufficient
detail that
oligonucleotides can be
synthesized which will hybridize to
them, and
that a small amount of the
sequence be available to initiate the
reaction. It
is not necessary that the
sequence to be synthesized
enzymatically be
present initially in a
pure form; it can be a minor fraction
of a complex
mixture, such as a segment of a
single-copy gene in whole human DNA.
The
sequence to be synthesized can be
present initially as a discrete
molecule or it
can be part of a larger molecule. In
either case, the product
of the reaction will
be a discrete dsDNA molecule with
termini corresponding
to the 5' ends of the oligomers
employed.
Synthesis of a 110-bp fragment from a
larger molecule via this procedure,
which we have
termed polymerase chain reaction, is
depicted in
Fig. 1. A source of DNA
including the desired sequence is
denatured in
the presence of a large molar
excess of two oligonucleotides and the
four
deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates. The
oligonucleotides are complementary
to different
strands of the desired sequence and at
relative positions
along the sequence such that
the DNA polymerase extension product
of the
one, when denatured, can serve as a
template for the other, and
vice versa. DNA
polymerase is added and a reaction
allowed to occur.
The reaction products are
denatured and the process is repeated
until the
desired amount of the l l0-bp
sequence bounded by the two
oligonucleotides
is obtained.
During the first and each subsequent
reaction cycle extension of each
oligonucleot
ide on the original template will
produce one new ssDNA
molecule of indefinite
length. These "long products" will
accumulate in a
linear fashion, i.e., the
amount present after any number of
cycles will be
linearly proportional to
the number of cycles. The long products
thus
produced will act as templates for one
or the other of the oligonucleotides
during subsequent
cycles and extension of these
oligonucleotides by polymerase
will produce
molecules of a specific length, in this
case, 110 bases
long. These will also
function as templates for one or the
other of the
oligonucleotides producing
more 110-base molecules. Thus a chain
reac-
tion can be sustained which will result
in the accumulation of a specific
110-bp dsDNA
at an exponential rate relative to the
number of cycles.
Figure 2 demonstrates the
exponential growth of the 110-bp
fragment
beginning with 0.1 pmol of a plasmid
template. After 10 cycles of
polymerase
chain reaction, the target sequence was
amplified 100 times. The
data have been fit
to a simple exponential curve (Fig.
2B), which assumes
that the fraction of
template molecules successfully copied
in each cycle
remains constant over the 10
cycles. ...
Amplification of this same
110-bp fragment
starting with I /zg total human
DNA (contains approximately 5 × 10
-19
mol of the target sequence from a
single-copy gene) produced a 200,000-
fold
increase of this fragment after 20
cycles. This corresponds to a
calculated
yield of 85% per cycle.~ This yield is
higher than that in the first
example in
which the target sequence is present at
a higher concentration.
It is likely that when the
target DNA is present in high
concentrations,
rehybridization of the amplified
fragments occurs more readily than
their
hybridization to primer molecules.
...
The polymerase chain reaction has thus
found immediate use in developmental
DNA diagnostic
procedures L3 and in molecular cloning
from
genomic DNA2; it should be useful
wherever increased amounts and
relative
purification of a particular nucleic
acid sequence would be advantageous,
or when
alterations or additions to the ends of
a sequence are
required.
We are exploring the possibility of
utilizing a heat-stable DNA polymerase
so as to
avoid the need for addition of new
enzyme after each
cycle of thermal
denaturation; in addition, it is
anticipated that increasing
the temperature at
which the priming and polymerization
reactions take
place will have a beneficial
effect on the specificity of the
amplification."8
In 1993, the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry is awarded "for
contributions to the developments of
methods within DNA-based chemistry"
jointly with one half to Kary B. Mullis
"for his invention of the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) method" and with
one half to Michael Smith "for his
fundamental contributions to the
establishment of oligonucleotide-based,
site-directed mutagenesis and its
development for protein studies".9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Kary B. Mullis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396935/Kary-B-Mullis>.
2. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Mullis, KB et al. "Process for
amplifying, detecting, and/or-cloning
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,195. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683195&id=fCYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract
4. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis
for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/169
6982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf}
5. ^ K. B. Mullis and F. A. Faloona,
"Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via
a polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction",
Methods Enzymol. 155, 335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf}
6. ^ "Kary Mullis." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kary-mullis

7. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
8. ^ K. B. Mullis and F. A. Faloona,
"Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via
a polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction",
Methods Enzymol. 155, 335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf}
9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1993". Nobelprize.org. 22 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1993/
10. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
11. ^ "Kary Mullis." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kary-mullis

12. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis
for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/169
6982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf} {09/20/1985}

MORE INFO
[1] Randall K. Saiki, David H.
Gelfand, Susanne Stoffel, Stephen J.
Scharf, Russell Higuchi, Glenn T. Horn,
Kary B. Mullis, Henry A. Erlich,
"Primer-Directed Enzymatic
Amplification of DNA with a
Thermostable DNA Polymerase", New
Series, Vol. 239, No. 4839 (Jan. 29,
1988), pp.
487-491 http://www.jstor.org/stable/170
0278
(Cetus Corporation) Emeryville,
California, USA10 11  
[1] Figure 2 from: K. B. Mullis and F.
A. Faloona, ''Specific synthesis of DNA
in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed
chain reaction'', Methods Enzymol. 155,
335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0076687987550236

[2] Kary Banks Mullis Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/mulli
s_postcard.jpg
15 YBN
[12/06/1985 AD] 8 		5816)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ U.S. Patent
4,713,360 http://www.google.com/patents
?vid=4713360
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p596.
3. ^ I. Peterson, "Mixing up a New
Composite Material", Science News, Vol.
128, No. 25/26 (Dec. 21-28, 1985), p.
388. http://www.jstor.org/stable/396985
0 {Peterson_I_19851228.pdf}
4. ^ Tim Beardsley, "Advanced ceramics:
Rush to metal/oxide composites",
Nature, 12 December 1985 Vol 318 No
6046 pp500,
doi:10.1038/318500b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v318/n6046/index.html
 {Beardsley_Tim_19851212.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ U.S. Patent
4,713,360 http://www.google.com/patents
?vid=4713360
7. ^ I. Peterson, "Mixing up a New
Composite Material", Science News, Vol.
128, No. 25/26 (Dec. 21-28, 1985), p.
388. http://www.jstor.org/stable/396985
0 {Peterson_I_19851228.pdf}
8. ^
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=3&ved=0CCcQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.iaea.org%2Finis%2Fcollection%2FNCLColl
ectionStore%2F_Public%2F17%2F061%2F17061
840.pdf&rct=j&q=1985%20MRS%20Fall%20Meet
ing&ei=J_7ZTZyoMo-6sQPgiaWMDA&usg=AFQjCN
GLJsb2CGjfxoT73h8wzVovMT6W_g&cad=rja
{12/02/1985-12/06/1985}
(Lanxide Technology Corporation)
Newark, Delaware, USA6 7  		 
14 YBN
[01/24/1986 AD] 18 		5628)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
8. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
10. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
11. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
12. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
13. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
14. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
15. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
18. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {01/24/1986}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Uranus17  
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
14 YBN
[04/17/1986 AD] 7 		5824) In 1987, the Nobel Prize in
Physics is awarded jointly to J. Georg
Bednorz and K. Alexander Müller "for
their important break-through in the
discovery of superconductivity in
ceramic materials".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. G. Bednorz and K. A. Müller,
"Possible highTc superconductivity in
the Ba−La−Cu−O system",
Zeitschrift für Physik B Condensed
Matter, Volume 64, Number 2, 189-193,
DOI: 10.1007/BF01303701
http://www.springerlink.com/content/m2
016112g263011h/
{Muller_Karl_Alexander_19860417.pdf}
2. ^ M. K. Wu, J. R. Ashburn, and C. J.
Torng, P. H. Hor, R. L. Meng, L. Gao,
Z. J. Huang, Y. Q. Wang, and C. W. Chu,
"Superconductivity at 93 K in a new
mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound system
at ambient pressure", Phys. Rev. Lett.
58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf}
3. ^ Record ID5819. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ J. G. Bednorz
and K. A. Müller, "Possible highTc
superconductivity in the
Ba−La−Cu−O system", Zeitschrift
für Physik B Condensed Matter, Volume
64, Number 2, 189-193, DOI:
10.1007/BF01303701
http://www.springerlink.com/content/m2
016112g263011h/
{Muller_Karl_Alexander_19860417.pdf}
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1987".
Nobelprize.org. 25 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1987/
6. ^ J. G. Bednorz and K. A. Müller,
"Possible highTc superconductivity in
the Ba−La−Cu−O system",
Zeitschrift für Physik B Condensed
Matter, Volume 64, Number 2, 189-193,
DOI: 10.1007/BF01303701
http://www.springerlink.com/content/m2
016112g263011h/
{Muller_Karl_Alexander_19860417.pdf}
7. ^ J. G. Bednorz and K. A. Müller,
"Possible highTc superconductivity in
the Ba−La−Cu−O system",
Zeitschrift für Physik B Condensed
Matter, Volume 64, Number 2, 189-193,
DOI: 10.1007/BF01303701
http://www.springerlink.com/content/m2
016112g263011h/
{Muller_Karl_Alexander_19860417.pdf}
{04/17/1986}
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Switzerland6  
[1] Johannes George Bednorz Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1987/bednorz
_postcard.jpg

[2] Karl Alexander Muller Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1987/muller_
postcard.jpg
14 YBN
[1986 AD] 2 		567) Cyndi Lauper releases "True
Colors".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "True Colors (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Colors
_%28song%29
2. ^ "True Colors (song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Colors
_%28song%29 {1986}
  
14 YBN
[1986 AD] 2 		5818)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rex A. Dunham, "STATUS OF
GENETICALLY MODIFIED (TRANSGENIC) FISH:
RESEARCH AND
APPLICATION" http://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CCIQFjAB&url=f
tp%3A%2F%2Fftp.fao.org%2Fes%2Fesn%2Ffood
%2FGMtopic2.pdf&rct=j&q=growth%20hormone
%201987%20zhu&ei=zgjaTdu2MY6asAOB8-mGDA&
usg=AFQjCNF1lfUTgR_psk9dk2IVlxbum1kKKA&c
ad=rja {Dunham_Rex_A_2004xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ Zhu, Z., Xu, K., Li, G., Xie, Y.,
and He, L. (1986) "Biological effects
of human growth hormone gene
microinjected into the fertilized eggs
of loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus.".
Kexue Tongbao Academia Sinica.
31:988-990.

MORE INFO
[1] Zhu, Z. (1992) Generation of
fast growing transgenic fish: methods
and mechanisms In Hew, C.L. and
Fletcher, G.L., (eds), Transgenic Fish,
World Scientific Publishing,
Singapore, pp. 92-119.
[2] J. T. Cook, M. A.
McNiven, G. F. Richardson, A. M.
Sutterlin, Growth rate, body
composition and feed
digestibility/conversion of
growth-enhanced transgenic Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar), Aquaculture,
Volume 188, Issues 1-2, 1 August 2000,
Pages 15-32, ISSN 0044-8486, DOI:
10.1016/S0044-8486(00)00331-8. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0044848600003318)
(Peking University) Perking, China1
(presumably) 
[1] Zuoyan Zhu, Ph.D. Professor,
School of Life Science, Peking
University Academician UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bio.pku.edu.cn/facult
y/zhuzy/photo.jpg
14 YBN
[1986 AD] 2 		5855)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1986}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
  
13 YBN
[02/06/1987 AD] 9 		5819) Chu was employed by AT&T early in
his career.6 (Perhaps this gave Chu an
advantage in receiving direct-to-brain
windows.7 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. K. Wu, J. R. Ashburn, and C.
J. Torng, P. H. Hor, R. L. Meng, L.
Gao, Z. J. Huang, Y. Q. Wang, and C. W.
Chu, "Superconductivity at 93 K in a
new mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound
system at ambient pressure", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf}
2. ^ "Paul Ching-Wu Chu." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ching-
wu-chu
3. ^ "Paul Ching-Wu Chu." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ching-
wu-chu
4. ^ M. K. Wu, J. R. Ashburn, and C. J.
Torng, P. H. Hor, R. L. Meng, L. Gao,
Z. J. Huang, Y. Q. Wang, and C. W. Chu,
"Superconductivity at 93 K in a new
mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound system
at ambient pressure", Phys. Rev. Lett.
58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Paul Ching-Wu Chu." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-ching-
wu-chu
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ M. K. Wu, J. R. Ashburn,
and C. J. Torng, P. H. Hor, R. L. Meng,
L. Gao, Z. J. Huang, Y. Q. Wang, and C.
W. Chu, "Superconductivity at 93 K in a
new mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound
system at ambient pressure", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf}
9. ^ M. K. Wu, J. R. Ashburn, and C. J.
Torng, P. H. Hor, R. L. Meng, L. Gao,
Z. J. Huang, Y. Q. Wang, and C. W. Chu,
"Superconductivity at 93 K in a new
mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound system
at ambient pressure", Phys. Rev. Lett.
58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf}
{02/06/1987}
(University of Alabama) Huntsville,
Alabama, USA and (University of
Houston) Houston, Texas, USA8  
[1] Figure 1 from: M. K. Wu, J. R.
Ashburn, and C. J. Torng, P. H. Hor, R.
L. Meng, L. Gao, Z. J. Huang, Y. Q.
Wang, and C. W. Chu,
''Superconductivity at 93 K in a new
mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound system
at ambient pressure'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v58/i9/p908_1

[2] Paul Chu (Ching-Wu
Chu).jpg English: Paul Chu, former
President of Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology and T.L.L.
Temple Chair of Science in the College
of Natural Sciences and Mathematics at
the University of Houston. Date
Unknown Source Paul Chu
standing with unidentfied machines,
Courtesy of Special Collections,
University of Houston
Libraries. Author University of
Houston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Paul_Chu_%28Ching-Wu_
Chu%29.jpg
13 YBN
[07/14/1987 AD] 7 		5820)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Van House and Arthur Rich,
"First Results of a Positron
Microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett. 60,
169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
2. ^ James Van House and Arthur Rich,
"First Results of a Positron
Microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett. 60,
169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ James
Van House and Arthur Rich, "First
Results of a Positron Microscope",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
7. ^ James Van House and Arthur Rich,
"First Results of a Positron
Microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett. 60,
169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
{07/14/1987}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p605.
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA6  
[1] Figure 1 from: James Van House and
Arthur Rich, ''First Results of a
Positron Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
60, 169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Figure 3 from: James Van House
and Arthur Rich, ''First Results of a
Positron Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
60, 169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
13 YBN
[12/14/1987 AD] 6 		5817)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, B.; Walker, G. A. H.;
Yang, S. (15 August 1988). "A search
for substellar companions to solar-type
stars". Astrophysical Journal 331:
902–921. Bibcode 1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p600.
3. ^ Campbell, B.; Walker, G. A. H.;
Yang, S. (15 August 1988). "A search
for substellar companions to solar-type
stars". Astrophysical Journal 331:
902–921. Bibcode 1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Campbell, B.; Walker, G.
A. H.; Yang, S. (15 August 1988). "A
search for substellar companions to
solar-type stars". Astrophysical
Journal 331: 902–921. Bibcode
1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
6. ^ Campbell, B.; Walker, G. A. H.;
Yang, S. (15 August 1988). "A search
for substellar companions to solar-type
stars". Astrophysical Journal 331:
902–921. Bibcode 1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
{12/14/1987}
(University of Victoria) Victoria,
Canada and (University of British
Columbia) British Columbia, Canada5
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Campbell, B.;
Walker, G. A. H.; Yang, S. (15 August
1988). ''A search for substellar
companions to solar-type stars''.
Astrophysical Journal 331: 902–921.
Bibcode 1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10
.1086/166608

[2] Table 3 from: Campbell, B.;
Walker, G. A. H.; Yang, S. (15 August
1988). ''A search for substellar
companions to solar-type stars''.
Astrophysical Journal 331: 902–921.
Bibcode 1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10
.1086/166608
12 YBN
[12/14/1988 AD] 14 		6194)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai;
R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed
electrostatic micro-motors," Electron
Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88.
Technical Digest., International ,
vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
2. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
3. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
4. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
5. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
6. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
7. ^
http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsspecial.ht
m
8. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/images_mi
croengines.html
11. ^ http://www-mtl.mit.edu/mems/
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
"IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
14. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai;
R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed
electrostatic micro-motors," Electron
Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88.
Technical Digest., International ,
vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
{12/11/1988-12/14/1988}
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA13  
[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415

[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
12 YBN
[1988 AD] 2 		4621) Information Society releases
"What's On Your Mind (Pure Energy)".1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "What's on Your Mind (Pure
Energy)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s_on
_Your_Mind_%28Pure_Energy%29
2. ^ "What's on Your Mind (Pure
Energy)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s_on
_Your_Mind_%28Pure_Energy%29 {1988}
  
12 YBN
[1988 AD] 2 		5856)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1988}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
  
11 YBN
[01/18/1989 AD] 5 		6205)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gil Lee, Patricia G. Arscott,
Victor A. Bloomfield, D. Fennell Evans,
"Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of
Nucleic Acids", Science, New Series,
Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr. 28, 1989), pp.
475-477 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098
2. ^ Gil Lee, Patricia G. Arscott,
Victor A. Bloomfield, D. Fennell Evans,
"Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of
Nucleic Acids", Science, New Series,
Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr. 28, 1989), pp.
475-477 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Gil Lee, Patricia G.
Arscott, Victor A. Bloomfield, D.
Fennell Evans, "Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy of Nucleic Acids", Science,
New Series, Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr.
28, 1989), pp. 475-477 Published by:
American Association for the
Advancement of Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098
5. ^ Gil Lee, Patricia G. Arscott,
Victor A. Bloomfield, D. Fennell Evans,
"Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of
Nucleic Acids", Science, New Series,
Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr. 28, 1989), pp.
475-477 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098
{01/18/1989}
(University of Minnesota) Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA4  
[1] Gil Lee, Patricia G. Arscott,
Victor A. Bloomfield, D. Fennell Evans,
''Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of
Nucleic Acids'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr. 28, 1989), pp.
475-477 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703
098
11 YBN
[08/25/1989 AD] 9 		5629) A ship from Earth, the U.S.
"Voyager 2", reaches planet Neptune and
transmits the first close images of
Neptune, its moons and rings.6

In the summer of 1989, NASA's Voyager 2
becomes the first spacecraft to observe
the planet Neptune, its final planetary
target. Passing about 4,950 kilometers
(3,000 miles) above Neptune's north
pole, Voyager 2 makes its closest
approach to any planet since leaving
Earth 12 years earlier. Five hours
later, Voyager 2 passes about 40,000
kilometers (25,000 miles) from
Neptune's largest moon, Triton, the
last solid body the spacecraft will
have an opportunity to examine.7
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
7. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/nept
une.html
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {08/25/1989}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Neptune8  
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
11 YBN
[1989 AD] 2 		6216) Neil Young releases "Keep On
Rockin' In The Free World".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Keep on Rocking in the Free
World". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keep_on_Roc
king_in_the_Free_World
2. ^ "Keep on Rocking in the Free
World". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keep_on_Roc
king_in_the_Free_World {1989}
  
10 YBN
[01/17/1990 AD] 8 		6191)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
2. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
3. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
4. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
5. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
6. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
7. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
8. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html {01/17/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. “Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy.” Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
[2] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
(IBM Research Division, Almaden
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA7  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html

[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
10 YBN
[01/29/1990 AD] 6 7 		6278)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p107.
2. ^
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8100728.
html
3. ^
http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1990-
01-30/business/9001080923_1_optical-proc
essor-electrons-copper-wires
4. ^ Ames, Karyn R., and Alan Brenner,
editors Frontiers of Supercomputing II:
A National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print
5. ^
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8100728.
html
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p107.
{01/29/1990}
7. ^
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8100728.
html {01/29/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] Streibl, N.; Brenner, K.-H.;
Huang, A.; Jahns, J.; Jewell, J.;
Lohmann, A.W.; Miller, D.A.B.;
Murdocca, M.; Prise, M.E.; Sizer, T.; ,
"Digital optics," Proceedings of the
IEEE , vol.77, no.12, pp.1954-1969, Dec
1989 doi: 10.1109/5.48834 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=48834&isnumber=1815
(AT&T Bell Labs) Holmdel, New Jersey,
United States5  
[1] Figure 3. An array of surface
emitting microlasers. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00014.jpg

[2] Figure 1. One thousand
twenty-four optical connections
contained within the same area as one
electronic connection. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00012.jpg
10 YBN
[02/14/1990 AD] 3 		5632)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A {02/14/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 1". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
Outside star system2  
[1] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Family_portrait_%28Vo
yager_1%29.png

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
10 YBN
[04/25/1990 AD] 5 		5828)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://hubble.nasa.gov/
2. ^ "Hubble Space Telescope."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 26
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hubble-spac
e-telescope
3. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttl
e/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-31.html
4. ^
http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasaf
act/pads.htm
5. ^ http://hubble.nasa.gov/
{04/25/1990}
Earth Orbit (Launched from Launch Pad
39B) Merritt Island, Florida, USA3 4
 
[1] Description HST-SM4.jpeg English:
The Hubble Space Telescope as seen from
the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis,
flying STS-125, HST Servicing Mission
4. Date 19 May
2009(2009-05-19) Source
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery
/images/shuttle/sts-119/hires/s125e01184
8.jpg Author Ruffnax (Crew of
STS-125) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* HST-SM4.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/HST-SM4.jpeg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
10 YBN
[06/11/1990 AD] 7 		5826) SRY is an abbreviation for
"sex-determining region of Y
chromosome", it also has the other
name: "testis-determining gene". SRY is
a gene on the Y chromosome in humans
that encodes a DNA-binding protein (240
amino acids) that induces
differentiation of Sertoli cells in the
developing gonad so that they produce
and secrete anti-Müllerian hormone,
which causes regression of female
internal genitalia. It also induces
Leydig cells to secrete the androgen
necessary for development of male
genitalia. The DNA-binding domain
(≈80 amino acids) is homologous with
that of HMG proteins. Many mutations in
the gene cause familial XY gonadal
dysgenesis (i.e. a female phenotype in
the presence of X and Y chromosomes).3


Peter N. Goodfellow and team publish
this in "Nature" as "A gene from the
human sex-determining region encodes a
protein with homology to a conserved
DNA-binding motif". As an abstract they
write:
"A search of a 35-kilobase region of
the human Y chromosome necessary for
male sex determination has resulted in
the identification of a new gene. This
gene is conserved and Y-specific among
a wide range of mammals, and encodes a
testis-specific transcript. It shares
homology with the mating-type protein,
Mc, from the fission yeast
Schizosaccharomyces pombe and a
conserved DNA-binding motif present in
the nuclear high-mobility-group
proteins HMG1 and HMG2. This gene has
been termed SRY (for sex-determining
region Y) and proposed to be a
candidate for the elusive
testis-determining gene, TDF.".4 (Read
more relevent parts.5 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Andrew H. Sinclair, Philippe
Berta*, Mark S. Palmer, J. Ross
Hawkins, Beatrice L. Griffiths,
Matthijs J. Smith, Jamie W. Foster*,
Anna-Maria Frischauf, Robin
Lovell-Badge† & Peter N. Goodfellow,
"A gene from the human sex-determining
region encodes a protein with homology
to a conserved DNA-binding motif",
Nature 346, 240 - 244 (19 July 1990);
doi:10.1038/346240a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v346/n6281/abs/346240
a0.html {Goodfellow_Peter_N_19900611.pd
f}
2. ^ "SRY" A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/SRY
3. ^ "SRY" A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/SRY
4. ^ Andrew H. Sinclair, Philippe
Berta*, Mark S. Palmer, J. Ross
Hawkins, Beatrice L. Griffiths,
Matthijs J. Smith, Jamie W. Foster*,
Anna-Maria Frischauf, Robin
Lovell-Badge† & Peter N. Goodfellow,
"A gene from the human sex-determining
region encodes a protein with homology
to a conserved DNA-binding motif",
Nature 346, 240 - 244 (19 July 1990);
doi:10.1038/346240a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v346/n6281/abs/346240
a0.html {Goodfellow_Peter_N_19900611.pd
f}
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "SRY" A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Apr.
2011. http://www.answers.com/SRY
7. ^ Andrew H. Sinclair, Philippe
Berta*, Mark S. Palmer, J. Ross
Hawkins, Beatrice L. Griffiths,
Matthijs J. Smith, Jamie W. Foster*,
Anna-Maria Frischauf, Robin
Lovell-Badge† & Peter N. Goodfellow,
"A gene from the human sex-determining
region encodes a protein with homology
to a conserved DNA-binding motif",
Nature 346, 240 - 244 (19 July 1990);
doi:10.1038/346240a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v346/n6281/abs/346240
a0.html {Goodfellow_Peter_N_19900611.pd
f} {06/11/1990}
(Human Molecular Genetics Laboratory,
Imperial Cancer Research Fund) London,
UK (and two other locations)6  
[1] Figure 3 from: Andrew H. Sinclair,
Philippe Berta*, Mark S. Palmer, J.
Ross Hawkins, Beatrice L. Griffiths,
Matthijs J. Smith, Jamie W. Foster*,
Anna-Maria Frischauf, Robin
Lovell-Badge† & Peter N. Goodfellow,
''A gene from the human sex-determining
region encodes a protein with homology
to a conserved DNA-binding motif'',
Nature 346, 240 - 244 (19 July 1990);
doi:10.1038/346240a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v346/n6281/abs/346240
a0.html {Goodfellow_Peter_N_19900611.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346240a0.html
10 YBN
[12/20/1990 AD] 5 		6346)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P Fromherz, A Offenhausser, T
Vetter, and J Weis, "A neuron-silicon
junction: a Retzius cell of the leech
on an insulated-gate field-effect
transistor", Science 31 May 1991: 252
(5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962

2. ^ P Fromherz, A Offenhausser, T
Vetter, and J Weis, "A neuron-silicon
junction: a Retzius cell of the leech
on an insulated-gate field-effect
transistor", Science 31 May 1991: 252
(5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962

3. ^ Moritz Voelker and Peter Fromherz,
"Signal Transmission from Individual
Mammalian Nerve Cell to Field-Effect
Transistor", small 1 (2005)
206-210. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/smll.200400077/abstract
4. ^ P Fromherz, A Offenhausser, T
Vetter, and J Weis, "A neuron-silicon
junction: a Retzius cell of the leech
on an insulated-gate field-effect
transistor", Science 31 May 1991: 252
(5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962

5. ^ P Fromherz, A Offenhausser, T
Vetter, and J Weis, "A neuron-silicon
junction: a Retzius cell of the leech
on an insulated-gate field-effect
transistor", Science 31 May 1991: 252
(5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962

( Abteilung Biophysik der Universitat
Ulm) Ulm, Germany4  
[1] Figure 5 from: P Fromherz, A
Offenhausser, T Vetter, and J Weis, ''A
neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell
of the leech on an insulated-gate
field-effect transistor'', Science 31
May 1991: 252 (5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875
962

[2] Figure 5 from: P Fromherz, A
Offenhausser, T Vetter, and J Weis, ''A
neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell
of the leech on an insulated-gate
field-effect transistor'', Science 31
May 1991: 252 (5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875
962
10 YBN
[1990 AD] 4 5 		5849)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "History of the camera".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_camera
2. ^ "History of the camera".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_camera
3. ^
http://www.dycam.com/dycamhome.html
4. ^ "History of the camera".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_camera {1990}
5. ^ Davenport, Alma (1999).
The history of photography: an
overview. Albuquerque, NM: University
of New Mexico Press. p. 6. ISBN
0-8263-2076-7. {1990}
(Dycam Inc) Ventura Blvd, Woodland
Hillsa, California, USA3
(verify) 		 
10 YBN
[1990 AD] 2 		6217) C + C Music Factory release
"Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance
Now".1
FOOTNOTES
"Gonna Make You Sweat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
"Gonna Make You Sweat".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. {1990}
  
9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD] 6 		5635)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/gaspra.ht
ml
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
3. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/gaspra.ht
ml
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
5. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/gaspra.ht
ml
6. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/gaspra.ht
ml {10/29/1991}
Asteroid Gaspra5  
[1] This picture of asteroid 951 Gaspra
is a mosaic of two images taken by the
Galileo spacecraft from a range of
5,300 kilometers (3,300 miles), some 10
minutes before closest approach on
October 29,
1991. gaspra2_s.jpg Gaspra - Highest
Resolution Mosaic October 29,
1991 The Sun is shining from the
right; phase angle is 50 degrees. The
resolution, about 54 meters/pixel, is
the highest for the Gaspra encounter
and is about three times better than
that in the view released in November
1991. PD
source: http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/g
aspra2.jpg

[2] Gaspra Approach Sequence October
29, 1991 This montage of 11 images
taken by the Galileo spacecraft as it
flew by the asteroid Gaspra on October
29, 1991, shows Gaspra growing
progressively larger in the field of
view of Galileo's solid-state imaging
camera as the spacecraft approached the
asteroid. gaspra1_s.jpg Gaspra
Approach Sequence October 29,
1991 Sunlight is coming from the
right. Gaspra is roughly 17 kilometers
(10 miles) long, 10 kilometers (6
miles) wide. The earliest view (upper
left) was taken 5 3/4 hours before
closest approach when the spacecraft
was 164,000 kilometers (102,000 miles)
from Gaspra, the last (lower right)at a
range of 16,000 kilometers (10,000
miles), 30 minutes before closest
approach. Gaspra spins once in roughly
7 hours, so these images capture almost
one full rotation of the asteroid.
Gaspra spins counterclockwise; its
north pole is to the upper left, and
the 'nose' which points upward in the
first image, is seen rotating back into
shadow, emerging at lower left, and
rotating to upper right. Several
craters are visible on the newly seen
sides of Gaspra, but none approaches
the scale of the asteroid's radius.
Evidently, Gaspra lacks the large
craters common on the surfaces of many
planetary satellites, consistent with
Gaspra's comparatively recent origin
from the collisional breakup of a
larger body. PD
source: http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/g
aspra1.jpg
9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD] 8 		5636)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
3. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
4. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
5. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
6. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
7. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
8. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm {10/29/1991}
Asteroid Gaspra7 (Ida encounter must
occur later) 
[1] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg

[2] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg

9 YBN
[1991 AD] 2 		5857)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1991}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
  
8 YBN
[1992 AD] 4 		5859)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Videoconferencing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconfer
encing
2. ^ "Videoconferencing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconfer
encing
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Videoconferencing".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconfer
encing {1992}
  
7 YBN
[1993 AD] 3 		5858)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
3. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1993}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
  
5 YBN
[02/24/1995 AD] 10 11 		5822)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. Abe et al. CDF Collaboration,
"Observation of Top Quark Production in
p̅ p Collisions with the Collider
Detector at Fermilab", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 74, 2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf}
2. ^ S. Abachi et al. D0 Collaboration,
"Observation of the Top Quark", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 74, 2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f}
3. ^ F. Abe et al. CDF Collaboration,
"Observation of Top Quark Production in
p̅ p Collisions with the Collider
Detector at Fermilab", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 74, 2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf}
4. ^ S. Abachi et al. D0 Collaboration,
"Observation of the Top Quark", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 74, 2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f}
5. ^ F. Abe et al. CDF Collaboration,
"Observation of Top Quark Production in
p̅ p Collisions with the Collider
Detector at Fermilab", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 74, 2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf}
6. ^ S. Abachi et al. D0 Collaboration,
"Observation of the Top Quark", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 74, 2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f}
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ F. Abe et al. CDF
Collaboration, "Observation of Top
Quark Production in p̅ p Collisions
with the Collider Detector at
Fermilab", Phys. Rev. Lett. 74,
2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf}
9. ^ S. Abachi et al. D0 Collaboration,
"Observation of the Top Quark", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 74, 2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f}
10. ^ F. Abe et al. CDF Collaboration,
"Observation of Top Quark Production in
p̅ p Collisions with the Collider
Detector at Fermilab", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 74, 2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf}
{02/24/1995}
11. ^ S. Abachi et al. D0
Collaboration, "Observation of the Top
Quark", Phys. Rev. Lett. 74,
2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f} {02/24/1995}
(Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory)
Batavia, Illinois, USA8 9  
[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: F. Abe et
al. CDF Collaboration, ''Observation of
Top Quark Production in p̅ p
Collisions with the Collider Detector
at Fermilab'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 74,
2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v74/i14/p2626_1

[2] Figures 1 and 2 from: S. Abachi
et al. D0 Collaboration, ''Observation
of the Top Quark'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
74, 2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v74/i14/p2632_1
5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD] 6 		396)
FOOTNOTES
1.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
2.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
3.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B {12/07/1995}

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo End of Mission Press
Kit" (PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
[2]
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
Jupiter5  
[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg

5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD] 9 		5637)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/sci
ence-at-nasa/1999/ast08oct99_2/
2. ^
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/sci
ence-at-nasa/1999/ast08oct99_2/
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1989-084E
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1989-084E
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1989-084E
6. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/miss
ion/journey-probe.cfm
7. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/miss
ion/journey-probe.cfm
8. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/jupi
ter-timeline.cfm
9. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/jupi
ter-timeline.cfm {12/07/1995}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
[2]
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
[3] "Galileo (spacecraft)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(sp
acecraft)
Planet Jupiter8  
[1] Description Galileo Preparations -
GPN-2000-000672.jpg English: In the
Vertical Processing Facility (VPF), the
spacecraft Galileo is prepared for
mating with the Inertial Upper Stage
booster. Galileo will be launched
aboard the Orbiter Atlantis on Space
Shuttle mission STS-34, October 12,
1989 and sent to the planet Jupiter, a
journey which will take more than six
years to complete. Date 3 August
1989(1989-08-03) Source Great
Images in NASA Description Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Galileo_Preparations_
-_GPN-2000-000672.jpg

[2] Description Galileo Deployment
(high res).jpg English: The Galileo
spacecraft and its attached Inertial
Upper Stage booster are released from
the payload bay of Atlantis on October
18, 1989 Date 18 October
1989(1989-10-18) Source uploader
composite from scan Author
NASA/Lockheed Martin/IMAX
Systems/exploitcorporations Permission
(Reusing this file) See
below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Galileo_Deployment_%2
8high_res%29.jpg
5 YBN
[1995 AD] 4 		5850)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.dycam.com/rdc1.html
2. ^ "History of the camera".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_camera
3. ^
http://www.ricoh.com/about/company/data/
index.html
4. ^ "History of the camera".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_camera {1995}

MORE INFO
[1] Davenport, Alma (1999). The
history of photography: an overview.
Albuquerque, NM: University of New
Mexico Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8263-2076-7.
[2]
http://www.dycam.com/dycamhome.html
(Ricoh) Tokyo, japan3 (verify) 
[1] Ricoh RDC-1 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dycam.com/rdc1.gif
5 YBN
[1995 AD] 3 		6325) Natalie Merchant releases the
song "Carnival".1 The lyric "Have I
been blind?" may relate to how many
people who are excluded from seeing
thought are in some sense "blind"
compared to those who do receive see
the thought-screen with remote neuron
reading and writing (direct-to-brain
windows).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carnival (Natalie Merchant
song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_(N
atalie_Merchant_song)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Carnival (Natalie
Merchant song)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_(N
atalie_Merchant_song)
  
4 YBN
[05/15/1996 AD] 7 		5827)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Boolell; Boolell M, Allen MJ,
Ballard SA, Gepi-Attee S, Muirhead GJ,
Naylor AM, Osterloh IH, Gingell C
(1996). "Sildenafil: an orally active
type 5 cyclic GMP-specific
phosphodiesterase inhibitor for the
treatment of penile erectile
dysfunction". International Journal of
Impotence Research 8 (2): 47–52. PMID
8858389.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/885
8389
2. ^ Terrett NK et al. (1996).
"Sildenafil (Viagra), a potent and
selective inhibitor of Type 5 cGMP
phosphodiesterase with utility for the
treatment of male erectile
dysfunction". Bioorganic & Medicinal
Chemistry Letters 6: 1819–1824.
doi:10.1016/0960-894X(96)00323-X. http:
//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/0960894X9600323X
3. ^ Terrett NK et al. (1996).
"Sildenafil (Viagra), a potent and
selective inhibitor of Type 5 cGMP
phosphodiesterase with utility for the
treatment of male erectile
dysfunction". Bioorganic & Medicinal
Chemistry Letters 6: 1819–1824.
doi:10.1016/0960-894X(96)00323-X. http:
//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/0960894X9600323X
4. ^ Boolell; Boolell M, Allen MJ,
Ballard SA, Gepi-Attee S, Muirhead GJ,
Naylor AM, Osterloh IH, Gingell C
(1996). "Sildenafil: an orally active
type 5 cyclic GMP-specific
phosphodiesterase inhibitor for the
treatment of penile erectile
dysfunction". International Journal of
Impotence Research 8 (2): 47–52. PMID
8858389.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/885
8389
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Terrett NK et al. (1996).
"Sildenafil (Viagra), a potent and
selective inhibitor of Type 5 cGMP
phosphodiesterase with utility for the
treatment of male erectile
dysfunction". Bioorganic & Medicinal
Chemistry Letters 6: 1819–1824.
doi:10.1016/0960-894X(96)00323-X. http:
//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/0960894X9600323X
7. ^ Terrett NK et al. (1996).
"Sildenafil (Viagra), a potent and
selective inhibitor of Type 5 cGMP
phosphodiesterase with utility for the
treatment of male erectile
dysfunction". Bioorganic & Medicinal
Chemistry Letters 6: 1819–1824.
doi:10.1016/0960-894X(96)00323-X. http:
//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/0960894X9600323X {05/15/1996}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrew S. Bell et al,
"Pyrazolopyrimidinone antianginal
agents", Patent number: 5250534, Filing
date: May 14, 1992, Issue date: Oct 5,
1993 http://www.google.com/patents?id=h
HAWAAAAEBAJ
(Pfizer Central Research) Sandwich,
Kent, UK6 (verify earliest date) 		 
4 YBN
[08/??/1996 AD] 2 		6165) R. Kelly releases "I Can Believe
I Can Fly".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "I Believe I Can Fly". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Believe_I
_Can_Fly
2. ^ "I Believe I Can Fly". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Believe_I
_Can_Fly {08/1996}
  
4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD] 5 		186)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
2. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
3. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
4. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
5. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
 
[1] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg

[2] Description English: This is
diagram of how Dolly the sheep was
made. Date 12 April 2008 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
self-made) Author Squidonius (talk).
Original uploader was Squidonius at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Dolly_clone.svg
/1000px-Dolly_clone.svg.png
4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD] 8 		5829)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
2. ^ "Dolly the Sheep." History
Answers. Visible Ink Press., 2005.
Answers.com 26 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dolly-the-s
heep
3. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
5. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, "Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells", Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
8. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
{11/25/1996}
(University of Edinburgh, Roslin
Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK7
 
[1] Figre 2 from: I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, ''Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells'', Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html

[2] [t verify] Description Dolly
clone.svg English: This is diagram of
how Dolly the sheep was made. Date
12 April 2008(2008-04-12)
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
self-made) Author Squidonius
(talk). Original uploader was
Squidonius at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Dolly_clone.svg
/1000px-Dolly_clone.svg.png
1 YBN
[09/15/1999 AD] 		3887)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Garrett B. Stanley, Fei F. Li,
and Yang Dan, "Reconstruction of
Natural Scenes from Ensemble Responses
in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus", The
Journal of Neuroscience, September 15,
1999,
19(18):8036-8042. http://www.jneurosci.
org/cgi/content/full/19/18/8036
2. ^ Garrett B. Stanley, Fei F. Li, and
Yang Dan, "Reconstruction of Natural
Scenes from Ensemble Responses in the
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus", The
Journal of Neuroscience, September 15,
1999,
19(18):8036-8042. http://www.jneurosci.
org/cgi/content/full/19/18/8036
(University of California, Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA2  
[1] Figure 2. Reconstruction of
natural scenes from the responses of a
population of neurons. a, Receptive
fields of 177 cells used in the
reconstruction. Each receptive field
was fitted with a two-dimensional
Gaussian function. Each ellipse
represents the contour at one SD from
the center of the Gaussian fit. Note
that the actual receptive fields
(including surround) are considerably
larger than these ellipses. Red, On
center. Blue, Off center. An area of 32
× 32 pixels (0.2°/pixel) where movie
signals were reconstructed is outlined
in white. The grid inside the white
square delineates the pixels. b,
Comparison between the actual and the
reconstructed images in an area of 6.4
× 6.4° (a, white square). Each panel
shows four consecutive frames
(interframe interval, 31.1 msec) of the
actual (top) and the reconstructed
(bottom) movies. Top panel, Scenes in
the woods, with two trunks of trees as
the most prominent objects. Middle
panel, Scenes in the woods, with
smaller tree branches. Bottom panel, A
face at slightly different
displacements on the screen. c,
Quantitative comparison between the
reconstructed and the actual movie
signals. Top, Histogram of temporal
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of time) at each
pixel. The histogram was generated from
1024 (32 × 32) pixels in the white
square. Bottom, Histogram of spatial
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of spatial position)
at each frame. The histogram was
generated from 4096 frames (512 frames
per movie; 8 movies). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jneurosci.org/content
/vol19/issue18/images/large/ns1893409002
.jpeg

[2] Video from Yang Dan UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t
FdZ9eGTG5A
1 YBN
[09/20/1999 AD] 6 		5833)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
"Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord",
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
318/5858/1917.short {Choi_Dennis_W_1999
0920.pdf}
2. ^ JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
"Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord",
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
318/5858/1917.short {Choi_Dennis_W_1999
0920.pdf}
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ JOHN W.
MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU, YUN QU, SU
LIU, SHANNON K. MICKEY, DOROTHY
TURETSKY, DAVID I. GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS
W. CHOI, "Transplanted embryonic stem
cells survive, differentiate and
promote recovery in injured rat spinal
cord", Nature medicine, (1999) volume:
5 issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
318/5858/1917.short {Choi_Dennis_W_1999
0920.pdf}
6. ^ JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
"Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord",
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
318/5858/1917.short {Choi_Dennis_W_1999
0920.pdf} {09/20/1999}
(Washington University School of
Medicine) St. Louis, Missouri, USA5
 		 
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		55)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		161)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		229)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		230)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		231)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		233)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		294)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		325)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		427)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		445)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		536)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		569)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		595)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		596)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		623)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		674)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		690)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		707)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		740)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		799)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1069)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1297)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1585)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1772)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		5034)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert John Strutt."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-john
-strutt
2. ^ R. J. Strutt, "On the Accumulation
of Helium in Geological Time.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
V81, N547,
09/11/1908. http://www.jstor.org/stable
/93092 {Strutt_R_J_19080728.pdf}
 
[1] English: Physicist Robert Strutt,
4th Baron Rayleigh, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Robert
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Strutt%2CRobert%2C4th
_Baron_Rayleigh_1934_London.jpg
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		5473)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. G. Montgomery and D. D.
Montgomery, "The Intensity of Neutrons
of Thermal Energy in the Atmosphere at
Sea Level", Phys. Rev. 56, 10–12
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i1/p10_1 {Montgomery_C_G_19390515
.pdf}
2. ^ Record ID5474. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Record
ID5472. Universe, Life, Science,
Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] S. A. Korff, "Recent Studies
at High Elevations", Rev. Mod. Phys.
11, 211–219
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v11/i3-4/p211_1
[2] W. F. Libby, "Atmospheric Helium
Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic
Radiation", Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		6311)
FOOTNOTES




  
0 YAN
[02/14/2000 AD] 8 		5638)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A {02/14/2000}
Asteroid Eros7  
[1] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg

[2] Description Near
Shoemaker.jpg Artist's conception of
the NEAR Shoenmaker spacecraft.
Originally from the NSSDC website:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/tmp/1996-
008A.html Date 2007-07-12
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Andy120290
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-LAYOUT;
PD-USGOV-NASA. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Near_Shoemaker.jpg
0 YAN
[12/05/2000 AD] 4 		5823)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Craig Venter, et al, "The
Sequence of the Human Genome",
Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5507
(Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf}
2. ^ J. Craig Venter, et al, "The
Sequence of the Human Genome",
Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5507
(Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf}
3. ^ J. Craig Venter, et al, "The
Sequence of the Human Genome",
Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5507
(Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf}
4. ^ J. Craig Venter, et al, "The
Sequence of the Human Genome",
Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5507
(Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf}
{12/05/2000}
(Celera Genomics) Rockville, Maryland,
USA (and 13 other locations)3  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Craig Venter, et
al, ''The Sequence of the Human
Genome'', Science, New Series, Vol.
291, No. 5507 (Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Craigventer2.jpg

[2] Description
Craigventer2.jpg J. Craig
Venter Date published September
4, 2007 Source A New Human Genome
Sequence Paves the Way for
Individualized Genomics Gross L PLoS
Biology Vol. 5, No. 10, e266
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050266 http
://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?re
quest=slideshow&type=figure&doi=10.1371/
journal.pbio.0050266&id=85043 Author
Article by Liza Gross, but no
photo credit given CC
source:
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		3706)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p466.
2. ^ "Caro,
Heinrich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p168.
3. ^
"Caro, Heinrich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p168.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.colorantshistory.org/HistoryI
nternationalDyeIndustry.html
[2] "Heinrich Caro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Ca
ro
Manchester, England3  
[1] Heinrich Caro PD/Corel
source: http://www.xtec.net/~rmelia/Un_m
on_ple_de_color/Caro.jpg

[2] Heinrich Caro, colorist, chemist
and technical leader, at BASF, from
1868-1888. Edelstein Collection,
Hebrew University. PD/Corel
source: http://www.colorantshistory.org/
images/Caro_for_web.jpg
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		3789)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p486-487.
2. ^ "Przhevalsky,
Nikolay Mikhaylovich", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p726.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p486-487.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p486-487.
6. ^ "Przhevalsky,
Nikolay Mikhaylovich", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p726.
7. ^ "Przhevalsky, Nikolay
Mikhaylovich", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p726.
8. ^
"Nikolai Przhevalsky." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/przhevalsky
-nikolai-mikhailovich
9. ^ "Nikolai Przhevalsky."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/przhevalsky
-nikolai-mikhailovich
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p486-487.
11. ^ "Nikolai
Przhevalsky." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/przhevalsky
-nikolai-mikhailovich
12. ^ "Przhevalsky, Nikolay
Mikhaylovich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
675>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikolai Przhevalsky." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/przhevalsky
-nikolai-mikhailovich
[2] "Nikolay Mikhaylovich Przhevalsky".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Mik
haylovich_Przhevalsky
 
[1] Українська:
Пржевальський Микола
Михайлович Nikolai
Przhevalsky (1839-1888). Фото с
английской вики
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Przew
alski.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Przewalski.jpg
0 YAN
[0 AD] 13 		4367) Eduard Buchner's brother Hans
Buchner also has achievements in
science.10
Eduard Buchner is killed by
a grenade wound on the Romanian front
fighting for the Central Powers, which
is a terrible waste of an person with
science skills and achievements, just
as Moseley died in WW I on the Allied
side.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p583-584.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p583-584.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p583-584.
7. ^ "Buchner,
Eduard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 25
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9017
874>.
8. ^ "Eduard Buchner." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-buch
ner
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p583-584.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p583-584.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p583-584.
12. ^ "Eduard
Buchner." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-buch
ner
13. ^ "Eduard Buchner." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-buch
ner {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Buchner, Eduard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 560-563. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900693&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Eduard Buchner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Buch
ner
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany12  
[1] Description
Eduardbuchner.jpg Eduard
Buchner Date 1907(1907) Source
Les Prix Nobel, 1907[1] Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Eduardbuchner.jpg
0 YAN
[0 AD] 3 		5919) Girolamo Frescobaldi (CE
1583-1643), Italian composer and
organist composes in this time. Johann
Sebastian Bach will own a copy of
Frescobaldi's "Fiori musicali" (1635)
and learn from it.1

FOOTNOTES
{c1613 (age 30}


(Saint Peter's cathedral) Rome, Italy2
 
[1] Girolamo Frescobaldi
(Composer) PD
source: http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Pic
-Lib-BIG/Frescobaldi-Girolamo-01%5BClaud
e-Mellan-1619%5D.jpg
1 YAN
[02/12/2001 AD] 5 		5639)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A {02/12/2001}
Asteroid Eros4  
[1] Description
Erosregolith.jpg One of the last
photos taken by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft as it landed on the asteroid
433Eros Date 2003(2003) Source
NASA Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Erosregolith.jpg

[2] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg
1 YAN
[06/28/2001 AD] 9 		6192)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
2. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
3. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
4. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
5. ^ "Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip"
www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902_03090
2.pdf
6. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "World's smallest RFID
IC,the “µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf}
9. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the
“µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf} {06/28/2001}

MORE INFO
[1] "World's tiniest RFID tag
unveiled", BBC,
02/23/2007 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/t
echnology/6389581.stm
[2]
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/
337
[3]
http://www.thelibertyvoice.com/hitachi-d
evelops-a-new-rfid-with-embedded-antenna
-%C2%B5-chip
(Hitachi) Japan8  
[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg

[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg

1 YAN
[07/27/2001 AD] 5 		6200) Millimeter scale rotational wing
flying device.2
Miki and Shimoyama
publish this in the "Journal of
Microelectromechanical Systems" as
"Dynamics of a microflight mechanism
with magnetic rotational wings in an
alternating magnetic field". As an
abstract they write:
"Dynamics of a
three-dimensionally movable microflight
mechanism were analyzed both
theoretically and experimentally. The
microflight mechanism is composed of
magnetic rotational wings that rotate
and generate thrust in an alternating
magnetic field and a body with magnetic
anisotropy that contributes to attitude
control. The device consisted of
2.5-mm-long wings weighing 3.5 mg which
were fabricated with MEMS technology. A
wing rotational frequency of 500 Hz
provided enough thrust for liftoff.
Experimental data obtained through
high-speed camera images show good
agreement with theory and also quantify
the magnetic anisotropy of the
microflight mechanism, which cannot be
estimated theoretically. Simultaneous
actuation and attitude control by an
external magnetic field presented
herein, which culminated in
simplification and small weight of the
device and thus the successful flight,
is applicable to other MEMS devices.".3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miki, N.; Shimoyama, I.; ,
"Dynamics of a microflight mechanism
with magnetic rotational wings in an
alternating magnetic field,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
2. ^ Miki, N.; Shimoyama, I.; ,
"Dynamics of a microflight mechanism
with magnetic rotational wings in an
alternating magnetic field,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
3. ^ Miki, N.; Shimoyama, I.; ,
"Dynamics of a microflight mechanism
with magnetic rotational wings in an
alternating magnetic field,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
4. ^ Miki, N.; Shimoyama, I.; ,
"Dynamics of a microflight mechanism
with magnetic rotational wings in an
alternating magnetic field,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
5. ^ Miki, N.; Shimoyama, I.; ,
"Dynamics of a microflight mechanism
with magnetic rotational wings in an
alternating magnetic field,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
{07/27/2001}

MORE INFO
[1] Kelson D. Chabak, "CONCEPTUAL
STUDY OF ROTARY-WING MICROROBOTICS",
March
2008. dodreports.com/pdf/ada497687.pdf
[2] N. Miki and I. Shimoyama, "Analysis
of the flight performance of small
magnetic rotating wings for use in
microrobots," in Robotics and
Automation, 1998. Proceedings. 1998
IEEE International Conference on, 1998,
pp. 3065-3070 vol.4. N. Miki and I.
Shimoyama, "Magnetic rotational
micro-wings applicable to microrobots,"
in Intelligent Robots and Systems,
1999. IROS '99. Proceedings. 1999
IEEE/RSJ International Conference on,
1999, pp. 721-726 vol.2. N. Miki and
I. Shimoyama, "A Micro-Flight Mechanism
with Rotational Wings," in The 13th
Annual International Conference on
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS), 2000, pp. 158-163. N. Miki
and I. Shimoyama, "Dynamics of a
microflight mechanism with magnetic
rotational wings in an alternating
magnetic field," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 11, pp.
584-591, 2002. N. Miki and I.
Shimoyama, "Soft-magnetic rotational
microwings in an alternating magnetic
field applicable to microflight
mechanisms," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 12, pp.
221-227, 2003
(University of Tokyo) Tokyo, Japan4
 
[1] Figure from: Miki, N.; Shimoyama,
I.; , ''Dynamics of a microflight
mechanism with magnetic rotational
wings in an alternating magnetic
field,'' Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of , vol.11, no.5, pp.
584- 591, Oct 2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Portraits of authors from: Miki,
N.; Shimoyama, I.; , ''Dynamics of a
microflight mechanism with magnetic
rotational wings in an alternating
magnetic field,''
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
COPYRIGHTED
source:
1 YAN
[12/??/2001 AD] 		6218) Ted Huntington records the "Stop
Violence, Teach Science" group of
songs.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
Irvine, California, USA  
2 YAN
[02/16/2002 AD] 11 		6332) Much of this work is done by
teams of people in Massachussets, from
Harvard, MIT, and the company
MicroCHIPS Inc. Robert Farra and team
publish this in the journal "Science
Translational Medicine" as
"First-in-Human Testing of a Wirelessly
Controlled Drug Delivery Microchip". As
an abstract they write:
"The first clinical
trial of an implantable microchip-based
drug delivery device is discussed.
Human parathyroid hormone fragment
{hPTH(1-34)} was delivered from the
device in vivo. hPTH(1-34) is the only
approved anabolic osteoporosis
treatment, but requires daily
injections, making patient compliance
an obstacle to effective treatment.
Furthermore, a net increase in bone
mineral density requires intermittent
or pulsatile hPTH(1-34) delivery, a
challenge for implantable drug delivery
products. The microchip-based devices,
containing discrete doses of
lyophilized hPTH(1-34), were implanted
in 8 osteoporotic postmenopausal women
for 4 months and wirelessly programmed
to release doses from the device once
daily for up to 20 days. A
computer-based programmer, operating in
the Medical Implant Communications
Service band, established a
bidirectional wireless communication
link with the implant to program the
dosing schedule and receive implant
status confirming proper operation.
Each woman subsequently received
hPTH(1-34) injections in escalating
doses. The pharmacokinetics, safety,
tolerability, and bioequivalence of
hPTH(1-34) were assessed. Device dosing
produced similar pharmacokinetics to
multiple injections, and had lower
coefficients of variation. Bone marker
evaluation indicated that daily release
from the device increased bone
formation. There were no toxic or
adverse events due to the device or
drug, and patients stated that the
implant did not impact quality of
life.".6

(Determine if earlier devices could be
controlled somehow through the skin-
"first intrabody remote control
device".7 )

(I wonder how practical this is because
I can't imagine that many doses would
fit in a microchip. Determine how many
doses can fit in the device. Doses are
very small= 40 μg. These devices
deliver 20 doses. At least one fails to
deliver the drugs.8 )

(The real importance may be the public
report of a remote controlled particle
communication device positioned inside
a human body.9 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
2. ^ LAURAN NEERGAARD,
"Remote-controlled chip implant
delivers bone drug", 02/16/2012 AP
article. http://news.yahoo.com/remote-c
ontrolled-chip-implant-delivers-bone-dru
g-190616595.html
3. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
4. ^ LAURAN NEERGAARD,
"Remote-controlled chip implant
delivers bone drug", 02/16/2012 AP
article. http://news.yahoo.com/remote-c
ontrolled-chip-implant-delivers-bone-dru
g-190616595.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Farra,
Robert et al. “First-in-Human Testing
of a Wirelessly Controlled Drug
Delivery Microchip.” Science
Translational Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
11. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/photos/health-1316
123812-slideshow/device-may-someday-allo
w-patients-avoid-daily-injections-photo-
191903806.html
(CCBR-SYNARC) Denmark10  
[1] Plate 1 figures A-C Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

[2] Plate 4 figures A-H Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source:
3 YAN
[04/04/2003 AD] 7 		6195)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
2. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
3. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
4. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
5. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
6. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
7. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
{04/04/2003}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsspecial.ht
m
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA6  
[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif

[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
3 YAN
[08/??/2003 AD] 3 		6326) Ted Huntington records the
"Complete Freedom of All Information"
group of songs.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
2. ^ http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
3. ^
http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
Irvine, California, USA2   
4 YAN
[01/15/2004 AD] 3 		5640)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=2003-027A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=2003-027A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=2003-027A {01/15/2004}
Planet Mars2  
[1] * original description: This
synthetic image of the Spirit Mars
Exploration Rover in the ''Columbia
Hills'' was produced using ''Virtual
Presence in Space'' technology.
Developed at NASA's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., in
cooperation with Maas Digital LLC, this
technology combines visualization and
image-processing tools with
Hollywood-style special effects. The
image was created using a
photorealistic model of the rover and
an image taken by the Spirit navigation
camera during the rover's 438th Martian
day, or sol (March 27, 2005); see
PIA07829). The size of the rover in the
image is approximately correct and was
based on the size of the rover tracks
in the navigation-camera
image. Credits: Rover Model: D. Maas
- Synthetic Image: Z. Gorjian, K.
Kuramura, M. Stetson, E. De Jong.
* source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03230 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Spirit_PIA03230.jpg

[2] Mars Exploration Rover ''Spirit''
took this mosaic on 16th sol. It shows
now useless lander left on the landing
site. To the right are, about 3
kilometers away, the Columbia Hills,
significant targets for exploration
reached by Spirit later in its
mission. Source:
http://marsrover.nasa.gov/gallery/press/
spirit/20040121a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/MER_Spirit_Lander_Pan
_Sol16-A18R1_br2.jpg
4 YAN
[06/17/2004 AD] 11 		6204)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bayindir, Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
2. ^
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2004/fabri
c.html
3. ^ Paulson, Linda Dailey; ,
"Scientists Develop Camera Made of
Fabric," Computer , vol.43, no.3,
pp.20-22, March 2010 doi:
10.1109/MC.2010.77 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=5427370&isnumber=5427360

4. ^ Bayindir, Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
5. ^
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2004/fabri
c.html
6. ^ Paulson, Linda Dailey; ,
"Scientists Develop Camera Made of
Fabric," Computer , vol.43, no.3,
pp.20-22, March 2010 doi:
10.1109/MC.2010.77 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=5427370&isnumber=5427360

7. ^ Bayindir, Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Bayindir,
Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
11. ^ Bayindir, Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
{06/17/2004}
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA10  
[1] a, SEM micrograph of the
cross-section of the hybrid fibre with
800-microm hollow core, omnidirectional
mirror layers, metallic filament array
and polymer cladding. The inset shows
eight pairs of quarter-wave As2Se3/PEI
multilayers and one of the metallic, Sn
filaments in the ring that is
surrounding the mirror layers. b,
Photograph of a 1-mm-thick, 1-m-long
hybrid fibre. The fibre appears green
to the eye by virtue of reflection from
the third-order photonic band gap of
the omnidirectional mirror, located at
550 nm. c, Normalized transmission
spectra of three different fibres,
having outer diameters of 980, 1,030
and 1,090 microm. The primary and
second-order photonic bandgaps are
located at 1.62 and 0.8 microm for the
980-microm-thick fibre, and are shifted
to longer wavelengths as the fibre
diameter increases. d, Measured
electrical current along the
980-microm-thick, 15-cm-long fibre as a
function of applied bias
voltage. Figure from: Bayindir,
Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7010/images/nature02937-f1.2.
jpg

[2] Researchers display the new light
sensitive fabric they have created,
fibers of which are in front of Yoel
Fink's face in frame. From left to
right are physics professor John
Joannopoulos, material science
professor Yoel Fink, post-doc Mehmet
Bayindir, graduate student Fabien Sorin
and post-doc Ayman Abouraddy. Photo /
Donna Coveney UNKNOWN
source: http://img.mit.edu/newsoffice/im
ages/article_images/200908311112003221.j
pg
4 YAN
[07/01/2004 AD] 12 		5641) The U.S. "Cassini" is the first
ship to orbit the planet Saturn.9 10
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^ "Cassini-Huygens." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cassini-huy
gens
5. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
6. ^ "Cassini-Huygens." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cassini-huy
gens
7. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
8. ^ "Cassini-Huygens." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cassini-huy
gens
9. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
10. ^ "Cassini-Huygens." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cassini-huy
gens
11. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
12. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {07/01/2004}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn11  
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg

[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
4 YAN
[11/29/2004 AD] 		5832)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
2. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
3. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
4. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
5. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm

MORE INFO
[1] Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et
al. (2005). "A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study". Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459
[2] "team co-headed by researchers at
Chosun University", Seoul National
University and the Seoul Cord Blood
Bank (SCB) Umbilical cord cells 'allow
paralysed woman to walk' By Roger
Highfield, Science Editor. Last
Updated: 1:28AM GMT 30 Nov 2004
(Chosun University) Kwangju, South
Korea5  
[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg
4 YAN
[2004 AD] 2 		6327) U2 releases the song "Vertigo".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Vertigo (U2 song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertigo_(U2
_song)
2. ^ "Vertigo (U2 song)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertigo_(U2
_song)
  
5 YAN
[01/14/2005 AD] 7 		5642) The European Space Agency
(E.S.A.) "Huygens" Titan probe is the
first ship to soft-land on a moon of a
planet besides earth, landing on Titan,
a moon of Saturn.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
5. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
6. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
7. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {01/14/2005}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn, moon Titan6  
[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg

[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg
7 YAN
[08/??/2007 AD] 3 		1652)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070806/f
ull/070806-5.html
2. ^
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070809/ap_o
n_sc/human_evolution;_ylt=AruCkwb32WrhbQ
w.YrFzooys0NUE
3. ^
http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070806/f
ull/070806-5.html (2007)
Kenya, Africa2  
[1] Frederick Kyalo Manthi , Phd, holds
the H. erectus complete skull he
discovered in 2000 near lake Turkana in
Kenya, Wednesday, Aug. 8, 2007 at the
National Museum of Kenya in Nairobi.
Surprising fossils dug up in Africa are
creating messy kinks in the iconic
straight line of human evolution from
knuckle-dragging ape to
briefcase-carrying man.(AP Photo/Karel
Prinsloo) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0708
08/481/76d432e4d0044e37beecc3bf74bc7a89;
_ylt=AmKPA2W.OAaTAIRX0.JejPtxieAA

[2] Mine's bigger than yours: the size
of H. erectus skulls differs
widely National Museums of Kenya/F.
Spoor and J. Reader. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2007/
070806/full/070806-5.html
7 YAN
[10/31/2007 AD] 7 		6187)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ K. Jensen,, J. Weldon,, H.
Garcia, and, A. Zettl “Nanotube
Radio.” Nano Letters 7.11 (2007) :
3508-3511. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full
/10.1021/nl0721113
2. ^ K. Jensen,, J. Weldon,, H. Garcia,
and, A. Zettl “Nanotube Radio.”
Nano Letters 7.11 (2007) :
3508-3511. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full
/10.1021/nl0721113
3. ^ Emmet Cole, "World's First
Nanoradio Could Lead to Subcellular
Remote-Control Interfaces", Wired
11/01/2007. http://www.wired.com/scienc
e/discoveries/news/2007/11/nanoradio
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ K. Jensen,, J.
Weldon,, H. Garcia, and, A. Zettl
“Nanotube Radio.” Nano Letters 7.11
(2007) :
3508-3511. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full
/10.1021/nl0721113
7. ^ K. Jensen,, J. Weldon,, H. Garcia,
and, A. Zettl “Nanotube Radio.”
Nano Letters 7.11 (2007) :
3508-3511. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full
/10.1021/nl0721113 {10/31/2007}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA6  
[1] Figure 2 (a) Schematic of the
nanotube radio. Radio transmissions
tuned to the nanotube's resonance
frequency force the charged nanotube to
vibrate. Field emission of electrons
from the tip of the nanotube is used to
detect the vibrations and also amplify
and demodulate the signal. A current
measuring device, such as a sensitive
speaker, monitors the output of the
radio. (b) Transmission electron
micrographs of a nanotube radio off and
on resonance during a radio
transmission. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/appl/literat
um/publisher/achs/journals/content/nalef
d/2007/nalefd.2007.7.issue-11/nl0721113/
production/images/large/nl0721113f00002.
jpeg
8 YAN
[05/24/2008 AD] 3 		6168) Ted Huntington releases a version
of "Journey To Centauri".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
3. ^ http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
{05/24/2008}
Irvine, California, USA2   
8 YAN
[12/10/2008 AD] 17 		3886)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
2. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
3. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
4. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
5. ^ personal communication, see most
of Kamatani's email correspondence with
me at:
http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_read
ing_and_writing.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^
Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H., Yamashita,
O., Sato, M., Morito, Y., Tanabe, H.
C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y. (2008).
Visual image reconstruction from human
brain activity using a combination of
multi-scale local image decoders.
Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
10. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
11. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ personal communication,
see most of Kamatani's email
correspondence with me at:
http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_read
ing_and_writing.htm
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Miyawaki, Y.,
Uchida, H., Yamashita, O., Sato, M.,
Morito, Y., Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N.,
Kamitani, Y. (2008). Visual image
reconstruction from human brain
activity using a combination of
multi-scale local image decoders.
Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
17. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6 {12/10/2008}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
(Collaboration between researchers at
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan16  
[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large

[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large
9 YAN
[10/12/2009 AD] 12 		6207) Laser is microscopic in two
dimensions. This laser is 30
micrometers long and 8 micrometers high
(state width8 ).9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Christoph Walther et al,
"Microcavity Laser Oscillating in a
Circuit-Based Resonator", Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full
2. ^ ETH Zurich. "World’s smallest
microlaser could revolutionize chip
technology." ScienceDaily, 6 Apr. 2010.
Web. 28 Aug.
2011. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2010/04/100405132251.htm
3. ^ Christoph Walther et al,
"Microcavity Laser Oscillating in a
Circuit-Based Resonator", Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full
4. ^ ETH Zurich. "World’s smallest
microlaser could revolutionize chip
technology." ScienceDaily, 6 Apr. 2010.
Web. 28 Aug.
2011. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2010/04/100405132251.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Christoph Walther et al,
"Microcavity Laser Oscillating in a
Circuit-Based Resonator", Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full
7. ^ ETH Zurich. "World’s smallest
microlaser could revolutionize chip
technology." ScienceDaily, 6 Apr. 2010.
Web. 28 Aug.
2011. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2010/04/100405132251.htm
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Christoph Walther et al,
"Microcavity Laser Oscillating in a
Circuit-Based Resonator", Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full
10. ^ ETH Zurich. "World’s smallest
microlaser could revolutionize chip
technology." ScienceDaily, 6 Apr. 2010.
Web. 28 Aug.
2011. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2010/04/100405132251.htm
11. ^ Christoph Walther et al,
"Microcavity Laser Oscillating in a
Circuit-Based Resonator", Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full
12. ^ Christoph Walther et al,
"Microcavity Laser Oscillating in a
Circuit-Based Resonator", Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full {10/12/2009}
(Institute for Quantum Electronics)
Zurich, Switzerland11  
[1] The centerpiece of the new
microlaser is the electric resonator,
consisting of two semi-circular
capacitors that are connected via an
inductor (here, a scanning electron
microscope image). The color intensity
represents the strength of the
electrical field; the color itself, the
respective polarity. (Credit: Photo:
ETH Zurich) UNKNOWN
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
010/04/100405132251-large.jpg

[2] Figure from: Christoph Walther et
al, ''Microcavity Laser Oscillating in
a Circuit-Based Resonator'', Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full Fig.
1 (A) Schematic of the LC laser.
Formula is the alternating current in
the resonator, Formula is the induced
magnetic field, and Formula is the
electric field. The active gain medium
is biased by the voltage source VDC.
(B) Scanning electron micrograph
picture of the LC laser device. (C)
Schematic cross section through the
device along the symmetry axis. The red
layer is undoped Al0.5Ga0.5As and
prevents current injection into the
active region below the bonding pad. (D
and E) Finite-element simulations of
the electromagnetic field in the
resonator showing the dominating
electric field component Ez and the
norm of the magnetic field Formula. (F)
Measured reflectivity at 10 K of an
array of 400 identical LC resonators,
shown in the inset and designed for a
frequency of 1.45 THz, without gain
medium and without electrical
connection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/327/5972/1495/F1.large.jpg
10 YAN
[10/15/2010 AD] 3 		6169) Ted Huntington releases a group
of songs titled "Freedom of Speech"
which includes the song "Neuron
Writing".1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
3. ^ http://tedhuntington.com/songs.htm
{10/15/2010}
Irvine, California, USA2   
10 YAN
[2010 AD] 2 		6167) Many "9/11 truth" songs are
produced around this time.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {c2010}
  
11 YAN
[05/02/2011 AD] 19 		6196) Camera is microscopic in
two-dimensions.11 12 The camera’s
diameter is 990 um, the first video
camera on Earth with a diameter smaller
than 1 mm. The camera image sensor ship
measures 660x660um with resolution 45K
pixels.13

A few days later on May 13, 2001, Gill
and team publish details about a
microscopic camera sensor chip without
the need for a lens.14 15

(Note that this camera is microscopic
in only 2 dimensions. A microscopic
camera in 3 dimensions probably must
use remote particle communication.
Perhaps if the micrometer camera had a
wireless device next to it- it could
technically be called the first
microscopic camera.16 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
2. ^
http://www.i-micronews.com/news/Medigus-
world%E2%80%99s-smallest-camera-medical-
endoscopy-based-TSV,6851.html
3. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
4. ^
http://www.i-micronews.com/news/Medigus-
world%E2%80%99s-smallest-camera-medical-
endoscopy-based-TSV,6851.html
5. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
6. ^
http://www.i-micronews.com/news/Medigus-
world%E2%80%99s-smallest-camera-medical-
endoscopy-based-TSV,6851.html
7. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
8. ^ Patrick Robert Gill, Changhyuk
Lee, Dhon-Gue Lee, Albert Wang, and
Alyosha Molnar, "A microscale camera
using direct Fourier-domain scene
capture", Optics Letters, Vol. 36,
Issue 15, pp. 2949-2951 (2011)
doi:10.1364/OL.36.002949 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/ol/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-3
6-15-2949
9. ^
http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/July
11/microCam.html
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
12. ^
http://www.i-micronews.com/news/Medigus-
world%E2%80%99s-smallest-camera-medical-
endoscopy-based-TSV,6851.html
13. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
14. ^ Patrick Robert Gill, Changhyuk
Lee, Dhon-Gue Lee, Albert Wang, and
Alyosha Molnar, "A microscale camera
using direct Fourier-domain scene
capture", Optics Letters, Vol. 36,
Issue 15, pp. 2949-2951 (2011)
doi:10.1364/OL.36.002949 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/ol/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-3
6-15-2949
15. ^
http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/July
11/microCam.html
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
18. ^
http://www.i-micronews.com/news/Medigus-
world%E2%80%99s-smallest-camera-medical-
endoscopy-based-TSV,6851.html
19. ^
http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/d
ocview.asp?did=1000642217&fid=1725
{05/02/2011}
(Medigus Ltd. and Tower Semiconductor
Ltd) Omer, Israel17 18  
[1] Apparently image of .9mm
camera from ''Yaron Silberman'' in
reply to camera@medigus.com UNKNOWN
source: camera@medigus.com

[2] Figure from: Patrick Robert Gill,
Changhyuk Lee, Dhon-Gue Lee, Albert
Wang, and Alyosha Molnar, ''A
microscale camera using direct
Fourier-domain scene capture'', Optics
Letters, Vol. 36, Issue 15, pp.
2949-2951 (2011)
doi:10.1364/OL.36.002949 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/ol/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-3
6-15-2949 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ol
/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-36-15-2949
11 YAN
[05/08/2011 AD] 6 		6286)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Baker, Darren J. et al.
“Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive
senescent cells delays
ageing-associated disorders.” Nature
479.7372 (2011): 232-236.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
479/n7372/full/nature10600.html
2. ^ "Aging Effects Reversed in Mice"
3. ^
"Aging Effects Reversed in Mice"
4. ^ Baker,
Darren J. et al. “Clearance of
p16Ink4a-positive senescent cells
delays ageing-associated disorders.”
Nature 479.7372 (2011): 232-236.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
479/n7372/full/nature10600.html
5. ^ Baker, Darren J. et al.
“Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive
senescent cells delays
ageing-associated disorders.” Nature
479.7372 (2011): 232-236.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
479/n7372/full/nature10600.html
6. ^ Baker, Darren J. et al.
“Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive
senescent cells delays
ageing-associated disorders.” Nature
479.7372 (2011): 232-236.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
479/n7372/full/nature10600.html
{05/08/2011}
(Mayo Clinic College of Medicine)
Rochester, Minnesota, USA5  
[1] Baker, Darren J. et al.
“Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive
senescent cells delays
ageing-associated disorders.” Nature
479.7372 (2011): 232-236.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
479/n7372/full/nature10600.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v479/n7372/images/nature10600-f2.2.
jpg
11 YAN
[07/08/2011 AD] 6 		255)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barr, Miles C. et al. “Direct
Monolithic Integration of Organic
Photovoltaic Circuits on Unmodified
Paper.” Advanced Materials (2011) :
n/a. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/adma.201101263/abstract
2. ^ Barr, Miles C. et al. “Direct
Monolithic Integration of Organic
Photovoltaic Circuits on Unmodified
Paper.” Advanced Materials (2011) :
n/a. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/adma.201101263/abstract
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Barr, Miles C.
et al. “Direct Monolithic Integration
of Organic Photovoltaic Circuits on
Unmodified Paper.” Advanced Materials
(2011) :
n/a. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/adma.201101263/abstract
6. ^ Barr, Miles C. et al. “Direct
Monolithic Integration of Organic
Photovoltaic Circuits on Unmodified
Paper.” Advanced Materials (2011) :
n/a. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/adma.201101263/abstract
{07/08/2011}
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] Figure 3. Large-area monolithic
photovoltaic arrays. (a) Printing
schematic for 250-cell,
series-integrated monolithic arrays.
The photographs show the printed PEDOT
(∼50-nm thick) pattern (left) and a
completed array (right) on tracing
paper. (b) Current-voltage performance
curves for series-integrated
photovoltaic arrays with
vapor-patterned oCVD electrodes on
paper (red) and glass (black) under
illumination (AM1.5, 80 mW·cm−2)
(bold) and in the dark (thin). (c)
Spatial map of individual cell
open-circuit voltages across the
respective ∼50 cm2 arrays. The lower
insets show the cumulative fraction of
devices producing at or below a given
voltage. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/s
tore/10.1002/adma.201101263/asset/image_
n/nfig003.jpg?v=1&t=gqoj29jo&s=a427a556a
f2915bf1be66514900c777207a34fc3
11 YAN
[09/22/2011 AD] 5 		6211)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shinji Nishimoto, An T. Vu,
Thomas Naselaris, Yuval Benjamini, Bin
Yu, Jack L. Gallant, Reconstructing
Visual Experiences from Brain Activity
Evoked by Natural Movies, Current
Biology, Available online 22 September
2011, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031. http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S09
60982211009377
2. ^ MALCOLM RITTER, "Brain scans let
computer reconstruct movie scenes", AP
– Thu, Sep 22,
2011 http://news.yahoo.com/brain-scans-
let-computer-reconstruct-movie-scenes-16
0154082.html
3. ^ MALCOLM RITTER, "Brain scans let
computer reconstruct movie scenes", AP
– Thu, Sep 22,
2011 http://news.yahoo.com/brain-scans-
let-computer-reconstruct-movie-scenes-16
0154082.html
4. ^ Shinji Nishimoto, An T. Vu, Thomas
Naselaris, Yuval Benjamini, Bin Yu,
Jack L. Gallant, Reconstructing Visual
Experiences from Brain Activity Evoked
by Natural Movies, Current Biology,
Available online 22 September 2011,
ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031. http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S09
60982211009377
5. ^ Shinji Nishimoto, An T. Vu, Thomas
Naselaris, Yuval Benjamini, Bin Yu,
Jack L. Gallant, Reconstructing Visual
Experiences from Brain Activity Evoked
by Natural Movies, Current Biology,
Available online 22 September 2011,
ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031. http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S09
60982211009377 {09/22/2011}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA4  
[1] Figure 4 from: [1] Shinji
Nishimoto, An T. Vu, Thomas Naselaris,
Yuval Benjamini, Bin Yu, Jack L.
Gallant, Reconstructing Visual
Experiences from Brain Activity Evoked
by Natural Movies, Current Biology,
Available online 22 September 2011,
ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031. http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S09
60982211009377 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S0960982211009377&_image=1
-s2.0-S0960982211009377-gr4_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S0960982211009377&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=8e67845bce6fecd1ff02f8a2a27c3a9
8

[2] This set of paired images provided
by Shinji Nishimoto of the University
of California, Berkeley on Wednesday,
Sept. 21, 2011 shows original video
images, upper row, and those images
reconstructed by computer from brain
scans. While volunteers watched movie
clips, a scanner watched their brains.
And from their brain activity, a
computer made rough reconstructions of
what they viewed. Scientists reported
that result Thursday, Sept. 22, 2011
and speculated such an approach might
be able to reveal dreams and
hallucinations someday. In the future,
it might help stroke victims or others
who have no other way to communicate,
said Jack Gallant, a neuroscientist at
the University of California, Berkeley,
and co-author of the paper. (AP
Photo/University of California,
Berkeley, Shinji
Nishimoto) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://l.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.2
/941dkMje4.Ad79M1d1pC2g--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld3
M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD0yMTQ7cT04NTt3PTUxMg--/h
ttp://media.zenfs.com/en_us/News/ap_webf
eeds/c39fa951569e8115f90e6a706700c8cb.jp
g
11 YAN
[10/10/2011 AD] 5 		6214)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Peter H. Schiller, Warren M.
Slocum, Michelle C. Kwak, Geoffrey L.
Kendall, and Edward J. Tehovnik, "New
methods devised specify the size and
color of the spots monkeys see when
striate cortex (area V1) is
electrically stimulated" PNAS 2011 ;
published ahead of print October 10,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1108337108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011
/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f53a7d-
5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0 {Schiller_2
0111010.pdf}
2. ^ Peter H. Schiller, Warren M.
Slocum, Michelle C. Kwak, Geoffrey L.
Kendall, and Edward J. Tehovnik, "New
methods devised specify the size and
color of the spots monkeys see when
striate cortex (area V1) is
electrically stimulated" PNAS 2011 ;
published ahead of print October 10,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1108337108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011
/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f53a7d-
5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0 {Schiller_2
0111010.pdf}
3. ^ Peter H. Schiller, Warren M.
Slocum, Michelle C. Kwak, Geoffrey L.
Kendall, and Edward J. Tehovnik, "New
methods devised specify the size and
color of the spots monkeys see when
striate cortex (area V1) is
electrically stimulated" PNAS 2011 ;
published ahead of print October 10,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1108337108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011
/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f53a7d-
5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0 {Schiller_2
0111010.pdf}
4. ^ Peter H. Schiller, Warren M.
Slocum, Michelle C. Kwak, Geoffrey L.
Kendall, and Edward J. Tehovnik, "New
methods devised specify the size and
color of the spots monkeys see when
striate cortex (area V1) is
electrically stimulated" PNAS 2011 ;
published ahead of print October 10,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1108337108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011
/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f53a7d-
5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0 {Schiller_2
0111010.pdf}
5. ^ Peter H. Schiller, Warren M.
Slocum, Michelle C. Kwak, Geoffrey L.
Kendall, and Edward J. Tehovnik, "New
methods devised specify the size and
color of the spots monkeys see when
striate cortex (area V1) is
electrically stimulated" PNAS 2011 ;
published ahead of print October 10,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1108337108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011
/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f53a7d-
5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0 {Schiller_2
0111010.pdf} {10/10/2011}
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA4  
[1] Figure 1 from: [1] Peter H.
Schiller, Warren M. Slocum, Michelle C.
Kwak, Geoffrey L. Kendall, and Edward
J. Tehovnik, ''New methods devised
specify the size and color of the spots
monkeys see when striate cortex (area
V1) is electrically stimulated'' PNAS
2011 ; published ahead of print October
10, 2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1108337108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011
/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f53a7d-
5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0 {Schiller_2
0111010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/earl
y/2011/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f
53a7d-5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0
11 YAN
[11/18/2011 AD] 5 		6336)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mohn, Fabian et al. “Imaging
the Charge Distribution Within a Single
Molecule.” Nat Nano advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nnano/journa
l/vaop/ncurrent/full/nnano.2012.20.html
2. ^ Kate Taylor, "IBM maps electric
charge in single molecule", Posted on
February 27, 2012 -
08:18 http://www.tgdaily.com/trendwatch
-features/61711-ibm-maps-electric-charge
-in-single-molecule
3. ^ Mohn, Fabian et al. “Imaging the
Charge Distribution Within a Single
Molecule.” Nat Nano advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nnano/journa
l/vaop/ncurrent/full/nnano.2012.20.html
4. ^ Mohn, Fabian et al. “Imaging the
Charge Distribution Within a Single
Molecule.” Nat Nano advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nnano/journa
l/vaop/ncurrent/full/nnano.2012.20.html
5. ^ Mohn, Fabian et al. “Imaging the
Charge Distribution Within a Single
Molecule.” Nat Nano advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nnano/journa
l/vaop/ncurrent/full/nnano.2012.20.html
(IBM Research–Zurich) Rüschlikon,
Switzerland4  
[1] Figure 2: LCPD images of the
tautomerization switching of
naphthalocyanine. a, Schematic of the
measurement principle. At each tip
position, the frequency shift is
recorded as a function of the sample
bias voltage (inset, red circles). The
maximum of the fitted parabola (inset,
solid black line) yields V* and Δf*
for that position. b,c, LCPD images of
naphthalocyanine on NaCl(2 ML)/Cu(111)
before (b) and after (c) switching the
tautomerization state of the molecule.
The images were recorded with a
copper-terminated tip on a 64 × 64
lateral grid at constant height (z =
0.1 nm above the height determined by
the STM set point (I = 3 pA, V = 0.2 V)
over the substrate). d, Difference
image obtained by subtracting c from b.
e, DFT-calculated asymmetry of the
z-component of the electric field above
a free naphthalocyanine molecule at a
distance d = 0.5 nm from the molecular
plane. All scale bars: 0.5 nm. The
DFT-calculated atomic positions are
overlaid in the upper halves of b–e.
Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms are
in grey, white and blue,
respectively. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nnano/jour
nal/vaop/ncurrent/images/nnano.2012.20-f
2.jpg

[2] Description Chemical structure of
en:Naphthalocyanine, made using
BKchem Date 2 September
2008 Source Own
work Author User:Bryan Derksen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Naphthalocyanin
e.svg/1000px-Naphthalocyanine.svg.png
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 3 		276)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2015}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

  
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 7 		332)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {2015}
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 		6193) Microscopic wireless camera and
microphone. This camera uses particle
communication to reduce its size.
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
18 YAN
[2018 AD] 		6208)
 
[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		337) Remote neuron writing using
microscopic devices in neurons is shown
publicly. Microscopic devices enter the
human body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation which connects directly to
all cells, and position themselves as
human-made cell organelles. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to make the
neuron cell fire. Using this method,
muscles can be remotely contracted, and
images and sounds can be sent directly
to brain (direct-to-brain
windows/direct-to-brain videos).6

This technology allows humans to
communicate by sending and receiving
thought-images and thought-sounds with
each other without the need to move
muscles to talk.7

Direct neuron writing was accomplished
in 1678, and presuming remote neuron
reading and writing was actually
discovered in 1310, this means that 710
years passes before remote neuron
writing is demonstrated to the public.8
9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ John
Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
9. ^ Record ID3592. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
[3] personal communication, see most of
Kamatani's email correspondence with me
at:
http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_read
ing_and_writing.htm
 
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 3 		4559)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2020}
unknown  
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6197) Remote controlled microscopic
flying device.

Perhaps this may be published by
Berkeley, since they have a history of
the first micromotors1 and nanomotors2
 or perhaps Japan. It seems likely that
this has already been achieved, given
that micromotors, in particular, appear
to function just like any regular
motor.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai;
R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed
electrostatic micro-motors," Electron
Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88.
Technical Digest., International ,
vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
2. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 7 		365)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2025}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 10 		680)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington. {2025}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU Storyboard
image by Ted Huntington PD
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6198) Remote controlled microscopic
flying camera.

Perhaps this may be published by the
University of California at Berkeley,
since they have a history of the first
micromotors1 and nanomotors2 . It
seems likely that this has already been
achieved, given that micromotors, in
particular, appear to function just
like any regular motor.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai;
R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed
electrostatic micro-motors," Electron
Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88.
Technical Digest., International ,
vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
2. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6375) Microscopic wireless laser.
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 5 		791) Bipedal robots start replacing
humans in most low-skill jobs
(fast-food, fruit and vegetable
picking, etc).4

Many humans will be unemployed,
replaced by more efficient, more
predictable, less expensive humanoid
robots. However, the majority of humans
will probably vote for a basic standard
of living (eradicating starvation, etc)
for all humans at least in developed
nations. The development of low-cost
humanoid robots, will change the
paradigm of life for humans, no longer
will they need to work or get a job to
survive.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington (my own estimate)
  
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 1 		366) Artificial muscle bipedal robot,
lighter and more electrically
efficient, than motor robots.
Artificial muscles work like human
muscles and are much lighter than
electromagnetic motors. These robots
are much lighter and more electrically
efficient.

Two leg walking robots that use
artificial muscles are mass produced
and available for public to buy. These
robots are much lighter weight than the
electromagnetic motor robots, because
the artificial muscle fibers move just
as much weight but are much lighter.

These robots do simple work like
cleaning, cooking, driving, shopping-
routine tasks that humans do not want
to do.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 3 		4561)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2040}
unknown  
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 1 		4562)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
unknown  
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 2 		4563)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
unknown  
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 		6206)

MORE INFO
[1] T. N. Pornsin-sirirak, Y.-C.
Tai, C.-M. Ho, and M. Keennon,
Microbat: A palm-sized electrically
powered ornithopter, [online]
Available: http://touch.caltech.edu
/home
/publications/2001/jpl/jpl2001.pdf
[2] Huaiyu Wu; Dong Sun; Zhaoying Zhou;
, "Micro air vehicle: configuration,
analysis, fabrication, and test,"
Mechatronics, IEEE/ASME Transactions on
, vol.9, no.1, pp.108-117, March
2004 doi:
10.1109/TMECH.2004.823885 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1275484&isnumber=28543
  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 7 		790) Humans walk around with robot
servants.6 These robots record the
owner's daily activities, and perform
simple tasks like cleaning floors,
dusting, vacuuming, washing dishes and
clothes, security camera, etc.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2050 (my own estimate}
 
[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 2 		4564)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050}
unknown  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 2 		4565)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050}
unknown  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 3 		4566)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2050}
unknown  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 1 		6300) Bacteria identified and destroyed
by micro or nanometer scale particle
device inside an animal body.
By 2100 all
bacteria and even viral diseases can be
stopped by nanometer scale devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500} {2100}
{2050}
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg

[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg
55 YAN
[2055 AD] 1 		6302) Cancer cell growth stopped by
microscopic devices.

Microscopic particle communication
devices identify and destroy cancer
cells inside an animal body.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2055}

MORE INFO
[1] Schroeder, Avi et al.
“Treating Metastatic Cancer with
Nanotechnology.” Nat Rev Cancer 12.1
(2012):
39–50. http://www.nature.com/nrc/jour
nal/v12/n1/full/nrc3180.html?WT.ec_id=NR
C-201201
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg

[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg
58 YAN
[2058 AD] 1 		6303) Cancer caused by microscopic
particle device inside an animal body.
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2058}
unknown  
60 YAN
[2060 AD] 2 		4567)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2060}
unknown  
60 YAN
[2060 AD] 1 		6301) Virus identified and destroyed by
microscopic devices inside an animal
body.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2060}
unknown 
[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84

[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg
80 YAN
[2080 AD] 2 		4568)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2080}
unknown  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		367)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 9 		793) Helicopter-cars form a second line
of traffic above the streets.7 Flying
cars travel over the already exiting
roads because of sound level.8

Flying cars are the popular alternative
to ground cars because of 1)
improvements to safety {emergency
landing chutes, airbags, and
thrusters), 2) need to speed,
street-level roads are slow and
overcrowded 3) lower cost.

These cars are basically low flying,
low-noise helicopters with ground
driving abilities built in.

The cars are completely autopilot using
cameras and particle distance sensors.
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington (my own estimate)
{2100 my own estimate}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sdi.gov/curtis/Trans_Trends.h
tml
[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 1 		794)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 3 		4569)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2100}
unknown  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 2 		4570)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2100}
unknown  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 3 		4575)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 5 		4613) All bacteria and viruses
conquered. Microscopic devices can
identify and destroy all known bacteria
and viruses anywhere inside or outside
of the body.4
End of disease caused by
bacteria and viruses when caught early
enough.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500} {2100}
unknown  
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 3 		4571)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2120}
unknown  
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 		4584)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown  
130 YAN
[2130 AD] 5 		4572) Ship lands on an asteroid.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2130}
unknown  
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 2 		687)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 2 		4573)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2140}
unknown  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		659)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. (50 years to get
progressive president, 50 years to get
pro fully democratic, 50 years for
actual full democracy to be integrated
(in courts, military, laws))
  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 2 		4574)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2150}
unknown  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 3 		4576)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2150}
unknown  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		4592) Humans land on Mars.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
unknown  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		6304) Nucleic Acid changed by remote
control microscopic devices. This leads
to repair, regrowth and reshaping of
damaged cells with microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2058} {2150}
unknown 
[1] Microscopic laser-machined particle
communication devices identify and
change nucleotides in a DNA molecule as
seen with an scanning tunneling
microscope.[t] Adapted from: F/col
STM image of DNA G110/0150 Rights
Managed Credit: LAWRENCE LIVERMORE
LABORATORY/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: False-colour scanning
tunnelling micrograph (STM) of DNA. A
sample of uncoated, double-stranded DNA
was dissolved in a salt solution &
deposited on graphite prior to being
imaged in air by the STM. An STM image
is formed by scanning a fine point just
above the specimen surface &
electronically recording the height of
the point as it moves. The main feature
of this image is a right-handed,
double-stranded DNA molecule (a DNA
duplex), which appears as the row of
orange/yellow peaks at centre-left.
These peaks correspond to the ridges of
the DNA double helix. Magnification:
x1,600,000 at 6x7cm size. Release
details: Model and property releases
are not available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg

[2] Microscopic devices change
DNA[t] Adapted from Unlinked DNA
under electron microscope UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fidelitysystems.com/u
nlinked_DNA_EM_1.JPG
170 YAN
[2170 AD] 1 		4577)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2170}
unknown  
180 YAN
[2180 AD] 		4594) Humans live on Mars.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
190 YAN
[2190 AD] 2 		4578)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2190}
unknown  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 12 		792) Robots and other machines have
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (driving, cleaning, food
planting, harvesting, preparing and
serving).9

In addition, robots dominate the most
dangerous parts of law enforcement and
personal security.10

Physical pleasure for money, previously
outlawed for nearly a century, becomes
the main human-dominated occupation,
while robots are very natural and
skilled, the human touch may be
preferred for many physical pleasure
services.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington (my own estimate)
{2200 my own estimate}
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 5 		795)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
2. ^ Ted
Huntington future_est.xls
3. ^ Ted Huntington
future_est.xls
4. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
5. ^ Ted Huntington
future_est.xls (my own estimate)
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 3 		4581)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2200}
unknown  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		6305)
 
[1] A scanning electron microscope
(SEM) image of nanowire-alginate
composite scaffolds. Star-shaped
clusters of nanowires can be seen in
these images. Image courtesy of the
Disease Biophysics Group, Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://img.mit.edu/newsoffice/im
ages/article_images/20110923141316-1.jpg


[2] A scanning electron microscope
image of cells growing on a
microsensor. The researchers were able
to measure the increase in mass as they
watched a cell grow and divide into
four cells. Photo courtesy Rashid
Bashir UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2-microsensors.jpg
210 YAN
[2210 AD] 2 		4582)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2210}
unknown  
220 YAN
[2220 AD] 2 		4583)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2220}
unknown  
240 YAN
[2240 AD] 2 		4585)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2240}
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4586)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 3 		4587)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2250}
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4588)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4589)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4590)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4591)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
unknown  
260 YAN
[2260 AD] 2 		4593)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2260}
unknown  
275 YAN
[2275 AD] 		661)

MORE INFO
[1] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
[2] MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES* Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_backer.pdf
[3] future_est.xls
  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 2 		4595)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
unknown  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 2 		4596)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
unknown  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 2 		4597)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
unknown  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 4 		4598)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2280}
unknown  
290 YAN
[2290 AD] 2 		4599)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2290}
unknown  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 2 		4600)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2300}
unknown  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 2 		4601)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2300}
unknown  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 4 		4602)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2300}
unknown  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 2 		4603)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2300}
unknown  
310 YAN
[2310 AD] 2 		4604)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2310}
unknown  
320 YAN
[2320 AD] 2 		4605)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2320}
unknown  
325 YAN
[2325 AD] 1 2 		781) The majority of humans in
developed nations do not believe that
any Heaven or Hell exists.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/service
s/index.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
  
340 YAN
[2340 AD] 3 		4606)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2340}
unknown  
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 3 		4607)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2350}
unknown 
[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 3 		4608)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2350}
unknown  
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 3 		4609)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2350}
unknown  
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 3 		4610)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2350}
unknown  
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 		4611)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown 
[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400

[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 3 		4612)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2400}
unknown  
420 YAN
[2420 AD] 		779)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/service
s/index.html
[2] future_est.xls
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 5 6 		683) The removal and conversion of the
Venus atmosphere project is started.

This is the first major "removal of gas
atmosphere" engineering work of humans.
Eventually the gas surrounding all
planets will be removed and consumed.

After most of the gas is removed, and
the surface of the planet cools down,
Oxygen and nitrogen gas will be
released to create a new atmosphere.

This project removes the Carbon from
the atmosphere and converts it to H2,
O2. This process may be done by
thousands of surface (and/or low orbit)
machines working in parallel. There is
so much gas on Venus, that this process
may take 1000 years or more.

Based on a conversion rate of 1km3/day
conversion by 1000 machines.

Probably much of the carbon will be
used as hydrogen and oxygen for fuel,
air, water and food for humans around
Venus, some might eventually be
converted into oxygen and nitrogen and
put back into the atmosphere, but some
may be sent back to Earth or stored as
big blocks of carbon. Perhaps the stage
of filling the atmosphere of Venus with
Nitrogen and Oxygen gas will start only
after the entire atmosphere of Venus is
removed.

Presuming a total mass of Venus
atmosphere around 4.8 x 1020 kg,1 if 1
machine can convert 100,000 kg of
atmosphere a day, and 100,000 machines
are operating every day, it would take
131 million years to convert all the
atmosphere of Venus. But perhaps enough
can be converted within 1000 years or
less to allow humans to live on the
surface.2

Another possibility is that the
atmosphere could be "darkened" by
adding some matter to prevent light
particles reaching the surface, however
this might also stop light particles
from the surface exiting.3

(Determine quantity of atoms in and
mass of Venus atmosphere, and more
accurate estimate of complete
conversion. Use Charles' and Avogadro's
laws (using Number of atoms, Pressure,
Temperature, Volume).4 )
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/venusfact.html
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {2500}
6. ^ future_est.xls
 
[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg

[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 12 13 		686) End of death by aging.8
Using
genetic editing, humans grow and
develop to age 20, and then hold that
body shape indefinitely, dying only
from physical destruction. Humans now
live for thousands of years. This
causes the human population to grow at
an extremely rapid pace.9

An alternative view has microscopic
genetic editing allowing humans to age
extremely slowly and live for millions
of years with very little change.

Each new human created by reproduction
may be an "improved model", with new
advanced features, and biological
problems and useless DNA removed. This
may also just be a reflection of
creativity and experimentation, as
humans experiment with an endless
combination of possibilities. This
shifts the focus to the problem of how
to feed and house the rapidly
increasing quantity of humans. This
will make the exploration of other
planets and in particular other stars
to be an absolute requirement, in
particular for humans who want to
reproduce but are not allowed to
because of the extremely limited
resources on Earth and the human home
star. Humans will probably reach a
steady state equilibrium, living for
thousands of years. A very few will die
in accidents, and their matter will be
recycled, and a new human can then take
their place using the resources they
would have used. If humans are not
wise, there may be terrible struggles
because the need for food greatly
outweighs the tiny supply of food.
Ultimately, however, there is more than
enough matter and space in the
universe, for all of life, the problem
is simply reaching it.

This end of the physical effects of
aging, may create a new existence of
finite resources and careful monitoring
of human reproduction, in particular if
humans fail to quickly collect other
stars. There is only new matter being
emitted from the star, more dense
matter will need to come from mining
the matter orbiting other stars. At
this point, the matter orbiting the Sun
will continue to increase as a result
of more living objects capturing and
using sun light to reproduce. More
light particles emitted from the sun
will be captured and staying in orbit
around the Sun (in the form of new
living objects), that otherwise would
have escaped to other parts of the
universe. So in an interesting
occurrence, matter from the Sun, is for
the first time, being captured and held
in orbit around the Sun - as a massive
matter transfer from the Sun to the
receivers that form a growing sphere
around it. Perhaps most matter will be
imported from other stars. For many
centuries, humans will be able to
continue living forever, and even be
able to reproduce growing off the mass
emitted from the Sun. But clearly, a
time will come when perhaps all the
light emitted from the Sun will be
captured, perhaps by the distance of
Jupiter or even closer, and so again,
the requirement for living objects, in
particular those in outer locations, to
move to other stars will be obvious. As
in all historical examples of explorers
moving to an undeveloped "new world",
the journey to the other stars will be
a harsh and long journey, but as always
historically, there will be much more
freedom and space for those who
successfully arrive at the other stars
alive.

Eventually, there will be no more
uninhabited stars, and the galaxy will
reach the stage of being a globular
galaxy. At the stage of a galaxy where
all stars are inhabited, and none are
left to claim, there must be basically
equilibrium systems where all matter
(minus the light that escape into the
space beyond) is recycled, and very few
new living objects can be made...it may
be the same old crew of living objects
for millions and millions of years
unless they happen to die. I can see a
gruesome view of possibly purposely
ending the lives of some everliving
living objects to feed others in a
globular galaxy or cluster that is
losing more matter than taking in.

Perhaps making new humans will be
outlawed (although sex may still be
acceptable), and only those ever living
humans will exist around the star for
century after century. Long lived
organisms ads a different aspect to
evolution, for example now, the current
cycle of aging to death has some
advantages, because if there is a bad
tradition, those who started it may die
and the bad tradition may stop, but in
the same way, a good tradition may be
lost and forgotten. With the same
organisms ever-living, living all the
time without aging, the movie freezes,
and the star system is stuck with the
values of those people, never to
change, or only to change very slowly.
Still, I doubt things would be dull,
because of the distance and time
involved in moving between stars. There
have to be major differences that
evolve between people separated by the
great distance between stars.

This greatly increases the population
of humans and the rate at which the
population increases. Before this the
population was doubling every 40 years,
now the population doubles every 5
years. This makes all later estimates
unclear because this so greatly changes
the number of humans and greatly
increases the rate (by necessity) of
expansion of humans to the other
stars.10

The descendants of humans will be
competing against living objects that
have probably adapted through natural
selection to be far better at survival
than our descendants, in particular
because they have. been competing on a
larger scale against more other living
objects.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ Ted Huntington
11. ^ Ted Huntington
12. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {2500}
13. ^ future_est.xls
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		774)

MORE INFO
[1] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
[2]
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/service
s/index.html
[3]
http://worldchristiandatabase.org/wcd/ho
me.asp
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		776) All people in developed nations no
longer attend religious services at
least once a month.

MORE INFO
[1] future_est.xls
[2] "MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES" Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_baker.pdf
  
550 YAN
[2550 AD] 2 		4615)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2550}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
570 YAN
[2570 AD] 2 		4616)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2570}
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 2 		4617)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2600}
unknown  
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 2 		4618)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2650}
unknown  
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 8 		4619) Humans create atoms from light
particles. Photon fusion. The reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.6

This process may involve focusing light
particles to form larger particles,
like electrons, and protons, which can
then be collided together to form
larger atoms.

Although it seems logical that
somewhere in the universe light
particle must fuse to form larger
compound particles, it may be that a
more efficient method may exist such as
adding light particles to an atom to
cause the atom to create a new
electron, or proton. Perhaps adding
light particles to an electron may
cause the electron to divide into two
electrons, or perhaps electrons can be
fused together to form protons.

Building atoms may require extreme
precision and timing of how to make
pieces of matter group together without
dividing the accumulated cluster of
matter into smaller pieces. At first
this will probably be more of a
theoretical and scientific achievement
and not practical, the more practical
process being separating larger atoms
into smaller more useful atoms - like
converting Iron and Silicon into
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen.

Possibly this may only occur in volumes
of large density, and the realization
will simply be that, yes this occurred,
but it is of little or no practical
value since getting desired atoms from
existing atoms is faster and easier.
For example, there might be some molten
object which is bombarded by light
particles, cooled and then the number
of atoms determined to be larger than
started with.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2650}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
700 YAN
[2700 AD] 2 		4620) Humans orbit Saturn.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2700}
unknown  
701 YAN
[2701 AD] 1 		4560) Humans land on a moon of Saturn.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2700} {2701}
unknown 
[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=user
AND http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Ad
vanced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlan
der.jpg
750 YAN
[2750 AD] 2 		4622) Ship reaches other star (Alpha
Centauri). First close up pictures of
planets of a different star.

Smaller ships land on all the planets
and moons of Centauri.

Robots start mining and building to
prepare for the many millions of humans
that will eventually arrive.

Some ships will return matter from
Centauri back to Earth.

Bipedal robots land ships and walk
around on the surface of the planets
and moons of the three stars of
Centauri. This is perhaps 400 years
after setting out from the star of
Earth. The ship must travel with a
velocity greater than 1% the speed of
light to reach Centauri within 400
years. The robots mine the matter of
the planets, build new ships, perform
biological and chemical analysis,
sending all information back to the
humans of Earth. Probably the robots
will find lots of bacteria which will
provide proof that nucleic acids
molecules like DNA and RNA, and even
more evolved cells like bacteria and
viruses are common throughout the
universe, found on most planets of
every star. Seeing close-up images of
planets of a different star will create
a large amount of excitement in the
humans on Earth and perhaps boost their
confidence and interest in
exploration.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2750}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
765 YAN
[2765 AD] 1 		6209)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2760} {2765}
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		24)
 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		780)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/service
s/index.html
[2] future_est.xls
  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 2 		782)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/service
s/index.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 3 		4623)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2800}
unknown  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4624)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
unknown  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 2 		4625)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
unknown  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 2 		4626)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
unknown  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 5 		4627)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69 AND
http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4628)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
850 YAN
[2850 AD] 2 		4580)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
{2850}
unknown 
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 3 		29) Ship impacts the surface of
Jupiter. First image of the surface of
Jupiter. Surface found to be molten
liquid, and six times the diameter of
Earth, making Jupiter the second
largest solid body of this star system
after the Sun.

Perhaps the surface of Jupiter will be
found to be molten liquid metal, mostly
iron, silicon and the other most
abundant atoms. Because of the high
temperature, perhaps the first image of
the surface of Jupiter without any
filter will have to wait until all the
gases are removed from the atmosphere
of the planet, and the planet cool
enough for the surface to solidify.2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2900}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		775)
unknown  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 3 		4629)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2900}
unknown  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 2 		4630)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2900}
unknown 
[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 2 		4632)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2900}
unknown  
950 YAN
[2950 AD] 2 		4633) Humans penetrate the surface of
Saturn. As expected, the diameter of
Saturn is 4 times that of Earth
(verify) and is molten metal like
Jupiter.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2950}
unknown  
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 		4631)
unknown  
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 3 		4634)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{3000}
unknown  
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 2 		4635) Ship impacts the surface of
Uranus. The diameter is found to be
around 3 times that of earth (verify)
and is molten metal.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3000}
unknown  
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 2 		4636) Ship impacts surface of Neptune.
Like Uranus, the diameter is found to
be around 3 times that of earth
(verify) and is molten metal.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3000}
unknown  
1,150 YAN
[3150 AD] 2 		4638)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3150}
unknown 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg AND
http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/ne
w_images/MLAS.jpg
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 		4614)
Neptune 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 6 		4637)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {3100}
{3200 (100 years per light year 400
years}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 2 		4639)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3200}
unknown  
1,300 YAN
[3300 AD] 		777) The majority of humans in
traditionally undeveloped nations are
not religious.

MORE INFO
[1] future_est.xls
[2] "MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES" Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_baker.pdf
[3] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
  
1,350 YAN
[3350 AD] 2 		4640)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3350}
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
AND http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
1,400 YAN
[3400 AD] 5 		4643) Motion of planet Mars and moons
of Mars controlled by orbiting ships.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {3600}
unknown  
1,500 YAN
[3500 AD] 1 2 		684)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,500 YAN
[3500 AD] 		4642)
unknown  
1,600 YAN
[3600 AD] 5 		4641) Motion of Venus controlled by
orbiting ships.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {3400}
unknown  
1,800 YAN
[3800 AD] 9 10 		681) Earth Moon population reaches
maximum possible (250 trillion).7 8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
3. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

4. ^ future_est.xls
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

6. ^ future_est.xls
7. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

8. ^ future_est.xls
9. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {3800}
10. ^ future_est.xls {3800}
  
1,800 YAN
[3800 AD] 5 		4645) Motion of Jupiter controlled by
orbiting ships.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {3800}
unknown  
1,800 YAN
[3800 AD] 		4655)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
Jupiter 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,900 YAN
[3900 AD] 5 6 		682)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
3. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

4. ^ future_est.xls
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

6. ^ future_est.xls
  
1,900 YAN
[3900 AD] 2 		4647)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3900}
unknown  
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4644)
Jupiter 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4646)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 2 		4648)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4000}
unknown  
2,100 YAN
[4100 AD] 2 		4649)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4100}
unknown  
2,100 YAN
[4100 AD] 2 		4650)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4100}
unknown  
2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 1 		4651)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
unknown  
2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 4 		4652)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {4200}
unknown  
2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 1 		4653)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
unknown  
2,300 YAN
[4300 AD] 		778) All humans in traditionally
undeveloped nations are not religious.

MORE INFO
[1] future_est.xls
[2] "MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES" Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_baker.pdf
[3] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
  
2,300 YAN
[4300 AD] 2 		4657)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4300}
unknown  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 1 2 		4579) This is based on a conversion
rate of 1km3/day conversion by 1000
machines.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {4500}
2. ^ future_est.xls {4500}
 
[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4654)
unknown  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 2 		4659) Humans land on surface of
Saturn.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4500}
unknown  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4660) Humans land on surface of Uranus.
unknown  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 2 		4661)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4500}
unknown  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 2 		4662)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4500}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		6171)
 
[1] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,600 YAN
[4600 AD] 1 		4663) Atmosphere of Saturn consumed.

The gases in the atmosphere of Saturn
are completely consumed. This begins
the emitting of Nitrogen, Oxygen,
Carbon Dioxide and other gases to
create a warm temperature on the
surface of Saturn. Robots mine the
surface of Saturn exporting the
precious matter to the inner star
system.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4600}
unknown  
2,600 YAN
[4600 AD] 		4665) Humans land on and live on the
surface of Neptune.
unknown  
2,600 YAN
[4600 AD] 1 		5605) The air of Uranus is completely
consumed. This begins the converting of
surface solid atoms into nitrogen,
oxygen, and other gases which are
released around Uranus to make an
Earth-like atmosphere. This is
temporary until most of the matter of
Uranus has been mined and completely
separated into its source photons by
consumption as water, food, fuel,
building materials, etc. Robots extract
solid matter, mostly metal, from the
surface of Uranus which is shipped back
to Earth, Mars and Jupiter for
consumption. Much of these ships and
robots are probably owned by humans
that live closer to the star.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4600}
unknown  
2,700 YAN
[4700 AD] 2 		4666)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4700}
unknown  
2,700 YAN
[4700 AD] 1 		4667) The atmosphere (all the free
gases) of Neptune consumed. The native
gases will be replaced with oxygen,
nitrogen, CO2, and other molecules. The
temperature will be maintained to be
similar to Earth temperatures.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4700}
Neptune  
2,800 YAN
[4800 AD] 5 6 		685)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
3. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

4. ^ future_est.xls
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

6. ^ future_est.xls
  
2,800 YAN
[4800 AD] 2 		4669)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4800}
unknown  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 5 6 		679)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
3. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

4. ^ future_est.xls
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {5000}
6. ^ future_est.xls {5000}
  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4656)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4668)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 3 		4670)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{5000}
unknown  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		6177)
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
3,100 YAN
[5100 AD] 		4664)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Uranus  
3,100 YAN
[5100 AD] 6 		4671)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {5100}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
3,200 YAN
[5200 AD] 2 		4673)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {5200}
unknown  
3,200 YAN
[5200 AD] 		6173)
Neptune  
3,500 YAN
[5500 AD] 		6176)
Mars 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 		4674)
Centauri  
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 5 		4675)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {6000}
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,500 YAN
[6500 AD] 		4676)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown  
9,000 YAN
[11000 AD] 2 		4680)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {11000}
unknown  
10,000 YAN
[12000 AD] 2 		4681)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {12000}
unknown  
11,000 YAN
[13000 AD] 2 		4682)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {13000}
unknown  
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 2 		4683)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {14000}
unknown  
15,000 YAN
[17000 AD] 6 		678)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
3. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

4. ^ future_est.xls
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {15,505 YAN (rate=0.033%) (at current
rate is 2600}
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
25,000 YAN
[27000 AD] 		4677)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown 
[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
45,000 YAN
[47000 AD] 		4679)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown 
[1] Description English: The
dazzling stars in Messier 15 look fresh
and new in this image from the
NASA/Hubble Space Telescope, but they
are actually all roughly 13 billion
years old, making them some of the most
ancient objects in the Universe. Unlike
another recent Hubble Picture of the
Week, which featured the unusually
sparse cluster Palomar 1, Messier 15 is
rich and bright despite its
age. Messier 15 is a globular
cluster — a spherical conglomeration
of old stars that formed together from
the same cloud of gas, found in the
outer reaches of the Milky Way in a
region known as the halo and orbiting
the Galactic Centre. This globular lies
about 35 000 light-years from the
Earth, in the constellation of Pegasus
(The Flying Horse). Messier 15 is
one of the densest globulars known,
with the vast majority of the
cluster’s mass concentrated in the
core. Astronomers think that
particularly dense globulars, like this
one, underwent a process called core
collapse, in which gravitational
interactions between stars led to many
members of the cluster migrating
towards the centre. Messier 15 is
also the first globular cluster known
to harbour a planetary nebula, and it
is still one of only four globulars
known to do so. The planetary nebula,
called Pease 1, can be seen in this
image as a small blue blob to the lower
left of the globular’s core. This
picture was put together from images
taken with the Wide Field Channel of
Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys.
Images through yellow/orange (F606W,
coloured blue) and near-infrared
(F814W, coloured red) filters were
combined. The total exposure times were
535 s and 615 s respectively and the
field of view is 3.4 arcminutes
across. Date 14 February
2011 Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/potw1107a/ Author ESA/Hubble &
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Messier_15_HST.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50,000 YAN
[52000 AD] 		4658) All asteroids in between Mars and
Jupiter have been converted into more
humans, fuel and food.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
  
55,000 YAN
[57000 AD] 		4672) Planet Mercury completely filled
with living objects. The matter of
planet Mercury is completely used as
fuel and food by life of the earth
star. Mercury now functions as a
massive ship. In the absence of an
external supply, it may be that Mercury
becomes hollow and ultimately divides
into many smaller ships.
unknown  
60,000 YAN
[62000 AD] 		6175) Mars is filled with living
objects. There is no more molten
material inside the planet Mars.
Mars  
65,000 YAN
[67000 AD] 		6174) Earth is completely filled with
living objects.

There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed as building materials, fuel,
food, etc. Earth is completely filled
with tunnels, rooms, and living
objects. The inside is connected to the
surface by many passages. The sphere of
Earth is held together by metal support
structures, and functions as a giant
ship. Earth and the other planets will
perhaps function as giant metal ships
for a long time. Possibly the inside of
the Earth will be devoid of life, life
preferring to live in orbiting ships.
In that case, probably the humans on
the surface would be relocated, and the
molten surface of Earth slowly consumed
from the top down. With only light
particles from the Sun, matter imported
from outer planets, and other stars, as
a source of new matter, the Earth and
other completely developed smaller
inner planets have to consume more
internal matter, perhaps hollowing or
dividing planets into smaller pieces.
Earth 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
70,000 YAN
[72000 AD] 		4684)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown 
[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
90,000 YAN
[92000 AD] 2 		6210)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {10000}
{92,108 YAN (0.01% growth rate) (was
10000}
unknown 
[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg

[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg
100,000 YAN
4678)
unknown 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
130,000 YAN
100)
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
185,000 YAN
6178) All planets of Sirius consumed.
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
205,000 YAN
6317)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
630,000 YAN
106)
 
[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100,000,000 YAN
7 		4685) All stars in the Milky Way Galaxy
belong to a globular cluster.5

It seems safe to presume that by 100
million years from now, all stars in
the Milky Way Galaxy will belong to a
globular cluster.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
{100002000}
unknown  
20,000,000,000 YAN
4686)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {1000002000}
unknown 
[1] Description Hubble Illuminates
Cluster of Diverse Galaxies (Abell
S740), cropped to ESO 325-G004. Date
January 2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08
/image/a/warn/ Author J.
Blakeslee (Washington State
University) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Abell_S740%2C_cropped
_to_ESO_325-G004.jpg

[2] Description English: Messier
object 87 by Hubble space
telescope Date 18 August
2009 Source
http://wikisky.org/snapshot?img_siz
e=&img_res=&ra=12.5138&de=12.3896&angle=
0.0293&projection=tan&rotation=0.0&surve
y=astrophoto&img_id=905632&width=2160&he
ight=2160&img_borders=&interpolation=bic
ubic&jpeg_quality=0.8 Author
en:NASA, en:STScI,
en:WikiSky Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-HUBBLE PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Messier_87_Hubble_Wik
iSky.jpg
30,000,000,000 YAN
4687)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
unknown 
[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
40,000,000,000 YAN
4688)
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
unknown 
[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
"Universe, Life, Science, Future" is published under the GNU license, except where otherwise indicated or determined to be fair use, copyrighted, public domain, CC, GDFL or other license.
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